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[ [ "Foreign relations of Mozambique" ], [ "Introduction", "While alliances dating back to the Mozambican War of Independence remain relevant, '''Mozambique's foreign policy''' has become increasingly pragmatic.", "The twin pillars of the policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbors and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners." ], [ "History", "During the 1970s and early 1980s, Mozambique's foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in Rhodesia and South Africa as well as superpower competition and the Cold War.", "Mozambique's decision to enforce United Nations sanctions against Rhodesia and support Rhodesian guerrillas led Ian Smith's regime to undertake overt and covert actions to destabilize the country.", "Although the change of government in Zimbabwe in 1980 removed this threat, the apartheid regime in South Africa continued to finance the destabilization of Mozambique.The 1984 Nkomati Accord, while failing in its goal of ending South African support to RENAMO, opened initial diplomatic contacts between the Mozambican and South African governments.", "This process gained momentum with South Africa's elimination of apartheid, which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in October 1993.While relations with neighboring Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania show occasional strains, Mozambique's ties to these countries remain strong.Embassy of Mozambique in Washington, D.C.", "In the years immediately following its independence, Mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some western countries, notably the Scandinavians.", "The Soviet Union and its allies, however, became Mozambique's primary economic, military, and political supporters and its foreign policy reflected this linkage.", "This began to change in 1983; in 1984 Mozambique joined the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.", "Western aid quickly replaced Soviet support, with the Scandinavians, Finland, the United States, the Netherlands, and the European Union becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance.", "Italy also maintains a profile in Mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process.", "Relations with Portugal, the former colonial power, are complex and of some importance as Portuguese investors play a visible role in Mozambique's economy.Mozambique is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and ranks among the moderate members of the African Bloc in the United Nations and other international organizations.", "Mozambique also belongs to the Organisation of African Unity/African Union and the Southern African Development Community.", "In 1994, the Government became a full member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country's sizeable Muslim population.", "Similarly, in early 1996 Mozambique joined its Anglophone neighbors in the Commonwealth.", "In the same year, Mozambique became a founding member and the first President of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), and maintains close ties with other Lusophone states.", "The country is also a member of the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa (PMAESA).", "'''Illicit drugs:'''Southern African transit point for South Asian hashish, South Asian heroin, and South American cocaine probably destined for the European and South African markets; producer of cannabis (for local consumption) and methaqualone (for export to South Africa); corruption and poor regulatory capability makes the banking system vulnerable to money laundering, but the lack of a well-developed financial infrastructure limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Mozambique maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728302931323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455565758596061—6263646566676869707172737475—767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102—103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158Unknown159Unknown160Unknown161Unknown162Unknown163Unknown164Unknown165Unknown166Unknown167Unknown168Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal relations began Notes5 September 1978See Angola–Mozambique relations* Angola has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Luanda.", "* Both nations were formerly part of the Portuguese Empire.15 November 1975See Brazil–Mozambique relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 November 1975* Brazil has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate in Belo Horizonte.25 June 1975See Canada–Mozambique relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975* Canada has a high commission in Maputo.", "* Mozambique is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.25 June 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975See China–Mozambique relationsChina-Mozambique relations date back to the 1960s, when China began to support the struggle of Mozambique's Marxist-oriented FRELIMO party against Portuguese colonialism.", "Diplomatic relations were formally established on 25 June 1975, soon after Mozambique gained its independence from Portugal.", "In November 2006, Mozambique became the thirteenth African country to be added to China's official list of tourism destinations.", "Hu Jintao, president of the People's Republic of China, made an official visit to Mozambique in February 2007, during which he and Armando Guebuza, the president of Mozambique, pledged further cooperation in the areas of economy, technology, agriculture, education and sports.", "* China has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Beijing and a consulate-general in Macau.", "27 August 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1975* Cuba has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Havana.", "25 June 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975See Denmark–Mozambique relations* Denmark has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.18 July 1975 See Finland–Mozambique relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 July 1975* Mozambique is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Maputo.19 February 1976See France–Mozambique relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 19 February 1976* France has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Paris.3 February 1976See Germany–Mozambique relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 February 1976* Germany has an embassy in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Berlin.25 June 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975See India–Mozambique relations* India has a High Commission in Maputo.", "* Mozambique maintains a High Commission in New Delhi.5 November 1976See Kenya–Mozambique relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1976 when Ambassador of Kenya Hon.", "Kiyinda Nincola, has presented his credentials to President of Mozambique Samora Moises Machel.", "* Kenya has a high commission in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has a high commission in Nairobi.1 July 1981See Malawi-Mozambique relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1981* Malawi has a high commission in Maputo.", "* Mozambique has a high commission in Lilongwe.26 February 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 1988See Mexico–Mozambique relations* Mexico is accredited to Mozambique from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "* Mozambique is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.25 June 1975See Mozambique–Portugal relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975Both nations are members of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Lisbon and a consulate-general in Porto.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Maputo and a consulate-general in Beira.", "* Portuguese companies are the second largest private investor in Mozambique.", "* In July 2008, Mozambique and Portugal have signed an agreement to set up a fund to support investments worth US$124 million in the Mozambican energy sector.", "* In July 2008, Portugal cancelled Mozambique's remaining debts to Portugal, estimated at US$393.4 million, accumulated from independence until 2005.25 June 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975See Mozambique–Russia relationsMozambique-Russia relations date back to the 1960s, when Soviet Union began to support the struggle of Mozambique's Marxist-oriented FRELIMO party against Portuguese colonialism.", "Most leaders of the FRELIMO were trained in Moscow.", "Diplomatic relations were formally established on 25 June 1975, soon after Mozambique gained its independence from Portugal.", "In June 2007, both Russia and Mozambique signed an agreement on economic cooperation.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Maputo.1981* Mozambique is accredited to São Tomé and Príncipe from its embassy in Luanda, Angola and maintains an honorary consulate in São Tomé.", "* São Tomé and Príncipe is accredited to Mozambique from its embassy in Luanda, Angola and maintains an honorary consulate in Maputo.26 September 1993See Mozambique–South Africa relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 1993* Mozambique has a high commission in Pretoria and a consulate-general in Johannesburg and consulates in Cape Town, Durban and Mbombela.", "* South Africa has a high commission in Maputo.11 August 1993Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Korea and Mozambique on 11 August 1993 There were 78 South Koreans living in Mozambique in 2012.27 May 1977See Mozambique–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 May 1977* Mozambique has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Maputo.25 June 1975See Mozambique–Tanzania relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975* Mozambique has a high commission in Dar es Salaam and a consulate-general in Zanzibar City.", "* Tanzania has a high commission in Maputo.20 January 1981See Mozambique–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 January 1981* Mozambique is accredited to Turkey from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Maputo.", "*Trade volume between the two countries was US$153 million in 2019.23 September 1975See Mozambique–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 1975Relations between the United States and Mozambique are good and steadily improving.", "By 1993, U.S. aid to Mozambique was prominent, due in part to significant emergency food assistance in the wake of the 1991-93 southern African drought, but more importantly in support of the peace and reconciliation process.", "During the process leading up to elections in October 1994, the United States served as a significant financier and member of the most important commissions established to monitor implementation of the Rome General Peace Accords.", "The United States is the largest bilateral donor to the country and plays a leading role in donor efforts to assist Mozambique.", "* Mozambique has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* United States has an embassy in Maputo." ], [ "See also", "*List of diplomatic missions of Mozambique*List of diplomatic missions in Mozambique" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meme" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''meme''' (; ) is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads by means of imitation from person to person within a culture and often carries symbolic meaning representing a particular phenomenon or theme.", "A meme acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, or practices, that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals, or other imitable phenomena with a mimicked theme.", "Supporters of the concept regard memes as cultural analogues to genes in that they self-replicate, mutate, and respond to selective pressures.", "In popular language, a meme may refer to an Internet meme, typically an image, that is remixed, copied, and circulated in a shared cultural experience online.Proponents theorize that memes are a viral phenomenon that may evolve by natural selection in a manner analogous to that of biological evolution.", "Memes do this through the processes of variation, mutation, competition, and inheritance, each of which influences a meme's reproductive success.", "Memes spread through the behavior that they generate in their hosts.", "Memes that propagate less prolifically may become extinct, while others may survive, spread, and (for better or for worse) mutate.", "Memes that replicate most effectively enjoy more success, and some may replicate effectively even when they prove to be detrimental to the welfare of their hosts.A field of study called ''memetics'' arose in the 1990s to explore the concepts and transmission of memes in terms of an evolutionary model.", "Criticism from a variety of fronts has challenged the notion that academic study can examine memes empirically.", "However, developments in neuroimaging may make empirical study possible.", "Some commentators in the social sciences question the idea that one can meaningfully categorize culture in terms of discrete units, and are especially critical of the biological nature of the theory's underpinnings.", "Others have argued that this use of the term is the result of a misunderstanding of the original proposal.The word ''meme'' itself is a neologism coined by Richard Dawkins, originating from his 1976 book ''The Selfish Gene''.", "Dawkins's own position is somewhat ambiguous.", "He welcomed N. K. Humphrey's suggestion that \"memes should be considered as living structures, not just metaphorically\", and proposed to regard memes as \"physically residing in the brain\".", "Although Dawkins said his original intentions had been simpler, he approved Humphrey's opinion and he endorsed Susan Blackmore's 1999 project to give a scientific theory of memes, complete with predictions and empirical support." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''meme'' is a shortening (modeled on ''gene'') of ''mimeme'', which comes from Ancient Greek (; ), meaning 'imitated thing', itself from (, 'to imitate'), from (, 'mime').The word was coined by British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins in ''The Selfish Gene'' (1976) as a concept for discussion of evolutionary principles in explaining the spread of ideas and cultural phenomena.", "Examples of memes given in Dawkins' book include melodies, catchphrases, fashion, and the technology of building arches.For broad appeal, a meme might appeal to dissatisfaction and provide rough explanations for why things are going wrong.", "More so could be tapping into an intuitive logic at the center of spiritual traditions – that the greater the sacrifice, the greater the redemption.", "As such, fascism is the meme of collective brutality against those seen as \"weak\" or \"foreign\"." ], [ "Origins", "Richard Dawkins coined the word ''meme'' in his 1976 book ''The Selfish Gene''.=== Early formulations ===Although Richard Dawkins invented the term ''meme'' and developed meme theory, he has not claimed that the idea was entirely novel, and there have been other expressions for similar ideas in the past.For instance, the possibility that ideas were subject to the same pressures of evolution as were biological attributes was discussed in the time of Charles Darwin.", "T. H. Huxley (1880) claimed that \"The struggle for existence holds as much in the intellectual as in the physical world.", "A theory is a species of thinking, and its right to exist is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its rivals.", "\"In 1904, Richard Semon published ''Die Mneme'' (which appeared in English in 1924 as ''The Mneme'').", "The term ''mneme'' was also used in Maurice Maeterlinck's ''The Life of the White Ant'' (1926), with some parallels to Dawkins's concept.", "Kenneth Pike had, in 1954, coined the related terms ''emic'' and ''etic'', generalizing the linguistic units of phoneme, morpheme, grapheme, lexeme, and tagmeme (as set out by Leonard Bloomfield), distinguishing insider and outside views of communicative behavior.=== Dawkins ===The word ''meme'' originated with Richard Dawkins' 1976 book ''The Selfish Gene''.Dawkins cites as inspiration the work of geneticist L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, anthropologist F. T. Cloak, and ethologist J. M. Cullen.", "Dawkins wrote that evolution depended not on the particular chemical basis of genetics, but only on the existence of a self-replicating unit of transmission—in the case of biological evolution, the gene.", "For Dawkins, the meme exemplified another self-replicating unit with potential significance in explaining human behavior and cultural evolution.", "\"Kilroy was here\" was a graffito that became popular in the 1940s, and existed under various names in different countries, illustrating how a meme can be modified through replication.", "This is seen as one of the first widespread memes in the world.Dawkins used the term to refer to any cultural entity that an observer might consider a replicator.", "He hypothesized that one could view many cultural entities as replicators, and pointed to melodies, fashions and learned skills as examples.", "Memes generally replicate through exposure to humans, who have evolved as efficient copiers of information and behavior.", "Because humans do not always copy memes perfectly, and because they may refine, combine or otherwise modify them with other memes to create new memes, they can change over time.", "Dawkins likened the process by which memes survive and change through the evolution of culture to the natural selection of genes in biological evolution.Dawkins noted that in a society with culture a person need not have biological descendants to remain influential in the actions of individuals thousands of years after their death:But if you contribute to the world's culture, if you have a good idea...it may live on, intact, long after your genes have dissolved in the common pool.", "Socrates may or may not have a gene or two alive in the world today, as G.C.", "Williams has remarked, but who cares?", "The meme-complexes of Socrates, Leonardo, Copernicus and Marconi are still going strong.In that context, Dawkins defined the ''meme'' as a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation and replication, but later definitions would vary.", "The lack of a consistent, rigorous, and precise understanding of what typically makes up one unit of cultural transmission remains a problem in debates about memetics.", "In contrast, the concept of genetics gained concrete evidence with the discovery of the biological functions of DNA.", "Meme transmission requires a physical medium, such as photons, sound waves, touch, taste, or smell because memes can be transmitted only through the senses.=== After Dawkins: Role of physical media ===Initially, Dawkins did not seriously give context to the material of memetics.", "He considered a meme to be an idea, and thus a mental concept.", "However, from Dawkins' initial conception, it is how a medium might function in relation to the meme which has garnered the most attention.", "For example, David Hull suggested that while memes might exist as Dawkins conceives of them, he finds it important to suggest that instead of determining them as idea \"replicators\" (i.e.", "mind-determinant influences) one might notice that the medium itself has an influence in the meme's evolutionary outcomes.", "Thus, he refers to the medium as an \"interactor\" to avoid this determinism.", "Alternatively, Daniel Dennett suggests that the medium and the idea are not distinct in that memes only exist because of their medium.", "Dennett argued this in order to remain consistent with his denial of qualia and the notion of materially deterministic evolution which was consistent with Dawkins' account.", "A particularly more divergent theory is that of Limor Shifman, a communication and media scholar of \"Internet memetics\".", "She argues that any memetic argument which claims the distinction between the meme and the meme-vehicle (i.e.", "the meme's medium) are empirically observable is mistaken from the offset.", "Shifman claims to be following a similar theoretical direction as Susan Blackmore; however, her attention to the media surrounding Internet culture has enabled Internet memetic research to depart in empirical interests from previous memetic goals.", "Regardless of Internet Memetic's divergence in theoretical interests, it plays a significant role in theorizing and empirically investigating the connection between cultural ideologies, behaviors, and their mediation processes." ], [ "Memetic lifecycle: transmission, retention", "Imitating the famous cover of the Beatles album ''Abbey Road'' (1969), on which the band members cross the road in front of the Abbey Road Studios in a row, has become popular with fans and London visitors.The four actresses of the Japanese Manga/media franchise ''Milky Holmes'' reenact the Beatles cover in 2010, extending the original Beatles meme by their film costumes.In 2011, four cosplayers imitate the above meme during the Manga convention ''Paris Manga 2012'' at a zebra crossing in Paris, thus further separating the meme from the root situation of 1969 tied to the Abbey Road zebra crossing.", "Memes, analogously to genes, vary in their aptitude to replicate; successful memes remain and spread, whereas unfit ones stall and are forgotten.", "Thus, memes that prove more effective at replicating and surviving are selected in the meme pool.Memes first need retention.", "The longer a meme stays in its hosts, the higher its chances of propagation are.", "When a host uses a meme, the meme's life is extended.", "The reuse of the neural space hosting a certain meme's copy to host different memes is the greatest threat to that meme's copy.", "A meme that increases the longevity of its hosts will generally survive longer.", "On the contrary, a meme that shortens the longevity of its hosts will tend to disappear faster.", "However, as hosts are mortal, retention is not sufficient to perpetuate a meme in the long term; memes also need transmission.Life-forms can transmit information both vertically (from parent to child, via replication of genes) and horizontally (through viruses and other means).Memes can replicate vertically or horizontally within a single biological generation.", "They may also lie dormant for long periods of time.Memes reproduce by copying from a nervous system to another one, either by communication or imitation.", "Imitation often involves the copying of an observed behavior of another individual.", "Communication may be direct or indirect, where memes transmit from one individual to another through a copy recorded in an inanimate source, such as a book or a musical score.", "Adam McNamara has suggested that memes can be thereby classified as either internal or external memes (i-memes or e-memes).Some commentators have likened the transmission of memes to the spread of contagions.", "Social contagions such as fads, hysteria, copycat crime, and copycat suicide exemplify memes seen as the contagious imitation of ideas.", "Observers distinguish the contagious imitation of memes from instinctively contagious phenomena such as yawning and laughing, which they consider innate (rather than socially learned) behaviors.Aaron Lynch described seven general patterns of meme transmission, or \"thought contagion\":# ''Quantity of parenthood'': an idea that influences the number of children one has.", "Children respond particularly receptively to the ideas of their parents, and thus ideas that directly or indirectly encourage a higher birth rate will replicate themselves at a higher rate than those that discourage higher birth rates.# ''Efficiency of parenthood'': an idea that increases the proportion of children who will adopt ideas of their parents.", "Cultural separatism exemplifies one practice in which one can expect a higher rate of meme-replication—because the meme for separation creates a barrier from exposure to competing ideas.# ''Proselytic'': ideas generally passed to others beyond one's own children.", "Ideas that encourage the proselytism of a meme, as seen in many religious or political movements, can replicate memes horizontally through a given generation, spreading more rapidly than parent-to-child meme-transmissions do.# ''Preservational'': ideas that influence those that hold them to continue to hold them for a long time.", "Ideas that encourage longevity in their hosts, or leave their hosts particularly resistant to abandoning or replacing these ideas, enhance the preservability of memes and afford protection from the competition or proselytism of other memes.# ''Adversative'': ideas that influence those that hold them to attack or sabotage competing ideas and/or those that hold them.", "Adversative replication can give an advantage in meme transmission when the meme itself encourages aggression against other memes.# ''Cognitive'': ideas perceived as cogent by most in the population who encounter them.", "Cognitively transmitted memes depend heavily on a cluster of other ideas and cognitive traits already widely held in the population, and thus usually spread more passively than other forms of meme transmission.", "Memes spread in cognitive transmission do not count as self-replicating.# ''Motivational'': ideas that people adopt because they perceive some self-interest in adopting them.", "Strictly speaking, motivationally transmitted memes do not self-propagate, but this mode of transmission often occurs in association with memes self-replicated in the efficiency parental, proselytic and preservational modes." ], [ "Memes as discrete units", "Dawkins initially defined ''meme'' as a noun that \"conveys the idea of a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of ''imitation''\".", "John S. Wilkins retained the notion of meme as a kernel of cultural imitation while emphasizing the meme's evolutionary aspect, defining the meme as \"the least unit of sociocultural information relative to a selection process that has favorable or unfavorable selection bias that exceeds its endogenous tendency to change\".", "The meme as a unit provides a convenient means of discussing \"a piece of thought copied from person to person\", regardless of whether that thought contains others inside it, or forms part of a larger meme.", "A meme could consist of a single word, or a meme could consist of the entire speech in which that word first occurred.", "This forms an analogy to the idea of a gene as a single unit of self-replicating information found on the self-replicating chromosome.While the identification of memes as \"units\" conveys their nature to replicate as discrete, indivisible entities, it does not imply that thoughts somehow become quantized or that \"atomic\" ideas exist that cannot be dissected into smaller pieces.", "A meme has no given size.", "Susan Blackmore writes that melodies from Beethoven's symphonies are commonly used to illustrate the difficulty involved in delimiting memes as discrete units.", "She notes that while the first four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony () form a meme widely replicated as an independent unit, one can regard the entire symphony as a single meme as well.The inability to pin an idea or cultural feature to quantifiable key units is widely acknowledged as a problem for memetics.", "It has been argued however that the traces of memetic processing can be quantified utilizing neuroimaging techniques which measure changes in the \"connectivity profiles between brain regions\".", "Blackmore meets such criticism by stating that memes compare with genes in this respect: that while a gene has no particular size, nor can we ascribe every phenotypic feature directly to a particular gene, it has value because it encapsulates that key unit of inherited expression subject to evolutionary pressures.", "To illustrate, she notes evolution selects for the gene for features such as eye color; it does not select for the individual nucleotide in a strand of DNA.", "Memes play a comparable role in understanding the evolution of imitated behaviors.", "''Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process'' (1981) by Charles J. Lumsden and E. O. Wilson proposes the theory that genes and culture co-evolve, and that the fundamental biological units of culture must correspond to neuronal networks that function as nodes of semantic memory.", "Lumsden and Wilson coined their own word, ''culturgen'', which did not catch on.", "Coauthor Wilson later acknowledged the term ''meme'' as the best label for the fundamental unit of cultural inheritance in his 1998 book ''Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge'', which elaborates upon the fundamental role of memes in unifying the natural and social sciences.At present, the existence of discrete cultural units which satisfy memetic theory has been challenged in a variety of ways.", "What is critical from this perspective is that in denying memetics unitary status is to deny a particularly fundamental part of Dawkins' original argument.", "In particular, denying memes are a unit, or are explainable in some clear unitary structure denies the cultural analogy that inspired Dawkins to define them.", "If memes are not describable as unitary, memes are not accountable within a neo-Darwinian model of evolutionary culture.Within cultural anthropology, materialist approaches are skeptical of such units.", "In particular, Dan Sperber argues that memes are not unitary in the sense that there are no two instances of exactly the same cultural idea, all that can be argued is that there is material mimicry of an idea.", "Thus every instance of a \"meme\" would not be a true evolutionary unit of replication.Dan Deacon, Kalevi Kull separately argued memes are degenerate Signs in that they offer only a partial explanation of the triadic in Charles Sanders Peirce's semiotic theory: a sign (a reference to an object), an object (the thing being referred to), and an interpretant (the interpreting actor of a sign).", "They argue the meme unit is a sign which only is defined by its replication ability.", "Accordingly, in the broadest sense, the objects of copying are memes, whereas the objects of translation and interpretation are signs.", "Later, Sara Cannizzaro more fully develops out this semiotic relation in order to reframe memes as being a kind of semiotic activity, however she too denies that memes are units, referring to them as \"sign systems\" instead.In Limor Shifman's account of Internet memetics, she also denies memetics as being unitary.", "She argues memes are not unitary, however many assume they are because many previous memetic researchers confounded memes with the cultural interest in \"virals\": singular informational objects which spread with a particular rate and veracity such as a video or a picture.", "As such, Shifman argues that Dawkins' original notion of meme is closer to what communication and information studies consider digitally viral replication." ], [ "Evolutionary influences on memes", "Dawkins noted the three conditions that must exist for evolution to occur:# variation, or the introduction of new change to existing elements;# heredity or replication, or the capacity to create copies of elements;# differential \"fitness\", or the opportunity for one element to be more or less suited to the environment than another.Dawkins emphasizes that the process of evolution naturally occurs whenever these conditions co-exist, and that evolution does not apply only to organic elements such as genes.", "He regards memes as also having the properties necessary for evolution, and thus sees meme evolution as not simply analogous to genetic evolution, but as a real phenomenon subject to the laws of natural selection.", "Dawkins noted that as various ideas pass from one generation to the next, they may either enhance or detract from the survival of the people who obtain those ideas, or influence the survival of the ideas themselves.", "For example, a certain culture may develop unique designs and methods of tool-making that give it a competitive advantage over another culture.", "Each tool-design thus acts somewhat similarly to a biological gene in that some populations have it and others do not, and the meme's function directly affects the presence of the design in future generations.", "In keeping with the thesis that in evolution one can regard organisms simply as suitable \"hosts\" for reproducing genes, Dawkins argues that one can view people as \"hosts\" for replicating memes.", "Consequently, a successful meme may or may not need to provide any benefit to its host.Unlike genetic evolution, memetic evolution can show both Darwinian and Lamarckian traits.", "Cultural memes will have the characteristic of Lamarckian inheritance when a host aspires to replicate the given meme through inference rather than by exactly copying it.", "Take for example the case of the transmission of a simple skill such as hammering a nail, a skill that a learner imitates from watching a demonstration without necessarily imitating every discrete movement modeled by the teacher in the demonstration, stroke for stroke.", "Susan Blackmore distinguishes the difference between the two modes of inheritance in the evolution of memes, characterizing the Darwinian mode as \"copying the instructions\" and the Lamarckian as \"copying the product\".Clusters of memes, or ''memeplexes'' (also known as ''meme complexes'' or as ''memecomplexes''), such as cultural or political doctrines and systems, may also play a part in the acceptance of new memes.", "Memeplexes comprise groups of memes that replicate together and coadapt.", "Memes that fit within a successful memeplex may gain acceptance by \"piggybacking\" on the success of the memeplex.As an example, John D. Gottsch discusses the transmission, mutation and selection of religious memeplexes and the theistic memes contained.", "Theistic memes discussed include the \"prohibition of aberrant sexual practices such as incest, adultery, homosexuality, bestiality, castration, and religious prostitution\", which may have increased vertical transmission of the parent religious memeplex.", "Similar memes are thereby included in the majority of religious memeplexes, and harden over time; they become an \"inviolable canon\" or set of dogmas, eventually finding their way into secular law.", "This could also be referred to as the propagation of a taboo." ], [ "Memetics", "Memetics is the name of the field of science that studies memes and their evolution and culture spread.", "While the term \"meme\" appeared in various forms in German and Austrian texts near the turn of the 20th century, Dawkin's unrelated use of the term in The Selfish Gene marked its emergence into mainstream study.", "Based on the Dawkin's framing of a meme as a cultural analogue to a gene, meme theory originated as an attempt to apply biological evolutionary principles to cultural information transfer and cultural evolution.", "Thus, memetics attempts to apply conventional scientific methods (such as those used in population genetics and epidemiology) to explain existing patterns and transmission of cultural ideas.Principal criticisms of memetics include the claim that memetics ignores established advances in other fields of cultural study, such as sociology, cultural anthropology, cognitive psychology, and social psychology.", "Questions remain whether or not the meme concept counts as a validly disprovable scientific theory.", "This view regards memetics as a theory in its infancy: a protoscience to proponents, or a pseudoscience to some detractors.=== Criticism of meme theory ===One frequent criticism of meme theory looks at the perceived gap in the gene/meme analogy.", "For example, Luis Benitez-Bribiesca points to the lack of a \"code script\" for memes (analogous to the DNA of genes), and to the excessive instability of the meme mutation mechanism (that of an idea going from one brain to another), which would lead to a low replication accuracy and a high mutation rate, rendering the evolutionary process chaotic.", "In his book ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'', Daniel C. Dennett points to the existence of self-regulating correction mechanisms (vaguely resembling those of gene transcription) enabled by the redundancy and other properties of most meme expression languages which stabilize information transfer.", "Dennett notes that spiritual narratives, including music and dance forms, can survive in full detail across any number of generations even in cultures with oral tradition only.", "In contrast, when applying only meme theory, memes for which stable copying methods are available will inevitably get selected for survival more often than those which can only have unstable mutations (such as the noted music and dance forms), which, according to meme theory, should have resulted in those forms of cultural expression going extinct.A second common criticism of meme theory views it as a reductionist and inadequate version of more accepted anthropological theories.", "Kim Sterelny and Paul Griffiths noted the cumulative evolution of genes depends on biological selection-pressures neither too great nor too small in relation to mutation-rates, while pointing out there is no reason to think that the same balance will exist in the selection pressures on memes.", "Semiotic theorists such as Terrence Deacon and Kalevi Kull regard the concept of a meme as a primitivized or degenerate concept of a sign, containing only a sign's basic ability to be copied, but lacks other core elements of the sign concept such as translation and interpretation.", "Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr similarly disapproved of Dawkins's gene-based view of meme, asserting it to be an \"unnecessary synonym\" for a concept, reasoning that concepts are not restricted to an individual or a generation, may persist for long periods of time, and may evolve." ], [ "Applications", "Opinions differ as to how best to apply the concept of memes within a \"proper\" disciplinary framework.", "One view sees memes as providing a useful philosophical perspective with which to examine cultural evolution.", "Proponents of this view (such as Susan Blackmore and Daniel Dennett) argue that considering cultural developments from a meme's-eye view—''as if'' memes themselves respond to pressure to maximise their own replication and survival—can lead to useful insights and yield valuable predictions into how culture develops over time.", "Others such as Bruce Edmonds and Robert Aunger have focused on the need to provide an empirical grounding for memetics to become a useful and respected scientific discipline.A third approach, described by Joseph Poulshock, as \"radical memetics\" seeks to place memes at the centre of a materialistic theory of mind and of personal identity.Prominent researchers in evolutionary psychology and anthropology, including Scott Atran, Dan Sperber, Pascal Boyer, John Tooby and others, argue the possibility of incompatibility between modularity of mind and memetics.", "In their view, minds structure certain communicable aspects of the ideas produced, and these communicable aspects generally trigger or elicit ideas in other minds through inference (to relatively rich structures generated from often low-fidelity input) and not high-fidelity replication or imitation.", "Atran discusses communication involving religious beliefs as a case in point.", "In one set of experiments he asked religious people to write down on a piece of paper the meanings of the Ten Commandments.", "Despite the subjects' own expectations of consensus, interpretations of the commandments showed wide ranges of variation, with little evidence of consensus.", "In another experiment, subjects with autism and subjects without autism interpreted ideological and religious sayings (for example, \"Let a thousand flowers bloom\" or \"To everything there is a season\").", "People with autism showed a significant tendency to closely paraphrase and repeat content from the original statement (for example: \"Don't cut flowers before they bloom\").", "Controls tended to infer a wider range of cultural meanings with little replicated content (for example: \"Go with the flow\" or \"Everyone should have equal opportunity\").", "Only the subjects with autism—who lack the degree of inferential capacity normally associated with aspects of theory of mind—came close to functioning as \"meme machines\".In his book ''The Robot's Rebellion'', Keith Stanovich uses the memes and memeplex concepts to describe a program of cognitive reform that he refers to as a \"rebellion\".", "Specifically, Stanovich argues that the use of memes as a descriptor for cultural units is beneficial because it serves to emphasize transmission and acquisition properties that parallel the study of epidemiology.", "These properties make salient the sometimes parasitic nature of acquired memes, and as a result individuals should be motivated to reflectively acquire memes using what he calls a \"Neurathian bootstrap\" process.===Memetic explanations of racism===In ''Cultural Software: A Theory of Ideology'', Jack Balkin argued that memetic processes can explain many of the most familiar features of ideological thought.", "His theory of \"cultural software\" maintained that memes form narratives, social networks, metaphoric and metonymic models, and a variety of different mental structures.", "Balkin maintains that the same structures used to generate ideas about free speech or free markets also serve to generate racistic beliefs.", "To Balkin, whether memes become harmful or maladaptive depends on the environmental context in which they exist rather than in any special source or manner to their origination.", "Balkin describes racist beliefs as \"fantasy\" memes that become harmful or unjust \"ideologies\" when diverse peoples come together, as through trade or competition." ], [ "Religion", "Richard Dawkins called for a re-analysis of religion in terms of the evolution of self-replicating ideas ''apart from'' any resulting biological advantages they might bestow.He argued that the role of key replicator in cultural evolution belongs not to genes, but to memes replicating thought from person to person by means of imitation.", "These replicators respond to selective pressures that may or may not affect biological reproduction or survival.In her book ''The Meme Machine'', Susan Blackmore regards religions as particularly tenacious memes.", "Many of the features common to the most widely practiced religions provide built-in advantages in an evolutionary context, she writes.", "For example, religions that preach of the value of faith over evidence from everyday experience or reason inoculate societies against many of the most basic tools people commonly use to evaluate their ideas.", "By linking altruism with religious affiliation, religious memes can proliferate more quickly because people perceive that they can reap societal as well as personal rewards.", "The longevity of religious memes improves with their documentation in revered religious texts.Aaron Lynch attributed the robustness of religious memes in human culture to the fact that such memes incorporate multiple modes of meme transmission.", "Religious memes pass down the generations from parent to child and across a single generation through the meme-exchange of proselytism.", "Most people will hold the religion taught them by their parents throughout their life.", "Many religions feature adversarial elements, punishing apostasy, for instance, or demonizing infidels.", "In ''Thought Contagion'' Lynch identifies the memes of transmission in Christianity as especially powerful in scope.", "Believers view the conversion of non-believers both as a religious duty and as an act of altruism.", "The promise of heaven to believers and threat of hell to non-believers provide a strong incentive for members to retain their belief.", "Lynch asserts that belief in the Crucifixion of Jesus in Christianity amplifies each of its other replication advantages through the indebtedness believers have to their Savior for sacrifice on the cross.", "The image of the crucifixion recurs in religious sacraments, and the proliferation of symbols of the cross in homes and churches potently reinforces the wide array of Christian memes.Although religious memes have proliferated in human cultures, the modern scientific community has been relatively resistant to religious belief.", "Robertson (2007) reasoned that if evolution is accelerated in conditions of propagative difficulty, then we would expect to encounter variations of religious memes, established in general populations, addressed to scientific communities.", "Using a memetic approach, Robertson deconstructed two attempts to privilege religiously held spirituality in scientific discourse.", "Advantages of a memetic approach as compared to more traditional \"modernization\" and \"supply side\" theses in understanding the evolution and propagation of religion were explored." ], [ "Architectural memes", "In ''A Theory of Architecture'', Nikos Salingaros speaks of memes as \"freely propagating clusters of information\" which can be beneficial or harmful.", "He contrasts memes to patterns and true knowledge, characterizing memes as \"greatly simplified versions of patterns\" and as \"unreasoned matching to some visual or mnemonic prototype\".", "Taking reference to Dawkins, Salingaros emphasizes that they can be transmitted due to their own communicative properties, that \"the simpler they are, the faster they can proliferate\", and that the most successful memes \"come with a great psychological appeal\".Architectural memes, according to Salingaros, can have destructive power: \"Images portrayed in architectural magazines representing buildings that could not possibly accommodate everyday uses become fixed in our memory, so we reproduce them unconsciously.\"", "He lists various architectural memes that circulated since the 1920s and which, in his view, have led to contemporary architecture becoming quite decoupled from human needs.", "They lack connection and meaning, thereby preventing \"the creation of true connections necessary to our understanding of the world\".", "He sees them as no different from antipatterns in software design—as solutions that are false but are re-utilized nonetheless." ], [ "Internet culture", "An \"Internet meme\" is a concept that spreads rapidly from person to person via the Internet.", "Memes can spread from person to person via social networks, blogs, direct email, or news sources.In 2013, Dawkins characterized an Internet meme as one deliberately altered by human creativity, distinguished from his original idea involving mutation \"by random change and a form of Darwinian selection\".Internet memes are an example of Dawkins' meme theory at work in the sense of how they so rapidly mirror current cultural events and become a part of how the time period is defined.", "Limor Shifman uses the example of the 'Gangnam Style' Music video by South Korean pop-star, Psy that went viral in 2012.Shifman cites examples of how the meme mutated itself into the cultural sphere, mixing with other things going on at the time such as the 2012 U.S. presidential election, which led to the creation of Mitt Romney Style, a parody of the original Gangnam style, intended to be a jab at the 2012 Republican presidential candidate, Mitt Romney.===Meme stocks===Meme stocks, a particular subset of Internet memes in general, are listed companies lauded for the social media buzz they create, rather than their operating performance.", "Meme stocks find themselves surging in popularity after gaining the interest of individuals or groups through the internet.", "r/wallstreetbets, a subreddit where participants discuss stock and option trading, and the financial services company Robinhood Markets, became notable in 2021 for their involvement on the popularization and enhancement of meme stocks.", "One of the most commonly recognized instances of a meme stock is GameStop, whose stocks saw a sudden increase after a Reddit-led idea to invest in 2021." ], [ "Politics", "In the United States the presidential campaigns have utilized memes on the Internet in the last three cycles.", "Disinformation has been charged by political contestants with memes being a concern of the complaints." ], [ "See also", "* Baldwin effect* ''The Beginning of Infinity''* Biosemiotics* Chain letter* Darwin machine* Dual inheritance theory* Evolutionary biology* Framing (social sciences)* Infodemic* Internet meme * The Leiden school* Memetic algorithm* Memetic engineering* Muslim meme* Phraseme* Propaganda* Psycholinguistics* Snowclone* Survivals* Universal Darwinism* Viral marketing* Viral video" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * trade paperback (1999), (2000)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Dawkins's speech on the 30th anniversary of the publication of ''The Selfish Gene'', Dawkins 2006* \"Evolution and Memes: The human brain as a selective imitation device\": article by Susan Blackmore.", "* * Journal of Memetics, a peer-refereed journal of memetics published from 1997 until 2005.", "* Susan Blackmore: Memes and \"temes\", TED Talks February 2008.", "* Christopher von Bülow: ''Article Meme'', translated from: Jürgen Mittelstraß (ed.", "), ''Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie'', 2nd edn, vol.", "5, Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler 2013.", "* Richard Dawkins explains the real meaning of the word 'meme'* Richard Dawkins |Memes |Oxford Union" ] ]
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[ [ "Monroe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Monroe''' or '''Monroes''' may refer to:" ], [ "People and fictional characters", "* Monroe (surname)* Monroe (given name)* James Monroe, 5th President of the United States" ], [ "Places", "===United States===* Monroe, Arkansas, an unincorporated community and census-designated place* Fort Monroe (Yosemite), California, a historic site* Monroe, Connecticut, a town* Lake Monroe (Florida)* Monroe, Georgia, a city* Monroe, Adams County, Indiana, a town* Monroe, Tippecanoe County, Indiana, an unincorporated community* Lake Monroe (Indiana), a reservoir* Monroe, Iowa, a city* Monroe, Kentucky, an unincorporated community* Monroe, Louisiana, a city* Monroe, Maine, a town* Monroe, Massachusetts, a town* Monroe, Michigan, a city* Lake Monroe (Mississippi), Monroe County, Mississippi* Monroe Island, in the Yellowstone River in Montana* Monroe, Nebraska, a village* Monroe, New Hampshire a town* Mount Monroe, a peak in the White Mountains of New Hampshire* Monroe, New York, a town** Monroe (village), New York, in the town of Monroe* Monroe, North Carolina, a city* Monroe, Ohio, a city* Monroe, Jackson County, Ohio, an unincorporated community* Monroe, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community and census-designated place* Monroe, Oregon, a city* Monroe, Pennsylvania, a borough* Monroe, South Dakota, a town* Monroe, Tennessee, an unincorporated community* Monroe, Utah, a city* Monroe, Virginia, an unincorporated community* Fort Monroe, Hampton, Virginia, a former military installation* Monroe Park, Richmond, Virginia* Monroe Bay, Virginia* Monroe, Washington, a city* Monroe, Adams County, Wisconsin, a town* Monroe (town), Green County, Wisconsin, a town* Monroe, Wisconsin, a city partially within the town of Monroe* Monroe Township (disambiguation)* Monroe County (disambiguation)=== Elsewhere ===* Monroe Island, South Orkney Islands, Antarctica* Monroe Point, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica* Monroe, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, a settlement* Monroe, County Westmeath, Ireland, a townland* 3768 Monroe, an asteroid" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Television===* ''Monroe'' (TV series), a British medical drama series* ''The Monroes'' (1966 TV series), an American Western series* ''The Monroes'' (1995 TV series), an American prime-time soap opera===Music===* The Monroes (American band), a 1980s New Wave pop band* The Monroes (Norwegian band), a 1980s pop/ska duo===Other arts and entertainment===: ''For fictional characters, see Monroe (given name) and Monroe (surname).", "''* ''Monroe'' (comic strip), a comic strip published in ''Mad Magazine''* Monroe Republic, an area of the US in the television series ''Revolution''" ], [ "Schools", "* Monroe College, a former name of Tift College, a private liberal arts women's college located in Forsyth, Georgia* Monroe College, an American for-profit college based in New York* Monroe School (Phoenix, Arizona), a former school on the National Register of Historic Places* Monroe School (Sandusky, Ohio), on the National Register of Historic Places in Sandusky, Ohio* Monroe High School (disambiguation)* Monroe Elementary School (disambiguation)" ], [ "Transportation", "* Monroe (automobile), a vintage American automobile of the Brass Era* , a steamship* Monroe Airport (disambiguation)* Monroe Expressway, North Carolina* Monroe Railroad (disambiguation)* Monroe station (disambiguation)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Monroe (tree), a giant sequoia in the Giant Forest, California* Monroe Correctional Complex, Monroe, Washington, United States* Monroe (avocado), a commercial avocado cultivar* Monroe Calculating Machine Company, an American calculator company* Monroe, a division of the Tenneco corporation* Monroe piercing, body piercing of the upper lip area* Palácio Monroe, a former building in Rio de Janeiro" ], [ "See also", "* * * * Monroe Doctrine, a United States policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas* Monroe Center (disambiguation)* Monroe City (disambiguation)* Monroe County (disambiguation)* Monroeville (disambiguation)* Monro (disambiguation)* Munro (disambiguation)* Munroe (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maugham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maugham''' is a surname most commonly associated with the English literary family.", "The name is a variant of Malham, Malgham, and Malghum.", "Families with the name originate from the area surrounding Malham and Kirkby Malham.Well-known persons with this surname include:* Robert Ormond Maugham, English barrister and father of Somerset Maugham** Frederic Maugham, 1st Viscount Maugham, English statesman, the eldest son of the previous*** Robin Maugham, English writer, the only son of the previous*** Honor Earl, English painter, daughter of Frederic Maugham** W. Somerset Maugham, English writer, best known of the Maughams*** Syrie Maugham, wife * Daphne Mabel Maugham, painter" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marilyn Monroe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marilyn Monroe''' (; born '''Norma Jeane Mortenson'''; June 1, 1926 August 4, 1962) was an American actress, model and singer.", "Known for playing comic \"blonde bombshell\" characters, she became one of the most popular sex symbols of the 1950s and early 1960s, as well as an emblem of the era's sexual revolution.", "She was a top-billed actress for a decade, and her films grossed $200 million (equivalent to $ billion in ) by the time of her death in 1962.Long after her death, Monroe remains a pop culture icon.", "In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked her as the sixth-greatest female screen legend from the Golden Age of Hollywood.Born and raised in Los Angeles, Monroe spent most of her childhood in a total of 12 foster homes and an orphanage before marrying James Dougherty at age sixteen.", "She was working in a factory during World War II when she met a photographer from the First Motion Picture Unit and began a successful pin-up modeling career, which led to short-lived film contracts with 20th Century Fox and Columbia Pictures.", "After a series of minor film roles, she signed a new contract with Fox in late 1950.Over the next two years, she became a popular actress with roles in several comedies, including ''As Young as You Feel'' and ''Monkey Business'', and in the dramas ''Clash by Night'' and ''Don't Bother to Knock''.", "Monroe faced a scandal when it was revealed that she had posed for nude photographs prior to becoming a star, but the story did not damage her career and instead resulted in increased interest in her films.By 1953, Monroe was one of the most marketable Hollywood stars.", "She had leading roles in the film noir ''Niagara'', which overtly relied on her sex appeal, and the comedies ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'' and ''How to Marry a Millionaire'', which established her star image as a \"dumb blonde\".", "The same year, her nude images were used as the centerfold and cover of the first issue of ''Playboy'' magazine.", "Monroe played a significant role in the creation and management of her public image throughout her career, but felt disappointed when typecast and underpaid by the studio.", "She was briefly suspended in early 1954 for refusing a film project but returned to star in ''The Seven Year Itch'' (1955), one of the biggest box office successes of her career.When the studio was still reluctant to change Monroe's contract, she founded her own film production company in 1954.She dedicated 1955 to building the company and began studying method acting under Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio.", "Later that year, Fox awarded her a new contract, which gave her more control and a larger salary.", "Her subsequent roles included a critically acclaimed performance in ''Bus Stop'' (1956) and her first independent production in ''The Prince and the Showgirl'' (1957).", "She won a Golden Globe for Best Actress for her role in ''Some Like It Hot'' (1959), a critical and commercial success.", "Her last completed film was the drama ''The Misfits'' (1961).Monroe's troubled private life received much attention as she struggled with addiction and mood disorders.", "Her marriages to retired baseball star Joe DiMaggio and to playwright Arthur Miller were highly publicized; both ended in divorce.", "On August 4, 1962, she died at age 36 from an overdose of barbiturates at her Los Angeles home.", "Her death was ruled a probable suicide." ], [ "Life and career", "===1926–1943: Childhood and first marriage===Monroe as an infant, Marilyn Monroe was born Norma Jeane Mortenson on June 1, 1926, at the Los Angeles General Hospital in Los Angeles, California.", "Her mother, Gladys Pearl Baker (née Monroe; 1902–1984), was born in Piedras Negras, Coahuila, Mexico to a poor Midwestern family who migrated to California at the turn of the century.", "At age 15, Gladys had married John Newton Baker, an abusive man nine years her senior.", "They had two children together, Robert (1918–1933) and Berniece (1919–2014).", "She successfully filed for divorce and sole custody of her two oldest in 1923, but Baker kidnapped the children soon after and moved with them to his native Kentucky.Monroe was not told that she had a sister until she was 12, and they met for the first time in 1944 when Monroe was 17 or 18.Following the divorce, Gladys worked as a film negative cutter at Consolidated Film Industries.", "Her second marriage occurred in 1924 when she married Martin Edward Mortensen, but they separated just months later and divorced in 1928.In 2022, DNA testing indicated that Monroe's father was Charles Stanley Gifford (1898–1965),a co-worker of Gladys, with whom she had an affair in 1925.Monroe also had two other half-siblings from Gifford's marriage with his first wife, a sister, Doris Elizabeth (1920–1933), and a brother, Charles Stanley (1922–2015).Although Gladys was mentally and financially unprepared for a child, Monroe's early childhood was stable and happy.", "Gladys placed her daughter with evangelical Christian foster parents Albert and Ida Bolender in the rural town of Hawthorne.", "She also lived there for six months, until she was forced to move back to the city for employment.", "She then began visiting her daughter on weekends.", "In the summer of 1933, Gladys bought a small house in Hollywood with a loan from the Home Owners' Loan Corporation and moved seven-year-old Monroe in with her.", "They shared the house with lodgers, actors George and Maude Atkinson and their daughter, Nellie.", "In January 1934, Gladys had a mental breakdown and was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia.", "After several months in a rest home, she was committed to the Metropolitan State Hospital.", "She spent the rest of her life in and out of hospitals and was rarely in contact with Monroe.", "Monroe became a ward of the state, and her mother's friend Grace Goddard took responsibility over her and her mother's affairs.James Dougherty, .", "They married when she was 16 years old.Over the next four years, Monroe's living situation changed often.", "For the first 16 months, she continued living with the Atkinsons, and may have been sexually abused during this time.", "Always a shy girl, she now also developed a stutter and became withdrawn.", "In the summer of 1935, she briefly stayed with Grace and her husband Erwin \"Doc\" Goddard and two other families.", "In September 1935, Grace placed her in the Los Angeles Orphans Home #2, Hollygrove.", "The orphanage was \"a model institution\" and was described in positive terms by her peers, but Monroe felt abandoned.", "Encouraged by the orphanage staff, who thought that Monroe would be happier living in a family, Grace became her legal guardian in 1936, but did not take her out of the orphanage until the summer of 1937.Monroe's second stay with the Goddards lasted only a few months because Doc molested her.", "She then lived for brief periods with her relatives and Grace's friends and relatives in Los Angeles and Compton.Monroe's childhood experiences first made her want to become an actress: \"I didn't like the world around me because it was kind of grim ...", "When I heard that this was acting, I said that's what I want to be ...", "Some of my foster families used to send me to the movies to get me out of the house and there I'd sit all day and way into the night.", "Up in front, there with the screen so big, a little kid all alone, and I loved it.", "\"Monroe found a more permanent home in September 1938, when she began living with Grace's aunt Ana Lower in the west-side district of Sawtelle.", "She was enrolled at Emerson Junior High School and went to weekly Christian Science services with Lower.", "She excelled in writing and contributed to the school newspaper, but was otherwise a mediocre student.", "Owing to the elderly Lower's health problems, Monroe returned to live with the Goddards in Van Nuys in about early 1941.The same year, she began attending Van Nuys High School.", "In 1942, the company that employed Doc Goddard relocated him to West Virginia.", "California child protection laws prevented the Goddards from taking Monroe out of state, and she faced having to return to the orphanage.", "As a solution, she married their neighbors' 21-year-old son, factory worker James Dougherty, on June 19, 1942, just after her 16th birthday.", "Monroe subsequently dropped out of high school and became a housewife.", "She found herself and Dougherty mismatched, and later said she was \"dying of boredom\" during the marriage.", "In 1943, Dougherty enlisted in the Merchant Marine and was stationed on Santa Catalina Island, where Monroe moved with him.===1944–1948: Modeling and first film roles===A photo of Monroe taken by David Conover in mid-1944 at the Radioplane CompanyIn April 1944, Dougherty was shipped out to the Pacific, where he remained for most of the next two years.", "Monroe moved in with her in-laws and began a job at the Radioplane Company, a munitions factory in Van Nuys.", "In late 1944, she met photographer David Conover, who had been sent by captain Ronald Reagan, then working in the U.S. Army Air Forces' First Motion Picture Unit, to the factory to shoot morale-boosting pictures of female workers.", "Although none of her pictures were used, she quit working at the factory in January 1945 and began modeling for Conover and his friends.", "Defying her deployed husband, she moved on her own and signed a contract with the Blue Book Model Agency in August 1945.The agency deemed Monroe's figure more suitable for pin-up than high fashion modeling, and she was featured mostly in advertisements and men's magazines.", "To make herself more employable, she straightened her hair and dyed it blonde.", "According to Emmeline Snively, the agency's owner, Monroe quickly became one of its most ambitious and hard-working models; by early 1946, she had appeared on 33 magazine covers for publications such as ''Pageant'', ''U.S.", "Camera'', ''Laff'', and ''Peek''.", "As a model, Monroe occasionally used the pseudonym Jean Norman.Monroe posing as a alt=A smiling Monroe sitting on a beach and leaning back on her arms.", "She is wearing a bikini and wedge sandals.Through Snively, Monroe signed a contract with an acting agency in June 1946.After an unsuccessful interview at Paramount Pictures, she was given a screen-test by Ben Lyon, a 20th Century-Fox executive.", "Head executive Darryl F. Zanuck was unenthusiastic about it, but he gave her a standard six-month contract to avoid her being signed by rival studio RKO Pictures.", "Monroe's contract began in August 1946, and she and Lyon selected the stage name \"Marilyn Monroe\".", "The first name was picked by Lyon, who was reminded of Broadway star Marilyn Miller; the surname was Monroe's mother's maiden name.", "In September 1946, she divorced Dougherty, who opposed her career.Monroe spent her first six months at Fox learning acting, singing, and dancing, and observing the film-making process.", "Her contract was renewed in February 1947, and she was given her first film roles, bit parts in ''Dangerous Years'' (1947) and ''Scudda Hoo!", "Scudda Hay!''", "(1948).", "The studio also enrolled her in the Actors' Laboratory Theatre, an acting school teaching the techniques of the Group Theatre; she later stated that it was \"my first taste of what real acting in a real drama could be, and I was hooked\".", "Despite her enthusiasm, her teachers thought her too shy and insecure to have a future in acting, and Fox did not renew her contract in August 1947.She returned to modeling while also doing occasional odd jobs at film studios, such as working as a dancing \"pacer\" behind the scenes to keep the leads on point at musical sets.Monroe in a 1948 publicity photoMonroe was determined to make it as an actress, and continued studying at the Actors' Lab.", "She had a small role in the play ''Glamour Preferred'' at the Bliss-Hayden Theater, but it ended after a couple of performances.", "To network, she frequented producers' offices, befriended gossip columnist Sidney Skolsky, and entertained influential male guests at studio functions, a practice she had begun at Fox.", "She also became a friend and occasional sex partner of Fox executive Joseph M. Schenck, who persuaded his friend Harry Cohn, the head executive of Columbia Pictures, to sign her in March 1948.At Columbia, Monroe's look was modeled after Rita Hayworth and her hair was bleached platinum blonde.", "She began working with the studio's head drama coach, Natasha Lytess, who would remain her mentor until 1955.Her only film at the studio was the low-budget musical ''Ladies of the Chorus'' (1948), in which she had her first starring role as a chorus girl courted by a wealthy man.", "She also screen-tested for the lead role in ''Born Yesterday'' (1950), but her contract was not renewed in September 1948.", "''Ladies of the Chorus'' was released the following month and was not a success.===1949–1952: Breakthrough years===Monroe in ''The Asphalt Jungle'' (1950), one of her earliest performances to gain attention from film critics.When her contract at Columbia ended, Monroe returned again to modeling.", "She shot a commercial for Pabst beer and posed for artistic nude photographs by Tom Kelley for John Baumgarth calendars, using the name 'Mona Monroe'.", "Monroe had previously posed topless or clad in a bikini for other artists including Earl Moran, and felt comfortable with nudity.", "Shortly after leaving Columbia, she also met and became the protégée and mistress of Johnny Hyde, the vice president of the William Morris Agency.Through Hyde, Monroe landed small roles in several films, including two critically acclaimed works: Joseph Mankiewicz's drama ''All About Eve'' (1950) and John Huston's film noir ''The Asphalt Jungle'' (1950).", "Despite her screen time being only a few minutes in the latter, she gained a mention in ''Photoplay'' and according to biographer Donald Spoto \"moved effectively from movie model to serious actress\".", "In December 1950, Hyde negotiated a seven-year contract for Monroe with 20th Century-Fox.", "According to its terms, Fox could opt to not renew the contract after each year.", "Hyde died of a heart attack only days later, which left Monroe devastated.", "In 1951, Monroe had supporting roles in three moderately successful Fox comedies: ''As Young as You Feel'', ''Love Nest'', and ''Let's Make It Legal''.", "According to Spoto all three films featured her \"essentially as a sexy ornament\", but she received some praise from critics: Bosley Crowther of ''The New York Times'' described her as \"superb\" in ''As Young As You Feel'' and Ezra Goodman of the ''Los Angeles Daily News'' called her \"one of the brightest up-and-coming actresses\" for ''Love Nest''.Her popularity with audiences was also growing: she received several thousand fan letters a week, and was declared \"Miss Cheesecake of 1951\" by the army newspaper ''Stars and Stripes'', reflecting the preferences of soldiers in the Korean War.", "In February 1952, the Hollywood Foreign Press Association named Monroe the \"best young box office personality\".", "In her private life, Monroe had a short relationship with director Elia Kazan and also briefly dated several other men, including director Nicholas Ray and actors Yul Brynner and Peter Lawford.", "In early 1952, she began a highly publicized romance with retired New York Yankees baseball star Joe DiMaggio, one of the most famous sports personalities of the era.Monroe with Keith Andes in ''Clash by Night'' (1952).", "The film allowed Monroe to display more of her acting range in a dramatic role.Monroe found herself at the center of a scandal in March 1952, when she revealed publicly that she had posed for a nude calendar in 1949.The studio had learned about the photos and that she was publicly rumored to be the model some weeks prior, and together with Monroe decided that to prevent damaging her career it was best to admit to them while stressing that she had been broke at the time.", "The strategy gained her public sympathy and increased interest in her films, for which she was now receiving top billing.", "In the wake of the scandal, Monroe was featured on the cover of ''Life'' magazine as the \"Talk of Hollywood\", and gossip columnist Hedda Hopper declared her the \"cheesecake queen\" turned \"box office smash\".", "Three of Monroe's films—''Clash by Night'', ''Don't Bother to Knock'' and ''We're Not Married!", "''—were released soon after to capitalize on the public interest.Despite her newfound popularity as a sex symbol, Monroe also wished to showcase more of her acting range.", "She had begun taking acting classes with Michael Chekhov and mime Lotte Goslar soon after beginning the Fox contract, and ''Clash by Night'' and ''Don't Bother to Knock'' showed her in different roles.", "In the former, a drama starring Barbara Stanwyck and directed by Fritz Lang, she played a fish cannery worker; to prepare, she spent time in a fish cannery in Monterey.", "She received positive reviews for her performance: ''The Hollywood Reporter'' stated that \"she deserves starring status with her excellent interpretation\", and ''Variety'' wrote that she \"has an ease of delivery which makes her a cinch for popularity\".", "The latter was a thriller in which Monroe starred as a mentally disturbed babysitter and which Zanuck used to test her abilities in a heavier dramatic role.", "It received mixed reviews from critics, with Crowther deeming her too inexperienced for the difficult role, and ''Variety'' blaming the script for the film's problems.Monroe in ''Don't Bother to Knock'' (1952)Monroe's three other films in 1952 continued with her typecasting in comedic roles that highlighted her sex appeal.", "In ''We're Not Married!", "'', her role as a beauty pageant contestant was created solely to \"present Marilyn in two bathing suits\", according to its writer Nunnally Johnson.", "In Howard Hawks's ''Monkey Business'', in which she acted opposite Cary Grant, she played a secretary who is a \"dumb, childish blonde, innocently unaware of the havoc her sexiness causes around her\".", "In ''O.", "Henry's Full House'', with Charles Laughton she appeared in a passing vignette as a nineteenth-century street walker.", "Monroe added to her reputation as a new sex symbol with publicity stunts that year: she wore a revealing dress when acting as Grand Marshal at the Miss America Pageant parade, and told gossip columnist Earl Wilson that she usually wore no underwear.", "By the end of the year, gossip columnist Florabel Muir named Monroe the \"it girl\" of 1952.During this period, Monroe gained a reputation for being difficult to work with, which would worsen as her career progressed.", "She was often late or did not show up at all, did not remember her lines, and would demand several re-takes before she was satisfied with her performance.", "Her dependence on her acting coaches—Natasha Lytess and then Paula Strasberg—also irritated directors.", "Monroe's problems have been attributed to a combination of perfectionism, low self-esteem, and stage fright.", "She disliked her lack of control on film sets and never experienced similar problems during photo shoots, in which she had more say over her performance and could be more spontaneous instead of following a script.", "To alleviate her anxiety and chronic insomnia, she began to use barbiturates, amphetamines, and alcohol, which also exacerbated her problems, although she did not become severely addicted until 1956.According to Sarah Churchwell, some of Monroe's behavior, especially later in her career, was also in response to the condescension and sexism of her male co-stars and directors.", "Biographer Lois Banner said that she was bullied by many of her directors.===1953: Rising star===Monroe starred in three movies that were released in 1953 and emerged as a major sex symbol and one of Hollywood's most bankable performers.", "The first was the Technicolor film noir ''Niagara'', in which she played a ''femme fatale'' scheming to murder her husband, played by Joseph Cotten.", "By then, Monroe and her make-up artist Allan \"Whitey\" Snyder had developed her \"trademark\" make-up look: dark arched brows, pale skin, \"glistening\" red lips and a beauty mark.", "According to Sarah Churchwell, ''Niagara'' was one of the most overtly sexual films of Monroe's career.", "In some scenes, Monroe's body was covered only by a sheet or a towel, considered shocking by contemporary audiences.", "''Niagara''s most famous scene is a 30-second long shot behind Monroe where she is seen walking with her hips swaying, which was used heavily in the film's marketing.When ''Niagara'' was released in January 1953, women's clubs protested it as immoral, but it proved popular with audiences.", "While ''Variety'' deemed it \"clichéd\" and \"morbid\", ''The New York Times'' commented that \"the falls and Miss Monroe are something to see\", as although Monroe may not be \"the perfect actress at this point ... she can be seductive—even when she walks\".Monroe continued to attract attention by wearing revealing outfits, most famously at the ''Photoplay'' Awards in January 1953, where she won the \"Fastest Rising Star\" award.", "A pleated \"sunburst\" waist-tight, deep décolleté gold lamé dress designed by William Travilla for ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'', but barely seen at all in the film, was to become a sensation.", "Prompted by such imagery, veteran star Joan Crawford publicly called the behavior \"unbecoming an actress and a lady\".While ''Niagara'' made Monroe a sex symbol and established her \"look\", her second film of 1953, the satirical musical comedy ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'', cemented her screen persona as a \"dumb blonde\".", "Based on Anita Loos' novel and its Broadway version, the film focuses on two \"gold-digging\" showgirls played by Monroe and Jane Russell.", "Monroe's role was originally intended for Betty Grable, who had been 20th Century-Fox's most popular \"blonde bombshell\" in the 1940s; Monroe was fast eclipsing her as a star who could appeal to both male and female audiences.", "As part of the film's publicity campaign, she and Russell pressed their hand and footprints in wet concrete outside Grauman's Chinese Theatre in June.", "''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'' was released shortly after and became one of the biggest box office successes of the year.", "Crowther of ''The New York Times'' and William Brogdon of ''Variety'' both commented favorably on Monroe, especially noting her performance of \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\"; according to the latter, she demonstrated the \"ability to sex a song as well as point up the eye values of a scene by her presence\".In September, Monroe made her television debut in the ''Jack Benny Show'', playing Jack's fantasy woman in the episode \"Honolulu Trip\".", "She co-starred with Betty Grable and Lauren Bacall in her third movie of the year, ''How to Marry a Millionaire'', released in November.", "It featured Monroe as a naïve model who teams up with her friends to find rich husbands, repeating the successful formula of ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes''.", "It was the second film ever released in CinemaScope, a widescreen format that Fox hoped would draw audiences back to theaters as television was beginning to cause losses to film studios.", "Despite mixed reviews, the film was Monroe's biggest box office success at that point in her career.Monroe was listed in the annual Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll in both 1953 and 1954, and according to Fox historian Aubrey Solomon became the studio's \"greatest asset\" alongside CinemaScope.", "Monroe's position as a leading sex symbol was confirmed in December 1953, when Hugh Hefner featured her on the cover and as centerfold in the first issue of ''Playboy''; Monroe did not consent to the publication.", "The cover image was a photograph taken of her at the Miss America Pageant parade in 1952, and the centerfold featured one of her 1949 nude photographs.===1954–1955: Conflicts with 20th Century-Fox and marriage to Joe DiMaggio===Monroe had become one of 20th Century-Fox's biggest stars, but her contract had not changed since 1950, so that she was paid far less than other stars of her stature and could not choose her projects.", "Her attempts to appear in films that would not focus on her as a pin-up had been thwarted by the studio head executive, Darryl F. Zanuck, who had a strong personal dislike of her and did not think she would earn the studio as much revenue in other types of roles.", "Under pressure from the studio's owner, Spyros Skouras, Zanuck had also decided that Fox should focus exclusively on entertainment to maximize profits and canceled the production of any \"serious films\".", "In January 1954, he suspended Monroe when she refused to begin shooting yet another musical comedy, ''The Girl in Pink Tights''.Monroe and Joe DiMaggio after getting married at San Francisco City Hall in January 1954This was front-page news, and Monroe immediately took action to counter negative publicity.", "On January 14, she and Joe DiMaggio were married at the San Francisco City Hall.", "They then traveled by car first to Paso Robles, then south to nearby San Luis Obispo the day after, before spending their honeymoon outside Idyllwild, California, in the mountain lodge of Monroe's lawyer Lloyd Wright.", "On January 29, 1954, fifteen days later, they flew to Japan, combining a \"honeymoon\" with his commitment to his former San Francisco Seals coach Lefty O'Doul, to help train Japanese baseball teams.", "From Tokyo, she traveled with Jean O'Doul, Lefty's wife, to Korea, where she participated in a USO show, singing songs from her films for over 60,000 U.S. Marines over a four-day period.", "After returning to the U.S., she was awarded ''Photoplay''s \"Most Popular Female Star\" prize.", "Monroe settled with Fox in March, with the promise of a new contract, a bonus of $100,000, and a starring role in the film adaptation of the Broadway success ''The Seven Year Itch''.In April 1954, Otto Preminger's western ''River of No Return'', the last film that Monroe had filmed prior to the suspension, was released.", "She called it a \"Z-grade cowboy movie in which the acting finished second to the scenery and the CinemaScope process\", but it was popular with audiences.", "The first film she made after the suspension was the musical ''There's No Business Like Show Business'', which she strongly disliked but the studio required her to do for dropping ''The Girl in Pink Tights''.", "It was unsuccessful upon its release in late 1954, with Monroe's performance considered vulgar by many critics.Monroe posing for photographers in ''The Seven Year Itch'' (1955)In September 1954, Monroe began filming Billy Wilder's comedy ''The Seven Year Itch'', starring opposite Tom Ewell as a woman who becomes the object of her married neighbor's sexual fantasies.", "Although the film was shot in Hollywood, the studio decided to generate advance publicity by staging the filming of a scene in which Monroe is standing on a subway grate with the air blowing up the skirt of her white dress on Lexington Avenue in Manhattan.", "The shoot lasted for several hours and attracted nearly 2,000 spectators.", "The \"subway grate scene\" became one of Monroe's most famous, and ''The Seven Year Itch'' became one of the biggest commercial successes of the year after its release in June 1955.The publicity stunt placed Monroe on international front pages, and it also marked the end of her marriage to DiMaggio, who was infuriated by it.", "The union had been troubled from the start by his jealousy and controlling attitude; he was also physically abusive.", "After returning from NYC to Hollywood in October 1954, Monroe filed for divorce, after only nine months of marriage.After filming for ''The Seven Year Itch'' wrapped up in November 1954, Monroe left Hollywood for the East Coast, where she and photographer Milton Greene founded their own production company, Marilyn Monroe Productions (MMP)—an action that has later been called \"instrumental\" in the collapse of the studio system.", "Monroe stated that she was \"tired of the same old sex roles\" and asserted that she was no longer under contract to Fox, as it had not fulfilled its duties, such as paying her the promised bonus.", "This began a year-long legal battle between her and Fox in January 1955.The press largely ridiculed Monroe, and she was parodied in the Broadway play ''Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter?''", "(1955), in which her lookalike Jayne Mansfield played a dumb actress who starts her own production company.Monroe at the Actors Studio in After founding MMP, Monroe moved to Manhattan and spent 1955 studying acting.", "She took classes with Constance Collier and attended workshops on method acting at the Actors Studio, run by Lee Strasberg.", "She grew close to Strasberg and his wife Paula, receiving private lessons at their home due to her shyness, and soon became a family member.", "She replaced her old acting coach, Natasha Lytess, with Paula; the Strasbergs remained an important influence for the rest of her career.", "Monroe also started undergoing psychoanalysis, as Strasberg believed that an actor must confront their emotional traumas and use them in their performances.Monroe continued her relationship with DiMaggio despite the ongoing divorce process; she also dated actor Marlon Brando and playwright Arthur Miller.", "She had first been introduced to Miller by Elia Kazan in the early 1950s.", "The affair between Monroe and Miller became increasingly serious after October 1955, when her divorce was finalized and he separated from his wife.", "The studio urged her to end it, as Miller was being investigated by the FBI for allegations of communism and had been subpoenaed by the House Un-American Activities Committee, but Monroe refused.", "The relationship led to the FBI opening a file on her.By the end of the year, Monroe and Fox signed a new seven-year contract, as MMP would not be able to finance films alone, and the studio was eager to have Monroe working for them again.", "Fox would pay her $400,000 to make four films, and granted her the right to choose her own projects, directors and cinematographers.", "She would also be free to make one film with MMP per each completed film for Fox.===1956–1959: Critical acclaim and marriage to Arthur Miller===Monroe and Arthur Miller at their wedding in June 1956Monroe began 1956 by announcing her win over 20th Century-Fox.", "She legally changed her name to ''Marilyn Monroe''.", "The press wrote favorably about her decision to fight the studio; ''Time'' called her a \"shrewd businesswoman\" and ''Look'' predicted that the win would be \"an example of the individual against the herd for years to come\".", "In contrast, Monroe's relationship with Miller prompted some negative comments, such as Walter Winchell's statement that \"America's best-known blonde moving picture star is now the darling of the left-wing intelligentsia.", "\"In March, Monroe began filming the drama ''Bus Stop'', her first film under the new contract.", "She played Chérie, a saloon singer whose dreams of stardom are complicated by a naïve cowboy who falls in love with her.", "For the role, she learned an Ozark accent, chose costumes and makeup that lacked the glamor of her earlier films, and provided deliberately mediocre singing and dancing.", "Broadway director Joshua Logan agreed to direct, despite initially doubting Monroe's acting abilities and knowing of her difficult reputation.", "The filming took place in Idaho and Arizona, with Monroe \"technically in charge\" as the head of MMP, occasionally making decisions on cinematography and with Logan adapting to her chronic lateness and perfectionism.", "The experience changed Logan's opinion of Monroe, and he later compared her to Charlie Chaplin in her ability to blend comedy and tragedy.Bus Stop'' (1956) marked a departure from her earlier comedies.On June 29, 1956, Monroe and Miller were married at the Westchester County Court in White Plains, New York; two days later they had a Jewish ceremony at the home of Kay Brown, Miller's literary agent, in Waccabuc, New York.", "With the marriage, Monroe converted to Judaism, which led Egypt to ban all of her films.", "Due to Monroe's status as a sex symbol and Miller's image as an intellectual, the media saw the union as a mismatch, as evidenced by ''Variety''s headline, \"Egghead Weds Hourglass\".", "''Bus Stop'' was released in August 1956 and became a critical and commercial success.", "''The Saturday Review of Literature'' wrote that Monroe's performance \"effectively dispels once and for all the notion that she is merely a glamour personality\" and Crowther proclaimed: \"Hold on to your chairs, everybody, and get set for a rattling surprise.", "Marilyn Monroe has finally proved herself an actress.\"", "She also received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress for her performance.In August, Monroe also began filming MMP's first independent production, ''The Prince and the Showgirl'', at Pinewood Studios in England.", "Based on a 1953 stage play by Terence Rattigan, it was to be directed and co-produced by, and to co-star, Laurence Olivier.", "The production was complicated by conflicts between him and Monroe.", "Olivier, who had also directed and starred in the stage play, angered her with the patronizing statement \"All you have to do is be sexy\", and with his demand she replicate Vivien Leigh's stage interpretation of the character.", "He also disliked the constant presence of Paula Strasberg, Monroe's acting coach, on set.", "In retaliation, Monroe became uncooperative and began to deliberately arrive late, later saying, \"if you don't respect your artists, they can't work well.", "\"Monroe with Laurence Olivier in a publicity photo for ''The Prince and the Showgirl'' (1957)Monroe also experienced other problems during the production.", "Her dependence on pharmaceuticals escalated and, according to Spoto, she had a miscarriage.", "She and Greene also argued over how MMP should be run.", "Despite the difficulties, filming was completed on schedule by the end of 1956.", "''The Prince and the Showgirl'' was released to mixed reviews in June 1957 and proved unpopular with American audiences.", "It was better received in Europe, where she was awarded the Italian David di Donatello and the French Crystal Star awards and nominated for a BAFTA.After returning from England, Monroe took an 18-month hiatus to concentrate on family life.", "She and Miller split their time between NYC, Connecticut and Long Island.", "She had an ectopic pregnancy in mid-1957, and a miscarriage a year later; these problems were most likely linked to her endometriosis.", "Monroe was also briefly hospitalized due to a barbiturate overdose.", "As she and Greene could not settle their disagreements over MMP, Monroe bought his share of the company.Monroe with Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis in ''Some Like It Hot'' (1959), for which she won a Golden GlobeThe ''Some Like It Hot'' trailerMonroe returned to Hollywood in July 1958 to act opposite Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis in Billy Wilder's comedy on gender roles, ''Some Like It Hot''.", "She considered the role of Sugar Kane another \"dumb blonde\", but accepted it due to Miller's encouragement and the offer of 10% of the film's profits on top of her standard pay.", "The film's difficult production has since become \"legendary\".", "Monroe demanded dozens of retakes, and did not remember her lines or act as directed—Curtis famously said that kissing her was \"like kissing Hitler\" due to the number of retakes.", "Monroe privately likened the production to a sinking ship and commented on her co-stars and director saying why should I worry, I have no phallic symbol to lose.\"", "Many of the problems stemmed from her and Wilder—who also had a reputation for being difficult—disagreeing on how she should play the role.", "She angered him by asking to alter many of her scenes, which in turn made her stage fright worse, and it is suggested that she deliberately ruined several scenes to act them her way.In the end, Wilder was happy with Monroe's performance, saying: \"Anyone can remember lines, but it takes a real artist to come on the set and not know her lines and yet give the performance she did!\"", "''Some Like It Hot'' was a critical and commercial success when it was released in March 1959.Monroe's performance earned her a Golden Globe for Best Actress, and prompted ''Variety'' to call her \"a comedienne with that combination of sex appeal and timing that just can't be beat\".", "It has been voted one of the best films ever made in polls by the BBC, the American Film Institute, and ''Sight & Sound''.===1960–1962: Career decline and personal difficulties===Monroe with Yves Montand in ''Let's Make Love'' (1960), which she agreed to make only to fulfill her contract with FoxAfter ''Some Like It Hot'', Monroe took another hiatus until late 1959, when she starred in the musical comedy ''Let's Make Love''.", "She chose George Cukor to direct and Miller rewrote some of the script, which she considered weak.", "She accepted the part solely because she was behind on her contract with Fox.", "The film's production was delayed by her frequent absences from the set.", "During the shoot, Monroe had an affair with co-star Yves Montand that was widely reported by the press and used in the film's publicity campaign.", "''Let's Make Love'' was unsuccessful upon its release in September 1960.Crowther described Monroe as appearing \"rather untidy\" and \"lacking ... the old Monroe dynamism\", and Hedda Hopper called the film \"the most vulgar picture she's ever done\".", "Truman Capote lobbied for Monroe to play Holly Golightly in a film adaptation of ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'', but the role went to Audrey Hepburn as its producers feared that Monroe would complicate the production.The last film Monroe completed was John Huston's ''The Misfits'', which Miller had written to provide her with a dramatic role.", "She played a recently divorced woman who becomes friends with her Reno landlady, and three aging cowboys, played by Clark Gable, Eli Wallach and Montgomery Clift.", "The filming in Reno, and in the Nevada desert east of Carson City between July and November 1960 was again difficult.", "Monroe's and Miller's marriage was effectively over, and he began a new relationship with Magnum movie photographer Inge Morath.Monroe, Estelle Winwood, Eli Wallach, Montgomery Clift, and Clark Gable in ''The Misfits'' (1961).", "''The Misfits'' was the final completed film for Monroe and Gable, who both died within two years.Monroe disliked that he had based her role partly on her life, and thought it inferior to the male roles.", "She also struggled with Miller's habit of rewriting scenes the night before filming.", "Her health was also failing: she was in pain from gallstones, and her drug addiction was so severe that her makeup usually had to be applied while she was still asleep under the influence of barbiturates.", "In August, filming was halted for her to spend a week in a hospital detox.", "Despite her problems, Huston said that when Monroe was acting, she \"was not pretending to an emotion.", "It was the real thing.", "She would go deep down within herself and find it and bring it up into consciousness.", "\"Monroe and Miller separated after filming wrapped, and she obtained a Mexican divorce in January 1961.", "''The Misfits'' was released the following month, failing at the box office.", "Its reviews were mixed, with ''Variety'' complaining of frequently \"choppy\" character development, and Bosley Crowther calling Monroe \"completely blank and unfathomable\" and writing that \"unfortunately for the film's structure, everything turns upon her\".", "It has received more favorable reviews in the 21st century.", "Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute has called it a classic, Huston scholar Tony Tracy called Monroe's performance the \"most mature interpretation of her career\", and Geoffrey McNab of ''The Independent'' praised her \"extraordinary\" portrayal of the character's \"power of empathy\".Monroe was next to star in a television adaptation of W. Somerset Maugham's \"Rain\" for NBC, but the project fell through as the network did not want to hire her choice of director, Lee Strasberg.", "Instead of working, she spent the first six months of 1961 preoccupied by health problems.", "She underwent a cholecystectomy and surgery for her endometriosis, and spent four weeks hospitalized for depression.", "She was helped by DiMaggio, with whom she rekindled a friendship, and dated his friend Frank Sinatra for several months.", "Monroe also moved permanently back to California in 1961, purchasing a house at 12305 Fifth Helena Drive in Brentwood, Los Angeles, in early 1962.Monroe on the set of ''Something's Got to Give''.", "She was absent for most of the production due to illness and was fired by Fox in June 1962, two months before her death.Monroe returned to the public eye in the spring of 1962.She received a \"World Film Favorite\" Golden Globe Award and began to shoot a film for Fox, ''Something's Got to Give'', a remake of ''My Favorite Wife'' (1940).", "It was to be co-produced by MMP, directed by George Cukor and to co-star Dean Martin and Cyd Charisse.", "Days before filming began, Monroe caught sinusitis.", "Despite medical advice to postpone the production, Fox began it as planned in late April.Monroe was too sick to work for most of the next six weeks, but despite confirmations by multiple doctors, the studio pressured her by alleging publicly that she was faking it.", "On May 19, she took a break to sing \"Happy Birthday, Mr. President\" on stage at President John F. Kennedy's early birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden in New York.", "She drew attention with her costume: a beige, skintight dress covered in rhinestones, which made her appear as if she were nude.", "Monroe's trip to New York caused even more irritation for Fox executives, who had wanted her to cancel it.Monroe next filmed a scene for ''Something's Got to Give'' in which she swam naked in a swimming pool.", "To generate advance publicity, the press was invited to take photographs; these were later published in ''Life''.", "This was the first time that a major star had posed nude at the height of their career.", "When she was again on sick leave for several days, Fox decided that it could not afford to have another film running behind schedule when it was already struggling with the rising costs of ''Cleopatra'' (1963).", "On June 7, Fox fired Monroe and sued her for $750,000 in damages.", "She was replaced by Lee Remick, but after Martin refused to make the film with anyone other than Monroe, Fox sued him as well and shut down the production.", "The studio blamed Monroe for the film's demise and began spreading negative publicity about her, even alleging that she was mentally disturbed.Fox soon regretted its decision and reopened negotiations with Monroe later in June; a settlement about a new contract, including recommencing ''Something's Got to Give'' and a starring role in the black comedy ''What a Way to Go!''", "(1964), was reached later that summer.", "She was also planning on starring in a biopic of Jean Harlow.", "To repair her public image, Monroe engaged in several publicity ventures, including interviews for ''Life'' and ''Cosmopolitan'' and her first photo shoot for ''Vogue''.", "For ''Vogue'', she and photographer Bert Stern collaborated for two series of photographs over three days, one a standard fashion editorial and another of her posing nude, which were published posthumously with the title ''The Last Sitting''." ], [ "Death and funeral", "filming set of ''The Exterminating Angel'' during her visit to Mexico in 1962, one of her last media appearancesDuring her final months, Monroe lived at 12305 Fifth Helena Drive in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles.", "Her housekeeper Eunice Murray was staying overnight at the home on the evening of August 4, 1962.Murray woke at 3:00a.m.", "on August 5 and sensed that something was wrong.", "She saw light from under Monroe's bedroom door but was unable to get a response and found the door locked.", "Murray then called Monroe's psychiatrist, Ralph Greenson, who arrived at the house shortly after and broke into the bedroom through a window to find Monroe dead in her bed.", "Monroe's physician, Hyman Engelberg, arrived at around 3:50a.m.", "and pronounced her dead.", "At 4:25a.m., the Los Angeles Police Department was notified.Monroe died between 8:30 p.m. and 10:30p.m.", "on August 4; the toxicology report showed that the cause of death was acute barbiturate poisoning.", "She had 8 mg% (milligrams per 100 milliliters of solution) chloral hydrate and 4.5 mg% of pentobarbital (Nembutal) in her blood, and 13 mg% of pentobarbital in her liver.", "Empty medicine bottles were found next to her bed.", "The possibility that Monroe had accidentally overdosed was ruled out because the dosages found in her body were several times the lethal limit.New York Mirror'' on August 6, 1962The Los Angeles County Coroners Office was assisted in their investigation by the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Team, who had expert knowledge on suicide.", "Monroe's doctors stated that she had been \"prone to severe fears and frequent depressions\" with \"abrupt and unpredictable mood changes\", and had overdosed several times in the past, possibly intentionally.", "Due to these facts and the lack of any indication of foul play, deputy coroner Thomas Noguchi classified her death as a probable suicide.Monroe's sudden death was front-page news in the United States and Europe.", "According to Lois Banner, \"it's said that the suicide rate in Los Angeles doubled the month after she died; the circulation rate of most newspapers expanded that month\", and the ''Chicago Tribune'' reported that they had received hundreds of phone calls from members of the public requesting information about her death.", "French artist Jean Cocteau commented that her death \"should serve as a terrible lesson to all those whose chief occupation consists of spying on and tormenting film stars\", her former co-star Laurence Olivier deemed her \"the complete victim of ballyhoo and sensation\", and ''Bus Stop'' director Joshua Logan said that she was \"one of the most unappreciated people in the world\".Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Westwood VillageHer funeral, held at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery on August 8, was private and attended by only her closest associates.", "The service was arranged by Joe DiMaggio, Monroe's half-sister Berniece Baker Miracle, and Monroe's business manager Inez Melson.", "Hundreds of spectators crowded the streets around the cemetery.", "Monroe was later entombed at Crypt No.", "24 at the Corridor of Memories.In the following decades, several conspiracy theories, including murder and accidental overdose, have been introduced to contradict suicide as the cause of Monroe's death.", "The speculation that Monroe had been murdered first gained mainstream attention with the publication of Norman Mailer's ''Marilyn: A Biography'' in 1973, and in the following years became widespread enough for the Los Angeles County District Attorney John Van de Kamp to conduct a \"threshold investigation\" in 1982 to see whether a criminal investigation should be opened.", "No evidence of foul play was found." ], [ "Screen persona and reception", "The 1940s had been the heyday for actresses who were perceived as tough and smart—such as Katharine Hepburn and Barbara Stanwyck—who had appealed to women-dominated audiences during the war years.", "20th Century-Fox wanted Monroe to be a star of the new decade who would draw men to movie theaters, and saw her as a replacement for the aging Betty Grable, their most popular \"blonde bombshell\" of the 1940s.", "According to film scholar Richard Dyer, Monroe's star image was crafted mostly for the male gaze.Actress Jean Harlow in 1934; Monroe took inspiration from her to develop her image in stardom.From the beginning, Monroe played a significant part in the creation of her public image, and towards the end of her career exerted almost full control over it.", "She devised many of her publicity strategies, cultivated friendships with gossip columnists such as Sidney Skolsky and Louella Parsons, and controlled the use of her images.", "In addition to Grable, she was often compared to another well-known blonde, 1930s film star Jean Harlow.", "The comparison was prompted partly by Monroe, who named Harlow as her childhood idol, wanted to play her in a biopic, and even employed Harlow's hair stylist to color her hair.Monroe's screen persona focused on her blonde hair and the stereotypes that were associated with it, especially dumbness, naïveté, sexual availability and artificiality.", "She often used a breathy, childish voice in her films, and in interviews gave the impression that everything she said was \"utterly innocent and uncalculated\", parodying herself with double entendres that came to be known as \"Monroeisms\".", "For example, when she was asked what she had on in the 1949 nude photo shoot, she replied, \"I had the radio on\".As seen in this publicity photo for ''The Seven Year Itch'' (1955), Monroe wore figure-hugging outfits that enhanced her sexual attractiveness.In her films, Monroe usually played \"the girl\", who is defined solely by her gender.", "Her roles were almost always chorus girls, secretaries, or models: occupations where \"the woman is on show, there for the pleasure of men.\"", "Monroe began her career as a pin-up model, and was noted for her hourglass figure.", "She was often positioned in film scenes so that her curvy silhouette was on display, and frequently posed like a pin-up in publicity photos.", "Her distinctive, hip-swinging walk also drew attention to her body and earned her the nickname \"the girl with the horizontal walk\".Monroe often wore white to emphasize her blondness and drew attention by wearing revealing outfits that showed off her figure.", "Her publicity stunts often revolved around her clothing either being shockingly revealing or even malfunctioning, such as when a shoulder strap of her dress snapped during a press conference.", "In press stories, Monroe was portrayed as the embodiment of the American Dream, a girl who had risen from a miserable childhood to Hollywood stardom.", "Stories of her time spent in foster families and an orphanage were exaggerated and even partly fabricated.", "Film scholar Thomas Harris wrote that her working-class roots and lack of family made her appear more sexually available, \"the ideal playmate\", in contrast to her contemporary, Grace Kelly, who was also marketed as an attractive blonde, but due to her upper-class background was seen as a sophisticated actress, unattainable for the majority of male viewers.Although Monroe's screen persona as a dim-witted but sexually attractive blonde was a carefully crafted act, audiences and film critics believed it to be her real personality.", "This became a hindrance when she wanted to pursue other kinds of roles, or to be respected as a businesswoman.", "The academic Sarah Churchwell studied narratives about Monroe and wrote:Biographer Lois Banner writes that Monroe often subtly parodied her sex symbol status in her films and public appearances, and that \"the 'Marilyn Monroe' character she created was a brilliant archetype, who stands between Mae West and Madonna in the tradition of twentieth-century gender tricksters.\"", "Monroe herself stated that she was influenced by West, learning \"a few tricks from her—that impression of laughing at, or mocking, her own sexuality\".", "She studied comedy in classes by mime and dancer Lotte Goslar, famous for her comic stage performances, and Goslar also instructed her on film sets.", "In ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'', one of the films in which she played an archetypal dumb blonde, Monroe had the sentence \"I can be smart when it's important, but most men don't like it\" added to her character's lines.Monroe arriving at a party celebrating Louella Parsons at Ciro's nightclub in 1953.According to Dyer, Monroe became \"virtually a household name for sex\" in the 1950s and \"her image has to be situated in the flux of ideas about morality and sexuality that characterised the Fifties in America\", such as Freudian ideas about sex, the Kinsey report (1953), and Betty Friedan's ''The Feminine Mystique'' (1963).", "By appearing vulnerable and unaware of her sex appeal, Monroe was the first sex symbol to present sex as natural and without danger, in contrast to the 1940s ''femme fatales''.", "Spoto likewise describes her as the embodiment of \"the postwar ideal of the American girl, soft, transparently needy, worshipful of men, naïve, offering sex without demands\", which is echoed in Molly Haskell's statement that \"she was the Fifties fiction, the lie that a woman had no sexual needs, that she is there to cater to, or enhance, a man's needs.\"", "Monroe's contemporary Norman Mailer wrote that \"Marilyn suggested sex might be difficult and dangerous with others, but ice cream with her\", while Groucho Marx characterized her as \"Mae West, Theda Bara, and Bo Peep all rolled into one\".", "According to Haskell, due to her sex symbol status, Monroe was less popular with women than with men, as they \"couldn't identify with her and didn't support her\", although this would change after her death.Dyer has also argued that Monroe's blonde hair became her defining feature because it made her \"racially unambiguous\" and exclusively white just as the civil rights movement was beginning, and that she should be seen as emblematic of racism in twentieth-century popular culture.", "Banner agreed that it may not be a coincidence that Monroe launched a trend of platinum blonde actresses during the civil rights movement, but has also criticized Dyer, pointing out that in her highly publicized private life, Monroe associated with people who were seen as \"white ethnics\", such as Joe DiMaggio (Italian-American) and Arthur Miller (Jewish).", "According to Banner, she sometimes challenged prevailing racial norms in her publicity photographs; for example, in an image featured in ''Look'' in 1951, she was shown in revealing clothes while practicing with African-American singing coach Phil Moore.Monroe in a Lustre-Creme shampoo advertisement of 1953Monroe was perceived as a specifically American star, \"a national institution as well known as hot dogs, apple pie, or baseball\" according to ''Photoplay''.", "Banner calls her the symbol of populuxe, a star whose joyful and glamorous public image \"helped the nation cope with its paranoia in the 1950s about the Cold War, the atom bomb, and the totalitarian communist Soviet Union\".", "Historian Fiona Handyside writes that the French female audiences associated whiteness/blondness with American modernity and cleanliness, and so Monroe came to symbolize a modern, \"liberated\" woman whose life takes place in the public sphere.", "Film historian Laura Mulvey has written of her as an endorsement for American consumer culture:Twentieth Century-Fox further profited from Monroe's popularity by cultivating several lookalike actresses, such as Jayne Mansfield and Sheree North.", "Other studios also attempted to create their own Monroes: Universal Pictures with Mamie Van Doren, Columbia Pictures with Kim Novak, and The Rank Organisation with Diana Dors.In a profile, Truman Capote quoted Monroe's acting teacher, Constance Collier: \"She is a beautiful child.", "I don't mean that in the obvious way—the perhaps too obvious way.", "I don't think she's an actress at all, not in any traditional sense.", "What she has—this presence, this luminosity, this flickering intelligence—could never surface on the stage.", "It's so fragile and subtle, it can only be caught by the camera.", "It's like a hummingbird in flight: only a camera can freeze the poetry of it.\"" ], [ "Filmography", "Monroe in ''Some Like It Hot'' (1959)* ''Dangerous Years'' (1947)* ''Scudda Hoo!", "Scudda Hay!''", "(1948)* ''Ladies of the Chorus'' (1948)* ''Love Happy'' (1949)* ''A Ticket to Tomahawk'' (1950)* ''The Asphalt Jungle'' (1950)* ''All About Eve'' (1950)* ''The Fireball'' (1950)* ''Right Cross'' (1951)* ''Home Town Story'' (1951)* ''As Young as You Feel'' (1951)* ''Love Nest'' (1951)* ''Let's Make It Legal'' (1951)* ''Clash by Night'' (1952)* ''We're Not Married!''", "(1952)* ''Don't Bother to Knock'' (1952)* ''Monkey Business'' (1952)* ''O.", "Henry's Full House'' (1952)* ''Niagara'' (1953)* ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'' (1953)* ''How to Marry a Millionaire'' (1953)* ''River of No Return'' (1954)* ''There's No Business Like Show Business'' (1954)* ''The Seven Year Itch'' (1955)* ''Bus Stop'' (1956)* ''The Prince and the Showgirl'' (1957)* ''Some Like It Hot'' (1959)* ''Let's Make Love'' (1960)* ''The Misfits'' (1961)* ''Something's Got to Give'' (1962–unfinished)" ], [ "Legacy", "Monroe in a publicity photo for ''Photoplay'' magazine in 1953According to ''The Guide to United States Popular Culture'', \"as an icon of American popular culture, Monroe's few rivals in popularity include Elvis Presley and Mickey Mouse... no other star has ever inspired such a wide range of emotions—from lust to pity, from envy to remorse.\"", "Art historian Gail Levin stated that Monroe may have been \"the most photographed person of the 20th century\", and The American Film Institute has named her the sixth greatest female screen legend in American film history.", "The Smithsonian Institution has included her on their list of \"100 Most Significant Americans of All Time\", and both ''Variety'' and VH1 have placed her in the top ten in their rankings of the greatest popular culture icons of the twentieth century.Hundreds of books have been written about Monroe.", "She has been the subject of numerous films, plays, operas, and songs, and has influenced artists and entertainers such as Andy Warhol and Madonna.", "She also remains a valuable brand: her image and name have been licensed for hundreds of products, and she has been featured in advertising for brands such as Max Factor, Chanel, Mercedes-Benz, and Absolut Vodka.Monroe's enduring popularity is tied to her conflicted public image.", "On the one hand, she remains a sex symbol, beauty icon and one of the most famous stars of classical Hollywood cinema.", "On the other, she is also remembered for her troubled private life, unstable childhood, struggle for professional respect, as well as her death and the conspiracy theories that surrounded it.", "She has been written about by scholars and journalists who are interested in gender and feminism; these writers include Gloria Steinem, Jacqueline Rose, Molly Haskell, Sarah Churchwell, and Lois Banner.", "Some, such as Steinem, have viewed her as a victim of the studio system.", "Others, such as Haskell, Rose, and Churchwell, have instead stressed Monroe's proactive role in her career and her participation in the creation of her public persona.Left panel from pop artist James Gill's painting ''Marilyn Triptych'' (1962)Owing to the contrast between her stardom and troubled private life, Monroe is closely linked to broader discussions about modern phenomena such as mass media, fame, and consumer culture.", "According to academic Susanne Hamscha, Monroe has continued relevance to ongoing discussions about modern society, and she is \"never completely situated in one time or place\" but has become \"a surface on which narratives of American culture can be (re-)constructed\", and \"functions as a cultural type that can be reproduced, transformed, translated into new contexts, and enacted by other people\".", "Similarly, Banner has called Monroe the \"eternal shapeshifter\" who is re-created by \"each generation, even each individual... to their own specifications\".Monroe remains a cultural icon, but some critics are divided on her legacy as an actress.", "David Thomson called her body of work \"insubstantial\" and Pauline Kael wrote that she could not act, but rather \"used her lack of an actress's skills to amuse the public.", "She had the wit or crassness or desperation to turn cheesecake into acting—and vice versa; she did what others had the 'good taste' not to do\".", "In contrast, Peter Bradshaw wrote that Monroe was a talented comedian who \"understood how comedy achieved its effects\", and Roger Ebert wrote that \"Monroe's eccentricities and neuroses on sets became notorious, but studios put up with her long after any other actress would have been blackballed because what they got back on the screen was magical\".", "Similarly, Jonathan Rosenbaum stated that \"she subtly subverted the sexist content of her material\" and that \"the difficulty some people have discerning Monroe's intelligence as an actress seems rooted in the ideology of a repressive era, when super feminine women weren't supposed to be smart\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Monroe's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website* \"Marilyn Monroe: Still Life\" A website containing clips and essays related to PBS's ''American Masters'' documentary on Monroe" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Myelin" ], [ "Introduction", "Myelin formed by Schwann cells in the PNS'''Myelin''' is a lipid-rich material that surrounds nerve cell axons (the nervous system's electrical wires) to insulate them and increase the rate at which electrical impulses (called action potentials) pass along the axon.", "The myelinated axon can be likened to an electrical wire (the axon) with insulating material (myelin) around it.", "However, unlike the plastic covering on an electrical wire, myelin does not form a single long sheath over the entire length of the axon.", "Rather, myelin ensheaths the axon segmentally: in general, each axon is encased in multiple long sheaths with short gaps between, called nodes of Ranvier.", "At the nodes of Ranvier, which are approximately one thousandth of a mm in length, the axon's membrane is bare of myelin.", "Myelin's best known function is to increase the rate at which information, encoded as electrical charges, passes along the axon's length.", "Myelin achieves this by eliciting saltatory conduction,.", "Saltatory conduction refers to the fact that electrical impulses 'jump' along the axon, over long myelin sheaths, from one node of Ranvier to the next.", "Thus, information is passed around 100 times faster along a myelinated axon than a non-myelinated one.At the molecular level, the myelin sheath increases the distance between extracellular and intracellular ions, reducing the accumulation of electrical charges.", "The discontinuous structure of the myelin sheath results in the action potential \"jumping\" from one node of Ranvier over a long (c. 0.1 mm – >1 mm, or 100-1000 micron) myelinated stretch of the axon called the internodal segment or \"internode\", before \"recharging\" at the next node of Ranvier.", "This 'jumping' continues until the action potential reaches the axon terminal.", "Once there, the electrical signal provokes the release of chemical neurotransmitters across the synapse, which bind to receptors on the post-synaptic cell (e.g.", "another neuron, myocyte or secretory cell).Myelin is made by glial cells, which are non-neuronal cells that provide nutritional and homeostatic support to the axons.", "This is because axons, being elongated structures, are too far from the soma to be supported by the neurons themselves.", "In the central nervous system (brain, spinal cord and optic nerves), myelination is formed by specialized glial cells called oligodendrocytes, each of which sends out processes (limb-like extensions from the cell body) to myelinate multiple nearby axons; while in the peripheral nervous system, myelin is formed by neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells), which only myelinate a section of one axon.", "In the CNS, axons carry electrical signals from one nerve cell body to another.", "The \"insulating\" function for myelin is essential for efficient motor function (i.e.", "movement such as walking), sensory function (e.g.", "sight, hearing, smell, the feeling of touch or pain) and cognition (e.g.", "acquiring and recalling knowledge), as demonstrated by the consequence of disorders that affect myelination, such as the genetically determined leukodystrophies; the acquired inflammatory demyelinating disorder, multiple sclerosis; and the inflammatory demyelinating peripheral neuropathies.", "Due to its high prevalence, multiple sclerosis, which specifically affects the central nervous system (brain, spinal cord and optic nerve), is the best known disorder of myelin." ], [ "Development", "The process of generating myelin is called '''myelination''' or myelinogenesis.", "In the CNS, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) differentiate into mature oligodendrocytes, which form myelin.", "In humans, myelination begins early in the 3rd trimester, although only little myelin is present in either the CNS or the PNS at the time of birth.", "During infancy, myelination progresses rapidly, with increasing numbers of axons acquiring myelin sheaths.", "This corresponds with the development of cognitive and motor skills, including language comprehension, speech acquisition, crawling and walking.", "Myelination continues through adolescence and early adulthood and although largely complete at this time, myelin sheaths can be added in grey matter regions such as the cerebral cortex, throughout life." ], [ "Species distribution", "=== Vertebrates ===Myelin is considered a defining characteristic of the jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes), though axons are ensheathed by a type of cell, called glial cells, in invertebrates.", "These glial wraps are quite different from vertebrate compact myelin, formed, as indicated above, by concentric wrapping of the myelinating cell process multiple times around the axon.", "Myelin was first described in 1854 by Rudolf Virchow, although it was over a century later, following the development of electron microscopy, that its glial cell origin and its ultrastructure became apparent.In vertebrates, not all axons are myelinated.", "For example, in the PNS, a large proportion of axons are unmyelinated.", "Instead, they are ensheathed by non-myelinating Schwann cells known as Remak SCs and arranged in Remak bundles.", "In the CNS, non-myelinated axons (or intermittently myelinated axons, meaning axons with long non-myelinated regions between myelinated segments) intermingle with myelinated ones and are entwined, at least partially, by the processes of another type of glial cell the astrocyte.=== Invertebrates ===Functionally equivalent myelin-like sheaths are found in several invertebrate taxa including oligochaetes, penaeids, palaemonids, and calanoids.", "These myelin-like sheaths share several structural features with the sheaths found in vertebrates including multiplicity of membranes, condensation of membrane, and nodes.", "However, the nodes in vertebrates are annular; i.e.", "they encircle the axon.", "In contrast, nodes found in the sheaths of invertebrates are either annular or fenestrated; i.e.", "they are restricted to \"spots\".", "The fastest recorded conduction speed (across both vertebrates and invertebrates) is found in the ensheathed axons of the Kuruma shrimp, an invertebrate, ranging between 90 and 200 m/s (cf.", "100–120 m/s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon)." ], [ "Composition", "Transmission electron micrograph of a cross-section of a myelinated PNS axon, generated at the Electron Microscopy Facility at Trinity College, Hartford, ConnecticutDiagram of a myelinated axon in cross-sectionCNS myelin differs slightly in composition and configuration from PNS myelin, but both perform the same \"insulating\" function (see above).", "Being rich in lipid, myelin appears white, hence the name given to the \"white matter\" of the CNS.", "Both CNS white matter tracts (e.g.", "the optic nerve, corticospinal tract and corpus callosum) and PNS nerves (e.g.", "the sciatic nerve and the auditory nerve, which also appear white) each comprise thousands to millions of axons, largely aligned in parallel.", "Blood vessels provide the route for oxygen and energy substrates such as glucose to reach these fibre tracts, which also contain other cell types including astrocytes and microglia in the CNS and macrophages in the PNS.In terms of total mass, myelin comprises approximately 40% water; the dry mass comprises between 60% and 75% lipid and between 15% and 25% protein.", "Protein content includes myelin basic protein (MBP), which is abundant in the CNS where it plays a critical, non-redundant role in formation of compact myelin; myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), which is specific to the CNS; and proteolipid protein (PLP), which is the most abundant protein in CNS myelin, but only a minor component of PNS myelin.", "In the PNS, myelin protein zero (MPZ or P0) has a similar role to that of PLP in the CNS in that it is involved in holding together the multiple concentric layers of glial cell membrane that constitute the myelin sheath.", "The primary lipid of myelin is a glycolipid called galactocerebroside.", "The intertwining hydrocarbon chains of sphingomyelin strengthen the myelin sheath.", "Cholesterol is an essential lipid component of myelin, without which myelin fails to form." ], [ "Function", "Action potential propagation in myelinated neurons is faster than in unmyelinated neurons because of Saltatory conduction.The main purpose of myelin is to increase the speed at which electrical impulses (known as action potentials) propagate along the myelinated fiber.", "In unmyelinated fibers, action potentials travel as continuous waves, but, in myelinated fibers, they \"hop\" or propagate by saltatory conduction.", "The latter is markedly faster than the former, at least for axons over a certain diameter.", "Myelin decreases capacitance and increases electrical resistance across the axonal membrane (the axolemma).", "It has been suggested that myelin permits larger body size by maintaining agile communication between distant body parts.Myelinated fibers lack voltage-gated sodium channels along the myelinated internodes, exposing them only at the nodes of Ranvier.", "Here, they are highly abundant and densely packed.", "Positively charged sodium ions can enter the axon through these voltage-gated channels, leading to depolarisation of the membrane potential at the node of Ranvier.", "The resting membrane potential is then rapidly restored due to positively charged potassium ions leaving the axon through potassium channels.", "The sodium ions inside the axon then diffuse rapidly through the axoplasm (axonal cytoplasm), to the adjacent myelinated internode and ultimately to the next (distal) node of Ranvier, triggering the opening of the voltage gated sodium channels and entry of sodium ions at this site.", "Although the sodium ions diffuse through the axoplasm rapidly, diffusion is decremental by nature, thus nodes of Ranvier have to be (relatively) closely spaced, to secure action potential propagation.", "The action potential \"recharges\" at consecutive nodes of Ranvier as the axolemmal membrane potential depolarises to approximately +35 mV.", "Along the myelinated internode, energy-dependent sodium/potassium pumps pump the sodium ions back out of the axon and potassium ions back into the axon to restore the balance of ions between the intracellular (inside the cell, i.e.", "axon in this case) and extracellular (outside the cell) fluids.Whilst the role of myelin as an \"axonal insulator\" is well-established, other functions of myelinating cells are less well known or only recently established.", "The myelinating cell \"sculpts\" the underlying axon by promoting the phosphorylation of neurofilaments, thus increasing the diameter or thickness of the axon at the internodal regions; helps cluster molecules on the axolemma (such as voltage-gated sodium channels) at the node of Ranvier; and modulates the transport of cytoskeletal structures and organelles such as mitochondria, along the axon.", "In 2012, evidence came to light to support a role for the myelinating cell in \"feeding\" the axon.", "In other words, the myelinating cell seems to act as a local \"fueling station\" for the axon, which uses a great deal of energy to restore the normal balance of ions between it and its environment, following the generation of action potentials.When a peripheral fiber is severed, the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur.", "However, the myelin layer does not ensure a perfect regeneration of the nerve fiber.", "Some regenerated nerve fibers do not find the correct muscle fibers, and some damaged motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system die without regrowth.", "Damage to the myelin sheath and nerve fiber is often associated with increased functional insufficiency.Unmyelinated fibers and myelinated axons of the mammalian central nervous system do not regenerate." ], [ "Clinical significance", "===Demyelination===Demyelination is the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves, and is the hallmark of some neurodegenerative autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, transverse myelitis, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Guillain–Barré syndrome, central pontine myelinosis, inherited demyelinating diseases such as leukodystrophy, and Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease.", "People with pernicious anaemia can also develop nerve damage if the condition is not diagnosed quickly.", "Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord secondary to pernicious anaemia can lead to slight peripheral nerve damage to severe damage to the central nervous system, affecting speech, balance, and cognitive awareness.", "When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers.", "A more serious case of myelin deterioration is called Canavan disease.The immune system may play a role in demyelination associated with such diseases, including inflammation causing demyelination by overproduction of cytokines via upregulation of tumor necrosis factor or interferon.", "MRI evidence that docosahexaenoic acid DHA ethyl ester improves myelination in generalized peroxisomal disorders.====Symptoms====Demyelination results in diverse symptoms determined by the functions of the affected neurons.", "It disrupts signals between the brain and other parts of the body; symptoms differ from patient to patient, and have different presentations upon clinical observation and in laboratory studies.Typical symptoms include blurriness in the central visual field that affects only one eye, may be accompanied by pain upon eye movement, double vision, loss of vision/hearing, odd sensation in legs, arms, chest, or face, such as tingling or numbness (neuropathy), weakness of arms or legs, cognitive disruption, including speech impairment and memory loss, heat sensitivity (symptoms worsen or reappear upon exposure to heat, such as a hot shower), loss of dexterity, difficulty coordinating movement or balance disorder, difficulty controlling bowel movements or urination, fatigue, and tinnitus.====Myelin repair====Research to repair damaged myelin sheaths is ongoing.", "Techniques include surgically implanting oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the central nervous system and inducing myelin repair with certain antibodies.", "While results in mice have been encouraging (via stem cell transplantation), whether this technique can be effective in replacing myelin loss in humans is still unknown.", "Cholinergic treatments, such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), may have beneficial effects on myelination, myelin repair, and myelin integrity.", "Increasing cholinergic stimulation also may act through subtle trophic effects on brain developmental processes and particularly on oligodendrocytes and the lifelong myelination process they support.", "Increasing oligodendrocyte cholinergic stimulation, AChEIs, and other cholinergic treatments, such as nicotine, possibly could promote myelination during development and myelin repair in older age.", "Glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitors such as lithium chloride have been found to promote myelination in mice with damaged facial nerves.", "Cholesterol is a necessary nutrient for the myelin sheath, along with vitamin B12.===Dysmyelination===Dysmyelination is characterized by a defective structure and function of myelin sheaths; unlike demyelination, it does not produce lesions.", "Such defective sheaths often arise from genetic mutations affecting the biosynthesis and formation of myelin.", "The shiverer mouse represents one animal model of dysmyelination.", "Human diseases where dysmyelination has been implicated include leukodystrophies (Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease, Canavan disease, phenylketonuria) and schizophrenia." ], [ "See also", "*Lesional demyelinations of the central nervous system*Myelin-associated glycoprotein*Myelin incisure*The Myelin Project, project to regenerate myelin*Myelin Repair Foundation, a nonprofit medical research foundation for multiple sclerosis drug discovery.", "*Myelinoid, an ''in vitro'' model for studying human myelination and white matter diseases" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fields, R. Douglas, \"The Brain Learns in Unexpected Ways: Neuroscientists have discovered a set of unfamiliar cellular mechanisms for making fresh memories\", ''Scientific American'', vol.", "322, no.", "3 (March 2020), pp. 74–79.", "\"Myelin, long considered inert insulation on axons, is now seen as making a contribution to learning by controlling the speed at which signals travel along neural wiring.\"", "(p. 79.", ")* *" ], [ "External links", "* The MS Information Sourcebook, Myelin* H & E Histology* Luxol Fast Blue: Modified Kluver's Method to stain for Myelin Sheath" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mebyon Kernow" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mebyon Kernow – The Party for Cornwall''' (, '''MK'''; Cornish for ''Sons of Cornwall'') is a Cornish nationalist, centre-left political party in Cornwall, in southwestern Britain.", "It currently has five elected councillors on Cornwall Council, and several town and parish councillors across Cornwall.Influenced by the growth of Cornish nationalism in the first half of the twentieth century, Mebyon Kernow formed as a pressure group in 1951.Helena Charles was its first chair, while the novelist Daphne du Maurier was another early member.", "In 1953 Charles won a seat on a local council, although lost it in 1955.Support for MK grew in the 1960s in opposition to growing migration into Cornwall from parts of England.", "In the 1970s, MK became a fully-fledged political party, and since then it has fielded candidates in elections to the House of Commons and the European Parliament, as well as local government in Cornwall.", "Infighting during the 1980s decimated the party but it revived in the 1990s.Ideologically positioned on the centre-left of British politics, the central tenet of Mebyon Kernow's platform is Cornish nationalism.", "It emphasises a distinct Cornish identity, including the Cornish language and elements of Cornish culture.", "It campaigns for devolution to Cornwall in the form of a Cornish Assembly.", "Economically, it is social democratic, calling for continued public ownership of education and healthcare and the renationalisation of railways.", "It also calls for greater environmental protection and continued UK membership of the European Union.The party is a member of the European Free Alliance and has close links with Plaid Cymru, the Scottish National Party and the Breton Democratic Union.Several former Cornish MPs have been supporters of MK, including Andrew George (Liberal Democrat), Peter Bessell (Liberal Party), John Pardoe (Liberal Party), David Mudd (Conservative), and David Penhaligon (Liberal Party).", "George was himself a member of MK in his youth." ], [ "History", "=== Founding (1950s) ===In the half-century preceding its foundation, Cornish identity had been strengthened by the Celtic Revival, especially by the revival of the Cornish language.", "Cornish politics was dominated by the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, with the Labour Party a distant third in the Duchy, in part because of Cornwall's declining tin-mining industry.", "Both the Liberal Party and the Labour Party had courted Cornish nationalism in their local campaigns, with both parties portraying \"a distinctly Cornish image\"; in turn, this meant that Cornish nationalism was from its inception associated with centre-left politics.", "Many of MK's initial supporters came from the Liberal Party, which had endorsed Home Rule for Ireland.", "Early members of MK cited their absence from Cornwall during their university years and the war as instrumental in the formation of their Cornish identity.", "A catalyst for the party's foundation was the Celtic Congress of 1950, held at the Royal Institution of Cornwall in Truro, which facilitated the exchange of ideas between Cornish nationalists and other Celtic groups.MK was founded as a pressure group on 6 January 1951.At the party's inaugural meeting, held at the Oates Temperance Hotel in Redruth, thirteen people were present and a further seven sent their apologies.", "Helena Charles was elected as the organisation's first chair.", "MK adopted the following objectives:#To study local conditions and attempt to remedy any that may be prejudicial to the best interests of Cornwall by the creation of public opinion or other means.#To foster the Cornish language and Cornish literature.#To encourage the study of Cornish history from a Cornish point of view.#By self-knowledge to further the acceptance of the idea of the Celtic character of Cornwall, one of the six Celtic nations.#To publish pamphlets, broadsheets, articles and letters in the Press whenever possible, putting forward the foregoing aims.#To arrange concerts and entertainments with a Cornish-Celtic flavour through which these aims can be further advanced.#To co-operate with all societies concerned with preserving the character of Cornwall.By September 1951 they had officially come to a stance of supporting self-government for Cornwall, when the fourth objective was replaced with: \"To further the acceptance of the Celtic character of Cornwall and its right to self-government in domestic affairs in a Federated United Kingdom.", "\"In its early years, MK engaged in cultural activities, such as producing Cornish calendars and sending a birthday prayer in Cornish to the Duke of Cornwall.", "It highlighted the high proportion of executives in local government which were not Cornish and campaigned against inward migration to Cornwall from the rest of the United Kingdom.", "From 1952, the party was supported by ''New Cornwall'', a magazine which was edited by Charles until 1956.MK's agenda received support from the Liberal Party, whose candidates endorsed Home Rule for Cornwall.", "MK won its first seat in local government in 1953, when Charles won a seat on Redruth-Camborne Urban District Council, under the slogan of 'A Square Deal for the Cornish'.", "Charles lost her seat in 1955.Following infighting between senior members who were frustrated at her radical separatism, in contrast to the passive culturalism of the broader Cultural nationalist movement, and following frustration at the party's dispersed and unenthusiastic membership, Charles resigned as Chairman of MK in 1956.Charles was replaced by Major Cecil Beer, a former civil servant who sought to reunify the Cornish nationalist movement.", "Beer's three years as chairman of MK provided \"a period of quiet but steady growth\", in which MK increased its membership and focussed on cultural rather than political issues.", "Party meetings largely focussed on \"calendars, Christmas cards, serviettes, Cornish language classes and proposals for things like the Cornish kilt.", "\"Daphne du Maurier, the well-known novelist, was an early member of MK.", "From its founding until the 1980s, the party was divided between proponents of ethnic nationalism and proponents of civic nationalism.Daphne du Maurier, perhaps the best known supporter of Mebyon Kernow.=== Growth (1960s–1970s) ===Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, MK was in essence a small political pressure group rather than a true political party, with members being able to join other political parties as well.", "In February 1960, Beer was succeeded by Robert Dunstone as Chairman of MK.", "By March 1962, the party had seventy members, of which thirty were attending the party's infrequent meetings.Under Dunstone, the party followed a policy of \"patient, persistent, and polite lobbying\", the standard for which was set by its reaction to proposed railway closures in 1962, which included public meetings, letters of protest and the formation of a transport sub-committee of the party.", "MK campaigned for the establishment of a Cornish University, a Cornish Industrial Board, and the repatriation of Heligoland Frisians whose land was used by the British government as a bombing range in the mid-1950s.", "It published numerous policy papers to support its positions.MK gained popularity in the 1960s, when it campaigned against 'overspill' housing developments in Cornwall to accommodate incomers from Greater London.", "MK's opposition prompted opponents to label the party as racialist; the party denied the allegations and responded with ''What Cornishmen Can Do'', a pamphlet published in September 1968 which proposed more investment in natural resources, food processing and technological industries, as well as a Cornish University, tidal barrages and more support for small farmers.", "Partly due to its opposition to overspill, by 1965, the party numbered 700 members, rising to 1,000 by early 1968.In April 1967, Colin Murley was elected for MK onto Cornwall County Council for the seat of St Day & Lanner; he had stood on an anti-overspill platform.", "MK members also sat as independent councillors on the district council.", "The party grew to become the leading champion for Cornish nationalism.On St. Piran's Day in 1968, the first edition of ''Cornish Nation'' was published; this is the party's magazine.", "In the same year, Leonard Truran succeeded Dunstone as Chairman of MK; Dunstone then became the party's first Honorary President.By the 1970s the group developed into a more coherent and unified organisation.", "At the annual conference in October 1967, party members voted for a resolution to contest elections to the House of Commons, marking a turning point in MK's transition from a pressure group into a political party.", "The decision meant that councillors, prospective parliamentary candidates and MPs who held dual party membership began to disassociate themselves from MK.", "Despite the decision, a faction in MK remained frustrated at the continuing possibility of dual party membership, the wide range of views on Cornish nationalism in the party and MK's slow transition into a political party; this dissident faction formed the Cornish National Party in July 1969.The CNP's members were expelled from MK, but the CNP had disappointing election results in the 1970 county council elections, leading most CNP members to rejoin MK by the mid-1970s.In the 1970 election, Richard Jenkin, who would succeed Truran as Chairman of MK in 1973, won 2% of the vote in the Falmouth & Camborne constituency.", "James Whetter stood for MK in the Truro constituency in the general elections of February and October 1974, achieving 1.5% and 0.7% of the vote respectively.", "The party contested the constituencies of St Ives and Falmouth & Camborne in both the 1979 and 1983 elections.", "MK also contested the 1979 European Parliament election, winning 5.9% of the vote in the constituency of Cornwall & West Plymouth.Following Dunstone's death in 1973, E.G.", "Retallack Hooper was elected the party's Honorary President; Hooper was a former Grand Bard of the Gorseth Kernow who had been a founding member of MK and was a prolific Cornish language writer and journalist.The CNP's formation highlighted deep fissures in MK between its constitutionalist and separatist wings; these were exacerbated by continuing inward migration to Cornwall, leading to a 26% increase in its population in the two decades to 1981.The ''Cornish Nation'' gave increasingly sympathetic coverage of Irish republicanism; MK warned of civil unrest in Cornwall and the extermination of the Cornish national identity if overspill continued; and its members talked openly of plans to install a shadow government \"in the name of the Cornish people in the event of civil breakdown\".", "A motion to restrict party membership to those who were Cornish by \"family trees going back through several centuries\" was defeated in 1973; and a September 1974 issue of the ''Cornish Nation'' describing Michael Gaughan, an IRA hunger striker, as a \"Celtic hero\" was widely criticised in the press and rebuked by the party.", "MK's divisions came to a head in May 1975, when a motion to depose the party's leadership and integrate the party with the Revived Stannary Parliament, which had newly reopened in 1974, was narrowly defeated.", "On 28 May 1975, Whetter, who had led the defeated motion, resigned his membership of MK to form a second Cornish Nationalist Party, which campaigned for full Cornish independence on a pro-European platform.", "This second CNP also had disappointing electoral results and has not contested elections since 1985.During the 1970s, MK held rallies in support of Cornwall's fishing industry and against regional unemployment and nuclear waste; in the 1980s, these rallies were aggravated by the policies of the incumbent Thatcher government.", "Following the 1975 split, the party was re-energised by an influx of new, younger members, which also pushed MK more firmly away from its separatist wing.", "Citing concerns about its effect on Cornwall's fishing industry, the party opposed the Common Market; MK only began to endorse the UK's membership of the EEC in the 1980s.=== Decline (1980s) ===The party declined in the 1980s and was close to collapse by 1990.In 1980, renewed infighting over the party's structure led to a spate of resignations which received media attention; this included the resignation of Truran, who had served as party secretary after Jenkin had replaced him as Chairman of MK in 1973.Leading the infighting was a new, youthful leftist faction of MK, which sought to define the party's policies on defence, the monarchy and public ownership, bringing the party away from its traditional nationalist focus.", "While the infighting consolidated MK's economic stance as left-of-centre, the party's everchanging positions confused voters and presided over the decline of its magazines, including the ''Cornish Nation''.", "In 1983, Jenkin was replaced by Julyan Drew as the party leader; Drew was succeeded by Pedyr Prior in 1985 and Loveday Carlyon in 1986.At the 1983 general election, MK achieved 1.2% of the vote in both Falmouth & Camborne and St Ives, reduced from 3% and 4% respectively in the previous election.", "It contested neither the 1984 European Parliament election nor the 1987 general election; it received 1.9% of the vote in Cornwall & West Plymouth in the 1989 European Parliament election.", "During this period, the party focussed on its opposition to the creation of a South West England region and the construction of a nuclear station at Luxulyan; this latter campaign culminated in the formation of the Cornish Anti-Nuclear Alliance, which drew over 2,000 attendees to its first rallies in Truro in July 1980.MK's vociferous response to the planned building of 40,000 new homes in Cornwall, manifested in the formation in 1987 of the Cornish Alternatives to the Structure Plan, gained high-profile notability in Cornwall.", "MK also campaigned against tourism-centred economic development and the poll tax.", "Nevertheless, public support for action was far lower than the previous decade and MK regressed into a pressure group.In 1988, MK established the Campaign for a Cornish Constituency, which won the support of Cornwall County Council, all the district authorities, several Cornish organisations and three of Cornwall's five MPs.", "The campaign was well-publicised, attained national attention, and collected over 3,000 signatures in three months.", "The campaign called for an exclusively-Cornish European Parliament constituency and was founded on MK's long-standing opposition to amalgamating public boards and companies in Cornwall and Devon, a process which had steadily increased during the decade.=== Relaunch (1990s) ===In 1989, Carlyon resigned as MK's leader, leading to a review of the party's long-term strategy.", "Being close to collapse, in April 1990, the party's London branch convened a general meeting of all party members to consider whether the party should disband; it was agreed that the party would continue.", "Loveday Jenkin, daughter of Richard Jenkin, was promptly elected MK's leader.", "At this time, Truran, who had become a leading light in the Social Democratic Party in Falmouth & Camborne since he had left the party in 1980, rejoined MK, re-energising the party.", "Nevertheless, MK did not contest the 1992 general election, focusing its efforts on lobbying for an exclusively-Cornish European Parliament constituency, a Cornish unitary authority, and the recognition of Cornwall as a European region.Despite a promising local election result in 1993, obtaining an average of 17.5% per candidate in local government elections, MK's vote share declined further to 1.5% of the vote in the 1994 European Parliament election, in the new constituency of Cornwall & West Plymouth.", "Jenkin, who stood as the party's candidate, campaigned on a platform opposing out-of-town developments and a second Tamar crossing, and calling for greater Cornish representation in Europe.In 1996, MK published 'Cornwall 2000 – The Way Ahead', its most detailed manifesto to date.", "The party fought the 1997 general election on its 18,000 words and delivered over 300,000 leaflets during the campaign; however, it polled merely 1,906 votes across four constituencies.", "MK activists were heavily involved in the 500th-anniversary commemorations of the Cornish Rebellion of 1497; these included a march from St. Keverne to Blackheath retracing the steps of the rebels, following which the participants demanded a Cornish Development Agency, an exclusively-Cornish seat in the European Parliament, a university campus in Cornwall and a Cornish curriculum for Cornish schools.", "The renewed interest in Cornish nationalism from this march led a group in MK to leave the party and form the An Gof National Party, another short-lived splinter group.On 4 October 1997, at the Mebyon Kernow National Conference, Jenkin was replaced by Dick Cole as the leader of MK.", "One of Cole's earliest actions as leader was to launch the Cornish Millennium Convention on 8 March 1998, coinciding with protests at the closure of South Crofty, Cornwall's last working tin mine.", "However, the Convention's launch was eclipsed by the formation of Cornish Solidarity, a pressure group involved in direct action which grew from the South Crofty protests and had similar aims as MK.", "At the party's annual conference in 1998, Richard Jenkin was elected to succeed the late Hooper as Honorary President of MK.In 1999, over 95% of members voted in favour of relaunching MK as '''Mebyon Kernow – the Party for Cornwall''' in order to distance itself from the ethnic nationalist 'Sons of Cornwall' label; the name change was adopted.", "Mebyon Kernow stood 25 candidates in the 1999 local elections in Cornwall, its highest number ever.", "The party did not contest the 1999 European Parliament election, given the size of the new South West England constituency and the large prerequisite £5,000 deposit.", "It contested the 2001 general election, winning 3,199 votes across three constituencies.==== Cornish Assembly Campaign ====On 5 March 2000, MK launched a petition for a Cornish Assembly.", "This was modelled from the \"Declaration for a Cornish Assembly\", which stated that:Picture of Mebyon Kernow's assembly petitionThree months later the Cornish Constitutional Convention was held with the objective of establishing a devolved Assembly.", "Within fifteen months, Mebyon Kernow's petition attracted the signatures of over 50,000 people calling for a referendum on a Cornish Assembly, which was a little over 10% of the total Cornish electorate.", "A delegation including Cole, Andrew George, then the Liberal Democrat MP for St Ives, and representatives of the Convention presented the Declaration to 10 Downing Street on 12 December 2001.=== Early 21st century (2001–2009) ===Ahead of the 2004 European Parliament election, MK reached an electoral partnership with the Green Party of England and Wales.", "MK agreed not to stand its own candidates in the European election; in return, the Green Party would back MK candidates at the 2005 general election.", "In this latter election, MK did not contest George's seat of St Ives; in return, the Greens did not contest other seats in Cornwall.", "The electoral partnership was not renewed for the 2009 European Parliament election.In August 2008 MK deputy leader, Conan Jenkin, expressed Mebyon Kernow's support for a proposed legal challenge by Cornwall 2000 over the UK Government's exclusion of the Cornish from the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.", "Cornwall 2000 need to show that they have exhausted all domestic legal avenues by having the case summarily dismissed by the High Court, the Appeal Court and the House of Lords, before the case can be put to the European Court of Human Rights.", "MK requested the support of all of its members for this legal action.", "However the fund failed to meet the required target of £100,000 by the end of December 2008, having received just over £33,000 in pledges, and the plan was abandoned.=== Unitary authority (2009–present) ===In 2009, the former Cornwall County Council was replaced by the unitary authority of Cornwall Council.", "In the first election to the new body, three MK candidates were elected: Andrew Long (Callington), Stuart Cullimore (Camborne South) and Dick Cole (St Enoder).", "In August 2010, an independent councillor, Neil Plummer (Stithians), joined the MK group, citing his increasing disillusionment with the independent group.", "In November 2011, former chair of the party Loveday Jenkin was elected in a by-election in Wendron.", "In September 2012, Tamsin Williams (Penzance Central) defected to MK from the Liberal Democrats, increasing MK's number of councillors on Cornwall Council to six.Mebyon Kernow contested every seat in Cornwall in the 2010 general election.In 2011, the party gained some prominence owing to the Devonwall affair; this was the proposal of a parliamentary constituency which would have been partly in Cornwall and partly in Devon.", "The Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Bill sought to equalise the size of constituencies in the United Kingdom.", "An amendment to the bill by Lord Teverson would have ensured that \"all parts of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly must be included in constituencies that are wholly in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly\"; this amendment was defeated by 250 to 221 votes in the House of Lords with 95% of Conservative and Liberal Democrat peers rejecting it.", "MK \"accused the coalition government of treating Cornwall with \"absolute contempt\" as a result of this, stating that Prime Minister David Cameron and Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg had \"devised the bill to breach the territorial integrity of Cornwall\", and that it broke election promises from their parties to protect Cornish interests.", "Cameron replied to concerns by stating that \"it's the Tamar, not the Amazon, for Heaven's sake\"; his controversial remark was widely ridiculed in Cornwall.", "MK welcomed the later rejection of the parliamentary constituency boundary review, which in turn prevented the introduction of a cross-border Devonwall constituency for the 2015 and 2017 general elections.In the 2013 Cornwall Council election, the party was reduced to three seats.", "Williams did not seek re-election and MK lost her seat; MK did not win any of the newly-redrawn seats in Camborne; and Plummer unsuccessfully contested Lanner & Stithians as an independent.", "Only Cole and Jenkin held their seats; the party also gained a seat in Penwithick & Boscoppa.", "It held these seats and gained no further seats at the 2017 Cornwall Council election.MK decided not to stand candidates in the 2014 European elections, claiming the system is skewed against them winning seats.", "MK contested all six Cornish constituencies in the 2015 general election.", "It complained against not being granted a party election broadcast: under current guidelines, it would need to stand in eighty-three constituencies outside of Cornwall in order to qualify for a broadcast.Ahead of the 2016 referendum on the issue, MK endorsed the United Kingdom's continued membership of the European Union.", "On 23 June 2016, Cornwall voted to leave the European Union by 56.5%.", "Following the vote, MK reiterated its promise to campaign for a devolved Cornish Assembly.MK declined to stand candidates in the snap 2017 general election, citing a lack of financing and resources.", "It also did not stand candidates in the 2019 European Parliament election, but its leadership endorsed the Green Party because of their historic cooperation, support for a Cornish Assembly and other similar policies.At a Policy Forum on 22 June 2018, Mebyon Kernow launched an updated version of its campaign publication titled \"Towards a National Assembly of Cornwall.\"" ], [ "Ideology and policies", "MK is an advocate of Cornish nationalism, seeing Cornwall as a separate nation rather than an English county.", "It emphasises Cornwall's distinct Celtic culture and language, as well as its border along the River Tamar, which has largely remained unchanged since 936 AD.", "The party's leaders identify as both Cornish and British but Cornish first.", "It rejects that Cornwall is a region of the United Kingdom or a county of England, preferring the label of 'duchy'.", "It advocates a National Curriculum for Cornwall, increased investment in the Cornish language, and a full inquiry into Cornwall's constitutional relationship with the United Kingdom.The party advocates the establishment of a \"fully devolved, democratically elected\" Cornish National Assembly, established by \"a dedicated, stand-alone, bespoke Act of Parliament.\"", "This would be complemented by a Cornish Civil Service.", "It accuses the civil service and government of \"deep-seated prejudice\" against Cornwall.On economic policy, MK is left-of-centre.", "It rejects \"austerity politics, deregulation and support for trade treaties such as TTIP.\"", "It is committed against poverty and social deprivation; it advocates free and equal access to education, health and welfare services.", "It advocates tackling tax avoidance.", "It opposes the privatisation of the NHS and would renationalise railways and utilities.", "The party regularly highlights problems with the Cornish economy: Cornwall has lower wages and higher unemployment than the rest of the United Kingdom.The party is environmentalist, advocating strong environmental safeguards and a \"Green New Deal for Cornwall\" aimed at creating jobs in the environmental sectors.", "It supports increasing planning restrictions to reverse the building of second homes in Cornwall.", "It would scrap the Trident nuclear programme.", "It supports debt forgiveness for third world countries and supports the UN target of committing 0.7% of the UK's GDP as foreign aid.The party would introduce proportional representation to UK elections through the Single Transferable Vote and would abolish the House of Lords.MK supported the UK's membership of the European Union.", "It endorsed a referendum on the final Brexit deal.Cornwall is part of the South West Regional Assembly and the South West Regional Development Agency (SWRDA) administrates economic development, housing and strategic planning.", "MK claims that the area covered is an artificially imposed large region and not natural.", "Mebyon Kernow wants to break up the SWRDA into small county areas and implement a Cornish Regional Development Agency.The party supports making Saint Piran's day, the day of Cornwall's patron saint, which falls on 5 March, a public holiday.", "It also advocates the establishment of a Cornish University.The party has resisted proposals to reduce the number of councillors in Cornwall.Mebyon Kernow is a member of the European Free Alliance.", "The party has close links with Plaid Cymru, with Plaid's Blaenau Gwent branch being 'twinned' with Mebyon Kernow's Falmouth and Camborne branch." ], [ "Organisation", "MK is run on a day-to-day basis by a 20-member National Executive, which includes the leadership team, policy spokespersons, and local party representatives.", "Dick Cole is the current leader.", "The party's youth wing for under-30s is known as Kernow X.===Party leaders===* Helena Charles (1951–1957)* Cecil Beer (1957–1960)* Robert Dunstone (1960–1968)* Leonard Truran (1968–1973)* Richard Jenkin (1973–1983)* Julyan Drew (1983–1985)* Pedyr Prior (1985–1986)* Loveday Carlyon (1986–1989)* Loveday Jenkin (1990–1997)* Dick Cole (1997–present)===Honorary presidents===* Robert Dunstone (1968–1973)* E. G. Retallack Hooper (1973–1998)* Richard Jenkin (1998–2002)* Ann Trevenen Jenkin (2011–)" ], [ "Electoral performance", "MK has never won a parliamentary election to the House of Commons, nor has it ever won a seat in the European Parliament.===Cornwall Council===MK has been represented on Cornwall Council since its inception in 2009.Year Candidates Votes Share of votes Seats2005189,4213.7%2009337,2904.3%2013266,8244.8%2017195,3444.0%2021198,8975.0%====2009 election====In April 2009 MK leader Dick Cole announced his resignation from his job as an archaeologist with the new Cornwall Council to become the full-time leader of Mebyon Kernow and to stand for election to the Council.", "He had previously worked for Cornwall County Council for 14 years, but it is not permitted for employees of Councils to stand for election to a council they work for.On 12 May 2009, Dick Cole announced that thirty-three candidates would be standing for the party at the Cornwall Council elections on 4 June 2009.This was the largest number of candidates that the party had ever fielded in a round of elections to a principal council or councils.", "Under the new arrangements, 123 members were to be elected to the new unitary Cornwall Council, in the place of the 82 councillors on the outgoing Cornwall County Council and another 249 on the six district councils within its area, all abolished.Having contested thirty-three of the 123 seats on the authority, Mebyon Kernow won three, or 2.4 per cent of the total.", "Andrew Long was elected to represent Callington with 54% of the votes.", "Stuart Cullimore was elected to represent Camborne South with 28% of the votes and Dick Cole was elected to represent St Enoder with 78% of the votes====2021 election====In the 2021 election, Mebyon Kernow fielded 19 candidates.", "They gained a seat despite the number of seats on the council being reduced to 87, polling 5% overall.===Town and parish councils===Mebyon Kernow is also represented in numerous town and parish councils across Cornwall.", "In 2022, Zoe Fox, a Mebyon Kernow councillor, became Mayor of Camborne.===UK general elections===YearCandidatesVotesShare of votesSeats198321,1511.2%19871992199741,9060.8%200133,1991.3%200543,5521.7%201065,3791.9%201565,6751.9%2017201911,6600.50%In the 2010 general election, Mebyon Kernow fielded candidates in each of the six constituencies in Cornwall.", "Their best result was in the St Austell & Newquay seat, where they came fourth, with 4.2% of the votes, up 4% from the previous election.", "The other main parties spent more on their election campaigns.", "MK also blamed bad results on a tactical voting campaign whereby Labour voters in Cornwall were urged to vote Liberal Democrat to stop the Conservatives from getting in.", "Overall they gained 1.9% of votes cast.", "All Mebyon Kernow candidates lost their deposits.===European Parliament elections===In 1979, in the first elections to the European Parliament, Mebyon Kernow's candidate Richard Jenkin was able to attract more than five per cent of the vote in the Cornwall seat.YearCandidateVotesShare of votesPosition1979Richard Jenkin10,2055.9%4th19841989Colin Lawry4,2241.9%6th1994Loveday Jenkin3,3151.5%7thIn April 2009 Mebyon Kernow announced that its list of candidates for the 'South West Region' seat in the European Parliament would comprise their six prospective parliamentary candidates for Westminster.", "The candidates were: Dick Cole (St Austell & Newquay), Conan Jenkin (Truro & Falmouth), Loveday Jenkin (Camborne & Redruth), Simon Reed (St Ives), Glenn Renshaw (South East Cornwall), Joanie Willett (North Cornwall).", "Mebyon Kernow had also committed itself to continue the fight for a \"Cornwall only\" Euro-constituency, to promote Cornwall in Europe.Mebyon Kernow polled 14,922 votes in the 2009 European elections (11,534 votes in Cornwall, no seats, 7 per cent of the vote in Cornwall) putting them ahead of the Labour Party in Cornwall.Since 2009, MK has not stood candidates in European Parliament elections, given the difficulties of winning a seat in a constituency encompassing electorates outside Cornwall." ], [ "See also", "*Cornish nationalism*List of topics related to Cornwall*Cornish Nationalist Party, an early splinter of MK (1975), often conflated with it.", "*Plaid Cymru*Scottish National Party*Unvaniezh Demokratel Breizh" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Mebyon Kernow website* Kernow X website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mesozoic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mesozoic Era''' is the second-to-last era of Earth's geological history, lasting from about , comprising the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.", "It is characterized by the dominance of gymnosperms and of archosaurian reptiles, such as the dinosaurs; a hot greenhouse climate; and the tectonic break-up of Pangaea.", "The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras since complex life evolved: the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic.The era began in the wake of the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest well-documented mass extinction in Earth's history, and ended with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, another mass extinction whose victims included the non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, mosasaurs, and plesiosaurs.", "The Mesozoic was a time of significant tectonic, climatic, and evolutionary activity.", "The era witnessed the gradual rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea into separate landmasses that would move into their current positions during the next era.", "The climate of the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods.", "Overall, however, the Earth was hotter than it is today.", "Dinosaurs first appeared in the Mid-Triassic, and became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates in the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic, occupying this position for about 150 or 135 million years until their demise at the end of the Cretaceous.", "Archaic birds appeared in the Jurassic, having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs, then true toothless birds appeared in the Cretaceous.", "The first mammals also appeared during the Mesozoic, but would remain small—less than 15 kg (33 lb)—until the Cenozoic.", "Flowering plants appeared in the Early Cretaceous and would rapidly diversify throughout the end of the era, replacing conifers and other gymnosperms (''sensu lato''), like Ginkgoales, cycads and Bennettitales as the dominant group of plants." ], [ "Naming", "The phrase \"Age of Reptiles\" was introduced by the 19th century paleontologist Gideon Mantell who viewed it as dominated by diapsids such as ''Iguanodon'', ''Megalosaurus'', ''Plesiosaurus'', and ''Pterodactylus''.The current name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist John Phillips (1800–1874).", "\"Mesozoic\" literally means 'middle life', deriving from the Greek prefix ( 'between') and ( 'animal, living being').", "In this way, the Mesozoic is comparable to the Cenozoic () and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras as well as the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon.The Mesozoic Era was originally described as the \"secondary\" era, following the \"primary\" (Paleozoic), and preceding the Tertiary." ], [ "Geologic periods", "Following the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic extended roughly 186 million years, from when the Cenozoic Era began.", "This time frame is separated into three geologic periods.", "From oldest to youngest:* Triassic ()* Jurassic ()* Cretaceous ()The lower boundary of the Mesozoic is set by the Permian–Triassic extinction event, during which it has been estimated that up to 90-96% of marine species became extinct although those approximations have been brought into question with some paleontologists estimating the actual numbers as low as 81%.", "It is also known as the \"Great Dying\" because it is considered the largest mass extinction in the Earth's history.", "The upper boundary of the Mesozoic is set at the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (or K–Pg extinction event), which may have been caused by an asteroid impactor that created Chicxulub Crater on the Yucatán Peninsula.", "Towards the Late Cretaceous, large volcanic eruptions are also believed to have contributed to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.", "Approximately 50% of all genera became extinct, including all of the non-avian dinosaurs.===Triassic===The Triassic ranges roughly from 252 million to 201 million years ago, preceding the Jurassic Period.", "The period is bracketed between the Permian–Triassic extinction event and the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, two of the \"big five\", and it is divided into three major epochs: Early, Middle, and Late Triassic.The Early Triassic, about 252 to 247 million years ago, was dominated by deserts in the interior of the Pangaea supercontinent.", "The Earth had just witnessed a massive die-off in which 95% of all life became extinct, and the most common vertebrate life on land were ''Lystrosaurus'', labyrinthodonts, and ''Euparkeria'' along with many other creatures that managed to survive the Permian extinction.", "Temnospondyls reached peak diversity during the early Triassic.", "''Plateosaurus'' (a prosauropod)The Middle Triassic, from 247 to 237 million years ago, featured the beginnings of the breakup of Pangaea and the opening of the Tethys Ocean.", "Ecosystems had recovered from the Permian extinction.", "Algae, sponge, corals, and crustaceans all had recovered, and new aquatic reptiles evolved, such as ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs.", "On land, pine forests flourished, as did groups of insects like mosquitoes and fruit flies.", "Reptiles began to get bigger and bigger, and the first crocodilians and dinosaurs evolved, which sparked competition with the large amphibians that had previously ruled the freshwater world, respectively mammal-like reptiles on land.Following the bloom of the Middle Triassic, the Late Triassic, from 237 to 201 million years ago, featured frequent heat spells and moderate precipitation (10–20 inches per year).", "The recent warming led to a boom of dinosaurian evolution on land as the continents began to separate from each other (Nyasasaurus from 243 to 210 million years ago, approximately 235–30 ma, some of them separated into Sauropodomorphs, Theropods and Herrerasaurids), as well as the first pterosaurs.", "During the Late Triassic, some advanced cynodonts gave rise to the first Mammaliaformes.", "All this climatic change, however, resulted in a large die-out known as the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, in which many archosaurs (excluding pterosaurs, dinosaurs and crocodylomorphs), most synapsids, and almost all large amphibians became extinct, as well as 34% of marine life, in the Earth's fourth mass extinction event.", "The cause is debatable; flood basalt eruptions at the Central Atlantic magmatic province is cited as one possible cause.===Jurassic===''Sericipterus''The Jurassic ranges from 200 million years to 145 million years ago and features three major epochs: The Early Jurassic, the Middle Jurassic, and the Late Jurassic.The Early Jurassic spans from 200 to 175 million years ago.", "The climate was tropical and much more humid than the Triassic, as a result of the large seas appearing between the land masses.", "In the oceans, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs and ammonites were abundant.", "On land, dinosaurs and other archosaurs staked their claim as the dominant race, with theropods such as ''Dilophosaurus'' at the top of the food chain.", "The first true crocodiles evolved, pushing the large amphibians to near extinction.", "All-in-all, archosaurs rose to rule the world.", "Meanwhile, the first true mammals evolved, remaining relatively small, but spreading widely; the Jurassic ''Castorocauda'', for example, had adaptations for swimming, digging and catching fish.", "''Fruitafossor'', from the late Jurassic Period about 150 million years ago, was about the size of a chipmunk, and its teeth, forelimbs and back suggest that it dug open the nests of social insects (probably termites, as ants had not yet appeared) ; ''Volaticotherium'' was able to glide for short distances, like modern flying squirrels.", "The first multituberculates like ''Rugosodon'' evolved.The Middle Jurassic spans from 175 to 163 million years ago.", "During this epoch, dinosaurs flourished as huge herds of sauropods, such as ''Brachiosaurus'' and ''Diplodocus'', filled the fern prairies, chased by many new predators such as ''Allosaurus''.", "Conifer forests made up a large portion of the forests.", "In the oceans, plesiosaurs were quite common, and ichthyosaurs flourished.", "This epoch was the peak of the reptiles.", "''Stegosaurus''The Late Jurassic spans from 163 to 145 million years ago.", "During this epoch, the first avialans, like ''Archaeopteryx'', evolved from small coelurosaurian dinosaurs.", "The increase in sea levels opened up the Atlantic seaway, which has grown continually larger until today.", "The further separation of the continents gave opportunity for the diversification of new dinosaurs.===Cretaceous===The Cretaceous is the longest period of the Mesozoic, but has only two epochs: Early and Late Cretaceous.", "''Tylosaurus'' (a mosasaur) hunting ''Xiphactinus''The Early Cretaceous spans from 145 to 100 million years ago.", "The Early Cretaceous saw the expansion of seaways and a decline in diversity of sauropods, stegosaurs, and other high-browsing groups, with sauropods particularly scarce in North America.", "Seasons came back into effect and the poles got seasonally colder, but some dinosaurs still inhabited the polar forests year round, such as ''Leaellynasaura'' and ''Muttaburrasaurus''.", "The poles were too cold for crocodiles, and became the last stronghold for large amphibians like ''Koolasuchus''.", "Pterosaurs got larger as genera like ''Tapejara'' and ''Ornithocheirus'' evolved.", "Mammals continued to expand their range: eutriconodonts produced fairly large, wolverine-like predators like ''Repenomamus'' and ''Gobiconodon'', early therians began to expand into metatherians and eutherians, and cimolodont multituberculates went on to become common in the fossil record.The Late Cretaceous spans from 100 to 66 million years ago.", "The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue in the Cenozoic Era.", "Eventually, tropics were restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tropic lines experienced extreme seasonal changes in weather.", "Dinosaurs still thrived, as new taxa such as ''Tyrannosaurus'', ''Ankylosaurus'', ''Triceratops'' and hadrosaurs dominated the food web.", "In the oceans, mosasaurs ruled, filling the role of the ichthyosaurs, which, after declining, had disappeared in the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event.", "Though pliosaurs had gone extinct in the same event, long-necked plesiosaurs such as ''Elasmosaurus'' continued to thrive.", "Flowering plants, possibly appearing as far back as the Triassic, became truly dominant for the first time.", "Pterosaurs in the Late Cretaceous declined for poorly understood reasons, though this might be due to tendencies of the fossil record, as their diversity seems to be much higher than previously thought.", "Birds became increasingly common and diversified into a variety of enantiornithe and ornithurine forms.", "Though mostly small, marine hesperornithes became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea.", "Metatherians and primitive eutherian also became common and even produced large and specialised genera like ''Didelphodon'' and ''Schowalteria''.", "Still, the dominant mammals were multituberculates, cimolodonts in the north and gondwanatheres in the south.", "At the end of the Cretaceous, the Deccan traps and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the atmosphere.", "As this continued, it is thought that a large meteor smashed into earth 66 million years ago, creating the Chicxulub Crater in an event known as the K-Pg Extinction (formerly K-T), the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, in which 75% of life became extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs." ], [ "Paleogeography and tectonics", "Compared to the vigorous convergent plate mountain-building of the late Paleozoic, Mesozoic tectonic deformation was comparatively mild.", "The sole major Mesozoic orogeny occurred in what is now the Arctic, creating the Innuitian orogeny, the Brooks Range, the Verkhoyansk and Cherskiy Ranges in Siberia, and the Khingan Mountains in Manchuria.This orogeny was related to the opening of the Arctic Ocean and suturing of the North China and Siberian cratons to Asia.", "In contrast, the era featured the dramatic rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea, which gradually split into a northern continent, Laurasia, and a southern continent, Gondwana.", "This created the passive continental margin that characterizes most of the Atlantic coastline (such as along the U.S. East Coast) today.By the end of the era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present forms, though not their present positions.", "Laurasia became North America and Eurasia, while Gondwana split into South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent, which collided with the Asian plate during the Cenozoic, giving rise to the Himalayas." ], [ "Climate", "The Triassic was generally dry, a trend that began in the late Carboniferous, and highly seasonal, especially in the interior of Pangaea.", "Low sea levels may have also exacerbated temperature extremes.", "With its high specific heat capacity, water acts as a temperature-stabilizing heat reservoir, and land areas near large bodies of water—especially oceans—experience less variation in temperature.", "Because much of Pangaea's land was distant from its shores, temperatures fluctuated greatly, and the interior probably included expansive deserts.", "Abundant red beds and evaporites such as halite support these conclusions, but some evidence suggests the generally dry climate of was punctuated by episodes of increased rainfall.", "The most important humid episodes were the Carnian Pluvial Event and one in the Rhaetian, a few million years before the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event.Sea levels began to rise during the Jurassic, probably caused by an increase in seafloor spreading.", "The formation of new crust beneath the surface displaced ocean waters by as much as above today's sea level, flooding coastal areas.", "Furthermore, Pangaea began to rift into smaller divisions, creating new shoreline around the Tethys Ocean.", "Temperatures continued to increase, then began to stabilize.", "Humidity also increased with the proximity of water, and deserts retreated.The climate of the Cretaceous is less certain and more widely disputed.", "Probably, higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are thought to have almost eliminated the north–south temperature gradient: temperatures were about the same across the planet, and about 10°C higher than today.", "The circulation of oxygen to the deep ocean may also have been disrupted, preventing the decomposition of large volumes of organic matter, which was eventually deposited as \"black shale\".Different studies have come to different conclusions about the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere during different parts of the Mesozoic, with some concluding oxygen levels were lower than the current level (about 21%) throughout the Mesozoic, some concluding they were lower in the Triassic and part of the Jurassic but higher in the Cretaceous, and some concluding they were higher throughout most or all of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous." ], [ "Life", "===Flora===Conifers were the dominant terrestrial plants for most of the Mesozoic, with grasses becoming widespread in the Late Cretaceous.", "Flowering plants appeared late in the era but did not become widespread until the Cenozoic.The dominant land plant species of the time were gymnosperms, which are vascular, cone-bearing, non-flowering plants such as conifers that produce seeds without a coating.", "This contrasts with the earth's current flora, in which the dominant land plants in terms of number of species are angiosperms.", "The earliest members of the genus ''Ginkgo'' first appeared during the Middle Jurassic.", "This genus is represented today by a single species, ''Ginkgo biloba''.", "Modern conifer groups began to radiate during the Jurassic.", "Bennettitales, an extinct group of gymnosperms with foliage superficially resembling that of cycads gained a global distribution during the Late Triassic, and represented one of the most common groups of Mesozoic seed plants.Flowering plants radiated during the early Cretaceous, first in the tropics, but the even temperature gradient allowed them to spread toward the poles throughout the period.", "By the end of the Cretaceous, angiosperms dominated tree floras in many areas, although some evidence suggests that biomass was still dominated by cycads and ferns until after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction.", "Some plant species had distributions that were markedly different from succeeding periods; for example, the Schizeales, a fern order, were skewed to the Northern Hemisphere in the Mesozoic, but are now better represented in the Southern Hemisphere.===Fauna===Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates throughout much of the Mesozoic.The extinction of nearly all animal species at the end of the Permian Period allowed for the radiation of many new lifeforms.", "In particular, the extinction of the large herbivorous pareiasaurs and carnivorous gorgonopsians left those ecological niches empty.", "Some were filled by the surviving cynodonts and dicynodonts, the latter of which subsequently became extinct.Recent research indicates that it took much longer for the reestablishment of complex ecosystems with high biodiversity, complex food webs, and specialized animals in a variety of niches, beginning in the mid-Triassic 4 million to 6 million years after the extinction, and not fully proliferated until 30 million years after the extinction.", "Animal life was then dominated by various archosaurs: dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and aquatic reptiles such as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs.The climatic changes of the late Jurassic and Cretaceous favored further adaptive radiation.", "The Jurassic was the height of archosaur diversity, and the first birds and eutherian mammals also appeared.", "Some have argued that insects diversified in symbiosis with angiosperms, because insect anatomy, especially the mouth parts, seems particularly well-suited for flowering plants.", "However, all major insect mouth parts preceded angiosperms, and insect diversification actually slowed when they arrived, so their anatomy originally must have been suited for some other purpose.===Microbiota===At the dawn of the Mesozoic, ocean plankton communities transitioned from ones dominated by green archaeplastidans to ones dominated by endosymbiotic algae with red-algal-derived plastids.", "This transition is speculated to have been caused by an increasing paucity of many trace metals in the Mesozoic." ], [ "See also", "*Paleozoic*Cenozoic*Phanerozoic" ], [ "References", "*''British Mesozoic Fossils'', 1983, The Natural History Museum, London." ], [ "External links", "* Mesozoic (chronostratigraphy scale)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Middle East" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Middle East between North Africa, Southern Europe, Central Asia, and Southern Asia.Middle East map of Köppen climate classification.The '''Middle East''' (term originally coined in English ) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq.", "The term came into widespread usage as a replacement of the term Near East (as opposed to the Far East) beginning in the early 20th century.", "The term \"Middle East\" has led to some confusion over its changing definitions, and being seen as too Eurocentric.", "The region includes the vast majority of the territories included in the closely associated definition of West Asia, but without the South Caucasus, and additionally includes all of Egypt (not just the Sinai) and all of Turkey (not just the part barring East Thrace).Most Middle Eastern countries (13 out of 18) are part of the Arab world.", "The most populous countries in the region are Egypt, Turkey, and Iran, while Saudi Arabia is the largest Middle Eastern country by area.", "The history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the geopolitical importance of the region being recognized for millennia.", "Several major religions have their origins in the Middle East, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.", "Arabs constitute the main ethnic group in the region, followed by Turks, Persians, Kurds, Azeris, Copts, Jews, Assyrians, Iraqi Turkmen, Yazidis, and Greek Cypriots.The Middle East generally has a hot, arid climate, especially in the Arabian and Egyptian regions.", "Several major rivers provide irrigation to support agriculture in limited areas here, such as the Nile Delta in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates watersheds of Mesopotamia, and the basin of the Jordan River that spans most of the Levant.", "These regions are collectively known as the Fertile Crescent, and comprise the core of what historians had long referred to as the cradle of civilization (a label now applied to multiple regions of the world).", "Conversely, the Levantine coast and most of Turkey have relatively temperate climates typical of the Mediterranean, with dry summers and cool, wet winters.", "Most of the countries that border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of petroleum, with monarchs of the Arabian Peninsula in particular benefiting economically from petroleum exports.", "Because of the arid climate and heavy reliance on the fossil fuel industry, the Middle East is both a heavy contributor to climate change and a region expected to be severely negatively impacted by it.Other concepts of the region exist including the broader Middle East and North Africa (MENA), which includes states of the Maghreb and the Sudan, or the \"Greater Middle East\" which additionally also includes parts of East Africa, Mauritania, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and sometimes the South Caucasus and Central Asia." ], [ "Terminology", "The term \"Middle East\" may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office.", "However, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to \"designate the area between Arabia and India\".", "During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, a rivalry which would become known as the Great Game.", "Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf.", "He labeled the area surrounding the Persian Gulf as the Middle East, and said that after Egypt's Suez Canal, it was the most important passage for Britain to control in order to keep the Russians from advancing towards British India.", "Mahan first used the term in his article \"The Persian Gulf and International Relations\", published in September 1902 in the ''National Review'', a British journal.Mahan's article was reprinted in ''The Times'' and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled \"The Middle Eastern Question\", written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol.", "During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of ''Middle East'' to include \"those regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India.\"", "After the series ended in 1903, ''The Times'' removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term.Until World War II, it was customary to refer to areas centered around Turkey and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean as the \"Near East\", while the \"Far East\" centered on China, and the Middle East then meant the area from Mesopotamia to Burma, namely the area between the Near East and the Far East.", "In the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region.", "After that time, the term \"Middle East\" gained broader usage in Europe and the United States, with the Middle East Institute founded in Washington, D.C. in 1946, among other usage.The corresponding adjective is ''Middle Eastern'' and the derived noun is ''Middle Easterner''.While non-Eurocentric terms such \"Southwest Asia\" or \"Swasia\" has been sparsedly used, the inclusion of an African country, Egypt, in the definition questions the usefulness of using such terms.===Usage and criticism===1957 American film about the Middle EastThe description ''Middle'' has also led to some confusion over changing definitions.", "Before the First World War, \"Near East\" was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while \"Middle East\" referred to the Caucasus, Persia, and Arabian lands, and sometimes Afghanistan, India and others.", "In contrast, \"Far East\" referred to the countries of East Asia (e.g.", "China, Japan and Korea).With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, \"Near East\" largely fell out of common use in English, while \"Middle East\" came to be applied to the re-emerging countries of the Islamic world.", "However, the usage \"Near East\" was retained by a variety of academic disciplines, including archaeology and ancient history, where it describes an area identical to the term ''Middle East'', which is not used by these disciplines (see Ancient Near East).The first official use of the term \"Middle East\" by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, which pertained to the Suez Crisis.", "Secretary of State John Foster Dulles defined the Middle East as \"the area lying between and including Libya on the west and Pakistan on the east, Syria and Iraq on the North and the Arabian peninsula to the south, plus the Sudan and Ethiopia.\"", "In 1958, the State Department explained that the terms \"Near East\" and \"Middle East\" were interchangeable, and defined the region as including only Egypt, Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar.The term ''Middle East'' has also been criticised by journalist Louay Khraish and historian Hassan Hanafi for being a Eurocentric and colonialist term.The Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous.", "It instructs:Use ''Middle East'' unless ''Near East'' is used by a source in a story.", "''Mideast'' is also acceptable, but ''Middle East'' is preferred.===Translations===There are terms similar to ''Near East'' and ''Middle East'' in other European languages, but since it is a relative description, the meanings depend on the country and are different from the English terms generally.", "In German the term ''Naher Osten'' (Near East) is still in common use (nowadays the term ''Mittlerer Osten'' is more and more common in press texts translated from English sources, albeit having a distinct meaning) and in Russian Ближний Восток or ''Blizhniy Vostok'', Bulgarian Близкия Изток, Polish ''Bliski Wschód'' or Croatian ''Bliski istok'' (meaning ''Near East'' in all the four Slavic languages) remains as the only appropriate term for the region.", "However, some languages do have \"Middle East\" equivalents, such as the French Moyen-Orient, Swedish Mellanöstern, Spanish Oriente Medio or Medio Oriente, and the Italian Medio Oriente.Perhaps because of the influence of the Western press, the Arabic equivalent of ''Middle East'' (Arabic: الشرق الأوسط ''ash-Sharq al-Awsaṭ'') has become standard usage in the mainstream Arabic press, comprising the same meaning as the term \"Middle East\" in North American and Western European usage.", "The designation, ''Mashriq'', also from the Arabic root for ''East'', also denotes a variously defined region around the Levant, the eastern part of the Arabic-speaking world (as opposed to the ''Maghreb'', the western part).", "Even though the term originated in the West, apart from Arabic, other languages of countries of the Middle East also use a translation of it.", "The Persian equivalent for Middle East is خاورمیانه (''Khāvar-e miyāneh''), the Hebrew is המזרח התיכון (''hamizrach hatikhon''), the Turkish is Orta Doğu and the Greek is Μέση Ανατολή (''Mesi Anatoli'')." ], [ "Countries and territory", "=== Countries and territory usually considered within the Middle East ===Traditionally included within the Middle East are Arabia, Asia Minor, East Thrace, Egypt, Iran, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Socotra Archipelago.", "The region includes 17 UN-recognized countries and one British Overseas Territory.", "Arms Flag Country Area(km2) Population(2023) Density(per km2) Capital NominalGDP, (2023) GDP per capita (2023) Currency Government Officiallanguage(s) Akrotiri and Dhekelia 254 18,195 72 Episkopi N/A N/A Euro ''De facto'' stratocratic dependency under a constitutional monarchy English Bahrain 780 1,581,000 2,027 Manama $44,994 $28,464 Bahraini dinar Absolute monarchy Arabic Cyprus 9,250 921,000 100 Nicosia $32,032 $34,790 Euro Presidential republic Greek,Turkish Egypt 1,010,407 105,672,000 105 Cairo $398,397 $3,770 Egyptian pound Presidential republic Arabic Iran 1,648,195 86,547,000 53 Tehran $366,438 $4,233 Iranian rial Islamic republic Persian Iraq 438,317 43,345,000 99 Baghdad $254,993 $5,882 Iraqi dinar Parliamentary republic Arabic,Kurdish Israel 20,770 9,807,000 472 Jerusalem $521,688 $53,195 Israeli shekel Parliamentary republic Hebrew Jordan 92,300 10,312,000 112 Amman $50,022 $4,850 Jordanian dinar Constitutional monarchy Arabic Kuwait 17,820 4,957,000 278 Kuwait City $159,687 $32,215 Kuwaiti dinar Constitutional monarchy Arabic Lebanon 10,452 6,633,000 (2022) 635 Beirut $21,780 (2022) $3,283 (2022) Lebanese pound Parliamentary republic Arabic Oman 309,500 5,092,000 16 Muscat $108,282 $21,265 Omani rial Absolute monarchy Arabic Palestine 6,220 5,479,000 881 Ramallah $18,109 (2021) $3,464 (2021) Israeli shekel,Jordanian dinar Semi-presidential republic Arabic Qatar 11,437 2,873,000 251 Doha $235,500 $81,968 Qatari riyal Absolute monarchy Arabic Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 32,819,000 15 Riyadh $1,069,437 $32,586 Saudi riyal Absolute monarchy Arabic Syria 185,180 21,393,000 (2010) 116 Damascus $60,043 (2010) $2,806 (2010) Syrian pound Presidential republic Arabic Turkey 783,562 86,268,000 110 Ankara $1,154,600 $13,383 Turkish lira Presidential republic Turkish United Arab Emirates 82,880 10,062,000 121 Abu Dhabi $509,179 $50,602 Emirati dirham Federal constitutional monarchy Arabic Yemen 527,970 34,071,000 65 SanaaAden (provisional) $21,045 $617 Yemeni rial Provisional presidential republic Arabic:a. Jerusalem is the proclaimed capital of Israel, which is disputed, and the actual location of the Knesset, Israeli Supreme Court, and other governmental institutions of Israel.", "Ramallah is the actual location of the government of Palestine, whereas the proclaimed capital of Palestine is East Jerusalem, which is disputed.:b.", "Controlled by the Houthis due to the ongoing civil war.", "Seat of government moved to Aden.===Other definitions of the Middle East===Various concepts are often being paralleled to the Middle East, most notably the Near East, Fertile Crescent, and Levant.", "The Near East, Fertile Crescent, and Levant are geographical concepts, which refer to large sections of the modern-day Middle East, with the Near East being the closest to the Middle East in its geographical meaning.", "Due to it primarily being Arabic speaking, the Maghreb region of North Africa is sometimes included.The countries of the South CaucasusArmenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgiaare occasionally included in definitions of the Middle East.", "\"Greater Middle East\" is a political term coined by the second Bush administration in the first decade of the 21st century, to denote various countries, pertaining to the Muslim world, specifically Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey.", "Various Central Asian countries are sometimes also included." ], [ "History", "Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those of Stonehenge, England, by over seven millennia.", "The site of the oldest known religious structure created by humans.Western Wall and Dome of the Rock in JerusalemChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in JerusalemThe Kaaba, located in Mecca, Saudi ArabiaThe Middle East lies at the juncture of Africa and Eurasia and of the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.", "It is the birthplace and spiritual center of religions such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Manichaeism, Yezidi, Druze, Yarsan, and Mandeanism, and in Iran, Mithraism, Zoroastrianism, Manicheanism, and the Baháʼí Faith.", "Throughout its history the Middle East has been a major center of world affairs; a strategically, economically, politically, culturally, and religiously sensitive area.", "The region is one of the regions where agriculture was independently discovered, and from the Middle East it was spread, during the Neolithic, to different regions of the world such as Europe, the Indus Valley and Eastern Africa.Prior to the formation of civilizations, advanced cultures formed all over the Middle East during the Stone Age.", "The search for agricultural lands by agriculturalists, and pastoral lands by herdsmen meant different migrations took place within the region and shaped its ethnic and demographic makeup.The Middle East is widely and most famously known as the cradle of civilization.", "The world's earliest civilizations, Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia), ancient Egypt and Kish in the Levant, all originated in the Fertile Crescent and Nile Valley regions of the ancient Near East.", "These were followed by the Hittite, Greek, Hurrian and Urartian civilisations of Asia Minor; Elam, Persia and Median civilizations in Iran, as well as the civilizations of the Levant (such as Ebla, Mari, Nagar, Ugarit, Canaan, Aramea, Mitanni, Phoenicia and Israel) and the Arabian Peninsula (Magan, Sheba, Ubar).", "The Near East was first largely unified under the Neo Assyrian Empire, then the Achaemenid Empire followed later by the Macedonian Empire and after this to some degree by the Iranian empires (namely the Parthian and Sassanid Empires), the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire.", "The region served as the intellectual and economic center of the Roman Empire and played an exceptionally important role due to its periphery on the Sassanid Empire.", "Thus, the Romans stationed up to five or six of their legions in the region for the sole purpose of defending it from Sassanid and Bedouin raids and invasions.From the 4th century CE onwards, the Middle East became the center of the two main powers at the time, the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire.", "However, it would be the later Islamic Caliphates of the Middle Ages, or Islamic Golden Age which began with the Islamic conquest of the region in the 7th century AD, that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant Islamic Arab ethnic identity that largely (but not exclusively) persists today.", "The 4 caliphates that dominated the Middle East for more than 600 years were the Rashidun Caliphate, the Umayyad caliphate, the Abbasid caliphate and the Fatimid caliphate.", "Additionally, the Mongols would come to dominate the region, the Kingdom of Armenia would incorporate parts of the region to their domain, the Seljuks would rule the region and spread Turko-Persian culture, and the Franks would found the Crusader states that would stand for roughly two centuries.", "Josiah Russell estimates the population of what he calls \"Islamic territory\" as roughly 12.5 million in 1000 – Anatolia 8 million, Syria 2 million, and Egypt 1.5 million.From the 16th century onward, the Middle East came to be dominated, once again, by two main powers: the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid dynasty.The modern Middle East began after World War I, when the Ottoman Empire, which was allied with the Central Powers, was defeated by the British Empire and their allies and partitioned into a number of separate nations, initially under British and French Mandates.", "Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the eventual departure of European powers, notably Britain and France by the end of the 1960s.", "They were supplanted in some part by the rising influence of the United States from the 1970s onwards.In the 20th century, the region's significant stocks of crude oil gave it new strategic and economic importance.", "Mass production of oil began around 1945, with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates having large quantities of oil.", "Estimated oil reserves, especially in Saudi Arabia and Iran, are some of the highest in the world, and the international oil cartel OPEC is dominated by Middle Eastern countries.During the Cold War, the Middle East was a theater of ideological struggle between the two superpowers and their allies: NATO and the United States on one side, and the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact on the other, as they competed to influence regional allies.", "Besides the political reasons there was also the \"ideological conflict\" between the two systems.", "Moreover, as Louise Fawcett argues, among many important areas of contention, or perhaps more accurately of anxiety, were, first, the desires of the superpowers to gain strategic advantage in the region, second, the fact that the region contained some two-thirds of the world's oil reserves in a context where oil was becoming increasingly vital to the economy of the Western world ...", "Within this contextual framework, the United States sought to divert the Arab world from Soviet influence.", "Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the region has experienced both periods of relative peace and tolerance and periods of conflict particularly between Sunnis and Shiites." ], [ "Demographics", "Maunsell's map, a Pre-World War I British Ethnographical Map of the Middle East===Ethnic groups===Arabs constitute the largest ethnic group in the Middle East, followed by various Iranian peoples and then by Turkic peoples (Turkish, Azeris, Syrian Turkmen, and Iraqi Turkmen).", "Native ethnic groups of the region include, in addition to Arabs, Arameans, Assyrians, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Greek Cypriots, Jews, Kurds, Lurs, Mandaeans, Persians, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, and Zazas.", "European ethnic groups that form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians (including Kabardians), Crimean Tatars, Greeks, Franco-Levantines, Italo-Levantines, and Iraqi Turkmens.", "Among other migrant populations are Chinese, Filipinos, Indians, Indonesians, Pakistanis, Pashtuns, Romani, and Afro-Arabs.===Migration===\"Migration has always provided an important vent for labor market pressures in the Middle East.", "For the period between the 1970s and 1990s, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf in particular provided a rich source of employment for workers from Egypt, Yemen and the countries of the Levant, while Europe had attracted young workers from North African countries due both to proximity and the legacy of colonial ties between France and the majority of North African states.", "\"According to the International Organization for Migration, there are 13 million first-generation migrants from Arab nations in the world, of which 5.8 reside in other Arab countries.", "Expatriates from Arab countries contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development.", "In 2009 Arab countries received a total of US$35.1 billion in remittance in-flows and remittances sent to Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.", "In Somalia, the Somali Civil War has greatly increased the size of the Somali diaspora, as many of the best educated Somalis left for Middle Eastern countries as well as Europe and North America.Non-Arab Middle Eastern countries such as Turkey, Israel and Iran are also subject to important migration dynamics.A fair proportion of those migrating from Arab nations are from ethnic and religious minorities facing persecution and are not necessarily ethnic Arabs, Iranians or Turks.", "Large numbers of Kurds, Jews, Assyrians, Greeks and Armenians as well as many Mandeans have left nations such as Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey for these reasons during the last century.", "In Iran, many religious minorities such as Christians, Baháʼís, Jews and Zoroastrians have left since the Islamic Revolution of 1979.===Religions===prostrating during prayer in a mosque.The Middle East is very diverse when it comes to religions, many of which originated there.", "Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East, but other faiths that originated there, such as Judaism and Christianity, are also well represented.", "Christian communities have played a vital role in the Middle East, and they represent 40.5% of Lebanon, where the Lebanese president, half of the cabinet, and half of the parliament follow one of the various Lebanese Christian rites.", "There are also important minority religions like the Baháʼí Faith, Yarsanism, Yazidism, Zoroastrianism, Mandaeism, Druze, and Shabakism, and in ancient times the region was home to Mesopotamian religions, Canaanite religions, Manichaeism, Mithraism and various monotheist gnostic sects.===Languages===The six top languages, in terms of numbers of speakers, are Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Kurdish, Hebrew and Greek.", "Arabic and Hebrew represent the Afro-Asiatic language family.", "Persian, Kurdish and Greek belong to the Indo-European language family.", "Turkish belongs to Turkic language family.", "About 20 minority languages are also spoken in the Middle East.Arabic, with all its dialects, is the most widely spoken language in the Middle East, with Literary Arabic being official in all North African and in most West Asian countries.", "Arabic dialects are also spoken in some adjacent areas in neighbouring Middle Eastern non-Arab countries.", "It is a member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic languages.", "Several Modern South Arabian languages such as Mehri and Soqotri are also spoken Yemen and Oman.", "Another Semitic language such as Aramaic and its dialects are spoken mainly by Assyrians and Mandaeans.", "There is also an Oasis Berber-speaking community in Egypt where the language is also known as Siwa.", "It is a non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic language.Persian is the second most spoken language.", "While it is primarily spoken in Iran and some border areas in neighbouring countries, the country is one of the region's largest and most populous.", "It belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the family of Indo-European languages.", "Other Western Iranic languages spoken in the region include Achomi, Daylami, Kurdish dialects, Semmani, Lurish, amongst many others.The third-most widely spoken language, Turkish, is largely confined to Turkey, which is also one of the region's largest and most populous countries, but it is present in areas in neighboring countries.", "It is a member of the Turkic languages, which have their origins in East Asia.", "Another Turkic language, Azerbaijani, is spoken by Azerbaijanis in Iran.Hebrew is one of the two official languages of Israel, the other being Arabic.", "Hebrew is spoken and used by over 80% of Israel's population, the other 20% using Arabic.Greek is one of the two official languages of Cyprus, and the country's main language.", "Small communities of Greek speakers exist all around the Middle East; until the 20th century it was also widely spoken in Asia Minor (being the second most spoken language there, after Turkish) and Egypt.", "During the antiquity, Ancient Greek was the lingua franca for many areas of the western Middle East and until the Muslim expansion it was widely spoken there as well.", "Until the late 11th century, it was also the main spoken language in Asia Minor; after that it was gradually replaced by the Turkish language as the Anatolian Turks expanded and the local Greeks were assimilated, especially in the interior.1911 Ottoman calendar shown in several different languages such as: Ottoman Turkish (in Arabic script), Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Bulgarian, and French.English is one of the official languages of Akrotiri and Dhekelia.", "It is also commonly taught and used as a second language, especially among the middle and upper classes, in countries such as Egypt, Jordan, Iran, Kurdistan, Iraq, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Kuwait.", "It is also a main language in some Emirates of the United Arab Emirates.", "It is also spoken as native language by Jewish immigrants from Anglophone countries (UK, US, Australia) in Israel and understood widely as second language there.French is taught and used in many government facilities and media in Lebanon, and is taught in some primary and secondary schools of Egypt and Syria.", "Maltese, a Semitic language mainly spoken in Europe, is also used by the Franco-Maltese diaspora in Egypt.", "Also, due to widespread immigration of French Jews to Israel, it is the native language of approximately 200,000 Jews of Israel.Armenian speakers are also to be found in the region.", "Georgian is spoken by the Georgian diaspora.Russian is spoken by a large portion of the Israeli population, because of emigration in the late 1990s.", "Russian today is a popular unofficial language in use in Israel; news, radio and sign boards can be found in Russian around the country after Hebrew and Arabic.", "Circassian is also spoken by the diaspora in the region and by almost all Circassians in Israel who speak Hebrew and English as well.The largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East is found in Israel, where Romanian is spoken by 5% of the population.Bengali, Hindi and Urdu are widely spoken by migrant communities in many Middle Eastern countries, such as Saudi Arabia (where 20–25% of the population is South Asian), the United Arab Emirates (where 50–55% of the population is South Asian), and Qatar, which have large numbers of Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Indian immigrants." ], [ "Economy", "Oil and gas pipelines in the Middle-EastMiddle Eastern economies range from being very poor (such as Gaza and Yemen) to extremely wealthy nations (such as Qatar and UAE).", "Overall, , according to the CIA World Factbook, all nations in the Middle East are maintaining a positive rate of growth.According to the International Monetary Fund, the three largest Middle Eastern economies in nominal GDP in 2023 were Saudi Arabia ($1.062 trillion), Turkey ($1.029 trillion), and Israel ($539 billion).", "Regarding nominal GDP per capita, the highest ranking countries are Qatar ($83,891), Israel ($55,535), the United Arab Emirates ($49,451) and Cyprus ($33,807).", "Turkey ($3.573 trillion), Saudi Arabia ($2.301 trillion), and Iran ($1.692 trillion) had the largest economies in terms of GDP PPP.", "When it comes to GDP PPP per capita, the highest-ranking countries are Qatar ($124,834), the United Arab Emirates ($88,221), Saudi Arabia ($64,836), Bahrain ($60,596) and Israel ($54,997).", "The lowest-ranking country in the Middle East, in terms of GDP nominal per capita, is Yemen ($573).The economic structure of Middle Eastern nations are different in the sense that while some nations are heavily dependent on export of only oil and oil-related products (such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait), others have a highly diverse economic base (such as Cyprus, Israel, Turkey and Egypt).", "Industries of the Middle Eastern region include oil and oil-related products, agriculture, cotton, cattle, dairy, textiles, leather products, surgical instruments, defence equipment (guns, ammunition, tanks, submarines, fighter jets, UAVs, and missiles).", "Banking is also an important sector of the economies, especially in the case of UAE and Bahrain.With the exception of Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, Lebanon and Israel, tourism has been a relatively undeveloped area of the economy, in part because of the socially conservative nature of the region as well as political turmoil in certain regions of the Middle East.", "In recent years, however, countries such as the UAE, Bahrain, and Jordan have begun attracting greater numbers of tourists because of improving tourist facilities and the relaxing of tourism-related restrictive policies.Unemployment is notably high in the Middle East and North Africa region, particularly among young people aged 15–29, a demographic representing 30% of the region's total population.", "The total regional unemployment rate in 2005, according to the International Labour Organization, was 13.2%, and among youth is as high as 25%, up to 37% in Morocco and 73% in Syria." ], [ "Climate change" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Abu dhabi skylines 2014.jpg|Abu Dhabi – United Arab EmiratesFile:View of Abdali.jpeg|Amman – JordanFile:YDA-Center-03.jpg|Ankara – TurkeyFile:5628442718 b10fc2c47f o.jpg|Baghdad, IraqFile:Beirut Corniche from University Tower.jpg|Beirut – LebanonFile:Flickr - archer10 (Dennis) - Egypt-2A-007.jpg|Cairo – EgyptFile:Damascus from Qasiyon.JPG|Damascus – SyriaFile:Doha skyline in the morning (12544910974).jpg|Doha – QatarFile:Dubai skyline 2015 (crop).jpg|Dubai – United Arab EmiratesFile:Levent, Istanbul at night.jpg|Istanbul – TurkeyFile:Jerusalem Dome of the rock BW 14.JPG|Jerusalem – IsraelFile:Murthadha.80.jpg|Kuwait City – KuwaitFile:Manama, Bahrain Decembre 2014.jpg|Manama – BahrainFile:The gate to Muscat (8727196402).jpg|Muscat – OmanFile:Nicosia skyline July 2018.jpg|Nicosia – CyprusFile:Ramallahskyline.jpg|Ramallah – PalestineFile:Riyadh_Skyline.jpg|Riyadh – Saudi ArabiaFile:Sanaa HDR (16482367935).jpg|Sana'a – YemenFile:North of Tehran Skyline view.jpg|Tehran – IranFile:Panorama of Tel Aviv.jpg|Tel Aviv – Israel" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * Cleveland, William L., and Martin Bunton.", "''A History Of The Modern Middle East'' (6th ed.", "2018 4th ed.", "online* Cressey, George B.", "(1960).", "''Crossroads: Land and Life in Southwest Asia''.", "Chicago, IL: J.B. Lippincott Co. xiv, 593 pp.", "ill. with maps and b&w photos.", "* Fischbach, ed.", "Michael R. ''Biographical encyclopedia of the modern Middle East and North Africa'' (Gale Group, 2008).", "* Freedman, Robert O.", "(1991).", "''The Middle East from the Iran-Contra Affair to the Intifada'', in series, ''Contemporary Issues in the Middle East''.", "1st ed.", "Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.", "x, 441 pp.", "pbk.", "* * Halpern, Manfred.", "''Politics of Social Change: In the Middle East and North Africa'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).", "* Ismael, Jacqueline S., Tareq Y. Ismael, and Glenn Perry.", "''Government and politics of the contemporary Middle East: Continuity and change'' (Routledge, 2015).", "* Lynch, Marc, ed.", "''The Arab Uprisings Explained: New Contentious Politics in the Middle East'' (Columbia University Press, 2014).", "p.", "352.", "* * Reich, Bernard.", "''Political leaders of the contemporary Middle East and North Africa: a biographical dictionary'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1990).", "* Vasiliev, Alexey.", "''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018)." ], [ "External links", "* \"Middle East – Articles by Region\" – Council on Foreign Relations: \"A Resource for Nonpartisan Research and Analysis\"* \"Middle East – Interactive Crisis Guide\" – Council on Foreign Relations: \"A Resource for Nonpartisan Research and Analysis\"* Middle East Department University of Chicago Library* '' Middle East Business Intelligence since 1957'': \"The leading information source on business in the Middle East\" – meed.com* Carboun – advocacy for sustainability and environmental conservation in the Middle East* * Middle East News from Yahoo!", "News* Middle East Business, Financial & Industry News – ''ArabianBusiness.com''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moğollar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moğollar''' (''Mongols'' in Turkish) was one of the pioneering bands in Turkish rock music during their early career and one of the founders of Turkish folk rock (or Anatolian rock).", "They have been active for over 40 years.", "The band uses multi-layered dynamism in the Turkish folk genre to create a sonic similarity with pop music's dynamism." ], [ "History", "The band was founded end of 1967 by Aziz Azmet, Murat Ses, Cahit Berkay, Hasan Sel and Engin YörükoğluIn 1970, Hasan Sel was replaced by Taner Öngür, previously a member of Meteorlar (Meteors) and the Erkin Koray Quartet.", "The band tried to fuse the technical aspects of pop music with the melodies of Anatolian folk music in the late 1960s and early 1970s.In July 1970, Aziz Azmet, the band's vocalist left the band due to musical disagreements and Ersen Dinleten replaced him for a short time.", "Moğollar recorded ''Ternek/Haliç'te Gün Batışı'' (''Ternek/Sunset on the Golden Horn'') on a 45 rpm single, and left for Paris in August 1970.While they went to Paris, they signed a 3-year contract with CBS, releasing a 45 rpm single ''Hitchin/Behind the Dark'' in 1972.They made one album for the imprint \"Guild International du Disque\", ''Danses et Rythmes de la Turquie -- d'Hier d'Aujourd'hui''.", "This album was recognized by the French ''Académie Charles Cros'' in 1971, earning comparisons to Pink Floyd.", "By that time, they met with Barış Manço and started to work with him while he was living in Belgium.In 1968 the group won the third place in Turkish music contest Golden Microphone.", "In 1971 the group won the Grand Prix du Disque of the Charles Cros Academy for their instrumental album ''Danses et Rythmes de la Turquie''.In 1971, Barış Manço joined as vocalist and the band was renamed Manchomongol.", "Manchomongol recorded two 45 rpms, and this partnership ended after four months.", "Also, Engin Yörükoğlu stayed in Paris, and the drummer of Mavi Işıklar (Blue Lights), Ayzer Danga, joined the band to replace him.Moğollar recorded one single with Selda Bağcan during the first half of 1972.Ersen then re-joined the band in July 1972 and they recorded another single.", "Murat Ses left the band in August 1972.In September 1972, Moğollar replaced their soloists with Cem Karaca, who was then the soloist of Kardaşlar (Brothers).This partnership of Cem Karaca and Moğollar lasted for two years and they produced the song, Namus Belası, which became a great hit.In 1974, Taner Öngür and Ayzer Danga left the band.", "Öngür joined Dadaşlar, a band with Ersen Dinleten between 1974–1975 and 1979–1980 and Dervişan (Dervishes), a band with Cem Karaca between 1974 and 1978.He also briefly joined Dostlar, a band with Edip Akbayram in 1975.Danga initially joined Kardaşlar between 1974 and 1975.He participated in Erkin Koray's 'Elektronik Türküler' (Electronic Songs) album in 1975.He then joined Dostlar between 1975 and 1978; Güneşin Sofrası, a band with Kerem Güney (1939-2012) in 1979; Dadaşlar, a band with Ersen Dinleten in 1983 and Zorbeyler in 1984 before his retirement from music.", "Meanwhile, Cahit Berkay left for France after the dissolution of the band to meet with Engin Yörükoğlu.", "Cahit and Engin recorded two albums under the name Moğollar.", "They also recorded a single with Ali Rıza Binboğa in 1975.The band completely dissolved in 1976.After a 17-year absence, Cahit Berkay, Taner Öngür and Engin Yörükoğlu reformed the band in 1993, and were joined by keyboard player Serhat Ersöz.", "Murat Ses is dealing with other projects and is still pursuing an extraordinary international career.In 2007, the Advertising agency TBWA decided to use Moğollar's track from the late 1960's, ''Garip Çoban'' (translated - Lonesome Shepherd; written by Murat Ses) in the ''This is Living'' advertisement campaign for Sony's PlayStation 3.Emrah Karaca (son of Cem Karaca) joined Moğollar in 2007 as a vocalist and guitarist.", "Engin Yörükoğlu was diagnosed with lung cancer in 2007 and died in 2010." ], [ "Members", ";Current members* Cahit Berkay – bağlama, guitar, kamancheh, mandolin, yaylı tanbur, vocals (1968–1976, 1993–present)* Taner Öngür – bass, vocals (1969–1974, 1993–present)* Serhat Ersöz – keyboards (1993–present)* Emrah Karaca - vocals, guitar (2007–present)* Kemal Küçükbakkal – drums (2011–present);Former members* Aziz Azmet – vocals, guitar (1967–1970) (Deceased)* Murat Ses – synthesizer, hammond organ (1967–1972)* Hasan Sel – bass (1968–1969)* Engin Yörükoğlu – drums (1969–1971, 1974–1976, 1993–2010) (deceased)* Ersen Dinleten - vocals (1970, 1972)* Ayzer Danga – drums (1971–1974) (Deceased)* Barış Manço - vocals (1971–1972) (deceased)* Selda Bağcan - vocals (1972)* Cem Karaca - vocals (1972–1974) (deceased)* Mithat Danışan - bass (1974, 1975)* Turhan Yükseler - keyboards, piano (1974, 1975)* Tufan Altan - drums (1974, 1975)* Sulubika - flute (1975)* Michael Shollet - bass (1975)* Romen Petiter - keyboards, piano (1975)* Utku Ünal – drums (2010-2011)" ], [ "Discography", "=== Studio albums ===* 1971 : ''Les Danses et Rythmes de la Turquie d'hier á aujourd'hui'' (Turkish release: ''Anadolu Pop'')* 1975 : ''Hittit Sun'' (Turkish release: ''Düm-Tek'')* 1976 : ''Ensemble d'Cappadocia'' (Turkish release: ''Moğollar'')=== Singles ===* Eastern Love / Artık Çok Geç (1968)* Mektup / Lazy John (1968)* Everlasting Love / Hard Work (1968)* Ilgaz / Kaleden Kaleye Şahin Uçurdum (1968)* Sessiz Gemi / İndim Havuz Başına (1969)* Dağ Ve Çocuk / İmece (1970)* Ağlama / Yalnızlığın Acıklı Güldürüsü (1970)* Garip Çoban / Berkay Oyun Havası (1970)* Ternek / Haliç'te Güneşin Batışı (1970)* Hitchin / Behind The Dark (1970)* Behind The Dark / Madımak / Lorke (1971)* Hitchin / Hamsi (1971)* İşte Hendek İşte Deve/Katip Arzuhalim Yaz Yare Böyle (1971)* Binboğanın Kızı / Ay Osman (1971)* Yalan Dünya / Kalenin Dibinde (1972)* Alageyik Destanı / Moğol Halayı (1972)* Çığrık / Sıla (1972)* Sor Kendine / Garip Gönlüm (1972)* Obur Dünya / El Çek Tabib (1973)* Gel Gel / Üzüm Kaldı (1973)* Namus Belası / Gurbet (1974)* Tanrıların Arabaları / Bu Nasıl Dünya?", "(1974)* Birlik için Elele / Sevgimin Derdi Albümler (feat.", "Ali Rıza Binboğa) (1975)=== Compilations ===* Anılarla Moğollar ve Silüetler (1990)* Anadolupop 70'li Yıllar (1993)* Moğollar 1968-2000 (2000)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official web site (English & Turkish)* Band history & discography* Moğollar Music at last.fm" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monism" ], [ "Introduction", "Monad or The Absolute.", "'''Monism''' attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept, such as to existence.", "Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:* Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonism everything is derived from The One.", "In this view only the One is ontologically basic or prior to everything else.", "* Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there exists only a single thing, the universe, which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things.", "* Substance monism asserts that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance.", "Substance monism posits that only one kind of substance exists, although many things may be made up of this substance, e.g., matter or mind.", "* Dual-aspect monism is the view that the mental and the physical are two aspects of, or perspectives on, the same substance.", "* Neutral monism believes the fundamental nature of reality to be neither mental nor physical; in other words it is \"neutral\"." ], [ "Definitions", "There are two sorts of definitions for monism:# The wide definition: a philosophy is monistic if it postulates unity of the origin of all things; all existing things return to a source that is distinct from them.# The restricted definition: this requires not only unity of origin but also unity of substance and essence.Although the term ''monism'' is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the mind–body problem, it has also been used to typify religious traditions.", "In modern Hinduism, the term \"absolute monism\" has been applied to Advaita Vedanta, though Renard points out that this may be a Western interpretation, bypassing the intuitive understanding of a nondual reality.", "It is more generally categorized by scholars as a form of absolute nondualism." ], [ "History", "Monism has been discussed thoroughly in Indian Philosophy and Vedanta throughout their history starting as early as the Rig Veda.", "The term ''monism'' was introduced in the 18th century by Christian von Wolff in his work ''Logic'' (1728), to designate types of philosophical thought in which the attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of body and mind and explain all phenomena by one unifying principle, or as manifestations of a single substance.The mind–body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter, and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain.", "The problem was addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century, resulting in Cartesian dualism, and by pre-Aristotelian philosophers, in Avicennian philosophy, and in earlier Asian and more specifically Indian traditions.It was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by Hegel and Schelling.", "Thereafter the term was more broadly used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle.", "The opponent thesis of dualism also was broadened, to include pluralism.", "According to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is \"systematically ambiguous\".According to Jonathan Schaffer, monism lost popularity due to the emergence of analytic philosophy in the early twentieth century, which revolted against the neo-Hegelians.", "Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer, who were strong proponents of positivism, \"ridiculed the whole question as incoherent mysticism\".The mind–body problem has reemerged in social psychology and related fields, with the interest in mind–body interaction and the rejection of Cartesian mind–body dualism in the ''identity thesis'', a modern form of monism.", "Monism is also still relevant to the philosophy of mind, where various positions are defended." ], [ "Types", "A diagram with neutral monism compared to Cartesian dualism, physicalism and idealismDifferent types of monism include:# Substance monism, \"the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or appearances of a single substance\"# Attributive monism, \"the view that whatever the number of substances, they are of a single ultimate kind\"# Epistemological monism, where \"ultimately, everything that can be thought, observed and engaged, shares one conceptual system of interaction, however complex.", "\"# Partial monism, \"within a given realm of being (however many there may be) there is only one substance\"# Existence monism, \"the view that there is only one concrete object token (The One, \"Τὸ Ἕν\" or the Monad)\"# Priority monism, \"the whole is prior to its parts\" or \"the world has parts, but the parts are dependent fragments of an integrated whole\"# Property monism, \"the view that all properties are of a single type (e.g., only physical properties exist)\" # Genus monism, \"the doctrine that there is a highest category; e.g., being\"Views contrasting with monism are:* Metaphysical dualism, which asserts that there are two ultimately irreconcilable substances or realities such as Good and Evil, for example, Gnosticism and Manichaeism.", "* Metaphysical pluralism, which asserts three or more fundamental substances or realities.", "* Metaphysical nihilism, negates any of the above categories (substances, properties, concrete objects, etc.", ").Monism in modern philosophy of mind can be divided into three broad categories:Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories, such as functionalism, anomalous monism, and reflexive monism.", "Moreover, they do not define the meaning of \"real\"." ], [ "Monistic philosophers", "===Pre-Socratic===While the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following pre-Socratic philosophers thought in monistic terms:* Thales: Water* Anaximander: ''Apeiron'' (meaning 'the undefined infinite').", "Reality is some, one thing, but we cannot know what.", "* Anaximenes of Miletus: Air* Heraclitus: Change, symbolized by fire (in that everything is in constant flux).", "* Parmenides: Being or Reality is an unmoving perfect sphere, unchanging, undivided.===Post-Socrates===* Neopythagorians such as Apollonius of Tyana centered their cosmologies on the Monad or One.", "* Stoics taught that there is only one substance, identified as God.", "* Middle Platonism under such works as those by Numenius taught that the Universe emanates from the Monad or One.", "* Neoplatonism is monistic.", "Plotinus taught that there was an ineffable transcendent god, 'The One,' of which subsequent realities were emanations.", "From The One emanates the Divine Mind (Nous), the Cosmic Soul (Psyche), and the World (Cosmos).===Modern===" ], [ "Monistic neuroscientists", "* György Buzsáki* Francis Crick* Karl Friston* Eric Kandel* Mark Solms* Rodolfo Llinas* Ivan Pavlov* Roger Sperry" ], [ "Religion", "===Pantheism===Pantheism is the belief that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent God, or that the universe (or nature) is identical with divinity.", "Pantheists thus do not believe in a personal or anthropomorphic god, but believe that interpretations of the term differ.Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza, whose ''Ethics'' was an answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.", "Spinoza held that the two are the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy.", "He was described as a \"God-intoxicated man,\" and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance.", "Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.H.", "P. Owen claimed thatPantheism is closely related to monism, as pantheists too believe all of reality is one substance, called Universe, God or Nature.", "Panentheism, a slightly different concept (explained below), however is dualistic.", "Some of the most famous pantheists are the Stoics, Giordano Bruno and Spinoza.===Panentheism===Panentheism (from Greek (pân) \"all\"; (en) \"in\"; and (theós) \"God\"; \"all-in-God\") is a belief system that posits that the divine (be it a monotheistic God, polytheistic gods, or an eternal cosmic animating force) interpenetrates every part of nature, but is not one with nature.", "Panentheism differentiates itself from pantheism, which holds that the divine is synonymous with the universe.In panentheism, there are two types of substance, \"pan\" the universe and God.", "The universe and the divine are not ontologically equivalent.", "God is viewed as the eternal animating force within the universe.", "In some forms of panentheism, the cosmos exists within God, who in turn \"transcends\", \"pervades\" or is \"in\" the cosmos.While pantheism asserts that 'All is God', panentheism claims that God animates all of the universe, and also transcends the universe.", "In addition, some forms indicate that the universe is contained within God, like in the Judaic concept of Tzimtzum.", "Much Hindu thought is highly characterized by panentheism and pantheism.Paul Tillich has argued for such a concept within Christian theology, as has liberal biblical scholar Marcus Borg and mystical theologian Matthew Fox, an Episcopal priest.===Pandeism===Pandeism or pan-deism (from and meaning \"god\" in the sense of deism) is a term describing beliefs coherently incorporating or mixing logically reconcilable elements of pantheism (that \"God\", or a metaphysically equivalent creator deity, is identical to Nature) and classical deism (that the creator-god who designed the universe no longer exists in a status where it can be reached, and can instead be confirmed only by reason).", "It is therefore most particularly the belief that the creator of the universe actually became the universe, and so ceased to exist as a separate entity.Through this synergy pandeism claims to answer primary objections to deism (why would God create and then not interact with the universe?)", "and to pantheism (how did the universe originate and what is its purpose?", ").===Indian religions=======Characteristics====The central problem in Asian (religious) philosophy is not the body-mind problem, but the search for an unchanging Real or Absolute beyond the world of appearances and changing phenomena, and the search for liberation from dukkha and the liberation from the cycle of rebirth.", "In Hinduism, substance-ontology prevails, seeing Brahman as the unchanging real beyond the world of appearances.", "In Buddhism, process ontology is prevalent, seeing reality as empty of an unchanging essence.Characteristic for various Asian religions is the discernment of levels of truth, an emphasis on intuitive-experiential understanding of the Absolute such as jnana, bodhi and kensho, and an emphasis on the integration of these levels of truth and its understanding.====Hinduism=========Vedanta=====''Adi Shankara with Disciples'', by Raja Ravi Varma (1904)|right|thumb|x216pxVedanta is the inquiry into and systematisation of the Vedas and Upanishads, to harmonise the various and contrasting ideas that can be found in those texts.", "Within Vedanta, different schools exist: * Advaita, unqualified nonduality, is the school of Adi Shankara;* Vishishtadvaita, qualified monism, is from the school of Ramanuja;* Shuddhadvaita, in-essence monism, is the school of Vallabha; * Dvaitadvaita, differential monism, is a school founded by Nimbarka; * Achintya Bheda Abheda, a school of Vedanta founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference''.", "It can be understood as an integration of the strict dualist (dvaita) theology of Madhvacharya and the qualified monism (vishishtadvaita) of Ramanuja.=====Vaishnava=====All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and view the universe as part of Krishna or Narayana, but see a plurality of souls and substances within Brahman.", "Monistic theism, which includes the concept of a personal god as a universal, omnipotent Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, is prevalent within many other schools of Hinduism as well.=====Tantra=====Tantra sees the Divine as both immanent and transcendent.", "The Divine can be found in the concrete world.", "Practices are aimed at transforming the passions, instead of transcending them.=====Modern Hinduism=====The colonisation of India by the British had a major impact on Hindu society.", "In response, leading Hindu intellectuals started to study western culture and philosophy, integrating several western notions into Hinduism.", "This modernised Hinduism, at its turn, has gained popularity in the west.A major role was played in the 19th century by Swami Vivekananda in the revival of Hinduism, and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission.", "His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called Neo-Vedanta.", "In Advaita, Shankara suggests meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', not the highest goal itself:Vivekananda, according to Gavin Flood, was \"a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism.\"", "Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this \"innate divinity\", and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.", "According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.", "According to Flood, Vivekananda's view of Hinduism is the most common among Hindus today.", "This monism, according to Flood, is at the foundation of earlier Upanishads, to theosophy in the later Vedanta tradition and in modern Neo-Hinduism.====Buddhism====According to the Pāli Canon, both pluralism (''nānatta'') and monism (''ekatta'') are speculative views.", "A Theravada commentary notes that the former is similar to or associated with nihilism (''ucchēdavāda''), and the latter is similar to or associated with eternalism (''sassatavada'').In the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, the ultimate nature of the world is described as ''Śūnyatā'' or \"emptiness\", which is inseparable from both inner and outer appearance, which includes all sensory and mental objects.", "That appears to be a monist position, but the Madhyamaka views – including variations like ''rangtong'' and ''shentong'' – will refrain from asserting any ultimately existent entity.", "They instead deconstruct any detailed or conceptual assertions about ultimate existence as resulting in absurd consequences.", "The Yogacara view, a minority school now only found among the Mahayana, also rejects monism.=====Levels of truth=====Within Buddhism, a rich variety of philosophical and pedagogical models can be found.", "Various schools of Buddhism discern levels of truth:* The Two truths doctrine of the Madhyamaka* The Three Natures of the Yogacara* Essence-Function, or Absolute-relative in Chinese and Korean Buddhism* The Trikaya-formule, consisting of ** The ''Dharmakāya'' or ''Truth body'' which embodies the very principle of enlightenment and knows no limits or boundaries;** The ''Sambhogakāya'' or ''body of mutual enjoyment'' which is a body of bliss or clear light manifestation;** The ''Nirmāṇakāya'' or ''created body'' which manifests in time and space.The Prajnaparamita-sutras and Madhyamaka emphasize the non-duality of form and emptiness: \"form is emptiness, emptiness is form\", as the heart sutra says.", "In Chinese Buddhism this was understood to mean that ultimate reality is not a transcendental realm, but equal to the daily world of relative reality.", "This idea fitted into the Chinese culture, which emphasized the mundane world and society.", "But this does not tell how the absolute is present in the relative world:This question is answered in such schemata as the Five Ranks of Tozan, the Oxherding Pictures, and Hakuin's Four ways of knowing.====Sikhism====Sikhism complies with the concept of Absolute Monism.", "Sikh philosophy advocates that all that our senses comprehend is an illusion; God is the ultimate reality.", "Forms being subject to time shall pass away.", "God's Reality alone is eternal and abiding.", "The thought is that Atma (soul) is born from, and a reflection of, ParamAtma (Supreme Soul), and \"will again merge into it\", in the words of the fifth guru of Sikhs, Guru Arjan, \"just as water merges back into the water.", "\"God and Soul are fundamentally the same; identical in the same way as Fire and its sparks.", "\"Atam meh Ram, Ram meh Atam\" which means \"The Ultimate Eternal reality resides in the Soul and the Soul is contained in Him\".", "As from one stream, millions of waves arise and yet the waves, made of water, again become water; in the same way all souls have sprung from the Universal Being and would blend again into it.===Abrahamic faiths=======Judaism====Jewish thought considers God as separate from all physical, created things and as existing outside of time.According to Maimonides, God is an incorporeal being that caused all other existence.", "According to Maimonides, to admit corporeality to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God, which is a contradiction to God as the first cause and constitutes heresy.", "While Hasidic mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God's simpleness, Maimonides saw no contradiction.According to Hasidic thought (particularly as propounded by the 18th century, early 19th-century founder of Chabad, Shneur Zalman of Liadi), God is held to be immanent within creation for two interrelated reasons:# A very strong Jewish belief is that \"the Divine life-force which brings the universe into existence must constantly be present ... were this life-force to forsake the universe for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ...\"# Simultaneously, Judaism holds as axiomatic that God is an absolute unity, and that he is perfectly simple, thus, if his sustaining power is within nature, then his essence is also within nature.The Vilna Gaon was very much against this philosophy, for he felt that it would lead to pantheism and heresy.", "According to some this is the main reason for the Gaon's ban on Chasidism.====Christianity=========Creator–creature distinction=====Christians maintain that God created the universe ''ex nihilo'' and not from his own substance, so that the creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather transcends it.", "There is a movement of \"Christian Panentheism\".=====Rejection of radical dualism=====In ''On Free Choice of the Will'', Augustine argued, in the context of the problem of evil, that evil is not the opposite of good, but rather merely the absence of good, something that does not have existence in itself.", "Likewise, C. S. Lewis described evil as a \"parasite\" in ''Mere Christianity'', as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence.", "Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of moral absolutism, and rejected the dualistic notion that God and Satan are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite.", "Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of Michael the archangel.", "Due to this, Lewis instead argued for a more limited type of dualism.", "Other theologians, such as Greg Boyd, have argued in more depth that the Biblical authors held a \"limited dualism\", meaning that God and Satan do engage in real battle, but only due to free will given by God, for the duration that God allows.=====Theosis=====In Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, while human beings are not ontologically identical with the Creator, they are nonetheless capable with uniting with his Divine Nature via theosis, and especially, through the devout reception of the Holy Eucharist.", "This is a supernatural union, over and above that natural union, of which St. John of the Cross says, \"it must be known that God dwells and is present substantially in every soul, even in that of the greatest sinner in the world, and this union is natural.\"", "Julian of Norwich, while maintaining the orthodox duality of Creator and creature, nonetheless speaks of God as \"the true Father and true Mother\" of all natures; thus, he indwells them substantially and thus preserves them from annihilation, as without this sustaining indwelling everything would cease to exist.=====Mormonism=====Latter Day Saint theology also expresses a form of dual-aspect monism via materialism and eternalism, claiming that creation was ex materia (as opposed to ex nihilo in conventional Christianity), as expressed by Parley Pratt and echoed in view by the movement's founder Joseph Smith, making no distinction between the spiritual and the material, these being not just similarly eternal, but ultimately two manifestations of the same reality or substance.Parley Pratt implies a vitalism paired with evolutionary adaptation noting, \"these eternal, self-existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes, in a greater or less degree; or, in other words, they possess intelligence, adapted to their several spheres.", "\"Parley Pratt's view is also similar to Gottfried Leibniz's monadology, which holds that \"reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force.", "\"Brigham Young anticipates a proto-mentality of elementary particles with his vitalist view, \"there is life in all matter, throughout the vast extent of all the eternities; it is in the rock, the sand, the dust, in water, air, the gases, and in short, in every description and organization of matter; whether it be solid, liquid, or gaseous, particle operating with particle.", "\"The LDS conception of matter is \"essentially dynamic rather than static, if indeed it is not a kind of living energy, and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence.", "\"John A. Widstoe held a similar, more vitalist view, that \"Life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possess a kind of life… Matter… is intelligence… hence everything in the universe is alive.\"", "However, Widstoe resisted outright affirming a belief in panpsychism.====Islam=========Quran=====Vincent Cornell argues that the Quran provides a monist image of God by describing reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things.But most argue that Abrahamic religious scriptures, especially the Quran, see creation and God as two separate existences.", "It explains that everything has been created by God and is under his control, but at the same time distinguishes creation as being dependent on the existence of God.=====Sufism=====Some Sufi mystics advocate monism.", "One of the most notable being the 13th-century Persian poet Rumi (1207–73) in his didactic poem ''Masnavi'' espoused monism.", "Rumi says in the Masnavi,Other Sufi mystics however, such as Ahmad Sirhindi, upheld dualistic Monotheism (the separation of God and the Universe).The most influential of the Islamic monists was the Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi (1165–1240).", "He developed the concept of 'unity of being' (Arabic: ''waḥdat al-wujūd''), which some argue is a monistic philosophy.", "Born in al-Andalus, he made an enormous impact on the Muslim world, where he was crowned \"the great Master\".", "In the centuries following his death, his ideas became increasingly controversial.", "Ahmad Sirhindi criticised monistic understanding of 'unity of being', advocating the dualistic-compatible 'unity of witness' (Arabic: ''wahdat ash-shuhud''), maintaining separation of creator and creation.", "Later, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi reconciled the two ideas maintaining that their differences are semantic differences, arguing that the universal existence (which is different in creation to creator) and the divine essence are different and that the universal existence emanates (in a non-platonic sense) from the divine essence and that the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between the number four and a number being even.=====Shi'ism=====The doctrine of ''waḥdat al-wujūd'' also enjoys considerable following in the rationalist philosophy of Twelver Shi'ism, with the most famous modern-day adherent being Ruhollah Khomeini.====Baháʼí Faith====Although the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical.", "Some of these include statements of a monist nature (e.g., ''The Seven Valleys'' and the ''Hidden Words'').", "The differences between dualist and monist views are reconciled by the teaching that these opposing viewpoints are caused by differences in the observers themselves, not in that which is observed.", "This is not a 'higher truth/lower truth' position.", "God is unknowable.", "For man it is impossible to acquire any direct knowledge of God or the Absolute, because any knowledge that one has, is relative.===Nondualism===Nondualism is distinct from monism.", "While both philosophies challenge the conventional understanding of dualism, they approach it differently.", "Nondualism emphasizes unity amid diversity.", "In contrast, monism posits that reality is ultimately grounded in a singular substance or principle, reducing the multiplicity of existence to a singular foundation.", "The distinction lies in their approach to the relationship between the many and the one.While traditions such as Hinduism's Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism's Dzogchen are classed as absolute nondualism and are generally considered distinct from monism, some forms of qualified nondualism are also classed as nondual monism.", "These include Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, Achintya Bheda Abheda, Kashmir Shaivism, and Neo-Advaita." ], [ "See also", "* Cosmic pluralism* Dialectical monism* Henosis* Holism* Indefinite monism* Neoplatonism* Material monism* Monadology* Monistic idealism* Ontological pluralism* Realistic monism* Taoism* Univocity of being* Wuji" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", " **** Catholic Encyclopedia - Monism* Hinduism's Online Lexicon – (search for Monism)* The Monist" ] ]
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[ [ "Master shot" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''master shot''' (or short '''master''') is a film recording of an entire dramatized scene, start to finish, from a camera angle that keeps all the players in view.", "It is often a long shot and can sometimes perform a double function as an establishing shot.", "Usually, the master shot is the first shot checked off during the shooting of a scene.", "It is the foundation of what is called camera coverage, other shots that reveal different aspects of the action, groupings of two or three of the actors at crucial moments, close-ups of individuals, insert shots of various props, and so on.Historically, the master shot was the most important shot of any given scene.", "All shots in a given scene were somehow related to what was happening in the master shot.", "This is one reason that some of the films from the 1930s and the 1940s are considered \"stagey\" by today's standards.", "By the 1960s and the 1970s, the style of film shooting and editing shifted to include radical angles that conveyed more subjectivity and intimacy within the scenes.", "Today, the master shot is still a key element of film production, but scenes are not built around the master shot in the same way that they were when professional filmmaking was in its infancy." ], [ "References", ";Footnotes;Bibliography*Ascher, Steven, and Edward Pincus.", "''The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age''.", "New York: Plume, 1999." ] ]
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[ [ "Medium shot" ], [ "Introduction", "An example of a medium group shot featuring Gary Cooper and Adolphe Menjou from the 1932 drama film ''A Farewell to Arms''In a movie a '''medium shot''', '''mid shot''' ('''MS'''), or '''waist shot''' is a camera angle shot from a medium distance." ], [ "Use", "Medium shots are favored in sequences where dialogues or a small group of people are acting, as they give the viewer a partial view of the background, such as when the shot is 'cutting the person in half' and also show the subjects' facial expressions in the context of their body language.", "Medium shots are also used when the subject in the shot is delivering information, such as news presenters.", "It is also used in interviews.", "It is the most common shot in movies, and it usually follows the first establishing shots of a new scene or location.", "A normal lens that sees what the human eye sees is usually used for medium shots." ], [ "Definition", "Robin Roberts interviewing Barack ObamaThe medium shot shows equality between subjects and background.", "The dividing line between what constitutes a long shot and medium shot is not definite, nor is the line between medium shot and close-up.", "In some standard texts and professional references, a full-length view of a human subject is called a medium shot; in this terminology, a shot of the person from the knees up or the waist up is a close-up shot.", "In other texts, these partial views are called medium shots.", "In principle, the medium shot is what can be seen with the human eye in a single quick glance and convey all the action taking place in that field of view." ], [ "Types", "Medium shots are divided into singles (a waist-high shot of one actor), group shots, over-the shoulders or two-shots (featuring two people).", "A medium wide shot, or American shot, shows a bit more of the background but is still close enough for facial expressions to be seen, although these facial expressions would be better seen in a waist-high shot." ], [ "See also", "* Camera angle* Camera operator* Close-up* Dutch angle* Establishing shot* High-angle shot* Long shot* Low-angle shot* Mise-en-scène* Over the shoulder shot* Two shot* Video production* Videographer" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "Moon" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Names and etymology", "The usual English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is simply ''Moon'', with a capital M. The noun ''moon'' is derived from Old English ''mōna'', which (like all its Germanic cognates) stems from Proto-Germanic ''*mēnōn'', which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European ''*mēnsis'' \"month\" (from earlier ''*mēnōt'', genitive ''*mēneses'') which may be related to the verb \"measure\" (of time).Occasionally, the name '''Luna''' is used in scientific writing and especially in science fiction to distinguish the Earth's moon from others, while in poetry \"Luna\" has been used to denote personification of the Moon.", "'''Cynthia''' is another poetic name, though rare, for the Moon personified as a goddess, while '''Selene''' (literally \"Moon\") is the Greek goddess of the Moon.The English adjective pertaining to the Moon is \"lunar\", derived from the Latin word for the Moon, ''lūna''.", "''Selenian'' is an adjective used to describe the Moon as a world, rather than as a celestial object, but its use is rare.", "It is derived from ''selēnē'', the Greek word for the Moon, and its cognate ''selenic'' was originally a rare synonym but now nearly always refers to the chemical element selenium.", "The element name ''selenium'' and the prefix ''seleno-'' (as in ''selenography'', the study of the physical features of the Moon) come from this Greek word.The Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, Artemis, equated with the Roman Diana, one of whose symbols was the Moon and who was often regarded as the goddess of the Moon, was also called Cynthia, from her legendary birthplace on Mount Cynthus.", "These names – Luna, Cynthia and Selene – are reflected in technical terms for lunar orbits such as ''apolune'', ''pericynthion'' and ''selenocentric''.The astronomical symbol for the Moon is a crescent, ☾, for example in ''M''☾ 'lunar mass' (also ''ML'')." ], [ "Natural history", "===Lunar geologic timescale===The lunar geological periods are named after their characteristic features, from most impact craters outside the dark mare, to the mare and later craters, and finally the young, still bright and therefore readily visible craters with ray systems like Copernicus or Tycho.===Formation===The far side of the Moon, lacking the near side's characteristic large dark areas of maria, resembling how the near side of the Moon might have looked early in the Moon's historyIsotope dating of lunar samples suggests the Moon formed around 50 million years after the origin of the Solar System.", "Historically, several formation mechanisms have been proposed, but none satisfactorily explains the features of the Earth–Moon system.", "A fission of the Moon from Earth's crust through centrifugal force would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth.", "Gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon depends on an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon.", "A co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon.", "None of these hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system.The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after a giant impact of a Mars-sized body (named ''Theia'') with the proto-Earth.", "The oblique impact blasted material into orbit about the Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon just beyond the Earth's Roche limit of ~.Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System.", "Computer simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system.", "These simulations show that most of the Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth.", "However, models from 2007 and later suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth.", "Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars and Vesta have, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions compared to Earth.", "However, Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions.", "The isotopic equalization of the Earth-Moon system might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two, although this is debated.The impact would have released enough energy to liquefy both the ejecta and the Earth's crust, forming a magma ocean.", "The liquefied ejecta could have then re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system.", "The newly formed Moon would have had its own magma ocean; its depth is estimated from about to .While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition.", "Models that have the Moon acquiring a significant amount of the proto-earth are more difficult to reconcile with geochemical data for the isotopes of zirconium, oxygen, silicon, and other elements.", "a study published in 2022 finds that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit.", "Even satellites that initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits.On 1 November 2023, scientists reported that, according to computer simulations, remnants of a protoplanet, named Theia, could be inside the Earth, left over from a collision with the Earth in ancient times, and afterwards becoming the Moon.===Natural development===Artist's depiction of the Moon as it might have appeared in Earth's sky after the Late Heavy Bombardment around 4 billion years ago.", "At that time the Moon orbited the Earth at half its current distance, making it appear 2.8 times larger than it does today.The newly formed Moon settled into a much closer Earth orbit than it has today.", "Each body therefore appeared much larger in the sky of the other, eclipses were more frequent, and tidal effects were stronger.Due to tidal acceleration, the Moon's orbit around Earth has become significantly larger, with a longer period.Following formation, the Moon has cooled and most of its atmosphere has been stripped.", "The lunar surface has since been shaped by large impact events and many small ones, forming a landscape featuring craters of all ages.The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, which laid down the prominent lunar maria.", "Most of the mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and some as old as 4.2 billion years.", "There are differing explanations for the eruption of mare basalts, particularly their uneven occurrence which mainly appear on the near-side.", "Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on the far side are also not well understood.", "Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side.", "One possible scenario then is that large impacts on the near side may have made it easier for lava to flow onto the surface." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from facing the Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins.", "Its shape is more elongated than current tidal forces can account for.", "This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to restore hydrostatic equilibrium at its current orbital distance.===Size and mass===to be round, several having subsurface oceans and one, Titan, having a considerable atmosphere.The Moon is by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of the Solar System, categorizable as one of its planetary-mass moons, making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the term.", "It is smaller than Mercury and considerably larger than the largest dwarf planet of the Solar System, Pluto.", "While the minor-planet moon Charon of the Pluto-Charon system is larger relative to Pluto, the Moon is the largest natural satellite of the Solar System relative to their primary planets.The Moon's diameter is about 3,500 km, more than a quarter of Earth's, with the face of the Moon comparable to the width of either Australia, Europe or the US without Alaska.", "The whole surface area of the Moon is about 38 million square kilometers, between the size of the Americas (North and South America) and Africa.The Moon's mass is 1/81 of Earth's, being the second densest among the planetary moons, and having the second highest surface gravity, after Io, at and an escape velocity of .===Structure===Moon's internal structure: solid inner core (iron-metallic), molten outer core, hardened mantle and crust.", "The crust on the Moon's near side permanently facing Earth is thinner, featuring larger areas flooded by material of the once molten mantle forming today's lunar mare.The Moon is a differentiated body that was initially in hydrostatic equilibrium but has since departed from this condition.", "It has a geochemically distinct crust, mantle, and core.", "The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly .", "Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about .", "This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene; after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallized, lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust atop.", "The final liquids to crystallize would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing elements.", "Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests a crust of mostly anorthosite.", "The Moon rock samples of the flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth.", "The crust is on average about thick.The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io.", "However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about or less, around 20% of the radius of the Moon.", "Its composition is not well understood, but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel; analyses of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten.", "The pressure at the lunar core is estimated to be .=== Gravitational field ===gravitational pull of the Moon is approximately 1/6 of Earth's.", "The jumping height is limited by the EVA space suit's weight on the Moon of about and by the suit's pressurization resisting the bending of the suit, as needed for jumping.On average the Moon's surface gravity is (; ), about half of the surface gravity of Mars and about a sixth of Earth's.The Moon's gravitational field is not uniform.", "The details of the gravitational field have been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft.", "The main lunar gravity features are mascons, large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins.", "The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon.", "There are some puzzles: lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism.=== Magnetic field ===The Moon has an external magnetic field of less than 0.2 nanoteslas, or less than one hundred thousandth that of Earth.", "The Moon does not have a global dipolar magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating.", "Early in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today.", "This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had crystallized.", "Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of plasma clouds.", "These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field.", "This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins.=== Atmosphere ===The thin lunar atmosphere is visible on the Moon's surface at sunrise and sunset with the lunar horizon glow and lunar twilight rays, like Earth's crepuscular rays.", "This Apollo 17 sketch depicts the glow and rays among the general zodiacal light.The Moon has an atmosphere so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum, with a total mass of less than .", "The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10−15 atm (0.3 nPa); it varies with the lunar day.", "Its sources include outgassing and sputtering, a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions.", "Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium, produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io); helium-4 and neon from the solar wind; and argon-40, radon-222, and polonium-210, outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle.", "The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules) as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and magnesium, which are present in the regolith, is not understood.", "Water vapor has been detected by ''Chandrayaan-1'' and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith.", "These gases either return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's magnetic field.Studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions demonstrate that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago.", "This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the thickness of that of present-day Mars.", "The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space.A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon, generated by small particles from comets.", "Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours, resulting in the ejection of dust particles.", "The dust stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall.", "On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising up to 100 kilometers above the surface.", "Dust counts made by LADEE's Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX) found particle counts peaked during the Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers, when the Earth, and Moon pass through comet debris.", "The lunar dust cloud is asymmetric, being more dense near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and nightside.===Surface conditions===Gene Cernan with lunar dust stuck on his suit.", "Lunar dust is highly abrasive and can cause damage to human lungs, nervous, and cardiovascular systems.Ionizing radiation from cosmic rays, the Sun and the resulting neutron radiation produce radiation levels on average of 1.369 millisieverts per day during lunar daytime, which is about 2.6 times more than on the International Space Station with 0.53 millisieverts per day at about 400 km above Earth in orbit, 5-10 times more than during a trans-Atlantic flight, 200 times more than on Earth's surface.", "For further comparison radiation on a flight to Mars is about 1.84 millisieverts per day and on Mars on average 0.64 millisieverts per day, with some locations on Mars possibly having levels as low as 0.342 millisieverts per day.The Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5427°, much less than the 23.44° of Earth.", "Because of this small tilt, the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season than on Earth and it allows for the existence of some peaks of eternal light at the Moon's north pole, at the rim of the crater Peary.The surface is exposed to drastic temperature differences ranging from to depending on the solar irradiance.Because of the lack of atmosphere, temperatures of different areas vary particularly upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow, making topographical details play a decisive role on local surface temperatures.Parts of many craters, particularly the bottoms of many polar craters, are permanently shadowed, these \"craters of eternal darkness\" have extremely low temperatures.", "The ''Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter'' measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at and just close to the winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite.", "This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the surface of Pluto.Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (broken into ever smaller particles) and impact gardened mostly gray surface layer called regolith, formed by impact processes.", "The finer regolith, the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass, has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder.", "The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from in the highlands and in the maria.", "Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the ''megaregolith'', a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometers thick.These extreme conditions for example are considered to make it unlikely for spacecraft to harbor bacterial spores at the Moon longer than just one lunar orbit.===Surface features===Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt next to a large Moon boulderThe topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis.", "Its most extensive topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin, some in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System.", "At deep, its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon.", "The highest elevations of the Moon's surface are located directly to the northeast, which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin.", "Other large impact basins such as Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, and Orientale possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims.", "The far side of the lunar surface is on average about higher than that of the near side.The discovery of fault scarp cliffs suggest that the Moon has shrunk by about 90 metres (300 ft) within the past billion years.", "Similar shrinkage features exist on Mercury.", "Mare Frigoris, a basin near the north pole long assumed to be geologically dead, has cracked and shifted.", "Since the Moon does not have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow and cracks develop as it loses heat.==== Volcanic features ====maria (blue) and some crater (brown) features of the near side of the MoonThe main features visible from Earth by the naked eye are dark and relatively featureless lunar plains called ''maria'' (singular ''mare''; Latin for \"seas\", as they were once believed to be filled with water) are vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava.", "Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water.", "The majority of these lava deposits erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins.", "Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side \"maria\".Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near side compared with 2% of the far side.", "This is likely due to a concentration of heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt.", "Most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some being as young as 1.2 billion years and as old as 4.2 billion years.hardened lava flows of Mare Imbrium forming wrinkle ridgesIn 2006, a study of Ina, a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis, found jagged, relatively dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years old.", "Moonquakes and releases of gas indicate continued lunar activity.", "Evidence of recent lunar volcanism has been identified at 70 irregular mare patches, some less than 50 million years old.", "This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of radioactive elements.", "Evidence has been found for 2–10 million years old basaltic volcanism within the crater Lowell, inside the Orientale basin.", "Some combination of an initially hotter mantle and local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities on the far side in the Orientale basin.The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are called ''terrae'', or more commonly ''highlands'', because they are higher than most maria.", "They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago, and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean.", "In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events.The concentration of maria on the near side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon's formation.", "Alternatively, it may be a consequence of asymmetrical tidal heating when the Moon was much closer to the Earth.====Impact craters====Daedalus on the Moon's far sideA major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact cratering, with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface.", "There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than on the Moon's near side.", "The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact events, including Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale; structures characterized by multiple rings of uplifted material, between hundreds and thousands of kilometers in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon.", "The lack of an atmosphere, weather, and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved.", "Although only a few multi-ring basins have been definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages.", "Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.", "The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment period of increased impacts.High-resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the 2010s show a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than was previously estimated.", "A secondary cratering process caused by distal ejecta is thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith on a timescale of 81,000 years.", "This rate is 100 times faster than the rate computed from models based solely on direct micrometeorite impacts.====Lunar swirls====Wide angle image of a lunar swirl, the 70 kilometer long Reiner GammaLunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface.", "They are characterized by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e.", "the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith), and often have a sinuous shape.", "Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls.", "They are located in places with enhanced surface magnetic fields and many are located at the antipodal point of major impacts.", "Well known swirls include the Reiner Gamma feature and Mare Ingenii.", "They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from the solar wind, resulting in slower space weathering.=== Presence of water ===Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface.", "When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space.", "However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen from solar wind, leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon.", "Computer simulations suggest that up to of the surface may be in permanent shadow.", "The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive.In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface.", "In 1994, the bistatic radar experiment located on the ''Clementine'' spacecraft, indicated the existence of small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface.", "However, later radar observations by Arecibo, suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters.", "In 1998, the neutron spectrometer on the ''Lunar Prospector'' spacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions.", "Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior.In 2008, NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper equipment on India's ''Chandrayaan-1'' discovered, for the first time, water-rich minerals (shown in blue around a small crater from which they were ejected).|300x300pxThe 2008 ''Chandrayaan-1'' spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper.", "The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl, in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar surface.", "The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm.", "Using the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20° latitude of both poles in 2018.In 2009, ''LCROSS'' sent a impactor into a permanently shadowed polar crater, and detected at least of water in a plume of ejected material.", "Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to .In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 was reported, the famous high-titanium \"orange glass soil\" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972.The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago.", "This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle.", "Although of considerable selenological interest, this insight does not mean that water is easily available since the sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time \"definitive evidence\" for water-ice on the lunar surface.", "The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.", "The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun.In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)." ], [ "Earth–Moon system", "===Orbit===A view of the rotating Earth and the far side of the Moon as the Moon passes on its orbit in between the observing DSCOVR satellite and EarthThe Earth and the Moon form the Earth-Moon satellite system with a shared center of mass, or barycenter.", "This barycenter is (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the Earth's surface.The Moon's orbit is slightly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.055.The semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit, called the lunar distance, is approximately 400,000 km (250,000 miles or 1.28 light-seconds), comparable to going around Earth 9.5 times.The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars, its sidereal period, about once every 27.3 days.", "However, because the Earth-Moon system moves at the same time in its orbit around the Sun, it takes slightly longer, 29.5 days, to return at the same lunar phase, completing a full cycle, as seen from Earth.", "This synodic period or synodic month is commonly known as the lunar month and is equal to the length of the solar day on the Moon.Due to tidal locking, the Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance.", "This rotation–orbit ratio makes the Moon's orbital periods around Earth equal to its corresponding rotation periods.", "This is the reason for only one side of the Moon, its so-called near side, being visible from Earth.", "That said, while the movement of the Moon is in resonance, it still is not without nuances such as libration, resulting in slightly changing perspectives, making over time and location on Earth about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth.Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon's orbital plane is closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet's equatorial plane.", "The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways.", "For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates once every 18.61years, which affects other aspects of lunar motion.", "These follow-on effects are mathematically described by Cassini's laws.Minimum, mean and maximum distances of the Moon from Earth with its angular diameter as seen from Earth's surface, to scale===Tidal effects===Simplified diagram of the Moon's gravity tidal effect on the EarthThe gravitational attraction that Earth and the Moon (as well as the Sun) exert on each other manifests in a slightly greater attraction on the sides closest to each other, resulting in tidal forces.", "Ocean tides are the most widely experienced result of this, but tidal forces also considerably affect other mechanics of Earth, as well as the Moon and their system.The lunar solid crust experiences tides of around amplitude over 27 days, with three components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination, and a small varying component from the Sun.", "The Earth-induced variable component arises from changing distance and libration, a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity and inclination (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular and un-inclined, there would only be solar tides).", "According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's influence on the Earth may contribute to maintaining Earth's magnetic field.The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes.", "Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of scattering of the seismic vibrations in the dry fragmented upper crust.", "The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972.The most commonly known effect of tidal forces are elevated sea levels called ocean tides.", "While the Moon exerts most of the tidal forces, the Sun also exerts tidal forces and therefore contributes to the tides as much as 40% of the Moon's tidal force; producing in interplay the spring and neap tides.The tides are two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite.", "As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place \"under\" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite.", "As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours.", "Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth.If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects:* the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors* the inertia of water's movement* ocean basins that grow shallower near land* the sloshing of water between different ocean basinsAs a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.====System evolution====Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides cause torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation.", "This \"drains\" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation.", "That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process known as tidal acceleration, which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth.Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction.", "Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by per year (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow).Atomic clocks show that Earth's day lengthens by about 17 microseconds every year, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds.This tidal drag makes the rotation of the Earth and the orbital period of the Moon very slowly match.", "This matching first results in tidally locking the lighter body of the orbital system, as is already the case with the Moon.", "Theoretically, in 50 billion years, the Earth's rotation will have slowed to the point of matching the Moon's orbital period, causing the Earth to always present the same side to the Moon.", "However, the Sun will become a red giant, most likely engulfing the Earth-Moon system long before then.If the Earth-Moon system isn't engulfed by the enlarged Sun, the drag from the solar atmosphere can cause the orbit of the Moon to decay.", "Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of , it will cross Earth's Roche limit, meaning that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon, turning it into a ring system.", "Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay, and the debris will impact Earth.", "Hence, even if the Sun does not swallow up Earth, the planet may be left moonless." ], [ "Position and appearance", "Libration, the slight variation in the Moon's apparent size and viewing angle over a single lunar month as viewed from Earth's northThe Moon's highest altitude at culmination varies by its lunar phase, or more correctly its orbital position, and time of the year, or more correctly the position of the Earth's axis.", "The full moon is highest in the sky during winter and lowest during summer (for each hemisphere respectively), with its altitude changing towards dark moon to the opposite.At the North and South Poles the Moon is 24 hours above the horizon for two weeks every tropical month (about 27.3 days), comparable to the polar day of the tropical year.", "Zooplankton in the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end.The apparent orientation of the Moon depends on its position in the sky and the hemisphere of the Earth from which it is being viewed.", "In the northern hemisphere it appears upside down compared to the view from the southern hemisphere.", "Sometimes the \"horns\" of a crescent moon appear to be pointing more upwards than sideways.", "This phenomenon is called a wet moon and occurs more frequently in the tropics.The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around (perigee) to (apogee), making the Moon's distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14%.", "On average the Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52°, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see ).", "In addition, a purely psychological effect, known as the Moon illusion, makes the Moon appear larger when close to the horizon.Despite the Moon's tidal locking, the effect of libration makes about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth over the course of one month.===Rotation===Comparison between the Moon on the left, rotating tidally locked (correct), and with the Moon on the right, without rotation (incorrect)The tidally locked synchronous rotation of the Moon as it orbits the Earth results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards the planet.", "The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side, and the opposite the far side.", "The far side is often inaccurately called the \"dark side\", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days.", "During dark moon to new moon, the near side is dark.The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth.", "With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth.", "In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the 1998-99 NASA ''Lunar Prospector'' mission, found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon.", "It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth.===Illumination and phases===phases of the Moon that result, as viewed from the Northern Hemisphere.", "The Earth–Moon distance is not to scale.Half of the Moon's surface is always illuminated by the Sun (except during a lunar eclipse).", "Earth also reflects light onto the Moon, observable at times as Earthlight when it is reflected back to Earth from areas of the near side of the Moon that are not illuminated by the Sun.Since the Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is 1.5427°, in every draconic year (346.62 days) the Sun moves from being 1.5427° north of the lunar equator to being 1.5427° south of it and then back, just as on Earth the Sun moves from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn and back once every tropical year.", "The poles of the Moon are therefore in the dark for half a draconic year (or with only part of the Sun visible) and then lit for half a draconic year.", "The amount of sunlight falling on horizontal areas near the poles depends on the altitude angle of the Sun.", "But these \"seasons\" have little effect in more equatorial areas.With the different positions of the Moon, different areas of it are illuminated by the Sun.", "This illumination of different lunar areas, as viewed from Earth, produces the different lunar phases during the synodic month.", "The phase is equal to the area of the visible lunar sphere that is illuminated by the Sun.", "This area or ''degree of illumination'' is given by , where is the elongation (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer on Earth, and the Sun).Brightness and apparent size of the Moon changes also due to its elliptic orbit around Earth.", "At perigee (closest), since the Moon is up to 14% closer to Earth than at apogee (most distant), it subtends a solid angle which is up to 30% larger.", "Consequently, given the same phase, the Moon's brightness also varies by up to 30% between apogee and perigee.", "A full (or new) moon at such a position is called a supermoon.====Observational phenomena====There has been historical controversy over whether observed features on the Moon's surface change over time.", "Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings.", "However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena.", "Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago.===Albedo and color===The changing apparent color of the Moon, filtered by Earth's atmosphereThe Moon has an exceptionally low albedo, giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt.", "Despite this, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun.", "This is due partly to the brightness enhancement of the opposition surge; the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as bright, rather than half as bright, as at full moon.", "Additionally, color constancy in the visual system recalibrates the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object.", "The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the center, without limb darkening, because of the reflective properties of lunar soil, which retroreflects light more towards the Sun than in other directions.", "The Moon's color depends on the light the Moon reflects, which in turn depends on the Moon's surface and its features, having for example large darker regions.", "In general the lunar surface reflects a brown-tinged gray light.At times, the Moon can appear red or blue.It may appear red during a lunar eclipse, because of the red spectrum of the Sun's light being refracted onto the Moon by Earth's atmosphere.", "Because of this red colour, lunar eclipses are also sometimes called blood moons.", "The Moon can also seem red when it appears at low angles and through a thick atmosphere.The Moon may appear blue depending on the presence of certain particles in the air, such as volcanic particles, in which case it can be called a blue moon.", "Because the words \"red moon\" and \"blue moon\" can also be used to refer to specific full moons of the year, they do not always refer to the presence of red or blue moonlight.=== Eclipses ===Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed \"syzygy\").", "Solar eclipses occur at new moon, when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth.", "In contrast, lunar eclipses occur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon.", "The apparent size of the Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree wide.", "The Sun is much larger than the Moon but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth.", "The variations in apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though occurring in different cycles.", "This makes possible both total (with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun) and annular (with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses.", "In a total eclipse, the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked eye.", "Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time, the angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing.", "As it evolves toward becoming a red giant, the size of the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing.", "The combination of these two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover the Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible.", "Likewise, hundreds of millions of years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not occur.Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9') to the orbit of Earth around the Sun, eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon.", "For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes.", "The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros, which has a period of approximately 18 years.Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky, the related phenomenon of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden from view.", "In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun.", "Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time.", "Because of the precession of the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted." ], [ "History of exploration and human presence", "===Pre-telescopic observation (before 1609)===It is believed by some that 20–30,000 year old tally sticks were used to observe the phases of the Moon, keeping time using the waxing and waning of the Moon's phases.One of the earliest-discovered possible depictions of the Moon is a 5000-year-old rock carving ''Orthostat 47'' at Knowth, Ireland.The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras () reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former.", "Elsewhere in the to , Babylonian astronomers had recorded the 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses, and Indian astronomers had described the Moon's monthly elongation.", "The Chinese astronomer Shi Shen gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses.In Aristotle's (384–322 BC) description of the universe, the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether, an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries.", "Archimedes (287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System.", "In the , Seleucus of Seleucia correctly theorized that tides were due to the attraction of the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.", "In the same century, Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance.Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to ''qi'', their 'radiating influence' theory recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, and Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon.", "Ptolemy (90–168 AD) greatly improved on the numbers of Aristarchus, calculating a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and a diameter of 0.292 Earth diameters, close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273 respectively.", "In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel ''A True Story'', in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants.", "In 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his ''Aryabhatiya'' that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon.", "The astronomer and physicist Alhazen (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions.", "Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognised as a sphere, though many believed that it was \"perfectly smooth\".=== Telescopic exploration (1609–1959) ===Galileo's sketches of the Moon from the ground-breaking ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (1610), publishing among other findings the first descriptions of the Moon's topographyIn 1609, Galileo Galilei used an early telescope to make drawings of the Moon for his book , and deduced that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters.", "Thomas Harriot had made, but not published such drawings a few months earlier.Telescopic mapping of the Moon followed: later in the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today.", "The more exact 1834–1836 of Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler, and their associated 1837 book , the first trigonometrically accurate study of lunar features, included the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies possible in earthly geography.", "Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to be volcanic until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor that they were formed by collisions.", "This view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert, and from comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s, leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy, which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology.===First missions to the Moon (1959–1990)===After World War II the first launch systems were developed and by the end of the 1950s they reached capabilities that allowed the Soviet Union and the United States to launch spacecraft into space.", "The Cold War fueled a closely followed development of launch systems by the two states, resulting in the so-called Space Race and its later phase the Moon Race, accelerating efforts and interest in exploration of the Moon.First view of the far side of the Moon, taken by Luna 3, 7 October 1959.Clearly visible is Mare Moscoviense (top right) and a mare triplet of Mare Crisium, Mare Marginis and Mare Smythii (left center).After the first spaceflight of Sputnik 1 in 1957 during International Geophysical Year the spacecraft of the Soviet Union's ''Luna'' program were the first to accomplish a number of goals.", "Following three unnamed failed missions in 1958, the first human-made object ''Luna 1'' escaped Earth's gravity and passed near the Moon in 1959.Later that year the first human-made object ''Luna 2'' reached the Moon's surface by intentionally impacting.", "By the end of the year ''Luna 3'' reached as the first human-made object the normally occluded far side of the Moon, taking the first photographs of it.The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was ''Luna 9'' and the first vehicle to orbit the Moon was ''Luna 10'', both in 1966.", "''Earthrise'', the first color image of Earth taken by a human from the Moon, during Apollo 8 (1968) the first time a crewed spacecraft left Earth orbit and reached another astronomical body|alt=The small blue-white semicircle of Earth, almost glowing with color in the blackness of space, rising over the limb of the desolate, cratered surface of the Moon.Following President John F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a crewed Moon landing before the end of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Ranger program, the Lunar Orbiter program and the Surveyor program.", "The crewed Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar human landing, in 1968 Apollo 8 made the first human mission to lunar orbit (the first Earthlings, two tortoises, had circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union's Zond 5, followed by turtles on Zond 6).", "The subsequent landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969 is seen by many as the culmination of the Space Race.Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American mission Apollo 11 by first setting foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on 21 July 1969.An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time.", "The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo 13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed of lunar rock and soil in 2,196 separate samples.Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings.", "Long-lived instrument stations, including heat flow probes, seismometers, and magnetometers, were installed at the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites.", "Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations, but as the stations' lunar laser ranging corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used.Apollo 17 in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon.", "Explorer 49 in 1973 was the last dedicated U.S. probe to the Moon until the 1990s.The Soviet Union continued sending robotic missions to the Moon until 1976, deploying in 1970 with Luna 17 the first remote controlled rover Lunokhod 1 on an extraterrestrial surface, and collecting and returning 0.3 kg of rock and soil samples with three ''Luna'' sample return missions (''Luna 16'' in 1970, ''Luna 20'' in 1972, and ''Luna 24'' in 1976).=== Moon Treaty and explorational absence (1976–1990) ===A near lunar quietude of fourteen years followed the last Soviet mission to the Moon of 1976.Astronautics had shifted its focus towards the exploration of the inner (e.g.", "Venera program) and outer (e.g.", "Pioneer 10, 1972) Solar System planets, but also towards Earth orbit, developing and continuously operating, beside communication satellites, Earth observation satellites (e.g.", "Landsat program, 1972), space telescopes and particularly space stations (e.g.", "Salyut program, 1971).The until 1979 negotiated Moon treaty, with its ratification in 1984 by its few signatories was about the only major activity regarding the Moon until 1990.===Renewed exploration (1990–present)===450x450pxIn 1990 ''Hiten''-''Hagoromo'', the first dedicated lunar mission since 1976, reached the Moon.", "Sent by Japan, it became the first mission that was not a Soviet Union or U.S. mission to the Moon.In 1994, the U.S. dedicated a mission to fly a spacecraft (''Clementine'') to the Moon again for the first time since 1973.This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the first global multispectral images of the lunar surface.", "In 1998, this was followed by the ''Lunar Prospector'' mission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles, which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the regolith within permanently shadowed craters.The next years saw a row of first missions to the Moon by a new group of states actively exploring the Moon.Between 2004 and 2006 the first spacecraft by the European Space Agency (ESA) (''SMART-1'') reached the Moon, recording the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface.The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program began with ''Chang'e 1'' between 2007 and 2009, obtaining a full image map of the Moon.India reached the Moon in 2008 for the first time with its ''Chandrayaan-1'', creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil.The U.S. launched the ''Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter'' (LRO) and the ''LCROSS'' impactor on 18 June 2009.", "''LCROSS'' completed its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the crater Cabeus on 9 October 2009, whereas ''LRO'' is currently in operation, obtaining precise lunar altimetry and high-resolution imagery.China continued its lunar program in 2010 with ''Chang'e 2'', mapping the surface at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, and in 2013 with ''Chang'e 3'', a lunar lander along with a lunar rover named ''Yutu'' ().", "This was the first lunar rover mission since ''Lunokhod 2'' in 1973 and the first lunar soft landing since ''Luna 24'' in 1976.In 2014 the first privately funded probe, the Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, reached the Moon.Another Chinese rover mission, ''Chang'e 4'', achieved the first landing on the Moon's far side in early 2019.Also in 2019, India successfully sent its second probe, ''Chandrayaan-2'' to the Moon.In 2020, China carried out its first robotic sample return mission (''Chang'e 5''), bringing back 1,731 grams of lunar material to Earth.With the signing of the U.S.-led Artemis Accords in 2020, the Artemis program aims to return the astronauts to the Moon in the 2020s.", "The Accords have been joined by a growing number of countries.", "The introduction of the Artemis Accords has fueled a renewed discussion about the international framework and cooperation of lunar activity, building on the Moon Treaty and the ESA-led Moon Village concept.", "The U.S. developed plans for returning to the Moon beginning in 2004, which resulted in several programs.", "The Artemis program has advanced the farthest, and includes plans to send the first woman to the Moon as well as build an international lunar space station called Lunar Gateway.On 19 January 2024, Japan became the fifth country to land a spacecraft on the moon, following the Soviet Union, United States, China, and India.===Future===Orion spacecraft's flyby of the Moon in the Artemis 1 missionUpcoming lunar missions include the Artemis program missions and Russia's first lunar mission, ''Luna-Glob'': an uncrewed lander with a set of seismometers, and an orbiter based on its failed Martian ''Fobos-Grunt'' mission.In 2021, China announced a plan with Russia to develop and construct an International Lunar Research Station in the 2030s." ], [ "Human presence", " Humans last landed on the Moon during the Apollo Program, a series of crewed exploration missions carried out from 1969 to 1972.Lunar orbit has seen uninterrupted presence of orbiters since 2006, performing mainly lunar observation and providing relayed communication for robotic missions on the lunar surface.Lunar orbits and orbits around Earth–Moon Lagrange points are used to establish a near-lunar infrastructure to enable increasing human activity in cislunar space as well as on the Moon's surface.", "Missions at the far side of the Moon or the lunar north and south polar regions need spacecraft with special orbits, such as the Queqiao relay satellite or the planned first extraterrestrial space station, the Lunar Gateway.=== Human impact ===Apollo 17's Lunar Surface Experiments Package|thumb|rightWhile the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization, its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed.", "If there is astronomy performed from the Moon, it will need to be free from any physical and radio pollution.", "While the Moon has no significant atmosphere, traffic and impacts on the Moon causes clouds of dust that can spread far and possibly contaminate the original state of the Moon and its special scientific content.", "Scholar Alice Gorman asserts that, although the Moon is inhospitable, it is not dead, and that sustainable human activity would require treating the Moon's ecology as a co-participant.The so-called \"Tardigrade affair\" of the 2019 crashed Beresheet lander and its carrying of tardigrades has been discussed as an example for lacking measures and lacking international regulation for planetary protection.Space debris beyond Earth around the Moon has been considered as a future challenge with increasing numbers of missions to the Moon, particularly as a danger for such missions.", "As such lunar waste management has been raised as an issue which future lunar missions, particularly on the surface, need to tackle.Human remains on the Moon, particularly of deceased humans, have been an issue of desecration of the venerated Moon.", "Raised by indigenous peoples at least since the first extraterrestrial space burial, the crashing of remains of Eugene Shoemaker with the Lunar Prospector probe in 1999 at the Shoemaker crater of the lunar south pole region.Beside the remains of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent installations like the ''Moon Museum'' art piece, Apollo 11 goodwill messages, six lunar plaques, the ''Fallen Astronaut'' memorial, and other artifacts.Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009-launched Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter surveilling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as the 2013-launched Chang'e 3 with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational.Five retroreflectors have been installed on the Moon since the 1970s and since used for accurate measurements of the physical librations through laser ranging to the Moon.There are several missions by different agencies and companies planned to establish a longterm human presence on the Moon, with the Lunar Gateway as the currently most advanced project as part of the Artemis program.===Astronomy from the Moon===LCRT concept for a radio telescope on the MoonThe Moon is recognized as an excellent site for telescopes.", "It is relatively nearby; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold and especially useful for infrared telescopes; and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth.", "The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.", "A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid.In April 1972, the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.The Moon has been also a site of Earth observation, particularly culturally as in the photograph called ''Earthrise''.", "The Earth appears in the Moon's sky with an apparent size of 1° 48 to 2°, three to four times the size of the Moon or Sun in Earth's sky, or about the apparent width of two little fingers at an arm's length away.===Living on the Moon===Astronaut Buzz Aldrin in life-supporting suit looking back at the first lunar habitat and base, the Lunar Module ''Eagle'' of Tranquility Base, during Apollo 11 (1969), the first crewed Moon landingThe only instances of humans living on the Moon have taken place in an Apollo Lunar Module for several days at a time (for example, during the Apollo 17 mission).", "One challenge to astronauts during their stay on the surface is that lunar dust sticks to their suits and is carried into their quarters.", "Astronauts could taste and smell the dust, calling it the \"Apollo aroma\".", "This fine lunar dust can cause health issues.In 2019, at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment on the Chang'e 4 lander.", "It was carried from Earth along with other small life in its ''Lunar Micro Ecosystem''." ], [ "Legal status", "Although ''Luna'' landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface.", "Likewise no private ownership of parts of the Moon, or as a whole, is considered credible.The 1967 Outer Space Treaty defines the Moon and all outer space as the \"province of all mankind\".", "It restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction.", "A majority of countries are parties of this treaty.The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to elaborate, and restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources by any single nation, leaving it to a yet unspecified international regulatory regime.", "As of January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by 18 nations, none of which have human spaceflight capabilities.Since 2020, countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords, which are challenging the treaty.", "The U.S. has furthermore emphasized in a presidential executive order (\"Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources.\")", "that \"the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons and calls the Moon Agreement \"a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise.", "\"With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty in 1986 as well as the Artemis Accords in 2020, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized.", "In this light an ''Implementation Agreement'' for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws and agreements such as the Artemis Accords, allowing it to be more widely accepted.In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories, U.S. lawmakers have introduced in late 2020 specific regulation for the conservation of historic landing sites and interest groups have argued for making such sites World Heritage Sites and zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization of the Moon.In 2021, the ''Declaration of the Rights of the Moon'' was created by a group of \"lawyers, space archaeologists and concerned citizens\", drawing on precedents in the Rights of Nature movement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space.===Coordination===In light of future development on the Moon some international and multi-space agency organizations have been created:* International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG)* Moon Village Association (MVA)* International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG)" ], [ "In culture and life", "===Timekeeping===The Venus of Laussel (c. 25,000 BP) holding a crescent shaped horn.", "The 13 notches on the horn may symbolize the average number of days from menstruation to an ovulation, or the approximate number of full menstrual cycles and lunar cycles per year (although these two phenomena are unrelated).Since pre-historic times people have taken note of the Moon's phases and its waxing and waning cycle, and used it to keep record of time.", "Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.", "The counting of the days between the Moon's phases gave eventually rise to generalized time periods of lunar cycles as months, and possibly of its phases as weeks.The words for the month in a range of different languages carry this relation between the period of the month and the Moon etymologically.", "The English ''month'' as well as ''moon'', and its cognates in other Indo-European languages (e.g.", "the Latin and Ancient Greek (''meis'') or (mēn), meaning \"month\") stem from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root of ''moon'', *''méh1nōt'', derived from the PIE verbal root *''meh1''-, \"to measure\", \"indicating a functional conception of the Moon, i.e.", "marker of the month\" (cf.", "the English words ''measure'' and ''menstrual'').", "To give another example from a different language family, the Chinese language uses the same word () for ''moon'' as well as for ''month'', which furthermore can be found in the symbols for the word ''week'' ().This lunar timekeeping gave rise to the historically dominant, but varied, lunisolar calendars.", "The 7th-century Islamic calendar is an example of a purely lunar calendar, where months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.Of particular significance has been the occasion of full moon, highlighted and celebrated in a range of calendars and cultures, an example being the Buddhist Vesak.", "The full moon around the southern or northern autumnal equinox is often called the harvest moon and is celebrated with festivities such as the Harvest Moon Festival of the Chinese lunar calendar, its second most important celebration after the Chinese lunisolar Lunar New Year.Furthermore, association of time with the Moon can also be found in religion, such as the ancient Egyptian temporal and lunar deity Khonsu.===Cultural representation===Since prehistoric and ancient times humans have drawn the Moon and have described a range of understandings of it, having prominent importance in different cosmologies, often exhibiting a spirit, being a deity or an aspect, particularly in astrology.rural municipality of Hyvinkää.For the representation of the Moon, especially its lunar phases, the crescent symbol (🌙) has been particularly used by many cultures.", "In writing systems such as Chinese the crescent has developed into the symbol , the word for Moon, and in ancient Egyptian it was the symbol , which is spelled like the ancient Egyptian lunar deity ''Iah'', meaning Moon.Iconographically the crescent was used in Mesopotamia as the primary symbol of Nanna/Sîn, the ancient Sumerian lunar deity, who was the father of Innana/Ishtar, the goddess of the planet Venus (symbolized as the eight pointed Star of Ishtar), and Utu/Shamash, the god of the Sun (symbolized as a disc, optionally with eight rays), all three often depicted next to each other.", "Nanna was later known as Sîn, and was particularly associated with magic and sorcery.The crescent was further used as an element of lunar deities wearing headgears or crowns in an arrangement reminiscent of horns, as in the case of the ancient Greek Selene or the ancient Egyptian Khonsu.", "Selene is associated with Artemis and paralleled by the Roman Luna, which both are occasionally depicted driving a chariot, like the Hindu lunar deity Chandra.", "The different or sharing aspects of deities within pantheons has been observed in many cultures, especially by later or contemporary culture, particularly forming triple deities.", "The Moon in Roman mythology for example has been associated with Juno and Diana, while Luna being identified as their byname and as part of a triplet (''diva triformis'') with Diana and Proserpina, Hecate being identified as their binding manifestation as ''trimorphos''.The star and crescent (☪️) arrangement goes back to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and planet Venus, in combination.", "It came to represent the goddess Artemis or Hecate, and via the patronage of Hecate came to be used as a symbol of Byzantium, possibly influencing the development of the Ottoman flag, specifically the combination of the Turkish crescent with a star.Since then the heraldric use of the star and crescent proliferated becoming a popular symbol for Islam (as the ''hilal'' of the Islamic calendar) and for a range of nations.In Roman Catholic Marian veneration, the Virgin Mary (Queen of Heaven) has been depicted since the late Middle Ages on a crescent and adorned with stars.", "In Islam Muhammad is particularly attributed with the Moon through the so-called splitting of the Moon () miracle.The contrast between the brighter highlands and the darker maria have been seen by different cultures forming abstract shapes, which are among others the Man in the Moon or the Moon Rabbit (e.g.", "the Chinese Tu'er Ye or in Indigenous American mythologies, as with the aspect of the Mayan Moon goddess).In Western alchemy silver is associated with the Moon, and gold with the Sun.=== Modern culture representation ===The perception of the Moon in modern times has been informed by telescope enabled modern astronomy and later by spaceflight enabled actual human activity at the Moon, particularly the culturally impactful lunar landings.", "These new insights inspired cultural references, connecting romantic reflections about the Moon and speculative fiction such as science-fiction dealing with the Moon.Contemporarily the Moon has been seen as a place for economic expansion into space, with missions prospecting for lunar resources.", "This has been accompanied with renewed public and critical reflection on humanity's cultural and legal relation to the celestial body, especially regarding colonialism, as in the 1970 poem \"Whitey on the Moon\".", "In this light the Moon's nature has been invoked, particularly for lunar conservation and as a common.In 2021 the 20th of July, the date of the first crewed moon landing, became the annual ''International Moon Day''.===Lunar effect===The lunar effect is a purported unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans.", "The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the words ''lunacy'' and ''lunatic'' are derived from the Latin name for the Moon, ''Luna''.", "Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.", "Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but dozens of studies invalidate these claims." ], [ "See also", "*List of natural satellites*Selenography (geography of the Moon)" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * (podcast and transcript)* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* NASA images and videos about the Moon* Albums of images and high-resolution overflight videos by Seán Doran, based on LROC data, on Flickr and YouTube* * ===Cartographic resources===* Unified Geologic Map of the Moon – United States Geological Survey* Moon Trek – An integrated map browser of datasets and maps for the Moon* The Moon on Google Maps, a 3-D rendition of the Moon akin to Google Earth* * Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (USGS) List of feature names.", "* * 3D zoomable globes:** ** * Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites* Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) Kaguya (Selene) images* Lunar Earthside chart (4497 x 3150px)* Large image of the Moon's north pole area ===Observation tools===* * * See when the next new crescent moon is visible for any location." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marco Polo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marco Polo''' (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295.His travels are recorded in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marvels of the World '' and ''Il Milione'', ), a book that described to Europeans the then-mysterious culture and inner workings of the Eastern world, including the wealth and great size of the Mongol Empire and China in the Yuan Dynasty, giving their first comprehensive look into China, Persia, India, Japan and other Asian cities and countries.Born in Venice, Marco learned the mercantile trade from his father and his uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, who travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan.", "In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time.", "The three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia, exploring many places along the Silk Road until they reached Cathay (China).", "They were received by the royal court of Kublai Khan, who was impressed by Marco's intelligence and humility.", "Marco was appointed to serve as Kublai's foreign emissary, and he was sent on many diplomatic missions throughout the empire and Southeast Asia, such as in present-day Burma, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.", "As part of this appointment, Marco also travelled extensively inside China, living in the emperor's lands for 17 years and seeing many things that had previously been unknown to Europeans.", "Around 1291, the Polos also offered to accompany the Mongol princess Kököchin to Persia; they arrived around 1293.After leaving the princess, they travelled overland to Constantinople and then to Venice, returning home after 24 years.", "At this time, Venice was at war with Genoa; Marco was captured and imprisoned by the Genoans after joining the war effort and dictated his stories to Rustichello da Pisa, a cellmate.", "He was released in 1299, became a wealthy merchant, married, and had three children.", "He died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice.Though he was not the first European to reach China, Marco Polo was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience.", "This account of the Orient provided the Europeans with a clear picture of the East's geography and ethnic customs, and was the first Western record of porcelain, gunpowder, paper money, and some Asian plants and exotic animals.", "His travel book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travellers.", "There is substantial literature based on Polo's writings; he also influenced European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Catalan Atlas and the Fra Mauro map." ], [ "Life", "Commemorative plaque on the site of Casa Polo in Venice, part of the Teatro Malibran which was built upon Polo's house, Venice, next to Polo's house, is named after the nickname of Polo, === Family origin ===Marco Polo was born around 1254 in Venice, but the exact date and place of birth are archivally unknown.", "The \"Travels of Marco Polo\" contains some basic information concerning Marco Polo's Venetian family and his birth in Venice; the book states that Marco's father, the travelling merchant Niccolò Polo, returned to visit his family in his hometown of Venice around 1269 and there found out that his wife, whom he had left pregnant, had died and left her 15-year-old son named Marco.In contrast to the general consensus, there are theories suggesting that Marco Polo's birthplace was the island of Korčula or Constantinople but such hypotheses failed to gain acceptance among most scholars and have been countered by other studies.", "There has also been dispute as to whether the Polo family is of Venetian origin because their exact origin is also unknown.", "There existed at least two families of the same surname in Venice, one in the San Geremia district, and another in the San Giovanni Grisostomo where was Marco's family house (he is mentioned in 1323 as ), and their members and coat of arms are often mistaken in the sources.", "Some Venetian sources of the 15th and 16th centuries considered that the family Polo was of Dalmatian origin.", "Placido Zurla in the early 19th century noted that in the historical sources there's a lack of any specific mention related to Polo's family, while Niccolò Tommaseo in the mid-19th century considered Dalmatian origin of the family.", "Some scholars such as Alvise Zorzi argue Venetian origin and that it can be traced up to the 10th century.", "According to another disputed theory their origin and Polo's birthplace was on the island of Korčula, which is influenced by Ramusio's account about Polo's capture during the Battle of Curzola (1298),.According to some sources, in 1168, his great-uncle, Marco Polo \"the Elder\", borrowed money and commanded a ship in Constantinople, and his grandfather Andrea Polo of the parish of San Felice had three sons Maffeo, yet another Marco, and the traveller's father Niccolò.", "This genealogy and information, also probably confusing separate Polo families, created by Giovanni Battista Ramusio in ''Navigationi et Viaggi'' (1559), is not universally accepted as there is no additional evidence to support it.", "It is not known the date of birth of Polo's father Niccolò neither the name of Polo's mother.=== Nickname ===He was nicknamed during his lifetime (which in Italian literally means 'Million').", "In fact, the Italian title of his book was , which means \"The Book of Marco Polo, nicknamed '.", "According to the 15th-century humanist Giovanni Battista Ramusio, his fellow citizens awarded him this nickname when he came back to Venice because he kept on saying that Kublai Khan's wealth was counted in millions.", "More precisely, he was nicknamed (Mr Marco Millions).However, since also his father Niccolò was nicknamed , 19th-century philologist Luigi Foscolo Benedetto was persuaded that was a shortened version of , and that this nickname was used to distinguish Niccolò's and Marco's branch from other Polo families.=== Early life and Asian travel ===Mosaic of Marco Polo displayed in the Palazzo Doria-Tursi, Genoa, ItalyHis father, Niccolò Polo, a merchant, traded with the Near East, becoming wealthy and achieving great prestige.", "Niccolò and his brother Maffeo set off on a trading voyage before Marco's birth.", "In 1260, Niccolò and Maffeo, while residing in Constantinople, then the capital of the Latin Empire, foresaw a political change; they liquidated their assets into jewels and moved away.", "According to ''The Travels of Marco Polo'', they passed through much of Asia, and met with Kublai Khan, a Mongol ruler and founder of the Yuan dynasty.", "Their decision to leave Constantinople proved timely.", "In 1261 Michael VIII Palaiologos, the ruler of the Empire of Nicaea, took Constantinople, promptly burned the Venetian quarter and re-established the Byzantine Empire.", "Captured Venetian citizens were blinded, while many of those who managed to escape perished aboard overloaded refugee ships fleeing to other Venetian colonies in the Aegean Sea.Almost nothing is known about the childhood of Marco Polo until he was fifteen years old, except that he probably spent part of his childhood in Venice.", "Meanwhile, Marco Polo's mother died, and an aunt and uncle raised him.", "He received a good education, learning mercantile subjects including foreign currency, appraising, and the handling of cargo ships; he learned little or no Latin.", "His father later married Floradise Polo (née Trevisan).In 1269, Niccolò and Maffeo returned to their families in Venice, meeting young Marco for the first time.", "In 1271, during the rule of Doge Lorenzo Tiepolo, Marco Polo (at seventeen years of age), his father, and his uncle set off for Asia on the series of adventures that Marco later documented in his book.A close up of the Catalan Atlas depicting Marco Polo travelling to the East during the ''Pax Mongolica''They sailed to Acre and later rode on their camels to the Persian port Hormuz.", "During the first stages of the journey, they stayed for a few months in Acre and were able to speak with Archdeacon Tedaldo Visconti of Piacenza.", "The Polo family, on that occasion, had expressed their regret at the long lack of a pope, because on their previous trip to China they had received a letter from Kublai Khan to the Pope, and had thus had to leave for China disappointed.", "During the trip, however, they received news that after 33 months of vacation, finally, the Conclave had elected the new Pope and that he was exactly the archdeacon of Acre.", "The three of them hurried to return to the Holy Land, where the new Pope entrusted them with letters for the \"Great Khan\", inviting him to send his emissaries to Rome.", "To give more weight to this mission he sent with the Polos, as his legates, two Dominican fathers, Guglielmo of Tripoli and Nicola of Piacenza.They continued overland until they arrived at Kublai Khan's palace in Shangdu, China (then known as Cathay).", "By this time, Marco was 21 years old.", "Impressed by Marco's intelligence and humility, Kublai appointed him to serve as his foreign emissary to India and Burma.", "He was sent on many diplomatic missions throughout his empire and in Southeast Asia, (such as in present-day Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam), but also entertained the Khan with stories and observations about the lands he saw.", "As part of this appointment, Marco travelled extensively inside China, living in the emperor's lands for 17 years.Kublai initially refused several times to let the Polos return to Europe, as he appreciated their company and they became useful to him.", "However, around 1291, he finally granted permission, entrusting the Polos with his last duty: accompany the Mongol princess Kököchin, who was to become the consort of Arghun Khan, in Persia (see ''Narrative'' section).", "After leaving the princess, the Polos travelled overland to Constantinople.", "They later decided to return to their home.They returned to Venice in 1295, after 24 years, with many riches and treasures.", "They had travelled almost .=== Genoese captivity and later life ===16th-century portrait of Marco PoloMarco Polo returned to Venice in 1295 with his fortune converted into gemstones.", "At this time, Venice was at war with the Republic of Genoa.", "Polo armed a galley equipped with a trebuchet to join the war.", "He was probably caught by Genoans in a skirmish in 1296, off the Anatolian coast between Adana and the Gulf of Alexandretta (and not during the battle of Curzola (September 1298), off the Dalmatian coast, a claim which is due to a later tradition (16th century) recorded by Giovanni Battista Ramusio).He spent several months of his imprisonment dictating a detailed account of his travels to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa, who incorporated tales of his own as well as other collected anecdotes and current affairs from China.", "The book soon spread throughout Europe in manuscript form, and became known as ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' (Italian title: '''''Il Milione''''', lit.", "\"The Million\", deriving from Polo's nickname \"Milione\".", "Original title in Franco-Italian : ''Livres des Merveilles du Monde'').", "It depicts the Polos' journeys throughout Asia, giving Europeans their first comprehensive look into the inner workings of the Far East, including China, India, and Japan.Polo was finally released from captivity in August 1299, and returned home to Venice, where his father and uncle in the meantime had purchased a large palazzo in the zone named ''contrada San Giovanni Crisostomo'' (Corte del Milion).", "For such a venture, the Polo family probably invested profits from trading, and even many gemstones they brought from the East.", "The company continued its activities and Marco soon became a wealthy merchant.", "Marco and his uncle Maffeo financed other expeditions, but likely never left Venetian provinces, nor returned to the Silk Road and Asia.", "Sometime before 1300, his father Niccolò died.", "In 1300, he married Donata Badoèr, the daughter of Vitale Badoèr, a merchant.", "They had three daughters, Fantina (married Marco Bragadin), Bellela (married Bertuccio Querini), and Moreta.", "In 2022 was found that Polo first had a daughter Agnese (b.", "1295/1299 - d. 1319) from a partnership or marriage which ended before 1300.Pietro d'Abano philosopher, doctor and astrologer based in Padua, reports having spoken with Marco Polo about what he had observed in the vault of the sky during his travels.", "Marco told him that during his return trip to the South China Sea, he had spotted what he describes in a drawing as a star \"shaped like a sack\" (in Latin: ''ut sacco'') with a big tail (''magna habens caudam''), most likely a comet.", "Astronomers agree that there were no comets sighted in Europe at the end of the thirteenth century, but there are records about a comet sighted in China and Indonesia in 1293.Interestingly, this circumstance does not appear in Polo's book of Travels.", "Peter D'Abano kept the drawing in his volume \"Conciliator Differentiarum, quæ inter Philosophos et Medicos Versantur\".", "Marco Polo gave Pietro other astronomical observations he made in the Southern Hemisphere, and also a description of the Sumatran rhinoceros, which are collected in the ''Conciliator''.In 1305 he is mentioned in a Venetian document among local sea captains regarding the payment of taxes.", "His relation with a certain Marco Polo, who in 1300 was mentioned with riots against the aristocratic government, and escaped the death penalty, as well as riots from 1310 led by Bajamonte Tiepolo and Marco Querini, among whose rebels were Jacobello and Francesco Polo from another family branch, is unclear.", "Polo is clearly mentioned again after 1305 in Maffeo's testament from 1309 to 1310, in a 1319 document according to which he became owner of some estates of his deceased father, and in 1321, when he bought part of the family property of his wife Donata.=== Death ===San Lorenzo'' church in the sestiere of Castello (Venice), where Polo was buried.", "The photo shows the church as it is today, after the 1592 rebuilding.In 1323, Polo was confined to bed, due to illness.", "On 8 January 1324, despite physicians' efforts to treat him, Polo was on his deathbed.", "To write and certify the will, his family requested Giovanni Giustiniani, a priest of San Procolo.", "His wife, Donata, and his three daughters were appointed by him as co-executrices.", "The church was entitled by law to a portion of his estate; he approved of this and ordered that a further sum be paid to the convent of San Lorenzo, the place where he wished to be buried.", "He also set free Peter, a Tartar servant, who may have accompanied him from Asia, and to whom Polo bequeathed 100 lire of Venetian denari.He divided up the rest of his assets, including several properties, among individuals, religious institutions, and every guild and fraternity to which he belonged.", "He also wrote off multiple debts including 300 lire that his sister-in-law owed him, and others for the convent of San Giovanni, San Paolo of the Order of Preachers, and a cleric named Friar Benvenuto.", "He ordered 220 soldi be paid to Giovanni Giustiniani for his work as a notary and his prayers.The will was not signed by Polo, but was validated by the then-relevant \"signum manus\" rule, by which the testator had only to touch the document to make it legally valid.", "Due to the Venetian law stating that the day ends at sunset, the exact date of Marco Polo's death cannot be determined, but according to some scholars it was between the sunsets of 8 and 9 January 1324.Biblioteca Marciana, which holds the original copy of his testament, dates the testament on 9 January 1323, and gives the date of his death at some time in June 1324." ], [ "''The Travels of Marco Polo''", "An authoritative version of Marco Polo's book does not and cannot exist, for the early manuscripts differ significantly, and the reconstruction of the original text is a matter of textual criticism.", "A total of about 150 copies in various languages are known to exist.", "Before the availability of printing press, errors were frequently made during copying and translating, so there are many differences between the various copies.Polo related his memoirs orally to Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic.", "Rustichello wrote ''Devisement du Monde'' in Franco-Venetian.", "The idea probably was to create a handbook for merchants, essentially a text on weights, measures and distances.The oldest surviving manuscript is in Old French heavily flavoured with Italian; According to the Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto, this \"F\" text is the basic original text, which he corrected by comparing it with the somewhat more detailed Italian of Giovanni Battista Ramusio, together with a Latin manuscript in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.", "Other early important sources are R (Ramusio's Italian translation first printed in 1559), and Z (a fifteenth-century Latin manuscript kept at Toledo, Spain).", "Another Old French Polo manuscript, dating to around 1350, is held by the National Library of Sweden.One of the early manuscripts ''Iter Marci Pauli Veneti'' was a translation into Latin made by the Dominican brother in 1302, just a few years after Marco's return to Venice.", "Since Latin was then the most widespread and authoritative language of culture, it is suggested that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for a precise will of the Dominican Order, and this helped to promote the book on a European scale.The first English translation is the Elizabethan version by John Frampton published in 1579, ''The most noble and famous travels of Marco Polo'', based on Santaella's Castilian translation of 1503 (the first version in that language).The published editions of Polo's book rely on single manuscripts, blend multiple versions together, or add notes to clarify, for example in the English translation by Henry Yule.", "The 1938 English translation by Moule and Paul Pelliot is based on a Latin manuscript found in the library of the Cathedral of Toledo in 1932, and is 50% longer than other versions.", "The popular translation published by Penguin Books in 1958 by Latham works several texts together to make a readable whole.=== Narrative ===Statue of Marco Polo in Hangzhou, ChinaThe book opens with a preface describing his father and uncle travelling to Bolghar where Prince Berke Khan lived.", "A year later, they went to Ukek and continued to Bukhara.", "There, an envoy from the Levant invited them to meet Kublai Khan, who had never met Europeans.", "In 1266, they reached the seat of Kublai Khan at Dadu, present-day Beijing, China.", "Kublai received the brothers with hospitality and asked them many questions regarding the European legal and political system.", "He also inquired about the Pope and Church in Rome.", "After the brothers answered the questions he tasked them with delivering a letter to the Pope, requesting 100 Christians acquainted with the Seven Arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy).", "Kublai Khan requested also that an envoy bring him back oil of the lamp in Jerusalem.", "The long ''sede vacante'' between the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268 and the election of his successor delayed the Polos in fulfilling Kublai's request.", "They followed the suggestion of Theobald Visconti, then papal legate for the realm of Egypt, and returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270 to await the nomination of the new Pope, which allowed Marco to see his father for the first time, at the age of fifteen or sixteen.Polo meeting Kublai KhanIn 1271, Niccolò, Maffeo and Marco Polo embarked on their voyage to fulfil Kublai's request.", "They sailed to Acre, and then rode on camels to the Persian port of Hormuz.", "The Polos wanted to sail straight into China, but the ships there were not seaworthy, so they continued overland through the Silk Road, until reaching Kublai's summer palace in Shangdu, near present-day Zhangjiakou.", "In one instance during their trip, the Polos joined a caravan of travelling merchants whom they crossed paths with.", "Unfortunately, the party was soon attacked by bandits, who used the cover of a sandstorm to ambush them.", "The Polos managed to fight and escape through a nearby town, but many members of the caravan were killed or enslaved.", "Three and a half years after leaving Venice, when Marco was about 21 years old, the Polos were welcomed by Kublai into his palace.", "The exact date of their arrival is unknown, but scholars estimate it to be between 1271 and 1275.On reaching the Yuan court, the Polos presented the sacred oil from Jerusalem and the papal letters to their patron.Marco knew four languages, and the family had accumulated a great deal of knowledge and experience that was useful to Kublai.", "It is possible that he became a government official; he wrote about many imperial visits to China's southern and eastern provinces, the far south and Burma.", "They were highly respected and sought after in the Mongolian court, and so Kublai Khan decided to decline the Polos' requests to leave China.", "They became worried about returning home safely, believing that if Kublai died, his enemies might turn against them because of their close involvement with the ruler.", "In 1292, Kublai's great-nephew, then ruler of Persia, sent representatives to China in search of a potential wife, and they asked the Polos to accompany them, so they were permitted to return to Persia with the wedding party—which left that same year from Zaitun in southern China on a fleet of 14 junks.", "The party sailed to the port of Singapore, travelled north to Sumatra, and around the southern tip of India, eventually crossing the Arabian Sea to Hormuz.", "The two-year voyage was a perilous one—of the six hundred people (not including the crew) in the convoy only eighteen had survived (including all three Polos).", "The Polos left the wedding party after reaching Hormuz and travelled overland to the port of Trebizond on the Black Sea, the present-day Trabzon.A page from ''Il Milione'', from a manuscript believed to date between 1298 and 1299=== Role of Rustichello ===The British scholar Ronald Latham has pointed out that ''The Book of Marvels'' was, in fact, a collaboration written in 1298–1299 between Polo and a professional writer of romances, Rustichello of Pisa.", "It is believed that Polo related his memoirs orally to Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic.", "Rustichello wrote ''Devisement du Monde'' in Franco-Venetian language, which was a literary-only language widespread in northern Italy between the subalpine belt and the lower Po between the 13th and 15th centuries.Latham also argued that Rustichello may have glamorised Polo's accounts, and added fantastic and romantic elements that made the book a bestseller.", "The Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto had previously demonstrated that the book was written in the same \"leisurely, conversational style\" that characterised Rustichello's other works, and that some passages in the book were taken verbatim or with minimal modifications from other writings by Rustichello.", "For example, the opening introduction in ''The Book of Marvels'' to \"emperors and kings, dukes and marquises\" was lifted straight out of an Arthurian romance Rustichello had written several years earlier, and the account of the second meeting between Polo and Kublai Khan at the latter's court is almost the same as that of the arrival of Tristan at the court of King Arthur at Camelot in that same book.", "Latham believed that many elements of the book, such as legends of the Middle East and mentions of exotic marvels, might have been the work of Rustichello, who was giving what medieval European readers expected to find in a travel book.=== Role of the Dominican Order ===Apparently, from the very beginning, Marco's story aroused contrasting reactions, as it was received by some with a certain disbelief.", "The Dominican father Francesco Pipino was the author of a translation into Latin, ''Iter Marci Pauli Veneti'' in 1302, just a few years after Marco's return to Venice.", "Francesco Pipino solemnly affirmed the truthfulness of the book and defined Marco as a \"prudent, honoured and faithful man\".In his writings, the Dominican brother Jacopo d'Acqui explains why his contemporaries were sceptical about the content of the book.", "He also relates that before dying, Marco Polo insisted that \"he had told only a half of the things he had seen\".According to some recent research of the Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the very close relationship that Marco Polo cultivated with members of the Dominican Order in Venice suggests that local fathers collaborated with him for a Latin version of the book, which means that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for a precise will of the Order.Since Dominican fathers had among their missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf.", "the role of Dominican missionaries in China and in the Indies), it is reasonable to think that they considered Marco's book as a trustworthy piece of information for missions in the East.", "The diplomatic communications between Pope Innocent IV and Pope Gregory X with the Mongols were probably another reason for this endorsement.", "At the time, there was open discussion of a possible Christian-Mongol alliance with an anti-Islamic function.", "In fact, a Mongol delegate was solemnly baptised at the Second Council of Lyon.", "At the council, Pope Gregory X promulgated a new Crusade to start in 1278 in liaison with the Mongols.=== Authenticity and veracity ===Kublai Khan's court, from the French \"Livre des merveilles\"Since its publication, some have viewed the book with skepticism.", "Some in the Middle Ages regarded the book simply as a romance or fable, due largely to the sharp difference of its descriptions of a sophisticated civilisation in China to other early accounts by Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and William of Rubruck, who portrayed the Mongols as 'barbarians' who appeared to belong to 'some other world'.", "Doubts have also been raised in later centuries about Marco Polo's narrative of his travels in China, for example for his failure to mention the Great Wall of China, and in particular the difficulties in identifying many of the place names he used (the great majority, however, have since been identified).", "Many have questioned whether he had visited the places he mentioned in his itinerary, whether he had appropriated the accounts of his father and uncle or other travellers, and some doubted whether he even reached China, or that if he did, perhaps never went beyond Khanbaliq (Beijing).It has, however, been pointed out that Polo's accounts of China are more accurate and detailed than other travellers' accounts of the period.", "Polo had at times refuted the 'marvellous' fables and legends given in other European accounts, and despite some exaggerations and errors, Polo's accounts have relatively few of the descriptions of irrational marvels.", "In many cases of descriptions of events where he was not present (mostly given in the first part before he reached China, such as mentions of Christian miracles), he made a clear distinction that they are what he had heard rather than what he had seen.", "It is also largely free of the gross errors found in other accounts such as those given by the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta who had confused the Yellow River with the Grand Canal and other waterways, and believed that porcelain was made from coal.Modern studies have further shown that details given in Marco Polo's book, such as the currencies used, salt productions and revenues, are accurate and unique.", "Such detailed descriptions are not found in other non-Chinese sources, and their accuracy is supported by archaeological evidence as well as Chinese records compiled after Polo had left China.", "His accounts are therefore unlikely to have been obtained second hand.", "Other accounts have also been verified; for example, when visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, China, Marco Polo noted that a large number of Christian churches had been built there.", "His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand founded six Nestorian Christian churches there in addition to one in Hangzhou during the second half of the 13th century.", "His story of the princess Kököchin sent from China to Persia to marry the Īl-khān is also confirmed by independent sources in both Persia and China." ], [ "Scholarly analyses", "Text of the letter of Pope Innocent IV \"to the ruler and people of the Tartars\", brought to Güyüg Khan by John de Carpini, 1245Seal of Güyük Khan using the classical Mongolian script, as found in a letter sent to the Roman Pope Innocent IV in 1246Letter from Arghun, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate, to Pope Nicholas IV, 1290Seal of the Mongol ruler Ghazan in a 1302 letter to Pope Boniface VIII, with an inscription in Chinese seal script=== Explaining omissions ===Sceptics have long wondered whether Marco Polo wrote his book based on hearsay, with some pointing to omissions about noteworthy practices and structures of China as well as the lack of details on some places in his book.", "While Polo describes paper money and the burning of coal, he fails to mention the Great Wall of China, tea, Chinese characters, chopsticks, or footbinding.", "His failure to note the presence of the Great Wall of China was first raised in the middle of the seventeenth century, and in the middle of the eighteenth century, it was suggested that he had never reached China.", "Later scholars such as John W. Haeger argued that Marco Polo might not have visited Southern China, in view of the lack of details in his description of southern Chinese cities compared to northern ones, while Herbert Franke also raised the possibility that Marco Polo had not been to China at all, and wondered if he had based his accounts on Persian sources, in view of his use of Persian expressions.", "This is taken further by Frances Wood who claimed in her 1995 book ''Did Marco Polo Go to China?''", "that at best Polo never went farther east than Persia (modern Iran), and that there is nothing in ''The Book of Marvels'' about China that could not have been obtained by reading Persian books.", "Wood maintains that it is more probable that Polo went only to Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) and some of the Italian merchant colonies around the Black Sea, picking hearsay from those travellers who had been farther east.Supporters of Polo's basic accuracy countered on the points raised by sceptics such as footbinding and the Great Wall of China.", "Historian Stephen G. Haw argued that the Great Walls were built to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty during Marco Polo's visit were those very northern invaders.", "They note that the Great Wall familiar to us today is a Ming structure built some two centuries after Marco Polo's travels; and that the Mongol rulers whom Polo served controlled territories both north and south of today's wall, and would have had no reasons to maintain any fortifications that might have remained there from the earlier dynasties.", "Other Europeans who travelled to Khanbaliq during the Yuan dynasty, such as Giovanni de' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, said nothing about the wall either.", "The Muslim traveller Ibn Battuta, who asked about the wall when he visited China during the Yuan dynasty, could find no one who either had seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it, suggesting that while ruins of the wall constructed in the earlier periods might have existed, they were not significant or noteworthy at that time.Haw also argued that footbinding was not common even among Chinese during Polo's time and almost unknown among the Mongols.", "While the Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone who visited Yuan China mentioned footbinding (it is however unclear whether he was merely relaying something he had heard as his description is inaccurate), no other foreign visitors to Yuan China mentioned the practice, perhaps an indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was not practised in an extreme form at that time.", "Marco Polo himself noted (in the Toledo manuscript) the dainty walk of Chinese women who took very short steps.", "It has also been noted by other scholars that many of the things not mentioned by Marco Polo such as tea and chopsticks were not mentioned by other travellers either.", "Haw also pointed out that despite the few omissions, Marco Polo's account is more extensive, more accurate and more detailed than those of other foreign travellers to China in this period.", "Marco Polo even observed Chinese nautical inventions such as the watertight compartments of bulkhead partitions in Chinese ships, knowledge of which he was keen to share with his fellow Venetians.In addition to Haw, other scholars have argued in favour of the established view that Polo was in China, in response to Wood's book.", "The book has been criticized by figures including Igor de Rachewiltz (translator and annotator of ''The Secret History of the Mongols'') and Morris Rossabi (author of ''Kublai Khan: his life and times'').", "The historian David Morgan points out basic errors made in Wood's book such as confusing the Liao dynasty with the Jin dynasty, and he found no compelling evidence in the book that would convince him that Marco Polo did not go to China.", "Haw also argues in his book ''Marco Polo's China'' that Marco's account is much more correct and accurate than has often been supposed and that it is extremely unlikely that he could have obtained all the information in his book from secondhand sources.", "Haw also criticizes Wood's approach to finding mention of Marco Polo in Chinese texts by contending that contemporaneous Europeans had little regard for using surnames and that a direct Chinese transliteration of the name \"Marco\" ignores the possibility of his taking on a Chinese or even Mongol name with no similarity to his Latin name.Also in reply to Wood, Jørgen Jensen recalled the meeting of Marco Polo and Pietro d'Abano in the late 13th century.", "During this meeting, Marco gave to Pietro details of the astronomical observations he had made on his journey.", "These observations are compatible with Marco's stay in China, Sumatra and the South China Sea and are recorded in Pietro's book ''Conciliator Differentiarum'', but not in Marco's ''Book of Travels''.Reviewing Haw's book, Peter Jackson (author of ''The Mongols and the West'') has said that Haw \"must surely now have settled the controversy surrounding the historicity of Polo's visit to China\".", "Igor de Rachewiltz's review, which refutes Wood's points, concludes with a strongly-worded condemnation: \"I regret to say that F. W.'s book falls short of the standard of scholarship that one would expect in a work of this kind.", "Her book can only be described as deceptive, both in relation to the author and to the public at large.", "Questions are posed that, in the majority of cases, have already been answered satisfactorily ... her attempt is unprofessional; she is poorly equipped in the basic tools of the trade, i.e., adequate linguistic competence and research methodology ... and her major arguments cannot withstand close scrutiny.", "Her conclusion fails to consider all the evidence supporting Marco Polo's credibility.", "\"=== Allegations of exaggeration ===Bust of Marco Polo in the garden of Villa Borghese in Rome, ItalySome scholars believe that Marco Polo exaggerated his importance in China.", "The British historian David Morgan thought that Polo had likely exaggerated and lied about his status in China, while Ronald Latham believed that such exaggerations were embellishments by his ghostwriter Rustichello da Pisa.This sentence in ''The Book of Marvels'' was interpreted as Marco Polo was \"the governor\" of the city of \"Yangiu\" Yangzhou for three years, and later of Hangzhou.", "This claim has raised some controversy.", "According to David Morgan no Chinese source mentions him as either a friend of the Emperor or as the governor of Yangzhou – indeed no Chinese source mentions Marco Polo at all.", "In fact, in the 1960s the German historian Herbert Franke noted that all occurrences of Po-lo or Bolod in Yuan texts were names of people of Mongol or Turkic extraction.However, in the 2010s the Chinese scholar Peng Hai claimed to have identified Marco Polo with a certain \"Boluo\" (), a courtier of the emperor, who is mentioned in Volume 119 of the ''History of Yuan'' () commissioned by the succeeding Ming dynasty.", "The claim arises out of the report that Boluo was arrested in 1274 by an imperial dignitary named Saman () for walking on the same side of the road as a female courtesan, in contravention of the order for men and women to walk on opposite sides of the road inside the city.", "According to the ''History of Yuan'', Boluo was released at the request of the emperor himself, and was then transferred to the region of Ningxia, in the northeast of present-day China, in the spring of 1275.The date could correspond to the first mission of which Marco Polo speaks.If this identification is correct, there is a record about Marco Polo in Chinese sources.", "These conjectures seem to be supported by the fact that in addition to the imperial dignitary Saman (the one who had arrested the official named \"Boluo\"), the documents mention his brother, Xiangwei ().", "According to sources, Saman died shortly after the incident, while Xiangwei was transferred to Yangzhou in 1282–1283.Marco Polo reports that he was moved to Hangzhou the following year, in 1284.It has been supposed that these displacements are due to the intention to avoid further conflicts between the two.The sinologist Paul Pelliot thought that Polo might have served as an officer of the government salt monopoly in Yangzhou, which was a position of some significance that could explain the exaggeration.It may seem unlikely that a European could hold a position of power in the Mongolian empire.", "However, some records prove he was not the first nor the only one.", "In his book, Marco mentions an official named \"Mar Sarchis\" who probably was a Nestorian Christian bishop, and he says he founded two Christian churches in the region of \"Caigiu\".", "This official is actually mentioned in the local gazette ''Zhishun Zhenjian zhi'' under the name \"Ma Xuelijisi\" and the qualification of \"General of Third Class\".", "Always in the gazette, it is said Ma Xuelijsi was an assistant supervisor in the province of Zhenjiang for three years, and that during this time he founded two Christian churches.", "In fact, it is a well-documented fact that Kublai Khan trusted foreigners more than Chinese subjects in internal affairs.Stephen G. Haw challenges this idea that Polo exaggerated his own importance, writing that, \"contrary to what has often been said ... Marco does not claim any very exalted position for himself in the Yuan empire.\"", "He points out that Polo never claimed to hold high rank, such as a ''darughachi'', who led a ''tumen'' – a unit that was normally 10,000 strong.", "In fact, Polo does not even imply that he had led 1,000 personnel.", "Haw points out that Polo himself appears to state only that he had been an emissary of the khan, in a position with some esteem.", "According to Haw, this is a reasonable claim if Polo was, for example, a ''keshig'' – a member of the imperial guard by the same name, which included as many as 14,000 individuals at the time.Haw explains how the earliest manuscripts of Polo's accounts provide contradicting information about his role in Yangzhou, with some stating he was just a simple resident, others stating he was a governor, and Ramusio's manuscript claiming he was simply holding that office as a temporary substitute for someone else, yet all the manuscripts concur that he worked as an esteemed emissary for the khan.", "Another controversial claim is at chapter 145 when the Book of Marvels states that the three Polos provided the Mongols with technical advice on building mangonels during the Siege of Xiangyang,Since the siege was over in 1273, before Marco Polo had arrived in China for the first time, the claim cannot be true.", "The Mongol army that besieged Xiangyang did have foreign military engineers, but they were mentioned in Chinese sources as being from Baghdad and had Arabic names.", "In this respect, Igor de Rachewiltz recalls that the claim that the ''three'' Polo were present at the siege of Xiang-yang is not present in all manuscripts, but Niccolò and Matteo could have made this suggestion.", "Therefore, this claim seems a subsequent addition to give more credibility to the story.=== Errors ===A number of errors in Marco Polo's account have been noted: for example, he described the bridge later known as Marco Polo Bridge as having twenty-four arches instead of eleven or thirteen.", "He also said that city wall of Khanbaliq had twelve gates when it had only eleven.", "Archaeologists have also pointed out that Polo may have mixed up the details from the two attempted invasions of Japan by Kublai Khan in 1274 and 1281.Polo wrote of five-masted ships, when archaeological excavations found that the ships, in fact, had only three masts.=== Appropriation ===Historian Frances Wood accused Marco Polo of taking other people's accounts in his book, retelling other stories as his own, or basing his accounts on Persian guidebooks or other lost sources.", "For example, Sinologist Francis Woodman Cleaves noted that Polo's account of the voyage of the princess Kököchin from China to Persia to marry the Īl-khān in 1293 has been confirmed by a passage in the 15th-century Chinese work ''Yongle Encyclopedia'' and by the Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in his work ''Jami' al-tawarikh''.", "However, neither of these accounts mentions Polo or indeed any European as part of the bridal party, and Wood used the lack of mention of Polo in these works as an example of Polo's \"retelling of a well-known tale\".", "David O. Morgan, in Polo's defence, noted that even the princess herself was not mentioned in the Chinese source and that it would have been surprising if Polo had been mentioned by Rashid-al-Din.", "Historian Igor de Rachewiltz strongly criticised Wood's arguments in his review of her book.", "Rachewiltz argued that Marco Polo's account, in fact, allows the Persian and Chinese sources to be reconciled – by relaying the information that two of the three envoys sent (mentioned in the Chinese source and whose names accord with those given by Polo) had died during the voyage, it explains why only the third who survived, Coja/Khoja, was mentioned by Rashìd al-Dìn.", "Polo had therefore completed the story by providing information not found in either source.", "He also noted that the only Persian source that mentions the princess was not completed until 1310–11, therefore Marco Polo could not have learned the information from any Persian book.", "According to de Rachewiltz, the concordance of Polo's detailed account of the princess with other independent sources that gave only incomplete information is proof of the veracity of Polo's story and his presence in China.=== Assessments ===Morgan writes that since much of what ''The Book of Marvels'' has to say about China is \"demonstrably correct\", any claim that Polo did not go to China \"creates far more problems than it solves\", therefore the \"balance of probabilities\" strongly suggests that Polo really did go to China, even if he exaggerated somewhat his importance in China.", "Haw dismisses the various anachronistic criticisms of Polo's accounts that started in the 17th century, and highlights Polo's accuracy in great part of his accounts, for example on features of the landscape such as the Grand Canal of China.", "\"If Marco was a liar,\" Haw writes, \"then he must have been an implausibly meticulous one.", "\"In 2012, the University of Tübingen Sinologist and historian Hans Ulrich Vogel released a detailed analysis of Polo's description of currencies, salt production and revenues, and argued that the evidence supports his presence in China because he included details which he could not have otherwise known.", "Vogel noted that no other Western, Arab, or Persian sources have given such accurate and unique details about the currencies of China, for example, the shape and size of the paper, the use of seals, the various denominations of paper money as well as variations in currency usage in different regions of China, such as the use of cowry shells in Yunnan, details supported by archaeological evidence and Chinese sources compiled long after the Polos had left China.", "His accounts of salt production and revenues from the salt monopoly are also accurate, and accord with Chinese documents of the Yuan era.", "Economic historian Mark Elvin, in his preface to Vogel's 2013 monograph, concludes that Vogel \"demonstrates by specific example after specific example the ultimately overwhelming probability of the broad authenticity\" of Polo's account.", "Many problems were caused by the oral transmission of the original text and the proliferation of significantly different hand-copied manuscripts.", "For instance, did Polo exert \"political authority\" (''seignora'') in Yangzhou or merely \"sojourn\" (''sejourna'') there?", "Elvin concludes that \"those who doubted, although mistaken, were not always being casual or foolish\", but \"the case as a whole had now been closed\": the book is, \"in essence, authentic, and, when used with care, in broad terms to be trusted as a serious though obviously not always final, witness.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Further exploration ===Handwritten notes by Christopher Columbus on a Latin edition of Polo's bookThe Fra Mauro map, published by the Venetian monk Fra MauroOther lesser-known European explorers had already travelled to China, such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, but Polo's book meant that his journey was the first to be widely known.", "Christopher Columbus was inspired enough by Polo's description of the Far East to want to visit those lands for himself; a copy of the book was among his belongings, with handwritten annotations.", "Bento de Góis, inspired by Polo's writings of a Christian kingdom in the east, travelled in three years across Central Asia.", "He never found the kingdom but ended his travels at the Great Wall of China in 1605, proving that Cathay was what Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) called \"China\".=== Cartography ===Marco Polo's travels may have had some influence on the development of European cartography, ultimately leading to the European voyages of exploration a century later.", "The 1453 Fra Mauro map was said by Giovanni Battista Ramusio (disputed by historian/cartographer Piero Falchetta, in whose work the quote appears) to have been partially based on the one brought from Cathay by Marco Polo: Though Marco Polo never produced a map that illustrated his journey, his family drew several maps to the Far East based on the traveller's accounts.", "These collections of maps were signed by Polo's three daughters, Fantina, Bellela and Moreta.", "Not only did it contain maps of his journey, but also sea routes to Japan, Siberia's Kamchatka Peninsula, the Bering Strait and even to the coastlines of Alaska, centuries before the rediscovery of the Americas by Europeans.=== Pasta myth ===There is a legend about Marco Polo importing pasta from China; however, it is actually a popular misconception, originating with the ''Macaroni Journal'', published by a food industry association with the goal of promoting the use of pasta in the United States.", "Marco Polo describes in his book a food similar to \"lasagna\", but he uses a term with which he was already familiar.", "In fact, pasta had already been invented in Italy a long time before Marco Polo's travels to Asia.", "According to the newsletter of the National Macaroni Manufacturers Association and food writer Jeffrey Steingarten, the durum wheat was introduced by Arabs from Libya, during their rule over Sicily in the late 9th century, thus predating Marco Polo's travels by about four centuries.", "Steingarten also mentioned that Jane Grigson believed the Marco Polo story to have originated in the 1920s or 30s in an advertisement for a Canadian spaghetti company.=== Commemoration ===Italian banknote issued in 1982, portraying Marco PoloThe ''Marco Polo sheep'', a subspecies of ''Ovis ammon'', is named after the explorer, who described it during his crossing of Pamir (ancient Mount Imeon) in 1271.In 1851, a three-masted clipper built in Saint John, New Brunswick also took his name; the ''''Marco Polo'''' was the first ship to sail around the world in under six months.The airport in Venice is named ''Venice Marco Polo Airport''.The frequent flyer programme of Hong Kong flag carrier Cathay Pacific is known as the \"''Marco Polo Club''\".Croatian state-owned shipping company's (Jadrolinija) ship connecting Split with Ancona in Italy is named after Marco Polo.==== Arts, entertainment, and media ========= Film =====* ''The Adventures of Marco Polo'' (1938), directed by Archie Mayo* ''Marco Polo'' (1961)* ''Marco the Magnificent'' (1965)* ''Marco'' (1973), directed by Seymour Robbie* ''Marco Polo'' (馬哥波羅) (1975), directed by Chang Cheh*''Marco Polo Junior Versus the Red Dragon'' (1972), Australian animated film by Eric Porter===== Games =====* The game \"Marco Polo\" is a form of tag played in a swimming pool or on land, with slightly modified rules.", "* Polo appears as a Great Explorer in the strategy video game ''Civilization Revolution'' (2008).", "* Marco Polo's 1292 voyage from China is used as a backdrop for the plot of ''Uncharted 2: Among Thieves'' (2009), where Nathan Drake (the protagonist) searches for the Cintamani Stone, which was from the fabled city of Shambhala.", "* A board game 'The Voyages of Marco Polo' plays over a map of Eurasia, with multiple routes to 'recreate' Polo's journey.===== Literature =====The travels of Marco Polo are fictionalised in a number works, such as:* Brian Oswald Donn-Byrne's ''Messer Marco Polo'' (1921)* Italo Calvino's novel ''Invisible Cities'' (1972), in which Polo appears as a pivotal character.", "* Gary Jennings' novel ''The Journeyer'' (1984)* Avram Davidson's novel (written with Grania Davis) ''Marco Polo and the Sleeping Beauty'' (1988), a serio-comic fantasy with Polo as the protagonist.", "* James Rollins' SIGMA Force Book 4: ''The Judas Strain'' (2007), in which facts about Polo's travels and conjecture about secrets he kept are interleaved with modern-day action.===== Television =====* In the 1964 serial ''Marco Polo'' of the television series ''Doctor Who'', Polo was portrayed by Mark Eden.", "* The television miniseries, ''Marco Polo'' (1982), featuring Ken Marshall, Burt Lancaster and Ruocheng Ying, and directed by Giuliano Montaldo, depicts Polo's travels.", "It won two Emmy Awards, and was nominated for six more.", "* The television film, ''Marco Polo'' (2007), starring Brian Dennehy as Kublai Khan, and Ian Somerhalder as Marco, portrays Marco Polo being left alone in China while his uncle and father return to Venice, to be reunited with him many years later.", "* ''In the Footsteps of Marco Polo'' (2009) is a PBS documentary about two friends (Denis Belliveau and Francis O'Donnell) who conceived of the ultimate road trip to retrace Marco Polo's journey from Venice to China via land and sea.", "* ''In Search of Marco Polo'' (2013), a Croatian documentary miniseries written and directed by Miro Branković.", "* ''Marco Polo'' (2014–2016) is a Netflix television drama series about Marco Polo's early years in the court of Kublai Khan created by John Fusco." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese expeditions to the Sinhala Kingdom* Chronology of European exploration of Asia* John of Montecorvino, Catholic Italian missionary to China* Rabban Bar Sauma, Uyghur Nestorian Christian monk from Zhongdu (Khanbaliq, modern Beijing) who led a Mongol diplomatic mission to medieval European monarchs and the pope, visiting Greece, Italy, and France* Katarina Vilioni (d. 1342), an Italian woman whose tombstone was found in Yangzhou, China" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Marco Polo, ''Marci Poli Veneti de Regionibus Orientalibus'', Simon Grynaeus Johannes Huttichius, ''Novus Orbis Regionum ac Insularum Veteribus Incognitarum,'' Basel, 1532, pp.", "350–418.", "* * * * * * (Article republished in 2006 World Almanac Books, available online from History.com)* * * * * Olivier Weber, ''Le grand festin de l'Orient''; Robert Laffont, 2004* * * * * * * * * Marco Polo.", "(2010).", "In Encyclopædia Britannica.", "Retrieved 2010-08-28, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Marco Polo | Biography, Travels, & Influence *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * Olivier Weber, ''Sur les routes de la soie'' (On the Silk Roads) (with Reza), Hoëbeke, 2007* (Young Adult novel)*" ], [ "External links", "* * Marco Polo on IMDb* Marco Polo's house in Venice, near the church of San Giovanni Grisostomo* National Geographic Marco Polo: Journey from Venice to China* * * * Marco Polo's Orient Film on the material culture of areas along Polo's route using objects from the collections of the Glasgow Museums" ] ]
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[ [ "M4" ], [ "Introduction", "'''M4''' or '''M-4''' most often refers to:* M4 carbine, an American carbine* M4 Sherman, an American World War II medium tank'''M4''', '''M04''', or '''M-4''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''M4'' (EP), a 2006 EP by Faunts* ''M4'' (video game), a 1992 computer game developed for the Macintosh* ''M.IV'' (\"Matrix IV\"), the fictional Warner Brothers videogame project inside the 2021 film ''The Matrix Resurrections''" ], [ "Military", "=== Weapons ===* Benelli M4 Super 90, an Italian semi-automatic shotgun* M4 cannon, an American 37 mm automatic gun* M4 Selectable Lightweight Attack Munition (SLAM), an American land mine* M4 SLBM, a French submarine-launched ballistic missile from 1985* M4 Survival Rifle, an American rifle in aircraft survival gear* Spectre M4, an Italian submachine gun* M4 bayonet, an American World War II bayonet used for the M1 Carbine* Gross-Basenach ''M IV'', a pre-WWI German military semi-rigid airship=== Aircraft, ships and vehicles ===* , a 1980 Swedish Navy minelayer, later redesignated as ocean patrol vessel P04* , a Swedish Navy mine sweeper* (M4), a WWI British Royal Navy monitor* , a British M-class submarine* M4 Tractor, a U.S. Army artillery tractor from 1943* Myasishchev M-4, a 1950s Soviet strategic bomber aircraft* Meusel ''M-IV'', a German glider; see List of German gliders=== Other uses in military ===* M4 flame fuel thickening compound, a substance used in fire bombs and incendiary weapons* M4 (German Navy 4-rotor Enigma), a variant of the Enigma cryptography machine* M04, desert variant of M05, a camouflage pattern used by the Finnish Defence Forces" ], [ "Science and technology", "=== Biology, medicine and organic chemistry ===* ATC code M04, ''Antigout preparations'', a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System* British NVC community M4, a type of mire plant community in the British National Vegetation Classification system* M4, the FAB classification of acute myelomonocytic leukemia* Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4, a protein=== Computing and electronics ===* m4 (computer language), a macro processing language* M4, part number for a 1N400x general purpose diode* Sony Xperia M4 Aqua, a mobile phone* ARM Cortex-M#Cortex-M4, a processor family=== Other uses in science and technology ===* Messier 4 (M4), a globular cluster in the Scorpius constellation of stars* Leica M4, a 1967 35 mm camera* M4, an ISO metric screw thread* Foton-M No.4, a Russian microgravity and bioscience research spacecraft launched in July 2014" ], [ "Transportation", "=== Air ===* Covington Municipal Airport (Tennessee), FAA location identifier M04* Maule M-4, a 1960 American four-seat cabin monoplane aircraft* Miles M.4 Merlin, a 1930s British five-seat cabin monoplane aircraft=== Rail ===* Bucharest Metro Line M4, Romania* Line 4 (Budapest Metro), Metro 4 or M4, Hungary* M4 (Copenhagen), a future expansion of the Copenhagen Metro, Denmark* M4 (Istanbul Metro), a subway line on the Asian side of Istanbul, Turkey* M4, variant of M2 (railcar), an American railcar on the Metro-North Railroad* Milan Metro Line 4, rapid transit line in Milan, Italy* Sri Lanka Railways M4, a class of diesel-electric locomotive=== Road ===* BMW M4, a car* M4 Vacamatic, a 1941 semi-automatic transmission made by Chrysler* M4, a bus route of Fifth and Madison Avenues Line, New York City, U.S.* Mid-engine, four-wheel-drive layout, or M4 layout, an automotive design* List of M4 roads" ], [ "Other uses", "* Héctor David Delgado Santiago (1975–2013, alias El Metro 4, sometimes M4), deceased Mexican drug lord* M4, a measure of money supply* M4-, M4+ and M4x, disciplines in men's rowing* MLBB M4 World Championship, the fourth esports world championship for the mobile game Mobile Legends: Bang Bang held in 2023* M4, a difficulty grade in mixed climbing" ], [ "See also", "* * * MIV (disambiguation)* 4M (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Index of articles related to motion pictures" ], [ "Introduction", "The film industry is built upon many technologies and techniques, drawing upon photography, stagecraft, music, and many other disciplines.", "Following is an index of specific terminology applicable thereto." ], [ "0-9", "180 degree rule- 30 degree rule==A==A and B editing- A roll- Accelerated montage- Acousmatic- Action axis- Aerial shot- Ambient light- American night- American shot- Anamorphic- Angle of view- Angle plus angle- Angular resolution- Answer print- Aperture- Apple box- Artificial light- ASA speed rating- Aspect ratio- Autofocus- Automated dialogue replacement- Available light- Axial cut==B==B roll- Baby plates- Backlot- Background lighting- Balloon light- Barn doors (lighting)- Below the line (film production)- Best boy- Blocking- Bluescreen- Boom shot- Boomerang (lighting)- Bounce board- Brightness (lighting)- Broadside (lighting)- Butterfly (lighting)==C==C-Stand- Callier effect- Cameo lighting- Cameo (credits image)- Cameo role- Cameo shot- Camera angle- Camera boom- Camera crane- Camera dolly- Camera shot- Candles per square foot- Character animation- Choker shot- Chroma key- Chromatic aberration- CinemaDNG- Clapboard- Clock wipe- Close shot- Close up shot- Cold open- Color conversion filter- Color corrected fluorescent light- Color correction- Color gel- Color grading- Color rendering index- Color reversal internegative- Color temperature- Color timer- Continuity- Cooke Triplet lens- Crafts service- Crane shot- Creative geography- Cross cutting- Cutaway- Cut in - cut out- Cutting on action==D==Daily rushes- Day for night- Deadspot (lighting)- Deep focus- Depth of field- Depth of focus- Dichroic lens- Diegetic sound- Diffraction- Diffuser (lighting)- Digital audio- Digital audio tape recorder- Digital cinema- Digital compositing- Digital film- Digital image processing- Digital intermediate- Digital negative- Digital projection- Dimmer (lighting)- Dissolve (film)- DMX (lighting)- Dolly grip- Dolly shot- Dolly zoom- Double-system recording- Douser (lighting)- DPX film format- Drawn on film animation- Dubbing- Dutch angle- Dynamic composition==E==Effects light- Electrotachyscope- Ellipsoidal reflector spot light- Establishing shot- Extreme close-up- Extreme long shot- Eye-level camera angle==F==F-number- F-stop- Fade-in- Fade-out- Fast cutting- Fast motion- Feature length- Field of view- Fill light- Film gate- Film modification- Film plane- Film recorder- Film scanner- Film speed- Filter (photography)- Fine cut- Fisheye lens- Flicker fusion threshold- Focal length- Focus (optics)- Focus puller- Foley artist- Follow focus- Follow shot- Followspot light- Forced perspective- Footage- Fourth wall- Frame- Frame composition- Frame rate- Freeze frame shot- Fresnel lens- Full frame- Full shot==G==Gobo (lighting)- Go motion- Godspot effect- Greenlight- Grip- Gaffer==H==Hard light- Head-on shot- Heart wipe- High-angle shot- High camera angle- High concept- High-intensity discharge lamp- High-key lighting- Hip hop montage- Hydrargyrum Medium-Arc Iodide lamp==K==Key Grip- key light==L==letterbox- light reflector==M==Martini Shot- Mise en scène- montage- MOS- movement mechanism- movie camera- MIDI Timecode==N==negative cutting==O==overcranking==P==pan and scan- persistence of vision- Pillarboxing- POV shot- point of view- post-production==R==Reel- Replay==S==slow cutting- slow motion- stand-in- storyboard==T==take- timecode- time-lapse- tracking shot" ], [ "U-Z", "undercranking- voice artist- voice-over- widescreen" ], [ "Internet", "* Le Cinédico multi-lingual lexicon on the theme of cinematographic and audiovisual techniques" ], [ "See also", "* Film technique* Film crew* Filming production roles* List of film formats* List of film topics* List of basic film topics" ] ]
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[ [ "Mountain range" ], [ "Introduction", "The Namcha Barwa Himal, east part of the Himalayas as seen from space by Apollo 9A '''mountain range''' or '''hill range''' is a series of mountains or hills arranged in a line and connected by high ground.", "A '''mountain system''' or '''mountain belt''' is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny.", "Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics.", "Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets.Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys.", "Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology.", "They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types." ], [ "Major ranges", "Ocean Ridge, the world's longest mountain range (chain)Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth's land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide belt.", "The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera, the Aleutian Range, on through Kamchatka Peninsula, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, to New Zealand.", "The Andes is long and is often considered the world's longest mountain system.The Alpide belt stretches 15,000 km across southern Eurasia, from Java in Maritime Southeast Asia to the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe, including the ranges of the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Alborz, Caucasus, and the Alps.", "The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, which is high.Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, Appalachians, Great Dividing Range, East Siberians, Altais, Scandinavians, Qinling, Western Ghats, Vindhyas, Byrrangas, and the Annamite Range.", "If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then the Ocean Ridge forms the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of ." ], [ "Climate", "The Andes, the longest mountain range on the surface of the Earth, have a dramatic impact on the climate of South AmericaThe position of mountain ranges influences climate, such as rain or snow.", "When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools, producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow).", "As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (following the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture.", "Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range.", "As a consequence, large mountain ranges, such as the Andes, compartmentalize continents into distinct climate regions." ], [ "Erosion", "Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down.", "The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are then filled with sediments that are buried and turned into sedimentary rock.", "Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains.The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example.", "As the uplift was occurring some of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to the east.", "This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift.", "The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight.Rivers are traditionally believed to be the principal cause of mountain range erosion, by cutting into bedrock and transporting sediment.", "Computer simulation has shown that as mountain belts change from tectonically active to inactive, the rate of erosion drops because there are fewer abrasive particles in the water and fewer landslides." ], [ "Extraterrestrial \"Montes\"", "Montes Apenninus on the Moon was formed by an impact event.Mountains on other planets and natural satellites of the Solar System, including the Moon, are often isolated and formed mainly by processes such as impacts, though there are examples of mountain ranges (or \"Montes\") somewhat similar to those on Earth.", "Saturn's moon Titan and Pluto, in particular, exhibit large mountain ranges in chains composed mainly of ices rather than rock.", "Examples include the Mithrim Montes and Doom Mons on Titan, and Tenzing Montes and Hillary Montes on Pluto.", "Some terrestrial planets other than Earth also exhibit rocky mountain ranges, such as Maxwell Montes on Venus taller than any on Earth and Tartarus Montes on Mars.", "Jupiter's moon Io has mountain ranges formed from tectonic processes including the Boösaule, Dorian, Hi'iaka and Euboea Montes'." ], [ "See also", "*Cordillera*Drainage divide*List of mountain ranges*:Category:Lists of mountain ranges*List of mountain types*Lists of mountains*Massif*Mountain chain*Mountain formation*Ridge – an elongated mountain or hill, or chain of them" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Peakbagger Ranges Home Page* Bivouac.com" ] ]
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[ [ "Magnoliales" ], [ "Introduction", "''Myristica fragrans'' tree from Myristicaceae in Goa, IndiaThe '''Magnoliales''' are an order of flowering plants." ], [ "Classification", "The Magnoliales include six families:* Annonaceae (custard apple family, over 2000 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas; mostly tropical but some temperate)* Degeneriaceae (two species of trees found on Pacific islands)* Eupomatiaceae (three species of trees and shrubs found in New Guinea and eastern Australia)* Himantandraceae (two species of trees and shrubs, found in tropical areas in Southeast Asia and Australia)* Magnoliaceae (about 225 species including magnolias and tulip trees)* Myristicaceae (several hundred species including nutmeg)===APG system===The APG system (1998), APG II system (2003), APG III system (2009), and APG IV system (2016) place this order in the clade magnoliids, circumscribed as follows:order '''Magnoliales''' : family Annonaceae: family Degeneriaceae: family Eupomatiaceae: family Himantandraceae: family Magnoliaceae: family Myristicaceae The current composition and phylogeny of the Magnoliales.In these systems, published by the APG, the Magnoliales are a basal group, excluded from the eudicots.===Earlier systems===The Cronquist system (1981) placed the order in the subclass Magnoliidae of class Magnoliopsida (=dicotyledons) and used this circumscription: * order Magnoliales** family Annonaceae** family Austrobaileyaceae** family Canellaceae** family Degeneriaceae** family Eupomatiaceae** family Himantandraceae** family Lactoridaceae** family Magnoliaceae** family Myristicaceae** family WinteraceaeThe Thorne system (1992) placed the order in superorder Magnolianae, subclass Magnoliidae (= dicotyledons), in the class Magnoliopsida (= angiosperms) and used this circumscription (including the plants placed in order Laurales and Piperales by other systems):* order Magnoliales** family Amborellaceae** family Annonaceae** family Aristolochiaceae** family Austrobaileyaceae** family Calycanthaceae** family Canellaceae** family Chloranthaceae** family Degeneriaceae** family Eupomatiaceae** family Gomortegaceae** family Hernandiaceae** family Himantandraceae** family Illiciaceae** family Lactoridaceae** family Lauraceae** family Magnoliaceae** family Monimiaceae** family Myristicaceae** family Piperaceae** family Saururaceae** family Schisandraceae** family Trimeniaceae** family WinteraceaeThe Engler system, in its update of 1964, placed the order in subclassis Archychlamydeae in class Dicotyledoneae (=dicotyledons) and used this circumscription: * order Magnoliales** family Amborellaceae** family Annonaceae** family Austrobaileyaceae** family Calycanthaceae** family Canellaceae** family Cercidiphyllaceae** family Degeneriaceae** family Eupomatiaceae** family Eupteleaceae** family Gomortegaceae** family Hernandiaceae** family Himantandraceae** family Illiciaceae** family Lauraceae** family Magnoliaceae** family Monimiaceae** family Myristicaceae** family Schisandraceae** family Trimeniaceae** family Tetracentraceae** family Trochodendraceae** family WinteraceaeThe Wettstein system, latest version published in 1935, did not use this name although it had an order with a similar circumscription with the name Polycarpicae.", "This was placed in the Dialypetalae in subclass Choripetalae of class Dicotyledones.", "(See also Sympetalae).From the above it will be clear that the plants included in this order by APG have always been seen as related.", "They have always been placed in the order Magnoliales (or a predecessor).", "The difference is that earlier systems have also included other plants, which have been moved to neighbouring orders (in the magnoliids) by APG." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "March" ], [ "Introduction", "'''March''' is the third month of the year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars.", "Its length is 31 days.", "In the Northern Hemisphere, the meteorological beginning of spring occurs on the first day of March.", "The March equinox on the 20 or 21 marks the astronomical beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, where September is the seasonal equivalent of the Northern Hemisphere's March." ], [ "History", "March, from the , a book of prayers to be said at canonical hoursThe name of March comes from ''Martius'', the first month of the earliest Roman calendar.", "It was named after Mars, the Roman god of war, and an ancestor of the Roman people through his sons Romulus and Remus.", "His month ''Martius'' was the beginning of the season for warfare, and the festivals held in his honor during the month were mirrored by others in October, when the season for these activities came to a close.", "''Martius'' remained the first month of the Roman calendar year perhaps as late as 153 BC, and several religious observances in the first half of the month were originally new year's celebrations.", "Even in late antiquity, Roman mosaics picturing the months sometimes still placed March first.March 1 began the numbered year in Russia until the end of the 15th century.", "Great Britain and its colonies continued to use March 25 until 1752, when they finally adopted the Gregorian calendar (the fiscal year in the UK continues to begin on 6 April, initially identical to 25 March in the former Julian calendar).", "Many other cultures, for example in Iran, or Ethiopia, still celebrate the beginning of the New Year in March.March is the first month of spring in the Northern Hemisphere (North America, Europe, Asia and part of Africa) and the first month of fall or autumn in the Southern Hemisphere (South America, part of Africa, and Oceania).Ancient Roman observances celebrated in March include Agonium Martiale, celebrated on March 1, March 14, and March 17, Matronalia, celebrated on March 1, Junonalia, celebrated on March 7, Equirria, celebrated on March 14, Mamuralia, celebrated on either March 14 or March 15, Hilaria on March 15 and then through March 22–28, Argei, celebrated on March 16–17, Liberalia and Bacchanalia, celebrated March 17, Quinquatria, celebrated March 19–23, and Tubilustrium, celebrated March 23.These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar." ], [ "Other names", "In Finnish, the month is called ''maaliskuu'', which is believed to originate from ''maallinen kuu''.", "The latter means ''earthy month'' and may refer to the first appearance of \"earth\" from under the winter's snow.", "In Ukrainian, the month is called ''березень''/''berezenʹ'', meaning ''birch tree'', and březen in Czech.", "Historical names for March include the Saxon ''Lentmonat'', named after the March equinox and gradual lengthening of days, and the eventual namesake of Lent.", "Saxons also called March ''Rhed-monat'' or ''Hreth-monath'' (deriving from their goddess ''Rhedam''/''Hreth''), and Angles called it ''Hyld-monath''.In Slovene, the traditional name is ''sušec'', meaning the month when the earth becomes dry enough so that it is possible to cultivate it.", "The name was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript.", "Other names were used too, for example ''brezen'' and ''breznik'', \"the month of birches\".", "The Turkish word ''Mart'' is given after the name of ''Mars'' the god." ], [ "Symbols", "The Daffodil, the floral emblem of MarchAquamarine gemstones bloodstonesMarch's birthstones are aquamarine and bloodstone.", "These stones symbolize courage.", "Its birth flower is the daffodil.", "The zodiac signs are Pisces until approximately March 20 and Aries from approximately March 21 onward." ], [ "Observances", "''This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.", "''=== Month-long ===* In Catholic tradition, March is the Month of Saint Joseph.", "* Endometriosis Awareness Month (International observance)* National Nutrition Month (Canada)* Season for Nonviolence: January 30 – April 4 (International observance)* Women's History Month (Australia, United Kingdom, United States)* Women's Role in History Month (Philippines)==== American ====* Cerebral Palsy Awareness Month* Irish-American Heritage Month* Multiple Sclerosis Awareness Month* Music in our Schools Month* National Athletic Training Month* National Bleeding Disorders Awareness Month* National Celery Month* National Frozen Food Month* National Kidney Month* National Nutrition Month* National Professional Social Work Month * National Reading Awareness Month* Youth Art Month=== Non-Gregorian ===''(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.", ")''* List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar* List of observances set by the Chinese calendar* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar* List of observances set by the Islamic calendar* List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar=== Movable ===* List of movable Eastern Christian observances* List of movable Western Christian observances* National Corndog Day (United States): March 21* Equal Pay Day (United States): March 31==== First Sunday ====* Children's Day (New Zealand)==== First week, March 1 to 7 ====* Global Money Week==== School day closest to March 2 ====* Read Across America Day==== First Monday ====* Casimir Pulaski Day (United States)==== First Tuesday ====* Grandmother's Day (France)==== First Thursday ====* World Book Day (UK and Ireland)* World Maths Day==== First Friday ====* Employee Appreciation Day (United States, Canada)==== Second Sunday ====* Daylight saving time begins (United States and Canada)==== Week of March 8: March 8–14 ====* Women of Aviation Worldwide Week==== Monday closest to March 9, unless March 9 falls on a Saturday ====* Baron Bliss Day (Belize)==== Second Monday ====* Canberra Day (Australia)* Commonwealth Day (Commonwealth of Nations)==== Second Wednesday ====* Decoration Day (Liberia)* No Smoking Day (United Kingdom)==== Second Thursday ====* World Kidney Day==== Friday of the second full week of March ====* World Sleep Day==== Third week in March ====* National Poison Prevention Week (United States)==== Third Monday ====* Birthday of Benito Juarez (Mexico)==== March 19th, unless the 19th is a Sunday, then March 20 ====* Feast of Joseph of Nazareth (Western Christianity)** Father's Day (Spain, Portugal, Italy, Honduras, and Bolivia)** Las Fallas, celebrated on the week leading to March 19.", "(Valencia)** \"Return of the Swallow\", annual observance of the swallows' return to Mission San Juan Capistrano in California.==== Third Wednesday ====* National Festival of Trees (Netherlands)==== March equinox: c. March 20 ====* Nowruz, The Iranian new year.", "(Observed Internationally)* Chunfen (East Asia)* Dísablót (some Asatru groups)* Earth Equinox Day* Equinox of the Gods/New Year (Thelema)* Higan (Japan)* International Astrology Day* Mabon (Southern Hemisphere) (Neo-paganism)* Ostara (Northern Hemisphere) (Neo-paganism)* Shunbun no Hi (Japan)* Sigrblót (The Troth)* Summer Finding (Asatru Free Assembly)* Sun-Earth Day (United States)* Vernal Equinox Day/Kōreisai (Japan)* World Storytelling Day==== Fourth Monday ====* Labour Day (Christmas Island, Australia)==== Fourth Tuesday ====* American Diabetes Alert Day (United States)==== Last Saturday ====* Earth Hour (International observance)==== Last Sunday ====* European Summer Time begins==== Last Monday ====* Seward's Day (Alaska, United States)=== Fixed ===* March 1** Baba Marta (Bulgaria),** Beer Day (Iceland)** Commemoration of Mustafa Barzani's Death (Iraqi Kurdistan)** Heroes' Day (Paraguay)** Independence Day (Bosnia and Herzegovina)** Mărțișor (Romania and Moldavia)** National Pig Day (United States)** Remembrance Day (Marshall Islands)** Saint David's Day (Wales)** Samiljeol (South Korea)** Self-injury Awareness Day (International observance)** World Civil Defence Day* March 2** National Banana Creme Pie Day (United States)** National Reading Day (United States)** Omizu-okuri (\"Water Carrying\") Festival (Obama, Japan)** Peasant's Day (Burma)** Texas Independence Day (Texas, United States)** Victory at Adwa Day (Ethiopia)* March 3** Hinamatsuri (Japan)** Liberation Day (Bulgaria)** Martyr's Day (Malawi)** Mother's Day (Georgia)** National Canadian Bacon Day (United States)** Sportsmen's Day (Egypt)** World Wildlife Day* March 4** National Grammar Day (United States)** St Casimir's Day (Poland and Lithuania)* March 5** Custom Chief's Day (Vanuatu)** Day of Physical Culture and Sport (Azerbaijan)** Learn from Lei Feng Day (China)** National Absinthe Day (United States)** National Cheez Doodle Day (United States)** St Piran's Day (Cornwall)* March 6** European Day of the Righteous ()** Foundation Day (Norfolk Island)** Independence Day (Ghana)* March 7** Liberation of Sulaymaniyah (Iraqi Kurdistan)** National Crown Roast of Pork Day (United States)** Teacher's Day (Albania)* March 8** International Women's Day*** International Women's Collaboration Brew Day*** Mother's Day (primarily Eastern Europe, Russia, and the former Soviet bloc)** National Peanut Cluster Day (United States)** National Potato Salad Day (United States)* March 9** National Crabmeat Day (United States)** National Meatball Day (United States)** Teachers' Day (Lebanon)* March 10** Harriet Tubman Day (United States of America)** Holocaust Remembrance Day (Bulgaria)** Hote Matsuri (Shiogama, Japan)** National Blueberry Popover Day Day (United States)** National Mario Day (United States)** National Women and Girls HIV/AIDS Awareness Day (United States)** Tibetan Uprising Day (Tibetan independence movement)* March 11** Day of Restoration of Independence of Lithuania** Johnny Appleseed Day (United States)** Moshoeshoe Day (Lesotho)** Oatmeal Nut Waffles Day (United States)* March 12** Arbor Day (China)** Arbor Day (Taiwan)** Aztec New Year** Girl Scout Birthday (United States)** National Baked Scallops Day (United States)** National Day (Mauritius)** Tree Day (North Macedonia)** World Day Against Cyber Censorship** Youth Day (Zambia)* March 13** Anniversary of the election of Pope Francis (Vatican City)** Kasuga Matsuri (Kasuga Grand Shrine, Nara, Japan)** L. Ron Hubbard's birthday (Scientology)** Liberation of Duhok City (Iraqi Kurdistan)** National Coconut Torte Day (United States)* March 14** Multiple Sclerosis Awareness Week March 14 to March 20 (United States)** Pi Day** White Day (Asia)* March 15** Hōnen Matsuri (Japan)** International Day Against Police Brutality** J. J. Roberts' Birthday (Liberia)** National Day (Hungary)** World Consumer Rights Day** World Contact Day** World Day of Muslim Culture, Peace, Dialogue and Film** World Speech Day** Youth Day (Palau)* March 16** Day of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania)** Remembrance day of the Latvian legionnaires (Latvia)** Halabja Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)** Saint Urho's Day (Finnish Americans and Finnish Canadians)* March 17** Children's Day (Bangladesh)** Evacuation Day (Massachusetts) (Suffolk County, Massachusetts)** Saint Patrick's Day (Ireland, Irish diaspora)* March 18** Anniversary of the Oil Expropriation (Mexico)** Flag Day (Aruba)** Gallipoli Memorial Day (Turkey)** Men's and Soldiers' Day (Mongolia)** Teacher's Day (Syria)* March 19** Kashubian Unity Day (Poland)** Minna Canth's Birthday (Finland)* March 20** Feast of the Supreme Ritual (Thelema)** Great American Meatout (United States)** International Day of Happiness (United Nations)** Independence Day (Tunisia)** International Francophonie Day (''Organisation internationale de la Francophonie''), and its related observance:*** UN French Language Day (United Nations)** Liberation of Kirkuk City (Iraqi Kurdistan)** National Native HIV/AIDS Awareness Day (United States)** World Sparrow Day* March 21** Arbor Day (Portugal)** Birth of Benito Juárez, a Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)** Harmony Day (Australia)** Human Rights Day (South Africa)** Independence Day (Namibia)** International Colour Day (International observance)** International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (International observance)** International Day of Forests (International observance)** Mother's Day (most of the Arab world)** National Tree Planting Day (Lesotho)** Truant's Day (Poland, Faroe Islands)** World Down Syndrome Day (International observance)** World Poetry Day (International observance)** World Puppetry Day (International observance)** Youth Day (Tunisia)* March 22** Emancipation Day (Puerto Rico)** World Water Day* March 23** Day of the Sea (Bolivia)** Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Day (Azerbaijan)** National Chips and Dip Day (United States)** Pakistan Day (Pakistan)** Promised Messiah Day (Ahmadiyya)** World Meteorological Day* March 24** Commonwealth Covenant Day (Northern Mariana Islands, United States)** Day of Remembrance for Truth and Justice (Argentina)** Day of National Revolution (Kyrgyzstan)** International Day for the Right to the Truth Concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims (United Nations)** National Tree Planting Day (Uganda)** Student Day (Scientology)** World Tuberculosis Day* March 25** Anniversary of the Arengo and the Feast of the Militants (San Marino)** Cultural Workers Day (Russia)** Empress Menen's Birthday (Rastafari)** EU Talent Day (European Union)** Feast of the Annunciation (Christianity), and its related observances:*** Lady Day (United Kingdom) (see Quarter Days)*** International Day of the Unborn Child (international)*** Mother's Day (Slovenia)*** Waffle Day (Sweden)** Freedom Day (Belarus)** International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade** International Day of Solidarity with Detained and Missing Staff Members (United Nations General Assembly)** Maryland Day (Maryland, United States)** Revolution Day (Greece)** Struggle for Human Rights Day (Slovakia)** Tolkien Reading Day (Tolkien fandom)* March 26** Independence Day (Bangladesh)** Martyr's Day or Day of Democracy (Mali)** Prince Kūhiō Day (Hawaii, United States)** Purple Day (Canada and United States)* March 27** Armed Forces Day (Myanmar)** International whisk(e)y day** World Theatre Day (International)* March 28** Commemoration of Sen no Rikyū (Schools of Japanese tea ceremony)** Serfs Emancipation Day (Tibet)** Teachers' Day (Czech Republic and Slovakia)* March 29** Boganda Day (Central African Republic)** Commemoration of the 1947 Rebellion (Madagascar)** Day of the Young Combatant (Chile)** Youth Day (Taiwan)* March 30** Land Day (Palestine)** National Doctors' Day (United States)** Spiritual Baptist/Shouter Liberation Day (Trinidad and Tobago)** World Idli Day* March 31** César Chávez Day (United States)** Culture Day (Public holidays in the Federated States of Micronesia)** Day of Genocide of Azerbaijanis (Azerbaijan)** Freedom Day (Malta)** International Transgender Day of Visibility** King Nangklao Memorial Day (Thailand)** National Backup Day (United States)** National Clams on the Half Shell Day (United States)** Thomas Mundy Peterson Day (New Jersey, United States)** Transfer Day (US Virgin Islands)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Answers article on the seasons" ] ]
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[ [ "May" ], [ "Introduction", "'''May''' is the fifth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.", "Its length is 31 days.May is a month of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.", "Therefore, May in the Southern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent of November in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa.", "Late May typically marks the start of the summer vacation season in the United States (Memorial Day) and Canada (Victoria Day) that ends on Labor Day, the first Monday of September.May (in Latin, ''Maius'') was named for the Greek goddess Maia, who was identified with the Roman era goddess of fertility, Bona Dea, whose festival was held in May.", "Conversely, the Roman poet Ovid provides a second etymology, in which he says that the month of May is named for the ''maiores,'' Latin for \"elders,\" and that the following month (June) is named for the ''iuniores,'' or \"young people\" (''Fasti VI.88'').Mayapples blooming.", "Common name given due to the plant's tendency to bloom in the month of May.Special devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary take place in MayEta Aquariids meteor shower appears in May.", "It is visible from about April 21 to about May 20 each year with peak activity on or around May 6.The Arietids shower from May 22 – July 2, and peaks on June 7.The Virginids also shower at various dates in May." ], [ "Ancient Roman observances", "Under the calendar of ancient Rome, the festival of Bona Dea fell on May 1, Argei fell on May 14 or May 15, Agonalia fell on May 21, and Ambarvalia on May 29.Floralia was held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 on the Julian calendar, and lasted until May 3.Lemuria (festival) fell on 9,11, and 13 May under the Julian calendar.", "The College of Aesculapius and Hygia celebrated two festivals of Rosalia (festival), one on May 11 and one on May 22.Rosalia was also celebrated at Pergamon on May 24–26.A military Rosalia festival, Rosaliae signorum, also occurred on May 31.Ludi Fabarici was celebrated on May 29 – June 1.Mercury would receive a sacrifice on the Ides of May (May 15).", "Tubilustrium took place on May 23 as well as in March.", "These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar." ], [ "Symbols", "Emerald broochMay's birthstone is the emerald which is emblematic of love and success.", "Birth flowers are the Lily of the Valley and ''Crataegus monogyna''.", "Both are native throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere in Asia, Europe, and in the southern Appalachian Mountains in the United States, but have been naturalized throughout the temperate climatic world.The Lily of the ValleyCrataegus monogynaMayflowersThe \"Mayflower\" ''Epigaea repens'' is a North American harbinger of May, and the floral emblem of both Nova Scotia and Massachusetts.", "Its native range extends from Newfoundland south to Florida, west to Kentucky in the southern range, and to Northwest Territories in the north.", "The zodiac signs are Taurus (until May 20) and Gemini (May 21 onward)." ], [ "Observances", "=== Month-long ===* Working class history month* Better Hearing and Speech Month* In Catholic tradition, May is the Month of the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "See May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary** Flores de Mayo (Philippines)* Celiac Awareness Month* Cystic Fibrosis Awareness Month.", "* Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Awareness month* Garden for Wildlife month* Huntington's Disease Awareness Month (International)* International Mediterranean Diet Month* Kaamatan harvest festival (Labuan, Sabah)* New Zealand Music Month (New Zealand)* National Pet Month (United Kingdom)* National Smile Month (United Kingdom)* Season of Emancipation (April 14 to August 23) (Barbados)* Skin Cancer Awareness Month* South Asian Heritage Month (International)* World Trade Month==== United States ====right* Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month* National ALS Awareness Month* Bicycle Month* National Brain Tumor Awareness Month * National Burger Month * Community Action Awareness Month (North Dakota)* National Electrical Safety Month* National Foster Care Month* National Golf Month * Jewish American Heritage Month* Haitian Heritage Month* Hepatitis Awareness Month* Mental Health Awareness Month* National Military Appreciation Month* National Moving Month * National Osteoporosis Month * National Stroke Awareness Month* National Water Safety Month * Older Americans Month === Non-Gregorian ===''(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.", ")''* List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar* List of observances set by the Chinese calendar* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar* List of observances set by the Islamic calendar* List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar=== Movable, 2020 ===* Phi Ta Khon (Dan Sai, Loei province, Isan, Thailand) Dates are selected by village mediums and can take place anywhere between March and July.", "* National Small Business Week (United States): May 5 – 11* National Hurricane Preparedness Week (United States): May 5 – 11* New Zealand Sign Language Week: May 6 – 12* Green Office Week (Britain, United States): May 13 – 17* Walk Safely to School Day (Australia): May 17* Emergency Medical Services Week (United States): May 19 – 25* Bike to Work Week Victoria (May 27 – June 2)==== Western Christian ====* Special devotions to the Virgin Mary take place in May.", "See May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "'''Labour Day: May 1 '''* International Workers' Day'''Sunday after Divine Mercy Sunday: May 5 '''* Jubilate Sunday'''Monday and Tuesday in the week following the third Sunday of Easter: May 6–7 '''* Hocktide (England)'''Fourth Sunday after Easter: May 12 '''* Cantate Sunday* Good Shepherd Sunday'''Fourth Friday after Easter: May 17 '''* Store Bededag (Denmark)'''Third Sunday of May: May 19 '''* Feast of Our Lady of the Audience'''Sunday preceding the Rogation days: May 26 '''* Rogation Sunday '''Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday preceding Feast of the Ascension: May 27–29'''* Minor Rogation days'''39 days after Easter: May 30 '''* Feast of the Ascension** Father's Day (Germany)** Festa della Sensa (Venice)** Global Day of Prayer** Sheep Festival (Cameroon)==== Eastern Christian ===='''Wednesday after Pascha: May 1'''* Bright Wednesday'''Thursday after Pascha: May 2 '''* Bright Thursday'''Friday after Pascha: May 3 '''* Bright Friday'''Saturday after Pascha: May 4 '''* Bright Saturday'''8th day after Pascha: May 5 '''* Thomas Sunday'''2nd Tuesday of Pascha, or 2nd Monday of Pascha, depending on region: May 6 or May 7 '''* Radonitsa (Russian Orthodox)'''2nd Sunday following Pascha: May 12 '''* Sunday of the Myrrhbearers'''4th Sunday of Pascha: May 26 '''* Sunday of the Paralytic'''Wednesday after the Sunday of the Paralytic: May 29'''* Mid-Pentecost===Movable civic======= Last Friday in April to the first Sunday in May ====* National Arbour Week (Ontario, Canada)==== First Thursday ====* Arbour Day (Nova Scotia, Canada)* National Day of Prayer (United States)* National Day of Reason (United States)==== First Saturday ====* Kentucky Derby* Free Comic Book Day* Green Up Day (Vermont, United States)* World Naked Gardening Day===== First Sunday =====* Mother's Day (Angola, Cape Verde, Hungary, Lithuania, Mozambique, Portugal, Spain)* World Laughter Day* Children's Day (South Korea)==== First full week ====* National Teacher Appreciation Week (United States)* North American Occupational Safety and Health Week===== Tuesday of First full week =====* National Teacher Appreciation Day (United States)===== Wednesday of first full week =====* Occupational Safety and Health Professional Day==== Second week in May ====* National Stuttering Awareness Week (United States)==== First Tuesday ====* World Asthma Day==== Friday preceding Second Sunday in May ====* Military Spouse Day (United States)* National Public Gardens Day (United States)==== Saturday closest to May 10 ====* National Train Day (United States)==== Second Saturday ====* International Migratory Bird Day (Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean)* National Tree Planting Day (Mongolia)==== Second Weekend ====* National Mills Weekend (United Kingdom)* World Migratory Bird Day==== Second Sunday ====* National Nursing Home Week (United States)* Children's Day (Spain)* Father's Day (Romania)* Mother's Day (Anguilla, Aruba, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Barbados, Bangladesh, Belgium, Belize, Bermuda, Bonaire, Brazil, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Croatia, Curaçao, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Grenada, Honduras, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Latvia, Malta, Malaysia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Suriname, Switzerland, Taiwan, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela, Zimbabwe)* State Flag and State Emblem Day (Belarus)* World Fair Trade Day==== Week of May 12 ====* National Nursing Week (United States)==== Third Weekend, including Friday ====* Sanja Matsuri (Tokyo, Japan)==== Third Friday ====* Arbour Day (Prince Edward Island, Canada)* National Defense Transportation Day* Endangered Species Day (United States)* National Pizza Party Day (United States)==== Third Saturday ====* The Preakness Stakes is run, second jewel in the triple crown of horse racing.", "* Armed Forces Day (United States)* Culture Freedom Day* Sanja Matsuri* World Whisky Day==== Third Sunday ====* Commemoration Day of Fallen Soldiers* Father's Day (Tonga)* Feast of Our Lady of the Audience* Sanja Matsuri (Tokyo, Japan)==== Monday on or before May 24 ====* Victoria Day (Scotland)==== Third Monday ====* Discovery Day (Cayman Islands)==== Monday on or before May 25 ====* National Patriots' Day (Quebec)==== Last Monday preceding May 25 ====* Victoria Day (Canada)==== May 24, or the nearest weekday if May 24 falls on a weekend ====* Bermuda Day (Bermuda)==== Saturday closest to May 30 ====* Armed Forces Day (Spain)==== Last Weekend ====* Kyiv Day (Kyiv)==== Last Sunday ====* Arbor Day (Venezuela)* Children's Day (Hungary)* Mother's Day (Algeria, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Mauritius, Morocco, Sweden, Tunisia)* Turkmen Carpet Day (Turkmenistan)==== Last Monday ====* Heroes' Day (Turks and Caicos Islands)* Memorial Day (United States), a public holiday, is on May 30, but observed on the last Monday in May.", "* Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Day (Fiji), removed as a national holiday in 2010.==== Last Wednesday ====* World Multiple Sclerosis Day==== Last Thursday ====* Take a Girl Child to Work Day (South Africa)=== Fixed ===May, from the ''Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry''''May'', Leandro BassanoRosa chinensis, the flower symbol of May* April 29 to May 5 in Japan, which includes four different holidays, is called \"Golden Week\".", "Many workers have up to 10 days off.", "There is also 'May sickness', where new students or workers start to be tired of their new routine.", "(In Japan the school year and fiscal year start on April 1.", ")* Mayovka, in the context of the late Russian Empire, was a picnic in the countryside or in a park in the early days of May, hence the name.", "Eventually, \"mayovka\" (specifically, \"proletarian mayovka\") came to mean an illegal celebration of May 1 by revolutionary public, typically presented as an innocent picnic.", "* May 1** Armed Forces Day (Mauritania)** Beltane (Ireland, Neopaganism)** Constitution Day (Argentina)** Lei Day (Hawaii, United States)** May Day (International observance)* May 2** Anniversary of the Dos de Mayo Uprising (Community of Madrid, Spain)** Birth Anniversary of Third Druk Gyalpo (Bhutan)** Flag Day (Poland)** Indonesia National Education Day* May 3** Constitution Day (Poland)** Constitution Memorial Day (Japan)** Roodmas** Sun Day (International)** World Press Freedom Day* May 4** Anti-Bullying Day (United Nations)** Bird Day (United States)** Cassinga Day (Namibia)** Death of Milan Rastislav Štefánik Day (Slovakia)** Greenery Day (Japan)** International Firefighters' Day** May Fourth Movement commemorations:*** Literary Day (Taiwan)*** Youth Day (China)** Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled (Afghanistan)** Remembrance of the Dead (Netherlands)** Restoration of Independence day (Latvia)** Star Wars Day (International observance)** World Give Day** Youth Day (Fiji)* May 5** Children's Day (Japan, Korea)** Cinco de Mayo** Constitution Day (Kyrgyzstan)** Coronation Day (Thailand)** Europe Day in Europe (uncommon usage, largely replaced by May 9).", "** Feast of al-Khadr or Saint George (Palestinian people)** Indian Arrival Day (Guyana)** International Midwives' Day** Liberation Day (Denmark)** Liberation Day (Netherlands)** Lusophone Culture Day (Community of Portuguese Language Countries)** Martyrs' Day (Albania)** Patriots' Victory Day (Ethiopia)** Senior Citizens Day (Palau)** Tango no sekku (Japan)* May 6** Martyrs' Day (Gabon)** Martyrs' Day (Lebanon and Syria)** International No Diet Day** Teachers' Day (Jamaica)** The first day of Hıdırellez (Turkey)** St George's Day related observances (Eastern Orthodox Church):*** Day of Bravery, also known as ''Gergyovden'' (Bulgaria)*** Đurđevdan (Gorani, Roma)*** Police Day (Georgia)*** Yuri's Day (Russian Orthodox Church)* May 7** Defender of the Fatherland Day (Kazakhstan)** Dien Bien Phu Victory Day (Vietnam)** Radio Day (Russia, Bulgaria)* May 8** Miguel Hidalgo's birthday (Mexico)** Parents' Day (South Korea)** Time of Remembrance and Reconciliation for Those Who Lost Their Lives during the Second World War, continues to May 9** Truman Day (Missouri, United States)** White Lotus Day (Theosophy)** World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day** Veterans Day (Norway)** VE Day in Western Europe.", "In Eastern Europe it is celebrated on May 9.", "* May 9** Anniversary of Dianetics (Church of Scientology)** Europe Day (European Union)** Liberation Day (Guernsey), commemorating the end of the German occupation of the Channel Islands during World War II.", "** Liberation Day (Jersey), commemorating the end of the German occupation of the Channel Islands during World War II.", "** Time of Remembrance and Reconciliation for Those Who Lost Their Lives during the Second World War, continued from May 8.", "** Victory Day observances, celebration of the Soviet Union victory over Nazi Germany (Soviet Union, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Serbia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan)** Victory Day over Nazism in World War II (Ukraine)** Victory and Peace Day (Armenia) marks both the capture of Shusha (1992) in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, and the end of World War II.", "* May 10** Children's Day (Maldives)** Confederate Memorial Day (North Carolina and South Carolina)** Constitution Day (Federated States of Micronesia)** Golden Spike Day (1869 – Completion of the First transcontinental railroad – Promontory Summit, Utah)** Independence Day (Romania), celebrating the declaration of independence of Romania from the Ottoman Empire in 1877.", "** Liberation Day (Sark), commemorating the end of the German occupation of the Channel Islands during World War II.", "* May 11** National Technology Day (India)** Statehood Day (Minnesota)** Vietnam Human Rights Day (Vietnam)* May 12** Saint Andrea the First Day (Georgia (country))** Day of the Finnish Identity (Finland)** International Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Awareness Day** International Nurses Day* May 13** Abbotsbury Garland Day (Dorset, England)** Heroes' Day (Romania)** Rotuma Day (Rotuma, Fiji)* May 14** Hastings Banda's Birthday (Malawi)** First day of Izumo-taisha Shrine Grand Festival.", "(Izumo-taisha, Japan)** National Unification Day (Liberia)* May 15** Beginning of Tourette Syndrome awareness month.", "It ends on June 15** Army Day (Slovenia)** Constituent Assembly Day (Lithuania)** Independence Day (Paraguay)** International Day of Families** Nakba Day (Palestinian communities)** Peace Officers Memorial Day (United States)** Republic Day (Lithuania)** Saint Ubaldo Day** Teachers' Day (Colombia, Mexico, South Korea)* May 16** Martyrs of Sudan (Episcopal Church (USA))** St Brendan Birthday & Feast day** Mass Graves Day (Iraq)** National Day, declared by Salva Kiir Mayardit (South Sudan)** Teachers' Day (Malaysia)** International Day of Light* May 17** National Day Against Homophobia (Canada)** International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia, also known as IDAHOT** Birthday of the Raja (Perlis)** Children's Day (Norway)** Constitution Day (Nauru)** Galician Literature Day (Galicia (Spain))** World Hypertension Day** World Information Society Day** Liberation Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)** Navy Day (Argentina)** Norwegian Constitution Day* May 18** Baltic Fleet Day (Russia)** Battle of Las Piedras Day (Uruguay)** Day of Remembrance of Crimean Tatar genocide (Ukraine)** Flag and Universities Day (Haiti)** Independence Day (Somaliland) (unrecognized)** International Museum Day** Mullivaikkal Remembrance Day (Sri Lankan Tamils)** Revival, Unity, and Poetry of Magtymguly Day (Turkmenistan)** Teacher's Day (Syria)** Victory Day (Sri Lanka)** World AIDS Vaccine Day* May 19** Commemoration of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day (Turkey, Northern Cyprus)** Greek Genocide Remembrance Day (Greece)** Hồ Chí Minh's Birthday (Vietnam)** Malcolm X Day (United States of America)** National Asian & Pacific Islander HIV/AIDS Awareness Day** Hepatitis Testing Day (United States)* May 20** Day of Remembrance (Cambodia)** Emancipation Day (Florida)** European Maritime Day (European Council)** Independence Day (Cuba)** Independence Day, East Timor** Josephine Baker Day (NAACP)** National Awakening Day (Indonesia)** National Day (Cameroon)** World Metrology Day* May 21** Afro-Colombian Day (Colombia)** Circassian Day of Mourning (Circassians)** Day of Patriots and Military (Hungary)** Navy Day (Chile)** Saint Helena Day, celebrates the discovery of Saint Helena in 1502.", "** World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development (International)** One of the three festivals of Vejovis (Roman Empire)* May 22** Abolition Day (Martinique)** Harvey Milk Day (California)** International Day for Biological Diversity (International)** National Maritime Day (United States)** National Sovereignty Day (Haiti)** Republic Day (Sri Lanka)** Translation of the Relics of Saint Nicholas from Myra to Bari (Ukraine)** Unity Day (Yemen)** World Goth Day* May 23** Constitution Day (Germany)** Labour Day (Jamaica)** Students' Day (Mexico)** World Turtle Day* May 24** Feast of Mary Help of Christians (Roman Catholicism)** Aldersgate Day/Wesley Day (Methodism)** Battle of Pichincha Day (Ecuador)** Commonwealth Day (Belize)** Independence Day (Eritrea)** Lubiri Memorial Day (Buganda)** Saints Cyril and Methodius Day (Eastern Orthodox Church) and its related observance:*** Bulgarian Education and Culture and Slavonic Literature Day (Bulgaria)*** Saints Cyril and Methodius, Slavonic Enlighteners' Day (North Macedonia)* May 25** Africa Day (African Union)** African Liberation Day (African Union)** Day of Youth** Geek Pride Day** Independence Day (Jordan)** Liberation Day (Lebanon)** May Revolution (or Revolución de Mayo), a national holiday in Argentina** International Missing Children's Day** Last bell (Russia, post-Soviet countries)** Liberation Day (Lebanon)** National Day (Argentina)** National Missing Children's Day (United States)** National Tap Dance Day (United States)** Towel Day* May 26** Crown Prince's Birthday (Denmark)** Independence Day (Guyana)** Independence Day (Georgia)** Mother's Day (Poland)** National Day of Healing (Australia)** National Paper Airplane Day (United States)* May 27** Armed Forces Day (Nicaragua)** Children's Day (Nigeria)** Mother's Day (Bolivia)** Navy Day (Japan)** Slavery Abolition Day (Guadeloupe, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin)** World MS Day** Start of National Reconciliation Week (Australia)* May 28** Armed Forces Day (Croatia)** Downfall of the Derg Day (Ethiopia)** Flag Day (Philippines) (Display of the flag in all places until June 12 is encouraged)** Independence Day (Armenia)** Republic Day (Nepal)** TDFR Republic Day** Youm-e-Takbir (Pakistan)* May 29** Army Day (Argentina)** International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers (International)** Oak Apple Day (England), and its related observance:*** Castleton Garland Day (Castleton)** Statehood Day (Rhode Island and Wisconsin)** Veterans Day (Sweden)** World Digestive Health Day* May 30** Anguilla Day (Anguilla)** Canary Islands Day (Spain)** Indian Arrival Day (Trinidad and Tobago)** Lod Massacre Remembrance Day (Puerto Rico)** Mother's Day (Nicaragua)** Parliament Day (Croatia)* May 31** Anniversary of Royal Brunei Malay Regiment (Brunei)** Castile–La Mancha Day (Castile-La Mancha)** Visitation of Mary (Western Christianity)** World No Tobacco Day (International)" ], [ "See also", "* List of historical anniversaries" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 1" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*509 BC – Publius Valerius Publicola celebrates the first triumph of the Roman Republic after his victory over the deposed king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus at the Battle of Silva Arsia.", "* 293 – Emperor Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars.", "This is considered the beginning of the Tetrarchy, known as the ''Quattuor Principes Mundi'' (\"Four Rulers of the World\").", "* 350 – Vetranio proclaims himself Caesar after being encouraged to do so by Constantina, sister of Constantius II.", "* 834 – Emperor Louis the Pious is restored as sole ruler of the Frankish Empire.", "*1476 – Forces of the Catholic Monarchs engage the combined Portuguese-Castilian armies of Afonso V and Prince John at the Battle of Toro.", "*1562 – Sixty-three Huguenots are massacred in Wassy, France, marking the start of the French Wars of Religion.===1601–1900===*1628 – Writs issued in February by Charles I of England mandate that every county in England (not just seaport towns) pay ship tax by this date.", "*1633 – Samuel de Champlain reclaims his role as commander of New France on behalf of Cardinal Richelieu.", "*1692 – Sarah Good, Sarah Osborne and Tituba are brought before local magistrates in Salem Village, Massachusetts, beginning what would become known as the Salem witch trials.", "*1781 – The Articles of Confederation goes into effect in the United States.", "*1796 – The Dutch East India Company is nationalized by the Batavian Republic.", "*1805 – Justice Samuel Chase is acquitted at the end of his impeachment trial by the U.S.", "Senate.", "*1811 – Leaders of the Mamluk dynasty are killed by Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.", "*1815 – Napoleon returns to France from his banishment on Elba.", "*1836 – A convention of delegates from 57 Texas communities convenes in Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas, to deliberate independence from Mexico.", "*1845 – United States President John Tyler signs a bill authorizing the United States to annex the Republic of Texas.", "*1867 – Nebraska is admitted as the 37th U.S.", "state.", "*1870 – Marshal F. S. López dies during the Battle of Cerro Corá thus marking the end of the Paraguayan War.", "*1871 – The victorious Prussian Army parades through Paris, France, after the end of the Siege of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War.", "*1872 – Yellowstone National Park is established as the world's first national park.", "*1893 – Electrical engineer Nikola Tesla gives the first public demonstration of radio in St. Louis, Missouri.", "*1896 – Battle of Adwa: An Ethiopian army defeats an outnumbered Italian force, ending the First Italo-Ethiopian War.", "* 1896 – Henri Becquerel discovers radioactive decay.===1901–present===*1901 – The Australian Army is formed.", "*1910 – The deadliest avalanche in United States history buries a Great Northern Railway train in northeastern King County, Washington, killing 96 people.", "*1914 – China joins the Universal Postal Union.", "*1917 – The Zimmermann Telegram is reprinted in newspapers across the United States after the U.S. government releases its unencrypted text.", "*1919 – March 1st Movement begins in Korea under Japanese rule.", "*1921 – The Australian cricket team captained by Warwick Armstrong becomes the first team to complete a whitewash of The Ashes, something that would not be repeated for 86 years.", "* 1921 – Following mass protests in Petrograd demanding greater freedom in the RSFSR, the Kronstadt rebellion begins, with sailors and citizens taking up arms against the Bolsheviks.", "*1932 – Aviator Charles Lindbergh's 20-month-old son Charles Jr is kidnapped from his home in East Amwell, New Jersey.", "His body would not be found until May 12.", "*1939 – An Imperial Japanese Army ammunition dump explodes at Hirakata, Osaka, Japan, killing 94.", "*1941 – World War II: Bulgaria signs the Tripartite Pact, allying itself with the Axis powers.", "*1942 – World War II: Japanese forces land on Java, the main island of the Dutch East Indies, at Merak and Banten Bay (Banten), Eretan Wetan (Indramayu) and Kragan (Rembang).", "*1946 – The Bank of England is nationalised.", "*1947 – The International Monetary Fund begins financial operations.", "*1950 – Cold War: Klaus Fuchs is convicted of spying for the Soviet Union by disclosing top secret atomic bomb data.", "*1953 – Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin suffers a stroke and collapses; he dies four days later.", "*1954 – Nuclear weapons testing: The Castle Bravo, a 15-megaton hydrogen bomb, is detonated on Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean, resulting in the worst radioactive contamination ever caused by the United States.", "* 1954 – Armed Puerto Rican nationalists attack the United States Capitol building, injuring five Representatives.", "*1956 – The International Air Transport Association finalizes a draft of the Radiotelephony spelling alphabet for the International Civil Aviation Organization.", "* 1956 – Formation of the East German Nationale Volksarmee.", "*1958 – Samuel Alphonsus Stritch is appointed Pro-Prefect of the Propagation of Faith and thus becomes the first U.S. member of the Roman Curia.", "*1961 – Uganda becomes self-governing and holds its first elections.", "*1962 – American Airlines Flight 1 crashes into Jamaica Bay in New York, killing 95.", "*1964 – Villarrica Volcano begins a strombolian eruption causing lahars that destroy half of the town of Coñaripe.", "*1964 – Paradise Airlines Flight 901A crashes near Lake Tahoe, Nevada, killing 85.", "*1966 – Venera 3 Soviet space probe crashes on Venus becoming the first spacecraft to land on another planet's surface.", "* 1966 – The Ba'ath Party takes power in Syria.", "*1971 – President of Pakistan Yahya Khan indefinitely postpones the pending national assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan.", "*1973 – Black September storms the Saudi embassy in Khartoum, Sudan, resulting in the assassination of three Western hostages.", "*1974 – Watergate scandal: Seven are indicted for their role in the Watergate break-in and charged with conspiracy to obstruct justice.", "*1981 – Provisional Irish Republican Army member Bobby Sands begins his hunger strike in HM Prison Maze.", "*1990 – Steve Jackson Games is raided by the United States Secret Service, prompting the later formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.", "*1991 – Uprisings against Saddam Hussein begin in Iraq, leading to the deaths of more than 25,000 people, mostly civilians.", "*1992 – Bosnia and Herzegovina declares its independence from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.", "*1998 – ''Titanic'' became the first film to gross over $1 billion worldwide.", "*2002 – U.S. invasion of Afghanistan: Operation Anaconda begins in eastern Afghanistan.", "* 2002 – The Envisat environmental satellite successfully launches aboard an Ariane 5 rocket to reach an orbit of above the Earth, which was the then-largest payload at 10.5 m long and with a diameter of 4.57 m.*2003 – Management of the United States Customs Service and the United States Secret Service move to the United States Department of Homeland Security.", "*2005 – In ''Roper v. Simmons'', the U.S. Supreme Court rules that the execution of juveniles found guilty of any crime is unconstitutional.", "*2006 – English-language Wikipedia reaches its one millionth article, Jordanhill railway station.", "*2007 – Tornadoes break out across the southern United States, killing at least 20 people, including eight at Enterprise High School.", "*2008 – The Armenian police clash with peaceful opposition rally protesting against allegedly fraudulent presidential elections, as a result ten people are killed.", "*2014 – Thirty-five people are killed and 143 injured in a mass stabbing at Kunming Railway Station in China." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1105 – Alfonso VII, king of León and Castile (d. 1157)*1389 – Antoninus of Florence, Italian archbishop and saint (d. 1459)*1432 – Isabella of Coimbra (d. 1455)*1456 – Vladislaus II of Hungary (d. 1516)*1547 – Rudolph Goclenius, German philosopher and lexicographer (d. 1628)*1554 – William Stafford, English courtier and conspirator (d. 1612)*1577 – Richard Weston, 1st Earl of Portland (d. 1635)*1597 – Jean-Charles della Faille, Flemish priest and mathematician (d. 1652)===1601–1900===*1611 – John Pell, English mathematician and linguist (d. 1685)*1629 – Abraham Teniers, Flemish painter (d. 1670)*1647 – John de Brito, Portuguese Jesuit missionary and martyr (d. 1693)*1657 – Samuel Werenfels, Swiss theologian and author (d. 1740)*1683 – Tsangyang Gyatso, sixth Dalai Lama (d. 1706)*1683 – Caroline of Ansbach, British queen and regent (d. 1737)*1724 – Manuel do Cenáculo, Portuguese prelate and antiquarian (d. 1814)*1732 – William Cushing, American lawyer and judge (d. 1810)*1760 – François Buzot, French lawyer and politician (d. 1794)*1769 – François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, French general (d. 1796)*1807 – Wilford Woodruff, American religious leader, 4th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1898)*1810 – Frédéric Chopin, Polish pianist and composer (d. 1849)*1812 – Augustus Pugin, English architect, co-designed the Palace of Westminster (d. 1852)*1817 – Giovanni Duprè, Italian sculptor and educator (d. 1882)*1821 – Joseph Hubert Reinkens, German bishop and academic (d. 1896)*1835 – Philip Fysh, English-Australian politician, 12th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1919)*1837 – William Dean Howells, American novelist, playwright, and critic (d. 1920)*1842 – Nikolaos Gyzis, Greek painter and academic (d. 1901)*1848 – Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Irish-American sculptor and academic (d. 1907)*1852 – Théophile Delcassé, French politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1923)*1863 – Alexander Golovin, Russian painter and set designer (d. 1930)*1870 – E. M. Antoniadi, Greek-French astronomer and academic (d. 1944)*1876 – Henri de Baillet-Latour, Belgian businessman (d. 1942)*1880 – Lytton Strachey, British writer and critic (d. 1932)*1886 – Oskar Kokoschka, Austrian-Swiss painter, poet, and playwright (d. 1980)*1888 – Ewart Astill, English cricketer and billiards player (d. 1948)* 1888 – Fanny Walden, English cricketer and umpire, international footballer (d. 1949)*1889 – Tetsuro Watsuji, Japanese historian and philosopher (d. 1960)*1890 – Theresa Bernstein, Polish-American painter and author (d. 2002)*1891 – Ralph Hitz, Austrian-American hotelier (d. 1940)*1892 – Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Japanese author and educator (d. 1927)*1893 – Mercedes de Acosta, American author, poet, and playwright (d. 1968)*1896 – Dimitri Mitropoulos, Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1960)* 1896 – Moriz Seeler, German playwright and producer (d. 1942)*1899 – Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, German SS officer (d. 1972)*1900 – Basil Bunting, British poet (d. 1985)===1901–present===*1904 – Paul Hartman, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1973)* 1904 – Glenn Miller, American trombonist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1944)*1905 – Doris Hare, Welsh-English actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2000)*1906 – Phạm Văn Đồng, Vietnamese lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Vietnam (d. 2000)*1909 – Eugene Esmonde, English lieutenant and pilot (d. 1942)* 1909 – Winston Sharples, American pianist and composer (d. 1978)*1910 – Archer John Porter Martin, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)* 1910 – David Niven, English soldier and actor (d. 1983)*1912 – Gerald Emmett Carter, Canadian cardinal (d. 2003)* 1912 – Boris Chertok, Polish-Russian engineer and academic (d. 2011)*1914 – Harry Caray, American sportscaster (d. 1998)* 1914 – Ralph Ellison, American novelist and literary critic (d. 1994)*1917 – Robert Lowell, American poet (d. 1977)* 1917 – Dinah Shore, American singer and actress (d. 1994)*1918 – João Goulart, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 24th President of Brazil (d. 1976)* 1918 – Gladys Spellman, American educator and politician (d. 1988)*1920 – Max Bentley, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1984)* 1920 – Howard Nemerov, American poet and academic (d. 1991)*1921 – Cameron Argetsinger, American race car driver and lawyer (d. 2008)* 1921 – Terence Cooke, American cardinal (d. 1983)* 1921 – Richard Wilbur, American poet, translator, and essayist (d. 2017)*1922 – William Gaines, American publisher (d. 1992)* 1922 – Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli general and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Israel, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)*1924 – Arnold Drake, American author and screenwriter (d. 2007)* 1924 – Deke Slayton, American soldier, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1993)*1926 – Robert Clary, French-American actor and author (d. 2022)* 1926 – Cesare Danova, Italian-American actor (d. 1992)* 1926 – Pete Rozelle, American businessman and 3rd Commissioner of the National Football League (d. 1996)* 1926 – Allan Stanley, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2013)*1927 – George O. Abell, American astronomer, professor at UCLA, science popularizer, and skeptic (d. 1983) * 1927 – Harry Belafonte, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2023)* 1927 – Robert Bork, American lawyer and scholar, United States Attorney General (d. 2012)*1928 – Jacques Rivette, French director, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2016)*1929 – Georgi Markov, Bulgarian journalist and author (d. 1978)* 1930 – Monu Mukhopadhyay, Indian Bengali actor (d. 2020)*1930 – Gastone Nencini, Italian cyclist (d. 1980)*1934 – Jean-Michel Folon, Belgian painter and sculptor (d. 2005)* 1934 – Joan Hackett, American actress (d. 1983)*1935 – Robert Conrad, American actor, radio host and stuntman (d. 2020)*1936 – Jean-Edern Hallier, French author (d. 1997)*1939 – Leo Brouwer, Cuban guitarist, composer, and conductor* 1939 – Mustansar Hussain Tarar, Pakistani author*1940 – Robin Gray, Australian politician, 37th Premier of Tasmania * 1940 – Robert Grossman, American painter, sculptor, and author (d. 2018)*1941 – Robert Hass, American poet* 1941 – Dave Marcis, American stock car racing driver*1942 – Richard Myers, American general*1943 – Gil Amelio, American businessman* 1943 – José Ángel Iribar, Spanish footballer and manager* 1943 – Rashid Sunyaev, Russian-German astronomer and physicist*1944 – Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee, Indian politician, 7th Chief Minister of West Bengal* 1944 – John Breaux, American lawyer and politician* 1944 – Roger Daltrey, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor* 1944 – Mike d'Abo, English singer*1945 – Dirk Benedict, American actor and director*1946 – Gerry Boulet, Canadian singer-songwriter (d. 1990)* 1946 – Jim Crace, English author and academic*1947 – Alan Thicke, Canadian-American actor and composer (d. 2016)*1951 – Sergei Kourdakov, Russian-American KGB agent (d. 1973)*1952 – Dave Barr, Canadian golfer* 1952 – Nevada Barr, American actress and author* 1952 – Leigh Matthews, Australian footballer, coach, and sportscaster* 1952 – Jerri Nielsen, American physician and explorer (d. 2009)* 1952 – Martin O'Neill, Northern Irish footballer and manager*1953 – M. K. Stalin, Indian Tamil politician, 8th and incumbent Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu* 1953 – Sinan Çetin, Turkish actor, director, and producer* 1953 – Carlos Queiroz, Portuguese footballer and manager*1954 – Catherine Bach, American actress* 1954 – Ron Howard, American actor, director, and producer* 1954 – Rod Reddy, Australian rugby league player and coach*1956 – Tim Daly, American actor, director, and producer* 1956 – Dalia Grybauskaitė, Lithuanian politician, President of Lithuania*1958 – Nik Kershaw, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1958 – Wayne B. Phillips, Australian cricketer and coach*1959 – Nick Griffin, English politician*1961 – Mike Rozier, American football player\t*1963 – Ron Francis, Canadian ice hockey player and manager*1965 – Booker T, American wrestler and sportscaster* 1965 – Stewart Elliott, Canadian jockey*1966 – Zack Snyder, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1967 – Aron Winter, Surinamese-Dutch footballer and manager*1969 – Javier Bardem, Spanish actor and producer*1971 – Ivan Cleary, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1971 – Ma Dong-seok, South Korean-American actor*1973 – Chris Webber, American basketball player and sportscaster*1977 – Rens Blom, Dutch pole vaulter*1979 – Mikkel Kessler, Danish boxer* 1979 – Bruno Langlois, Canadian cyclist*1980 – Shahid Afridi, Pakistani cricketer* 1980 – Sercan Güvenışık, German-Turkish footballer* 1980 – Djimi Traoré, French-Malian footballer*1981 – Will Power, Australian race car driver*1983 – Daniel Carvalho, Brazilian footballer* 1983 – Lupita Nyong'o, Kenyan-Mexican actress* 1983 – Anthony Tupou, Australian rugby league player*1984 – Alexander Steen, Canadian-Swedish ice hockey player*1985 – Andreas Ottl, German footballer*1986 – Big E, American professional wrestler* 1986 – Jonathan Spector, American soccer player*1987 – Kesha, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1989 – Carlos Vela, Mexican footballer*1992 – Tom Walsh, New Zealand athlete* 1992 – Édouard Mendy, Senegalese footballer*1993 – Nathan Brown, Australian rugby league player* 1993 – Michael Conforto, American baseball player\t* 1993 – Kurt Mann, Australian rugby league player* 1993 – Josh McEachran, English footballer*1994 – Justin Bieber, Canadian singer-songwriter* 1994 – Asanoyama Hideki, Japanese sumo wrestler* 1994 – Tyreek Hill, American football player*1999 – Brogan Hay, Scottish footballer*2000 – Ja'Marr Chase, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 492 – Felix III, pope of the Catholic Church* 589 – David, Welsh bishop and saint * 965 – Leo VIII, pope of the Catholic Church* 977 – Rudesind, Galician bishop (b.", "907)* 991 – En'yū, Japanese emperor (b.", "959)*1058 – Ermesinde of Carcassonne, countess and regent of Barcelona (b.", "972)*1131 – Stephen II, king of Hungary and Croatia (b.", "1101)*1233 – Thomas, count of Savoy (b.", "1178)*1244 – Gruffydd ap Llywelyn Fawr, Welsh noble, son of Llywelyn the Great (b.", "1200)*1320 – Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan, Chinese emperor (b.", "1286)*1383 – Amadeus VI, count of Savoy (b.", "1334)*1510 – Francisco de Almeida, Portuguese soldier and explorer (b.", "1450)*1546 – George Wishart, Scottish minister and martyr (b.", "1513)===1601–1900===*1620 – Thomas Campion, English poet and composer (b.", "1567)*1633 – George Herbert, English poet and orator (b.", "1593)*1643 – Girolamo Frescobaldi, Italian keyboardist and composer (b.", "1583)*1661 – Richard Zouch, English judge and politician (b.", "1590)*1697 – Francesco Redi, Italian physician and poet (b.", "1626)*1734 – Roger North, English lawyer and author (b.", "1653)*1768 – Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German philosopher and author (b.", "1694)*1773 – Luigi Vanvitelli, Italian architect, designed the Palace of Caserta (b.", "1700)*1792 – Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1747)* 1792 – Angelo Emo, Venetian admiral and statesman (b.", "1731)*1841 – Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno, French general and politician, French Minister of Defence (b.", "1764)*1862 – Peter Barlow, English mathematician and physicist (b.", "1776)*1875 – Tristan Corbière, French poet and educator (b.", "1845)*1882 – Theodor Kullak, German pianist, composer, and educator (b.", "1818)*1884 – Isaac Todhunter, English mathematician and academic (b.", "1820)*1889 – William Henry Monk, English organist and composer (b.", "1823)===1901–present===*1906 – José María de Pereda, Spanish author (b.", "1833)*1911 – Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Dutch-German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1852)*1914 – Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto, English soldier and politician, 8th Governor General of Canada (b.", "1845)*1920 – John H. Bankhead, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1842)*1922 – Pichichi, Spanish footballer (b.", "1892)*1925 – Homer Plessy, American political activist (b.", "1862 or 1863)*1932 – Frank Teschemacher, American Jazz musician (b.", "1906) *1936 – Mikhail Kuzmin, Russian author and poet (b.", "1871)*1938 – Gabriele D'Annunzio, Italian journalist and politician (b.", "1863)*1940 – A. H. Tammsaare, Estonian author (b.", "1878)*1942 – George S. Rentz, American commander (b.", "1882)*1943 – Alexandre Yersin, Swiss-French physician and bacteriologist (b.", "1863)*1952 – Mariano Azuela, Mexican physician and author (b.", "1873)*1966 – Fritz Houtermans, Polish-German physicist and academic (b.", "1903)*1974 – Bobby Timmons, American pianist and composer (b.", "1935)*1976 – Jean Martinon, French conductor and composer (b.", "1910)*1978 – Paul Scott, English author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1920)*1979 – Mustafa Barzani, Iraqi-Kurdistan politician (b.", "1903)*1980 – Wilhelmina Cooper, Dutch-American model and businesswoman, founded Wilhelmina Models (b.", "1940)* 1980 – Dixie Dean, English footballer (b.", "1907)*1983 – Arthur Koestler, Hungarian-English journalist and author (b.", "1905)*1984 – Jackie Coogan, American actor (b.", "1914)*1988 – Joe Besser, American comedian and actor (b.", "1907)*1989 – Vasantdada Patil, Indian politician, 5th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b.", "1917)*1991 – Edwin H. Land, American scientist and businessman, co-founded the Polaroid Corporation (b.", "1909)*1995 – César Rodríguez Álvarez, Spanish footballer and manager (b.", "1920)* 1995 – Georges J. F. Köhler, German biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1946)*1998 – Archie Goodwin, American author and illustrator (b.", "1937)*2004 – Mian Ghulam Jilani, Pakistani general (b.", "1914)*2006 – Peter Osgood, English footballer (b.", "1947)* 2006 – Jack Wild, English actor (b.1952)* 2006 – Nurasyura binte Mohamed Fauzi, Singaporean rape and murder victim.", "*2010 – Kristian Digby, English television host and director (b.", "1977)*2012 – Andrew Breitbart, American journalist and publisher (b.", "1969)* 2012 – Germano Mosconi, Italian journalist (b.", "1932)*2013 – Bonnie Franklin, American actress, dancer, and singer (b.", "1944)*2014 – Alain Resnais, French director, cinematographer, and screenwriter (b.", "1922)*2015 – Minnie Miñoso, Cuban-American baseball player and coach (b.", "1922)*2016 – Carole Achache, French writer, photographer and actress (b.", "1952)*2018 – María Rubio, Mexican television, film and stage actress (b.", "1934)*2019 – Mike Willesee, Australian journalist and producer (b.", "1942)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Beer Day, marked the end of beer prohibition in 1989 (Iceland)*Christian feast day:**Agnes Tsao Kou Ying (one of the Martyr Saints of China)**Albin**Eudokia of Heliopolis**Pope Felix III**Leoluca**Luperculus**Monan**Rudesind**Saint David's Day or ''Dydd Gŵyl Dewi'' (Wales and Welsh communities)**Suitbert**March 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Commemoration of Mustafa Barzani's Death (Iraqi Kurdistan)*Disability Day of Mourning*Heroes' Day (Paraguay)*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992.", "*National \"Cursed Soldiers\" Remembrance Day (Poland)*National Pig Day (United States)*Remembrance Day (Marshall Islands)*Samiljeol (South Korea)*Self-injury Awareness Day (international)*Southeastern Europe celebration of the beginning of spring:**Baba Marta Day (Bulgaria)**Mărțișor (Romania and Moldova)*The final day (fourth or fifth) of Ayyám-i-Há (Baháʼí Faith)*World Seagrass Day*Yap Day (Yap State)*Zero Discrimination Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 1" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 28" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*AD 37 – Roman emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, bestowed on him by the Senate.", "* 193 – After assassinating the Roman Emperor Pertinax, his Praetorian Guards auction off the throne to Didius Julianus.", "* 364 – Roman Emperor Valentinian I appoints his brother Flavius Valens co-emperor.", "*1065 – The Great German Pilgrimage, which had been under attack by Bedouin bandits for three days, is rescued by the Fatimid governor of Ramla.", "*1566 – The foundation stone of Valletta, Malta's capital city, is laid by Jean Parisot de Valette, Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.===1601–1900===*1776 – Juan Bautista de Anza finds the site for the Presidio of San Francisco.", "*1795 – Partitions of Poland: The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a northern fief of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ceases to exist and becomes part of Imperial Russia.", "*1801 – Treaty of Florence is signed, ending the war between the French Republic and the Kingdom of Naples.", "*1802 – Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers discovers 2 Pallas, the second asteroid ever to be discovered.", "*1809 – Peninsular War: France defeats Spain in the Battle of Medellín.", "*1814 – War of 1812: In the Battle of Valparaíso, two American naval vessels are captured by two Royal Navy vessels.", "*1842 – First concert of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Otto Nicolai.", "*1854 – Crimean War: France and Britain declare war on Russia.", "*1860 – First Taranaki War: The Battle of Waireka begins.", "*1862 – American Civil War: In the Battle of Glorieta Pass, Union forces stop the Confederate invasion of the New Mexico Territory.", "The battle began on March 26.===1901–present===*1910 – Henri Fabre becomes the first person to fly a seaplane, the Fabre Hydravion, after taking off from a water runway near in France.", "*1918 – General John J. Pershing, during World War I, cancels 42nd 'Rainbow' Division's orders to Rolampont for further training and diverted it to the occupy the Baccarat sector.", "Rainbow Division becomes \"the first American division to take over an entire sector on its own, which it held longer than any other American division-occupied sector alone for a period of three months\".", "* 1918 – Finnish Civil War: On the so-called \"Bloody Maundy Thursday of Tampere\", the Whites force the Reds to attack the city center, where the city's fiercest battles being fought in Kalevankangas with large casualties on both sides.", "During the same day, an explosion at the Red headquarters of Tampere kills several commanders.", "*1920 – Palm Sunday tornado outbreak of 1920 affects the Great Lakes region and Deep South states.", "*1933 – The Imperial Airways biplane ''City of Liverpool'' is believed to be the first airliner lost to sabotage when a passenger sets a fire on board.", "*1939 – Spanish Civil War: Generalissimo Francisco Franco conquers Madrid after a three-year siege.", "*1941 – World War II: First day of the Battle of Cape Matapan in Greece between the navies of the United Kingdom and Australia, and the Royal Italian navy.", "*1942 – World War II: A British combined force permanently disables the Louis Joubert Lock in Saint-Nazaire in order to keep the German battleship ''Tirpitz'' away from the mid-ocean convoy lanes.", "*1946 – Cold War: The United States Department of State releases the Acheson–Lilienthal Report, outlining a plan for the international control of nuclear power.", "*1959 – The State Council of the People's Republic of China dissolves the government of Tibet.", "*1965 – An 7.4 earthquake in Chile sets off a series of tailings dam failures, burying the town of El Cobre and killing at least 500 people.", "*1968 – Brazilian high school student Edson Luís de Lima Souto is killed by military police at a student protest.", "*1969 – Greek poet and Nobel Prize laureate Giorgos Seferis makes a famous statement on the BBC World Service opposing the junta in Greece.", "*1970 – An earthquake strikes western Turkey at about 23:05 local time, killing 1,086 and injuring at least 1,200.", "*1978 – The US Supreme Court hands down 5–3 decision in ''Stump v. Sparkman'', a controversial case involving involuntary sterilization and judicial immunity.", "*1979 – A coolant leak at the Three Mile Island's Unit 2 nuclear reactor outside Harrisburg, Pennsylvania leads to the core overheating and a partial meltdown.", "* 1979 – The British House of Commons passes a vote of no confidence against James Callaghan's government by one vote, precipitating a general election.", "*1990 – United States President George H. W. Bush posthumously awards Jesse Owens the Congressional Gold Medal.", "*1994 – In South Africa, African National Congress security guards kill dozens of Inkatha Freedom Party protesters.", "*1999 – Kosovo War: Serb paramilitary and military forces kill at least 130 Kosovo Albanians in Izbica.", "*2001 – Athens International Airport Eleftherios Venizelos begins operation.", "*2003 – In a friendly fire incident, two American A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft attack British tanks participating in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, killing one soldier.", "*2005 – An earthquake shakes northern Sumatra with a magnitude of 8.6 and killing over 1000 people.", "*2006 – At least one million union members, students and unemployed take to the streets in France in protest at the government's proposed First Employment Contract law." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1472 – Fra Bartolomeo, Italian painter (d. 1517)*1515 – Teresa of Ávila, Spanish nun and saint (d. 1582)*1522 – Albert Alcibiades, German prince (d. 1557)*1592 – John Amos Comenius, Czech bishop and educator (d. 1670)===1601–1900===*1613 – Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang of China (d. 1688)*1638 – Frederik Ruysch, Dutch botanist and anatomist (d. 1731)*1652 – Samuel Sewall, English judge (d. 1730)*1725 – Andrew Kippis, English minister and author (d. 1795)*1727 – Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria, (d. 1777)*1750 – Francisco de Miranda, Venezuelan general and politician (d. 1816)*1760 – Thomas Clarkson, English activist (d. 1846)*1793 – Henry Schoolcraft, American geographer, geologist, and ethnologist (d. 1864)*1795 – Georg Heinrich Pertz, German historian and author (d. 1876)*1806 – Thomas Hare, English lawyer and political scientist (d. 1891)*1811 – John Neumann, Czech-American bishop and saint (d. 1860)*1815 – Arsène Houssaye, French author and poet (d. 1896)*1818 – Wade Hampton III, American general and politician, 77th Governor of South Carolina (d. 1902)*1819 – Joseph Bazalgette, English architect and engineer (d. 1891)*1832 – Henry D. Washburn, American politician and general (d. 1871)*1836 – Emmanuel Benner, French artist (d. 1896)*1836 – Jean Benner, French artist (d. 1906)*1836 – Frederick Pabst, German-American brewer, founded the Pabst Brewing Company (d. 1904)*1840 – Emin Pasha, German-Jewish Egyptian physician and politician (d. 1892)*1847 – Gyula Farkas, Hungarian mathematician and physicist (d. 1930)*1849 – James Darmesteter, French historian and author (d. 1894)*1850 – Kyrle Bellew, English theatre actor (d. 1911)*1851 – Bernardino Machado, Portuguese academic and politician, 3rd President of Portugal (d. 1944)*1862 – Aristide Briand, French politician, Prime Minister of France, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1932)*1868 – Maxim Gorky, Russian novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1936)*1873 – John Geiger, American rower (d. 1956)*1879 – Terence MacSwiney, Irish republican politician and hunger striker; Lord Mayor of Cork (d. 1920)*1881 – Martin Sheridan, Irish-American discus thrower and jumper (d. 1918)*1884 – Angelos Sikelianos, Greek poet and playwright (d. 1951)*1887 – Beulah Dark Cloud, American actress (d. 1945)*1890 – Paul Whiteman, American violinist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1967)*1892 – Corneille Heymans, Belgian physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968)* 1892 – Tom Maguire, Irish republican General (d. 1993)*1893 – Spyros Skouras, Greek-American businessman (d. 1971)*1894 – Ernst Lindemann, German captain (d. 1941)*1895 – Christian Herter, American politician, United States Secretary of State (d. 1966)* 1895 – Donald Grey Barnhouse, American pastor and theologian (d. 1960)* 1895 – Spencer W. Kimball, American religious leader, 12th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1985)*1897 – Sepp Herberger, German footballer and manager (d. 1977)*1899 – Gussie Busch, American businessman (d. 1989)* 1899 – Buck Shaw, American football player and coach (d. 1977)*1900 – Edward Wagenknecht, American critic and educator (d. 2004)===1901–present===*1902 – Flora Robson, English actress (d. 1984)*1903 – Rudolf Serkin, Czech-American pianist and educator (d. 1991)*1904 – Margaret Tucker, Australian author and activist (d. 1996)*1905 – Pandro S. Berman, American production manager and producer (d. 1996)* 1905 – Marlin Perkins, American zoologist and television host (d. 1986)*1906 – Murray Adaskin, Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 2002)* 1906 – Robert Allen, American actor (d. 1998)* 1906 – Dorothy Knowles, South African-English author, fencer and academic (d. 2010)*1907 – Irving Paul Lazar, American lawyer and talent agent (d. 1993)*1909 – Nelson Algren, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1981)*1910 – Jimmie Dodd, American actor and singer-songwriter (d. 1964)* 1910 – Ingrid of Sweden, Queen of Denmark (d. 2000)*1911 – Consalvo Sanesi, Italian race car driver (d. 1998)*1912 – A. Bertram Chandler, English-Australian author (d. 1984)* 1912 – Marina Raskova, Russian pilot and navigator (d. 1943)*1913 – Toko Shinoda, Japanese artist (d. 2021)*1914 – Edward Anhalt, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2000)* 1914 – Bohumil Hrabal, Czech author (d. 1997)* 1914 – Edmund Muskie, American politician, 58th United States Secretary of State (d. 1996)* 1914 – Everett Ruess, American explorer, poet, and painter (d. 1934)*1915 – Jay Livingston, American singer-songwriter (d. 2001)*1919 – Tom Brooks, Australian cricket umpire (d. 2007)* 1919 – Eileen Crofton, British physician and author (d. 2010)* 1919 – Vic Raschi, American baseball player and coach (d. 1988)*1921 – Harold Agnew, American physicist and academic (d. 2013)* 1921 – Dirk Bogarde, English actor and author (d. 1999)*1922 – Neville Bonner, Australian politician (d. 1999)* 1922 – Grace Hartigan, American painter and educator (d. 2008)* 1922 – Joey Maxim, American boxer and actor (d. 2001)*1923 – Paul C. Donnelly, American scientist and engineer (d. 2014)* 1923 – Thad Jones, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1986)*1924 – Freddie Bartholomew, American actor (d. 1992)*1925 – Innokenty Smoktunovsky, Russian actor (d. 1994)* 1925 – Dorothy DeBorba, American child actress (d. 2010)*1926 – Cayetana Fitz-James Stuart, 18th Duchess of Alba (d. 2014)* 1926 – Polly Umrigar, Indian cricketer (d. 2006)*1928 – Zbigniew Brzezinski, Polish-American political activist and analyst; United States National Security Advisor (d. 2017)* 1928 – Alexander Grothendieck, German-French mathematician and theorist (d. 2014)*1930 – Robert Ashley, American composer (d. 2014)* 1930 – Jerome Isaac Friedman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1933 – Frank Murkowski, American soldier, banker, and politician, 8th Governor of Alaska*1934 – Laurie Taitt, Guyanese-English hurdler (d. 2006)*1935 – Michael Parkinson, English journalist and author (d. 2023)* 1935 – Józef Szmidt, Polish triple jumper*1936 – Mario Vargas Llosa, Peruvian writer and politician, Nobel Prize laureate*1940 – Tony Barber, English-Australian television host* 1940 – Luis Cubilla, Uruguayan footballer and coach (d. 2013)*1942 – Daniel Dennett, American philosopher and academic* 1942 – Neil Kinnock, Welsh politician, Vice-President of the European Commission* 1942 – Mike Newell, English director and producer* 1942 – Samuel Ramey, American opera singer* 1942 – Jerry Sloan, American basketball player and coach (d. 2020)*1943 – Richard Eyre, English director, producer, and screenwriter* 1943 – Conchata Ferrell, American actress (d. 2020)*1944 – Rick Barry, American basketball player* 1944 – Ken Howard, American actor (d. 2016)*1945 – Rodrigo Duterte, Filipino politician, 16th President of the Philippines*1946 – Wubbo Ockels, Dutch physicist and astronaut (d. 2014)* 1946 – Henry Paulson, American banker and politician, 74th United States Secretary of the Treasury* 1946 – Alejandro Toledo, Peruvian economist and politician, President of Peru*1948 – Janice Lynde, American actress* 1948 – Dianne Wiest, American actress* 1948 – Milan Williams, American keyboard player (d. 2006)*1949 – Ronnie Ray Smith, American sprinter (d. 2013)*1953 – Melchior Ndadaye, Burundian banker and politician, 4th President of Burundi (d. 1993)*1954 – Donald Brown, American pianist and educator*1955 – Reba McEntire, American singer-songwriter and actress*1957 – Harvey Glance, American sprinter*1958 – Edesio Alejandro, Cuban composer* 1958 – Curt Hennig, American wrestler (d. 2003)*1959 – Laura Chinchilla, Costa Rican politician, President of Costa Rica*1960 – José Maria Neves, Cape Verdeian politician, Prime Minister of Cape Verde*1961 – Byron Scott, American basketball player and coach*1962 – Jure Franko, Slovenian skier* 1962 – Simon Bazalgette, English businessman*1964 – Karen Lumley, English politician*1968 – Iris Chang, Chinese-American journalist and author (d. 2004)* 1968 – Nasser Hussain, Indian-English cricketer*1969 – Brett Ratner, American director and producer*1970 – Vince Vaughn, American actor* 1970 – Jennifer Weiner, American journalist and author*1972 – Keith Tkachuk, American ice hockey player*1973 – Björn Kuipers, Dutch footballer and referee* 1973 – Umaga, American Samoan wrestler (d. 2009)*1975 – Kate Gosselin, American television personality* 1975 – Iván Helguera, Spanish footballer*1978 – Nathan Cayless, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player and coach*1979 – Shakib Khan, Bangladeshi film actor, producer, singer and media personality*1980 – Stiliani Pilatou, Greek long jumper * 1980 – Luke Walton, American basketball player*1981 – Edwar Ramírez, American baseball player* 1981 – Julia Stiles, American actress*1983 – Ladji Doucouré, French sprinter and hurdler*1984 – Christopher Samba, Congolese footballer*1985 – Stefano Ferrario, Italian footballer* 1985 – Steve Mandanda, French footballer* 1985 – Stanislas Wawrinka, Swiss tennis player* 1985 – Josh Bray, American politician*1986 – Mustafa Ali, American wrestler* 1986 – Bowe Bergdahl, American sergeant* 1986 – Lady Gaga, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1986 – J-Kwon, American rapper* 1986 – Barbora Strýcová, Czech tennis player* 1987 – Yohan Benalouane, French-Tunisian footballer* 1987 – Simeon Jackson, Canadian soccer player* 1987 – Jonathan Van Ness, American hairdresser and television personality*1988 – Geno Atkins, American football player* 1988 – Ryan Kalish, American baseball player*1989 – Lukas Jutkiewicz, English footballer* 1989 – Mira Leung, Canadian figure skater*1990 – Delroy Edwards, American musician* 1990 – Laura Harrier, American actress and model*1991 – Derek Carr, American football player* 1991 – Jordan McRae, American basketball player* 1991 – Lisa-Maria Moser, Austrian tennis player* 1991 – Marie-Philip Poulin, Canadian ice hockey player* 1991 – Ondřej Palát, Czech ice hockey player*1992 – Sergi Gómez, Spanish footballer*1995 – Jonathan Drouin, Canadian ice hockey player*1996 – Matt Renshaw, English-Australian cricketer*1998 – Lance Morris, Australian cricketer*2001 – Xiyu Wang, Chinese tennis player*2004 – Anna Shcherbakova, Russian figure skater" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 193 – Pertinax, Roman emperor (b.", "126)* 592 – Guntram, French king (b.", "532)* 966 – Flodoard, Frankish canon and chronicler*1072 – Ordulf, Duke of Saxony*1134 – Stephen Harding, founder of the Cistercian order*1239 – Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (b.", "1180)*1241 – Valdemar II of Denmark (b.", "1170)*1285 – Pope Martin IV*1346 – Venturino of Bergamo, Dominican preacher (b.", "1304)*1563 – Heinrich Glarean, Swiss poet and theorist (b.", "1488)*1566 – Sigismund von Herberstein, Austrian historian and diplomat (b.", "1486)*1584 – Ivan the Terrible, Russian king (b.", "1530)===1601–1900===*1687 – Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet and composer (b.", "1596)*1690 – Emmanuel Tzanes, Greek Renaissance painter (b.", "1610) *1718 – Thomas Micklethwaite, Lord Commissioner of the Treasury (b.", "1678)*1818 – Antonio Capuzzi, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1755)*1822 – Angelis Govios, leader of the Greek War of Independence (b.", "1780) *1868 – James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan, English lieutenant and politician (b.", "1797)*1870 – George Henry Thomas, American general (b.", "1816)*1874 – Peter Andreas Hansen, Danish-German astronomer and mathematician (b.", "1795)*1881 – Modest Mussorgsky, Russian pianist and composer (b.", "1839)*1884 – Georgios Zariphis, Greek banker and financier (b.", "1810) *1893 – Edmund Kirby Smith, American general (b.", "1824)*1900 – Piet Joubert, South African soldier and politician (b. c.1831)===1901–present===*1910 – Édouard Colonne, French violinist and conductor (b.", "1838)*1916 – James Strachan-Davidson, English classical scholar, academic administrator, translator, and author (b.", "1843)*1917 – Albert Pinkham Ryder, American painter (b.", "1847)*1923 – Charles Hubbard, American archer (b.", "1849)*1929 – Katharine Lee Bates, American poet and songwriter (b.", "1859)* 1929 – Lomer Gouin, Canadian lawyer and politician, Premier of Quebec (b.", "1861)*1934 – Mahmoud Mokhtar, Egyptian sculptor and educator (b.", "1891)*1941 – Marcus Hurley, American basketball player and cyclist (b.", "1883)* 1941 – Virginia Woolf, English writer (b.", "1882)*1942 – Miguel Hernández, Spanish poet and playwright (b.", "1910)*1943 – Sergei Rachmaninoff, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1873)*1944 – Stephen Leacock, English-Canadian political scientist and author (b.", "1869)*1947 – Karol Świerczewski, Polish general (b.", "1897)*1953 – Jim Thorpe, American football player (b.", "1887)*1957 – Stylianos Lenas, Greek-Cypriot member of the National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA) against the British rule (b.", "1931) *1958 – W. C. Handy, American trumpet player and composer (b.", "1873)*1962 – Hugo Wast, Argentinian author (b.", "1883)*1963 – Antonius Bouwens, Dutch target shooter (b.", "1876)*1965 – Clemence Dane, English author and playwright (b.", "1888)*1969 – Dwight D. Eisenhower, American general and politician, 34th President of the United States (b.", "1890)*1972 – Donie Bush, American baseball player, manager, and team owner (b.", "1887)*1974 – Arthur Crudup, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1905)* 1974 – Dorothy Fields, American songwriter (b.", "1905)* 1974 – Françoise Rosay, French actress (b.", "1891)*1976 – Richard Arlen, American actor (b. c.1898)*1977 – Eric Shipton, English mountaineer and explorer (b.", "1907)*1979 – Emmett Kelly, American clown and actor (b.", "1898)*1980 – Dick Haymes, Argentinian-American actor and singer (b.", "1918)*1982 – William Giauque, Canadian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1895)*1985 – Marc Chagall, Russian-French painter (b.", "1887)*1986 – Virginia Gilmore.", "American actress (b.", "1919)*1987 – Maria von Trapp, Austrian-American singer (b.", "1905)*1992 – Nikolaos Platon, Greek archaeologist (b.", "1909) *1994 – Eugène Ionesco, Romanian-French playwright and critic (b.", "1909)*1996 – Shin Kanemaru, Japanese politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1914)*2000 – Anthony Powell, English soldier and author (b.", "1905)*2004 – Peter Ustinov, English-Swiss actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1921)*2005 – Moura Lympany, English-Monacan pianist (b.", "1916)* 2005 – Robin Spry, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1939)*2006 – Pro Hart, Australian painter (b.", "1928)* 2006 – Charles Schepens, Belgian-American ophthalmologist and author (b.", "1912)* 2006 – Caspar Weinberger, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of Defense (b.", "1917)*2009 – Maurice Jarre, French-American composer and conductor (b.", "1924)* 2009 – Janet Jagan, 6th President of Guyana (b.", "1920)*2010 – June Havoc, American actress, dancer, and director (b.", "1912)*2012 – John Arden, English author and playwright (b.", "1930)* 2012 – Ioannis Banias, Greek politician (b.", "1939) * 2012 – Harry Crews, American novelist (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Addie L. Wyatt, African American labor leader (b.", "1924)*2013 – George E. P. Box, English-American statistician and educator (b.", "1919)* 2013 – Richard Griffiths, English actor (b.", "1947)* 2013 – Hugh McCracken, American guitarist, harmonica player, and producer (b.", "1942)* 2013 – Bob Teague, American college football star and television news-reporter (b.", "1929)* 2013 – Gus Triandos, American baseball player and scout (b.", "1930)*2014 – Jeremiah Denton, American admiral and politician (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Lorenzo Semple, Jr., American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1923)*2015 – Chuck Brayton, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1925)* 2015 – Joseph Cassidy, Canadian-English priest and academic (b.", "1954)* 2015 – Miroslav Ondříček, Czech cinematographer (b.", "1934)* 2015 – Gene Saks, American actor and director (b.", "1921)*2016 – James Noble, American actor (b.", "1922)*2021 – Didier Ratsiraka, Malagasy politician and naval officer (b.", "1936)* 2021 – Joseph Edward Duncan, American serial killer (b.", "1963)*2023 – Paul O'Grady, English comedian, actor and drag queen (b.", "1955)* 2023 – Ryuichi Sakamoto, Japanese composer, record producer, and actor (b.", "1952)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Priscus**Pope Sixtus III**March 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Serfs Emancipation Day (Tibet)*Teachers' Day (Czech Republic and Slovakia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 28" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 1" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 305 – Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman emperor.", "* 880 – The Nea Ekklesia is inaugurated in Constantinople, setting the model for all later cross-in-square Orthodox churches.", "*1169 – Norman mercenaries land at Bannow Bay in Leinster, marking the beginning of the Norman invasion of Ireland.", "*1328 – Wars of Scottish Independence end: By the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton, England recognises Scotland as an independent state.", "*1486 – Christopher Columbus presents his plans discovering a western route to the Indies to the Spanish Queen Isabella I of Castile.===1601–1900===*1707 – The Act of Union joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain takes effect.", "*1753 – Publication of ''Species Plantarum'' by Linnaeus, and the formal start date of plant taxonomy adopted by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.", "*1807 – The Slave Trade Act 1807 takes effect, abolishing the slave trade within the British Empire.", "*1820 – Execution of the Cato Street Conspirators, who plotted to kill the British Cabinet and Prime Minister Lord Liverpool.", "*1840 – The Penny Black, the first official adhesive postage stamp, is issued in the United Kingdom.", "*1844 – Hong Kong Police Force, the world's second modern police force and Asia's first, is established.", "*1846 – The few remaining Mormons left in Nauvoo, Illinois, formally dedicate the Nauvoo Temple.", "*1851 – Queen Victoria opens The Great Exhibition at The Crystal Palace in London.", "*1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Chancellorsville begins.", "*1865 – The Empire of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay sign the Treaty of the Triple Alliance.", "*1866 – The Memphis Race Riots begin.", "In three days time, 46 blacks and two whites were killed.", "Reports of the atrocities influenced passage of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "*1885 – The original Chicago Board of Trade Building opens for business.", "*1886 – Rallies are held throughout the United States demanding the eight-hour work day, culminating in the Haymarket affair in Chicago, in commemoration of which May 1 is celebrated as International Workers' Day in many countries.", "*1894 – Coxey's Army, the first significant American protest march, arrives in Washington, D.C.*1896 – Naser al-Din, Shah of Iran, is assassinated in Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine by Mirza Reza Kermani, a follower of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.", "*1898 – Spanish–American War: Battle of Manila Bay: The Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy destroys the Pacific Squadron of the Spanish Navy after a seven-hour battle.", "Spain loses all seven of its ships, and 381 Spanish sailors die.", "There are no American vessel losses or combat deaths.", "*1900 – The Scofield Mine disaster kills over 200 men in Scofield, Utah in what is to date the fifth-worst mining accident in United States history.===1901–present===*1915 – The departs from New York City on her 202nd, and final, crossing of the North Atlantic.", "Six days later, the ship is torpedoed off the coast of Ireland with the loss of 1,198 lives.", "*1919 – German troops enter Munich to suppress the Bavarian Soviet Republic.", "*1925 – The All-China Federation of Trade Unions is officially founded.", "Today it is the largest trade union in the world, with 134 million members.", "*1929 – The 7.2 Kopet Dag earthquake shakes the Iran–Turkmenistan border region with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent''), killing up to 3,800 and injuring 1,121.", "*1930 – \"Pluto\" is officially proposed for the name of the newly discovered dwarf planet by Vesto Slipher in the ''Lowell Observatory Observation Circular''.", "The name quickly catches on.", "*1931 – The Empire State Building is dedicated in New York City.", "*1945 – World War II: German radio broadcasts news of Adolf Hitler's death, falsely stating that he has \"fallen at his command post in the Reich Chancellery fighting to the last breath against Bolshevism and for Germany\".", "The Soviet flag is raised over the Reich Chancellery, by order of Stalin.", "*1945 – World War II: Up to 2,500 people die in a mass suicide in Demmin following the advance of the Red Army.", "*1946 – Start of three-year Pilbara strike of Indigenous Australians.", "*1947 – Portella della Ginestra massacre against May Day celebrations in Sicily by the bandit and separatist leader Salvatore Giuliano where 11 persons are killed and 33 wounded.", "*1956 – The polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk is made available to the public.", "*1957 – A Vickers VC.1 Viking crashes while attempting to return to Blackbushe Airport in Yateley, killing 34.", "*1960 – Cold War: U-2 incident: Francis Gary Powers, in a Lockheed U-2 spyplane, is shot down over the Sverdlovsk Oblast, Soviet Union, sparking a diplomatic crisis.", "*1961 – The Prime Minister of Cuba, Fidel Castro, proclaims Cuba a socialist nation and abolishes elections.", "*1970 – Vietnam War: Protests erupt in response to U.S. and South Vietnamese forces attacking Vietnamese communists in a Cambodian Campaign.", "*1971 – Amtrak (the National Railroad Passenger Corporation) takes over operation of U.S. passenger rail service.", "*1975 – The Särkänniemi Amusement Park opens in Tampere, Finland.", "*1978 – Japan's Naomi Uemura, travelling by dog sled, becomes the first person to reach the North Pole alone.", "*1982 – Operation Black Buck: The Royal Air Force attacks the Argentine Air Force during Falklands War.", "*1990 – Angolan Civil War: The MPLA and UNITA agree to the Bicesse Accords, which are formally signed on May 31 in Lisbon.", "*1993 – Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa is assassinated in Colombo in a suicide bombing carried out by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.", "*1994 – Three-time Formula One champion Ayrton Senna is killed in an accident during the San Marino Grand Prix.", "*1999 – The body of British climber George Mallory is found on Mount Everest, 75 years after his disappearance in 1924.", "*2003 – Invasion of Iraq: In what becomes known as the \"Mission Accomplished\" speech, on board the (off the coast of California), U.S. President George W. Bush declares that \"major combat operations in Iraq have ended\".", "*2004 – Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia join the European Union, celebrated at the residence of the Irish President in Dublin.", "*2009 – Same-sex marriage is legalized in Sweden.", "*2011 – Pope John Paul II is beatified by his successor, Pope Benedict XVI.", "*2018 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) resumes the Deir ez-Zor campaign in order to clear the remnants of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) from the Iraq–Syria border.", "*2019 – Naxalite attack in Gadchiroli district of India: Sixteen army soldiers, including a driver, killed in an IED blast.", "Naxals targeted an anti-Naxal operations team.", "* 2019 – Naruhito ascends to the throne of Japan succeeding his father Akihito, beginning the Reiwa period." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1218 – John I, Count of Hainaut (d. 1257)* 1218 – Rudolf I of Germany (d. 1291)*1285 – Edmund FitzAlan, 9th Earl of Arundel, English politician (d. 1326)*1326 – Rinchinbal Khan, Mongolian emperor (d. 1332)*1488 – Sidonie of Bavaria, eldest daughter of Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1505)*1527 – Johannes Stadius, German astronomer, astrologer, mathematician (d. 1579)*1545 – Franciscus Junius, French theologian (d. 1602)*1579 – Wolphert Gerretse, Dutch-American farmer, co-founded New Netherland (d. 1662)*1582 – Marco da Gagliano, Italian composer (d. 1643)*1585 – Sophia Olelkovich Radziwill, Belarusian saint (d. 1612)*1591 – Johann Adam Schall von Bell, German missionary and astronomer (d. 1666)*1594 – John Haynes, English-American politician, 1st Governor of the Colony of Connecticut (d. 1653)===1601–1900===*1602 – William Lilly, English astrologer (d. 1681)*1672 – Joseph Addison, English essayist, poet, playwright, and politician (d. 1719)*1730 – Joshua Rowley, English admiral (d. 1790)*1735 – Jan Hendrik van Kinsbergen, Dutch admiral and philanthropist (d. 1819)*1751 – Judith Sargent Murray, American poet and playwright (d. 1820)*1764 – Benjamin Henry Latrobe, English-American architect, designed the United States Capitol (d. 1820)*1769 – Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, Irish-English field marshal and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1852)*1783 – Phoebe Hinsdale Brown, American hymnwriter (d. 1861)*1803 – James Clarence Mangan, Irish poet and author (d. 1849)*1811 – Andreas Laskaratos, Greek satirical poet and writer (d. 1901) *1821 – Henry Ayers, English-Australian politician, 8th Premier of South Australia (d. 1897)*1824 – Alexander William Williamson, English chemist and academic (d. 1904)*1825 – Johann Jakob Balmer, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1898)* 1825 – George Inness, American painter and educator (d. 1894)*1827 – Jules Breton, French painter (d. 1906)*1829 – José de Alencar, Brazilian author and playwright (d. 1877)* 1829 – Frederick Sandys, English painter and illustrator (d. 1904)*1830 – Guido Gezelle, Belgian priest and poet (d. 1899)*1831 – Emily Stowe, Canadian physician and activist (d. 1903)*1847 – Henry Demarest Lloyd, American journalist and politician (d. 1903)*1848 – Adelsteen Normann, Norwegian painter (d. 1919)*1850 – Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (d. 1942)*1852 – Calamity Jane, American frontierswoman and professional scout (d. 1903)* 1852 – Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spanish neuroscientist and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1934)*1853 – Jacob Mikhailovich Gordin, Ukrainian-American journalist, actor, and playwright (d. 1909)*1855 – Cecilia Beaux, American painter and academic (d. 1942)*1857 – Theo van Gogh, Dutch art dealer (d. 1891)*1859 – Jacqueline Comerre-Paton, French painter and sculptor (d. 1955)*1862 – Marcel Prévost, French novelist and playwright (d. 1941)*1864 – Anna Jarvis, American founder of Mother's Day (d. 1948)*1871 – Seakle Greijdanus, Dutch theologian and scholar (d. 1948)* 1871 – Emiliano Chamorro Vargas, President of Nicaragua (d. 1966)*1872 – Hugo Alfvén, Swedish composer, conductor, violinist, and painter (d. 1960)* 1872 – Sidónio Pais, Portuguese soldier and politician, 4th President of Portugal (d. 1918)*1874 – Romaine Brooks, American-French painter and illustrator (d. 1970)* 1874 – Paul Van Asbroeck, Belgian target shooter (d. 1959)*1875 – Dave Hall, American runner (d. 1972)*1881 – Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, French priest, palaeontologist, and philosopher (d. 1955)*1884 – Francis Curzon, 5th Earl Howe, English race car driver and politician (d. 1964)*1885 – Clément Pansaers, Belgian poet (d. 1922)* 1885 – Ralph Stackpole, American sculptor and painter (d. 1973)*1887 – Alan Cunningham, Anglo-Irish general and diplomat, High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan (d. 1983)*1890 – Clelia Lollini, Italian physician (d. 1963 or 1964)*1891 – Lillian Estelle Fisher, American historian of Spanish America (d. 1988)*1895 – Nikolai Yezhov, Soviet secret police official, head of the NKVD (d. 1940)* 1895 – May Hollinworth, Australian theatre producer and director (d. 1968)*1896 – Herbert Backe, German agronomist and politician (d. 1947)* 1896 – Mark W. Clark, American general (d. 1984)* 1896 – J. Lawton Collins, American general (d. 1987)*1898 – Alfred Schmidt, Estonian weightlifter (d. 1972)*1900 – Ignazio Silone, Italian journalist and politician (d. 1978)* 1900 – Aleksander Wat, Polish poet and writer (d. 1967)===1901–present===*1901 – Sterling Allen Brown, American poet, academic, and critic (d. 1989)* 1901 – Heinz Eric Roemheld, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1985)* 1901 – Antal Szerb, Hungarian scholar and author (d. 1945)*1905 – Henry Koster, German-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1988)*1906 – Horst Schumann, German SS officer and physician (d. 1983)*1907 – Hayes Alvis, American bassist (d. 1972)* 1907 – Kate Smith, American singer and actress (d. 1986)*1908 – Giovannino Guareschi, Italian journalist and author (d. 1968)* 1908 – Morris Kline, American mathematician and academic (d. 1992)*1909 – Endel Puusepp, Estonian-Soviet military pilot and politician (d. 1996)* 1909 – Yiannis Ritsos, Greek poet and playwright (d. 1990) *1910 – Behice Boran, Turkish sociologist and politician (d. 1987)* 1910 – Raya Dunayevskaya, Ukrainian-American philosopher and activist (d. 1987)* 1910 – Dirk Andries Flentrop, Dutch organ builder (d. 2003)* 1910 – J. Allen Hynek, American astronomer and ufologist (d. 1986)* 1910 – Nejdet Sançar, Turkish literature teacher (d. 1975)*1911 – Wilfred Watson, English-Canadian poet, playwright and educator (d. 1998)*1912 – Otto Kretschmer, German admiral (d. 1998)*1913 – Louis Nye, American actor (d. 2005)* 1913 – Walter Susskind, Czech-English pianist, conductor, and educator (d. 1980)*1914 – Jaap van der Poll, Dutch javelin thrower (d. 2010)*1915 – Hanns Martin Schleyer, German business executive (d. 1977)*1916 – Antoni Bazaniak, Polish sprint canoeist (d. 1979)* 1916 – Glenn Ford, Canadian-American actor and producer (d. 2006)*1917 – John Beradino, American baseball player and actor (d. 1996)* 1917 – Ulric Cross, Trinidadian navigator, judge, and diplomat (d. 2013)* 1917 – Danielle Darrieux, French actress and singer (d. 2017)* 1917 – Ahron Soloveichik, Russian rabbi and scholar (d. 2001)*1918 – Gersh Budker, Ukrainian-Russian physicist and academic (d. 1977)* 1918 – Jack Paar, American comedian, author and talk show host (d. 2004)* 1918 – Dimitri Papadimos, Greek photographer (d. 1994) *1919 – Manna Dey, Indian singer and composer (d. 2013) * 1919 – Mohammed Karim Lamrani, Moroccan businessman and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Morocco (d. 2018)* 1919 – Dan O'Herlihy, Irish-American actor (d. 2005)*1921 – Vladimir Colin, Romanian journalist and author (d. 1991)*1922 – Alastair Gillespie, Canadian scholar and politician (d. 2018)*1923 – Joseph Heller, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1999)* 1923 – Antônio Maria Mucciolo, Italian-Brazilian archbishop (d. 2012)* 1923 – Marcel Rayman, Polish soldier (d. 1944)*1924 – Evelyn Boyd Granville, American mathematician, computer scientist, and academic (d. 2023)* 1924 – Karel Kachyňa, Czech director and screenwriter (d. 2004)* 1924 – Terry Southern, American novelist, essayist, and screenwriter (d. 1995)*1925 – Chuck Bednarik, American lieutenant and football player (d. 2015)* 1925 – Scott Carpenter, American commander, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2013)* 1925 – Sardar Fazlul Karim, Bangladeshi philosopher, scholar, and academic (d. 2014)*1926 – Peter Lax, Hungarian-American mathematician and academic*1927 – Gary Bertini, Israeli conductor and composer (d. 2005)* 1927 – Laura Betti, Italian actress (d. 2004)* 1927 – Albert Zafy, Malagasy politician, 3rd President of Madagascar (d. 2017)* 1927 – Bernard Vukas, Yugoslav-Croatian footballer (d. 1983)*1928 – Sonny James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)* 1928 – Delfim Netto, Brazilian economist*1929 – Ralf Dahrendorf, German-English sociologist and politician (d. 2009)* 1929 – Sonny Ramadhin, Trinidadian cricketer (d. 2022)*1930 – Ollie Matson, American sprinter and football player (d. 2011)* 1930 – Richard Riordan, American lieutenant and politician, 39th Mayor of Los Angeles and publisher (d. 2023)* 1930 – Little Walter Jacobs, American blues harp player and singer (d. 1968)*1931 – Naim Attallah, Palestinian author (d. 2021)*1932 – Sandy Woodward, English admiral (d. 2013)* 1932 – Tabibar Rahman Sarder, Bangladeshi politician.", "(d. 2010)*1934 – Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, Mexican politician* 1934 – Tang Chang, Thai artist (d. 1990)* 1934 – Shirley Horn, American singer and pianist (d. 2005)* 1934 – Phillip King, Tunisian-English sculptor (d. 2021)* 1934 – John Meillon, Australian actor (d. 1989)*1936 – Danièle Huillet, French filmmaker (d. 2006)* 1936 – Hans E. Wallman, Swedish director, producer, and composer (d. 2014)*1937 – Una Stubbs, English actress and dancer (d. 2021)*1939 – Judy Collins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1939 – Wilhelmina Cooper, Dutch model (d. 1980)* 1939 – Victor Davies, Canadian pianist, composer, and conductor*1943 – Vassal Gadoengin, Nauruan politician (d. 2004)* 1943 – Joe Walsh, Irish politician, Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine (d. 2014)*1945 – Rita Coolidge, American singer-songwriter* 1945 – Carson Whitsett, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2007)*1946 – Joanna Lumley, English actress, voice-over artist, author, and activist* 1946 – John Woo, Hong Kong director, producer, and screenwriter*1947 – Jacob Bekenstein, Mexican-born Israeli-American theoretical physicist (d. 2015)* 1947 – Sergio Infante, Chilean-Swedish poet and author*1948 – Györgyi Balogh, Hungarian sprinter* 1948 – Patricia Hill Collins, American sociologist and scholar*1949 – Jim Clench, Canadian bass player (d. 2010)* 1949 – Tim Hodgkinson, English saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer* 1949 – Paul Teutul Sr., American motorcycle designer, co-founded Orange County Choppers*1950 – Dann Florek, American actor and director* 1950 – Danny McGrain, Scottish footballer and coach*1951 – Gordon Greenidge, Barbadian cricketer and coach* 1951 – Geoff Lees, English race car driver* 1951 – Sally Mann, American photographer*1952 – Richard Blundell, English economist and academic* 1952 – Kim Lewison, English lawyer and judge* 1952 – Peter Smith, Malaysian-born English academic and judge*1953 – Glen Ballard, American songwriter and producer*1954 – Ray Parker Jr., American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1954 – Joel Rosenberg, Canadian-American author and activist (d. 2011)*1955 – Alex Cunningham, Scottish politician* 1955 – Martin O'Donnell, American composer* 1955 – Ray Searage, American baseball player and coach*1956 – Catherine Frot, French actress* 1956 – Phil Foglio, American illustrator*1957 – Rick Darling, Australian cricketer* 1957 – Uberto Pasolini, Italian banker, director, and producer*1959 – Yasmina Reza, French actress and playwright* 1959 – Lawrence Seeff, South African cricketer and basket weaver*1960 – Steve Cauthen, American jockey and sportscaster*1961 – Sultan Günal-Gezer, Dutch politician* 1961 – Clint Malarchuk, Canadian ice hockey player and coach * 1961 – Marilyn Milian, American judge * 1961 – Vasiliy Sidorenko, Russian hammer thrower*1962 – Maia Morgenstern, Romanian actress* 1962 – Ted Sundquist, American football player, coach, and manager*1964 – Yvonne van Gennip, Dutch speed skater*1966 – Olaf Thon, German footballer and manager *1967 – Tim McGraw, American singer-songwriter and actor*1968 – Oliver Bierhoff, German footballer and manager* 1968 – D'arcy Wretzky, American bass player and singer*1969 – Wes Anderson, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1969 – Mary Lou McDonald, Irish politician* 1969 – Billy Owens, American basketball player*1970 – Bernard Butler, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1970 – Sacha Perry, American jazz pianist and composer*1971 – Ethan Albright, American football player * 1971 – Stuart Appleby, Australian golfer* 1971 – Kim Grant, South African tennis player* 1971 – Artur Kohutek, Polish hurdler and soldier* 1971 – Ajith Kumar, Indian film actor in Tamil cinema and race car driver*1972 – Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Yemeni terrorist* 1972 – Julie Benz, American actress* 1972 – Yoon Hae-young, South Korean actress*1973 – Peter Baah, English footballer and manager * 1973 – Mike Jesse, German footballer* 1973 – Curtis Martin, American football player* 1973 – Oliver Neuville, German footballer*1975 – Austin Croshere, American basketball player and sportscaster* 1975 – Marc-Vivien Foé, Cameroonian footballer (d. 2003)* 1975 – Nina Hossain, English journalist * 1975 – Alexey Smertin, Russian international footballer *1976 – Patricia Stokkers, Dutch swimmer *1977 – Vera Lischka, Austrian swimmer and politician*1978 – James Badge Dale, American actor* 1978 – Michael Russell, American tennis player*1979 – Mauro Bergamasco, Italian rugby player* 1979 – Roman Lyashenko, Russian ice hockey player (d. 2003)*1980 – Marvin Cabrera, Mexican footballer* 1980 – Rob Davison, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1980 – Inês Henriques, Portuguese race walker* 1980 – Jan Heylen, Belgian race car driver* 1980 – Jay Reatard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)* 1980 – Yuliya Tabakova, Russian athlete*1981 – Manny Acosta, Panamanian baseball player* 1981 – Derek Asamoah, Ghanaian footballer* 1981 – Alexander Hleb, Belarusian footballer* 1981 – Wes Welker, American football player*1982 – Beto, Portuguese footballer* 1982 – Jamie Dornan, Northern Irish model and actor* 1982 – Mark Farren, Irish footballer (d. 2016)* 1982 – Katya Zamolodchikova, American drag queen* 1982 – Tommy Robredo, Spanish tennis player* 1982 – Darijo Srna, Croatian footballer*1983 – Alain Bernard, French swimmer* 1983 – Human Tornado, American wrestler* 1983 – Park Hae-jin, South Korean actor*1984 – David Backes, American ice hockey player* 1984 – Mišo Brečko, Slovenian footballer* 1984 – Patrick Eaves, American ice hockey player* 1984 – Alexander Farnerud, Swedish footballer* 1984 – Farah Fath, American actress* 1984 – Keiichiro Koyama, Japanese singer and actor* 1984 – Víctor Montaño, Colombian footballer* 1984 – Mark Seaby, Australian footballer*1985 – Shahriar Nafees, Bangladeshi cricketer*1986 – Christian Benítez, Ecuadorian footballer (d. 2013)* 1986 – Adam Casey, Australian footballer* 1986 – Jesse Klaver, Dutch politician* 1986 – Lee Chang-min, South Korean singer* 1986 – Brent Stanton, Australian footballer*1987 – Leonardo Bonucci, Italian footballer* 1987 – Glen Coffee, American football player* 1987 – Iván DeJesús Jr., Puerto Rican baseball player* 1987 – Marcus Drum, Australian footballer* 1987 – Jerome Dyson, American basketball player* 1987 – Amir Johnson, American basketball player* 1987 – Ryan Mathews, American football player* 1987 – Saidi Ntibazonkiza, Burundian footballer* 1987 – Shahar Pe'er, Israeli tennis player* 1987 – Marissa Ponich, Canadian fencer*1988 – Maria Balaba, Latvian figure skater* 1988 – Maxim Gustik, Belarusian freestyle skier* 1988 – Teodor Peterson, Swedish cross-country skier* 1988 – Anushka Sharma, Indian actress and film producer*1989 – Alejandro Arribas, Spanish footballer* 1989 – Victoria Monét, American singer-songwriter* 1989 – Poļina Jeļizarova, Latvian runner*1990 – Uriel Álvarez, Mexican footballer * 1990 – Caitlin Stasey, Australian actress* 1990 – Diego Contento, German footballer* 1990 – Scooter Gennett, American baseball player*1991 – Marcus Stroman, American baseball player* 1991 – Daniel Talbot, British sprinter*1992 – Hani, South Korean singer and actress* 1992 – Trevor Philp, Canadian alpine skier* 1992 – Bradley Roby, American football player*1993 – Jean-Christophe Bahebeck, French footballer* 1993 – Ifeoma Nwoye, Nigerian wrestler*1994 – Wallace Oliveira, Brazilian footballer*1995 – Collin Seedorf, Dutch footballer*1996 – Christopher J. Alexis Jr., Grenadian road cyclist* 1996 – Daniel Saifiti, Australian-Fijian rugby league player* 1996 – Jacob Saifiti, Australian-Fijian rugby league player* 1996 – Michael Seaton, Jamaican footballer* 1996 – William Nylander, Canadian-Swedish ice hockey player*2004 – Charli D'Amelio, American social media influencer and dancer*2005 – Linda Fruhvirtová, Czech tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 408 – Arcadius, Byzantine emperor (b.", "377)* 558 – Marcouf, missionary and saint* 908 – Wang Zongji, Chinese prince and pretender*1118 – Matilda of Scotland (b.", "1080)*1171 – Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster (b.", "1110)*1187 – Roger de Moulins, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller*1255 – Walter de Gray, English prelate and statesman*1277 – Stefan Uroš I of Serbia (b.", "1223)*1278 – William II of Villehardouin*1308 – Albert I of Germany (b.", "1255)*1312 – Paul I Šubić of Bribir*1539 – Isabella of Portugal (b.", "1503)*1555 – Pope Marcellus II (b.", "1501)*1572 – Pope Pius V (b.", "1504)===1601–1900===*1668 – Frans Luycx, Flemish painter (b.", "1604)*1730 – François de Troy, French painter and engraver (b.", "1645)*1731 – Johann Ludwig Bach, German violinist and composer (b.", "1677)*1738 – Charles Howard, 3rd Earl of Carlisle, English politician, First Lord of the Treasury (b.", "1669)*1772 – Gottfried Achenwall, Polish-German historian, economist, and jurist (b.", "1719)*1813 – Jean-Baptiste Bessières, French general (b.", "1768)*1838 – Antoine Louis Dugès, French obstetrician and naturalist (b.", "1797)*1856 – John Wilbur, American minister and theologian (b.", "1774)*1873 – David Livingstone, Scottish-English missionary and explorer (b.", "1813)*1899 – Ludwig Büchner, German physiologist and physician (b.", "1824)===1901–present===*1904 – Antonín Dvořák, Czech composer and academic (b.", "1841)*1907 – Grigorios Maraslis, Greek philanthropist (b.", "1831) *1913 – John Barclay Armstrong, American lieutenant (b.", "1850)*1920 – Princess Margaret of Connaught (b.", "1882)*1935 – Henri Pélissier, French cyclist (b.", "1889)*1943 – Johan Oscar Smith, Norwegian religious leader, founded the Brunstad Christian Church (b.", "1871)*1944 – Napoleon Soukatzidis, Greek communist and trade unionist (b.", "1909) *1945 – Joseph Goebbels, German lawyer and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1897)* 1945 – Magda Goebbels, German wife of Joseph Goebbels (b.", "1901)*1953 – Everett Shinn, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1876)*1956 – LeRoy Samse, American pole vaulter (b.", "1883)*1960 – Charles Holden, English architect, designed the Bristol Central Library (b.", "1875)*1963 – Lope K. Santos, Filipino lawyer and politician (b.", "1879)*1965 – Spike Jones, American singer and bandleader (b.", "1911)*1968 – Jack Adams, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b.", "1895)* 1968 – Harold Nicolson, English author and politician (b.", "1886)*1970 – Yi Un, Korean prince (b.", "1897)*1973 – Asger Jorn, Danish painter and sculptor (b.", "1914)*1976 – T. R. M. Howard, American surgeon and activist (b.", "1908)* 1976 – Alexandros Panagoulis, Greek poet and politician (b.", "1939)*1978 – Aram Khachaturian, Armenian composer and conductor (b.", "1903)*1982 – William Primrose, Scottish viola player and educator (b.", "1903)*1984 – Jüri Lossmann, Estonian-Swedish runner (b.", "1891)*1985 – Denise Robins, English journalist and author (b.", "1897)*1986 – Hylda Baker, English comedian, actress and music hall performer (b.", "1905)* 1986 – Hugo Peretti, American songwriter and producer (b.", "1916)*1988 – Ben Lexcen, Australian sailor and architect (b.", "1936)*1989 – Sally Kirkland, American journalist (b.", "1912)* 1989 – V. M. Panchalingam, Sri Lankan civil servant (b.", "1930)* 1989 – Patrice Tardif, Canadian farmer and politician (b.", "1904)*1990 – Sergio Franchi, Italian-American tenor and actor (b.", "1926)*1991 – Richard Thorpe, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1896)*1993 – Pierre Bérégovoy, French metallurgist and politician, Prime Minister of France (b.", "1925)* 1993 – Ranasinghe Premadasa, Sri Lankan politician, 3rd President of Sri Lanka (b.", "1924)*1994 – Ayrton Senna, Brazilian race car driver (b.", "1960)*1995 – Antonio Salemme, Italian-American painter (b.", "1892)*1997 – Fernand Dumont, Canadian sociologist, philosopher, and poet (b.", "1927)*1998 – Eldridge Cleaver, American author and activist (b.", "1935)*2000 – Steve Reeves, American bodybuilder and actor (b.", "1926)*2002 – Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh, Indian poet and author (b.", "1908) *2003 – Miss Elizabeth, American wrestler and manager (b.", "1960)* 2003 – Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (b.", "1923)*2005 – Kenneth Clark, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1914)*2008 – Anthony Mamo, Maltese judge and politician, 1st President of Malta (b.", "1909)* 2008 – Philipp von Boeselager, German soldier and economist (b.", "1917)*2010 – Helen Wagner, American actress (b.", "1918)*2011 – Henry Cooper, English boxer (b.", "1934)* 2011 – Ted Lowe, English sportscaster (b.", "1920)*2012 – James Kinley, Canadian engineer and politician, 29th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Mordechai Virshubski, German-Israeli lawyer and politician (b.", "1930)*2013 – Chris Kelly, American rapper (b.", "1978)* 2013 – Pierre Pleimelding, French footballer and manager (b.", "1952)*2014 – Adamu Atta, Nigerian lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Kwara State (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Radhia Cousot, Tunisian-American computer scientist and academic (b.", "1947)* 2014 – Assi Dayan, Israeli actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1945)* 2014 – Juan de Dios Castillo, Mexican footballer and coach (b.", "1951)*2015 – Geoff Duke, English-Manx motorcycle racer (b.", "1923)* 2015 – Vafa Guluzade, Azerbaijani political scientist, academic, and diplomat (b.", "1940)* 2015 – María Elena Velasco, Mexican actress, singer, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1940)* 2015 – Grace Lee Whitney, American actress (b.", "1930)*2021 – Olympia Dukakis, American actress (b.", "1931)*2023 – Gordon Lightfoot, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1938)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Andeolus** Augustin Schoeffler, Jean-Louis Bonnard (part of Vietnamese Martyrs)** Benedict of Szkalka** Brioc** James the Less (Anglican Communion)** Joseph the Worker (Roman Catholic)** Blessed Klymentiy Sheptytsky (Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church)** Marcouf** Philip the Apostle (Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church)** Richard Pampuri** Sigismund of Burgundy** Ultan** May 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Armed Forces Day (Mauritania)* Constitution Day (Argentina, Latvia, Marshall Islands)* Commemoration of the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat following the foundation of Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti (India):** Maharashtra Day* International Sunflower Guerrilla Gardening Day * Lei Day (Hawaii)* International Workers' Day or Labour Day (International), and its related observances:** Law Day (United States), formerly intended to counterbalance the celebration of Labour Day.", "(United States)** Loyalty Day, formerly intended to counterbalance the celebration of Labour Day.", "(United States)* May Day (beginning of Summer) observances in the Northern hemisphere ''(see April 30)'':**Calan Mai (Wales)**Beltane (Gaelic)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 1" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 2" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1194 – King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first royal charter.", "*1230 – William de Braose is hanged by Prince Llywelyn the Great.", "*1536 – Anne Boleyn, Queen of England, is arrested and imprisoned on charges of adultery, incest, treason and witchcraft.", "*1559 – John Knox returns from exile to Scotland to become the leader of the nascent Scottish Reformation.", "*1568 – Mary, Queen of Scots, escapes from Lochleven Castle.===1601–1900===*1611 – The King James Version of the Bible is published for the first time in London, England, by printer Robert Barker.", "*1625 – Afonso Mendes, appointed by Pope Gregory XV as Latin Patriarch of Ethiopia, arrives at Beilul from Goa.", "*1670 – King Charles II of England grants a permanent charter to the Hudson's Bay Company to open up the fur trade in North America.", "*1808 – Outbreak of the Peninsular War: The people of Madrid rise up in rebellion against French occupation.", "Francisco de Goya later memorializes this event in his painting ''The Second of May 1808''.", "*1812 – The Siege of Cuautla during the Mexican War of Independence ends with both sides claiming victory.", "*1829 – After anchoring nearby, Captain Charles Fremantle of , declares the Swan River Colony in Australia.", "*1863 – American Civil War: Stonewall Jackson is wounded by friendly fire while returning to camp after reconnoitering during the Battle of Chancellorsville.", "He succumbs to pneumonia eight days later.", "*1866 – Peruvian defenders fight off the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Callao.", "*1876 – The April Uprising breaks out in Ottoman Bulgaria.", "*1885 – Cree and Assiniboine warriors win the Battle of Cut Knife, their largest victory over Canadian forces during the North-West Rebellion.", "*1889 – Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia, signs the Treaty of Wuchale, giving Italy control over Eritrea.===1901–present===*1906 – Closing ceremony of the Intercalated Games in Athens, Greece.", "*1920 – The first game of the Negro National League baseball is played in Indianapolis.", "*1933 – Germany's independent labor unions are replaced by the German Labour Front.", "*1941 – World War II: Following the ''coup d'état'' against Iraq Crown Prince 'Abd al-Ilah earlier that year, the United Kingdom launches the Anglo-Iraqi War to restore him to power.", "*1945 – World War II: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin.", "* 1945 – World War II: The surrender of Caserta comes into effect, by which German troops in Italy cease fighting.", "* 1945 – World War II: The US 82nd Airborne Division liberates Wöbbelin concentration camp finding 1,000 dead prisoners, most of whom starved to death.", "* 1945 – World War II: A death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted by the segregated, all-Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners.", "*1952 – A De Havilland Comet makes the first jetliner flight with fare-paying passengers, from London to Johannesburg.", "*1963 – Berthold Seliger launches a rocket with three stages and a maximum flight altitude of more than near Cuxhaven.", "It is the only sounding rocket developed in Germany.", "*1964 – Vietnam War: An explosion sinks the American aircraft carrier USNS ''Card'' while it is docked at Saigon.", "Two Viet Cong combat swimmers had placed explosives on the ship's hull.", "She is raised and returned to service less than seven months later.", "* 1964 – First ascent of Shishapangma, the fourteenth highest mountain in the world and the lowest of the Eight-thousanders.", "*1969 – The British ocean liner ''Queen Elizabeth 2'' departs on her maiden voyage to New York City.", "*1970 – ALM Flight 980 ditches in the Caribbean Sea near Saint Croix, killing 23.", "*1972 – In the early morning hours a fire breaks out at the Sunshine Mine located between Kellogg and Wallace, Idaho, killing 91 workers.", "*1982 – Falklands War: The British nuclear submarine sinks the Argentine cruiser ARA ''General Belgrano''.", "*1986 – Chernobyl disaster: The City of Chernobyl is evacuated six days after the disaster.", "*1989 – Cold War: Hungary begins dismantling its border fence with Austria, which allows a number of East Germans to defect.", "*1995 – During the Croatian War of Independence, the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina fires cluster bombs at Zagreb, killing seven and wounding over 175 civilians.", "*1998 – The European Central Bank is founded in Brussels in order to define and execute the European Union's monetary policy.", "*1999 – Panamanian general election: Mireya Moscoso becomes the first woman to be elected President of Panama.", "*2000 – President Bill Clinton announces that accurate GPS access would no longer be restricted to the United States military.", "*2004 – The Yelwa massacre concludes.", "It began on 4 February 2004 when armed Muslims killed 78 Christians at Yelwa, Nigeria.", "In response, about 630 Muslims were killed by Christians on May 2.", "*2008 – Cyclone Nargis makes landfall in Burma killing over 138,000 people and leaving millions of people homeless.", "* 2008 – Chaitén Volcano begins erupting in Chile, forcing the evacuation of more than 4,500 people.", "*2011 – Osama bin Laden, the suspected mastermind behind the September 11 attacks and the FBI's most wanted man, is killed by the United States special forces in Abbottabad, Pakistan.", "* 2011 – An E. coli outbreak strikes Europe, mostly in Germany, leaving more than 30 people dead and many others are taken ill.*2012 – A pastel version of ''The Scream'', by Norwegian painter Edvard Munch, sells for $120 million in a New York City auction, setting a new world record for a work of art at auction.", "*2014 – Two mudslides in Badakhshan, Afghanistan, leave up to 2,500 people missing." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1360 – Yongle Emperor of China (d. 1424)*1402 – Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal (d. 1445)*1451 – René II, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1508)*1458 – Eleanor of Viseu (d. 1525)*1476 – Charles I, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels, Count of Kladsko, Governor of Bohemia and Silesia (d. 1536)*1533 – Philip II, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (d. 1596)*1551 – William Camden, English historian and topographer (d. 1623)*1567 – Sebald de Weert, Dutch captain, vice-admiral of the Dutch East India Company (d. 1603)*1579 – Tokugawa Hidetada, Japanese shōgun (d. 1632)===1601–1900===*1601 – Athanasius Kircher, German priest and scholar (d. 1680)*1660 – Alessandro Scarlatti, Italian composer (d. 1725)*1695 – Giovanni Niccolò Servandoni, Italian-French painter and architect (d. 1766)*1702 – Friedrich Christoph Oetinger, German theologian and theosopher (d. 1782)*1707 – Jean-Baptiste Barrière, French cellist and composer (d. 1747)*1729 – Catherine the Great of Russia (d. 1796)*1737 – William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, Irish-English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1805)*1740 – Elias Boudinot, American lawyer and politician, 10th President of the Continental Congress (d. 1821)*1750 – John André, English soldier and spy (d. 1780)*1752 – Ludwig August Lebrun, German oboe player and composer (d. 1790)*1754 – Vicente Martín y Soler, Spanish composer (d. 1806)*1772 – Novalis, German author and poet (d. 1801)*1773 – Henrik Steffens, Norwegian philosopher and poet (d. 1845)*1797 – Abraham Pineo Gesner, Canadian physician and geologist (d. 1864)*1802 – Heinrich Gustav Magnus, German chemist and physicist (d. 1870)*1806 – Catherine Labouré, French nun and saint (d. 1876)*1810 – Hans Christian Lumbye, Danish composer and conductor (d. 1874)*1813 – Caroline Leigh Gascoigne, English novelist and poet (d. 1883)*1815 – William Buell Richards, Canadian lawyer and judge, 1st Chief Justice of Canada (d. 1889)*1822 – Jane Miller Thengberg, Scottish-Swedish governess and educator (d. 1902)*1828 – Désiré Charnay, French archaeologist and photographer (d. 1915)*1830 – Otto Staudinger, German entomologist and author (d. 1900)*1844 – Elijah McCoy, Canadian-American engineer (d. 1929)*1859 – Jerome K. Jerome, English author and playwright (d. 1927)*1860 – John Scott Haldane, Scottish physiologist, physician, and academic (d. 1936)* 1860 – Theodor Herzl, Austro-Hungarian Zionist philosopher, journalist and author (d. 1904)*1865 – Clyde Fitch, American playwright (d. 1909)*1867 – Giuseppe Morello, Italian-American mobster (d. 1930)*1872 – Ichiyō Higuchi, Japanese writer (d. 1896)*1873 – Jurgis Baltrušaitis, Lithuanian poet, critic, and translator (d. 1944)*1879 – James F. Byrnes, American stenographer and politician, 49th United States Secretary of State (d. 1972)*1880 – Bill Horr, American football player, discus thrower, and coach (d. 1955)*1881 – Harry J. Capehart, American lawyer, politician, and businessperson (d. 1955)*1882 – Isabel González, Puerto Rican activist who helped pave the way for Puerto Ricans' American citizenship (d. 1971)*1885 – Hedda Hopper, American actress and gossip columnist (d. 1966)*1886 – Gottfried Benn, German author and poet (d. 1956)*1887 – Vernon Castle, English-American dancer (d. 1918)* 1887 – Eddie Collins, American baseball player and manager (d. 1951)*1889 – Ki Hajar Dewantara, Indonesian philosopher, academic, and politician (d. 1959)*1890 – E. E. Smith, American engineer and author (d. 1965)*1892 – Manfred von Richthofen, German captain and pilot (d. 1918)*1894 – Norma Talmadge, American actress of the silent era (d. 1957)* 1894 – Joseph Henry Woodger, English biologist, philosopher, and academic (d. 1981)*1895 – Lorenz Hart, American playwright and lyricist (d. 1943)*1897 – John Frederick Coots, American songwriter (d. 1985)*1898 – Henry Hall, English bandleader, composer, and actor (d. 1989)===1901–present===*1901 – Bob Wyatt, English cricketer (d. 1995)* 1901 – Edouard Zeckendorf, Belgian doctor, army officer and mathematician (d. 1983)* 1901 – Willi Bredel, German writer (d. 1964)*1902 – Brian Aherne, English actor (d. 1986)* 1902 – Werner Finck, German Kabarett comedian, actor and author (d. 1978)*1903 – Benjamin Spock, American rower, pediatrician, and author (d. 1998)*1905 – Alan Rawsthorne, British composer (d. 1971)* 1905 – Charlotte Armstrong, American author (d. 1969)*1906 – Philippe Halsman, Latvian-American photographer (d. 1979)*1907 – Pinky Lee, American comedian and television host (d. 1993)*1908 – Frank Rowlett, American cryptologist (d. 1998)*1909 – Teddy Stauffer, Swiss bandleader, musician, and actor (d. 1991)*1910 – Alexander Bonnyman, Jr., American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1943)* 1910 – Edmund Bacon, American urban planner, architect, educator, and author (d. 2005)*1912 – Axel Springer, German journalist and publisher, founded Axel Springer AG (d. 1985)* 1912 – Karl Adam, German rowing coach (d. 1976)* 1912 – Marten Toonder, Dutch comic strip creator (d. 2005)* 1912 – Nigel Patrick, English actor and director (d. 1981)*1913 – Pietro Frua, Italian coachbuilder and car designer (d. 1983)* 1913 – Aydın Sayılı, Turkish historian and academic (d. 1993)*1915 – Doris Fisher, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003)* 1915 – Peggy Mount, English actress (d. 2001)*1917 – Albert Castelyns, Belgian water polo player and bobsledder (d. 1974)* 1917 – Văn Tiến Dũng, Vietnamese general and politician, 6th Minister of Defence for Vietnam (d. 2002)*1920 – Jean-Marie Auberson, Swiss violinist and conductor (d. 2004)* 1920 – Otto Buchsbaum, Austrian-Brazilian journalist and activist (d. 2000)* 1920 – Vasantrao Deshpande, Indian singer and sitar player (d. 1983)* 1920 – Guinn Smith, American pole vaulter, soldier, and pilot (d. 2004)* 1920 – Jacob Gilboa, Israeli composer (d. 2007)*1921 – B.", "B. Lal, Indian archaeologist (d. 2022)* 1921 – Satyajit Ray, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1992)*1922 – Roscoe Lee Browne, American actor and director (d. 2007)* 1922 – A. M. Rosenthal, Canadian-born American journalist and author (d. 2006)* 1922 – Serge Reggiani, Italian-born French singer and actor (d. 2004)*1923 – Patrick Hillery, Irish physician and politician, 6th President of Ireland (d. 2008)* 1923 – Albert Nordengen, Norwegian banker and politician (d. 2004)*1924 – Jamal Abro, Pakistani lawyer and author (d. 2004)* 1924 – Theodore Bikel, Austrian-American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2015)* 1924 – Arthur Clues, Australian rugby league player (d. 1998)* 1924 – Hugh Cortazzi, English soldier, historian, and diplomat, British Ambassador to Japan (d. 2018)*1925 – John Neville, English-Canadian actor (d. 2011)*1926 – Gérard D. Levesque, Canadian lawyer and politician, 5th Deputy Premier of Quebec (d. 1993)*1927 – Ray Barrett, Australian actor and singer (d. 2009)* 1927 – Amos Kenan, Israeli columnist, painter, sculptor, playwright and novelist (d. 2009)* 1927 – Michael Broadbent, British wine critic and writer (d. 2020)*1928 – Hans Trass, Estonian ecologist and botanist (d. 2017)* 1928 – Georges-Arthur Goldschmidt, French writer and translator of German origin* 1928 – Horst Stein, German conductor (d. 2008)*1929 – Édouard Balladur, Turkish-French economist and politician, 162nd Prime Minister of France* 1929 – James Dillion, American discus thrower (d. 2010)* 1929 – Link Wray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)* 1929 – Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan (d. 1972)*1930 – Yoram Kaniuk, Israeli painter and critic (d. 2013)* 1930 – Marco Pannella, Italian journalist and politician (d. 2016)*1931 – Phil Bruns, American actor and stuntman (d. 2012)* 1931 – Martha Grimes, American author and poet*1932 – Maury Allen, American journalist, actor, and author (d. 2010)*1933 – Bunk Gardner, American musician* 1933 – Harry Woolf, Baron Woolf, English lawyer and judge, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales*1934 – Manfred Durniok, German film producer, director and screenwriter (d. 2003)*1935 – Luis Suárez Miramontes, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 2023)* 1935 – Faisal II of Iraq, the last King of Iraq (d.1958)*1936 – Norma Aleandro, Argentinian actress, director, and screenwriter* 1936 – Engelbert Humperdinck, English singer and pianist* 1936 – Michael Rabin, American violinist (d. 1972)*1937 – Klaus Enders, German motorcycle sidecar racer (d. 2019)* 1937 – Lorenzo Music, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001)* 1937 – Gisela Elsner, German writer (d. 1992)*1938 – Moshoeshoe II of Lesotho (d. 1996)*1939 – Sumio Iijima, Japanese physicist and engineer* 1939 – Ernesto Castano, Italian football player (d. 2023)*1940 – Jules Albert Wijdenbosch, Surinamese politician *1941 – Tony Adamowicz, American race car driver (d. 2016)* 1941 – Bruce Cameron, Scottish bishop* 1941 – Clay Carroll, American baseball player* 1941 – Eddy Louiss, French jazz musician (d. 2015)*1942 – Jacques Rogge, Belgian businessman (d. 2021)* 1942 – Wojciech Pszoniak, Polish film and theater actor (d. 2020)*1943 – Mustafa Nadarević, Bosnian actor and film director (d. 2020)*1944 – Robert G. W. Anderson, English chemist, historian, and curator*1945 – Randy Cain, American soul singer (d. 2009)* 1945 – Judge Dread, English singer-songwriter (d. 1998)* 1945 – Bianca Jagger, Nicaraguan-American model, actress, and activist* 1945 – Goldy McJohn, Canadian keyboard player (d. 2017)*1946 – Peter L. Benson, American psychologist and academic (d. 2011)* 1946 – Lesley Gore, American singer-songwriter (d. 2015)* 1946 – David Suchet, English actor *1947 – James Dyson, English businessman, founded the Dyson Company* 1947 – Lynda Myles, English screenwriter and producer* 1947 – Philippe Herreweghe, Belgian conductor*1948 – Larry Gatlin, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor*1949 – Alan Titchmarsh, English gardener and author* 1949 – Alfons Schuhbeck, German celebrity chef, author and businessman*1950 – Simon Gaskell, English chemist and academic* 1950 – Duncan Gay, Australian businessman and politician* 1950 – Lou Gramm, American singer-songwriter* 1950 – Richard Ground, English lawyer and judge (d. 2014)* 1950 – Fausto Silva, Brazilian television presenter*1951 – John Glascock, English singer and bass player (d. 1979)*1952 – Chris Anderson, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1952 – Christine Baranski, American actress and singer* 1952 – Isla St Clair, Scottish singer and actress*1953 – Valery Gergiev, Russian conductor and director* 1953 – Jamaal Wilkes, American basketball player*1954 – Elliot Goldenthal, American composer and conductor* 1954 – Dawn Primarolo, English politician* 1954 – Stephen Venables, English mountaineer and author*1955 – Willie Miller, Scottish footballer* 1955 – Donatella Versace, Italian fashion designer*1956 – Régis Labeaume, Canadian businessman and politician, 41st Mayor of Quebec City*1958 – Yasushi Akimoto, Japanese songwriter and producer* 1958 – Stanislav Levý, Czech footballer and manager* 1958 – David O'Leary, English-Irish footballer and manager*1959 – Alan Best, Canadian animator, director, and producer* 1959 – Tony Wakeford, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1960 – Stephen Daldry, English director and producer* 1960 – Royce Simmons, Australian rugby league player and coach*1961 – Steve James, English snooker player* 1961 – Sophie Thibault, Canadian journalist* 1961 – Phil Vickery, English chef and author*1962 – Elizabeth Berridge, American actress* 1962 – Michael Grandage, English director and producer* 1962 – Jimmy White, English snooker player*1965 – Félix José, Dominican-American baseball player*1966 – Uwe Freiler, German footballer* 1966 – Margus Kolga, Estonian diplomat* 1966 – Belinda Stronach, Canadian businesswoman, philanthropist, and politician*1967 – Bengt Åkerblom, Swedish ice hockey player (d. 1995)* 1967 – Mika Brzezinski, American journalist and author* 1967 – David Rocastle, English footballer (d. 2001)*1968 – Jeff Agoos, Swiss-American soccer player, manager, and sportscaster* 1968 – Julia Hartley-Brewer, English broadcaster and columnist* 1968 – Ziana Zain, Malaysian singer-songwriter and actress*1969 – Brian Lara, Trinidadian cricketer*1970 – Marco Walker, Swiss footballer and coach*1971 – Musashimaru Kōyō, Samoan-American sumo wrestler, the 67th Yokozuna* 1971 – Fatima Yusuf, Nigerian sprinter*1972 – Paul Adcock, English footballer* 1972 – Ahti Heinla, Estonian programmer and businessman, co-developed Skype* 1972 – Dwayne Johnson, American-Canadian wrestler, actor, and producer*1973 – Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, German director and screenwriter*1974 – Horacio Carbonari, Argentinian footballer and manager* 1974 – Andy Johnson, English-Welsh footballer* 1974 – Janek Meet, Estonian footballer*1975 – David Beckham, English footballer, coach, and model* 1975 – Joe Wilkinson, English comedian, actor and writer*1976 – Jeff Gutt, American singer-songwriter *1977 – Brian Cardinal, American basketball player* 1977 – Jan Fitschen, German runner* 1977 – Luke Hudson, American baseball player* 1977 – Fredrik Malm, Swedish journalist and politician* 1977 – Jenna von Oÿ, American actress and singer* 1977 – Kalle Palander, Finnish skier*1978 – Melvin Ely, American basketball player* 1978 – Mike Weaver, Canadian ice hockey player* 1978 – Kumail Nanjiani, Pakistani-American actor, stand-up comedian, and screenwriter*1979 – Jason Chimera, Canadian ice hockey player* 1979 – Ioannis Kanotidis, Greek footballer* 1979 – Defne Joy Foster, Turkish-American actress, presenter and VJ (d. 2011)*1980 – Tim Borowski, German footballer* 1980 – Pierre-Luc Gagnon, Canadian skateboarder* 1980 – Ellie Kemper, American actress, comedian and writer* 1980 – Zat Knight, English footballer* 1980 – Artūras Masiulis, Lithuanian basketball player* 1980 – Troy Murphy, American basketball player* 1980 – Lassaâd Ouertani, Tunisian footballer (d. 2013)* 1980 – Brad Richards, Canadian ice hockey player* 1980 – Vincent Tong, Canadian actor, singer, voice actor and director*1981 – Robert Buckley, American actor* 1981 – Chris Kirkland, English footballer* 1981 – Tiago Mendes, Portuguese footballer* 1981 – Matt Murray, English footballer* 1981 – Rina Satō, Japanese voice actress and singer*1982 – Timothy Benjamin, Welsh sprinter* 1982 – Johan Botha, South African cricketer*1983 – Alessandro Diamanti, Italian footballer* 1983 – Maynor Figueroa, Honduran footballer * 1983 – Tina Maze, Slovenian skier* 1983 – Daniel Sordo, Spanish race car driver* 1983 – Ove Vanebo, Norwegian politician*1984 – Saulius Mikoliūnas, Lithuanian footballer* 1984 – Thabo Sefolosha, Swiss basketball player*1985 – Lily Allen, English singer-songwriter and actress* 1985 – Kyle Busch, American race car driver* 1985 – Ashley Harkleroad, American tennis player* 1985 – Sarah Hughes, American figure skater*1986 – Yasir Shah, Pakistani cricketer*1987 – Saara Aalto, Finnish singer and actress * 1987 – Nana Kitade, Japanese singer-songwriter and actress * 1987 – Pat McAfee, American football player* 1987 – Kris Russell, Canadian ice hockey player* 1987 – Justin Young, English singer and songwriter*1988 – Neftalí Feliz, Dominican baseball player* 1988 – Stephen Henderson, Irish footballer*1989 – Jeanette Pohlen, American basketball player*1990 – Kay Panabaker, American actress*1990 – Paul George, American basketball player*1991 – Jeong Jinwoon, South Korean actor and singer*1992 – Sunmi, South Korean singer* 1992 – María Teresa Torró Flor, Spanish tennis player*1993 – Owain Doull, Welsh track cyclist* 1993 – Isyana Sarasvati, Indonesian singer* 1993 – Huang Zitao, Chinese singer and rapper*1996 – Cherprang Areekul, Thai singer* 1996 – Julian Brandt, German footballer* 1996 – Schuyler Bailar, American swimmer*2015 – Princess Charlotte of Wales, British royal, and third in line to the British throne" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*1203 BCE – Merneptah, pharaoh of Egypt*373 CE – Athanasius of Alexandria, Egyptian bishop and saint (b.", "298)* 649 – Marutha of Tikrit, Persian theologian of the Syriac Orthodox Church (b.", "565)* 821 – Liu Zong, general of the Tang Dynasty* 907 – Boris I of Bulgaria*1219 – Leo I, King of Armenia (b.", "1150)*1230 – William de Braose, English son of Reginald de Braose (b.", "1197)*1293 – Meir of Rothenburg, German rabbi (b. c.1215)*1300 – Blanche of Artois (b.", "1248)*1450 – William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English admiral (b.", "1396)*1519 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect (b.", "1452)*1564 – Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian cardinal (b.", "1500)===1601–1900===*1627 – Lodovico Grossi da Viadana, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1560)*1667 – George Wither, English poet and author (b.", "1588)*1683 – Stjepan Gradić, Croatian philosopher and mathematician (b.", "1613)*1711 – Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, English politician, First Lord of the Treasury (b.", "1641)*1799 – Juan Vicente de Güemes, 2nd Count of Revillagigedo (b.", "1740)*1802 – Herman Willem Daendels, Dutch general and politician, Governor-General of the Dutch Gold Coast (b.", "1762)*1810 – Henry Jerome de Salis, English priest (b.", "1740)*1819 – Mary Moser, English painter and academic (b.", "1744)*1857 – Alfred de Musset, French dramatist, poet, and novelist (b.", "1810)*1864 – Giacomo Meyerbeer, German composer and educator (b.", "1791)*1866 – José Gálvez Egúsquiza, Peruvian politician (b.", "1819)*1880 – Eberhard Anheuser, German-American businessman, co-founded Anheuser-Busch (b.", "1805)* 1880 – Tom Wills, Australian cricketer, co-created Australian rules football (b.", "1835)*1885 – Terézia Zakoucs, Hungarian-Slovene author (b.", "1817)===1901–present===*1912 – Homer Davenport, American political cartoonist (b, 1867)*1915 – Clara Immerwahr, German chemist (b.", "1870)*1918 – Jüri Vilms, Estonian lawyer and politician (b.", "1889)*1925 – Antun Branko Šimić, Croatian and Bosnian-Herzegovinian poet (b.", "1898)* 1925 – Johann Palisa, Austrian astronomer (b.", "1848) *1927 – Ernest Starling, English physiologist and academic (b.", "1866)*1929 – Charalambos Tseroulis, Greek general and politician, Greek Minister for Military Affairs (b.", "1879)*1940 – Ernest Joyce, English explorer (b.", "1875)*1941 – Penelope Delta, Greek author (b.", "1874)*1945 – Martin Bormann, German politician (b.", "1900)* 1945 – Joe Corbett, American baseball player and journalist (b.", "1875)*1946 – Bill Denny, Australian journalist, lawyer, politician, and decorated soldier (b.", "1872)*1947 – Dorothea Binz, German SS officer (b.", "1920)*1953 – Wallace Bryant, American archer (b.", "1863)*1957 – Joseph McCarthy, American captain, lawyer, judge, and politician (b.", "1908)*1963 – Ronald Barnes, 3rd Baron Gorell, English cricketer, peer, politician, poet, author and newspaper editor (b.", "1884)*1964 – Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor, American-English politician (b.", "1879)*1969 – Franz von Papen, German general and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1879)*1972 – J. Edgar Hoover, American 1st director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (b.", "1895)*1974 – James O. Richardson, American admiral (b.", "1878)*1977 – Nicholas Magallanes, American principal dancer and charter member of the New York City Ballet (b.", "1922)*1979 – Giulio Natta, Italian chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1903)*1980 – Clarrie Grimmett, New Zealand-Australian cricketer (b.", "1891)* 1980 – George Pal, Hungarian-American animator and producer (b.", "1908)*1983 – Norm Van Brocklin, American football player and coach (b.", "1926)*1984 – Jack Barry, American game show host and producer, co-founded Barry & Enright Productions (b.", "1918)* 1984 – Bob Clampett, American animator, director, and producer (b.", "1913)*1985 – Attilio Bettega, Italian race car driver (b.", "1951)* 1985 – Larry Clinton, American trumpet player and bandleader (b.", "1909)*1986 – Sergio Cresto, American race car driver (b.", "1956)* 1986 – Henri Toivonen, Finnish race car driver (b.", "1956)*1989 – Veniamin Kaverin, Russian author (b.", "1902)* 1989 – Giuseppe Siri, Italian cardinal (b.", "1906)*1990 – David Rappaport, English-American actor (b.", "1951)*1991 – Gauri Shankar Rai, Indian Politician(b.1924)* 1991 – Ronald McKie, Australian journalist and author (b.", "1909)*1992 – Wilbur Mills, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1909)*1993 – André Moynet, French race car driver, pilot, and politician (b.", "1921)*1994 – Dorothy Marie Donnelly, American poet and author (b.", "1903)*1995 – John Bunting, Australian public servant and diplomat, (b.", "1918)* 1995 – Michael Hordern, English actor (b.", "1911)*1997 – John Eccles, Australian neurophysiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1903)* 1997 – Paulo Freire, Brazilian philosopher and academic (b.", "1921)*1998 – hide, Japanese singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1964)* 1998 – Justin Fashanu, English footballer (b.", "1961)*1999 – Douglas Harkness, Canadian politician (b.", "1903)* 1999 – Oliver Reed, English actor (b.", "1938)*2000 – Sundar Popo, Indo-Trinidadian musician (b.", "1943)*2002 – W. T. Tutte, English-Canadian mathematician and academic (b.", "1917)*2005 – Wee Kim Wee, Singaporean journalist and politician, 4th President of Singapore (b.", "1915)*2006 – Louis Rukeyser, American journalist and author (b.", "1933)*2007 – Brad McGann, New Zealand director and screenwriter (b.", "1964)*2008 – Beverlee McKinsey, American actress (b.", "1940)* 2008 – Izold Pustõlnik, Ukrainian-Estonian astronomer and academic (b.", "1938)*2009 – Marilyn French, American author and academic (b.", "1929)* 2009 – Kiyoshiro Imawano, Japanese singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (b.", "1951)* 2009 – Jack Kemp, American football player and politician, 9th United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (b.", "1935)*2010 – Lynn Redgrave, English-American actress and singer (b.", "1943)*2011 – Osama bin Laden, Saudi Arabian terrorist, founder of Al-Qaeda (b.", "1957)*2012 – Fernando Lopes, Portuguese director and screenwriter (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Zenaida Manfugás, Cuban-born American-naturalized pianist (b.", "1932)* 2012 – Tufan Miñnullin, Russian playwright and politician (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Endang Rahayu Sedyaningsih, Indonesian physician and politician, Indonesian Minister of Health (b.", "1955)* 2012 – Akira Tonomura, Japanese physicist, author, and academic (b.", "1942)* 2012 – Lourdes Valera, Venezuelan actress (b.", "1963)*2013 – Ernie Field, English boxer (b.", "1943)* 2013 – Jeff Hanneman, American guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1964)* 2013 – Joseph P. McFadden, American bishop (b.", "1947)* 2013 – Dvora Omer, Israeli author and educator (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Ivan Turina, Croatian footballer (b.", "1980)* 2013 – Charles Banks Wilson, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1918)*2014 – Tomás Balduino, Brazilian bishop (b.", "1922)* 2014 – Žarko Petan, Slovenian director, playwright, and screenwriter (b.", "1929)* 2014 – Efrem Zimbalist, Jr., American actor (b.", "1918)*2015 – Stuart Archer, English colonel and architect (b.", "1915)* 2015 – Michael Blake, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1945)* 2015 – Guy Carawan, American singer and musicologist (b.", "1927)* 2015 – Maya Plisetskaya, Russian-Lithuanian ballerina, choreographer, actress, and director (b.", "1925)* 2015 – Ruth Rendell, English author (b.", "1930)*2016 – Afeni Shakur, American music businesswoman, activist, and Black Panther (b.", "1947)*2020 – Arif Wazir, Pakistani politician, leader of the Pashtun Tahafuz Movement (b.", "1982)*2021 – Marcel Stellman, Belgian record producer and lyricist (b.", "1925)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:**Ahudemmeh (Syriac Orthodox Church).", "** Athanasius of Alexandria (Western Christianity)** Boris I of Bulgaria (Bulgarian Orthodox Church)** Germanus of Normandy** May 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* The last day of the Festival of Ridván (Baháʼí Faith) (this date is non-Gregorian and may change according to the March equinox, see List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar)* Anniversary of the Dos de Mayo Uprising (Community of Madrid, Spain)* Birth Anniversary of Third Druk Gyalpo (Bhutan)* Flag Day (Poland)* Indonesia National Education Day* Teachers' Day (Iran) (this date is non-Gregorian and may change according to the March Equinox, see List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar)* International Harry Potter Day* World Tuna Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 2" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 3" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 752 – Mayan king Bird Jaguar IV of Yaxchilan in modern-day Chiapas, Mexico, assumes the throne.", "*1481 – The largest of three earthquakes strikes the island of Rhodes and causes an estimated 30,000 casualties.", "*1491 – Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries, adopting the baptismal name of João I.", "*1568 – Angered by the brutal onslaught of Spanish troops at Fort Caroline, a French force burns the San Mateo fort and massacres hundreds of Spaniards.===1601–1900===*1616 – Treaty of Loudun ends a French civil war.", "*1715 – A total solar eclipse is visible across northern Europe and northern Asia, as predicted by Edmond Halley to within four minutes accuracy.", "*1791 – The Constitution of May 3 (the first modern constitution in Europe) is proclaimed by the Sejm of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "*1802 – Washington, D.C. is incorporated as a city after Congress abolishes the Board of Commissioners, the District's founding government.", "The \"City of Washington\" is given a mayor-council form of government.", "*1808 – Finnish War: Sweden loses the fortress of Sveaborg to Russia.", "* 1808 – Peninsular War: The Madrid rebels who rose up on May 2 are executed near Príncipe Pío hill.", "*1815 – Neapolitan War: Joachim Murat, King of Naples, is defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Tolentino, the decisive engagement of the war.", "*1830 – The Canterbury and Whitstable Railway is opened; it is the first steam-hauled passenger railway to issue season tickets and include a tunnel.", "*1837 – The University of Athens is founded in Athens, Greece.", "*1848 – The boar-crested Anglo-Saxon Benty Grange helmet is discovered in a barrow on the Benty Grange farm in Derbyshire.", "*1849 – The May Uprising in Dresden begins: The last of the German revolutions of 1848–49.", "*1855 – American adventurer William Walker departs from San Francisco with about 60 men to conquer Nicaragua.===1901–present===*1901 – The Great Fire of 1901 begins in Jacksonville, Florida.", "*1913 – ''Raja Harishchandra'', the first full-length Indian feature film, is released, marking the beginning of the Indian film industry.", "*1920 – A Bolshevik coup fails in the Democratic Republic of Georgia.", "*1921 – Ireland is partitioned under British law by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, creating Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland.", "* 1921 – West Virginia becomes the first state to legislate a broad sales tax, but does not implement it until a number of years later due to enforcement issues.", "*1928 – The Jinan incident begins with the deaths of twelve Japanese civilians by Chinese forces in Jinan, China, which leads to Japanese retaliation and the deaths of over 2,000 Chinese civilians in the following days.", "*1939 – The All India Forward Bloc is formed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose.", "*1942 – World War II: Japanese naval troops invade Tulagi Island in the Solomon Islands during the first part of Operation Mo that results in the Battle of the Coral Sea between Japanese forces and forces from the United States and Australia.", "*1945 – World War II: Sinking of the prison ships ''Cap Arcona'', ''Thielbek'' and ''Deutschland'' by the Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay.", "*1947 – New post-war Japanese constitution goes into effect.", "*1948 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules in ''Shelley v. Kraemer'' that covenants prohibiting the sale of real estate to blacks and other minorities are legally unenforceable.", "*1951 – London's Royal Festival Hall opens with the Festival of Britain.", "* 1951 – The United States Senate Committee on Armed Services and United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations begin their closed door hearings into the relief of Douglas MacArthur by U.S. President Harry Truman.", "*1952 – Lieutenant Colonels Joseph O. Fletcher and William P. Benedict of the United States land a plane at the North Pole.", "* 1952 – The Kentucky Derby is televised nationally for the first time, on the CBS network.", "*1953 – Two men are rescued from a semitrailer that crashed over the side of the Pit River Bridge before it fell into the Sacramento River.", "Amateur photographer Virginia Schau photographs \"Rescue on Pit River Bridge\", the first and only winning submission for the Pulitzer Prize for Photography to have been taken by a woman.", "*1957 – Walter O'Malley, the owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, agrees to move the team from Brooklyn to Los Angeles.", "*1963 – The police force in Birmingham, Alabama switches tactics and responds with violent force to stop the \"Birmingham campaign\" protesters.", "Images of the violent suppression are transmitted worldwide, bringing new-found attention to the civil rights movement.", "*1968 – Eighty-five people are killed when Braniff International Airways Flight 352 crashes near Dawson, Texas.", "*1971 – Erich Honecker becomes First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, remaining in power until 1989.", "*1978 – The first unsolicited bulk commercial email (which would later become known as \"spam\") is sent by a Digital Equipment Corporation marketing representative to every ARPANET address on the west coast of the United States.", "*1979 – Margaret Thatcher wins the United Kingdom general election.", "The following day, she becomes the first female British Prime Minister.", "*1986 – Twenty-one people are killed and forty-one are injured after a bomb explodes on Air Lanka Flight 512 at Colombo airport in Sri Lanka.", "*1987 – A crash by Bobby Allison at the Talladega Superspeedway, Alabama fencing at the start-finish line would lead NASCAR to develop the restrictor plate for the following season both at Daytona International Speedway and Talladega.", "*1999 – The southwestern portion of Oklahoma City is devastated by an F5 tornado, killing forty-five people, injuring 665, and causing $1 billion in damage.", "The tornado is one of 66 from the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak.", "This tornado also produces the highest wind speed ever recorded, measured at 301 +/- 20 mph (484 +/- 32 km/h).", "In meteorology, the term “May 3” is synonymous with the F5 tornado.", "* 1999 – Infiltration of Pakistani soldiers on Indian side results in the Kargil War.", "*2000 – The sport of geocaching begins, with the first cache placed and the coordinates from a GPS posted on Usenet.", "*2001 – The United States loses its seat on the U.N. Human Rights Commission for the first time since the commission was formed in 1947.", "*2006 – Armavia Flight 967 crashes into the Black Sea near Sochi International Airport in Sochi, Russia, killing 113 people.", "*2007 – The three-year-old British girl Madeleine McCann disappears in Praia da Luz, Portugal, starting \"the most heavily reported missing-person case in modern history\".", "*2015 – Two gunmen launch an attempted attack on an anti-Islam event in Garland, Texas, which was held in response to the ''Charlie Hebdo'' shooting.", "*2016 – Eighty-eight thousand people are evacuated from their homes in Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada as a wildfire rips through the community, destroying approximately 2,400 homes and buildings.", "*2023 – Nine students and a security guard are killed in the Belgrade school shooting, the first attack of its kind in Serbia." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 490 – K'an Joy Chitam I, ruler of Palenque (d. 565)* 612 – Constantine III, Byzantine emperor (d. 641)*1238 – Emilia Bicchieri, Italian saint (d. 1314)*1276 – Louis, Count of Évreux, son of King Philip III of France (d. 1319)*1415 – Cecily Neville, Duchess of York (d. 1495)*1428 – Pedro González de Mendoza, Spanish cardinal (d. 1495)*1446 – Margaret of York (d. 1503)*1461 – Raffaele Riario, Italian cardinal (d. 1521)*1469 – Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian historian and philosopher (d. 1527)*1479 – Henry V, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1552)*1481 – Juana de la Cruz Vázquez Gutiérrez, Spanish abbess of the Franciscan Third Order Regular (d. 1534)*1536 – Stephan Praetorius, German theologian (d. 1603)===1601–1900===*1632 – Catherine of St. Augustine, French-Canadian nurse and candidate for sainthood, founded the Hôtel-Dieu de Québec (d. 1668)*1662 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, German architect, designed the Pillnitz Castle (d. 1736)*1678 – Amaro Pargo, Spanish corsair (d. 1747)*1695 – Henri Pitot, French physicist and engineer, invented the Pitot tube (d. 1771)*1729 – Florian Leopold Gassmann, Czech composer (d. 1774)*1761 – August von Kotzebue, German playwright and author (d. 1819)*1764 – Princess Élisabeth of France (d. 1794)*1768 – Charles Tennant, Scottish chemist and businessman (d. 1838)*1783 – José de la Riva Agüero, Peruvian soldier and politician, 1st President of Peru and 2nd President of North Peru (d. 1858)*1814 – Adams George Archibald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 4th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (d. 1892)*1826 – Charles XV of Sweden (d. 1872)*1844 – Richard D'Oyly Carte, English talent agent and composer (d. 1901)*1849 – Jacob Riis, Danish-American journalist and photographer (d. 1914)* 1849 – Bernhard von Bülow, German soldier and politician, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1929)*1854 – George Gore, American baseball player and manager (d. 1933)*1859 – August Herrmann, American executive in Major League Baseball (d.1931)*1860 – Vito Volterra, Italian mathematician and physicist (d. 1940)*1867 – Andy Bowen, American boxer (d. 1894)* 1867 – J. T. Hearne, English cricketer (d. 1944)*1870 – Princess Helena Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1948)*1871 – Emmett Dalton, American criminal (d. 1937)*1873 – Pavlo Skoropadskyi, German-Ukrainian general and politician, Hetman of Ukraine (d. 1945)*1874 – François Coty, French businessman and publisher, founded Coty (d. 1934)* 1874 – Vagn Walfrid Ekman, Swedish oceanographer and academic (d. 1954)*1877 – Karl Abraham, German psychoanalyst and author (d. 1925)*1879 – Fergus McMaster, Australian businessman and soldier, co-founded Qantas (d. 1950)*1886 – Marcel Dupré, French organist and composer (d. 1971)*1887 – Marika Kotopouli, Greek actress (d. 1954)*1889 – Beulah Bondi, American actress (d. 1981)* 1889 – Gottfried Fuchs, German-Canadian Olympic soccer player (d. 1972)*1891 – Tadeusz Peiper, Polish poet and critic (d. 1969)* 1891 – Eppa Rixey, American baseball pitcher (d. 1963)*1892 – George Paget Thomson, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)* 1892 – Jacob Viner, Canadian-American economist and academic (d. 1970)*1893 – Konstantine Gamsakhurdia, Georgian author (d. 1975)*1895 – Cornelius Van Til, Dutch philosopher, theologian, and apologist (d. 1987)*1896 – Karl Allmenröder, German soldier and pilot (d. 1917)* 1896 – V. K. Krishna Menon, Indian lawyer, jurist, and politician, Indian Minister of Defence (d. 1974)* 1896 – Dodie Smith, English author and playwright (d. 1990)*1897 – William Joseph Browne, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Solicitor General of Canada (d. 1989)*1898 – Septima Poinsette Clark, American educator and activist (d. 1987)* 1898 – Golda Meir, Ukrainian-Israeli educator and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1978)===1901–present===*1902 – Alfred Kastler, German-French physicist and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)*1903 – Bing Crosby, American singer and actor (d. 1977)*1905 – Edmund Black, American hammer thrower (d. 1996)* 1905 – Werner Fenchel, German-Danish mathematician and academic (d. 1988)* 1905 – Red Ruffing, American baseball pitcher and coach (d. 1986)*1906 – Mary Astor, American actress (d. 1987)* 1906 – René Huyghe, French historian and author (d. 1997)* 1906 – Anna Roosevelt Halsted, American journalist and author (d. 1975)* 1906 – Enrique Laguerre, Puerto Rican journalist, author, and playwright (d. 2005)*1910 – Norman Corwin, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2011)*1912 – Virgil Fox, American organist and composer (d. 1980)* 1912 – May Sarton, American poet, novelist and memoirist (d. 1995)*1913 – William Inge, American playwright and novelist (d. 1973)*1914 – Georges-Emmanuel Clancier, French journalist, author, and poet (d. 2018))*1915 – Stu Hart, Canadian wrestler and trainer, founded Stampede Wrestling (d. 2003)* 1915 – Richard Lippold, American sculptor and academic (d. 2002)*1916 – Léopold Simoneau, Canadian tenor and actor (d. 2006)*1917 – Betty Comden, American screenwriter and librettist (d. 2006)* 1917 – George Gaynes, Finnish-American actor (d. 2016)*1918 – Ted Bates, English footballer and manager (d. 2003)*1919 – Traute Lafrenz, German member of the White Rose resistance group (d. 2023)* 1919 – John Cullen Murphy, American soldier and illustrator (d. 2004)* 1919 – Pete Seeger, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and activist (d. 2014)*1920 – John Lewis, American pianist and composer (d. 2001)*1921 – Sugar Ray Robinson, American boxer (d. 1989)*1922 – Len Shackleton, English footballer and journalist (d. 2000)*1923 – George Hadjinikos, Greek pianist, conductor, and educator (d. 2015)* 1923 – Ralph Hall, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician (d. 2019)*1924 – Yehuda Amichai, German-Israeli author and poet (d. 2000)* 1924 – Ken Tyrrell, English race car driver, founded Tyrrell Racing (d. 2001)*1925 – Jean Séguy, French sociologist and author (d. 2007)*1926 – Matt Baldwin, Canadian curler and engineer (d. 2023)*1928 – Dave Dudley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003)* 1928 – Jacques-Louis Lions, French mathematician (d. 2001)*1929 – Denise Lor, American singer and actress (d. 2015)*1930 – Juan Gelman, Argentinian poet and author (d. 2014)* 1930 – David Harrison, English chemist and academic (d. 2023)*1931 – Vasily Rudenkov, Belarusian hammer thrower (d. 1982)* 1931 – Sait Maden, Turkish translator, poet, painter and graphic designer (d. 2013)*1932 – Robert Osborne, American actor and historian (d. 2017)*1933 – James Brown, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006)* 1933 – Steven Weinberg, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)*1934 – Henry Cooper, English boxer and sportscaster (d. 2011)* 1934 – Georges Moustaki, Egyptian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)* 1934 – Frankie Valli, American singer and actor *1935 – Ron Popeil, American businessman, founded the Ronco Company (d. 2021)*1937 – Nélida Piñon, Brazilian author and academic*1938 – Omar Abdel-Rahman, Egyptian terrorist (d. 2017)* 1938 – Chris Cannizzaro, American baseball player (d. 2016)* 1938 – Napoleon XIV, American singer, songwriter and record producer (d. 2023)*1939 – Jonathan Harvey, English composer and educator (d. 2012)*1940 – David Koch, American engineer, businessman, and philanthropist (d. 2019)* 1940 – Clemens Westerhof, Dutch footballer and manager*1941 – Alexander Harley, English general* 1941 – Edward Malloy, American priest and academic*1942 – Věra Čáslavská, Czech gymnast and coach (d. 2016)* 1942 – Dave Marash, American journalist and sportscaster* 1942 – Butch Otter, American soldier and politician, 32nd Governor of Idaho*1943 – Yukio Hashi, Japanese singer and actor* 1943 – Jim Risch, American lawyer and politician, 31st Governor of Idaho* 1943 – Vicente Saldivar, Mexican boxer (d. 1985)*1944 – Peter Doyle, English bishop* 1944 – Pete Staples, English bass player *1945 – Jörg Drehmel, German triple jumper and coach* 1945 – Davey Lopes, American baseball player, coach, and manager*1946 – Norm Chow, American football player and coach* 1946 – Silvino Francisco, South African snooker player* 1946 – Greg Gumbel, American sportscaster*1947 – Doug Henning, Canadian magician (d. 2000)*1948 – Denis Cosgrove, British-American academic and geographer (d. 2008)* 1948 – Chris Mulkey, American actor*1949 – Liam Donaldson, English physician and academic* 1949 – Ruth Lister, Baroness Lister of Burtersett, English academic and politician* 1949 – Ron Wyden, American academic and politician*1950 – Mary Hopkin, Welsh singer-songwriter* 1950 – Dag Arnesen, Norwegian pianist and composer*1951 – Alan Clayson, English singer-songwriter and journalist* 1951 – Christopher Cross, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1951 – Ashok Gehlot, Indian politician, 21st Chief Minister of Rajasthan* 1951 – Tatyana Tolstaya, Russian author and publicist*1952 – Chuck Baldwin, American pastor and politician* 1952 – Caitlin Clarke, American actress (d. 2004)* 1952 – Joseph W. Tobin, American cardinal*1953 – Bruce Hall, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer * 1953 – Jake Hooker, Israeli-American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2014)*1954 – Angela Bofill, American singer-songwriter* 1954 – Jean-Marc Roberts, French author and screenwriter (d. 2013)*1955 – Stephen D. M. Brown, British geneticist* 1955 – Colin Deans, Scottish rugby player* 1955 – David Hookes, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2004)* 1955 – Seishirō Nishida, Japanese actor*1956 – Marc Bellemare, Canadian lawyer and politician*1957 – Alain Côté, Canadian ice hockey player* 1957 – Rod Langway, Taiwanese-American ice hockey player and coach*1958 – Bill Sienkiewicz, American author and illustrator* 1958 – Sandi Toksvig, Danish-English comedian, writer, and broadcaster*1959 – David Ball, English keyboard player and producer * 1959 – Uma Bharti, Indian activist and politician, 16th Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh* 1959 – Ben Elton, English actor, director, and screenwriter*1960 – Kathy Smallwood-Cook, English sprinter and educator*1961 – Steve McClaren, English footballer and manager* 1961 – David Vitter, American lawyer and politician* 1961 – Leyla Zana, Kurdish activist and politician*1962 – Anders Graneheim, Swedish bodybuilder* 1962 – Stephan Martinière, French artist, cartoonist, and art director*1963 – Jeff Hornacek, American basketball player and coach* 1963 – Mona Siddiqui, Pakistani-Scottish journalist and academic*1964 – Sterling Campbell, American drummer and songwriter * 1964 – Ron Hextall, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager*1965 – Ignatius Aphrem II, Syrian patriarch* 1965 – Mark Cousins, Northern Irish director, writer, cinematographer* 1965 – John Jensen, Danish footballer and coach* 1965 – Mikhail Prokhorov, Russian businessman*1966 – Giorgos Agorogiannis, Greek footballer* 1966 – Frank Dietrich, German politician (d. 2011)*1967 – Daniel Anderson, Australian rugby league coach and manager* 1967 – Kenneth Joel Hotz, Canadian producer, writer, director, actor, and comedian *1968 – Viliami Ofahengaue, Tongan-Australian rugby player*1971 – Douglas Carswell, British politician, the first elected MP for the UK Independence Party*1972 – Steve Barclay, English lawyer and politician*1973 – Jamie Baulch, Welsh sprinter and television host*1975 – Willie Geist, American television journalist and host* 1975 – Christina Hendricks, American actress and model* 1975 – Sanath Nishantha, Sri Lankan politician (d. 2024)*1976 – Jeff Halpern, American ice hockey player* 1976 – Brad Scott, Australian footballer and coach* 1976 – Chris Scott, Australian footballer and coach*1977 – Eric Church, American country music singer-songwriter* 1977 – Ryan Dempster, Canadian baseball player and sportscaster* 1977 – Tyronn Lue, American basketball player and coach* 1977 – Maryam Mirzakhani, Iranian mathematician (d. 2017)* 1977 – Ben Olsen, American soccer player and coach*1978 – Christian Annan, Ghanaian-Hong Kong footballer* 1978 – Paul Banks, English-American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1978 – Dai Tamesue, Japanese hurdler* 1978 – Lawrence Tynes, American football player*1979 – Steve Mack, American wrestler* 1979 – Anastasiya Shvedova, Belarusian pole vaulter*1980 – Zuzana Ondrášková, Czech tennis player*1982 – Igor Olshansky, Ukrainian-American football player* 1982 – Nick Stavinoha, American baseball player*1983 – Joseph Addai, American football player* 1983 – Romeo Castelen, Dutch footballer* 1983 – Jérôme Clavier, French pole vaulter* 1983 – Márton Fülöp, Hungarian footballer (d. 2015)*1984 – Jacqui Dunn, Australian artistic gymnast*1985 – Ezequiel Lavezzi, Argentinian footballer* 1985 – Kadri Lehtla, Estonian biathlete* 1985 – Miko Mälberg, Estonian swimmer*1986 – Moon Byung-woo, South Korean footballer* 1986 – Pom Klementieff, French actress*1987 – Lina Grinčikaitė, Lithuanian sprinter* 1987 – Damla Sönmez, Turkish actress*1988 – Ben Revere, American baseball player* 1988 – Paddy Holohan, Irish mixed martial artist*1989 – Jesse Bromwich, New Zealand rugby league player* 1989 – Katinka Hosszú, Hungarian swimmer*1990 – Alexandra Cadanțu-Ignatik, Romanian tennis player* 1990 – Brooks Koepka, American golfer* 1990 – James Pattinson, Australian cricketer*1991 – Samuel Seo, South Korean musician*1992 – Aaron Whitchurch, Australian rugby league player*1995 – Ivan Bukavshin, Russian chess player (d. 2016)* 1995 – Anwar El Ghazi, Dutch footballer*1996 – Mary Cain, American runner* 1996 – Alex Iwobi, Nigerian footballer* 1996 – Domantas Sabonis, Lithuanian basketball player* 1996 – Noah Munck, American actor*1997 – Desiigner, American rapper* 1997 – Dwayne Haskins, American football player (d. 2022)* 1997 – Ivana Jorović, Serbian tennis player*2003 – Elsa Jacquemot, French tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 678 – Tōchi, Japanese princess* 738 – Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, Mayan ruler (''ajaw'')*1152 – Matilda of Boulogne (b.", "1105)*1270 – Béla IV of Hungary (b.", "1206)*1294 – John I, Duke of Brabant (b.", "1252)*1330 – Alexios II Megas Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond (b.", "1282)*1410 – Antipope Alexander V*1481 – Mehmed the Conqueror, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1432)*1501 – John Devereux, 9th Baron Ferrers of Chartley, English Baron (b.", "1463)*1524 – Richard Grey, 3rd Earl of Kent, English peer (b.", "1481)*1534 – Juana de la Cruz Vazquez Gutierrez, Spanish Roman Catholic nun and venerable (b.", "1481)*1589 – Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (b.", "1528)===1601–1900===*1606 – Henry Garnet, English priest and author (b.", "1555)*1621 – Elizabeth Bacon, English Tudor gentlewoman (b.", "1541)*1679 – James Sharp, Scottish archbishop (b.", "1613)*1693 – Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French courtier (b.", "1607)*1704 – Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Czech-Austrian violinist and composer (b.", "1644)*1724 – John Leverett the Younger, American lawyer, academic, and politician (b.", "1662)*1750 – John Willison, Scottish minister and author (b.", "1680)*1752 – Samuel Ogle, English-American captain and politician, 5th Governor of Restored Proprietary Government (b.", "1692)*1758 – Pope Benedict XIV (b.", "1675)*1763 – George Psalmanazar, French-English author (b.", "1679)*1764 – Francesco Algarotti, Italian philosopher, poet, and critic (b.", "1712)*1779 – John Winthrop, American mathematician, physicist, and astronomer (b.", "1714)*1793 – Martin Gerbert, German historian and theologian (b.", "1720)*1839 – Ferdinando Paer, Italian composer (b.", "1771)*1856 – Adolphe Adam, French composer and critic (b.", "1803)* 1856 – Louis-Étienne Saint-Denis, Arab-French servant to Napoleon I (b.", "1788)*1882 – Leonidas Smolents, Austrian–Greek general and army minister (b.", "1806)===1901–present===*1910 – Howard Taylor Ricketts, American pathologist (b.", "1871)*1916 – Tom Clarke, Irish rebel (b.", "1858)* 1916 – Thomas MacDonagh, Irish poet and rebel (b.", "1878)* 1916 – Patrick Pearse, Irish teacher and rebel leader (b.", "1879)*1918 – Charlie Soong, Chinese businessman and missionary (b.", "1863)*1919 – Elizabeth Almira Allen, American educator (b.", "1854)*1921 – Théodore Pilette, Belgian race car driver (b.", "1883)*1925 – Clément Ader, French engineer, designed the Ader Avion III (b.", "1841)*1932 – Charles Fort, American journalist and author (b.", "1874)*1935 – Jessie Willcox Smith, American illustrator (b.", "1863)*1939 – Madeleine Desroseaux, French author and poet (b.", "1873)*1942 – Thorvald Stauning, Danish politician, 24th Prime Minister of Denmark (b.", "1873)*1943 – Harry Miller, American engineer (b.", "1875)*1948 – Ernst Tandefelt, Finnish assassin of Heikki Ritavuori (b.", "1876)*1949 – Fanny Walden, English footballer and cricketer (b.", "1888)*1958 – Frank Foster, English cricketer (b.", "1889)*1969 – Zakir Husain, Indian academic and politician, 3rd President of India (b.", "1897)*1970 – Cemil Gürgen Erlertürk, Turkish footballer, coach, and pilot (b.", "1918)*1972 – Kenneth Bailey, Australian lawyer and diplomat, Australian High Commissioner to Canada (b.", "1898)* 1972 – Emil Breitkreutz, American runner and coach (b.", "1883)* 1972 – Bruce Cabot, American actor (b.", "1904)*1978 – Bill Downs, American journalist (b.", "1914)*1981 – Nargis, Indian actress (b.", "1929)*1986 – Robert Alda, American actor (b.", "1914)*1987 – Dalida, Italian singer, actress, dancer, and model (b.", "1933)*1988 – Lev Pontryagin, Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1908)*1989 – Christine Jorgensen, American trans woman (b.", "1926)*1991 – Jerzy Kosiński, Polish-American novelist and screenwriter (b.", "1933)*1992 – George Murphy, American actor, dancer, and politician (b.", "1902)*1996 – Dimitri Fampas, Greek guitarist, composer, and educator (b.", "1921)* 1996 – Alex Kellner, American baseball player (b.", "1924)* 1996 – Jack Weston, American actor (b.", "1924)* 1996 – Keith Daniel Williams, American rapist and triple murderer (b.", "1947)*1997 – Sébastien Enjolras, French race car driver (b.", "1976)* 1997 – Narciso Yepes, Spanish guitarist and composer (b.", "1927)*1998 – Gene Raymond, American actor (b.", "1908)*1999 – Joe Adcock, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1927)* 1999 – Steve Chiasson, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b.", "1967)* 1999 – Godfrey Evans, English cricketer (b.", "1920)*2000 – Júlia Báthory, Hungarian glass designer (b.", "1901)* 2000 – John Joseph O'Connor, American cardinal (b.", "1920)*2002 – Barbara Castle, Baroness Castle of Blackburn, English politician, First Secretary of State (b.", "1910)* 2002 – Yevgeny Svetlanov, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1928)*2003 – Suzy Parker, American model and actress (b.", "1932)*2004 – Ken Downing, English race car driver (b.", "1917)* 2004 – Darrell Johnson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1928)*2006 – Karel Appel, Dutch painter, sculptor, and poet (b.", "1921)* 2006 – Pramod Mahajan, Indian politician (b.", "1949)* 2006 – Earl Woods, American colonel, baseball player, and author (b.", "1932)*2007 – Warja Honegger-Lavater, Swiss illustrator (b.", "1913)* 2007 – Wally Schirra, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1923)* 2007 – Knock Yokoyama, Japanese politician (b.", "1932)*2008 – Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo, Spanish engineer and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (b.", "1926)*2009 – Renée Morisset, Canadian pianist (b.", "1928)* 2009 – Ram Balkrushna Shewalkar, Indian author and critic (b.", "1931)*2010 – Roy Carrier, American accordion player (b.", "1947)* 2010 – Peter O'Donnell, English soldier and author (b.", "1920)* 2010 – Guenter Wendt, German-American engineer (b.", "1923)*2011 – Jackie Cooper, American actor, television director, producer and executive (b.", "1922)* 2011 – Sergo Kotrikadze, Georgian footballer and manager (b.", "1936)* 2011 – Thanasis Veggos, Greek actor and director (b.", "1927)*2012 – Jorge Illueca, Panamanian politician, 30th President of Panama (b.", "1918)* 2012 – Felix Werder, German-Australian composer, conductor, and critic (b.", "1922)*2013 – Joe Astroth, American baseball player (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Herbert Blau, American engineer and academic (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Cedric Brooks, Jamaican-American saxophonist and flute player (b.", "1943)* 2013 – Keith Carter, American swimmer and soldier (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Brad Drewett, Australian tennis player and sportscaster (b.", "1958)* 2013 – David Morris Kern, American pharmacist, co-invented Orajel (b.", "1909)* 2013 – Curtis Rouse, American football player (b.", "1960)* 2013 – Branko Vukelić, Croatian politician, 11th Minister of Defence for Croatia (b.", "1958)*2014 – Gary Becker, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Francisco Icaza, Mexican painter (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Jim Oberstar, American educator and politician (b.", "1934)*2015 – Revaz Chkheidze, Georgian director and screenwriter (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Danny Jones, Welsh rugby player (b.", "1986)* 2015 – Warren Smith, American golfer and coach (b.", "1915)*2016 – Ian Deans, Canadian politician (b.", "1937)* 2016 – Jadranka Stojaković, Yugoslav singer-songwriter (b.", "1950)*2017 – Daliah Lavi, Israeli actress, singer and model (b.", "1942)*2020 – Victoria Barbă, Moldovan animated film director (b.", "1926)*2021 – Lloyd Price, American R&B vocalist (b.", "1933)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Abhai (Syriac Orthodox Church)** Antonia and Alexander** Juvenal of Narni** Moura (Coptic Church)** Philip and James the Lesser** Pope Alexander I** Sarah the Martyr (Coptic Church)** The Most Holy Virgin Mary, Queen of Poland ** Theodosius of Kiev (Eastern Orthodox Church)** May 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Constitution Memorial Day (Japan)* Constitution Day (Poland)* Finding of the Holy Cross-related observances:** Fiesta de las Cruces (Spain and Hispanic America)* International Sun Day* World Press Freedom Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 3" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 4" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1256 – The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV issues a papal bull ''Licet ecclesiae catholicae''.", "*1415 – Religious reformers John Wycliffe and Jan Hus are condemned as heretics at the Council of Constance.", "*1436 – Assassination of the Swedish rebel (later national hero) Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson*1471 – Wars of the Roses: The Battle of Tewkesbury: Edward IV defeats a Lancastrian Army and kills Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales.", "*1493 – Pope Alexander VI divides the New World between Spain and Portugal along the Line of Demarcation.===1601–1900===*1626 – Dutch explorer Peter Minuit arrives in New Netherland (present day Manhattan Island) aboard the ''See Meeuw''.", "*1686 – The Municipality of Ilagan is founded in the Philippines.", "*1738 – The Imperial Theatrical School, now known as Vaganova Academy of Russian Ballet, was founded under the reign of Empress Anna.", "It is the first ballet school in Russia and second in the world.", "*1776 – Rhode Island becomes the first American colony to renounce allegiance to King George III.", "*1799 – Fourth Anglo-Mysore War: The Battle of Seringapatam: The siege of Seringapatam ends when the city is invaded and Tipu Sultan killed by the besieging British army, under the command of General George Harris.", "*1814 – Emperor Napoleon arrives at Portoferraio on the island of Elba to begin his exile.", "* 1814 – King Ferdinand VII abolishes the Spanish Constitution of 1812, returning Spain to absolutism.", "*1836 – Formation of Ancient Order of Hibernians*1859 – The Cornwall Railway opens across the Royal Albert Bridge linking Devon and Cornwall in England.", "*1869 – The Naval Battle of Hakodate is fought in Japan.", "*1871 – The National Association, the first professional baseball league, opens its first season in Fort Wayne, Indiana.", "*1886 – Haymarket affair: In Chicago, United States, a homemade bomb is thrown at police officers trying to break up a labor rally, killing one officer.", "Ensuing gunfire leads to the deaths of a further seven officers and four civilians.===1901–present===*1904 – The United States begins construction of the Panama Canal.", "*1910 – The Royal Canadian Navy is created.", "*1912 – Italy occupies the Ottoman island of Rhodes.", "*1919 – May Fourth Movement: Student demonstrations take place in Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China, protesting the Treaty of Versailles, which transferred Chinese territory to Japan.", "*1926 – The United Kingdom general strike begins.", "*1927 – The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences is incorporated.", "*1932 – In Atlanta, mobster Al Capone begins serving an eleven-year prison sentence for tax evasion.", "*1942 – World War II: The Battle of the Coral Sea begins with an attack by aircraft from the United States aircraft carrier on Japanese naval forces at Tulagi Island in the Solomon Islands.", "The Japanese forces had invaded Tulagi the day before.", "*1945 – World War II: Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is liberated by the British Army.", "* 1945 – World War II: The German surrender at Lüneburg Heath is signed, coming into effect the following day.", "It encompasses all Wehrmacht units in the Netherlands, Denmark and northwest Germany.", "*1946 – In San Francisco Bay, U.S. Marines from the nearby Treasure Island Naval Base stop a two-day riot at Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary.", "Five people are killed in the riot.", "*1949 – The entire Torino football team (except for two players who did not take the trip: Sauro Tomà, due to an injury and Renato Gandolfi, because of coach request) is killed in a plane crash.", "*1953 – Ernest Hemingway wins the Pulitzer Prize for ''The Old Man and the Sea''.", "*1959 – The 1st Annual Grammy Awards are held.", "*1961 – American civil rights movement: The \"Freedom Riders\" begin a bus trip through the South.", "* 1961 – Malcolm Ross and Victor Prather attain a new altitude record for manned balloon flight ascending in the Strato-Lab V open gondola to .", "*1970 – Vietnam War: Kent State shootings: The Ohio National Guard, sent to Kent State University after disturbances in the city of Kent the weekend before, opens fire killing four unarmed students and wounding nine others.", "The students were protesting the Cambodian Campaign of the United States and South Vietnam.", "*1972 – The ''Don't Make A Wave Committee'', a fledgling environmental organization founded in Canada in 1971, officially changes its name to \"Greenpeace Foundation\".", "*1973 – The 108-story Sears Tower in Chicago is topped out at as the world's tallest building.", "*1978 – The South African Defence Force attacks a SWAPO base at Cassinga in southern Angola, killing about 600 people.", "*1979 – Margaret Thatcher becomes the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.", "*1982 – Twenty sailors are killed when the British Type 42 destroyer is hit by an Argentinian Exocet missile during the Falklands War.", "*1988 – The PEPCON disaster rocks Henderson, Nevada, as tons of Space Shuttle fuel detonate during a fire.", "*1989 – Iran–Contra affair: Former White House aide Oliver North is convicted of three crimes and acquitted of nine other charges; the convictions are later overturned on appeal.", "*1990 – Latvia declares independence from the Soviet Union.", "*1994 – Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO leader Yasser Arafat sign a peace accord, granting self-rule in the Gaza Strip and Jericho.", "*1998 – A federal judge in Sacramento, California, gives \"Unabomber\" Theodore Kaczynski four life sentences plus 30 years after Kaczynski accepts a plea agreement sparing him from the death penalty.", "*2000 – Ken Livingstone becomes the first Mayor of London (an office separate from that of the Lord Mayor of London).", "*2002 – One hundred three people are killed and 51 are injured in a plane crash near Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport in Kano, Nigeria.", "*2007 – Greensburg, Kansas is almost completely destroyed by a 1.7-mile wide EF5 tornado.", "It was the first-ever tornado to be rated as such with the new Enhanced Fujita scale.", "*2014 – Three people are killed and 62 injured in a pair of bombings on buses in Nairobi, Kenya.", "*2019 – The inaugural all-female motorsport series, W Series, takes place at Hockenheimring.", "The race was won by Jamie Chadwick, who would go on to become the inaugural season's champion.", "*2023 – Nine people are killed and thirteen injured in a spree shooting in Mladenovac and Smederevo, Serbia.", "It is the second mass shooting in the country in two days." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1006 – Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, Persian mystic and poet (d. 1088)*1559 – Alice Spencer, English noblewoman (d. 1637)===1601–1900===*1634 – Katherine Ferrers, English aristocrat and heiress (d. 1660)*1649 – Chhatrasal, Indian ruler (d. 1731)*1655 – Bartolomeo Cristofori, Italian instrument maker, invented the piano (d. 1731)*1677 – Françoise-Marie de Bourbon, French noblewoman (d.1749)*1715 – Richard Graves, English minister and author (d. 1804)*1733 – Jean-Charles de Borda, French mathematician, physicist, and sailor (d. 1799)*1752 – John Brooks, American soldier and politician, 11th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1825)*1757 – Manuel Tolsá, Spanish sculptor and first director of the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City (d. 1816)*1767 – Tyagaraja, Indian composer (d. 1847)*1770 – François Gérard, French painter (d. 1837)*1772 – Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus, German publisher (d. 1823)*1796 – Horace Mann, American educator and politician (d. 1859)* 1796 – William Pennington, American lawyer and politician, 13th Governor of New Jersey, 23rd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1862)* 1796 – William H. Prescott, American historian and scholar (d. 1859)*1820 – Julia Gardiner Tyler, American wife of John Tyler, 11th First Lady of the United States (d. 1889)* 1820 – John Whiteaker, American soldier, judge, and politician, 1st Governor of Oregon (d. 1902)*1822 – Charles Boucher de Boucherville, Canadian physician and politician, 3rd Premier of Quebec (d. 1915)*1825 – Thomas Henry Huxley, English biologist, anatomist, and academic (d. 1895)* 1825 – Augustus Le Plongeon, English-American historian, photographer, and academic (d. 1908)*1826 – Frederic Edwin Church, American painter (d. 1900)*1827 – John Hanning Speke, English soldier and explorer (d. 1864)*1851 – Thomas Dewing, American painter (d. 1938)*1852 – Alice Liddell, English model (d. 1934)*1883 – Wang Jingwei, Chinese politician (d. 1944)*1884 – Richard Baggallay, English army officer and cricketer (d. 1975)*1887 – Andrew Dasburg, French-American painter (d. 1979)*1889 – Francis Spellman, American cardinal (d. 1967)*1890 – Franklin Carmichael, Canadian painter (d. 1945)===1901–present===*1902 – Ronnie Aird, English cricketer and administrator (d. 1986)* 1902 – Cola Debrot, Dutch physician, lawyer, and politician (d. 1981)* 1902 – William Brown Meloney, writer and theatrical producer (d. 1971)*1903 – Luther Adler, American actor (d. 1984)* 1903 – Paul Demel, Czech actor (d. 1951)*1905 – Al Dexter, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1984)*1906 – Gustav Bergmann, Austrian-American philosopher from the Vienna Circle (d. 1987)*1907 – Lincoln Kirstein, American soldier and playwright, co-founded the New York City Ballet (d. 1996)* 1907 – Walter Walsh, American target shooter and FBI agent (d. 2014)*1908 – Wolrad Eberle, German decathlete (d. 1949)*1911 – Evald Seepere, Estonian boxer (d. 1990)*1913 – John Broome, American author (d. 1999)* 1913 – Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark (d. 2007)*1914 – Maedayama Eigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 39th Yokozuna (d. 1971)*1916 – Jane Jacobs, American-Canadian journalist, author, and activist (d. 2006)* 1916 – Richard Proenneke, American soldier, carpenter, and meteorologist (d. 2003)*1917 – Edward T. Cone, American pianist and composer (d. 2004)* 1917 – Nick Joaquin, Filipino writer, journalist and historian (d. 2004)*1918 – Tom Mead, Australian journalist and politician (d. 2004)* 1918 – Kakuei Tanaka, Japanese soldier and politician, 64th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1993)*1919 – Dory Funk, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1973)* 1919 – Basil Yamey, South African-English economist and academic (d. 2020)*1921 – Patsy Garrett, American actress and singer (d. 2015)* 1921 – John van Kesteren, Dutch-American tenor and actor (d. 2008)* 1921 – Edo Murtić, Croatian painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 2005)*1922 – Paul-Émile Charbonneau, Canadian archbishop (d. 2014)* 1922 – Eugenie Clark, American biologist and academic (d. 2015)*1923 – Stanley Biber, American soldier and physician (d. 2006)* 1923 – Ed Cassidy, American jazz and rock drummer (d. 2012)* 1923 – Assi Rahbani, Lebanese composer and producer (d. 1986)* 1923 – Eric Sykes, British actor and comedian (d. 2012)* 1923 – John Toner, American football player and coach (d. 2014)*1925 – Jenő Buzánszky, Hungarian footballer and coach (d. 2015)* 1925 – Maurice R. Greenberg, American businessman and philanthropist*1926 – David Stoddart, Baron Stoddart of Swindon, English politician (d. 2020)*1928 – Maynard Ferguson, Canadian trumpet player and bandleader (d. 2006)* 1928 – Thomas Kinsella, Irish poet, translator, and publisher (d. 2021)* 1928 – Hosni Mubarak, Egyptian air marshal and politician, 4th President of Egypt (d. 2020)* 1928 – Betsy Rawls, American golfer* 1928 – Wolfgang von Trips, German race car driver (d. 1961)*1929 – Manuel Contreras, Chilean general (d. 2015)* 1929 – Audrey Hepburn, Belgian-British actress and humanitarian (d. 1993)* 1929 – Paige Rense, American magazine editor (d. 2021)*1930 – Katherine Jackson, matriarch of the Jackson family* 1930 – Roberta Peters, American soprano (d. 2017)*1931 – Jan Pesman, Dutch speed skater (d. 2014)* 1931 – Gennady Rozhdestvensky, Russian conductor and educator (d. 2018)* 1931 – Thomas Stuttaford, English physician, journalist, and politician (d. 2018)*1932 – Harlon Hill, American football player and coach (d. 2013)* 1932 – Alexander MacAra, Scottish epidemiologist and academic (d. 2012)*1933 – J. Fred Duckett, American journalist and educator (d. 2007)*1936 – El Cordobés, Spanish bullfighter* 1936 – Med Hondo, Mauritanian filmmaker and actor (d. 2019)*1937 – Ron Carter, American bassist and educator* 1937 – Dick Dale, American surf-rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter (d. 2019)* 1937 – Wim Verstappen, Dutch director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)*1938 – Tyrone Davis, American blues and soul singer (d. 2005)* 1938 – Carlos Monsiváis, Mexican journalist, author, and critic (d. 2010)* 1938 – Gillian Tindall, English historian and author*1939 – Neil Fox, English rugby league player and coach* 1939 – Amos Oz, Israeli journalist and author (d. 2018)* 1939 – Leon Rochefort, Canadian ice hockey player*1940 – Robin Cook, American physician and author* 1940 – Peter Gregg, American race car driver and businessman (d. 1980)*1941 – George Will, American journalist and author*1943 – Georgi Asparuhov, Bulgarian footballer (d. 1971)* 1943 – Mihail Chemiakin, Russian painter and sculptor* 1943 – Prasanta Pattanaik, Indian economist and academic*1944 – Walker Boone, Canadian actor (d. 2021)* 1944 – Steve Liebmann, Australian radio and television host* 1944 – Russi Taylor, American voice actress (d. 2019)*1945 – Jan Mulder, Dutch footballer and journalist*1946 – John Barnard, English car designer* 1946 – Gary Bauer, American political activist* 1946 – John Watson, British race car driver*1947 – John Bosley, Canadian businessman and politician, 31st Canadian Speaker of the House of Commons (d. 2022)* 1947 – Ronald Sørensen, Dutch historian and politician* 1947 – Trivimi Velliste, Estonian politician, 17th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs*1948 – Alison Britton, English sculptor and educator* 1948 – Hurley Haywood, American race car driver* 1948 – King George Tupou V of Tonga, (d. 2012)*1949 – Graham Swift, English novelist and short story writer*1950 – Darryl Hunt, English bass player (d. 2022)*1951 – Colin Bass, English bass player, songwriter, and producer* 1951 – Colleen Hanabusa, American lawyer and politician* 1951 – Jackie Jackson, American singer-songwriter and dancer *1952 – Belinda Green, Australian beauty queen and 1972 Miss World*1953 – Pia Zadora, American actress and singer *1954 – Ryan Cayabyab, Filipino pianist, composer, and conductor* 1954 – Trevor Ryan, Australian rugby league player*1956 – Michael L. Gernhardt, American astronaut and engineer* 1956 – David Guterson, American novelist, short story writer, poet, and essayist* 1956 – Ken Oberkfell, American baseball player and coach*1957 – Jaak Huimerind, Estonian architect* 1957 – Kathy Kreiner, Canadian skier* 1957 – Peter Sleep, Australian cricketer* 1957 – Marijke Vos, Dutch educator and politician*1958 – Delbert Fowler, American football player* 1958 – Keith Haring, American painter (d. 1990)* 1958 – Jane Kennedy, English politician* 1958 – Caroline Spelman, English politician, Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs*1959 – Valdemaras Chomičius, Lithuanian basketball player and coach* 1959 – Randy Travis, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor* 1959 – Bob Tway, American golfer*1960 – Werner Faymann, Austrian politician, 28th Chancellor of Austria*1961 – Jay Aston, English singer-songwriter and dancer *1964 – Silvia Costa, Cuban high jumper*1966 – Gary Elkins, English footballer and manager* 1966 – Jane McGrath, English-Australian activist, co-founded the McGrath Foundation (d. 2008)*1967 – Kate Garraway, English journalist* 1967 – Ana Gasteyer, American actress and singer*1969 – Micah Aivazoff, Canadian ice hockey player* 1969 – Franz Resch, Austrian footballer and manager*1970 – Gregg Alexander, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1970 – Will Arnett, Canadian actor and producer* 1970 – Giovanni Mirabassi, Italian jazz musician* 1970 – Dawn Staley, American basketball player* 1970 – Paul Wiseman, New Zealand cricketer and coach*1971 – Joe Borowski, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1971 – Miles Stewart, Australian triathlete*1972 – Manny Aybar, Dominican baseball player* 1972 – Mike Dirnt, American bass player and songwriter * 1972 – Chris Tomlin, American singer-songwriter*1973 – Matthew Barnaby, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster* 1973 – Guillermo Barros Schelotto, Argentinian footballer and coach* 1973 – John Madden, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1974 – Miguel Cairo, Venezuelan baseball player and coach* 1974 – Tony McCoy, Northern Irish jockey and sportscaster*1976 – Ben Grieve, American baseball player* 1976 – Rory Hamill, Northern Irish international footballer* 1976 – Jason Michaels, American baseball player* 1976 – Indrek Visnapuu, Estonian basketball player and coach*1977 – John Tripp, Canadian-German ice hockey player*1978 – Erin Andrews, American sportscaster and journalist* 1978 – Igor Biscan, Croatian footballer* 1978 – Brett Burton, Australian footballer* 1978 – James Harrison, American football player* 1978 – Vladimíra Uhlířová, Czech tennis player*1979 – Lance Bass, American singer, dancer, and producer * 1979 – Kristin Harmel, American journalist and author* 1979 – Marie Poissonnier, French pole vaulter* 1979 – Lesley Vainikolo, Tongan rugby player*1980 – Andrew Raycroft, Canadian ice hockey player*1981 – Eric Djemba-Djemba, Cameroon footballer* 1981 – Ruth Negga, Ethiopian-Irish actress* 1981 – Dallon Weekes, American singer-songwriter and musician *1982 – Kleopas Giannou, Greek footballer* 1982 – Markus Rogan, Austrian swimmer* 1982 – Giorgos Tsiaras, Greek basketball player*1983 – Dan Christian, Australian cricketer* 1983 – Derek Roy, Canadian ice hockey player* 1983 – Robert Zwinkels, Dutch footballer*1984 – Manjural Islam Rana, Bangladeshi cricketer (d. 2007)* 1984 – Brad Maddox, American wrestler and referee* 1984 – Sarah Meier, Swiss figure skater* 1984 – Montell Owens, American football player* 1984 – Kevin Slowey, American baseball player*1985 – Ravi Bopara, English cricketer* 1985 – Anthony Fedorov, Ukrainian-born American singer and actor* 1985 – Fernandinho, Brazilian footballer* 1985 – Lester \"Bo\" McCalebb, American-Macedonian professional basketball player* 1985 – Jamie Adenuga, English MC and rapper*1986 – Devan Dubnyk, Canadian ice hockey player* 1986 – George Hill, American basketball player*1987 – Cesc Fàbregas, Spanish footballer* 1987 – Jorge Lorenzo, Spanish motorcycle racer*1988 – Radja Nainggolan, Belgian footballer*1989 – Dániel Gyurta, Hungarian swimmer* 1989 – Henna Lindholm, Finnish figure skater* 1989 – Rory McIlroy, Northern Irish golfer* 1989 – Aris Tatarounis, Greek basketball player* 1989 – James van Riemsdyk, American ice hockey player*1990 – Irina Falconi, American tennis player* 1990 – Ryan Morgan, Australian rugby league player* 1990 – Duvashen Padayachee, Australian race car driver* 1990 – Andrea Torres, Filipino actress and model*1991 – Brianne Jenner, Canadian women's ice hockey player*1992 – Victor Oladipo, American basketball player*1993 – Jānis Bērziņš, Latvian basketball player*1994 – Abi Masatora, Japanese sumo wrestler* 1994 – Joseph Tapine, New Zealand rugby league player*1996 – Pelayo Roza, Spanish sprint canoeist*1997 – Max King, Australian rugby league player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 408 – Venerius, archbishop of Milan* 784 – Arbeo, bishop of Freising*1003 – Herman II, duke of Swabia*1038 – Gotthard of Hildesheim, German bishop (b.", "960)*1406 – Coluccio Salutati, chancellor of Florence (b.", "1331)*1436 – Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, Swedish rebel leader*1471 – Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, son and heir of Henry VI of England (b.", "1453)* 1471 – Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset (b.", "1438)*1483 – George Neville, Duke of Bedford (b.", "1457)*1506 – Husayn Mirza Bayqara, Timurid ruler of Herat (b.", "1438)*1519 – Lorenzo de' Medici, duke of Urbino (b.", "1492)*1535 – John Houghton, Carthusian monk and saint*1562 – Lelio Sozzini, Italian Protestant theologian (b.", "1525)*1566 – Luca Ghini, Italian physician and botanist (b.", "1490)*1571 – Pierre Viret, Swiss theologian and reformer (b.", "1511)===1601–1900===*1604 – Claudio Merulo, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1533)*1605 – Ulisse Aldrovandi, Italian naturalist (b.", "1522)*1615 – Adriaan van Roomen, Flemish priest and mathematician (b.", "1561)*1626 – Arthur Lake, English bishop and scholar (b.", "1569)*1677 – Isaac Barrow, English mathematician and theologian (b.", "1630)*1684 – John Nevison, English criminal (b.", "1639)*1729 – Louis Antoine de Noailles, French cardinal (b.", "1651)*1734 – James Thornhill, English painter and politician (b.", "1675)*1737 – Eustace Budgell, English journalist and politician (b.", "1686)*1774 – Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick, Prussian nobleman (b.", "1714)*1776 – Jacques Saly, French painter and sculptor (b.", "1717)*1790 – Matthew Tilghman, American politician (b.", "1718)*1799 – Tipu, ruler of Mysore (b.", "1750)*1811 – Nikolay Kamensky, Russian general (b.", "1776)*1816 – Samuel Dexter, American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Secretary of War, 3rd United States Secretary of the Treasury (b.", "1761)*1824 – Joseph Joubert, French author (b.", "1754)*1826 – Sebastián Kindelán y O'Regan, colonial governor of East Florida, Santo Domingo and Cuba (b.", "1757)*1839 – Denis Davydov, Russian general and poet (b.", "1784)*1859 – Joseph Diaz Gergonne, French mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1771)*1880 – Edward Clark, American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of Texas (b.", "1815)===1901–present===*1901 – John Jones Ross, Canadian lawyer and politician, 7th Premier of Quebec (b.", "1831)*1903 – Gotse Delchev, Macedonian Bulgarian revolutionary IMRO (b.", "1872)*1912 – Nettie Stevens, American geneticist credited with discovering sex chromosomes (b.", "1861)*1916 – Ned Daly, Irish rebel commander (Easter Rising) (b.", "1891)* 1916 – John Murray, Australian politician, 23rd Premier of Victoria (b.", "1851)* 1916 – Willie Pearse, Irish rebel (b.", "1881)* 1916 – Joseph Plunkett, Irish rebel and writer (b.", "1887)*1919 – Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Slovak general and politician (b.", "1880)*1922 – Viktor Kingissepp, Estonian politician (b.", "1888)*1923 – Ralph McKittrick, American golfer and tennis player (b.", "1877)*1924 – E. Nesbit, English author and poet (b.", "1858)*1938 – Kanō Jigorō, Japanese founder of judo (b.", "1860)* 1938 – Carl von Ossietzky, German journalist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1889)*1941 – Chris McKivat, Australian rugby player and coach (b.", "1880)*1945 – Fedor von Bock, German field marshal (b.", "1880)*1953 – Alexandre Pharamond, French rugby player (b.", "1876)*1955 – George Enescu, Romanian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1881)*1964 – Karl Robert Pusta, Estonian politician, 4th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1883)*1969 – Osbert Sitwell, English-Italian author and poet (b.", "1892)*1971 – William Brown Meloney, writer and theatrical producer (b.", "1902)*1972 – Father Chrysanthus, Dutch arachnologist (b.", "1905)* 1972 – Edward Calvin Kendall, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1886)*1973 – Jane Bowles, American author and playwright (b.", "1917)*1975 – Moe Howard, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (b.", "1897)*1976 – Frank Strahan, Australian public servant (b.", "1886)*1980 – Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslav field marshal and politician, 1st President of Yugoslavia (b.", "1892)*1981 – C. Loganathan, Sri Lankan banker (b.", "1913)*1983 – Nino Sanzogno, Italian conductor and composer (b.", "1911)*1984 – Diana Dors, English actress (b.", "1931)*1985 – Fikri Sönmez, Turkish tailor and politician (b.", "1938)* 1985 – Clarence Wiseman, English-Canadian 10th General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1907)*1987 – Paul Butterfield, American singer and harmonica player (b.", "1942)* 1987 – Cathryn Damon, American actress (b.", "1930)*1988 – Lillian Estelle Fisher, American historian of Spanish America (b.", "1891)*1990 – Emily Remler, American guitarist (b.", "1957)*1991 – Mohammed Abdel Wahab, Egyptian singer-songwriter and mandolin player (b.", "1902)*1992 – Gregor Mackenzie, Scottish politician (b.", "1927)*1993 – France Štiglic, Slovenian film director and screenwriter (b.", "1919)*1995 – Connie Wisniewski, American baseball player (b.", "1922)*2000 – Hendrik Casimir, Dutch physicist and academic (b.", "1909)*2001 – Bonnie Lee Bakley, American model, wife of Robert Blake (b.", "1956)*2004 – David Reimer, Canadian man, born male but reassigned female and raised as a girl after a botched circumcision (b.", "1965)*2005 – David Hackworth, American colonel and journalist (b.", "1930)*2008 – Fred Baur, American chemist and founder of Pringles (b.", "1918)*2009 – Dom DeLuise, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1933)*2011 – Sammy McCrory, Northern Irish footballer (b.", "1924)*2012 – Mort Lindsey, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Bob Stewart, American television producer, founded Stewart Tele Enterprises (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Adam Yauch, American rapper and director (b.", "1964)* 2012 – Rashidi Yekini, Nigerian footballer (b.", "1963)*2013 – Otis Bowen, American physician and politician, 44th Governor of Indiana (b.", "1918)* 2013 – Christian de Duve, English-Belgian cytologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1917)* 2013 – Javier Diez Canseco, Peruvian sociologist and politician (b.", "1948)* 2013 – Mario Machado, Chinese-American journalist and actor (b.", "1935)* 2013 – Morgan Morgan-Giles, English admiral and politician (b.", "1914)* 2013 – César Portillo de la Luz, Cuban guitarist and composer (b.", "1922)*2014 – Dick Ayers, American author and illustrator (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Elena Baltacha, Ukrainian-Scottish tennis player (b.", "1983)* 2014 – Edgar Cortright, American scientist and engineer (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Helga Königsdorf, German physicist and author (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Ross Lonsberry, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b.", "1947)* 2014 – Jean-Paul Ngoupandé, Central African politician, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (b.", "1948)*2015 – William Bast, American screenwriter and author (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Ellen Albertini Dow, American actress (b.", "1913)* 2015 – Marv Hubbard, American football player (b.", "1946)*2016 – Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, Burundian politician (b.", "1946)*2020 – Don Shula, American football player and coach (b.", "1930)* 2020 – Greg Zanis, American carpenter and activist (b.", "1950)*2021 – Nick Kamen, English model, songwriter (b.", "1962)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Anti-Bullying Day (United Nations)*Bird Day (United States)*Cassinga Day (Namibia)*Christian feast day:**Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla**Blessed Michał Giedroyć**English Saints and Martyrs of the Reformation Era (Church of England)**F. C. D. Wyneken (Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod)**Florian**José María Rubio**Judas Cyriacus**Monica of Hippo (1960 Roman Catholic Calendar)**Sacerdos of Limoges**Venerius of Milan**May 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Coal Miners Day (India)*Death of Milan Rastislav Štefánik Day (Slovakia)*Greenery Day (Japan)*International Firefighters' Day*May Fourth Movement commemorations:**Literary Day (Republic of China)**Youth Day (China)*Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled (Afghanistan)*Remembrance of the Dead (Netherlands)*Restoration of Independence Day (Latvia)*''Star Wars'' Day (International observance)*World Give Day*Youth Day (Fiji)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 4" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 5" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 553 – The Second Council of Constantinople begins.", "*1215 – Rebel barons renounce their allegiance to King John of England — part of a chain of events leading to the signing of the Magna Carta.", "*1260 – Kublai Khan becomes ruler of the Mongol Empire.", "*1494 – On his second voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus sights Jamaica, landing at Discovery Bay and declares Jamaica the property of the Spanish crown.===1601–1900===*1609 – ''Daimyō'' (Lord) Shimazu Tadatsune of the Satsuma Domain in southern Kyūshū, Japan, completes his successful invasion of the Ryūkyū Kingdom in Okinawa.", "*1640 – King Charles I of England dissolves the Short Parliament.", "*1654 – Cromwell's Act of Grace, aimed at reconciliation with the Scots, proclaimed in Edinburgh.", "*1762 – Russia and Prussia sign the Treaty of St.", "Petersburg.", "*1789 – In France, the Estates-General convenes for the first time since 1614.", "*1809 – Mary Kies becomes the first woman awarded a U.S. patent, for a technique of weaving straw with silk and thread.", "*1821 – Emperor Napoleon dies in exile on the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean.", "*1821 – The first edition of ''The Manchester Guardian'', now ''The Guardian'', is published.", "*1835 – The first railway in continental Europe opens between Brussels and Mechelen.", "*1862 – Cinco de Mayo: Troops led by Ignacio Zaragoza halt a French invasion in the Battle of Puebla in Mexico.", "*1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of the Wilderness begins in Spotsylvania County.", "*1865 – American Civil War: The Confederate government was declared dissolved at Washington, Georgia.", "*1866 – Memorial Day first celebrated in United States at Waterloo, New York.", "*1877 – American Indian Wars: Sitting Bull leads his band of Lakota into Canada to avoid harassment by the United States Army under Colonel Nelson Miles.", "*1886 – Workers marching for the Eight-hour day in Milwaukee, Wisconsin were shot at by Wisconsin National Guardsmen in what became known as the Bay View Massacre.", "*1887 – The Peruvian Academy of Language is founded.", "*1891 – The Music Hall in New York City (later known as Carnegie Hall) has its grand opening and first public performance, with Tchaikovsky as the guest conductor.===1901–present===*1904 – Pitching against the Philadelphia Athletics at the Huntington Avenue Grounds, Cy Young of the Boston Americans throws the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball.", "*1905 – The trial in the Stratton Brothers case begins in London, England; it marks the first time that fingerprint evidence is used to gain a conviction for murder.", "*1912 – The first issue of the Bolshevik newspaper ''Pravda'' was published.", "*1920 – Authorities arrest Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti for alleged robbery and murder.", "*1930 – The 1930 Bago earthquake, the former of two major earthquakes in southern Burma kills as many as 7,000 in Yangon and Bago.", "*1936 – Italian troops occupy Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.", "* 1940 – World War II: Norwegian Campaign: Norwegian squads in Hegra Fortress and Vinjesvingen capitulate to German forces after all other Norwegian forces in southern Norway had laid down their arms.", "*1941 – Emperor Haile Selassie returns to Addis Ababa; the country commemorates the date as Liberation Day or Patriots' Victory Day.", "*1945 – World War II: The Prague uprising begins as an attempt by the Czech resistance to free the city from German occupation.", "* 1945 – World War II: A Fu-Go balloon bomb launched by the Japanese Army kills six people near Bly, Oregon.", "* 1945 – World War II: Battle of Castle Itter, one of only two battles in that war in which American and German troops fought cooperatively.", "*1946 – The International Military Tribunal for the Far East begins in Tokyo with twenty-eight Japanese military and government officials accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity.", "*1955 – The General Treaty, by which France, Britain and the United States recognize the sovereignty of West Germany, comes into effect.", "*1961 – Project Mercury: Alan Shepard becomes the first American to travel into outer space, on a sub-orbital flight.", "*1964 – The Council of Europe declares May 5 as Europe Day.", "*1972 – Alitalia Flight 112 crashes into Mount Longa near Palermo, Sicily, killing all 115 aboard, making it the deadliest single-aircraft disaster in Italy.", "*1973 – Secretariat wins the 1973 Kentucky Derby in 1:59, an as-yet unbeaten record.", "*1980 – Operation Nimrod: The British Special Air Service storms the Iranian embassy in London after a six-day siege.", "*1981 – Bobby Sands dies in the Long Kesh prison hospital after 66 days of hunger-striking, aged 27.", "*1985 – Ronald Reagan visits the military cemetery at Bitburg and the site of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where he makes a speech.", "*1987 – Iran–Contra affair: Start of Congressional televised hearings in the United States of America*1991 – A riot breaks out in the Mt.", "Pleasant section of Washington, D.C. after police shoot a Salvadoran man.", "*1994 – The signing of the Bishkek Protocol between Armenia and Azerbaijan effectively freezes the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.", "* 1994 – American teenager Michael P. Fay is caned in Singapore for theft and vandalism.", "*2006 – The government of Sudan signs an accord with the Sudan Liberation Army.", "*2007 – Kenya Airways Flight 507 crashes after takeoff from Douala International Airport in Douala, Cameroon, killing all 114 aboard, making it the deadliest aircraft disaster in Cameroon.", "*2010 – Mass protests in Greece erupt in response to austerity measures imposed by the government as a result of the Greek government-debt crisis.", "*2023 – The World Health Organization declares the end of the COVID-19 pandemic as a global health emergency." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1210 – Afonso III of Portugal (d. 1279)*1282 – Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena (d. 1348)*1310 – Preczlaw of Pogarell, Cardinal and Bishop of Wrocław (d. 1376)*1352 – Rupert of Germany, Count Palatine of the Rhine (d. 1410)*1479 – Guru Amar Das, Indian 3rd Sikh Guru (d. 1574)*1504 – Stanislaus Hosius, Polish cardinal (d. 1579)*1530 – Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, French nobleman (d. 1574)*1542 – Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northamptonshire (d. 1623)*1582 – John Frederick, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1628)===1601–1900===*1684 – Françoise Charlotte d'Aubigné, French wife of Adrien Maurice de Noailles (d. 1739)*1747 – Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1792)*1749 – Jean-Frédéric Edelmann, French pianist and composer (d. 1794)*1764 – Robert Craufurd, Scottish general and politician (d. 1812)*1800 – Louis Christophe François Hachette, French publisher (d. 1864)*1813 – Søren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher and author (d. 1855)*1818 – Karl Marx, German philosopher, sociologist, and journalist (d. 1883)*1826 – Eugénie de Montijo, French wife of Napoleon III (d. 1920)*1830 – John Batterson Stetson, American businessman, founded the John B. Stetson Company (d. 1906)*1832 – Hubert Howe Bancroft, American ethnologist and historian (d. 1918)*1833 – Ferdinand von Richthofen, German geographer and academic (d. 1905)*1834 – Viktor Hartmann, Russian painter and architect (d. 1873)*1843 – William George Beers, Canadian dentist and patriot (d. 1900)*1846 – Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1916)*1858 – John L. Leal, American physician (d. 1914)*1859 – Charles B. Hanford, American Shakespearean actor (d. 1926)*1864 – Nellie Bly, American journalist and author (d. 1922)*1865 – Helen Maud Merrill, American litterateur and poet (d. 1943)*1866 – Thomas B. Thrige, Danish businessman (d. 1938)*1869 – Fabián de la Rosa, Filipino painter and educator (d. 1937)* 1869 – Hans Pfitzner, German composer and conductor (d. 1949)*1874 – Thomas Bavin, New Zealand-Australian politician, 24th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1941)*1882 – Sylvia Pankhurst, English women's suffrage movement leader and socialist activist (d. 1960)*1883 – Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, English general and politician, 43rd Governor-General of India (d. 1950)* 1883 – Anna Johnson Pell Wheeler, American mathematician (d. 1966)*1884 – Chief Bender, American baseball player and coach (d. 1954)*1885 – Kingsley Fairbridge, South African-Australian scholar and politician (d. 1924)*1887 – Mervyn S. Bennion, American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1941)*1889 – Herbie Taylor, South African cricketer and soldier (d. 1973)*1890 – Christopher Morley, American journalist and author (d. 1957)*1892 – Dorothy Garrod, British archaeologist (d. 1968)*1898 – Elsie Eaves, American engineer (d. 1983)* 1898 – Blind Willie McTell, American Piedmont blues singer and guitar player (d. 1959)*1899 – Freeman Gosden, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1982)*1900 – Helen Redfield, American geneticist (d. 1988)===1901–present===*1903 – James Beard, American chef and author (d. 1985)*1905 – Floyd Gottfredson, American author and illustrator (d. 1986)*1906 – Charles Exbrayat, French author and screenwriter (d. 1989)*1907 – Daryna Dmytrivna Polotniuk, Bukovinian (Ukrainian) journalist and author (d. 1982)*1908 – Kurt Böhme, German opera singer (d. 1989)*1909 – Miklós Radnóti, Hungarian poet and author (d. 1944)*1910 – Leo Lionni, American author and illustrator (d. 1999)*1911 – Gilles Grangier, French director and screenwriter (d. 1996)* 1911 – Andor Lilienthal, Russian-Hungarian chess player (d. 2010)* 1911 – Pritilata Waddedar, Indian educator and activist (d. 1932)*1913 – Duane Carter, American race car driver (d. 1993)*1914 – Tyrone Power, American actor (d. 1958)*1915 – Alice Faye, American actress and singer (d. 1998)*1916 – Zail Singh, Indian politician, 7th President of India (d. 1994)*1917 – Pío Leyva, Cuban singer-songwriter (d. 2006)*1918 – Egidio Galea, Maltese Roman Catholic priest (d. 2005)*1919 – Georgios Papadopoulos, Greek colonel and politician, 169th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1999)*1921 – Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)*1922 – Irene Gut Opdyke, Polish nurse and humanitarian (d. 2003)*1923 – William C. Campbell, American golfer (d. 2013)* 1923 – James Gilbert, Scottish television producer and director (d. 2016)* 1923 – Cathleen Synge Morawetz, Canadian mathematician (d. 2017)* 1923 – Richard Wollheim, English philosopher and academic (d. 2003)*1925 – Leo Ryan, American soldier, educator, and politician (d. 1978)*1927 – Pat Carroll, American actress (d. 2022)*1929 – Ilene Woods, American actress (d. 2010)*1930 – Hans Abramson, Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)*1931 – Greg, Belgian author and illustrator (d. 1999)*1932 – Stan Goldberg, American illustrator (d. 2014)* 1932 – Bob Said, American race car driver and bobsled racer (d. 2002)*1933 – Igor Kashkarov, Russian high jumper* 1933 – Collie Smith, Jamaican cricketer (d. 1959)*1934 – Henri Konan Bédié, Ivorian politician, 2nd President of Côte d'Ivoire (d. 2023)* 1934 – Victor Garland, Australian accountant and politician, 26th Australian Minister for Veterans' Affairs (d. 2022)*1935 – Eddie Linden, Scottish poet and magazine editor* 1935 – Bernard Pivot, French journalist, talk show host, and producer* 1935 – Robert Rehme, American film producer*1936 – Sandy Baron, American actor and comedian (d. 2001)* 1936 – Patrick Gowers, English composer and educator (d. 2014)* 1936 – Ervin Lázár, Hungarian author (d. 2006)*1937 – Beryl Burton, English racing cyclist (d. 1996) * 1937 – Delia Derbyshire, English musician, arranger and composer (d. 2001)*1938 – Michael Murphy, American actor* 1938 – Barbara Wagner, Canadian figure skater and coach*1939 – Ray Gosling, English journalist, author, and activist (d. 2013)*1940 – Lance Henriksen, American actor* 1940 – Michael Lindsay-Hogg, American director and producer*1941 – Alexander Ragulin, Russian ice hockey player (d. 2004)*1942 – István Bujtor, Hungarian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009)* 1942 – Jean Corston, Baroness Corston, English lawyer and politician* 1942 – Hugh Courtenay, 18th Earl of Devon, English politician (d. 2015)* 1942 – Tammy Wynette, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998)*1943 – Michael Palin, English actor and screenwriter* 1943 – Ignacio Ramonet, Spanish journalist and author*1944 – Bo Larsson, Swedish footballer (d. 2023)* 1944 – John Rhys-Davies, Welsh actor and screenwriter* 1944 – Roger Rees, Welsh-American actor and director (d. 2015)*1945 – Kurt Loder, American journalist, author, and critic* 1945 – Dianne Willcocks, English sociologist and academic* 1946 – Jim Kelly, American actor, athlete, and martial artist (d. 2013)*1946 – Aydın Menderes, Turkish politician (d. 2011)*1948 – Bella van der Spiegel-Hage, Dutch cyclist* 1948 – Bill Ward, English drummer and songwriter *1949 – Eppie Bleeker, Dutch speed skater*1950 – Rex Caldwell, American golfer* 1950 – Maggie MacNeal, Dutch singer *1951 – Rudolf Finsterer, German rugby player and coach* 1951 – Toomas Vilosius, Estonian physician and politician, 2nd Minister of Social Affairs of Estonia*1952 – Ed Lee, American politician and attorney, 43rd Mayor of San Francisco (d. 2017)* 1952 – Jorge Llopart, Spanish race walker* 1952 – Maria Catarina Sumarsih, Indonesian human rights activist, civil servant, and teacher* 1952 – Willem Witteveen, Dutch scholar and politician (d. 2014)*1955 – Jon Butcher, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and freelance multimedia producer*1956 – Steve Scott, American runner and coach*1957 – Richard E. Grant, Swazi-English actor, director, and screenwriter* 1957 – Peter Howitt, English actor, director, and screenwriter*1958 – Ron Arad, Israeli colonel and pilot (d. 1986)* 1958 – Robert DiPierdomenico, Australian footballer and sportscaster* 1958 – Vanessa Downing, Australian actress* 1958 – Jack Wishna, American businessman, co-founded Rockcityclub (d. 2012)*1959 – Bobby Ellsworth, American singer and bass player * 1959 – Ian McCulloch, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1959 – Steve Stevens, American guitarist and songwriter* 1959 – Brian Williams, American journalist*1960 – Doug Hawkins, Australian footballer and sportscaster*1961 – Marg Downey, Australian actress* 1961 – Hiroshi Hase, Japanese wrestler and politician* 1961 – Rob Williams, American basketball player (d. 2014)*1962 – Kaoru Wada, Japanese composer and conductor*1963 – James LaBrie, Canadian singer-songwriter * 1963 – Simon Rimmer, English chef and author* 1963 – Scott Westerfeld, American author and composer*1964 – Jean-François Copé, French politician, French Minister of Budget* 1964 – Heike Henkel, German high jumper* 1964 – Don Payne, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2013)* 1964 – Minami Takayama, Japanese voice actress and singer* 1964 – Efrat Mishori, Israeli poet and filmmaker*1965 – Glenn Seton, Australian race car driver*1966 – Shawn Drover, Canadian drummer * 1966 – Sergei Stanishev, Bulgarian politician, 46th Prime Minister of Bulgaria* 1966 – Josh Weinstein, American screenwriter and producer*1967 – Adam Hughes, American author and illustrator* 1967 – Alexis Sinduhije, Burundian journalist and politician*1969 – Pieter Muller, South African rugby player*1970 – Kyan Douglas, American television host and author* 1970 – Todd Newton, American game show host*1971 – Harold Miner, American basketball player* 1971 – Mike Redmond, American baseball player and manager*1972 – James Cracknell, English rower* 1972 – Žigmund Pálffy, Slovakian ice hockey player* 1972 – Mikael Renberg, Swedish ice hockey player*1975 – Meb Keflezighi, American runner*1976 – Dieter Brummer, Australian actor (d. 2021)* 1976 – Jean-François Dumoulin, Canadian race car driver* 1976 – Anastasios Pantos, Greek footballer* 1976 – Juan Pablo Sorín, Argentinian footballer and sportscaster*1978 – Morgan Pehme, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1979 – Vincent Kartheiser, American actor*1980 – Yossi Benayoun, Israeli footballer* 1980 – Hank Green, American entrepreneur, educator, and vlogger* 1980 – DerMarr Johnson, American basketball player*1981 – Craig David, English singer-songwriter, musician and producer* 1981 – Danielle Fishel, American actress*1982 – Ferrie Bodde, Dutch footballer* 1982 – Vanessa Bryant, American philanthropist and model * 1982 – Wouter D'Haene, Belgian sprinter * 1982 – Randall Gay, American football player* 1982 – Corey Parker, Australian rugby league footballer*1983 – James Anyon, English cricketer* 1983 – Henry Cavill, English actor* 1983 – Mabel Gay, Cuban triple jumper* 1983 – Annie Villeneuve, Canadian singer-songwriter* 1983 – Scott Ware, American football player*1984 – Johanna Hedva, Korean-American artist and genderqueer activist* 1984 – Wade MacNeil, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1984 – Christian Valdez, Mexican footballer *1985 – Shoko Nakagawa, Japanese actress and singer* 1985 – Marcos Rogério Oliveira Duarte, Brazilian footballer* 1985 – Emanuele Giaccherini, Italian footballer* 1985 – Tsepo Masilela, South African footballer * 1985 – P. J. Tucker, American basketball player* 1985 – Terrence Wheatley, American football player*1987 – Graham Dorrans, Scottish footballer*1988 – Adele, English singer-songwriter* 1988 – Mervyn Westfield, English cricketer*1989 – Chris Brown, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor*1991 – Xenofon Fetsis, Greek footballer* 1991 – Raúl Jiménez, Mexican footballer*1992 – Loïck Landre, French footballer*1996 – Mayar Sherif, Egyptian tennis player*1998 – Aryna Sabalenka, Belarusian tennis player*1999 – Nathan Chen, American figure skater* 1999 – Justin Kluivert, Dutch footballer*2003 – Carlos Alcaraz, Spanish tennis player* 2003 – Tanisha Crasto, Emirati-Indian badminton player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 465 – Gerontius, Archbishop of Milan*1194 – Casimir II the Just, Polish son of Bolesław III Wrymouth (b.", "1138)*1243 – Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent, English justiciar (b.", ")*1306 – Constantine Palaiologos, Byzantine general (b.", "1261)*1309 – Charles II of Naples (b.", "1254)*1316 – Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, daughter of King Edward I of England (b.", "1282)*1338 – Prince Tsunenaga, son of the Japanese Emperor (b.", "1324)*1380 – Saint Philotheos, Coptic martyr*1432 – Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola, Italian adventurer*1525 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (b.", "1463)*1582 – Charlotte of Bourbon, Princess consort of Orange, married to William I of Orange (b.", "1547)*1586 – Henry Sidney, Irish politician, Lord Deputy of Ireland (b.", "1529)===1601–1900===*1671 – Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, English general and politician, Lord Chamberlain of the United Kingdom (b.", "1602)*1672 – Samuel Cooper, English painter and linguist (b.", "1609)*1700 – Angelo Italia, Italian architect (b.", "1628)*1705 – Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1640)*1760 – Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, English politician (b.", "1720)*1766 – Jean Astruc, French physician and scholar (b.", "1684)*1808 – Pierre Jean George Cabanis, French physiologist and philosopher (b.", "1757)*1821 – Napoleon, French general and emperor (b.", "1769)*1827 – Frederick Augustus I of Saxony (b.", "1750)*1833 – Sophia Campbell, English-Australian painter (b.", "1777)*1855 – Sir Robert Inglis, 2nd Baronet, English politician (b.", "1786)*1859 – Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1805)*1860 – Jean-Charles Prince, Canadian bishop (b.", "1804)*1883 – John O'Shanassy, Irish-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of Victoria (b.", "1818)*1892 – August Wilhelm von Hofmann, German chemist and academic (b.", "1818)*1896 – Silas Adams, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1839)===1901–present===*1901 – Mariano Ignacio Prado, Peruvian general, twice President of Peru (b.", "1825)*1902 – Bret Harte, American short story writer and poet (b.", "1836)*1907 – Şeker Ahmed Pasha, Turkish soldier and painter (b.", "1841)*1913 – Henry Moret, French painter (b.", "1856)*1916 – John MacBride, Irish soldier and rebel (b.", "1865)* 1916 – Maurice Raoul-Duval, French polo player (b.", "1866)*1921 – Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian journalist and publicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1864)*1924 – A. Sabapathy, Sri Lankan journalist and politician (b.", "1853)*1931 – Glen Kidston, English pilot and race car driver (b.", "1899)*1941 – Platon of Banja Luka, Serbian Orthodox bishop (b.", "1874)*1942 – Qemal Stafa, Albanian politician (b.", "1920)*1947 – Ty LaForest, Canadian-American baseball player (b.", "1917)*1957 – Leopold Löwenheim, German mathematician and logician (b.", "1878)*1959 – Carlos Saavedra Lamas, Argentinian academic and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1878)*1962 – Ernest Tyldesley, English cricketer (b.", "1889)*1965 – Nikos Gounaris, Greek tenor and composer (b.", "1915)* 1965 – John Waters, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1893)*1971 – Violet Jessop, Argentinean-English nurse (b.", "1887)*1973 – Zekai Özger, Turkish poet and academic (b.", "1948)*1977 – Ludwig Erhard, German economist and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1897)*1981 – Bobby Sands, PIRA volunteer and hunger striker (b.", "1954)*1983 – Horst Schumann, German physician (b.", "1901)* 1983 – John Williams, English-American actor (b.", "1903)*1985 – Donald Bailey, English engineer, designed the Bailey bridge (b.", "1901)*1988 – Michael Shaara, American author and academic (b.", "1928)*1993 – Irving Howe, American literary and social critic (b.", "1920)*1994 – Mário Quintana, Brazilian poet and translator (b.", "1906)*1995 – Mikhail Botvinnik, Russian chess player and coach (b.", "1911)*1999 – Vasilis Diamantopoulos, Greek actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1920)*2000 – Gino Bartali, Italian cyclist (b.", "1914)* 2000 – Bill Musselman, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1940)*2001 – Morris Graves, American painter and educator (b.", "1910)* 2001 – Clifton Hillegass, American publisher, created ''CliffsNotes'' (b.", "1918)*2002 – Hugo Banzer, Bolivian general and politician, 62nd President of Bolivia (b.", "1926)* 2002 – Paul Wilbur Klipsch, American engineer, founded Klipsch Audio Technologies (b.", "1904)* 2002 – George Sidney, American director and producer (b.", "1916)* 2002 – Louis C. Wyman, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1917)*2003 – Sam Bockarie, Sierra Leonean commander (b.", "1964)* 2003 – Walter Sisulu, South African activist and politician (b.", "1912)*2006 – Naushad Ali, Indian composer and producer (b.", "1919)* 2006 – Atıf Yılmaz, Turkish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1925)*2007 – Theodore Harold Maiman, American-Canadian physicist and engineer, created the laser (b.", "1927)*2008 – Irv Robbins, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (b.", "1917)* 2008 – Jerry Wallace, American singer and guitarist (b.", "1928)*2010 – Giulietta Simionato, Italian soprano (b.", "1910)* 2010 – Umaru Musa Yar'Adua, Nigerian academic and politician, 13th President of Nigeria (b.", "1951)*2011 – Claude Choules, English-Australian soldier (b.", "1901)* 2011 – Yosef Merimovich, Israeli footballer and manager (b.", "1924)* 2011 – Dana Wynter, British actress (b.", "1931)*2012 – Surendranath, Indian cricketer (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Carl Johan Bernadotte, Count of Wisborg (b.", "1916)* 2012 – Aatos Erkko, Finnish journalist and publisher (b.", "1932)* 2012 – George Knobel, Dutch footballer, coach, and manager (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Roy Padayachie, South African lawyer and politician, South African Minister of Communications (b.", "1950)*2013 – Sarah Kirsch, German poet and author (b.", "1935)* 2013 – Robert Ressler, American FBI agent and author (b.", "1937)*2014 – Michael Otedola, Nigerian journalist and politician, 9th Governor of Lagos State (b.", "1926)*2015 – Jobst Brandt, American cyclist, engineer, and author (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Hans Jansen, Dutch linguist, academic, and politician (b.", "1942)*2017 – Binyamin Elon, Israeli Orthodox rabbi and politician (b.", "1954)* 2017 – Ely Ould Mohamed Vall, Mauritanian politician (b.", "1953)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Children's Day (Japan, South Korea)* Christian feast day:** Angelus of Jerusalem** Aventinus of Tours** Blessed Edmund Ignatius Rice** Frederick the Wise (Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod)** Gotthard of Hildesheim** Hilary of Arles** Jutta of Kulmsee** Stanisław Kazimierczyk** May 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Cinco de Mayo (Mexico, United States)* Constitution Day (Kyrgyzstan)* Europe Day (Council of Europe)* Feast of al-Khadr or Saint George (Palestinian)* Indian Arrival Day (Guyana)* International Midwives' Day (International)* Liberation Day (Denmark, Netherlands)* Lusophone Culture Day (Community of Portuguese Language Countries)* World Portuguese Language Day (International)* Martyrs' Day (Albania)* National Cartoonist Day* Patriots' Victory Day (Ethiopia)* Revenge of the Fifth (see Star Wars Day)* Senior Citizens Day (Palau)* Soviet Press Day (Soviet Union)* Tango no sekku (Japan)* Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Awareness Day (Canada and United States)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 5" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 8" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*453 BC – Spring and Autumn period: The house of Zhao defeats the house of Zhi, ending the Battle of Jinyang, a military conflict between the elite families of the State of Jin.", "* 413 – Emperor Honorius signs an edict providing tax relief for the Italian provinces Tuscia, Campania, Picenum, Samnium, Apulia, Lucania and Calabria, which were plundered by the Visigoths.", "* 589 – Reccared I opens the Third Council of Toledo, marking the entry of Visigothic Spain into the Catholic Church.", "*1360 – Treaty of Brétigny drafted between King Edward III of England and King John II of France (the Good).", "*1373 – Julian of Norwich, a Christian mystic and anchoress, experiences the deathbed visions described in her ''Revelations of Divine Love''.", "*1429 – Joan of Arc lifts the Siege of Orléans, turning the tide of the Hundred Years' War.", "*1450 – Kentishmen revolt against King Henry VI.", "*1516 – A group of imperial guards, led by Trịnh Duy Sản, murdered Emperor Lê Tương Dực and fled, leaving the capital Thăng Long undefended.", "*1541 – Hernando de Soto stops near present-day Walls, Mississippi, and sees the Mississippi River (then known by the Spanish as ''Río de Espíritu Santo'', the name given to it by Alonso Álvarez de Pineda in 1519).===1601–1900===*1608 – A newly nationalized silver mine in Scotland at Hilderston, West Lothian is re-opened by Bevis Bulmer.", "*1639 – William Coddington founds Newport, Rhode Island.", "*1758 – The Maratha Empire captures Peshawar from the Durrani Empire in the Battle of Peshawar.", "The Maratha Empire was extended to its farthest distance away from Pune that it ever reached, over , almost to the borders of Afghanistan.", "*1788 – King Louis XVI of France attempts to impose the reforms of Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne by abolishing the parlements.", "*1794 – Branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, who was also a tax collector with the ''Ferme générale'', is tried, convicted and guillotined in one day in Paris.", "*1821 – Greek War of Independence: The Greeks defeat the Turks at the Battle of Gravia Inn.", "*1842 – A train derails and catches fire in Paris, killing between 52 and 200 people.", "*1846 – Mexican–American War: American forces led by Zachary Taylor defeat a Mexican force north of the Rio Grande in the first major battle of the war.", "*1877 – At Gilmore's Gardens in New York City, the first Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show opens.", "*1886 – Pharmacist John Pemberton first sells a carbonated beverage named \"Coca-Cola\" as a patent medicine.", "*1898 – The first games of the Italian football league system are played.", "*1899 – The Irish Literary Theatre in Dublin produced its first play.===1901–present===*1902 – In Martinique, Mount Pelée erupts, destroying the town of Saint-Pierre and killing over 30,000 people.", "Only a handful of residents survive the blast.", "*1919 – Edward George Honey proposes the idea of a moment of silence to commemorate the Armistice of 11 November 1918 which ended World War I.", "*1921 – The creation of the Communist Party of Romania.", "*1924 – The Klaipėda Convention is signed formally incorporating Klaipėda Region (Memel Territory) into Lithuania.", "*1927 – Attempting to make the first non-stop transatlantic flight from Paris to New York, French war heroes Charles Nungesser and François Coli disappear after taking off aboard ''The White Bird'' biplane.", "*1933 – Mohandas Gandhi begins a 21-day fast of self-purification and launched a one-year campaign to help the Harijan movement.", "*1941 – World War II: The German Luftwaffe launches a bombing raid on Nottingham and Derby.", "*1942 – World War II: The German 11th Army begins Operation Trappenjagd (Bustard Hunt) and destroys the bridgehead of the three Soviet armies defending the Kerch Peninsula.", "* 1942 – World War II: The Battle of the Coral Sea comes to an end with Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft carrier aircraft attacking and sinking the United States Navy aircraft carrier .", "* 1942 – World War II: Gunners of the Ceylon Garrison Artillery on Horsburgh Island in the Cocos Islands rebel in the Cocos Islands Mutiny.", "Their mutiny is crushed and three of them are executed, the only British Commonwealth soldiers to be executed for mutiny during the Second World War.", "*1945 – World War II: The German Instrument of Surrender signed at Berlin-Karlshorst comes into effect.", "* 1945 – End of the Prague uprising, celebrated now as a national holiday in the Czech Republic.", "* 1945 – Hundreds of Algerian civilians are killed by French Army soldiers in the Sétif massacre.", "* 1945 – The Halifax riot starts when thousands of civilians and servicemen rampage through Halifax, Nova Scotia.", "*1946 – Estonian schoolgirls Aili Jõgi and Ageeda Paavel blow up the Soviet memorial which preceded the Bronze Soldier of Tallinn.", "*1950 – The Tollund Man was discovered in a peat bog near Silkeborg, Denmark.", "*1957 – South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem began a state visit to the United States, his regime's main sponsor.", "*1963 – South Vietnamese soldiers under the Roman Catholic President Ngo Dinh Diem open fire on Buddhists defying a ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag on Vesak, killing nine and sparking the Buddhist crisis.", "*1967 – The Philippine province of Davao is split into three: Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, and Davao Oriental.", "*1970 – The Beatles release their 12th and final studio album ''Let It Be''.", "*1972 – Vietnam War: U.S. President Richard Nixon announces his order to place naval mines in major North Vietnamese ports in order to stem the flow of weapons and other goods to that nation.", "*1973 – A 71-day standoff between federal authorities and the American Indian Movement members occupying the Pine Ridge Reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota ends with the surrender of the militants.", "*1976 – The rollercoaster The New Revolution, the first steel coaster with a vertical loop, opens at Six Flags Magic Mountain.", "*1978 – The first ascent of Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen, by Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler.", "*1980 – The World Health Organization confirms the eradication of smallpox.", "*1984 – Corporal Denis Lortie enters the Quebec National Assembly and opens fire, killing three people and wounding 13.René Jalbert, Sergeant-at-Arms of the Assembly, succeeds in calming him, for which he will later receive the Cross of Valour.", "* 1984 – The USSR announces a boycott upon the Summer Olympics at Los Angeles, later joined by 14 other countries.", "* 1984 – The Thames Barrier is officially opened, preventing the floodplain of most of Greater London from being flooded except under extreme circumstances.", "*1987 – The SAS kills eight Provisional Irish Republican Army volunteers and a civilian during an ambush in Loughgall, Northern Ireland.", "*1988 – A fire at Illinois Bell's Hinsdale Central Office triggers an extended 1AESS network outage once considered to be the \"worst telecommunications disaster in US telephone industry history\".", "*1997 – China Southern Airlines Flight 3456 crashes on approach into Bao'an International Airport, killing 35 people.", "*2019 – British 17-year-old Isabelle Holdaway is reported to be the first patient ever to receive a genetically modified phage therapy to treat a drug-resistant infection.", "*2021 – A car bomb explodes in front of a school in Kabul, capital city of Afghanistan killing at least 55 people and wounding over 150." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1326 – Joan I, Countess of Auvergne (d. 1360)*1427 – John Tiptoft, 1st Earl of Worcester, Lord High Treasurer (d. 1470)*1460 – Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1536)*1492 – Andrea Alciato, Italian jurist and writer (d. 1550)*1508 – Charles Wriothesley, English Officer of Arms (d. 1562)*1521 – Peter Canisius, Dutch-Swiss priest and saint (d. 1597)*1551 – Thomas Drury, English government informer and swindler (d. 1603)*1587 – Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1637)===1601–1900===*1622 – Claes Rålamb, Swedish politician (d. 1698)*1628 – Angelo Italia, Sicilian Jesuit and architect (d. 1700)*1629 – Niels Juel, Norwegian-Danish admiral (d. 1697)*1632 – Heino Heinrich Graf von Flemming, German field marshal and politician (d. 1706)*1639 – Giovanni Battista Gaulli, Italian artist (d. 1709)*1641 – Nicolaes Witsen, Mayor of Amsterdam, Netherlands (d. 1717)*1653 – Claude Louis Hector de Villars, French general and politician, French Minister of Defence (d. 1734)*1670 – Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (d. 1726)*1698 – Henry Baker, English naturalist (d. 1774)*1720 – William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1764)*1735 – Nathaniel Dance-Holland, English painter and politician (d. 1811)*1737 – Edward Gibbon, English historian and politician (d. 1794)*1745 – Carl Stamitz, German violinist and composer (d. 1801)*1753 – Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Mexican priest and rebel leader (d. 1811)*1786 – John Vianney, French priest and saint (d. 1859)*1815 – Edward Tompkins, American lawyer and politician (d. 1872)*1818 – Samuel Leonard Tilley, Canadian pharmacist and politician, 3rd Premier of New Brunswick (d. 1896)*1821 – William Henry Vanderbilt, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1885)*1824 – William Walker, American physician, lawyer, journalist and mercenary (d. 1860)*1825 – George Bruce Malleson, English-Indian colonel and author (d. 1898)*1828 – Henry Dunant, Swiss businessman and activist, co-founded the Red Cross, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910)* 1828 – Charbel Makhluf, Lebanese monk and saint (d. 1898)*1829 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American pianist and composer (d. 1869)*1835 – Bertalan Székely, Hungarian painter and academic (d. 1910)*1839 – Adolphe-Basile Routhier, Canadian judge, author, and songwriter (d. 1920)*1842 – Emil Christian Hansen, Danish physiologist and mycologist (d. 1909)*1846 – Oscar Hammerstein I, American businessman and composer (d. 1919)*1850 – Ross Barnes, American baseball player and manager (d. 1915)*1853 – Dan Brouthers, American baseball player and manager (d. 1932)*1856 – Pedro Lascuráin, Mexican politician (d. 1952)*1858 – Heinrich Berté, Slovak-Austrian composer (d. 1924)* 1858 – J. Meade Falkner, English author and poet (d. 1932)*1859 – Johan Jensen, Danish mathematician and engineer (d. 1925)*1867 – Margarete Böhme, German novelist (d. 1939)*1879 – Wesley Coe, American shot putter, discus thrower, and tug of war competitor (d. 1926)*1884 – Harry S. Truman, American colonel and politician, 33rd President of the United States (d. 1972)*1885 – Thomas B. Costain, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1965)*1892 – Adriaan Pelt, Dutch journalist and diplomat (d. 1981)*1893 – Francis Ouimet, American golfer (d. 1967)* 1893 – Edd Roush, American baseball player and coach (d. 1988)* 1893 – Teddy Wakelam, English rugby player and sportscaster (d. 1963)*1895 – James H. Kindelberger, American businessman (d. 1962)* 1895 – Fulton J. Sheen, American archbishop (d. 1979)* 1895 – Edmund Wilson, American critic, essayist, and editor (d. 1972)*1898 – Aloysius Stepinac, Croatian cardinal (d. 1960)*1899 – Arthur Q. Bryan, American actor, voice actor, comedian and radio personality (d. 1959)* 1899 – Friedrich Hayek, Austrian economist and philosopher, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992)* 1899 – Jacques Heim, French fashion designer (d. 1967)===1901–present===*1901 – Turkey Stearnes, American baseball player (d. 1979)*1902 – André Michel Lwoff, French microbiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)*1903 – Fernandel, French actor and singer (d. 1971)* 1903 – Mary Stewart, Baroness Stewart of Alvechurch, British politician and educator (d. 1984)*1904 – John Snagge, English journalist (d. 1996)*1905 – Red Nichols, American cornet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 1965)*1906 – Roberto Rossellini, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 1977)*1910 – George Male, English footballer (d. 1998)* 1910 – Andrew E. Svenson, American author and publisher (d. 1975)* 1910 – Mary Lou Williams, American pianist and composer (d. 1981)*1911 – Wilhelm Friedrich de Gaay Fortman, Dutch jurist and politician, Dutch Minister of The Interior (d. 1997)* 1911 – Robert Johnson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1938)*1912 – George Woodcock, Canadian author and poet (d. 1995)*1913 – Bob Clampett, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1984)* 1913 – Sid James, South African-English actor and singer (d. 1976)*1915 – John Archer, American actor (d. 1999)* 1915 – Milton Meltzer, American historian and author (d. 2009)*1916 – João Havelange, Brazilian water polo player, lawyer, and businessman (d. 2016)* 1916 – Chinmayananda Saraswati, Indian spiritual leader and educator (d. 1993)* 1916 – Ramananda Sengupta, Indian cinematographer (d. 2017)*1917 – John Anderson, Jr., American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Kansas (d. 2014)*1919 – Lex Barker, American actor (d. 1973)*1920 – Saul Bass, American graphic designer and director (d. 1996)* 1920 – Barbara Howard, Canadian sprinter and educator (d. 2017)* 1920 – Tom of Finland, Finnish illustrator (d. 1991)* 1920 – Sloan Wilson, American author and poet (d. 2003)* 1920 – Gordon McClymont, Australian ecologist and academic (d. 2000)*1922 – Mary Q. Steele, American naturalist and author (d. 1992)*1924 – S. Vithiananthan, Sri Lankan author and academic (d. 1989)*1925 – Ali Hassan Mwinyi, Tanzanian politician, 2nd President of Tanzania*1926 – David Attenborough, English environmentalist and television host* 1926 – David Hurst, German actor (d. 2019)* 1926 – Don Rickles, American comedian and actor (d. 2017)*1927 – Chumy Chúmez, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2003)* 1927 – László Paskai, Hungarian cardinal (d. 2015)*1928 – Robert Conley, American journalist (d. 2013)* 1928 – Ted Sorensen, American lawyer, 8th White House Counsel (d. 2010)*1929 – Ethel D. Allen, American physician and politician (d. 1981)* 1929 – John C. Bogle, American businessman, investor, and philanthropist (d. 2019)* 1929 – Girija Devi, Indian classical singer (d. 2017)* 1929 – Claude Castonguay, Canadian banker and politician (d. 2020)* 1929 – Miyoshi Umeki, Japanese-American actress and singer (d. 2007)*1930 – Heather Harper, Northern Irish soprano (d. 2019)* 1930 – Doug Atkins, American football player (d. 2015)* 1930 – René Maltête, French photographer and poet (d. 2000)* 1930 – Gary Snyder, American poet, essayist, and translator*1932 – Julieta Campos, Cuban-Mexican author and translator (d. 2007)* 1932 – Phyllida Law, Scottish actress* 1932 – Harry Wells, Australian rugby league player*1934 – Leonard Hoffmann, Baron Hoffmann, South African-English lawyer and judge* 1934 – Maurice Norman, English footballer (d. 2022)* 1934 – David Williamson, Baron Williamson of Horton, English soldier and politician (d. 2015)*1935 – Lucius Cary, 15th Viscount Falkland, Scottish politician* 1935 – Princess Elisabeth of Denmark (d. 2018)* 1935 – Jack Charlton, English footballer and manager (d. 2020)*1936 – Kazuo Koike, Japanese author (d. 2019)* 1936 – Haljand Udam, Estonian orientalist and academic (d. 2005)*1937 – Bernard Cleary, Canadian journalist, academic, and politician (d. 2020)* 1937 – Mike Cuellar, Cuban-American baseball player (d. 2010)* 1937 – Carlos Gaviria Díaz, Colombian lawyer and politician (d. 2015)* 1937 – Thomas Pynchon, American novelist* 1937 – Joe Louis Clark, American educator (d. 2020)*1938 – Javed Burki, Indian-Pakistani cricketer* 1938 – Jean Giraud, French author and illustrator (d. 2012)*1939 – Paul Drayton, American sprinter (d. 2010)* 1939 – Keith Lincoln, American football player (d. 2019)*1940 – Peter Benchley, American author and screenwriter (d. 2006)* 1940 – James Blyth, Baron Blyth of Rowington, English businessman and academic* 1940 – Irwin Cotler, Canadian lawyer and politician, 47th Canadian Minister of Justice* 1940 – Emilio Delgado, Mexican-American actor (d. 2022)* 1940 – Ricky Nelson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 1985)* 1940 – Toni Tennille, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player * 1940 – William B. Jordan, American art historian (d. 2018)*1941 – John Fred, American singer-songwriter (d. 2005)* 1941 – Bill Lockyer, American academic and politician, 30th Attorney General of California* 1941 – James Traficant, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014)*1942 – Martin Dobkin, Canadian doctor and politician, 2nd Mayor of Mississauga* 1942 – Robin Hobbs, English cricketer* 1942 – Norman Lamont, Scottish banker and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer* 1942 – Pierre Morency, Canadian poet and playwright* 1942 – Terry Neill, Irish footballer and manager (d. 2022)*1943 – Pat Barker, English author* 1943 – Johnny Greaves, Australian rugby league player* 1943 – Jon Mark, English-New Zealand singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021)* 1943 – Paul Samwell-Smith, English bass player and producer * 1943 – Danny Whitten, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1972)*1944 – Gary Glitter, English singer-songwriter* 1944 – Bill Legend, English drummer*1945 – Arthur Docters van Leeuwen, Dutch jurist and politician (d. 2020)* 1945 – Mike German, Baron German, Welsh educator and politician, Deputy First Minister for Wales* 1945 – Janine Haines, Australian politician (d. 2004)* 1945 – Keith Jarrett, American pianist and composer*1946 – André Boulerice, Canadian politician* 1946 – Jonathan Dancy, English philosopher, author, and academic*1947 – H. Robert Horvitz, American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1947 – Felicity Lott, English soprano* 1947 – John Reid, Baron Reid of Cardowan, Scottish historian and politician, Secretary of State for Defence*1948 – Steve Braun, American baseball player and coach* 1948 – Stephen Stohn, American-Canadian lawyer and producer*1949 – David Vines, Australian economist and academic*1950 – Robert Mugge, American director and producer* 1950 – Lepo Sumera, Estonian composer and educator (d. 2000)*1951 – Philip Bailey, American singer-songwriter, drummer, and actor* 1951 – Mike D'Antoni, American basketball player and coach* 1951 – Chris Frantz, American drummer and producer *1952 – Peter McNab, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2022)*1953 – Billy Burnette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor * 1953 – Alex Van Halen, Dutch-American drummer*1954 – Pam Arciero, American puppeteer and voice actress* 1954 – David Keith, American actor and director* 1954 – John Michael Talbot, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1955 – Stephen Furst, American actor and director (d. 2017)* 1955 – Mladen Markač, Croatian general* 1955 – Keith Osgood, English footballer*1956 – Jeff Wincott, Canadian actor and martial artist*1957 – Bill Cowher, American football player and coach* 1957 – Rino Katase, Japanese actress* 1957 – Gary Lunn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 6th Canadian Minister of Natural Resources *1958 – Roddy Doyle, Irish novelist, playwright, and screenwriter* 1958 – Simone Kleinsma, Dutch actress and singer* 1958 – Brooks Newmark, American-English businessman and politician, Lord of the Treasury* 1958 – Lovie Smith, American football player and coach*1959 – Ronnie Lott, American football player and sportscaster* 1959 – David Manners, 11th Duke of Rutland, English politician* 1959 – Ikue Sakakibara, Japanese actress and singer*1960 – Franco Baresi, Italian footballer and coach* 1960 – Eric Brittingham, American bass player *1961 – Bill de Blasio, American politician, 109th Mayor of New York City* 1961 – Gert Kruys, Dutch footballer and manager* 1961 – Vallo Reimaa, Estonian academic and politician* 1961 – David Winning, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter*1962 – Natalia Molchanova, Russian diver (d. 2015)* 1962 – David Sole, Scottish rugby player*1963 – Sylvain Cossette, Canadian singer-songwriter * 1963 – Anthony Field, Australian guitarist, songwriter, producer, and actor * 1963 – Michel Gondry, French director and screenwriter* 1963 – Izabela Kloc, Polish politician* 1963 – Aleksandr Kovalenko, Belarusian triple jumper* 1963 – Rick Zombo, American ice hockey player and coach*1964 – Päivi Alafrantti, Finnish javelin thrower* 1964 – Melissa Gilbert, American actress and director* 1964 – Bobby Labonte, American race car driver* 1964 – Nathalie Roy, Canadian lawyer and politician* 1964 – Dave Rowntree, English drummer and animator * 1964 – Metin Tekin, Turkish footballer, manager, and journalist*1966 – Cláudio Taffarel, Brazilian footballer and coach*1967 – Viviana Durante, Italian ballerina and actress* 1967 – Angus Scott, British sports television presenter*1968 – Teet Kask, Estonian ballet dancer and choreographer* 1968 – Mickaël Madar, French footballer* 1968 – Nathalie Normandeau, Canadian politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec* 1968 – Johan Pehrson, Swedish lawyer and politician*1969 – Jonny Searle, English rower* 1969 – Akebono Tarō, American-Japanese sumo wrestler, the 64th Yokozuna* 1969 – John Timu, New Zealand rugby player*1970 – Michael Bevan, Australian cricketer and coach* 1970 – Naomi Klein, Canadian author and activist* 1970 – Luis Enrique, Spanish footballer and manager*1971 – Chuck Huber, American voice actor, director, and screenwriter* 1971 – Candice Night, American singer-songwriter *1972 – Darren Hayes, Australian singer-songwriter * 1972 – Ray Whitney, Canadian ice hockey player*1973 – Hiromu Arakawa, Japanese author and illustrator* 1973 – Jesús Arellano, Mexican footballer * 1973 – Marcus Brigstocke, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter*1974 – Marge Kõrkjas, Estonian swimmer* 1974 – Korey Stringer, American football player (d. 2001)*1975 – Enrique Iglesias, Spanish-American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor* 1975 – Jussi Markkanen, Finnish ice hockey player* 1975 – Gastón Mazzacane, Argentinian race car driver* 1975 – Dmitri Ustritski, Estonian footballer*1976 – Gonçalo Abecasis, Portuguese-American biochemist and academic* 1976 – Martha Wainwright, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1977 – Joe Bonamassa, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1977 – Bad News Brown, Canadian rapper, harmonica player, and actor (d. 2011)* 1977 – Theodoros Papaloukas, Greek basketball player* 1977 – Kathrin Bringmann, German mathematician and academic*1978 – Lúcio, Brazilian footballer * 1978 – Jang Woo-hyuk, South Korean rapper and dancer *1979 – Ole Morten Vågan, Norwegian bassist *1980 – Keyon Dooling, American basketball player* 1980 – Panagiotis Kafkis, Greek basketball player* 1980 – Evgeny Lebedev, Russian-English publisher and philanthropist* 1980 – Michelle McManus, Scottish singer-songwriter and actress* 1980 – Benny Yau, Hong Kong-Canadian actor and singer*1981 – Stephen Amell, Canadian actor* 1981 – Andrea Barzagli, Italian footballer* 1981 – Tatyana Dektyareva, Russian hurdler* 1981 – Björn Dixgård, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1981 – Manny Gamburyan, Armenian-American mixed martial artist* 1981 – John Maine, American baseball player*1982 – Buakaw Banchamek, Thai kick-boxer* 1982 – Christina Cole, English actress* 1982 – Adrián González, American baseball player* 1982 – Uğur Yıldırım, Turkish-Dutch footballer *1983 – Juan Martin Goity, Argentinian-German rugby player* 1983 – Bershawn Jackson, American hurdler* 1983 – Lawrence Vickers, American football player* 1983 – Vicky McClure, English actress*1984 – David King, English figure skater*1985 – Tommaso Ciampa, American wrestler * 1985 – Silvia Stroescu, Romanian gymnast* 1985 – Sarah Vaillancourt, Canadian ice hockey player* 1985 – Usama Young, American football player*1986 – Pemra Özgen, Turkish tennis player* 1986 – Galen Rupp, American runner* 1986 – Marvell Wynne, American soccer player*1987 – Felix Jones, American football player* 1987 – Aarne Nirk, Estonian hurdler* 1987 – Mark Noble, English footballer* 1987 – Kurt Tippett, Australian footballer*1988 – Tanel Kurbas, Estonian basketball player* 1988 – Maicon Pereira de Oliveira, Brazilian footballer (d. 2014)*1989 – Liam Bridcutt, English footballer* 1989 – Lars Eller, Danish ice hockey player* 1989 – Dinesh Patel, Indian baseball player*1990 – Iyo Sky, Japanese wrestler* 1990 – Kemba Walker, American basketball player*1991 – Ethan Gage, Canadian soccer player* 1991 – Valentijn Lietmeijer, Dutch basketball player * 1991 – Anamaria Tămârjan, Romanian gymnast*1992 – Olivia Culpo, American model and actress* 1992 – Kevin Hayes, American ice hockey player*1993 – Pat Cummins, Australian cricketer*1996 – 6ix9ine, American rapper*1998 – Johannes Eggestein, German professional footballer*1999 – Travis Ackerman, South African cricketer*2000 – Érik Lira, Mexican professional footballer*2001 – Jordyn Huitema, Canadian soccer player*2002 – Sivert Mannsverk, Norwegian professional footballer*2003 – Moulay Hassan, Crown Prince of Morocco" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 535 – Pope John II* 615 – Pope Boniface IV (b.", "550)* 685 – Pope Benedict II* 997 – Tai Zong, Chinese emperor (b.", "939)*1157 – Ahmed Sanjar, Seljuk sultan (b.", "1086)*1192 – Ottokar IV, duke of Styria (b.", "1163)*1220 – Richeza of Denmark, queen of Sweden*1278 – Duan Zong, Chinese emperor (b.", "1269)*1319 – Haakon V, king of Norway (b.", "1270)*1473 – John Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English politician (b.", "1420)*1538 – Edward Foxe, English bishop and academic (b.", "1496)*1551 – Barbara Radziwiłł, queen of Poland (b.", "1520)===1601–1900===*1668 – Catherine of St. Augustine, French-Canadian nun and saint (b.", "1632)*1766 – Samuel Chandler, English minister and author (b.", "1693)*1773 – Ali Bey al-Kabir, Egyptian sultan (b.", "1728)*1781 – Richard Jago, English priest and poet (b.", "1715)*1782 – Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, Portuguese politician, Prime Minister of Portugal (b.", "1699)*1785 – Étienne François, duc de Choiseul, French general and politician, Prime Minister of France (b.", "1719)* 1785 – Pietro Longhi, Italian painter (b.", "1701)*1788 – Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, Italian physician and botanist (b.", "1723)*1794 – Antoine Lavoisier, French chemist and biologist (b.", "1743)*1819 – Kamehameha I, king of the Hawaiian Islands (b.", "1738)*1822 – John Stark, American general (b.", "1728)*1828 – Mauro Giuliani, Italian guitarist, cellist, and composer (b.", "1781)*1837 – Alexander Balashov, Russian general and politician, Russian Minister of Police (b.", "1770)*1842 – Jules Dumont d'Urville, French admiral and explorer (b.", "1790)*1853 – Jan Roothaan, Dutch priest, 21st Superior General of the Society of Jesus (b.", "1785)*1880 – Gustave Flaubert, French novelist (b.", "1821)*1891 – Helena Blavatsky, Russian-English mystic and author (b.", "1831)* 1891 – John Robertson, English-Australian politician, 5th Premier of New South Wales (b.", "1816)*1893 – Manuel González Flores, Mexican general and president, 1880–1884 (b.", "1833)===1901–present===*1903 – Paul Gauguin, French painter and sculptor (b.", "1848)*1907 – Edmund G. Ross, American soldier and politician, 13th Governor of New Mexico Territory (b.", "1826)*1925 – John Beresford, Irish polo player (b.", "1847)*1936 – Oswald Spengler, German historian and philosopher (b.", "1880)*1941 – Natalie, queen consort of Serbia (b.", "1859)* 1941 – Tore Svennberg, Swedish actor and director (b.", "1858)*1942 – Nikolai Reek, Estonian general and politician, 11th Estonian Minister of War (b.", "1890)*1943 – Mordechai Anielewicz, Polish commander (b.", "1919)*1944 – Themistoklis Diakidis, Greek high jumper (b.", "1882)*1945 – Frank Bourne, British soldier, last survivor of the Battle of Rorke's Drift (b.", "1854)* 1945 – Julius Hirsch, German footballer (b.", "1892)* 1945 – Wilhelm Rediess, German SS officer (b.", "1900)* 1945 – Bernhard Rust, German lieutenant and politician (b.", "1883)* 1945 – Josef Terboven, German lieutenant and politician (b.", "1898)*1947 – Harry Gordon Selfridge, American-English businessman, founded Selfridges (b.", "1858)*1948 – U Saw, Burmese politician, Prime Minister of Burma (b.", "1900)*1950 – Vital Brazil, Brazilian physician and immunologist (b.", "1865)*1952 – William Fox, Austrian businessman, founded Fox Theatres (b.", "1879)*1959 – John Fraser, Canadian soccer player (b.", "1881)*1960 – J. H. C. Whitehead, Indian-English mathematician and academic (b.", "1904)*1965 – Wally Hardinge, English cricketer and footballer (b.", "1886)*1969 – Remington Kellogg, American zoologist and paleontologist (b.", "1892)*1972 – Pandurang Vaman Kane, Indian Indologist and Sanskrit scholar, Bharat Ratna awardee (b.", "1880)* 1972 – Beatrice Helen Worsley, Mexican-Canadian computer scientist (b.", "1921)*1975 – Avery Brundage, American businessman and art collector (b.", "1887)*1980 – Geoffrey Baker, English Field Marshal and Chief of the General Staff of the British Army (b.", "1920)*1981 – Uri Zvi Greenberg, Israeli poet and journalist (b.", "1896)*1982 – Neil Bogart, American record producer, co-founded Casablanca Records (b.", "1943)* 1982 – Gilles Villeneuve, Canadian race car driver (b.", "1950)*1983 – John Fante, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1909)*1984 – Lila Bell Wallace, American publisher, co-founded ''Reader's Digest'' (b.", "1890)* 1984 – Gino Bianco, Italian-Brazilian race car driver (b.", "1916)*1985 – Karl Marx, German conductor and composer (b.", "1897)* 1985 – Theodore Sturgeon, American author and critic (b.", "1918)* 1985 – Dolph Sweet, American actor (b.", "1920)*1986 – Ernle Bradford, English historian and author (b.", "1922)*1987 – Doris Stokes, English psychic and author (b.", "1920)*1988 – Robert A. Heinlein, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (b.", "1907)*1990 – Luigi Nono, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1924)*1991 – Jean Langlais, French pianist and composer (b.", "1907)* 1991 – Rudolf Serkin, Czech-Austrian pianist and educator (b.", "1903)*1992 – Joyce Ricketts, American baseball player (b.", "1933)*1993 – Avram Davidson, American soldier and author (b.", "1923)*1994 – George Peppard, American actor and producer (b.", "1928)*1995 – Teresa Teng, Taiwanese singer (b.", "1953)*1996 – Beryl Burton, English cyclist (b.", "1937)* 1996 – Luis Miguel Dominguín, Spanish bullfighter (b.", "1926)* 1996 – Larry Levis, American poet, author, and critic (b.", "1946)* 1996 – Garth Williams, American illustrator (b.", "1912)*1998 – Johannes Kotkas, Estonian wrestler (b.", "1915)* 1998 – Charles Rebozo, American banker and businessman (b.", "1912)*1999 – Dirk Bogarde, English actor and screenwriter (b.", "1921)* 1999 – Ed Gilbert, American actor (b.", "1931)* 1999 – Dana Plato, American actress (b.", "1964)* 1999 – Soeman Hs, Indonesian author and educator (b.", "1904)*2000 – Pita Amor, Mexican poet and author (b.", "1918)* 2000 – Dédé Fortin, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1962)* 2000 – Henry Nicols, American activist (b.", "1973)*2003 – Elvira Pagã, Brazilian vedette, singer, and artist (b.", "1920)*2005 – Jean Carrière, French author (b.", "1928)* 2005 – Nicolás Vuyovich, Argentinian race car driver (b.", "1981)*2006 – Iain Macmillan, Scottish photographer and author (b.", "1938)*2007 – Philip R. Craig, American author and poet (b.", "1933)* 2007 – Carson Whitsett, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1945)*2008 – Eddy Arnold, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b.", "1918)* 2008 – François Sterchele, Belgian footballer (b.", "1982)*2009 – Dom DiMaggio, American baseball player (b.", "1917)* 2009 – Bud Shrake, American journalist and author (b.", "1931)*2011 – Lionel Rose, Australian boxer (b.", "1948)*2012 – Everett Lilly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Jerry McMorris, American businessman (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Stacy Robinson, American football player (b.", "1962)* 2012 – Maurice Sendak, American author and illustrator (b.", "1928)* 2012 – Ampon Tangnoppakul, Thai criminal (b.", "1948)* 2012 – Roman Totenberg, Polish-American violinist and educator (b.", "1911)*2013 – Jeanne Cooper, American actress (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Bryan Forbes, English actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Juan José Muñoz, Argentinian businessman (b.", "1950)* 2013 – Hugh J. Silverman, American philosopher and theorist (b.", "1945)* 2013 – Ken Whaley, Austrian-English bass player (b.", "1946)*2014 – Roger L. Easton, American scientist, co-invented the GPS (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Nancy Malone, American actress, director, and producer (b.", "1935)* 2014 – Yago Lamela, Spanish long jumper (b.", "1977)* 2014 – Jair Rodrigues, Brazilian singer (b.", "1939)* 2014 – R. Douglas Stuart Jr., American businessman and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Norway (b.", "1916)* 2014 – Joseph P. Teasdale, American lawyer and politician, 48th Governor of Missouri (b.", "1936)*2015 – Zeki Alasya, Turkish actor and director (b.", "1943)* 2015 – Mwepu Ilunga, Congolese footballer (b.", "1949)* 2015 – Menashe Kadishman, Israeli sculptor and painter (b.", "1932)* 2015 – Juan Schwanner, Hungarian-Chilean footballer and manager (b.", "1921)* 2015 – Atanas Semerdzhiev, Bulgarian soldier and politician, 1st Vice President of Bulgaria (b.", "1924)*2016 – Tom M. Apostol, American analytic number theorist (b.", "1923)* 2016 – William Schallert, American actor; president (1979–81) of the Screen Actors Guild (b.", "1922)*2018 – Big Bully Busick, American professional wrestler (b.", "1954) * 2018 – Anne V. Coates, British film editor (''Lawrence of Arabia'', ''The Elephant Man'', ''Erin Brockovich''), Oscar winner (1963) (b.", "1925)*2019 – Sprent Dabwido, President of Nauru from 2011 to 2013 (b.", "1972)*2021 – Helmut Jahn, German-American architect (b.", "1940)*2022 – Robert Gillmor, British wildlife artist and illustrator (b.", "1936)* 2022 – Dennis Waterman, English actor and singer (b.", "1948)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Amato Ronconi **Apparition of Saint Michael**Arsenius the Great **Desideratus** Blessed Catherine of St. Augustine**Julian of Norwich (Anglican, Lutheran)**Magdalene of Canossa**Our Lady of Luján**Peter II of Tarentaise**Blessed Teresa Demjanovich (Ruthenian Catholic Church)**19 Martyrs of Algeria**May 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Emancipation Day (Columbus, Mississippi)*Furry Dance (Helston, UK)*Liberation Day (Czech Republic)*Miguel Hidalgo's birthday (Mexico)*Parents' Day (South Korea)*Truman Day (Missouri)*Veterans Day (Norway)*Victory in Europe Day, and its related observances (Europe):**Time of Remembrance and Reconciliation for Those Who Lost Their Lives during the Second World War, continues to May 9**Day of Remembrance and Victory over Nazism in World War II 1939 – 1945 (Ukraine)*White Lotus Day (Theosophy)*World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day (International)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 8" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 25" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*567 BC – Servius Tullius, the king of Rome, celebrates a triumph for his victory over the Etruscans.", "*240 BC – First recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet.", "*1085 – Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo, Spain, back from the Moors.", "*1420 – Henry the Navigator is appointed governor of the Order of Christ.", "*1521 – The Diet of Worms ends when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, issues the Edict of Worms, declaring Martin Luther an outlaw.===1601–1900===*1644 – Ming general Wu Sangui forms an alliance with the invading Manchus and opens the gates of the Great Wall of China at Shanhaiguan pass, letting the Manchus through towards the capital Beijing.", "*1659 – Richard Cromwell resigns as Lord Protector of England following the restoration of the Long Parliament, beginning a second brief period of the republican government called the Commonwealth of England.", "*1660 – Charles II lands at Dover at the invitation of the Convention Parliament, which marks the end of the Cromwell-proclaimed Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland and begins the Restoration of the British monarchy.", "*1738 – A treaty between Pennsylvania and Maryland ends the Conojocular War with settlement of a boundary dispute and exchange of prisoners.", "*1787 – After a delay of 11 days, the United States Constitutional Convention formally convenes in Philadelphia after a quorum of seven states is secured.", "*1798 – United Irishmen Rebellion: Battle of Carlow begins; executions of suspected rebels at Carnew and at Dunlavin Green take place.", "*1809 – Chuquisaca Revolution: Patriot revolt in Chuquisaca (modern-day Sucre) against the Spanish Empire, sparking the Latin American wars of independence.", "*1810 – May Revolution: Citizens of Buenos Aires expel Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros during the \"May Week\", starting the Argentine War of Independence.", "*1819 – The Argentine Constitution of 1819 is promulgated.", "*1833 – The Chilean Constitution of 1833 is promulgated.", "*1865 – In Mobile, Alabama, around 300 people are killed when an ordnance depot explodes.", "*1878 – Gilbert and Sullivan's comic opera ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' opens at the Opera Comique in London.", "*1895 – Playwright, poet and novelist Oscar Wilde is convicted of \"committing acts of gross indecency with other male persons\" and sentenced to serve two years in prison.", "* 1895 – The Republic of Formosa is formed, with Tang Jingsong as its president.===1901–present===*1914 – The House of Commons of the United Kingdom passes the Home Rule Bill for devolution in Ireland.", "*1925 – Scopes Trial: John T. Scopes is indicted for teaching human evolution in Tennessee.", "*1926 – Sholom Schwartzbard assassinates Symon Petliura, the head of the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic, which is in government-in-exile in Paris.", "*1933 – The Walt Disney Company cartoon ''Three Little Pigs'' premieres at Radio City Music Hall, featuring the hit song \"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?", "\"*1935 – Jesse Owens of Ohio State University breaks three world records and ties a fourth at the Big Ten Conference Track and Field Championships in Ann Arbor, Michigan.", "*1938 – Spanish Civil War: The bombing of Alicante kills 313 people.", "*1940 – World War II: The German 2nd Panzer Division captures the port of Boulogne-sur-Mer; the surrender of the last French and British troops marks the end of the Battle of Boulogne.", "*1946 – The parliament of Transjordan makes Abdullah I of Jordan their Emir.", "*1953 – Nuclear weapons testing: At the Nevada Test Site, the United States conducts its first and only nuclear artillery test.", "* 1953 – The first public television station in the United States officially begins broadcasting as KUHT from the campus of the University of Houston.", "*1955 – In the United States, a night-time F5 tornado strikes the small city of Udall, Kansas as part of a larger outbreak across the Great Plains, killing 80 and injuring 273.It is the deadliest tornado to ever occur in the state and the 23rd deadliest in the U.S.* 1955 – First ascent of Mount Kangchenjunga: On the British Kangchenjunga expedition led by Charles Evans, Joe Brown and George Band reach the summit of the third-highest mountain in the world (8,586 meters); Norman Hardie and Tony Streather join them the following day.", "*1961 – Apollo program: U.S. President John F. Kennedy announces, before a special joint session of the U.S. Congress, his goal to initiate a project to put a \"man on the Moon\" before the end of the decade.", "*1963 – The Organisation of African Unity is established in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.", "*1966 – Explorer program: ''Explorer 32'' launches.", "*1968 – The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, is dedicated.", "*1973 – In protest against the dictatorship in Greece, the captain and crew on Greek naval destroyer mutiny and refuse to return to Greece, instead anchoring at Fiumicino, Italy.", "*1977 – ''Star Wars'' (retroactively titled ''Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope'') is released in theaters.", "* 1977 – The Chinese government removes a decade-old ban on William Shakespeare's work, effectively ending the Cultural Revolution started in 1966.", "*1978 – The first of a series of bombings orchestrated by the Unabomber detonates at Northwestern University resulting in minor injuries.", "*1979 – John Spenkelink, a convicted murderer, is executed in Florida; he is the first person to be executed in the state after the reintroduction of capital punishment in 1976.", "* 1979 – American Airlines Flight 191: A McDonnell Douglas DC-10 crashes during takeoff at O'Hare International Airport, Chicago, killing all 271 on board and two people on the ground.", "*1981 – In Riyadh, the Gulf Cooperation Council is created between Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.", "*1982 – Falklands War: HMS ''Coventry'' is sunk by Argentine Air Force A-4 Skyhawks.", "*1985 – Bangladesh is hit by a tropical cyclone and storm surge, which kills approximately 10,000 people.", "*1986 – The Hands Across America event takes place.", "*1997 – A military coup in Sierra Leone replaces President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah with Major Johnny Paul Koroma.", "*1999 – The United States House of Representatives releases the ''Cox Report'' which details China's nuclear espionage against the U.S. over the prior two decades.", "*2000 – Liberation Day of Lebanon: Israel withdraws its army from Lebanese territory (with the exception of the disputed Shebaa farms zone) 18 years after the invasion of 1982.", "*2001 – Erik Weihenmayer becomes the first blind person to reach the summit of Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, with Dr. Sherman Bull.", "*2002 – China Airlines Flight 611 disintegrates in mid-air and crashes into the Taiwan Strait, with the loss of all 225 people on board.", "*2008 – NASA's ''Phoenix'' lander touches down in the Green Valley region of Mars to search for environments suitable for water and microbial life.", "*2009 – North Korea allegedly tests its second nuclear device, after which Pyongyang also conducts several missile tests, building tensions in the international community.", "*2011 – Oprah Winfrey airs her last show, ending her 25-year run of ''The Oprah Winfrey Show''.", "*2012 – The SpaceX Dragon 1 becomes the first commercial spacecraft to successfully rendezvous and berth with the International Space Station.", "*2013 – Suspected Maoist rebels kill at least 28 people and injure 32 others in an attack on a convoy of Indian National Congress politicians in Chhattisgarh, India.", "* 2013 – A gas cylinder explodes on a school bus in the Pakistani city of Gujrat, killing at least 18 people.", "*2018 – The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) becomes enforceable in the European Union.", "* 2018 – Ireland votes to repeal the Eighth Amendment of their constitution that prohibits abortion in all but a few cases, choosing to replace it with the Thirty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1048 – Emperor Shenzong of Song (d. 1085)*1320 – Toghon Temür, Mongolian emperor (d. 1370)*1334 – Emperor Sukō of Japan (d. 1398)*1416 – Jakobus (\"James\"), Count of Lichtenburg (d. 1480)*1417 – Catherine of Cleves, Duchess consort regent of Guelders (d. 1479)*1550 – Camillus de Lellis, Italian saint and nurse (d. 1614)===1601–1900===*1606 – Charles Garnier, French missionary and saint (d. 1649)*1661 – Claude Buffier, Polish-French historian and philosopher (d. 1737)*1713 – John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Scottish politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1792)*1725 – Samuel Ward, American politician, 31st and 33rd Governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (d. 1776)*1783 – Philip P. Barbour, American farmer and politician, 12th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1841)*1791 – Minh Mạng, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1841) *1803 – Edward Bulwer-Lytton, English author, playwright, and politician, Secretary of State for the Colonies (d. 1873)* 1803 – Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet and philosopher (d. 1882)*1818 – Jacob Burckhardt, Swiss historian and academic (d. 1897)* 1818 – Louise de Broglie, Countess d'Haussonville, French essayist and biographer (d. 1882)*1830 – Trebor Mai (né Robert Williams), Welsh poet (d. 1877)*1846 – Naim Frashëri, Albanian-Turkish poet and translator (d. 1900)*1848 – Johann Baptist Singenberger, Swiss composer, educator, and publisher (d. 1924)*1852 – William Muldoon, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1933)*1856 – Louis Franchet d'Espèrey, Algerian-French general (d. 1942)*1860 – James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist and academic (d. 1944)*1865 – John Mott, American evangelist and saint, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)* 1865 – Pieter Zeeman, Dutch physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1943)* 1865 – Mathilde Verne, English pianist and educator (d. 1936)*1867 – Anders Peter Nielsen, Danish target shooter (d. 1950)*1869 – Robbie Ross, Canadian journalist and art critic (d. 1918)*1878 – Bill Robinson, American actor and dancer (d. 1949)*1879 – Max Aitken, Lord Beaverbrook, Canadian-English businessman and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (d. 1964)* 1879 – C. C. Martindale, English Jesuit priest (d. 1963)* 1879 – William Stickney, American golfer (d. 1944)*1880 – Jean Alexandre Barré, French neurologist and academic (d. 1967)*1882 – Marie Doro, American actress (d. 1956)*1883 – Carl Johan Lind, Swedish hammer thrower (d. 1965)*1886 – Rash Behari Bose, Indian soldier and activist (d. 1945)* 1886 – Philip Murray, Scottish-American miner and labor leader (d. 1952)*1887 – Padre Pio, Italian priest and saint (d. 1968)*1888 – Miles Malleson, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1969)*1889 – Günther Lütjens, German admiral (d. 1941)* 1889 – Igor Sikorsky, Russian-American aircraft designer, founded Sikorsky Aircraft (d. 1972)*1893 – Ernest \"Pop\" Stoneman, American country musician (d. 1968)*1897 – Alan Kippax, Australian cricketer (d. 1972)* 1897 – Gene Tunney, American boxer and soldier (d. 1978)*1898 – Bennett Cerf, American publisher and television game show panelist; co-founded Random House (d. 1971)*1899 – Kazi Nazrul Islam, Bengali poet, author, and flute player (d. 1976)*1900 – Alain Grandbois, Canadian poet and author (d. 1975)*1900 – George Lennon, Irish Republican Army leader during the Irish War of Independence and the Irish Civil War (d. 1991)===1901–present===*1907 – U Nu, Burmese politician, 1st Prime Minister of Burma (d. 1995)*1908 – Theodore Roethke, American poet (d. 1963)*1909 – Alfred Kubel, German politician, 5th Prime Minister of Lower Saxony (d. 1999)*1912 – Dean Rockwell, American commander, wrestler, and coach (d. 2005)*1913 – Heinrich Bär, German colonel and pilot (d. 1957)* 1913 – Richard Dimbleby, English journalist and producer (d. 1965)*1916 – Brian Dickson, Canadian captain, lawyer, and politician, 15th Chief Justice of Canada (d. 1998)* 1916 – Giuseppe Tosi, Italian discus thrower (d. 1981)*1917 – Steve Cochran, American film, television and stage actor (d. 1965)* 1917 – Theodore Hesburgh, American priest, theologian, and academic (d. 2015)*1920 – Arthur Wint, Jamaican runner and diplomat (d. 1992)*1921 – Hal David, American songwriter and composer (d. 2012)* 1921 – Kitty Kallen, American singer (d. 2016)* 1921 – Jack Steinberger, German-Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020)*1922 – Enrico Berlinguer, Italian politician (d. 1984)*1924 – István Nyers, French-Hungarian footballer (d. 2005)*1925 – Rosario Castellanos, Mexican poet and author (d. 1974)* 1925 – Jeanne Crain, American actress (d. 2003)* 1925 – Eldon Griffiths, English journalist and politician (d. 2014)* 1925 – Don Liddle, American baseball player (d. 2000)* 1925 – Claude Pinoteau, French film director and screenwriter (d. 2012)*1926 – Claude Akins, American actor (d. 1994)* 1926 – William Bowyer, English painter and academic (d. 2015)* 1926 – Phyllis Gotlieb, Canadian author and poet (d. 2009)* 1926 – Bill Sharman, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)* 1926 – David Wynne, English sculptor and painter (d. 2014)*1927 – Robert Ludlum, American soldier and author (d. 2001)* 1927 – Norman Petty, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (d. 1984)*1929 – Beverly Sills, American soprano and actress (d. 2007)*1930 – Sonia Rykiel, French fashion designer (d. 2016)*1931 – Herb Gray, Canadian lawyer and politician, 7th Deputy Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2014)* 1931 – Georgy Grechko, Russian engineer and astronaut (d. 2017)* 1931 – Irwin Winkler, American director and producer*1932 – John Gregory Dunne, American novelist, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2003)* 1932 – K. C. Jones, American basketball player and coach (d. 2020)*1933 – Sarah Marshall, English-American actress (d. 2014)* 1933 – Basdeo Panday, Trinidadian lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2024)* 1933 – Ray Spencer, English footballer (d. 2016)* 1933 – Jógvan Sundstein, Faroese accountant and politician, 7th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands*1935 – John Ffowcs Williams, Welsh engineer and academic (d. 2020)* 1935 – Cookie Gilchrist, American football player (d. 2011)* 1935 – W. P. Kinsella, Canadian novelist and short story writer (d. 2016)* 1935 – Victoria Shaw, Australian actress (d. 1988)*1936 – Tom T. Hall, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021)* 1936 – Rusi Surti, Indian cricketer (d. 2013)*1937 – Tom Phillips, English painter and academic*1938 – Raymond Carver, American short story writer and poet (d. 1988)* 1938 – Margaret Forster, English historian, author, and critic (d. 2016)* 1938 – Geoffrey Robinson, English businessman and politician*1939 – Dixie Carter, American actress and singer (d. 2010)* 1939 – Ian McKellen, English actor*1940 – Nobuyoshi Araki, Japanese photographer*1941 – Rudolf Adler, Czech filmmaker* 1941 – Uta Frith, German developmental psychologist* 1941 – Vladimir Voronin, Moldovan economist and politician, 3rd President of Moldova*1943 – Jessi Colter, American singer-songwriter and pianist* 1943 – John Palmer, English keyboard player * 1943 – Leslie Uggams, American actress and singer*1944 – Digby Anderson, English journalist and philosopher* 1944 – Pierre Bachelet, French singer-songwriter (d. 2005)* 1944 – Charlie Harper, English singer-songwriter and producer * 1944 – Robert MacPherson, American mathematician and academic* 1944 – Frank Oz, English-born American puppeteer, filmmaker, and actor* 1944 – Chris Ralston, English rugby player*1946 – Bill Adam, Scottish-Canadian racing driver* 1946 – David A. Hargrave, American game designer, created ''Arduin'' (d. 1988)*1947 – Karen Valentine, American actress* 1947 – Catherine G. Wolf, American psychologist and computer scientist (d.2018)*1948 – Bülent Arınç, Turkish lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey* 1948 – Marianne Elliott, Northern Irish historian, author, and academic * 1948 – Klaus Meine, German rock singer-songwriter*1949 – Jamaica Kincaid, Antiguan-American novelist, short story writer, and essayist* 1949 – Barry Windsor-Smith, English painter and illustrator*1950 – Robby Steinhardt, American rock violinist and singer (d. 2021) *1951 – Bob Gale, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1952 – Jeffrey Bewkes, American businessman* 1952 – Nick Fotiu, American ice hockey player and coach* 1952 – David Jenkins, Trinidadian-Scottish runner* 1952 – Al Sarrantonio, American author and publisher* 1952 – Gordon H. Smith, American businessman and politician*1953 – Eve Ensler, American playwright and producer* 1953 – Daniel Passarella, Argentinian footballer, coach, and manager* 1953 – Stan Sakai, Japanese-American author and illustrator* 1953 – Gaetano Scirea, Italian footballer (d. 1989)*1954 – John Beck, English footballer and manager* 1954 – Murali, Indian actor, producer, and politician (d. 2009)*1955 – Alistair Burt, English lawyer and politician*1956 – Stavros Arnaoutakis, Greek politician* 1956 – Larry Hogan, American politician, 62nd Governor of Maryland* 1956 – Kevin Lynch, Irish Republican (d. 1981)* 1956 – David P. Sartor, American composer and conductor*1957 – Alastair Campbell, English journalist and author* 1957 – Edward Lee, American author* 1957 – Robert Picard, Canadian ice hockey player*1958 – Dorothy Straight, American children's author* 1958 – Paul Weller, English singer, songwriter and musician*1959 – Julian Clary, English comedian, actor, and author* 1959 – Manolis Kefalogiannis, Greek politician* 1959 – Rick Wamsley, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1960 – Amy Klobuchar, American lawyer and politician* 1960 – Anthea Turner, English journalist and television host*1962 – Ric Nattress, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager*1963 – George Hickenlooper, American director and producer (d. 2010)* 1963 – Mike Myers, Canadian-American actor, singer, producer, and screenwriter* 1963 – Ludovic Orban, Romanian engineer and politician, 68th Prime Minister of Romania*1964 – David Shaw, Canadian-American ice hockey player*1965 – Yahya Jammeh, Gambian colonel and politician, President of the Gambia*1967 – Luc Nilis, Belgian footballer and manager* 1967 – Mark Rosewater, head designer of ''Magic: the Gathering''* 1967 – Andrew Sznajder, Canadian tennis player*1968 – Kendall Gill, American basketball player, boxer, and sportscaster*1969 – Glen Drover, Canadian guitarist and songwriter * 1969 – Anne Heche, American actress (d. 2022)* 1969 – Karen Bernstein, Canadian voice actress* 1969 – Stacy London, American journalist and author*1970 – Robert Croft, Welsh-English cricketer and sportscaster* 1970 – Jamie Kennedy, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1970 – Octavia Spencer, American actress and author*1971 – Stefano Baldini, Italian runner* 1971 – Marco Cappato, Italian politician* 1971 – Juraj Droba, Slovak politician*1972 – Karan Johar, Indian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1973 – Daz Dillinger, American rapper and producer * 1973 – Molly Sims, American model and actress *1974 – Dougie Freedman, Scottish footballer and manager* 1974 – Frank Klepacki, American drummer and composer * 1974 – Miguel Tejada, Dominican-American baseball player*1975 – Blaise Nkufo, Congolese-Swiss footballer*1976 – Stefan Holm, Swedish high jumper* 1976 – Erki Pütsep, Estonian cyclist* 1976 – Ethan Suplee, American actor* 1976 – Cillian Murphy, Irish actor* 1976 – Miguel Zepeda, Mexican footballer*1977 – Andre Anis, Estonian footballer* 1977 – Alberto Del Rio, Mexican-American mixed martial artist and wrestler*1978 – Adam Gontier, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1978 – Brian Urlacher, American football player*1979 – Carlos Bocanegra, American footballer and executive* 1979 – Sayed Moawad, Egyptian footballer* 1979 – Caroline Ouellette, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1979 – Sam Sodje, English-Nigerian footballer* 1979 – Jonny Wilkinson, English rugby player* 1979 – Chris Young, American baseball pitcher*1980 – David Navarro, Spanish footballer*1981 – Michalis Pelekanos, Greek basketball player* 1981 – Matt Utai, New Zealand rugby league player*1982 – Adam Boyd, English footballer* 1982 – Daniel Braaten, Norwegian footballer* 1982 – Ryan Gallant, American skateboarder* 1982 – Roger Guerreiro, Polish footballer* 1982 – Justin Hodges, Australian rugby league player* 1982 – Ezekiel Kemboi, Kenyan runner* 1982 – Jason Kubel, American baseball player* 1982 – Stacey Pensgen, American figure skater and meteorologist* 1982 – Luke Webster, Australian footballer*1984 – Luke Ball, Australian footballer* 1984 – Kyle Brodziak, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – A. J. Foyt IV, American race car driver* 1984 – Shawne Merriman, American football player*1985 – Luciana Abreu, Portuguese singer and actress * 1985 – Demba Ba, French footballer* 1985 – Gert Kams, Estonian footballer* 1985 – Roman Reigns, American football player and wrestler*1986 – Edewin Fanini, Brazilian footballer* 1986 – Yoan Gouffran, French footballer* 1986 – Takahiro Hōjō, Japanese actor and musician* 1986 – Geraint Thomas, Welsh cyclist*1987 – Timothy Derijck, Belgian footballer* 1987 – Yves De Winter, Belgian footballer* 1987 – Moritz Stehling, German footballer* 1987 – Kamil Stoch, Polish ski jumper*1988 – Dávid Škutka, Slovak footballer* 1988 – Cameron van der Burgh, South African swimmer*1990 – Bo Dallas, American wrestler* 1990 – Nikita Filatov, Russian ice hockey player*1993 – James Porter, English cricketer*1994 – Matt Murray, Canadian ice hockey player* 1994 – Aly Raisman, American gymnast*1995 – Kagiso Rabada, South African cricketer*1996 – David Pastrňák, Czech ice hockey player*1999 – Ibrahima Konaté, French footballer*2000 – Claire Liu, American tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 675 – Li Hong, Chinese prince (b.", "652) * 709 – Aldhelm, English-Latin bishop, poet, and scholar (b.", "639)* 803 – Higbald of Lindisfarne, English bishop * 912 – Xue Yiju, chancellor of Later Liang * 916 – Flann Sinna, king of Meath* 939 – Yao Yanzhang, general of Chu* 986 – Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, Muslim astronomer (b.", "903)* 992 – Mieszko I of Poland (b.", "935)*1085 – Pope Gregory VII (b.", "1020)*1261 – Pope Alexander IV (b.", "1185)*1452 – John Stafford, English archbishop and politician*1555 – Gemma Frisius, Dutch physician, mathematician, and cartographer (b.", "1508)* 1555 – Henry II of Navarre (b.", "1503)*1558 – Elisabeth of Brandenburg, Duchess of Brunswick-Calenberg-Göttingen (b.", "1510)*1595 – Valens Acidalius, German poet and critic (b.", "1567)===1601–1900===*1607 – Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi, Italian Carmelite nun and mystic (b.", "1566)*1632 – Adam Tanner, Austrian mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1572)*1667 – Gustaf Bonde, Finnish-Swedish politician, 5th Lord High Treasurer of Sweden (b.", "1620)*1681 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish poet and playwright (b.", "1600)*1741 – Daniel Ernst Jablonski, German bishop and theologian (b.", "1660)*1786 – Peter III of Portugal (b.", "1717)*1789 – Anders Dahl, Swedish botanist and physician (b.", "1751)*1797 – John Griffin, 4th Baron Howard de Walden, English field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Essex (b.", "1719)*1805 – William Paley, English priest and philosopher (b.", "1743)*1849 – Benjamin D'Urban, English general and politician, Governor of British Guiana (b.", "1777)*1895 – Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, Ottoman sociologist, historian, and jurist (b.", "1822)*1899 – Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor (b.", "1822)===1901–present===*1912 – Austin Lane Crothers, American educator and politician, 46th Governor of Maryland (b.", "1860)*1917 – Maksim Bahdanovič, Belarusian poet and critic (b.", "1891)*1919 – Eliza Pollock, American archer (b.", "1840)* 1919 – Madam C. J. Walker, American businesswoman and philanthropist, founded the Madame C.J.", "Walker Manufacturing Company (b.", "1867)*1924 – Lyubov Popova, Russian painter and illustrator (b.", "1889)*1926 – Symon Petliura, Ukrainian journalist and politician (b.", "1879)*1927 – Payne Whitney, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1876)*1930 – Randall Davidson, Scottish-English archbishop (b.", "1848)*1934 – Gustav Holst, English trombonist, composer, and educator (b.", "1874)*1937 – Henry Ossawa Tanner, American-French painter and illustrator (b.", "1859)*1939 – Frank Watson Dyson, English astronomer and academic (b.", "1868)*1942 – Emanuel Feuermann, Ukrainian-American cellist and educator (b.", "1902)*1943 – Nils von Dardel, Swedish painter (b.", "1888)*1948 – Witold Pilecki, Polish officer and Resistance leader (b.", "1901)*1951 – Paula von Preradović, Croatian poet and author (b.", "1887)*1954 – Robert Capa, Hungarian photographer and journalist (b.", "1913)*1957 – Leo Goodwin, American swimmer, diver, and water polo player (b.", "1883)*1968 – Georg von Küchler, German field marshal (b.", "1881)*1969 – Elisabeth Geleerd, Dutch-American psychoanalyst (b.", "1909) *1970 – Tom Patey, Scottish mountaineer and author (b.", "1932)*1977 – Yevgenia Ginzburg, Russian author (b.", "1904)*1979 – Itzhak Bentov, Czech-Israeli engineer, mystic, and author (b.", "1923)* 1979 – Amédée Gordini, Italian-born French racing driver and sports car manufacturer (b.", "1899)*1981 – Ruby Payne-Scott, Australian physicist and astronomer (b.", "1912)* 1981 – Fredric Warburg, English author and publisher (b.", "1898)*1983 – Necip Fazıl Kısakürek, Turkish author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1904)* 1983 – Idris of Libya (b.", "1889)* 1983 – Jack Stewart, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b.", "1917)*1986 – Chester Bowles, American journalist and politician, 22nd Under Secretary of State (b.", "1901)*1990 – Vic Tayback, American actor (b.", "1930)*1995 – Élie Bayol, French racing driver (b.", "1914)* 1995 – Krešimir Ćosić, Croatian basketball player and coach, Naismith Basketball Hall of Famer 1996 (b.", "1948)* 1995 – Dany Robin, French actress (b.", "1927)*1996 – Renzo De Felice, Italian historian and author (b.", "1929)*2003 – Sloan Wilson, American author and poet (b.", "1920)*2004 – Roger Williams Straus, Jr., American publisher, co-founded Farrar, Straus and Giroux Publishing Company (b.", "1917)*2005 – Sunil Dutt, Indian actor, director, producer, and politician (b.", "1929)* 2005 – Robert Jankel, English businessman, founded Panther Westwinds (b.", "1938)* 2005 – Graham Kennedy, Australian television host and actor (b.", "1934)* 2005 – Ismail Merchant, Indian-born film producer and director (b.", "1936)* 2005 – Zoran Mušič, Slovene painter and illustrator (b.", "1909)*2007 – Charles Nelson Reilly, American actor, comedian, and director (b.", "1931)*2007 – Uładzimir Katkoŭski, Belarusian blogger, web designer and website creator (b.", "1976)*2008 – J. R. Simplot, American businessman, founded Simplot (b.", "1909)* 2008 – Veikko Uusimäki, Finnish actor and theater councilor (b.", "1921)*2009 – Haakon Lie, Norwegian politician (b.", "1905)*2010 – Alexander Belostenny, Ukrainian basketball player (b.", "1959)* 2010 – Michael H. Jordan, American businessman (b.", "1936)* 2010 – Alan Hickinbotham, Australian footballer and coach (b.", "1925)* 2010 – Gabriel Vargas, Mexican painter and illustrator (b.", "1915)* 2010 – Jarvis Williams, American football player and coach (b.", "1965) *2011 – Terry Jenner, Australian cricketer and coach (b.", "1944)*2012 – William Hanley, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Peter D. Sieruta, American author and critic (b.", "1958)* 2012 – Lou Watson, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1924)*2013 – Mahendra Karma, Indian politician (b.", "1950)* 2013 – Nand Kumar Patel, Indian politician (b.", "1953)*2014 – David Allen, English cricketer (b.", "1935)* 2014 – Marcel Côté, Canadian economist and politician (b.", "1942)* 2014 – Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish general and politician, 1st President of Poland (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Herb Jeffries, American singer and actor (b.", "1913)* 2014 – Toaripi Lauti, Tuvaluan educator and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Tuvalu (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Matthew Saad Muhammad, American boxer and trainer (b.", "1954)*2015 – George Braden, Canadian lawyer and politician, 2nd Premier of the Northwest Territories (b.", "1949)* 2015 – Robert Lebel, Canadian bishop (b.", "1924)*2018 – Kaduvetti Guru, Indian politician and Veera Vanniyar caste leader (b.", "1961)*2019 – Claus von Bülow, Danish-British socialite (b.", "1926)*2020 – George Floyd, African American man murdered by Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin (b.", "1973)*2021 – John Warner, American attorney and politician (b.", "1927)* 2021 – Lois Ehlert, American author and illustrator (b.", "1934)*2022 – Morton L. Janklow, American literary agent (b.", "1930)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Africa Day (African Union)*African Liberation Day (African Union, Rastafari)*Christian feast day:**Aldhelm**Bede**Canius**Dionysius of Milan**Dúnchad mac Cinn Fáelad**Gerard of Lunel**Madeleine Sophie Barat**Mary Magdalene de Pazzi**Maximus (Mauxe) of Évreux**Pope Boniface IV**Pope Gregory VII**Pope Urban I**Zenobius of Florence**May 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*First National Government / National Day (Argentina)*Geek Pride Day (geek culture)*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Jordan from the United Kingdom in 1946.", "*Last bell (Russia, post-Soviet countries)*Liberation Day (Lebanon)*International Missing Children's Day and its related observances:**National Missing Children's Day (United States),*National Tap Dance Day (United States)*Towel Day in honour of the work of the writer Douglas Adams" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 25" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 29" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 363 – The Roman emperor Julian defeats the Sasanian army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the Sasanian capital, but is unable to take the city.", "*1108 – Battle of Uclés: Almoravid troops under the command of Tamim ibn Yusuf defeat a Castile and León alliance under the command of Prince Sancho Alfónsez.", "*1167 – Battle of Monte Porzio: A Roman army supporting Pope Alexander III is defeated by Christian of Buch and Rainald of Dassel.", "*1176 – Battle of Legnano: The Lombard League defeats Emperor Frederick I.", "*1233 – Mongol–Jin War: The Mongols entered Kaifeng after a successful siege and began looting in the fallen capital of the Jin dynasty.", "*1328 – Philip VI is crowned King of France.", "*1416 – Battle of Gallipoli: The Venetians under Pietro Loredan defeat a much larger Ottoman fleet off Gallipoli.", "*1453 – Fall of Constantinople: Ottoman armies under Sultan Mehmed II capture Constantinople after a 53-day siege, ending the Roman Empire after over 2,000 years.===1601–1900===*1658 – Battle of Samugarh: decisive battle in the struggle for the throne during the Mughal War of Succession (1658–1659).", "*1660 – English Restoration: Charles II is restored to the throne of England, Scotland and Ireland.", "*1733 – The right of settlers in New France to enslave natives is upheld at Quebec City.", "*1780 – American Revolutionary War: At the Battle of Waxhaws, the British continue attacking after the Continentals lay down their arms, killing 113 and critically wounding all but 53 that remained.", "*1790 – Rhode Island becomes the last of North America's original Thirteen Colonies to ratify the Constitution and become one of the United States.", "*1798 – United Irishmen Rebellion: Between 300 and 500 United Irishmen are executed as rebels by the British Army in County Kildare, Ireland.", "*1807 – Mustafa IV became Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and Caliph of Islam.", "*1825 – The Coronation of Charles X of France takes place in Reims Cathedral, the last ever coronation of a French monarch.", "*1851 – Sojourner Truth delivers her famous ''Ain't I a Woman?''", "speech at the Woman’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio.", "*1852 – Jenny Lind leaves New York after her two-year American tour.", "*1861 – The Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce is founded, in Hong Kong.", "*1864 – Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico arrives in Mexico for the first time.", "*1867 – The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (\"the Compromise\") is born through Act 12, which establishes the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "*1868 – Mihailo Obrenović III, Prince of Serbia is assassinated.", "*1886 – The pharmacist John Pemberton places his first advertisement for Coca-Cola, which appeared in ''The Atlanta Journal''.", "*1900 – N'Djamena is founded as Fort-Lamy by the French commander Émile Gentil.===1901–present===*1903 – In the May Coup, Alexander I, King of Serbia, and Queen Draga, are assassinated in Belgrade by the Black Hand (''Crna Ruka'') organization.", "*1913 – Igor Stravinsky's ballet score ''The Rite of Spring'' receives its premiere performance in Paris, France, provoking a riot.", "*1914 – The Ocean liner sinks in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence with the loss of 1,012 lives.", "*1918 – Armenia defeats the Ottoman Army in the Battle of Sardarabad.", "*1919 – Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity is tested (later confirmed) by Arthur Eddington and Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin.", "*1920 – The Louth flood of 1920 was a severe flash flooding in the Lincolnshire market town of Louth, resulting in 23 fatalities in 20 minutes.", "It has been described as one of the most significant flood disasters in the United Kingdom during the 20th century.", "*1931 – Michele Schirru, a citizen of the United States, is executed by a Royal Italian Army firing squad for intent to kill Benito Mussolini.", "*1932 – World War I veterans begin to assemble in Washington, D.C., in the Bonus Army to request cash bonuses promised to them to be paid in 1945.", "*1935 – First flight of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter aeroplane.", "*1945 – First combat mission of the Consolidated B-32 Dominator heavy bomber.", "*1947 – United Airlines Flight 521 crashes at LaGuardia Airport, killing 43.", "*1948 – United Nations Truce Supervision Organization is founded.", "*1950 – The ''St.", "Roch'', the first ship to circumnavigate North America, arrives in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.", "*1953 – Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay become the first people to reach the summit of Mount Everest, on Tenzing Norgay's (adopted) 39th birthday.", "*1964 – The Arab League meets in East Jerusalem to discuss the Palestinian question, leading to the formation of the Palestine Liberation Organization.", "*1964 – Having deposed them in a January coup South Vietnamese leader Nguyễn Khánh had rival Generals Trần Văn Đôn and Lê Văn Kim convicted of \"lax morality\".", "*1973 – Tom Bradley is elected the first black mayor of Los Angeles, California.", "*1982 – Pope John Paul II becomes the first pontiff to visit Canterbury Cathedral.", "* 1982 – Falklands War: the British Army defeats the Argentine Army at the Battle of Goose Green.", "*1985 – Heysel Stadium disaster: Thirty-nine association football fans die and hundreds are injured when a dilapidated retaining wall collapses.", "* 1985 – Amputee Steve Fonyo completes cross-Canada marathon at Victoria, British Columbia, after 14 months.", "*1988 – The U.S. President Ronald Reagan begins his first visit to the Soviet Union when he arrives in Moscow for a superpower summit with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.", "*1989 – Signing of an agreement between Egypt and the United States, allowing the manufacture of parts of the F-16 jet fighter plane in Egypt.", "*1990 – The Congress of People's Deputies of Russia elects Boris Yeltsin as President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.", "*1993 – The Miss Sarajevo beauty pageant is held in war-torn Sarajevo drawing global attention to the plight of its citizens.", "*1999 – Olusegun Obasanjo takes office as President of Nigeria, the first elected and civilian head of state in Nigeria after 16 years of military rule.", "* 1999 – Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' completes the first docking with the International Space Station.", "*2001 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the disabled golfer Casey Martin can use a cart to ride in tournaments.", "*2004 – The National World War II Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C.*2005 – France rejects the Constitution of the European Union in a national referendum.", "*2008 – A doublet earthquake, of combined magnitude 6.1, strikes Iceland near the town of Selfoss, injuring 30 people.", "*2012 – A 5.8-magnitude earthquake hits northern Italy near Bologna, killing at least 24 people.", "*2015 – One World Observatory at One World Trade Center opens.", "*2021 – A Cessna Citation I/SP crashes into Percy Priest Lake in Tennessee, killing all six people on board, including actor Joe Lara and his wife Gwen Shamblin Lara." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1421 – Charles, Prince of Viana (d. 1461)*1443 – Victor, Duke of Münsterberg, Reichsgraf, Duke of Münsterberg and Opava, Count of Glatz (d. 1500)*1504 – Antun Vrančić, Croatian archbishop (d. 1573)*1555 – George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes, English general and administrator (d. 1629)*1568 – Virginia de' Medici, Italian princess (d. 1615)*1594 – Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, Bavarian field marshal (d. 1632)===1601–1900===*1627 – Anne, Duchess of Montpensier, French princess (d. 1693)*1630 – Charles II of England (d. 1685)*1675 – Humphry Ditton, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1715)*1716 – Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, French zoologist and mineralogist (d. 1800)*1722 – James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster, Irish soldier and politician (d. 1773)*1730 – Jackson of Exeter, English organist and composer (d. 1803)*1736 – Patrick Henry, American lawyer and politician, 1st Governor of Virginia (d. 1799)*1780 – Henri Braconnot, French chemist and pharmacist (d. 1855)*1794 – Johann Heinrich von Mädler, German astronomer and selenographer (d. 1874)*1797 – Louise-Adéone Drölling, French painter (d. 1836)*1823 – John H. Balsley, American carpenter and inventor (d. 1895)*1860 – Isaac Albéniz, Spanish pianist and composer (d. 1909)*1871 – Clark Voorhees, American painter (d. 1933)*1873 – Rudolf Tobias, Estonian organist and composer (d. 1918)*1874 – G. K. Chesterton, English essayist, poet, and playwright (d. 1936)*1880 – Oswald Spengler, German historian and philosopher (d. 1936)*1892 – Alfonsina Storni, Swiss-Argentinian poet and author (d. 1938)*1893 – Max Brand, American journalist and author (d. 1944)*1894 – Beatrice Lillie, Canadian-English actress, singer and writer (d. 1989)* 1894 – Josef von Sternberg, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1969)*1897 – Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Czech-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1957)*1899 – Douglas Abbott, Canadian lawyer and politician, 10th Canadian Minister of Defence (d. 1987)===1901–present===*1902 – Harry Kadwell, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1999)*1903 – Bob Hope, English-American actor, singer, and producer (d. 2003)*1904 – Hubert Opperman, Australian cyclist and politician (d. 1996)*1905 – Sebastian Shaw, English actor, director, and playwright (d. 1994)*1906 – T. H. White, Indian-English author (d. 1964)*1907 – Hartland Molson, Canadian captain and politician (d. 2002)*1908 – Diana Morgan, Welsh-English playwright and screenwriter (d. 1996)*1910 – Ralph Metcalfe, American sprinter and politician (d. 1978)*1913 – Tony Zale, American boxer (d. 1997)*1914 – Stacy Keach Sr., American actor (d. 2003)* 1914 – Tenzing Norgay, Nepalese-Indian mountaineer (d. 1986)*1915 – Karl Münchinger, German conductor and composer (d. 1990)*1917 – John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States (d. 1963)* 1917 – Marcel Trudel, Canadian historian, author, and academic (d. 2011)*1919 – Jacques Genest, Canadian physician and academic (d. 2018)*1920 – John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2000)* 1920 – Clifton James, American actor (d. 2017)*1921 – Norman Hetherington, Australian cartoonist and puppeteer (d. 2010)*1922 – Joe Weatherly, American race car driver (d. 1964)* 1922 – Iannis Xenakis, Greek-French composer, engineer, and theorist (d. 2001)*1923 – Bernard Clavel, French author (d. 2010)* 1923 – John Parker, 6th Earl of Morley, English colonel and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Devon (d. 2015)* 1923 – Eugene Wright, American jazz bassist (d. 2020)*1924 – Lars Bo, Danish author and illustrator (d. 1999)* 1924 – Miloslav Kříž, Czech basketball player and coach (d. 2013)* 1924 – Pepper Paire, American baseball player (d. 2013)*1926 – Katie Boyle, Italian-English actress and television host (d. 2018)* 1926 – Halaevalu Mataʻaho ʻAhomeʻe, Queen Consort of Tonga (d. 2017)* 1926 – Abdoulaye Wade, Senegalese academic and politician, 3rd President of Senegal*1927 – Jean Coutu, Canadian pharmacist and businessman, founded the Jean Coutu Group*1928 – Freddie Redd, American jazz pianist and composer (d. 2021)*1929 – Harry Frankfurt, American philosopher and academic (d. 2023)* 1929 – Peter Higgs, English-Scottish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1929 – Roberto Vargas, Puerto Rican-American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2014)*1932 – Paul R. Ehrlich, American biologist and author* 1932 – Richie Guerin, American basketball player and coach*1933 – Helmuth Rilling, German conductor and educator* 1933 – Tarquinio Provini, Italian motorcycle racer (d. 2005)*1934 – Bill Vander Zalm, Dutch-Canadian businessman and politician, 28th Premier of British Columbia*1935 – André Brink, South African author and playwright (d. 2015)* 1935 – Sylvia Robinson, American singer and producer (d. 2011)*1937 – Charles W. Pickering, American lawyer and judge* 1937 – Irmin Schmidt, German keyboard player and composer* 1937 – Alwin Schockemöhle, German show-jumper* 1937 – Harry Statham, American basketball player and coach*1938 – Christopher Bland, English businessman and politician (d. 2017)* 1938 – Fay Vincent, American lawyer and businessman*1939 – Pete Smith, Australian radio and television announcer* 1939 – Al Unser, American race car driver (d. 2021)*1940 – Taihō Kōki, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 48th Yokozuna (d. 2013)* 1940 – Farooq Leghari, Pakistani politician, 8th President of Pakistan (d. 2010)*1941 – Doug Scott, English mountaineer and author (d. 2020)* 1941 – Bob Simon, American journalist (d. 2015)*1942 – Pierre Bourque, Canadian businessman and politician, 40th Mayor of Montreal* 1942 – Kevin Conway, American actor and director (d. 2020)*1943 – Robert W. Edgar, American educator and politician (d. 2013)*1944 – Bob Benmosche, American businessman (d. 2015)* 1944 – Quentin Davies, English soldier and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland*1945 – Gary Brooker, English singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2022)* 1945 – Peter Fraser, Baron Fraser of Carmyllie, Scottish lawyer and politician, Solicitor General for Scotland (d. 2013)* 1945 – Julian Le Grand, English economist and author* 1945 – Martin Pipe, English jockey and trainer* 1945 – Joyce Tenneson, American photographer* 1945 – Jean-Pierre Van Rossem, Belgian scholar and author (d. 2018)*1946 – Fernando Buesa, Spanish politician (d. 2000)*1947 – Anthony Geary, American actor*1948 – Michael Berkeley, English composer and radio host* 1948 – Keith Gull, English microbiologist and academic*1949 – Robert Axelrod, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2019)* 1949 – Brian Kidd, English footballer and manager* 1949 – Francis Rossi, English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1950 – Rebbie Jackson, American singer and actress*1953 – Danny Elfman, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor*1954 – Robert Beaser, American composer and educator* 1954 – Jerry Moran, American lawyer and politician*1955 – Frank Baumgartl, German runner (d. 2010)* 1955 – John Hinckley Jr., American attempted assassin of Ronald Reagan* 1955 – David Kirschner, American animator, producer, and author* 1955 – Gordon Rintoul, Scottish historian and curator* 1955 – Ken Schrader, American race car driver and sportscaster*1956 – Mark Lyall Grant, English diplomat, British Ambassador to the United Nations* 1956 – La Toya Jackson, American singer-songwriter and actress*1957 – Steven Croft, English bishop and theologian* 1957 – Jeb Hensarling, American lawyer and politician* 1957 – Mohsen Makhmalbaf, Iranian film director*1958 – Annette Bening, American actress* 1958 – Juliano Mer-Khamis, Israeli actor, director, and activist (d. 2011)* 1958 – Uwe Rapolder, German footballer and coach* 1958 – Mike Stenhouse, American baseball player and sportscaster*1959 – Rupert Everett, English actor and novelist* 1959 – Mel Gaynor, English drummer* 1959 – Steve Hanley, Irish-English bass player and songwriter*1960 – Thomas Baumer, Swiss economist and academic* 1960 – Mike Freer, English politician*1961 – Melissa Etheridge, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and activist* 1961 – John Miceli, American drummer*1962 – Fandi Ahmad, Singaporean footballer, coach, and manager* 1962 – Eric Davis, American baseball player* 1962 – Carol Kirkwood, Scottish journalist* 1962 – Chloé Sainte-Marie, Canadian actress and singer*1963 – Blaze Bayley, English singer-songwriter* 1963 – Zhu Jianhua, Chinese high jumper* 1963 – Ukyo Katayama, Japanese race car driver* 1963 – Claude Loiselle, Canadian ice hockey player and manager*1964 – Howard Mills III, American academic and politician* 1964 – Oswaldo Negri Jr., Brazilian race car driver*1966 – Natalie Nougayrède, French journalist*1967 – Noel Gallagher, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1967 – Mike Keane, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1967 – Steven Levitt, American economist, author, and academic*1968 – Torquhil Campbell, 13th Duke of Argyll, Scottish politician* 1968 – Tate George, American basketball player* 1968 – Jessica Morden, English politician* 1968 – Hida Viloria, American activist*1970 – Natarsha Belling, Australian journalist * 1970 – Roberto Di Matteo, Italian footballer and manager*1971 – Éric Lucas, Canadian boxer* 1971 – Bernd Mayländer, German race car driver* 1971 – Jo Beth Taylor, Australian television host and actress* 1971 – Rob Womack, English shot putter and discus thrower*1972 – Laverne Cox, American actress and LGBT advocate* 1972 – Bill Curley, American basketball player and coach* 1972 – Simon Jones, English singer and bass player* 1972 – John Simon, Australian rugby league player*1973 – Tomoko Kaneda, Japanese voice actress, singer, and radio personality* 1973 – Mark Lee, American guitarist and songwriter* 1973 – Alpay Özalan, Turkish footballer* 1973 – Myf Warhurst, Australian radio and television host*1974 – Steve Cardenas, American martial artist and retired actor* 1974 – Stephen Larkham, Australian rugby player and coach* 1974 – Aaron McGruder, American author and cartoonist* 1974 – Jenny Willott, English politician*1975 – Jason Allison, Canadian ice hockey player* 1975 – Mel B, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress* 1975 – Sven Kubis, German footballer* 1975 – Sarah Millican, English comedian* 1975 – Anthony Wall, English golfer* 1975 – Daniel Tosh, American comedian, television host, actor, writer, and executive producer*1976 – Caçapa, Brazilian footballer and manager* 1976 – Jerry Hairston Jr., American baseball player and sportscaster* 1976 – Raef LaFrentz, American basketball player* 1976 – Yegor Titov, Russian footballer*1977 – Massimo Ambrosini, Italian footballer* 1977 – Marco Cassetti, Italian footballer* 1977 – António Lebo Lebo, Angolan footballer*1978 – Pelle Almqvist, Swedish singer-songwriter* 1978 – Sébastien Grosjean, French tennis player* 1978 – Adam Rickitt, English singer*1979 – Arne Friedrich, German footballer* 1979 – Brian Kendrick, American wrestler* 1979 – John Rheinecker, American baseball player (d. 2017)*1980 – Ernesto Farías, Argentinian footballer*1981 – Andrey Arshavin, Russian footballer*1982 – Nataliya Dobrynska, Ukrainian heptathlete* 1982 – Matt Macri, American baseball player* 1982 – Kim Tae-kyun, South Korean baseball player*1984 – Carmelo Anthony, American basketball player* 1984 – Nia Jax, Australian-American professional wrestler* 1984 – Funmi Jimoh, American long jumper* 1984 – Andreas Schäffer, German footballer* 1984 – Ina Wroldsen, Norwegian singer and songwriter*1985 – Nathan Horton, Canadian ice hockey player*1987 – Lina Andrijauskaitė, Lithuanian long jumper* 1987 – Jon Holland, Australian cricketer* 1987 – Issac Luke, New Zealand rugby league player* 1987 – Kelvin Maynard, Dutch footballer (d. 2019)* 1987 – Noah Reid, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1987 – Rui Sampaio, Portuguese footballer*1988 – Muath Al-Kasasbeh, Jordanian captain and pilot (d. 2015)* 1988 – Cheng Fei, Chinese gymnast* 1988 – Tobin Heath, American soccer player* 1988 – Steve Mason, Canadian ice hockey player*1989 – Ezekiel Ansah, Ghanaian-American football player* 1989 – Diego Barisone, Argentinian footballer (d. 2015)* 1989 – Riley Keough, American model and actress*1990 – Joe Biagini, American baseball pitcher* 1990 – Erica Garner, American civil rights activist (d. 2017)*1991 – Yaime Perez, Cuban discus thrower*1992 – Sarah Moundir, Swiss tennis player*1993 – Jana Čepelová, Slovak tennis player* 1993 – Maika Monroe, American actress and kiteboarder* 1993 – Grete Šadeiko, Estonian heptathlete*1997 – Tyler Nevin, American professional baseball infielder for the Detroit Tigers*1998 – Markelle Fultz, American basketball player* 1998 – Austin Reaves, American basketball player*1999 – Park Ji-hoon, South Korean actor and singer*2000 – Gennaro Nigro, American soccer player*2001 – Andrew Torgashev, American figure skater*2002 – Paul Skenes, American baseball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 931 – Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona*1040 – Renauld I, Count of Nevers*1259 – Christopher I of Denmark (b.", "1219)*1311 – James II of Majorca (b.", "1243)*1320 – Pope John VIII of Alexandria, Coptic pope*1327 – Jens Grand, Danish archbishop (b. c. 1260)*1379 – Henry II of Castile (b.", "1334)*1405 – Philippe de Mézières, French soldier and author (b.", "1327)*1425 – Hongxi Emperor of China (b.", "1378)*1453 – Ulubatlı Hasan, Ottoman commander (b.", "1428)* 1453 – Constantine XI Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1404)*1500 – Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer and navigator (b.", "1451)* 1500 – Thomas Rotherham, English cleric and minister (b.", "1423)*1546 – David Beaton, Scottish cardinal and politician, Lord Chancellor of Scotland (b.", "1494)*1593 – John Penry, Welsh martyr (b.", "1559)===1601–1900===*1660 – Frans van Schooten, Dutch mathematician and academic (b.", "1615)*1691 – Cornelis Tromp, Dutch admiral (b.", "1629)*1790 – Israel Putnam, American general (b.", "1718)*1796 – Carl Fredrik Pechlin, Swedish general and politician (b.", "1720)*1814 – Joséphine de Beauharnais, French empress, first wife of Napoleon Bonaparte (b.", "1763)*1829 – Humphry Davy, English-Swiss chemist and academic (b.", "1778)*1847 – Emmanuel de Grouchy, Marquis de Grouchy, French general (b.", "1766)*1862 – Franz Mirecki, Polish composer, music conductor, and music teacher (b.", "1791)*1866 – Winfield Scott, American general, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1786)*1873 – Prince Friedrich of Hesse and by Rhine (b.", "1870)*1892 – Bahá'u'lláh, Persian religious leader, founded the Baháʼí Faith (b.", "1817)*1896 – Gabriel Auguste Daubrée, French geologist and academic (b.", "1814)===1901–present===*1903 – Bruce Price, American architect, designed the Château Frontenac and American Surety Building (b.", "1845)*1910 – Mily Balakirev, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1837)*1911 – W. S. Gilbert, English playwright and poet (b.", "1836)*1914 – Laurence Sydney Brodribb Irving, English author and playwright (b.", "1871)* 1914 – Henry Seton-Karr, English explorer, hunter, and author (b.", "1853)*1917 – Kate Harrington, American poet and educator (b.", "1831)*1919 – Robert Bacon, American colonel and politician, 39th United States Secretary of State (b.", "1860)*1920 – Carlos Deltour, French rower (b.", "1864)*1921 – Abbott Handerson Thayer, American painter and educator (b.", "1849)*1935 – Josef Suk, Czech violinist and composer (b.", "1874)*1939 – Ursula Ledóchowska, Austrian-Polish nun and saint, founded the Congregation of the Ursulines of the Agonizing Heart of Jesus (b.", "1865)*1941 – Léo-Pol Morin, Canadian pianist, composer, and educator (b.", "1892)*1942 – John Barrymore, American actor (b.", "1882)*1946 – Martin Gottfried Weiss, German SS officer (b.", "1905)*1948 – May Whitty, English actress (b.", "1865)*1951 – Fanny Brice, American singer and comedian (b.", "1891)* 1951 – Dimitrios Levidis, Greek-French soldier and composer (b.", "1885)*1953 – Morgan Russell, American painter and educator (b.", "1886)*1957 – James Whale, English director (b.", "1889)*1958 – Juan Ramón Jiménez, Spanish poet and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1881)*1963 – Netta Muskett, English author (b.", "1887)*1966 – Ignace Lepp, Estonian-French priest and psychologist (b.", "1909)*1968 – Arnold Susi, Estonian lawyer and politician, Estonian Minister of Education (b.", "1896)*1970 – John Gunther, American journalist and author (b.", "1901)* 1970 – Eva Hesse, American artist (b.", "1936)*1972 – Moe Berg, American baseball player, coach, and spy (b.", "1902)* 1972 – Stephen Timoshenko, Ukrainian-American engineer and academic (b.", "1878)*1973 – George Harriman, English businessman (b.", "1908)*1977 – Ba Maw, Burmese politician, Prime Minister of Burma (b.", "1893)*1979 – Mary Pickford, Canadian-American actress, producer, and screenwriter, co-founder of United Artists (b.", "1892)* 1979 – John H. Wood Jr., American lawyer and judge (b.", "1916)*1982 – Romy Schneider, German-French actress (b.", "1938)*1983 – Arvīds Pelše, Latvian-Russian historian and politician (b.", "1899)*1987 – Charan Singh, Indian politician, 5th Prime Minister of India (b.", "1902)*1988 – Salem bin Laden, Saudi Arabian businessman (b.", "1946)*1989 – George C. Homans, American sociologist and academic (b.", "1910)*1991 – Margaret Barr (choreographer), Australian choreographer and teacher of dance-drama (b.", "1904)*1993 – Billy Conn, American boxer (b.", "1917)*1994 – Erich Honecker, German lawyer and politician (b.", "1912)* 1994 – Lady May Abel Smith, member of the British Royal Family (b.", "1906)*1996 – Tamara Toumanova, American ballerina and actress (b.", "1919)*1997 – Jeff Buckley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1966)*1998 – Barry Goldwater, American general, activist, and politician (b.", "1909)*2003 – David Jefferies, English motorcycle racer (b.", "1972)*2004 – Archibald Cox, American lawyer and politician, 31st United States Solicitor General (b.", "1912)* 2004 – Samuel Dash, American academic and politician (b.", "1925)*2005 – John D'Amico, Canadian ice hockey player and referee (b.", "1937)* 2005 – Hamilton Naki, South African surgeon (b.", "1926)* 2005 – George Rochberg, American soldier and composer (b.", "1918)*2006 – Jacques Bouchard, Canadian businessman (b.", "1930)* 2006 – Katarína Kolníková, Slovak actress (b.", "1921)*2007 – Dave Balon, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1938)* 2007 – Lois Browne-Evans, Bermudian lawyer and politician (b.", "1927)*2008 – Paula Gunn Allen, American writer (b.", "1939)* 2008 – Luc Bourdon, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1987)* 2008 – Harvey Korman, American actor and comedian (b.", "1927)*2010 – Dennis Hopper, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1936)*2011 – Sergei Bagapsh, Abkhazian politician, 2nd President of Abkhazia (b.", "1949)* 2011 – Bill Clements, American soldier and politician, 42nd Governor of Texas (b.", "1917)* 2011 – Ferenc Mádl, Hungarian academic and politician, 14th President of Hungary (b.", "1931)*2012 – Mark Minkov, Russian composer (b.", "1944)* 2012 – Kaneto Shindo, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1912)* 2012 – Doc Watson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1923)*2013 – Richard Ballantine, American-English journalist and author (b.", "1940)* 2013 – Françoise Blanchard, French actress (b.", "1954)* 2013 – Andrew Greeley, American priest, sociologist, and author (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Mulgrew Miller, American pianist and composer (b.", "1955)* 2013 – Henry Morgentaler, Polish-Canadian physician and activist (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Franca Rame, Italian actress and playwright (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Ludwig G. Strauss, German physician and academic (b.", "1949)* 2013 – Wali-ur-Rehman, Pakistani commander (b.", "1970)*2014 – Christine Charbonneau, Canadian singer-songwriter (b.", "1943)* 2014 – Walter Jakob Gehring, Swiss biologist and academic (b.", "1939)* 2014 – Peter Glaser, Czech-American scientist and engineer (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Miljenko Prohaska, Croatian composer and conductor (b.", "1925)* 2014 – William M. Roth, American businessman (b.", "1916)*2015 – Henry Carr, American football player and sprinter (b.", "1942)* 2015 – Doris Hart, American tennis player (b.", "1925)* 2015 – Betsy Palmer, American actress (b.", "1926)*2017 – Manuel Noriega, Panamanian general and politician, Military Leader of Panama (b.", "1934)* 2017 – Mordechai Tzipori, Israeli Lieutenant General and minister (b.", "1924)* 2017 – Konstantinos Mitsotakis, Greek politician and prime minister (b.", "1918)*2020 – Maikanti Baru, Nigerian engineer, former chief of state oil firm.", "(b.", "1959)*2021 – Gavin MacLeod, American actor, Christian activist, and author (b.", "1931)* 2021 – Mark Eaton, American basketball player and sportscaster (b.", "1957)* 2021 – B. J. Thomas, American singer (b.", "1942)* 2021 – Cornelius Sim, Bruneian cardinal (b.", "1951)*2022 – Ronnie Hawkins, American rockabilly singer-songwriter and guitarist.", "* 2022 – Sidhu Moosewala, Indian singer, rapper, actor and politician.", "(b.", "1993)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Army Day (Argentina)* Ascension of Bahá'u'lláh (Baháʼí Faith) (Only if Baháʼí Naw-Rúz falls on March 21 of the Gregorian calendar)* Christian feast day:** Bona of Pisa** Hypomone (Eastern Orthodox Church)** Joseph Gérard** Maximin of Trier** Pope Alexander of Alexandria (Eastern Orthodox Church)** Richard Thirkeld** Theodosia of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)** Ursula Ledóchowska** May 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers (International)* Oak Apple Day (England), and its related observance:** Castleton Garland Day (Castleton)* Veterans Day (Sweden)* Democracy Day (Nigeria)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 29" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mental disorder" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''mental disorder''', also referred to as a '''mental illness''', a '''mental health condition''', or a '''psychiatric disorder''', is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.", "A mental disorder is also characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior, often in a social context.", "Such disturbances may occur as single episodes, may be persistent, or may be relapsing–remitting.", "There are many different types of mental disorders, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders.", "A mental disorder is one aspect of mental health.The causes of mental disorders are often unclear.", "Theories incorporate findings from a range of fields.", "Disorders may be associated with particular regions or functions of the brain.", "Disorders are usually diagnosed or assessed by a mental health professional, such as a clinical psychologist, psychiatrist, psychiatric nurse, or clinical social worker, using various methods such as psychometric tests, but often relying on observation and questioning.", "Cultural and religious beliefs, as well as social norms, should be taken into account when making a diagnosis.Services for mental disorders are usually based in psychiatric hospitals, outpatient clinics, or in the community, Treatments are provided by mental health professionals.", "Common treatment options are psychotherapy or psychiatric medication, while lifestyle changes, social interventions, peer support, and self-help are also options.", "In a minority of cases, there may be involuntary detention or treatment.", "Prevention programs have been shown to reduce depression.In 2019, common mental disorders around the globe include: depression, which affects about 264 million people; dementia, which affects about 50 million; bipolar disorder, which affects about 45 million; and schizophrenia and other psychoses, which affect about 20 million people.", "Neurodevelopmental disorders include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and intellectual disability, of which onset occurs early in the developmental period.", "Stigma and discrimination can add to the suffering and disability associated with mental disorders, leading to various social movements attempting to increase understanding and challenge social exclusion." ], [ "Definition", "The definition and classification of mental disorders are key issues for researchers as well as service providers and those who may be diagnosed.", "For a mental state to be classified as a disorder, it generally needs to cause dysfunction.", "Most international clinical documents use the term mental \"disorder\", while \"illness\" is also common.", "It has been noted that using the term \"mental\" (i.e., of the mind) is not necessarily meant to imply separateness from the brain or body.According to the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), published in 1994, a mental disorder is a psychological syndrome or pattern that is associated with distress (e.g., via a painful symptom), disability (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning), increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however, it excludes normal responses such as the grief from loss of a loved one and also excludes deviant behavior for political, religious, or societal reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual.DSM-IV predicates the definition with caveats, stating that, as in the case with many medical terms, ''mental disorder'' \"lacks a consistent operational definition that covers all situations\", noting that different levels of abstraction can be used for medical definitions, including pathology, symptomology, deviance from a normal range, or etiology, and that the same is true for mental disorders, so that sometimes one type of definition is appropriate and sometimes another, depending on the situation.In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) redefined mental disorders in the DSM-5 as \"a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.\"", "The final draft of ICD-11 contains a very similar definition.The terms \"mental breakdown\" or \"nervous breakdown\" may be used by the general population to mean a mental disorder.", "The terms \"nervous breakdown\" and \"mental breakdown\" have not been formally defined through a medical diagnostic system such as the DSM-5 or ICD-10 and are nearly absent from scientific literature regarding mental illness.", "Although \"nervous breakdown\" is not rigorously defined, surveys of laypersons suggest that the term refers to a specific acute time-limited reactive disorder involving symptoms such as anxiety or depression, usually precipitated by external stressors.", "Many health experts today refer to a nervous breakdown as a ''mental health crisis''.===Nervous illness===In addition to the concept of mental disorder, some people have argued for a return to the old-fashioned concept of nervous illness.", "In ''How Everyone Became Depressed: The Rise and Fall of the Nervous Breakdown'' (2013), Edward Shorter, a professor of psychiatry and the history of medicine, says:" ], [ "Classifications", "There are currently two widely established systems that classify mental disorders:* ''ICD-11 Chapter 06: Mental, behavioural or neurodevelopmental disorders'', part of the International Classification of Diseases produced by the WHO (in effect since 1 January 2022).", "* ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM-5) produced by the APA since 1952.Both of these list categories of disorder and provide standardized criteria for diagnosis.", "They have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain.", "Other classification schemes may be used in non-western cultures, for example, the ''Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders'', and other manuals may be used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, such as the ''Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual''.", "In general, mental disorders are classified separately from neurological disorders, learning disabilities or intellectual disability.Unlike the DSM and ICD, some approaches are not based on identifying distinct categories of disorder using dichotomous symptom profiles intended to separate the abnormal from the normal.", "There is significant scientific debate about the relative merits of categorical versus such non-categorical (or hybrid) schemes, also known as continuum or dimensional models.", "A spectrum approach may incorporate elements of both.In the scientific and academic literature on the definition or classification of mental disorder, one extreme argues that it is entirely a matter of value judgements (including of what is normal) while another proposes that it is or could be entirely objective and scientific (including by reference to statistical norms).", "Common hybrid views argue that the concept of mental disorder is objective even if only a \"fuzzy prototype\" that can never be precisely defined, or conversely that the concept always involves a mixture of scientific facts and subjective value judgments.", "Although the diagnostic categories are referred to as 'disorders', they are presented as medical diseases, but are not validated in the same way as most medical diagnoses.", "Some neurologists argue that classification will only be reliable and valid when based on neurobiological features rather than clinical interview, while others suggest that the differing ideological and practical perspectives need to be better integrated.The DSM and ICD approach remains under attack both because of the implied causality model and because some researchers believe it better to aim at underlying brain differences which can precede symptoms by many years.===Dimensional models===The high degree of comorbidity between disorders in categorical models such as the DSM and ICD have led some to propose dimensional models.", "Studying comorbidity between disorders have demonstrated two latent (unobserved) factors or dimensions in the structure of mental disorders that are thought to possibly reflect etiological processes.", "These two dimensions reflect a distinction between internalizing disorders, such as mood or anxiety symptoms, and externalizing disorders such as behavioral or substance use symptoms.", "A single general factor of psychopathology, similar to the g factor for intelligence, has been empirically supported.", "The ''p factor'' model supports the internalizing-externalizing distinction, but also supports the formation of a third dimension of thought disorders such as schizophrenia.", "Biological evidence also supports the validity of the internalizing-externalizing structure of mental disorders, with twin and adoption studies supporting heritable factors for externalizing and internalizing disorders.", "A leading dimensional model is the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology." ], [ "Disorders", "There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered.===Anxiety disorder===An anxiety disorder is anxiety or fear that interferes with normal functioning may be classified as an anxiety disorder.", "Commonly recognized categories include specific phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, obsessive–compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.===Mood disorder===Other affective (emotion/mood) processes can also become disordered.", "Mood disorder involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia, or despair is known as major depression (also known as unipolar or clinical depression).", "Milder, but still prolonged depression, can be diagnosed as dysthymia.", "Bipolar disorder (also known as manic depression) involves abnormally \"high\" or pressured mood states, known as mania or hypomania, alternating with normal or depressed moods.", "The extent to which unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or mix and merge along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is subject to some scientific debate.===Psychotic disorder===Patterns of belief, language use and perception of reality can become dysregulated (e.g., delusions, thought disorder, hallucinations).", "Psychotic disorders in this domain include schizophrenia, and delusional disorder.", "Schizoaffective disorder is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders.", "Schizotypy is a category used for individuals showing some of the characteristics associated with schizophrenia, but without meeting cutoff criteria.===Personality disorder===Personality—the fundamental characteristics of a person that influence thoughts and behaviors across situations and time—may be considered disordered if judged to be abnormally rigid and maladaptive.", "Although treated separately by some, the commonly used categorical schemes include them as mental disorders, albeit on a separate axis II in the case of the DSM-IV.", "A number of different personality disorders are listed, including those sometimes classed as ''eccentric'', such as paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders; types that have described as dramatic or emotional, such as antisocial, borderline, histrionic or narcissistic personality disorders; and those sometimes classed as fear-related, such as anxious-avoidant, dependent, or obsessive–compulsive personality disorders.", "Personality disorders, in general, are defined as emerging in childhood, or at least by adolescence or early adulthood.", "The ICD also has a category for enduring personality change after a catastrophic experience or psychiatric illness.", "If an inability to sufficiently adjust to life circumstances begins within three months of a particular event or situation, and ends within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated, it may instead be classed as an adjustment disorder.", "There is an emerging consensus that personality disorders, similar to personality traits in general, incorporate a mixture of acute dysfunctional behaviors that may resolve in short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are more enduring.", "Furthermore, there are also non-categorical schemes that rate all individuals via a profile of different dimensions of personality without a symptom-based cutoff from normal personality variation, for example through schemes based on dimensional models.===Eating disorder===An eating disorder is a serious mental health condition that involves an unhealthy relationship with food and body image.", "They can cause severe physical and psychological problems.", "Eating disorders involve disproportionate concern in matters of food and weight.", "Categories of disorder in this area include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, exercise bulimia or binge eating disorder.===Sleep disorder===Sleep disorders are associated with disruption to normal sleep patterns.", "A common sleep disorder is insomnia, which is described as difficulty falling and/or staying asleep.", "Other sleep disorders include narcolepsy, sleep apnea, REM sleep behavior disorder, chronic sleep deprivation, and restless leg syndrome.Narcolepsy is a condition of extreme tendencies to fall asleep whenever and wherever.", "People with narcolepsy feel refreshed after their random sleep, but eventually get sleepy again.", "Narcolepsy diagnosis requires an overnight stay at a sleep center for analysis, during which doctors ask for a detailed sleep history and sleep records.", "Doctors also use actigraphs and polysomnography.", "Doctors will do a multiple sleep latency test, which measures how long it takes a person to fall asleep.Sleep apnea, when breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, can be a serious sleep disorder.", "Three types of sleep apnea include obstructive sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, and complex sleep apnea.", "Sleep apnea can be diagnosed at home or with polysomnography at a sleep center.", "An ear, nose, and throat doctor may further help with the sleeping habits.===Sexuality related===Sexual disorders include dyspareunia and various kinds of paraphilia (sexual arousal to objects, situations, or individuals that are considered abnormal or harmful to the person or others).===Other===Impulse control disorder: People who are abnormally unable to resist certain urges or impulses that could be harmful to themselves or others, may be classified as having an impulse control disorder, and disorders such as kleptomania (stealing) or pyromania (fire-setting).", "Various behavioral addictions, such as gambling addiction, may be classed as a disorder.", "Obsessive–compulsive disorder can sometimes involve an inability to resist certain acts but is classed separately as being primarily an anxiety disorder.Substance use disorder: This disorder refers to the use of drugs (legal or illegal, including alcohol) that persists despite significant problems or harm related to its use.", "Substance dependence and substance abuse fall under this umbrella category in the DSM.", "Substance use disorder may be due to a pattern of compulsive and repetitive use of a drug that results in tolerance to its effects and withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped.Dissociative disorder: People with severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory, and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings may be classified as having these types of disorders, including depersonalization disorder or dissociative identity disorder (which was previously referred to as multiple personality disorder or \"split personality\").Cognitive disorder: These affect cognitive abilities, including learning and memory.", "This category includes delirium and mild and major neurocognitive disorder (previously termed dementia).Developmental disorder: These disorders initially occur in childhood.", "Some examples include autism spectrum disorder, oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which may continue into adulthood.", "Conduct disorder, if continuing into adulthood, may be diagnosed as antisocial personality disorder (dissocial personality disorder in the ICD).", "Popular labels such as psychopath (or sociopath) do not appear in the DSM or ICD but are linked by some to these diagnoses.Somatoform disorders may be diagnosed when there are problems that appear to originate in the body that are thought to be manifestations of a mental disorder.", "This includes somatization disorder and conversion disorder.", "There are also disorders of how a person perceives their body, such as body dysmorphic disorder.", "Neurasthenia is an old diagnosis involving somatic complaints as well as fatigue and low spirits/depression, which is officially recognized by the ICD-10 but no longer by the DSM-IV.Factitious disorders are diagnosed where symptoms are thought to be reported for personal gain.", "Symptoms are often deliberately produced or feigned, and may relate to either symptoms in the individual or in someone close to them, particularly people they care for.There are attempts to introduce a category of relational disorder, where the diagnosis is of a relationship rather than on any one individual in that relationship.", "The relationship may be between children and their parents, between couples, or others.", "There already exists, under the category of psychosis, a diagnosis of shared psychotic disorder where two or more individuals share a particular delusion because of their close relationship with each other.There are a number of uncommon psychiatric syndromes, which are often named after the person who first described them, such as Capgras syndrome, De Clerambault syndrome, Othello syndrome, Ganser syndrome, Cotard delusion, and Ekbom syndrome, and additional disorders such as the Couvade syndrome and Geschwind syndrome." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "===Course===The onset of psychiatric disorders usually occurs from childhood to early adulthood.", "Impulse-control disorders and a few anxiety disorders tend to appear in childhood.", "Some other anxiety disorders, substance disorders, and mood disorders emerge later in the mid-teens.", "Symptoms of schizophrenia typically manifest from late adolescence to early twenties.The likely course and outcome of mental disorders vary and are dependent on numerous factors related to the disorder itself, the individual as a whole, and the social environment.", "Some disorders may last a brief period of time, while others may be long-term in nature.All disorders can have a varied course.", "Long-term international studies of schizophrenia have found that over a half of individuals recover in terms of symptoms, and around a fifth to a third in terms of symptoms and functioning, with many requiring no medication.", "While some have serious difficulties and support needs for many years, \"late\" recovery is still plausible.", "The World Health Organization (WHO) concluded that the long-term studies' findings converged with others in \"relieving patients, carers and clinicians of the chronicity paradigm which dominated thinking throughout much of the 20th century.", "\"A follow-up study by Tohen and coworkers revealed that around half of people initially diagnosed with bipolar disorder achieve symptomatic recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks, and nearly all achieve it within two years, with nearly half regaining their prior occupational and residential status in that period.", "Less than half go on to experience a new episode of mania or major depression within the next two years.===Disability=== Disorder Disability-adjusted life years Major depressive disorder 65.5 million Alcohol-use disorder 23.7 million Schizophrenia 16.8 million Bipolar disorder 14.4 million Other drug-use disorders 8.4 million Panic disorder 7.0 million Obsessive–compulsive disorder 5.1 million Primary insomnia 3.6 million Post-traumatic stress disorder 3.5 millionSome disorders may be very limited in their functional effects, while others may involve substantial disability and support needs.", "In this context, the terms ''psychiatric disability'' and ''psychological disability'' are sometimes used instead of ''mental disorder''.", "The degree of ability or disability may vary over time and across different life domains.", "Furthermore, psychiatric disability has been linked to institutionalization, discrimination and social exclusion as well as to the inherent effects of disorders.", "Alternatively, functioning may be affected by the stress of having to hide a condition in work or school, etc., by adverse effects of medications or other substances, or by mismatches between illness-related variations and demands for regularity.It is also the case that, while often being characterized in purely negative terms, some mental traits or states labeled as psychiatric disabilities can also involve above-average creativity, non-conformity, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy.", "In addition, the public perception of the level of disability associated with mental disorders can change.Nevertheless, internationally, people report equal or greater disability from commonly occurring mental conditions than from commonly occurring physical conditions, particularly in their social roles and personal relationships.", "The proportion with access to professional help for mental disorders is far lower, however, even among those assessed as having a severe psychiatric disability.", "Disability in this context may or may not involve such things as:* Basic activities of daily living.", "Including looking after the self (health care, grooming, dressing, shopping, cooking etc.)", "or looking after accommodation (chores, DIY tasks, etc.", ")* Interpersonal relationships.", "Including communication skills, ability to form relationships and sustain them, ability to leave the home or mix in crowds or particular settings* Occupational functioning.", "Ability to acquire an employment and hold it, cognitive and social skills required for the job, dealing with workplace culture, or studying as a student.In terms of total disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), which is an estimate of how many years of life are lost due to premature death or to being in a state of poor health and disability, psychiatric disabilities rank amongst the most disabling conditions.", "Unipolar (also known as Major) depressive disorder is the third leading cause of disability worldwide, of any condition mental or physical, accounting for 65.5 million years lost.", "The first systematic description of global disability arising in youth, in 2011, found that among 10- to 24-year-olds nearly half of all disability (current and as estimated to continue) was due to psychiatric disabilities, including substance use disorders and conditions involving self-harm.", "Second to this were accidental injuries (mainly traffic collisions) accounting for 12 percent of disability, followed by communicable diseases at 10 percent.", "The psychiatric disabilities associated with most disabilities in high-income countries were unipolar major depression (20%) and alcohol use disorder (11%).", "In the eastern Mediterranean region, it was unipolar major depression (12%) and schizophrenia (7%), and in Africa it was unipolar major depression (7%) and bipolar disorder (5%).Suicide, which is often attributed to some underlying mental disorder, is a leading cause of death among teenagers and adults under 35.There are an estimated 10 to 20 million non-fatal attempted suicides every year worldwide." ], [ "Risk factors", "The predominant view is that genetic, psychological, and environmental factors all contribute to the development or progression of mental disorders.", "Different risk factors may be present at different ages, with risk occurring as early as during prenatal period.===Genetics===A number of psychiatric disorders are linked to a family history (including depression, narcissistic personality disorder and anxiety).", "Twin studies have also revealed a very high heritability for many mental disorders (especially autism and schizophrenia).", "Although researchers have been looking for decades for clear linkages between genetics and mental disorders, that work has not yielded specific genetic biomarkers yet that might lead to better diagnosis and better treatments.Statistical research looking at eleven disorders found widespread assortative mating between people with mental illness.", "That means that individuals with one of these disorders were two to three times more likely than the general population to have a partner with a mental disorder.", "Sometimes people seemed to have preferred partners with the same mental illness.", "Thus, people with schizophrenia or ADHD are seven times more likely to have affected partners with the same disorder.", "This is even more pronounced for people with Autism spectrum disorders who are 10 times more likely to have a spouse with the same disorder.===Environment===economically unequal countries.During the prenatal stage, factors like unwanted pregnancy, lack of adaptation to pregnancy or substance use during pregnancy increases the risk of developing a mental disorder.", "Maternal stress and birth complications including prematurity and infections have also been implicated in increasing susceptibility for mental illness.", "Infants neglected or not provided optimal nutrition have a higher risk of developing cognitive impairment.Social influences have also been found to be important, including abuse, neglect, bullying, social stress, traumatic events, and other negative or overwhelming life experiences.", "Aspects of the wider community have also been implicated, including employment problems, socioeconomic inequality, lack of social cohesion, problems linked to migration, and features of particular societies and cultures.", "The specific risks and pathways to particular disorders are less clear, however.Nutrition also plays a role in mental disorders.In schizophrenia and psychosis, risk factors include migration and discrimination, childhood trauma, bereavement or separation in families, recreational use of drugs, and urbanicity.In anxiety, risk factors may include parenting factors including parental rejection, lack of parental warmth, high hostility, harsh discipline, high maternal negative affect, anxious childrearing, modelling of dysfunctional and drug-abusing behavior, and child abuse (emotional, physical and sexual).", "Adults with imbalance work to life are at higher risk for developing anxiety.For bipolar disorder, stress (such as childhood adversity) is not a specific cause, but does place genetically and biologically vulnerable individuals at risk for a more severe course of illness.===Drug use===Mental disorders are associated with drug use including: cannabis, alcohol and caffeine, use of which appears to promote anxiety.", "For psychosis and schizophrenia, usage of a number of drugs has been associated with development of the disorder, including cannabis, cocaine, and amphetamines.", "There has been debate regarding the relationship between usage of cannabis and bipolar disorder.", "Cannabis has also been associated with depression.", "Adolescents are at increased risk for tobacco, alcohol and drug use; Peer pressure is the main reason why adolescents start using substances.", "At this age, the use of substances could be detrimental to the development of the brain and place them at higher risk of developing a mental disorder.===Chronic disease===People living with chronic conditions like HIV and diabetes are at higher risk of developing a mental disorder.", "People living with diabetes experience significant stress from the biological impact of the disease, which places them at risk for developing anxiety and depression.", "Diabetic patients also have to deal with emotional stress trying to manage the disease.", "Conditions like heart disease, stroke, respiratory conditions, cancer, and arthritis increase the risk of developing a mental disorder when compared to the general population.===Personality traits===Risk factors for mental illness include a propensity for high neuroticism or \"emotional instability\".", "In anxiety, risk factors may include temperament and attitudes (e.g.", "pessimism).===Causal models===Mental disorders can arise from multiple sources, and in many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause currently established.", "An eclectic or pluralistic mix of models may be used to explain particular disorders.", "The primary paradigm of contemporary mainstream Western psychiatry is said to be the biopsychosocial model which incorporates biological, psychological and social factors, although this may not always be applied in practice.Biological psychiatry follows a biomedical model where many mental disorders are conceptualized as disorders of brain circuits likely caused by developmental processes shaped by a complex interplay of genetics and experience.", "A common assumption is that disorders may have resulted from genetic and developmental vulnerabilities, exposed by stress in life (for example in a diathesis–stress model), although there are various views on what causes differences between individuals.", "Some types of mental disorders may be viewed as primarily neurodevelopmental disorders.Evolutionary psychology may be used as an overall explanatory theory, while attachment theory is another kind of evolutionary-psychological approach sometimes applied in the context of mental disorders.", "Psychoanalytic theories have continued to evolve alongside and cognitive-behavioral and systemic-family approaches.", "A distinction is sometimes made between a \"medical model\" or a \"social model\" of psychiatric disability." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Psychiatrists seek to provide a medical diagnosis of individuals by an assessment of symptoms, signs and impairment associated with particular types of mental disorder.", "Other mental health professionals, such as clinical psychologists, may or may not apply the same diagnostic categories to their clinical formulation of a client's difficulties and circumstances.", "The majority of mental health problems are, at least initially, assessed and treated by family physicians (in the UK general practitioners) during consultations, who may refer a patient on for more specialist diagnosis in acute or chronic cases.Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview known as a mental status examination, where evaluations are made of appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances.", "The views of other professionals, relatives, or other third parties may be taken into account.", "A physical examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted.", "Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include algorithms based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but such methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice.Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations.", "It has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in evidence-based assessment methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice.", "In addition, comorbidity is very common in psychiatric diagnosis, where the same person meets the criteria for more than one disorder.", "On the other hand, a person may have several different difficulties only some of which meet the criteria for being diagnosed.", "There may be specific problems with accurate diagnosis in developing countries.More structured approaches are being increasingly used to measure levels of mental illness.", "* HoNOS is the most widely used measure in English mental health services, being used by at least 61 trusts.", "In HoNOS a score of 0–4 is given for each of 12 factors, based on functional living capacity.", "Research has been supportive of HoNOS, although some questions have been asked about whether it provides adequate coverage of the range and complexity of mental illness problems, and whether the fact that often only 3 of the 12 scales vary over time gives enough subtlety to accurately measure outcomes of treatment.===Criticism===Since the 1980s, Paula Caplan has been concerned about the subjectivity of psychiatric diagnosis, and people being arbitrarily \"slapped with a psychiatric label.\"", "Caplan says because psychiatric diagnosis is unregulated, doctors are not required to spend much time interviewing patients or to seek a second opinion.", "The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' can lead a psychiatrist to focus on narrow checklists of symptoms, with little consideration of what is actually causing the person's problems.", "So, according to Caplan, getting a psychiatric diagnosis and label often stands in the way of recovery.In 2013, psychiatrist Allen Frances wrote a paper entitled \"The New Crisis of Confidence in Psychiatric Diagnosis\", which said that \"psychiatric diagnosis... still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests.\"", "Frances was also concerned about \"unpredictable overdiagnosis.\"", "For many years, marginalized psychiatrists (such as Peter Breggin, Thomas Szasz) and outside critics (such as Stuart A. Kirk) have \"been accusing psychiatry of engaging in the systematic medicalization of normality.\"", "More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for and promoted the American Psychiatric Association (e.g., Robert Spitzer, Allen Frances).", "A 2002 editorial in the ''British Medical Journal'' warned of inappropriate medicalization leading to disease mongering, where the boundaries of the definition of illnesses are expanded to include personal problems as medical problems or risks of diseases are emphasized to broaden the market for medications.Gary Greenberg, a psychoanalyst, in his book \"''the Book of Woe\"'', argues that mental illness is really about suffering and how the DSM creates diagnostic labels to categorize people's suffering.", "Indeed, the psychiatrist Thomas Szasz, in his book \"''the Medicalization of Everyday Life''\", also argues that what is psychiatric illness, is not always biological in nature (i.e.", "social problems, poverty, etc.", "), and may even be a part of the human condition.===Potential routine use of MRI/fMRI in diagnosis===in 2018 the American Psychological Association commissioned a review to reach a consensus on whether modern clinical MRI/fMRI will be able to be used in the diagnosis of mental health disorders.", "The criteria presented by the APA stated that the biomarkers used in diagnosis should:# \"have a sensitivity of at least 80% for detecting a particular psychiatric disorder\"# should \"have a specificity of at least 80% for distinguishing this disorder from other psychiatric or medical disorders\"# \"should be reliable, reproducible, and ideally be noninvasive, simple to perform, and inexpensive\"# proposed biomarkers should be verified by 2 independent studies each by a different investigator and different population samples and published in a peer-reviewed journal.The review concluded that although neuroimaging diagnosis may technically be feasible, very large studies are needed to evaluate specific biomarkers which were not available." ], [ "Prevention", "The 2004 WHO report \"Prevention of Mental Disorders\" stated that \"Prevention of these disorders is obviously one of the most effective ways to reduce the disease burden.", "\"The 2011 European Psychiatric Association (EPA) guidance on prevention of mental disorders states \"There is considerable evidence that various psychiatric conditions can be prevented through the implementation of effective evidence-based interventions.", "\"A 2011 UK Department of Health report on the economic case for mental health promotion and mental illness prevention found that \"many interventions are outstandingly good value for money, low in cost and often become self-financing over time, saving public expenditure\".In 2016, the National Institute of Mental Health re-affirmed prevention as a research priority area.Parenting may affect the child's mental health, and evidence suggests that helping parents to be more effective with their children can address mental health needs.Universal prevention (aimed at a population that has no increased risk for developing a mental disorder, such as school programs or mass media campaigns) need very high numbers of people to show effect (sometimes known as the \"power\" problem).", "Approaches to overcome this are (1) focus on high-incidence groups (e.g.", "by targeting groups with high risk factors), (2) use multiple interventions to achieve greater, and thus more statistically valid, effects, (3) use cumulative meta-analyses of many trials, and (4) run very large trials." ], [ "Management", "rehabilitation-training for people with mental disorders.Treatment and support for mental disorders are provided in psychiatric hospitals, clinics or a range of community mental health services.", "In some countries services are increasingly based on a recovery approach, intended to support individual's personal journey to gain the kind of life they want.There is a range of different types of treatment and what is most suitable depends on the disorder and the individual.", "Many things have been found to help at least some people, and a placebo effect may play a role in any intervention or medication.", "In a minority of cases, individuals may be treated against their will, which can cause particular difficulties depending on how it is carried out and perceived.", "Compulsory treatment while in the community versus non-compulsory treatment does not appear to make much of a difference except by maybe decreasing victimization.===Lifestyle===Lifestyle strategies, including dietary changes, exercise and quitting smoking may be of benefit.===Therapy===There is also a wide range of psychotherapists (including family therapy), counselors, and public health professionals.", "In addition, there are peer support roles where personal experience of similar issues is the primary source of expertise.A major option for many mental disorders is psychotherapy.", "There are several main types.", "Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder.", "Other psychotherapies include dialectic behavioral therapy (DBT) and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT).", "Psychoanalysis, addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use.", "Systemic therapy or family therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of significant others as well as an individual.Some psychotherapies are based on a humanistic approach.", "There are many specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types.", "Mental health professionals often employ an eclectic or integrative approach.", "Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship, and there may be problems with trust, confidentiality and engagement.===Medication===A major option for many mental disorders is psychiatric medication and there are several main groups.", "Antidepressants are used for the treatment of clinical depression, as well as often for anxiety and a range of other disorders.", "Anxiolytics (including sedatives) are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia.", "Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder.", "Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably for positive symptoms in schizophrenia, and also increasingly for a range of other disorders.", "Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD.Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there may be considerable overlap in the disorders for which they are actually indicated, and there may also be off-label use of medications.", "There can be problems with adverse effects of medication and adherence to them, and there is also criticism of pharmaceutical marketing and professional conflicts of interest.", "However, these medications in combination with non-pharmacological methods, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) are seen to be most effective in treating mental disorders.===Other===Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is sometimes used in severe cases when other interventions for severe intractable depression have failed.", "ECT is usually indicated for treatment resistant depression, severe vegetative symptoms, psychotic depression, intense suicidal ideation, depression during pregnancy, and catatonia.", "Psychosurgery is considered experimental but is advocated by some neurologists in certain rare cases.Counseling (professional) and co-counseling (between peers) may be used.", "Psychoeducation programs may provide people with the information to understand and manage their problems.", "Creative therapies are sometimes used, including music therapy, art therapy or drama therapy.", "Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, self-help groups for mental health and supported housing or supported employment (including social firms).", "Some advocate dietary supplements.Reasonable accommodations (adjustments and supports) might be put in place to help an individual cope and succeed in environments despite potential disability related to mental health problems.", "This could include an emotional support animal or specifically trained psychiatric service dog.", "cannabis is specifically not recommended as a treatment." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Deaths from mental and behavioral disorders per million persons in 2012 Disability-adjusted life year for neuropsychiatric conditions per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004Mental disorders are common.", "Worldwide, more than one in three people in most countries report sufficient criteria for at least one at some point in their life.", "In the United States, 46% qualify for a mental illness at some point.", "An ongoing survey indicates that anxiety disorders are the most common in all but one country, followed by mood disorders in all but two countries, while substance disorders and impulse-control disorders were consistently less prevalent.", "Rates varied by region.A review of anxiety disorder surveys in different countries found average lifetime prevalence estimates of 16.6%, with women having higher rates on average.", "A review of mood disorder surveys in different countries found lifetime rates of 6.7% for major depressive disorder (higher in some studies, and in women) and 0.8% for Bipolar I disorder.In the United States the frequency of disorder is: anxiety disorder (28.8%), mood disorder (20.8%), impulse-control disorder (24.8%) or substance use disorder (14.6%).A 2004 cross-Europe study found that approximately one in four people reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for at least one of the DSM-IV disorders assessed, which included mood disorders (13.9%), anxiety disorders (13.6%), or alcohol disorder (5.2%).", "Approximately one in ten met the criteria within a 12-month period.", "Women and younger people of either gender showed more cases of the disorder.", "A 2005 review of surveys in 16 European countries found that 27% of adult Europeans are affected by at least one mental disorder in a 12-month period.An international review of studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia found an average (median) figure of 0.4% for lifetime prevalence; it was consistently lower in poorer countries.Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders (PDs) have been fewer and smaller-scale, but one broad Norwegian survey found a five-year prevalence of almost 1 in 7 (13.4%).", "Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0.8% to 2.8%, differing across countries, and by gender, educational level and other factors.", "A US survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found a rate of 14.79%.Approximately 7% of a preschool pediatric sample were given a psychiatric diagnosis in one clinical study, and approximately 10% of 1- and 2-year-olds receiving developmental screening have been assessed as having significant emotional/behavioral problems based on parent and pediatrician reports.While rates of psychological disorders are often the same for men and women, women tend to have a higher rate of depression.", "Each year 73 million women are affected by major depression, and suicide is ranked 7th as the cause of death for women between the ages of 20–59.Depressive disorders account for close to 41.9% of the psychiatric disabilities among women compared to 29.3% among men." ], [ "History", "===Ancient civilizations===Ancient civilizations described and treated a number of mental disorders.", "Mental illnesses were well known in ancient Mesopotamia, where diseases and mental disorders were believed to be caused by specific deities.", "Because hands symbolized control over a person, mental illnesses were known as \"hands\" of certain deities.", "One psychological illness was known as ''Qāt Ištar'', meaning \"Hand of Ishtar\".", "Others were known as \"Hand of Shamash\", \"Hand of the Ghost\", and \"Hand of the God\".", "Descriptions of these illnesses, however, are so vague that it is usually impossible to determine which illnesses they correspond to in modern terminology.", "Mesopotamian doctors kept detailed record of their patients' hallucinations and assigned spiritual meanings to them.", "The royal family of Elam was notorious for its members often being insane.", "The Greeks coined terms for melancholy, hysteria and phobia and developed the humorism theory.", "Mental disorders were described, and treatments developed, in Persia, Arabia and in the medieval Islamic world.===Europe=======Middle Ages====Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Christian Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and humoral, and transcendental.", "In the early modern period, some people with mental disorders may have been victims of the witch-hunts.", "While not every witch and sorcerer accused were mentally ill, all mentally ill were considered to be witches or sorcerers.", "Many terms for mental disorders that found their way into everyday use first became popular in the 16th and 17th centuries.====Eighteenth century====Eight patients representing mental diagnoses as of the 19th century at the Salpêtrière, ParisBy the end of the 17th century and into the Enlightenment, madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon with no connection to the soul or moral responsibility.", "Asylum care was often harsh and treated people like wild animals, but towards the end of the 18th century a moral treatment movement gradually developed.", "Clear descriptions of some syndromes may be rare before the 19th century.====Nineteenth century====Industrialization and population growth led to a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country in the 19th century.", "Numerous different classification schemes and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, and the term psychiatry was coined (1808), though medical superintendents were still known as alienists.====Twentieth century====A patient in a strait-jacket and barrel contraption, 1908The turn of the 20th century saw the development of psychoanalysis, which would later come to the fore, along with Kraepelin's classification scheme.", "Asylum \"inmates\" were increasingly referred to as \"patients\", and asylums were renamed as hospitals.===Europe and the United States===Insulin shock procedure, 1950sEarly in the 20th century in the United States, a mental hygiene movement developed, aiming to prevent mental disorders.", "Clinical psychology and social work developed as professions.", "World War I saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed \"shell shock\".World War II saw the development in the U.S. of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders''.", "The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) also developed a section on mental disorders.", "The term stress, having emerged from endocrinology work in the 1930s, was increasingly applied to mental disorders.Electroconvulsive therapy, insulin shock therapy, lobotomies and the neuroleptic chlorpromazine came to be used by mid-century.", "In the 1960s there were many challenges to the concept of mental illness itself.", "These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz who argued that mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts; from sociologists such as Erving Goffman who said that mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; from behavioral psychologists who challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder.", "A study published in ''Science'' by Rosenhan received much publicity and was viewed as an attack on the efficacy of psychiatric diagnosis.Deinstitutionalization gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services.", "A consumer/survivor movement gained momentum.", "Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as \"psychic energizers\" (later antidepressants) and lithium.", "Benzodiazepines gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity.Advances in neuroscience, genetics, and psychology led to new research agendas.", "Cognitive behavioral therapy and other psychotherapies developed.", "The ''DSM'' and then ICD adopted new criteria-based classifications, and the number of \"official\" diagnoses saw a large expansion.", "Through the 1990s, new SSRI-type antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world, as later did antipsychotics.", "Also during the 1990s, a recovery approach developed.===Africa and Nigeria===Most Africans view mental disturbances as external spiritual attack on the person.", "Those who have a mental illness are thought to be under a spell or bewitched.", "Often than usual, People view a mentally ill person as possessed of an evil spirit and is seen as more of sociological perspective than a psychological order.The WHO estimated that fewer than 10% of mentally ill Nigerians have access to a psychiatrist or health worker, because there is a low ratio of mental-health specialists available in a country of 200 million people.", "WHO estimates that the number of mentally ill Nigerians ranges from 40 million to 60 million.", "Disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, personality disorder, old age-related disorder, and substance-abuse disorder are common in Nigeria, as in other countries in Africa.Nigeria is still nowhere near being equipped to solve prevailing mental health challenges.", "With little scientific research carried out, coupled with insufficient mental-health hospitals in the country, traditional healers provide specialized psychotherapy care to those that require their services and pharmacotherapy" ], [ "Society and culture", "upright=0.9Different societies or cultures, even different individuals in a subculture, can disagree as to what constitutes optimal versus pathological biological and psychological functioning.", "Research has demonstrated that cultures vary in the relative importance placed on, for example, happiness, autonomy, or social relationships for pleasure.", "Likewise, the fact that a behavior pattern is valued, accepted, encouraged, or even statistically normative in a culture does not necessarily mean that it is conducive to optimal psychological functioning.People in all cultures find some behaviors bizarre or even incomprehensible.", "But just what they feel is bizarre or incomprehensible is ambiguous and subjective.", "These differences in determination can become highly contentious.", "The process by which conditions and difficulties come to be defined and treated as medical conditions and problems, and thus come under the authority of doctors and other health professionals, is known as medicalization or pathologization.===Mental illness in the Latin American community===There is a perception in Latin American communities, especially among older people, that discussing problems with mental health can create embarrassment and shame for the family.", "This results in fewer people seeking treatment.Latin Americans from the US are slightly more likely to have a mental health disorder than first-generation Latin American immigrants, although differences between ethnic groups were found to disappear after adjustment for place of birth.From 2015 to 2018, rates of serious mental illness in young adult Latin Americans increased by 60%, from 4% to 6.4%.", "The prevalence of major depressive episodes in young and adult Latin Americans increased from 8.4% to 11.3%.", "More than a third of Latin Americans reported more than one bad mental health day in the last three months.", "The rate of suicide among Latin Americans was about half the rate of non-Latin American white Americans in 2018, and this was the second-leading cause of death among Latin Americans ages 15 to 34.However, Latin American suicide rates rose steadily after 2020 in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, even as the national rate declined.Family relations are an integral part of the Latin American community.", "Some research has shown that Latin Americans are more likely rely on family bonds, or ''familismo'', as a source of therapy while struggling with mental health issues.", "Because Latin Americans have a high rate of religiosity, and because there is less stigma associated with religion than with psychiatric services, religion may play a more important therapeutic role for the mentally ill in Latin American communities.", "However, research has also suggested that religion may also play a role in stigmatizing mental illness in Latin American communities, which can discourage community members from seeking professional help.===Religion===Religious, spiritual, or transpersonal experiences and beliefs meet many criteria of delusional or psychotic disorders.", "A belief or experience can sometimes be shown to produce distress or disability—the ordinary standard for judging mental disorders.", "There is a link between religion and schizophrenia, a complex mental disorder characterized by a difficulty in recognizing reality, regulating emotional responses, and thinking in a clear and logical manner.", "Those with schizophrenia commonly report some type of religious delusion, and religion itself may be a trigger for schizophrenia.===Movements===Giorgio AntonucciThomas SzaszControversy has often surrounded psychiatry, and the term anti-psychiatry was coined by the psychiatrist David Cooper in 1967.The anti-psychiatry message is that psychiatric treatments are ultimately more damaging than helpful to patients, and psychiatry's history involves what may now be seen as dangerous treatments.", "Electroconvulsive therapy was one of these, which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s.", "Lobotomy was another practice that was ultimately seen as too invasive and brutal.", "Diazepam and other sedatives were sometimes over-prescribed, which led to an epidemic of dependence.", "There was also concern about the large increase in prescribing psychiatric drugs for children.", "Some charismatic psychiatrists came to personify the movement against psychiatry.", "The most influential of these was R.D.", "Laing who wrote a series of best-selling books, including ''The Divided Self''.", "Thomas Szasz wrote ''The Myth of Mental Illness''.", "Some ex-patient groups have become militantly anti-psychiatric, often referring to themselves as survivors.", "Giorgio Antonucci has questioned the basis of psychiatry through his work on the dismantling of two psychiatric hospitals (in the city of Imola), carried out from 1973 to 1996.The consumer/survivor movement (also known as user/survivor movement) is made up of individuals (and organizations representing them) who are clients of mental health services or who consider themselves survivors of psychiatric interventions.", "Activists campaign for improved mental health services and for more involvement and empowerment within mental health services, policies and wider society.", "Patient advocacy organizations have expanded with increasing deinstitutionalization in developed countries, working to challenge the stereotypes, stigma and exclusion associated with psychiatric conditions.", "There is also a carers rights movement of people who help and support people with mental health conditions, who may be relatives, and who often work in difficult and time-consuming circumstances with little acknowledgement and without pay.", "An anti-psychiatry movement fundamentally challenges mainstream psychiatric theory and practice, including in some cases asserting that psychiatric concepts and diagnoses of 'mental illness' are neither real nor useful.Alternatively, a movement for global mental health has emerged, defined as 'the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving mental health and achieving equity in mental health for all people worldwide'.===Cultural bias===Diagnostic guidelines of the 2000s, namely the DSM and to some extent the ICD, have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook.", "Opponents argue that even when diagnostic criteria are used across different cultures, it does not mean that the underlying constructs have validity within those cultures, as even reliable application can prove only consistency, not legitimacy.", "Advocating a more culturally sensitive approach, critics such as Carl Bell and Marcello Maviglia contend that the cultural and ethnic diversity of individuals is often discounted by researchers and service providers.Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that the Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV.", "Disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as \"culture-bound\", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, revealing to Kleinman an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal.", "Kleinman's negative view towards the culture-bound syndrome is largely shared by other cross-cultural critics.", "Common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out and frustration that even those included are often misinterpreted or misrepresented.Many mainstream psychiatrists are dissatisfied with the new culture-bound diagnoses, although for partly different reasons.", "Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of the DSM-III, has argued that adding cultural formulations was an attempt to appease cultural critics, and has stated that they lack any scientific rationale or support.", "Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved.", "In general, mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are significant only to specific symptom presentations.Clinical conceptions of mental illness also overlap with personal and cultural values in the domain of morality, so much so that it is sometimes argued that separating the two is impossible without fundamentally redefining the essence of being a particular person in a society.", "In clinical psychiatry, persistent distress and disability indicate an internal disorder requiring treatment; but in another context, that same distress and disability can be seen as an indicator of emotional struggle and the need to address social and structural problems.", "This dichotomy has led some academics and clinicians to advocate a postmodernist conceptualization of mental distress and well-being.Such approaches, along with cross-cultural and \"heretical\" psychologies centered on alternative cultural and ethnic and race-based identities and experiences, stand in contrast to the mainstream psychiatric community's alleged avoidance of any explicit involvement with either morality or culture.", "In many countries there are attempts to challenge perceived prejudice against minority groups, including alleged institutional racism within psychiatric services.", "There are also ongoing attempts to improve professional cross cultural sensitivity.===Laws and policies===Three-quarters of countries around the world have mental health legislation.", "Compulsory admission to mental health facilities (also known as involuntary commitment) is a controversial topic.", "It can impinge on personal liberty and the right to choose, and carry the risk of abuse for political, social, and other reasons; yet it can potentially prevent harm to self and others, and assist some people in attaining their right to healthcare when they may be unable to decide in their own interests.", "Because of this it is a concern of medical ethics.All human rights oriented mental health laws require proof of the presence of a mental disorder as defined by internationally accepted standards, but the type and severity of disorder that counts can vary in different jurisdictions.", "The two most often used grounds for involuntary admission are said to be serious likelihood of immediate or imminent danger to self or others, and the need for treatment.", "Applications for someone to be involuntarily admitted usually come from a mental health practitioner, a family member, a close relative, or a guardian.", "Human-rights-oriented laws usually stipulate that independent medical practitioners or other accredited mental health practitioners must examine the patient separately and that there should be regular, time-bound review by an independent review body.", "The individual should also have personal access to independent advocacy.For involuntary treatment to be administered (by force if necessary), it should be shown that an individual lacks the mental capacity for informed consent (i.e.", "to understand treatment information and its implications, and therefore be able to make an informed choice to either accept or refuse).", "Legal challenges in some areas have resulted in supreme court decisions that a person does ''not'' have to agree with a psychiatrist's characterization of the issues as constituting an \"illness\", nor agree with a psychiatrist's conviction in medication, but only recognize the issues and the information about treatment options.Proxy consent (also known as surrogate or substituted decision-making) may be transferred to a personal representative, a family member, or a legally appointed guardian.", "Moreover, patients may be able to make, when they are considered well, an advance directive stipulating how they wish to be treated should they be deemed to lack mental capacity in the future.", "The right to supported decision-making, where a person is helped to understand and choose treatment options before they can be declared to lack capacity, may also be included in the legislation.", "There should at the very least be shared decision-making as far as possible.", "Involuntary treatment laws are increasingly extended to those living in the community, for example outpatient commitment laws (known by different names) are used in New Zealand, Australia, the United Kingdom, and most of the United States.The World Health Organization reports that in many instances national mental health legislation takes away the rights of persons with mental disorders rather than protecting rights, and is often outdated.", "In 1991, the United Nations adopted the ''Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care'', which established minimum human rights standards of practice in the mental health field.", "In 2006, the UN formally agreed the ''Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities'' to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of disabled people, including those with psychiatric disabilities.The term insanity, sometimes used colloquially as a synonym for mental illness, is often used technically as a legal term.", "The insanity defense may be used in a legal trial (known as the mental disorder defence in some countries).===Perception and discrimination=======Stigma====The social stigma associated with mental disorders is a widespread problem.", "The US Surgeon General stated in 1999 that: \"Powerful and pervasive, stigma prevents people from acknowledging their own mental health problems, much less disclosing them to others.\"", "Additionally, researcher Wulf Rössler in 2016, in his article, \"The Stigma of Mental Disorders\" statedIn the United States, racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to experience mental health disorders often due to low socioeconomic status, and discrimination.", "In Taiwan, those with mental disorders are subject to general public's misperception that the root causes of the mental disorders are \"over-thinking\", \"having a lot of time and nothing better to do\", \"stagnant\", \"not serious in life\", \"not paying enough attention to the real life affairs\", \"mentally weak\", \"refusing to be resilient\", \"turning back to perfectionistic strivings\", \"not bravery\" and so forth.Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of unemployment among those with a diagnosis of mental illness.", "An Australian study found that having a psychiatric disability is a bigger barrier to employment than a physical disability.", "The mentally ill are stigmatized in Chinese society and can not legally marry.Efforts are being undertaken worldwide to eliminate the stigma of mental illness, although the methods and outcomes used have sometimes been criticized.====Media and general public====Media coverage of mental illness comprises predominantly negative and pejorative depictions, for example, of incompetence, violence or criminality, with far less coverage of positive issues such as accomplishments or human rights issues.", "Such negative depictions, including in children's cartoons, are thought to contribute to stigma and negative attitudes in the public and in those with mental health problems themselves, although more sensitive or serious cinematic portrayals have increased in prevalence.In the United States, the Carter Center has created fellowships for journalists in South Africa, the U.S., and Romania, to enable reporters to research and write stories on mental health topics.", "Former US First Lady Rosalynn Carter began the fellowships not only to train reporters in how to sensitively and accurately discuss mental health and mental illness, but also to increase the number of stories on these topics in the news media.", "There is also a World Mental Health Day, which in the United States and Canada falls within a Mental Illness Awareness Week.The general public have been found to hold a strong stereotype of dangerousness and desire for social distance from individuals described as mentally ill. A US national survey found that a higher percentage of people rate individuals described as displaying the characteristics of a mental disorder as \"likely to do something violent to others\", compared to the percentage of people who are rating individuals described as being troubled.", "In the article, \"Discrimination Against People with a Mental Health Diagnosis: Qualitative Analysis of Reported Experiences,\" an individual who has a mental disorder, revealed that, \"If people don't know me and don't know about the problems, they'll talk to me quite happily.", "Once they've seen the problems or someone's told them about me, they tend to be a bit more wary.\"", "In addition, in the article,\"Stigma and its Impact on Help-Seeking for Mental Disorders: What Do We Know?\"", "by George Schomerus and Matthias Angermeyer, it is affirmed that \"Family doctors and psychiatrists have more pessimistic views about the outcomes for mental illnesses than the general public (Jorm et al.,1999), and mental health professionals hold more negative stereotypes about mentally ill patients, but, reassuringly, they are less accepting of restrictions towards them.", "\"Recent depictions in media have included leading characters successfully living with and managing a mental illness, including in bipolar disorder in ''Homeland'' (2011) and post-traumatic stress disorder in ''Iron Man 3'' (2013).====Violence====Despite public or media opinion, national studies have indicated that severe mental illness does not independently predict future violent behavior, on average, and is not a leading cause of violence in society.", "There is a statistical association with various factors that do relate to violence (in anyone), such as substance use and various personal, social, and economic factors.", "A 2015 review found that in the United States, about 4% of violence is attributable to people diagnosed with mental illness, and a 2014 study found that 7.5% of crimes committed by mentally ill people were directly related to the symptoms of their mental illness.", "The majority of people with serious mental illness are never violent.In fact, findings consistently indicate that it is many times more likely that people diagnosed with a serious mental illness living in the community will be the victims rather than the perpetrators of violence.", "In a study of individuals diagnosed with \"severe mental illness\" living in a US inner-city area, a quarter were found to have been victims of at least one violent crime over the course of a year, a proportion eleven times higher than the inner-city average, and higher in every category of crime including violent assaults and theft.", "People with a diagnosis may find it more difficult to secure prosecutions, however, due in part to prejudice and being seen as less credible.However, there are some specific diagnoses, such as childhood conduct disorder or adult antisocial personality disorder or psychopathy, which are defined by, or are inherently associated with, conduct problems and violence.", "There are conflicting findings about the extent to which certain specific symptoms, notably some kinds of psychosis (hallucinations or delusions) that can occur in disorders such as schizophrenia, delusional disorder or mood disorder, are linked to an increased risk of serious violence on average.", "The mediating factors of violent acts, however, are most consistently found to be mainly socio-demographic and socio-economic factors such as being young, male, of lower socioeconomic status and, in particular, substance use (including alcohol use) to which some people may be particularly vulnerable.High-profile cases have led to fears that serious crimes, such as homicide, have increased due to deinstitutionalization, but the evidence does not support this conclusion.", "Violence that does occur in relation to mental disorder (against the mentally ill or by the mentally ill) typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions, often in a family setting rather than between strangers.", "It is also an issue in health care settings and the wider community." ], [ "Mental health", "The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions have changed over time and across cultures and there are still variations in definition, assessment, and classification, although standard guideline criteria are widely used.", "In many cases, there appears to be a continuum between mental health and mental illness, making diagnosis complex.", "According to the World Health Organization, over a third of people in most countries report problems at some time in their life which meet the criteria for diagnosis of one or more of the common types of mental disorder.", "Corey M Keyes has created a ''two continua model'' of mental illness and health which holds that both are related, but distinct dimensions: one continuum indicates the presence or absence of mental health, the other the presence or absence of mental illness.", "For example, people with optimal mental health can also have a mental illness, and people who have no mental illness can also have poor mental health." ], [ "Other animals", "Psychopathology in non-human primates has been studied since the mid-20th century.", "Over 20 behavioral patterns in captive chimpanzees have been documented as (statistically) abnormal for frequency, severity or oddness—some of which have also been observed in the wild.", "Captive great apes show gross behavioral abnormalities such as stereotypy of movements, self-mutilation, disturbed emotional reactions (mainly fear or aggression) towards companions, lack of species-typical communications, and generalized learned helplessness.", "In some cases such behaviors are hypothesized to be equivalent to symptoms associated with psychiatric disorders in humans such as depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder.", "Concepts of antisocial, borderline and schizoid personality disorders have also been applied to non-human great apes.The risk of anthropomorphism is often raised concerning such comparisons, and assessment of non-human animals cannot incorporate evidence from linguistic communication.", "However, available evidence may range from nonverbal behaviors—including physiological responses and homologous facial displays and acoustic utterances—to neurochemical studies.", "It is pointed out that human psychiatric classification is often based on statistical description and judgment of behaviors (especially when speech or language is impaired) and that the use of verbal self-report is itself problematic and unreliable.Psychopathology has generally been traced, at least in captivity, to adverse rearing conditions such as early separation of infants from mothers; early sensory deprivation; and extended periods of social isolation.", "Studies have also indicated individual variation in temperament, such as sociability or impulsiveness.", "Particular causes of problems in captivity have included integration of strangers into existing groups and a lack of individual space, in which context some pathological behaviors have also been seen as coping mechanisms.", "Remedial interventions have included careful individually tailored re-socialization programs, behavior therapy, environment enrichment, and on rare occasions psychiatric drugs.", "Socialization has been found to work 90% of the time in disturbed chimpanzees, although restoration of functional sexuality and caregiving is often not achieved.Laboratory researchers sometimes try to develop animal models of human mental disorders, including by inducing or treating symptoms in animals through genetic, neurological, chemical or behavioral manipulation, but this has been criticized on empirical grounds and opposed on animal rights grounds." ], [ "See also", "* ''50 Signs of Mental Illness''* List of mental disorders* Mental illness portrayed in media** Mental disorders in film** Mental illness in fiction* Mental illness in American prisons* Parity of esteem* Psychological evaluation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Overcoming Mental Health Stigma in the Latino Community – Consult QD clevelandclinic.org* National Institute of Mental Health* International Committee of Women Leaders on Mental Health" ] ]
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[ [ "Marijuana (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Marijuana''' is a psychoactive drug from the cannabis plant.", "'''Marijuana''' or '''Marihuana''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Film", "*''Marihuana'' (1936 film), an American exploitation film*''Marihuana (El monstruo verde)'', a 1936 Mexican film*''Marihuana'' (1950 film), or ''The Marihuana Story'', an Argentine film*''Marijuana'' (1968 film), an anti-drug documentary*Marijuana (2020 film), an Indian Tamil-language film" ], [ "Other uses", "*''Marihuana'' (novel), by Cornell Woolrich, 1941*''Marijuana'' (EP), by Brujeria, 2000*\"Marijuana\" (Kid Cudi song), 2010*Marijuana Pepsi Vandyck, an American educator" ], [ "See also", "**Cannabis (disambiguation)*List of names for cannabis" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Moorcock" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Michael John Moorcock''' (born 18 December 1939) is an English–American writer, particularly of science fiction and fantasy, who has published a number of well-received literary novels as well as comic thrillers, graphic novels and non-fiction.", "He has worked as an editor and is also a successful musician.", "He is best known for his novels about the character Elric of Melniboné, which were a seminal influence on the field of fantasy in the 1960s and 1970s.As editor of the British science fiction magazine ''New Worlds'', from May 1964 until March 1971 and then again from 1976 to 1996, Moorcock fostered the development of the science fiction \"New Wave\" in the UK and indirectly in the United States, leading to the advent of cyberpunk.", "His publication of ''Bug Jack Barron'' (1969) by Norman Spinrad as a serial novel was notorious; in Parliament, some British MPs condemned the Arts Council of Great Britain for funding the magazine.", "He is also a recording musician; he has contributed to the music acts Hawkwind, Blue Öyster Cult, Robert Calvert and Spirits Burning, and to his own project, Michael Moorcock & The Deep Fix.In 2008, ''The Times'' named Moorcock in its list of \"The 50 greatest British writers since 1945\"." ], [ "Biography", "Michael Moorcock was born in London in December 1939, and the landscape of London, particularly the area of Notting Hill Gate and Ladbroke Grove, is an important influence in some of his fiction (such as the Cornelius novels).Moorcock has mentioned ''The Master Mind of Mars'' by Edgar Rice Burroughs, ''The Apple Cart'' by George Bernard Shaw and ''The Constable of St. Nicholas'' by Edwin Lester Arnold as the first three non-juvenile books that he read before beginning primary school.", "The first book he bought was a secondhand copy of ''The Pilgrim's Progress''.Moorcock is the former husband of the writer Hilary Bailey by whom he had three children: Sophie (b.", "1963), Katherine (b.", "1964), and Max (b.", "1972).", "He is also the former husband of Jill Riches, who later married Robert Calvert.", "She illustrated some of Moorcock's books, including covers, among them the dustjacket for the first edition of ''Gloriana'' (Allison and Busby, 1978).", "In 1983, Linda Steele became Moorcock's third wife.He was an early member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of eight heroic fantasy authors founded in the 1960s and led by Lin Carter, selected by fantasy credentials alone.Moorcock is the subject of four book-length works, a monograph and an interview, by Colin Greenland.", "In 1983, Greenland published ''The Entropy Exhibition: Michael Moorcock and the British 'New Wave' in Science Fiction''.", "He followed this with ''Michael Moorcock: Death is No Obstacle'', a book-length interview about technique, in 1992.", "''Michael Moorcock: Law of Chaos'' by Jeff Gardiner and ''Michael Moorcock: Fiction, Fantasy and the World's Pain'' by Mark Scroggins were published more recently.In the 1990s, Moorcock moved to Texas in the United States.", "His wife Linda is American.", "He spends half of the year in Texas, the other half in Paris." ], [ "Political views", "Moorcock's works feature political content.", "In one interview, he states, \"I am an anarchist and a pragmatist.", "My moral/philosophical position is that of an anarchist.\"", "In describing how his writing relates to his political philosophy, Moorcock says, \"My books frequently deal with aristocratic heroes, gods and so forth.", "All of them end on a note which often states quite directly that one should serve neither gods nor masters but become one's own master.\"", "Besides using fiction to explore his politics, Moorcock also engages in non-violent political activism.", "In order to \"marginalize stuff that works to objectify women and suggests women enjoy being beaten\", he has encouraged W H Smiths to move John Norman's ''Gor'' series novels to the top shelf." ], [ "Writer", "===Fiction===Moorcock began writing while he was still at school, contributing to a magazine he entitled ''Outlaw's Own'' from 1950 on.In 1957, at the age of 17, Moorcock became editor of ''Tarzan Adventures'' (a national juvenile weekly featuring text and Tarzan comic strip), which had published at least a dozen of his own \"Sojan the Swordsman\" stories during that year and the next.", "At the age of 18, in 1958, he wrote the allegorical fantasy novel ''The Golden Barge''.", "This remained unpublished until 1980, when it was issued by Savoy Books with an introduction by M. John Harrison.", "At 19, Moorcock worked on ''The Sexton Blake Library'' (serial pulp fiction featuring Sexton Blake, the poor man's Sherlock Holmes).", "Under Moorcock's leadership, ''New Worlds'' became central to \"New Wave\" science fiction.", "This movement, not of its own naming, promoted individual vision, literary style and an existential view of technological change, in contrast to generic \"hard science fiction\", which extrapolated on technological change itself.", "Some \"New Wave\" stories were not recognisable as traditional science fiction, and ''New Worlds'' remained controversial for as long as Moorcock edited it.", "Moorcock claimed that he wanted to publish experimental/literary fiction using techniques and subject matter from generic SF but, initially at least, to marry \"popular\" and \"literary\" fiction at what he considered their natural overlap.", "After 1967, this policy became evident and allied to the British \"pop art\" movement exemplified by Eduardo Paolozzi, Richard Hamilton and others.", "Paolozzi became \"Aviation Editor\".", "During that time, he occasionally wrote as \"'''James Colvin'''\", a \"house pseudonym\" originally created for him by John Carnell also used by other ''New Worlds'' critics.", "A spoof obituary of Colvin appeared in ''New Worlds'' #197 (January 1970), written by Charles Platt as \"William Barclay\".", "Moorcock makes much use of the initials \"JC\"; these are also the initials of Jesus Christ, the subject of his 1967 Nebula Award-winning novella ''Behold the Man'', which tells the story of Karl Glogauer, a time-traveller who takes on the role of Christ.", "They are also the initials of various \"Eternal Champion\" Moorcock characters such as Jerry Cornelius, Jerry Cornell and Jherek Carnelian.", "In more recent years, Moorcock has taken to using \"'''Warwick Colvin, Jr.'''\" as a pseudonym, particularly in his \"Second Ether\" fiction.Moorcock talks about much of his writing in ''Death Is No Obstacle'' with Colin Greenland, which is a book-length transcription of interviews with Moorcock about the techniques in his writing.Moorcock has also published pastiches of writers for whom he felt affection as a boy, including Edgar Rice Burroughs, Leigh Brackett, and Robert E. Howard.", "All his fantasy adventures have elements of satire and parody, while respecting what he considers the essentials of the form.", "Although his heroic fantasies have been his most consistently reprinted books in the United States, he achieved prominence in the UK as a literary author, with the ''Guardian'' Fiction Prize in 1977 for ''The Condition of Muzak'', and with ''Mother London'' later shortlisted for the Whitbread Prize.Novels and series such as the ''Cornelius Quartet'', ''Mother London'', ''King of the City'', the ''Pyat Quartet'' and the short story collection ''London Bone'' have established him in the eyes of critics such as Iain Sinclair, Peter Ackroyd and Allan Massie in publications including ''The Times Literary Supplement'' and the ''London Review of Books'' as a major contemporary literary novelist.", "In 2008 Moorcock was named by a critics' panel in ''The Times'' as one of the fifty best British novelists since 1945.Virtually all of his stories are part of his overarching \"Eternal Champion\" theme or ''oeuvre'', with characters (including Elric) moving from one storyline and fictional universe to another, all of them interconnected (though often only in dreams or visions).Most of Moorcock's earlier work consisted of short stories and relatively brief novels: he has mentioned that \"I could write 15,000 words a day and gave myself three days a volume.", "That's how, for instance, the Hawkmoon books were written.\"", "Over the period of the ''New Worlds'' editorship and his publishing of the original fantasy novels Moorcock has maintained an interest in the craft of writing and a continuing interest in the semi-journalistic craft of \"pulp\" authorship.", "This is reflected in his development of interlocking cycles which hark back to the origins of fantasy in myth and medieval cycles (see \"Wizardry and Wild Romance – Moorcock\" and \"Death Is No Obstacle – Colin Greenland\" for more commentary).", "This also provides an implicit link with the episodic origins of literature in newspaper/magazine serials from Trollope and Dickens onwards.", "None of this should be surprising given Moorcock's background in magazine publishing.Since the 1980s, Moorcock has written longer, more literary \"mainstream\" novels, such as ''Mother London'' and ''Byzantium Endures,'' but he continued to revisit characters from his earlier works, such as Elric.", "With the publication of the third and last book in his Elric Moonbeam Roads sequence, he announced that he was \"retiring\" from writing heroic fantasy fiction, though he continued to write Elric's adventures as graphic novels with his long-time collaborators Walter Simonson and the late James Cawthorn (1929–2008) and in 2021 announced that he had written a 'straight' Elric novel, within the first canon, for the 60th anniversary of his hero's appearance.", "He and Simonson produced the graphic novel, ''Elric: the Making of a Sorcerer'', published by DC Comics in 2007.In 2006, he completed his highly praised ''Colonel Pyat'' sequence, dealing with the Nazi Holocaust.", "This began in 1981 with ''Byzantium Endures'', continued through ''The Laughter of Carthage'' (1984) and ''Jerusalem Commands'' (1992), and culminated with ''The Vengeance of Rome'' (2006).", "His most recent sequence, ''KABOUL'', with illustrations by Miles Hyman, was published in French by Denoel.Among other works by Moorcock are ''The Dancers at the End of Time'', comedies set on Earth millions of years in the future, ''Gloriana, or The Unfulfill'd Queen,'' which he describes as an argument with Spenser's ''The Faerie Queen'', set in an alternative Earth history and the \"Second Ether\" sequence beginning with \"BLOOD\", mixing absurdism, reminiscence and family memoir against the background of his multiverse.Moorcock is prone to revising his existing work, with the result that different editions of a given book may contain significant variations.", "The changes range from simple retitlings (the Elric story ''The Flame Bringers'' became ''The Caravan of Forgotten Dreams'' in the 1990s Victor Gollancz/White Wolf omnibus editions) to character name changes (such as detective \"Minos Aquilinas\" becoming first \"Minos von Bek\" and later \"Sam Begg\" in three different versions of the short story \"The Pleasure Garden of Felipe Sagittarius\"), major textual alterations (for example, the addition of several new chapters to ''The Steel Tsar'' in the omnibus editions), and even complete restructurings (as with the 1966 novella ''Behold the Man'' being expanded to novel-length and into a novel rather than an SF story recreated from the original version that appeared in ''New Worlds'' for republication as a book in 1969 by Allison and Busby).A new, final revision of almost Moorcock's entire oeuvre, with the exception of his literary novels ''Mother London'', ''King of the City'' and the Pyat quartet, is issued by Gollancz and many of his titles are reprinted in the United States by Simon and Schuster and Titan and in France by Gallimard.", "Many novels and comics based on his work are being reprinted by Titan Books under the general title The Michael Moorcock Library, while in France a new adaptation of the Elric and Hawkmoon series has been translated into many languages, including English.====Elric of Melniboné and the Eternal Champion====Moorcock's best-selling works have been the \"Elric of Melniboné\" stories.", "In these, Elric is a deliberate reversal of clichés found in fantasy adventure novels inspired by the works of J. R. R. Tolkien.Central to many of his seminal fantasy novels, including his Elric books, is the concept of an \"Eternal Champion\", who has multiple identities across alternate universes.", "This cosmology is called the \"Multiverse\" within his novels.", "The Multiverse deals with primal polarities such as... (Miltonic) Law and Chaos, and order and entropy.Elric's success has overshadowed Moorcock's other works, though he has worked the Elric stories' themes into his other works (the \"Hawkmoon\" and \"Corum\" novels, for example).", "His Eternal Champion sequence has been collected in two different editions of omnibus volumes totaling 16 books (the U.S. edition was 15 volumes, while the British edition was 14 volumes, but due to various rights issues, the U.S. edition contained two volumes that were not included in the British edition, and the British edition likewise contained one volume that was not included in the U.S. edition) containing several books per volume, by Victor Gollancz in the UK and by White Wolf Publishing in the US.", "Several attempts to make an Elric film were made.", "Moorcock refused to resign the options, usually when they seemed to drift too far off course.", "In February 2019, BBC Studios announced they had secured the rights to the Runestaff series of fantasy novels, which feature Hawkmoon as their hero.====Jerry Cornelius====Another of Moorcock's creations is Jerry Cornelius, a hip urban adventurer of ambiguous gender; the same characters featured in each of several Cornelius books.", "These books were satirical of modern times, including the Vietnam War, and continued to feature another variation of the multiverse theme.", "The first Jerry Cornelius book, ''The Final Programme'' (1968), was made into a feature film in 1973.Its story line is identical to two of the Elric stories: ''The Dreaming City'' and ''The Dead Gods' Book''.", "Since 1998, Moorcock has returned to Cornelius in a series of new stories: ''The Spencer Inheritance'', ''The Camus Connection'', ''Cheering for the Rockets'', and ''Firing the Cathedral'', which was concerned with 9/11.All four novellas were included in the 2003 edition of ''The Lives and Times of Jerry Cornelius''.", "Moorcock's most recent Cornelius stories, \"Modem Times\", appeared in ''The Solaris Book of New Science Fiction: Volume 2'', published in 2008, this was expanded in 2011 as \"Modem Times 2.0\".", "Additionally, a version of Cornelius also appeared in Moorcock's 2010 ''Doctor Who'' novel ''The Coming of the Terraphiles''.", "''Pegging the President'' (PS.", "2018), ''The Fracking Factory'' (on FB, 2018) are two recent novellas and further stories are forthcoming.===Views on fiction writing===Moorcock is a fervent supporter of Mervyn Peake's works.", "Moorcock is critical of J. R. R. Tolkien's works.", "He met both Tolkien and C. S. Lewis in his teens and claims to have liked them personally even though he does not admire them on artistic grounds.", "Moorcock criticised works such as ''The Lord of the Rings'' for their \"Merry England\" point of view, equating Tolkien's novel to ''Winnie-the-Pooh'' in his essay \"Epic Pooh\".", "Even so, James Cawthorn and Moorcock included ''The Lord of the Rings'' in ''Fantasy: The 100 Best Books'' (Carroll & Graf, 1988), and their review is not dismissive.Moorcock has also criticized writers for their political agendas.", "He included Robert A. Heinlein and H. P. Lovecraft among this group in a 1978 essay, \"Starship Stormtroopers\" (''Anarchist Review'').", "There he criticised the production of \"authoritarian\" fiction by certain canonical writers and Lovecraft for having antisemitic, misogynistic, and racist viewpoints woven into his short stories.===Sharing fictional universes with others===Moorcock has allowed other writers to create stories in his fictional Jerry Cornelius universe.", "Brian Aldiss, Hilary Bailey, M. John Harrison, Norman Spinrad, James Sallis, and Steve Aylett have written such stories.", "In an interview published in ''The Internet Review of Science Fiction,'' Moorcock explains the reason for sharing his character:Two short stories by Keith Roberts, \"Coranda\" and \"The Wreck of the Kissing Bitch\", are set in the frozen Matto Grosso plateau of Moorcock's 1969 novel, ''The Ice Schooner''.Elric of Melnibone and Moonglum appear in Karl Edward Wagner's story \"The Gothic Touch\", where they meet with Kane, who borrows Elric for his ability to deal with demons.", "He is a friend and fan of comic book writer Alan Moore and allowed Moore the use of his own character, Michael Kane of Old Mars, mentioned in Moore's ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume II''.", "The two appeared on stage at the Vanbrugh Theatre in London in January 2006 where they discussed Moorcock's work.", "The Green City from ''Warriors of Mars'' was also referenced in Larry Niven's ''Rainbow Mars''.", "Moorcock's character Jerry Cornelius appeared in Moore's ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century''.Cornelius also appeared in French artist Mœbius' comic series ''Le Garage Hermétique''.In 1995–96, Moorcock wrote a script for a computer game/film/novel by Origin Systems.", "When Electronic Arts bought Origins, the game was cancelled, but Moorcock's 40,000-word treatment was fleshed out by Storm Constantine, resulting in the novel ''Silverheart''.", "The story is set in Karadur-Shriltasi, a city at the heart of the Multiverse.", "A second novel, ''Dragonskin'', was in preparation, with Constantine as the main writer, but she died in January 2021, after a long illness.", "Moorcock abandoned a memoir about his friends Mervyn Peake and Maeve Gilmore because he felt it was too personal.He wrote prose and verse for ''The Sunday Books'' first publication in French to accompany a set of unpublished Peake drawings.", "His book ''The Metatemporal Detective'' was published in 2007.His most recent book published first in French is ''Kaboul'', in 2018.In November 2009, Moorcock announced that he would be writing a ''Doctor Who'' novel for BBC Books in 2010, one of the few occasions when he has written stories set in other people's \"shared universes\".", "The novel ''The Coming of the Terraphiles'' was released in October 2010.The story merges Doctor Who with many of Moorcock's characters from the multiverse, notably Captain Cornelius and his pirates.", "In 2016 Moorcock published the first novel in what he terms a literary experiment blending memoir and fantasy, ''The Whispering Swarm''.", "In 2018, he announced his completion of the second volume ''The Woods of Arcady''.", "In 2020, he said he was completing the final Elric novel ''The Citadel of Forgotten Myths'' ready for Elric's 60th anniversary in 2021.Moorcock's Jerry Cornelius novella ''Pegging the President'' was launched in 2018 at Shakespeare and Co, Paris, where he discussed his work with Hari Kunzru and reaffirmed his commitment to literary experiment.===Audiobooks===The first of an audiobook series of unabridged Elric novels, with new work read by Moorcock, began appearing from AudioRealms; however, Audio Realms is no longer in business.", "The second audiobook in the series – ''The Sailor on the Seas of Fate'' – was published in 2007.There have been audio-books of ''Corum'' and others, several of which were unofficial and ''A Winter Admiral'' and ''Furniture'' are audio versions of short stories.", "Since then ''The Whispering Swarm'' and the ''Corum'' books became available via Audible and all the Elric books were scheduled to appear in audio form to coincide with Simon and Schuster's new illustrated set in 2022." ], [ "Music", "===Michael Moorcock & The Deep Fix===Moorcock has his own music project, which records under the name '''Michael Moorcock & The Deep Fix'''.", "''The Deep Fix'' was the title story of an obscure collection of short stories by James Colvin (a pen name of Moorcock) and was the name of the Jerry Cornelius band.", "Moorcock's story had dealt with releasing the unconscious, and although it referenced William Burroughs, it was not specifically about illicit drugs.", "This allegedly lost the band considerable airplay and gave Moorcock what he called 'a great reputation in the drug community' but made venues and stations wary of booking and playing them.", "The first album ''New Worlds Fair'' was released in 1975.The album included Snowy White, Peter Pavli of The Third Ear Band, regulars Steve Gilmore and Graham Charnock.", "Moorcock himself on guitars, mandolin and banjo, and a number of Hawkwind regulars in the credits.", "A second version of the ''New Worlds'' album was issued in 2004 under the album name ''Roller Coaster Holiday''.", "A non-album rock single, including Lemmy on bass and Moorcock playing his own Rickenbacker 330/12, \"Starcruiser\" coupled with \"Dodgem Dude\", was belatedly issued in 1980 on ''Flicknife''.", "Although announced to appear at Dingwalls, the performance was cancelled when schedules clashed.", "The Deep Fix gave a rare live performance at the Roundhouse, London on 18 June 1978 at ''Nik Turner's Bohemian Love-In'', headlined by Turner's band Sphynx and also featuring Tanz Der Youth with Brian James (ex-The Damned), Lightning Raiders, Steve Took's Horns, Roger Ruskin and others.", "In 1982, as a trio with Peter Pavli and Drachen Theaker, some Deep Fix recordings were issued on ''Hawkwind, Friends and Relations'' and a limited-edition 7\" single of \"Brothel in Rosenstrasse\" backed with \"Time Centre\", which featured ''Langdon Jones'' on piano.In 2008, ''The Entropy Tango & Gloriana Demo Sessions'' by Michael Moorcock & The Deep Fix was released.", "These were sessions for planned albums based on two of Moorcock's novels, ''Gloriana, or The Unfulfill'd Queen'' and ''The Entropy Tango'', which were never completed.", "Pavli, Moorcock and Falcone are currently in the process of making the intended versions of those songs based on the group's TEAC recordings of the 80s.", "They are influenced heavily by modern classical music which they look to for inspiration.", "Moorcock's considerable range is demanded.", "Moorcock and Pavli have long been advocates for Mahler, Schoenberg, Ives and other 20th century composers.Working with Martin Stone, Moorcock began recording a new Deep Fix album in Paris, titled ''Live at the Terminal Cafe''.", "Following Stone's death in 2016, Moorcock completed the album with producer Don Falcone.", "In 2019, Moorcock announced the completion of the album, and it was released 11 October 2019, on Cleopatra Records.===With Hawkwind===Moorcock collaborated with the British rock band Hawkwind on many occasions: the Hawkwind track \"The Black Corridor\", for example, included verbatim quotes from Moorcock's novel of the same name, and he worked with the band on their album ''Warrior on the Edge of Time, ''for which he earned a gold disc.", "Moorcock also wrote the lyrics to \"Sonic Attack\", a Sci-Fi satire of the public information broadcast, that was part of Hawkwind's ''Space Ritual'' set.", "Hawkwind's album ''The Chronicle of the Black Sword'' was largely based on the Elric novels.", "Moorcock appeared on stage with the band on many occasions, including the Black Sword tour.", "His contributions were removed from the original release of the ''Live Chronicles'' album, recorded on this tour, for legal reasons, but have subsequently appeared on some double-CD versions.", "He can also be seen performing on the DVD version of ''Chronicle of the Black Sword''.===With Robert Calvert===Moorcock also collaborated with former Hawkwind frontman and resident poet, Robert Calvert (who gave the chilling declamation of \"Sonic Attack\"), on Calvert's albums ''Lucky Leif and the Longships'' and ''Hype'', playing guitar and banjo and singing background vocals with his wife Linda.===With Blue Öyster Cult===Moorcock wrote the lyrics to three album tracks by the American band Blue Öyster Cult: \"Black Blade\", referring to the sword Stormbringer in the Elric books, \"Veteran of the Psychic Wars\", showing us Elric's emotions at a critical point of his story (this song may also refer to the \"Warriors at the Edge of Time\", which figure heavily in Moorcock's novels about John Daker; at one point his novel ''The Dragon in the Sword'' they call themselves the \"veterans of a thousand psychic wars\", although the term is also applied to Elric in 2022's \"The Citadel of Forgotten Myths\"), and \"The Great Sun Jester\", about his friend, the poet Bill Butler, who died of a drug overdose.", "Moorcock has performed live with BÖC (in 1987 at the Atlanta, GA Dragon Con Convention).===With Spirits Burning===Moorcock contributed vocals and harmonica to the Spirits Burning albums ''An Alien Heat'', ''The Hollow Lands'', and ''The End Of All Songs - Part 1''.", "Most of the lyrics were taken from or based on text in novels from Moorcock's ''The Dancers At The End Of Time'' trilogy.", "The albums were produced by Spirits Burning leader Don Falcone, and included contributions from Albert Bouchard and other members of Blue Öyster Cult, as well as former members of Hawkwind.Moorcock plays harmonica on three songs on the 2021 Spirits Burning album ''Evolution Ritual''.Moorcock also appeared on five tracks on the Spirits Burning CD ''Alien Injection'', released in 2008.He is credited with singing lead vocals and playing glockenspiel, guitar and mandolin.", "The performances used on the CD were from ''The Entropy Tango & Gloriana Demo Sessions''.===Other appearances===Moorcock's last public appearance as a music performer was with Nik Turner and Flame Tree in Austin, Texas, March 2019.Moorcock is currently working on a record with Alan Davey, recording some of his own songs and songs by Robert Calvert, his co-performer in Hawkwind.", "Moorcock is also writing songs with other long-time collaborators." ], [ "Awards and honours", "Michael Moorcock has received great recognition for his career contributions as well as for particular works.The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Moorcock in 2002 He also received life achievement awards at the World Fantasy Convention in 2000 (World Fantasy Award), at the Utopiales International Festival in 2004 (Prix Utopia), from the Horror Writers Association in 2005 (Bram Stoker Award), and from the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 2008 (named its 25th Grand Master).", "He is a Parisian member of the London College of Pataphysicians.", "* 1993: British Fantasy Society Special Committee Award for contribution to the genre* 2000: World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement* 2004: Prix Utopiales \"Grandmaster\" Lifetime Achievement Award* 2004: Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement in the horror genre* 2008: Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award, literary fantasy and science fictionHe was \"Co-Guest of Honor\" at the 1976 World Fantasy Convention in New York City and one Guest of Honor at the 1997 55th World Science Fiction Convention in San Antonio, Texas.", ";Awards for particular works* 1967: Nebula Award (Novella): ''Behold the Man''* 1972: August Derleth Fantasy Award: ''The Knight of the Swords''* 1973: August Derleth Fantasy Award: ''The King of the Swords''* 1974: British Fantasy Award (Best Short Story): ''The Jade Man's Eyes''* 1975: August Derleth Fantasy Award: ''The Sword and the Stallion''* 1976: August Derleth Fantasy Award: ''The Hollow Lands''* 1977: Guardian Fiction Award: ''The Condition of Muzak''* 1979: John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel: ''Gloriana''* 1979: World Fantasy Award (Best Novel): ''Gloriana''" ], [ "Selected works", "* ''The Best of Michael Moorcock'' (Tachyon Publications, 2009)* The Elric of Melniboné series (1961–2022), including:** ''The Dreaming City'' (1961)** ''The Stealer of Souls'' (1963)** ''Stormbringer'' (1965, revised 1977)** ''Elric of Melniboné'' (1972)** ''Elric: The Sailor on the Seas of Fate'' (1976)** ''The Weird of the White Wolf'' (1977)** ''The Vanishing Tower'' (1977)** ''Elric at the End of Time'' (1981)** ''The Fortress of the Pearl'' (1989)** ''The Revenge of the Rose'' (1991)** ''The Citadel of Forgotten Myths'' (2022)* The Dorian Hawkmoon series (1967–1975), including:** ''The Jewel in the Skull'' (1967)** ''The Mad God's Amulet'' (1968)** ''The Sword of the Dawn'' (1968)** ''The Runestaff'' (1969)** ''Count Brass'' (1973)** ''The Champion of Garathorm'' (1973)** ''The Quest for Tanelorn'' (1975)* The Erekosë series (1970–1987), including:** ''The Eternal Champion'' (1970)** ''Phoenix in Obsidian'', aka ''The Silver Warriors'' (1970)** ''The Swords of Heaven, the Flowers of Hell'' (with Howard Chaykin) (1979) (graphic novel)** ''The Dragon in the Sword'' (1987)* The Corum series (1971–1974), including:** ''The Knight of the Swords'' (1971)** ''The Queen of the Swords'' (1971)** ''The King of the Swords'' (1971)** ''The Bull and the Spear'' (1973)** ''The Oak and the Ram'' (1973)** ''The Sword and the Stallion'' (1974)* ''Behold the Man'' (1969)* ''Breakfast in the Ruins'' (1972)* ''The Time Dweller'' (1969)* Sailing to Utopia, comprising:** ''Flux'' (1962)** ''The Ice Schooner'' (1966)** ''The Black Corridor'' (1969)** ''The Distant Suns'' (1975)* ''The Wrecks of Time'', aka ''The Rituals of Infinity'' (1967)*''The Sundered Worlds'', aka ''The Blood Red Game'' (1965)* ''The Fireclown'', aka ''The Winds of Limbo'' (1965)*''The Twilight Man'', aka ''The Shores of Death'' (1966)* ''Kane of Old Mars'' (1998 compilation volume originally published as three books in 1965, 346pp) * ''The Lost Canal'' (novelette) (2013)* ''The Chinese Agent'' (1970)* ''The Russian Intelligence'' (1980)* ''Michael Moorcock's Multiverse'' (1999) (graphic novel)* ''The Metatemporal Detective'' (2007) (collection)* ''A Nomad of the Time Streams'':** ''The Warlord of the Air'' (1971)** ''The Land Leviathan'' (1974)** ''The Steel Tsar'' (1981)* ''The Dancers at the End of Time'' sequence (1972–76):** ''An Alien Heat'' (1972)** ''The Hollow Lands'' (1974)** ''The End of All Songs'' (1976)* ''Legends from the End of Time'' (1976)* ''The Transformation of Miss Mavis Ming'', aka ''A Messiah at the End of Time'' (1977)* ''Gloriana'' (1978)* ''My Experiences in the Third World War'' (1980)* ''The Opium General and other stories'' (1984)* ''Mother London'' (1988)* ''Casablanca'' (1989) – short stories* ''King of the City'' (2000)* ''London Bone'' (2001) – short stories* ''Kaboul'' (first published in French) (2018)* The Jerry Cornelius quartet of novels and shorter fiction:** ''The Final Programme'' (1969)** ''A Cure for Cancer'' (1971)** ''The English Assassin'' (1972)** ''The Condition of Muzak'' (1977)** ''The Cornelius Quartet'' (1977 compilation volume, 974pp)** ''The Adventures of Una Persson and Catherine Cornelius in the 20th Century'' (1976)** ''The Lives and Times of Jerry Cornelius'' (1976)** ''The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle'', aka ''Gold Diggers of 1977'' (1980)** ''The Entropy Tango'' (1981)** ''The Alchemist's Question'' (1984)** ''A Cornelius Calendar'' (1993 compilation volume, 554pp)** ''The New Nature of the Catastrophe'' (1993 anthology collecting Jerry Cornelius stories by Moorcock and others, edited by Moorcock and Langdon Jones, 448pp) ** ''Firing the Cathedral'' (novella) (2002)** ''Phase 1:A Jerry Cornelius Story'' (novella) (2008)** ''Modem Times 2.0'' (novella) (2011)** ''Pegging the President'' (novella) (2018)** '' The Fracking Factory'' (novella) (2018 online)** ''The Wokingham Agreement'' (novelette) (2022)* The von Bek sequence:** ''The War Hound and the World's Pain'' (1981)** ''The Brothel in Rosenstrasse'' (1982)** ''The City in the Autumn Stars'' (1986)* The Pyat Quartet:** ''Byzantium Endures'' (1981)** ''The Laughter of Carthage'' (1984)** ''Jerusalem Commands'' (1992)** ''The Vengeance of Rome'' (2006)* The Second Ether sequence:** ''Blood: A Southern Fantasy'' (1994)** ''Fabulous Harbours'' (1995)** ''The War Amongst The Angels'' (1996)* The Elric/Oona Von Bek sequence:** ''The Dreamthief's Daughter'' (2001)** ''The Skrayling Tree'' (2003)** ''The White Wolf's Son'' (2005)* Doctor Who:** ''The Coming of the Terraphiles'' (2010)* The Sanctuary of the White Friars**''The Whispering Swarm'' (2015)**''The Woods of Arcady'' (2023)**''The Wounds of Albion'' (TBC)===Anthologies edited===As well as a series of ''Best SF Stories from New Worlds'' and ''The Traps of Time'' (Hart-Davis), Moorcock has also edited other volumes, including two bringing together examples of invasion literature:* ''Before Armageddon'' (1975)* ''England Invaded'' (1977)===Nonfiction===* ''Letters From Hollywood'' (US: General Distribution Services, 1986, ), 240 pp* ''Wizardry and Wild Romance: a study of epic fantasy'' (UK: Gollancz, 1987, ), 160 pp., ** ''Wizardry and Wild Romance: a study of epic fantasy'', revised and expanded (US: MonkeyBrain Books, 2004, ), 206 pp., * ''Fantasy: The 100 Best Books'' (London: Xanadu Publications, 1988, ; Carroll & Graf, 1988, ), James Cawthorn and Moorcock* ''Into the Media Web: Selected short non-fiction, 1956–2006'', edited by John Davey, introduced by Alan Moore, (UK: Savoy Books, 2010, ) 718 pp* ''London Peculiar and Other Nonfiction'', Edited by Michael Moorcock and Allan Kausch, introduced by Iain Sinclair, (US: PM Press, 2012, ), 377pp" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Harris-Fain, Darren.", "''British Fantasy and Science-Fiction Writers Since 1960'', Gale Group, 2002, , p. 293.", "* Kaplan, Carter.", "\"Fractal Fantasies of Transformation: William Blake, Michael Moorcock and the Utilities of Mythographic Shamanism\".", "In ''New Boundaries in Political Science Fiction'' (Hassler, Donald M., & Clyde Wilcox, eds), University of South Carolina Press, 2008, , pp. 35–52.", "* Magill, Frank Northern.", "''Survey of Modern Fantasy Literature'', Volume 1, Salem Press, 1983, , p. 489." ], [ "External links", "===General===* (official)* * Michael Moorcock at the Encyclopedia of Fantasy* Michael Moorcock at the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction* * * Fantastic Metropolis, co-edited by Michael Moorcock* Michael Moorcock pages at RealityEnds* Fantastic Fiction* Michael Moorcock's Comics Compendium* Michael John Moorcock at ComicBookDB.com===Nonfiction===* \"Epic Pooh\", by Michael Moorcock* , by Michael Moorcock* Also \"Starship Stormtroopers\" at the Stan Iverson Memorial Archives* Michael Moorcock interviews Andrea Dworkin* His tribute delivered at the Andrea Dworkin Commemorative Conference, Oxford University, Fri 7 Apr 2006 * \"If Hitler Had Won World War Two...\" by Michael Moorcock.", "''e*l* 25'' (Vol.", "5, No.", "2), April 2005.", "(Earl Kemp, ed.", ")* \"A Child's Christmas in the Blitz\" by Michael Moorcock.", "''e*l* 35'', December 2007 (Earl Kemp, ed.", ")===Interviews===* Interview with Michael Moorcock at Neth Space* \"The Bayley-Moorcock Letters, Part I\"* \"The Bayley-Moorcock Letters, Part II\"* ''The Internet Review of Science Fiction'' interview * Richard Marshall, \"Strange Connectionns - An interview with Michael Moorcock\", ''3:AM Magazine'', 2002* \"Angry Old Men: Michael Moorcock on J.G.", "Ballard\" ()—Interview on ''The Ballardian'', 9 July 2007* Dancing At the End of Time: Moorcock on Posthumanity .", "Humanity+ interview with Woody Evans.", "* Interview with Moorcock from ''Mythmakers & Lawbreakers'' ()* Mists of Melniboné - An Interview with Michael Moorcock—At \"Monsters, Madness and Magic\" on YouTube" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mandarin Chinese" ], [ "Introduction", "Tanghe (Central Plains Mandarin)'''Mandarin''' ( ; ) is a group of Chinese language dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern China.", "The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese, the official language of China.", "Because Mandarin originated in North China and most Mandarin dialects are found in the north, the group is sometimes referred to as '''Northern Chinese''' ().", "Many varieties of Mandarin, such as those of the Southwest (including Sichuanese) and the Lower Yangtze, are not mutually intelligible with the standard language (or are only partially intelligible).", "Nevertheless, Mandarin as a group is often placed first in lists of languages by number of native speakers (with nearly one billion).Mandarin is by far the largest of the Chinese dialect groups; it is spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area that stretches from Yunnan in the southwest to Xinjiang in the northwest and Heilongjiang in the northeast.", "This is generally attributed to the greater ease of travel and communication in the North China Plain compared to the more mountainous south, combined with the relatively recent spread of Mandarin to frontier areas.Most Mandarin varieties have four tones.", "The final stops of Middle Chinese have disappeared in most of these varieties, but some have merged them as a final glottal stop.", "Many Mandarin varieties, including the Beijing dialect, retain retroflex initial consonants, which have been lost in southern varieties of Chinese.The Chinese capital has been within the Mandarin-speaking area for most of the last millennium, making these dialects very influential.", "Some form of Mandarin has served as a lingua franca for government officials and the courts since the 14th century.", "In the early 20th century, a standard form based on the Beijing dialect, with elements from other Mandarin dialects, was adopted as the national language.", "Standard Chinese is the official language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of the four official languages of Singapore.", "It is also used as one of the official languages of the United Nations.", "Recent increased migration from Mandarin-speaking regions of China and Taiwan has now resulted in the language being one of the more frequently used varieties of Chinese among Chinese diaspora communities.", "It is also the most commonly taught Chinese variety." ], [ "Name", "The English word \"mandarin\" (from Portuguese , from Malay , from Sanskrit , , meaning 'minister or counsellor') originally meant an official of the Ming and Qing empires.Since their native varieties were often mutually unintelligible, these officials communicated using a koiné language based on various northern varieties.", "When Jesuit missionaries learned this standard language in the 16th century, they called it \"Mandarin\", from its Chinese name .In everyday English, \"Mandarin\" refers to Standard Chinese, which is often called simply \"Chinese\".", "Standard Mandarin Chinese is based on Beijing dialect, with some lexical and syntactic influence from other Mandarin dialects.", "It is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Taiwan (Republic of China, ROC), as well as one of the four official languages of Singapore, and a high-prestige minority language in Malaysia.", "It also functions as the language of instruction in mainland China and Taiwan.", "It is one of the six official languages of the United Nations, under the name \"Chinese\".", "Chinese speakers refer to the modern standard language as* in mainland China,* ) in Taiwan or* in Malaysia and Singapore,but not as .Linguists use the term \"Mandarin\" to refer to the diverse group of dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China, which Chinese linguists call .", "The alternative term , is used less and less among Chinese linguists.", "By extension, the term \"Old Mandarin\" or \"Early Mandarin\" is used by linguists to refer to the northern dialects recorded in materials from the Yuan dynasty.Native speakers who are not academic linguists may not recognize that the variants they speak are classified in linguistics as members of \"Mandarin\" (or so-called \"Northern dialects\") in a broader sense.", "Within Chinese social or cultural discourse, there is not a common \"Mandarin\" identity based on language; rather, there are strong regional identities centred on individual dialects because of the wide geographical distribution and cultural diversity of their speakers.", "Speakers of forms of Mandarin other than the standard typically refer to the variety they speak by a geographic name—for example the Sichuan dialect and the Hebei dialect or Northeastern dialect, all being regarded as distinct from the standard language, with which they may not share much mutual intelligibility." ], [ "History", "The hundreds of modern local varieties of Chinese developed from regional variants of Old Chinese and Middle Chinese.", "Traditionally, seven major groups of dialects have been recognized.", "Aside from Mandarin, the other six are Wu, Gan, and Xiang in central China and Min, Hakka, and Yue on the southeast coast.", "The ''Language Atlas of China'' (1987) distinguishes three further groups: Jin (split from Mandarin), Huizhou in the Huizhou region of Anhui and Zhejiang, and Pinghua in Guangxi and Yunnan.===Old Mandarin===A page of the ''Menggu Ziyun'', covering the syllables ''tsim'' to ''lim''After the fall of the Northern Song (959–1126) and during the reign of the Jin (1115–1234) and Yuan (Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common form of speech developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital, a language referred to as Old Mandarin.", "New genres of vernacular literature were based on this language, including verse, drama and story forms, such as the ''qu'' and ''sanqu'' poetry.The rhyming conventions of the new verse were codified in a rime dictionary called the ''Zhongyuan Yinyun'' (1324).", "A radical departure from the rime table tradition that had evolved over the previous centuries, this dictionary contains a wealth of information on the phonology of Old Mandarin.", "Further sources are the 'Phags-pa script based on the Tibetan alphabet, which was used to write several of the languages of the Mongol empire, including Chinese and the ''Menggu Ziyun'', a rime dictionary based on 'Phags-pa.", "The rime books differ in some details, but overall show many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects, such as the reduction and disappearance of final plosives and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones.In Middle Chinese, initial stops and affricates showed a three-way contrast between tenuis, voiceless aspirated and voiced consonants.", "There were four tones, with the fourth or \"entering tone\", a checked tone comprising syllables ending in plosives (''-p'', ''-t'' or ''-k'').", "Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch and by the late Tang dynasty, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials.", "When voicing was lost in all languages except the Wu subfamily, this distinction became phonemic and the system of initials and tones was rearranged differently in each of the major groups.The ''Zhongyuan Yinyun'' shows the typical Mandarin four-tone system resulting from a split of the \"even\" tone and loss of the entering tone, with its syllables distributed across the other tones (though their different origin is marked in the dictionary).", "Similarly, voiced plosives and affricates have become voiceless aspirates in the \"even\" tone and voiceless non-aspirates in others, another distinctive Mandarin development.", "However, the language still retained a final ''-m'', which has merged with ''-n'' in modern dialects and initial voiced fricatives.", "It also retained the distinction between velars and alveolar sibilants in palatal environments, which later merged in most Mandarin dialects to yield a palatal series (rendered ''j-'', ''q-'' and ''x-'' in pinyin).The flourishing vernacular literature of the period also shows distinctively Mandarin vocabulary and syntax, though some, such as the third-person pronoun , can be traced back to the Tang dynasty.===Vernacular literature===Until the early 20th century, formal writing and even much poetry and fiction was done in Literary Chinese, which was modeled on the classics of the Warring States period and the Han dynasty.", "Over time, the various spoken varieties diverged greatly from Literary Chinese, which was learned and composed as a special language.", "Preserved from the sound changes that affected the various spoken varieties, its economy of expression was greatly valued.", "For example, is unambiguous in written Chinese, but has over 75 homophones in Standard Chinese.The literary language was less appropriate for documents that were meant to be performed or recited, such as plays or stories.", "From at least the Yuan dynasty plays that recounted the subversive tales of China's Robin Hoods to the Ming dynasty novels such as ''Water Margin'', on down to the Qing dynasty novel ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' and beyond, there developed a literature in written vernacular Chinese ().", "In many cases, this written language reflected Mandarin varieties and since pronunciation differences were not conveyed in this written form, this tradition had a unifying force across all the Mandarin-speaking regions and beyond.Hu Shih, a pivotal figure of the first half of the twentieth century, wrote an influential and perceptive study of this literary tradition, entitled .===Late imperial koiné===''Zhongguo Guanhua'' (), or ''Medii Regni Communis Loquela'' (\"Middle Kingdom's Common Speech\"), used on the frontispiece of an early Chinese grammar published by Étienne Fourmont (with Arcadio Huang) in 1742Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people living in many parts of South China spoke only their local variety.", "As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as ''Guānhuà''.", "Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.Officials varied widely in their pronunciation; in 1728, the Yongzheng Emperor, unable to understand the accents of officials from Guangdong and Fujian, issued a decree requiring the governors of those provinces to provide for the teaching of proper pronunciation.", "Although the resulting Academies for Correct Pronunciation () were short-lived, the decree did spawn a number of textbooks that give some insight into the ideal pronunciation.", "Common features included:* loss of the Middle Chinese voiced initials except for ''v-''* merger of ''-m'' finals with ''-n''* the characteristic Mandarin four-tone system in open syllables, but retaining a final glottal stop in \"entering tone\" syllables* retention of the distinction between palatalized velars and dental affricates, the source of the spellings \"Peking\" and \"Tientsin\" for modern \"Beijing\" and \"Tianjin\".As the last two of these features indicate, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect.", "This form remained prestigious long after the capital moved to Beijing in 1421, though the speech of the new capital emerged as a rival standard.", "As late as 1815, Robert Morrison based the first English–Chinese dictionary on this koiné as the standard of the time, though he conceded that the Beijing dialect was gaining in influence.", "By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.===Standard Mandarin Chinese===The variant of Mandarin as spoken by educated classes in Beijing was made the official language of China by the Qing dynasty in the early 1900s and the successive Republican government.", "In the early years of the Republic of China, intellectuals of the New Culture Movement, such as Hu Shih and Chen Duxiu, successfully campaigned for the replacement of Literary Chinese as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects.", "A parallel priority was the definition of a standard national language ().", "After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932.The People's Republic, founded in 1949, retained this standard, calling it ''pǔtōnghuà'' ().", "Some 54% of speakers of Mandarin varieties could understand the standard language in the early 1950s, rising to 91% in 1984.Nationally, the proportion understanding the standard rose from 41% to 90% over the same period.This standard language is now used in education, the media, and formal occasions in both mainland China and Taiwan, as well as among the Chinese community of Singapore.", "However, in other parts of the Chinese-speaking world, namely Hong Kong and Macau, the standard form of Chinese used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life remains the local Cantonese because of their colonial and linguistic history.", "While Standard Mandarin is now the medium of instruction in schools throughout China, it still has yet to gain traction as a common language among the local population in areas where Mandarin dialects are not native.", "In these regions, people may be either diglossic or speak the standard language with a notable accent.", "However, since the start of the 21st century, there has been an effort of mass education in Standard Mandarin Chinese and discouragement of local language usage by the Chinese government in order to erase these regional differences.From an official point of view, the mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese governments maintain their own forms of the standard under different names.", "The codified forms of both ''Pǔtōnghuà'' and ''Guóyǔ'' base their phonology on the Beijing accent, and also take some elements from other sources, and deviate from the Beijing dialect in vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics.", "Comparison of dictionaries produced in the two areas will show that there are few substantial differences.", "However, both versions of \"school-standard\" Chinese are often quite different from the Mandarin varieties that are spoken in accordance with regional habits, and neither is wholly identical to the Beijing dialect.The written forms of Standard Chinese are also essentially equivalent, although simplified characters are used in mainland China and Singapore, while traditional characters remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau.", "Singapore has followed mainland China in officially adopting simplified characters." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Mandarin is spoken across northern and southwestern China, with some pockets in neighbouring countries.Unlike their compatriots on the southeast coast, few Mandarin speakers engaged in overseas emigration until the late 20th century, but there are now significant communities of them in cities across the world.===Mainland China===Most Han Chinese living in northern and southwestern China are native speakers of a dialect of Mandarin.", "The North China Plain provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China.", "In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese varieties, with great internal diversity, particularly in Fujian.However, the varieties of Mandarin cover a huge area containing nearly a billion people.", "As a result, there are pronounced regional variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, and many Mandarin varieties are not mutually intelligible.Most of northeast China, except for Liaoning, did not receive significant settlements by Han Chinese until the 18th century, and as a result the Northeastern Mandarin dialects spoken there differ little from the Beijing dialect.", "The Manchu people of the area now speak these dialects exclusively; their native language is only maintained in northwestern Xinjiang, where Xibe, a modern dialect, is spoken.The frontier areas of northwest China were colonized by speakers of Mandarin dialects at the same time, and the dialects in those areas similarly closely resemble their relatives in the core Mandarin area.", "The Southwest was settled early, but the population fell dramatically for obscure reasons in the 13th century, and did not recover until the 17th century.", "The dialects in this area are now relatively uniform.", "However, long-established cities even very close to Beijing, such as Tianjin, Baoding, Shenyang, and Dalian, have markedly different dialects.===Taiwan===Standard Mandarin is the official language of Taiwan.", "The Taiwanese standard of Mandarin differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely in some technical vocabulary developed from the 1950s onwards.While the spoken standard of Taiwanese Mandarin is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially Taiwanese Hokkien.", "Notable differences include: the merger of retroflex sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the alveolar series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the \"neutral tone\" with a word's original tone, and absence of erhua.", "Code-switching between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.===Southeast Asia=======Singapore====Mandarin is one of the four official languages of Singapore along with English, Malay, and Tamil.", "Historically, it was seldom used by the Chinese Singaporean community, which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, or Hakka.", "The launch of the Speak Mandarin Campaign in 1979 by the government prioritized the language over traditional vernaculars in an attempt to create a common ethnic language and foster closer connections to China.", "This has led to a significant increase and presence of Mandarin usage in the country, coupled with a strong decline in usage of other Chinese variants.Standard Singaporean Mandarin is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences.", "It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings.", "Meanwhile, a colloquial form called Singdarin is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay.", "Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination of any of these is also common.====Malaysia====In Malaysia, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard based on that of Singapore.", "However, it is not as widespread in daily life among the Malaysian Chinese community, as Hokkien speakers continue to form a plurality among the ethnic Chinese population and Cantonese serves as the common language (especially in commerce and local media).", "An exception is in the state of Johor, where Mandarin is increasingly used alongside Cantonese as a lingua franca in part due to Singaporean influence.", "As in Singapore, the local colloquial variant of Mandarin exhibits influences from Cantonese and Malay.====Myanmar====In northern Myanmar, a Southwestern Mandarin variant close to the Yunnanese dialect is spoken by local Chinese and other ethnic groups.", "In some rebel group-controlled regions, Mandarin also serves as the lingua franca.=== Central Asia ===The Dungan people of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are descendants of Hui people who fled to the Russian Empire from Dzungaria in 1877 after the fall of Kashgaria to Qing forces and from the Ili valley after it was ceded to China in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg in 1881.They speak two dialects, descended from Mandarin dialects of Gansu and Shaanxi, and write their language in the Cyrillic script." ], [ "Classification", "=== Boundaries ===The classification of Chinese dialects evolved during the 20th century, and many points remain unsettled.", "Early classifications tended to follow provincial boundaries or major geographical features.In 1936, Wang Li produced the first classification based on phonetic criteria, principally the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials.", "His Mandarin group included dialects of northern and southwestern China, as well as those of Hunan and northern Jiangxi.Li Fang-Kuei's classification of 1937 distinguished the latter two groups as Xiang and Gan, while splitting the remaining Mandarin dialects between Northern, Lower Yangtze and Southwestern Mandarin groups.The widely accepted seven-group classification of Yuan Jiahua in 1960 kept Xiang and Gan separate, with Mandarin divided into Northern, Northwestern, Southwestern and Jiang–Huai (Lower Yangtze) subgroups.Of Yuan's four Mandarin subgroups, the Northwestern dialects are the most diverse, particularly in the province of Shanxi.", "The linguist Li Rong proposed that the northwestern dialects of Shanxi and neighbouring areas that retain a final glottal stop in the Middle Chinese entering tone (plosive-final) category should constitute a separate top-level group called Jin.", "He used this classification in the ''Language Atlas of China'' (1987).", "Many other linguists continue to include these dialects in the Mandarin group, pointing out that the Lower Yangtze dialects also retain the glottal stop.The southern boundary of the Mandarin area, with the central Wu, Gan and Xiang groups, is weakly defined due to centuries of diffusion of northern features.", "Many border varieties have a mixture of features that make them difficult to classify.The boundary between Southwestern Mandarin and Xiang is particularly weak, and in many early classifications the two were not separated.", "Zhou Zhenhe and You Rujie include the New Xiang dialects within Southwestern Mandarin, treating only the more conservative Old Xiang dialects as a separate group.The Huizhou dialects have features of both Mandarin and Wu, and have been assigned to one or other of these groups or treated as separate by various authors.", "Li Rong and the ''Language Atlas of China'' treated it as a separate top-level group, but this remains controversial.=== Subgroups ===Distribution of the eight subgroups of Mandarin plus Jin Chinese, which many linguists include as part of Mandarin, according to the ''Language Atlas of China'' (1987)The ''Language Atlas of China'' calls the remainder of Mandarin a \"supergroup\", divided into eight dialect groups distinguished by their treatment of the Middle Chinese entering tone (see Tones below):* Northeastern Mandarin (98 million), spoken in northeast China except the Liaodong Peninsula.", "This dialect is closely related to Standard Chinese, with little variation in lexicon and very few tonal differences.", "* Beijing Mandarin (27 million), spoken in Beijing and environs such as Chengde and northern Hebei, as well as some areas of recent large-scale immigration, such as northern Xinjiang.", "The Beijing dialect forms the basis of Standard Chinese.", "This classification is controversial, as a number of researchers view Beijing and Northeastern Mandarin as a single dialect group.", "* Jilu Mandarin (89 million), spoken in Hebei (\"Ji\") and Shandong (\"Lu\") provinces except the Shandong Peninsula, as well as in few counties of Heilongjiang, due to migration.", "Includes Tianjin dialect.", "Tones and vocabulary are markedly different.", "In general, there is substantial intelligibility with Beijing Mandarin.", "* Jiaoliao Mandarin (35 million), spoken in Shandong (Jiaodong) and Liaodong Peninsulas, as well as in few counties of Heilongjiang, due to migration.", "Very noticeable tonal changes, different in \"flavour\" from Ji–Lu Mandarin, but with more variance.", "There is moderate intelligibility with Beijing.", "* Central Plains Mandarin (186 million), spoken in Henan province, the central parts of Shaanxi in the Yellow River valley, eastern Gansu, as well as southern Xinjiang, due to recent migration.", "There are significant phonological differences, with partial intelligibility with Beijing.", "The Dungan language spoken in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan belongs to this group.", "Dungan speakers such as the poet Iasyr Shivaza have reported being understood by speakers of the Beijing dialect, but not vice versa.", "* Lanyin Mandarin (17 million), spoken in central and western Gansu province (with capital Lanzhou) and Ningxia autonomous region (with capital Yinchuan), as well as northern Xinjiang.", "* Lower Yangtze Mandarin (or Jiang–Huai, 86 million), spoken in the parts of Jiangsu and Anhui on the north bank of the Yangtze, as well as some areas on the south bank, such as Nanjing in Jiangsu, Jiujiang in Jiangxi, etc.", "There are significant phonological and lexical changes to varying degrees, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited.", "Lower Yangtze Mandarin has been significantly influenced by Wu Chinese.", "* Southwestern Mandarin (260 million), spoken in the provinces of Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and the Mandarin-speaking areas of Hunan, Guangxi and southern Shaanxi.", "There are sharp phonological, lexical, and tonal changes, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited to varying degrees.The ''Atlas'' also includes several unclassified Mandarin dialects spoken in scattered pockets across southeastern China, such as Nanping in Fujian and Dongfang on Hainan.Another Mandarin variety of uncertain classification is apparently Gyami, recorded in the 19th century in the Tibetan foothills, who the Chinese apparently did not recognize as Chinese.Some northwestern Mandarin varieties in the Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund have undergone drastic changes in phonology, lexicon and grammar." ], [ "Phonology", "A syllable consists maximally of an initial consonant, a medial glide, a vowel, a coda, and tone.", "In the traditional analysis, the medial, vowel and coda are combined as a ''final''.Not all combinations occur.", "For example, Standard Chinese (based on the Beijing dialect) has about 1,200 distinct syllables.Phonological features that are generally shared by the Mandarin dialects include:* the palatalization of velar consonants and alveolar sibilants when they occur before palatal glides;* one syllable contains maximum four phonemes (maximum three vowels and no consonant cluster) * the disappearance of final stop consonants and (although in many Lower Yangtze Mandarin and Jin Chinese dialects, an echo of the final stops is preserved as a glottal stop);* the presence of retroflex consonants (although these are absent in many Southwestern and Northeastern Mandarin dialects);* the historical devoicing of stops and sibilants (also common to most non-Mandarin varieties).===Initials===The maximal inventory of initials of a Mandarin dialect is as follows, with bracketed pinyin spellings given for those present in the standard language: Labial Apical Retroflex Palatal Velar Nasals     Stops Affricates Fricatives Sonorants ~ * Most Mandarin-speaking areas distinguish between the retroflex initials from the apical sibilants , though they often have a different distribution than in the standard language.", "In most dialects of the southeast and southwest the retroflex initials have merged with the alveolar sibilants, so that ''zhi'' becomes ''zi'', ''chi'' becomes ''ci'', and ''shi'' becomes ''si''.", "* The alveolo-palatal sibilants are the result of merger between the historical palatalized velars and palatalized alveolar sibilants .", "In about 20% of dialects, the alveolar sibilants did not palatalize, remaining separate from the alveolo-palatal initials.", "(The unique pronunciation used in Peking opera falls into this category.)", "On the other side, in some dialects of eastern Shandong, the velar initials did not undergo palatalization.", "* Many southwestern Mandarin dialects mix and , substituting one for the other in some or all cases.", "For example, ''fei'' \"to fly\" and ''hui'' \"grey\" may be merged in these areas.", "* In some dialects, initial and are not distinguished.", "In Southwestern Mandarin, these sounds usually merge to ; in Lower Yangtze Mandarin, they usually merge to .", "* People in many Mandarin-speaking areas may use different initial sounds where Beijing uses initial ''r-'' .", "Common variants include , , and .", "* Some dialects have initial corresponding to the zero initial of the standard language.", "This initial is the result of a merger of the Middle Chinese zero initial with and .", "* Many dialects of Northwestern and Central Plains Mandarin have where Beijing has .", "Examples include \"pig\" for standard ''zhū'' , \"water\" for standard ''shuǐ'' , \"soft\" for standard ''ruǎn'' .===Finals===Most Mandarin dialects have three medial glides, , and (spelled ''i'', ''u'' and ''ü'' in pinyin), though their incidence varies.The medial , is lost after apical initials in several areas.Thus Southwestern Mandarin has \"correct\" where the standard language has ''dui'' .Southwestern Mandarin also has in some words where the standard has ''jie qie xie'' .", "This is a stereotypical feature of southwestern Mandarin, since it is so easily noticeable.", "E.g.", "''hai'' \"shoe\" for standard ''xie'', ''gai'' \"street\" for standard ''jie''.Mandarin dialects typically have relatively few vowels.", "Syllabic fricatives, as in standard ''zi'' and ''zhi'', are common in Mandarin dialects, though they also occur elsewhere.The Middle Chinese off-glides and are generally preserved in Mandarin dialects, yielding several diphthongs and triphthongs in contrast to the larger sets of monophthongs common in other dialect groups (and some widely scattered Mandarin dialects).The Middle Chinese coda was still present in Old Mandarin, but has merged with in the modern dialects.", "In some areas (especially the southwest) final has also merged with .", "This is especially prevalent in the rhyme pairs ''-en/-eng'' and ''-in/-ing'' .", "As a result, ''jīn'' \"gold\" and ''jīng'' \"capital\" merge in those dialects.The Middle Chinese final stops have undergone a variety of developments in different Mandarin dialects (see Tones below).", "In Lower Yangtze dialects and some north-western dialects they have merged as a final glottal stop.", "In other dialects they have been lost, with varying effects on the vowel.", "As a result, Beijing Mandarin and Northeastern Mandarin underwent more vowel mergers than many other varieties of Mandarin.", "For example: Character Meaning Standard(Beijing) Beijing, HarbinColloquial Jinan(Ji–Lu) Xi'an(Central Plains) Chengdu(Southwestern) Yangzhou(Lower Yangtze) Middle ChineseReconstructedPinyinIPA'lesson'R-coloring, a characteristic feature of Mandarin, works quite differently in the southwest.", "Whereas Beijing dialect generally removes only a final or when adding the rhotic final ''-r'' , in the southwest the ''-r'' replaces nearly the entire rhyme.===Tones===In general, no two Mandarin-speaking areas have exactly the same set of tone values, but most Mandarin-speaking areas have very similar tone ''distribution''.", "For example, the dialects of Jinan, Chengdu, Xi'an and so on all have four tones that correspond quite well to the Beijing dialect tones of (55), (35), (214), and (51).", "The exception to this rule lies in the distribution of syllables formerly ending in a stop consonant, which are treated differently in different dialects of Mandarin.Middle Chinese stops and affricates had a three-way distinction between tenuis, voiceless aspirate and voiced (or breathy voiced) consonants.In Mandarin dialects the voicing is generally lost, yielding voiceless aspirates in syllables with a Middle Chinese level tone and non-aspirates in other syllables.Of the four tones of Middle Chinese, the level, rising and departing tones have also developed into four modern tones in a uniform way across Mandarin dialects; the Middle Chinese level tone has split into two registers, conditioned on voicing of the Middle Chinese initial, while rising tone syllables with voiced obstruent initials have shifted to the departing tone.The following examples from the standard language illustrate the regular development common to Mandarin dialects (recall that pinyin ''d'' denotes a non-aspirate , while ''t'' denotes an aspirate ):+ Reflexes of Middle Chinese initials and tones in modern Mandarin Middle Chinese tone \"level tone\"() \"rising tone\"() \"departing tone\"() Example Middle Chinese tan tʰan lan dan tan tʰan lan dan tan tʰan lan dan Standard Chinese Modern Mandarin tone 1 () 2 () 3 () 4 ()In traditional Chinese phonology, syllables that ended in a stop in Middle Chinese (i.e.", "/p/, /t/ or /k/) were considered to belong to a special category known as the \"entering tone\".These final stops have disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, with the syllables distributed over the other four modern tones in different ways in the various Mandarin subgroups.In the Beijing dialect that underlies the standard language, syllables beginning with original voiceless consonants were redistributed across the four tones in a completely random pattern.", "For example, the three characters , all ''tsjek'' in Middle Chinese (William H. Baxter's transcription), are now pronounced , and respectively.", "Older dictionaries such as ''Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary'' mark characters whose pronunciation formerly ended with a stop with a superscript 5; however, this tone number is more commonly used for syllables that always have a neutral tone (see below).In Lower Yangtze dialects, a minority of Southwestern dialects (e.g.", "Minjiang) and Jin Chinese (sometimes considered non-Mandarin), former final stops were not deleted entirely, but were reduced to a glottal stop .", "(This includes the dialect of Nanjing on which the Postal Romanization was based; it transcribes the glottal stop as a trailing ''h''.)", "This development is shared with Wu Chinese and is thought to represent the pronunciation of Old Mandarin.", "In line with traditional Chinese phonology, dialects such as Lower Yangtze and Minjiang are thus said to have five tones instead of four.", "However, modern linguistics considers these syllables as having no phonemic tone at all.+ Reflexes of the Middle Chinese entering tone in Mandarin dialects subgroup Middle Chinese initial voiceless voiced sonorant voiced obstruent Beijing 1,3,4 4 2 Northeastern Jiao–Liao 3 Ji–Lu 1 Central Plains 1 Lan–Yin 4 Southwestern 2 Lower Yangtze marked with final glottal stop ()Although the system of tones is common across Mandarin dialects, their realization as tone contours varies widely:+ Phonetic realization of Mandarin tones in principal dialects Tone name 1 () 2 () 3 () 4 () marked withglottal stop () Beijing Beijing (55) (35) (214) (51) Northeastern Harbin (44) (24) (213) (52) Jiao–Liao Yantai (31) ( (55)) (214) (55) Ji–Lu Tianjin (21) (35) (113) (53) Shijiazhuang (23) (53) (55) (31) Central Plains Zhengzhou (24) (42) (53) (312) Luoyang (34) (42) (54) (31) Xi'an (21) (24) (53) (44) Tianshui (13) (53) (44) Lan–Yin Lanzhou (31) (53) (33) (24) Yinchuan (44) (53) (13) Southwestern Chengdu (44) (21) (53) (213) Xichang (33) (52) (45) (213) (31) Kunming (44) (31) (53) (212) Wuhan (55) (213) (42) (35) Liuzhou (44) (31) (53) (24) Lower Yangtze Yangzhou (31) (35) (42) (55) (5) Nantong (21) (35) (55) (42), (213)* (4), (5)* Dialects in and around the Nantong area typically have many more than 4 tones, due to influence from the neighbouring Wu dialects.Mandarin dialects frequently employ neutral tones in the second syllables of words, creating syllables whose tone contour is so short and light that it is difficult or impossible to discriminate.", "These atonal syllables also occur in non-Mandarin dialects, but in many southern dialects the tones of all syllables are made clear." ], [ "Vocabulary", "There are more polysyllabic words in Mandarin than in all other major varieties of Chinese except Shanghainese.", "This is partly because Mandarin has undergone many more sound changes than southern varieties of Chinese have, and needed to deal with many more homophones.", "New words have been formed by adding affixes such as ''lao-'' (), ''-zi'' (), ''-(e)r'' (/), and ''-tou'' (/), or by compounding, e.g.", "by combining two words of similar meaning as in ''cōngmáng'' (), made from elements meaning \"hurried\" and \"busy\".A distinctive feature of southwestern Mandarin is its frequent use of noun reduplication, which is hardly used in Beijing.", "In Sichuan, one hears ''bāobāo'' () \"handbag\" where Beijing uses .There are also a small number of words that have been polysyllabic since Old Chinese, such as () 'butterfly'.The singular pronouns in Mandarin are () 'I', ( or ) 'you', () 'you (formal)', and (, or /) 'he, 'she', 'it', with - (/) added for the plural.", "Further, there is a distinction between the plural first-person pronoun (/), which is inclusive of the listener, and (/), which may be exclusive of the listener.", "Dialects of Mandarin agree with each other quite consistently on these pronouns.", "While the first and second person singular pronouns are cognate with forms in other varieties of Chinese, the rest of the pronominal system is a Mandarin innovation (e.g., Shanghainese has ''non'' / 'you' and ''yi'' 'he', 'she').Because of contact with Mongolian and Manchurian peoples, Mandarin (especially the Northeastern varieties) has some loanwords from these languages not present in other varieties of Chinese, such as () \"alley\".", "Southern Chinese varieties have borrowed from Tai, Austroasiatic, and Austronesian languages.There are also many Chinese words which come from foreign languages such as () from \"golf\"; () from \"bikini\", and () from \"hamburger\".In general, the greatest variation occurs in slang, in kinship terms, in names for common crops and domesticated animals, for common verbs and adjectives, and other such everyday terms.", "The least variation occurs in \"formal\" vocabulary—terms dealing with science, law, or government." ], [ "Grammar", "Chinese varieties of all periods are considered prime examples of analytic languages, relying on word order and particles instead of inflection or affixes to provide grammatical information such as person, number, tense, mood, or case.Although modern varieties, including the Mandarin dialects, use a small number of particles in a similar fashion to suffixes, they are still strongly analytic.The basic word order of subject–verb–object is common across Chinese dialects, but there are variations in the order of the two objects of ditransitive sentences.In northern dialects the indirect object precedes the direct object (as in English), for example in the Standard Chinese sentence:In southern dialects, as well as many southwestern and Lower Yangtze dialects, the objects occur in the reverse order.Most varieties of Chinese use post-verbal particles to indicate aspect, but the particles used vary.Most Mandarin dialects use the particle to indicate the perfective aspect and for the progressive aspect.Other Chinese varieties tend to use different particles, e.g.", "Cantonese and respectively.The experiential aspect particle is used more widely, except in Southern Min.The subordinative particle is characteristic of Mandarin dialects.Some southern dialects, and a few Lower Yangtze dialects, preserve an older pattern of subordination without a marking particle, while in others a classifier fulfils the role of the Mandarin particle.Especially in conversational Chinese, sentence-final particles alter the inherent meaning of a sentence.", "Like much vocabulary, particles can vary a great deal with regards to the locale.", "For example, the particle , which is used in most northern dialects to denote obviousness or contention, is replaced by in southern usage.Some characters in Mandarin can be combined with others to indicate a particular meaning just like prefix and suffix in English.", "For example, the suffix -er which means the person who is doing the action, e.g.", "teacher, person who teaches.", "In Mandarin the character has the same function, it is combined with , which means 'teach', to form the word 'teacher'.List of several common Chinese prefixes and suffixes: Affix Pronunciation Gloss Example Example gloss plural for human nouns, same as -s, -es , 'students', 'friends' same as -able , , 'trusty', 'laughable', 'reliable' same as re- (again) 'redo', 'rebuild', 'renew' same as -th, -st, -nd , 'second', 'first' old, or show respect to a certain type of person, , 'old man', 'boss', 'teacher' same as -ize, -en 'officialize', 'systemize', 'strengthen' same as -er or expert 'writer', 'scientist', 'artist' same as -ness, -ability 'reliability', 'usability', 'understand-ability' usually used in a disparaging way, similar to -aholic 'smoker', 'alcoholic', 'coward' a technician in a certain field , , 'gardener', 'painter', 'carpenter an enthusiast , , 'theater fan', 'sports fan', 'groupie (of a musician)' suffix for occupations , 'teacher', 'chef', 'lawyer'" ], [ "Example Text", "From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Chinese (Mandarin):" ], [ "See also", "* Chinese dictionary* Transcription into Chinese characters* Written Chinese* Languages of China* List of varieties of Chinese* ''Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects''* List of languages by number of native speakers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===; Works cited* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * ***===Historical Western language texts=== * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Tones in Mandarin Dialects : Comprehensive tone comparison charts for 523 Mandarin dialects.", "(Compiled by James Campbell) – Internet Archive mirror" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mayo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mayo''' often refers to:* Mayonnaise, often shortened to \"mayo\"* Mayo Clinic, a medical center in Rochester, Minnesota, United States'''Mayo''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===Antarctica===* Mayo Peak, Marie Byrd Land===Australia===* Division of Mayo, an Australian Electoral Division in South Australia===Canada===* Mayo, Quebec, a municipality* Mayo, Yukon, a village** Mayo (electoral district), Yukon, a former electoral district===Cape Verde===* Maio, Cape Verde (also formerly known as Mayo Island)===Republic of Ireland===* County Mayo* Mayo (Dáil constituency)* County Mayo (Parliament of Ireland constituency)* County Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)* Mayo, County Mayo, a village===Ivory Coast===*Mayo, Ivory Coast, a town and commune=== Sudan ===* Mayo, Khartoum, a neighborhood===Thailand===* Mayo district, Pattani===United Kingdom===* Mayo, a townland in County Down, Northern Ireland* Mayo (UK Parliament constituency), a former constituency encompassing the whole of County Mayo===United States===* Mayo, Florida, a town* Mayo, Kentucky, an unincorporated community* Mayo, Maryland, a census-designated place* Mayo, South Carolina, a census-designated place* Mayo Lake, North Carolina, a reservoir===Multiple places===* Mayo River (disambiguation), various rivers" ], [ "Schools", "* Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, formerly Mayo Medical School, an American medical school that is part of the Mayo Clinic and the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science* Mayo High School, a public high school in Rochester, Minnesota, United States* Mayo College, a secondary educational institution in Ajmer, Rajasthan, India" ], [ "People", "* Mayo (surname)* Mayo (given name)* Mayo people, an indigenous ethnic group in the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora* Meo (ethnic group) or Mayo, an Indian ethnic tribe of Rajputs* James Mayo, pen name of Stephen Coulter (born 1913/14), English author" ], [ "Other uses", "* Short Mayo Composite, a piggy-back long-range seaplane/flying boat combination built by Short Brothers in the late 1930s* , World War II US Navy destroyer* Earl of Mayo, a title in the Peerage of Ireland* Viscount Mayo, a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of Ireland* Mayo GAA, a county board of the Gaelic Athletic Association** Mayo county football team** Mayo county hurling team* Mayo language, spoken by the Mayo people* ''Mayo'' (TV series), a BBC television series first broadcast in 2006* \"Mayo\" (song), by DJ Speedsta* Mayo Hospital, in Lahore, Pakistan* Mayo Hotel, Tulsa, Oklahoma, on the National Register of Historic Places* Mexican American Youth Organization* Project Mayo, an open source project by DivX, Inc.* ''Mayo v. Prometheus'', a U.S. Supreme Court case* ''Avenida de Mayo'', an avenue in Buenos Aires, Argentina" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Richard Melville Hall''' (born September 11, 1965), known professionally as '''Moby''', is an American musician, songwriter, singer, producer, and animal rights activist.", "He has sold 20 million records worldwide.", "AllMusic considers him to be \"among the most important dance music figures of the early 1990s, helping bring dance music to a mainstream audience both in the United States and the United Kingdom\".After taking up guitar and piano at age nine, he played in several underground punk rock bands through the 1980s before turning to electronic dance music.", "In 1989, he moved to New York City and became a prolific figure as a DJ, producer and remixer.", "His 1991 single \"Go\" was his mainstream breakthrough, especially in Europe, where it peaked within the top ten of the charts in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.", "Between 1992 and 1997 he scored eight top 10 hits on the ''Billboard'' Dance Club Songs chart including \"Move (You Make Me Feel So Good)\", \"Feeling So Real\", and \"James Bond Theme (Moby Re-Version)\".", "Throughout the decade he also produced music under various pseudonyms, released the critically acclaimed ''Everything Is Wrong'' (1995), and composed music for films.", "His punk-oriented album ''Animal Rights'' (1996) alienated much of his fan base.Moby found commercial and critical success with his fifth album ''Play'' (1999) which, after receiving little recognition, became an unexpected global hit in 2000 after each track was licensed to films, television shows, and commercials.", "It remains his highest selling album with 12 million copies sold.", "Its seventh single, \"South Side\", featuring Gwen Stefani, remains his only one to appear on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100, reaching No.", "14.Moby followed ''Play'' with albums of varied styles including electronic, dance, rock, and downtempo music, starting with ''18'' (2002), ''Hotel'' (2005), and ''Last Night'' (2008).", "His later albums saw him explore ambient music, including the almost four-hour release ''Long Ambients 1: Calm.", "Sleep.''", "(2016).", "Moby continues to record and release albums; his twenty-first studio album, ''Resound NYC'', was released in May 2023.In addition to his music career, Moby is known for his veganism and support for animal rights and humanitarian aid.", "He was the owner of TeaNY, a vegan cafe in Manhattan, and Little Pine, a vegan restaurant in Los Angeles, and organized the vegan music and food festival Circle V. He is the author of four books, including a collection of his photography and two memoirs: ''Porcelain: A Memoir'' (2016) and ''Then It Fell Apart'' (2019)." ], [ "Early life and influences", "Richard Melville Hall was born September 11, 1965, in the neighborhood of Harlem in Manhattan, New York City.", "He is an only child of Elizabeth McBride (''née'' Warner), a medical secretary, and James Frederick Hall, a chemistry professor, who died in a car crash while drunk when Moby was two.", "His father gave him the nickname Moby three days after his birth as his parents considered the name Richard too large for a newborn baby.", "The name was also a reference to the ancestry Hall says he was told by his family, though he is not directly related to Herman Melville, author of ''Moby-Dick.''", "Moby is distantly related to David Melville, inventor of the first United States-patented gas light system.Moby was raised by his mother, first in San Francisco from 1969 for a short period.", "He recalled being sexually abused by a staff member at his daycare during this time.", "This was followed by a move to Darien, Connecticut, living in a squat with \"three or four other drug-addicted hippies, with bands playing in the basement.\"", "The two then moved to Stratford, Connecticut, for a brief time.", "His mother struggled to support her son, often relying on food stamps and government welfare.", "They occasionally stayed with Moby's grandparents in Darien, but the affluence of the New York City suburb made him feel poor and ashamed.", "Shortly before his mother's death in 1997, Moby learned from her that he has a half brother.", "His first job was a caddy at a golf course.Moby took up music at the age of nine.", "He started on classical guitar and received piano lessons from his mother before studying jazz, music theory, and percussion.", "In 1983, he became the guitarist in a hardcore punk band, the Vatican Commandos, playing on their debut EP ''Hit Squad for God''.", "Around this time he was the lead vocalist for Flipper for two days; Moby played bass for their reunion shows in the 2000s.", "Moby formed a post-punk group named AWOL around the time of his eighteenth birthday.", "He is credited on their only release, a self-titled EP, as Moby Hall.In 1983, Moby graduated from Darien High School and started a philosophy degree at the University of Connecticut in Storrs, Connecticut.", "Around this time he had found the instruments he had learned \"sonically limiting\" and moved to electronic music.", "He spun records at the campus radio station WHUS, which led to DJ work in local clubs and bars.", "Moby grew increasingly unhappy at university, however, and transferred to State University of New York at Purchase, studying philosophy and photography, to try and renew his interest in studying.", "He dropped out in April 1984 to pursue DJing and music full-time, which started his interest in electronic dance music.", "For two years he lived in Greenwich, Connecticut, where he DJ'd at The Cafe, an under-21 nightclub at the back of a church.", "In 1987, he started to send demos of his music to record labels in New York City; he failed to receive an offer, which led to a two-year period of \"very fruitless labor\".", "Around 1988, Moby moved into a semi-abandoned factory in Stamford, Connecticut, that had no bathroom or running water, but the free electricity supply allowed him to work on his music, using a 4-track recorder, synthesizer, and drum machine.Moby cites English band Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD) as \"heroes\", without whom he would never have begun making electronic music.", "His other formative influences include Nick Drake, Suicide, Silver Apples, Eric B.", "& Rakim, and Public Enemy." ], [ "Career", "===1989–1993: Signing with Instinct, \"Go\", and breakthrough===In 1989, Moby relocated to New York City with his close friend, artist Damian Loeb.", "In addition to performing DJ sets in local bars and clubs, he played guitar in alternative rock group Ultra Vivid Scene and appeared in the video for their 1989 single \"Mercy Seat\".", "In 1990, Moby joined Shopwell and played on their album ''Peanuts''.", "Moby's first live electronic music gig followed in the summer of 1990 at Club MK; he wore a suit for the show.", "His future manager Eric Härle, who was in attendance, recalled Moby's set: \"The music was amazing, but the show was riddled with technical mishaps.", "It left me very intrigued and impressed in a strange way.", "\"By mid-1990, Moby had signed a deal as the sole artist of Instinct Records, an independent New York City-based dance label then still in its infancy.", "The three-man operation saw Moby answer incoming calls and make records in a studio he set up in the owner's lounge.", "To appear that Instinct had more artists, Moby's early singles were put out under several names such as Voodoo Child, Barracuda, Brainstorm, and UHF.", "The first, \"Time's Up\" as The Brotherhood, was co-written by Moby and vocalist Jimmy Mack.", "This was followed by \"Mobility\", his first single released as Moby, in November 1990, which sold an initial 2,000 copies.", "He then scored a breakthrough hit with a remix of \"Go\", originally a B-side to \"Mobility\" with an added sample of \"Laura Palmer's Theme\" by Angelo Badalamenti from the television series ''Twin Peaks''.", "Released in March 1991, it peaked at No.", "10 in the UK in October and earned him national exposure there with an appearance on ''Top of the Pops''.", "Instinct capitalised on Moby's success with the late 1991 compilation ''Instinct Dance'' featuring tracks by Moby and his pseudonyms.", "The following year, Moby revealed that \"Go\" had earned him just $2,000 in royalties.The success of \"Go\" led to increased demand for Moby to produce more music and to remix other artists' songs.", "He often arranged for the artist and himself to trade remixes as opposed to being paid for his work, which was the case for his mixes for Billy Corgan and Soundgarden.", "The increased mainstream exposure led Moby to request a release from his contract with Instinct for a bigger label.", "Instinct refused, so Moby retaliated by holding out on new material.", "However, Instinct continued to put out records, mostly from demos, without his consent having previously copied many of his tapes and had the master rights.", "This was the case for Moby's debut album, ''Moby'', released in July 1992 and formed mostly of previously unreleased demos that Moby considered old and unrepresentative of the musical direction he had taken since.", "Nonetheless, he claimed Instinct had insisted and had the legal right to put it out.", "It was re-titled ''The Story So Far'' and presented with a different track listing for its UK release.", "Four singles were released: \"Go\", \"Drop a Beat\", \"Next Is the E\", and a double A-side of \"I Feel It\" with \"Thousand\".", "The latter was recognised by ''Guinness World Records'' as the fastest tempo in a recorded song at 1,015 beats-per-minute.In 1992, Moby completed his first US tour as the opening act for The Shamen.", "In mid-1992, Moby estimated that he had earned between $8,000 to $11,000 a year for the past six years.", "At the 1992 ''Mixmag'' awards, he smashed his keyboard after his set.", "After his second nationwide tour, this time with The Prodigy and Richie Hawtin, in early 1993, a second compilation of Moby's work for Instinct followed named ''Early Underground''.", "His second and final album on Instinct, ''Ambient'', was released in August 1993.It is a collection of mostly ambient techno instrumentals of a more experimental style.", "By this time Instinct had agreed to release Moby who then took legal action, claiming that the label demanded \"a ridiculous amount of money\" that he did not have to leave.", "He also expressed disagreements over the way Instinct had packaged and handled his music.", "Moby was eventually released after he paid the label $10,000.===1993–1998: Signing with Elektra, ''Everything Is Wrong'', and ''Animal Rights''===In 1993, Moby signed with Elektra Records, which lasted for five years.", "He secured a deal with Mute Records, a British label, to handle his European distribution.", "Moby's output for Elektra/Mute began with ''Move'', a four-track EP released in August 1993.He attempted to make it in a professional studio, but he disliked the results and re-recorded it at home.", "The song \"All That I Need Is to Be Loved (MV)\" is his first song to feature his own vocals.", "The first single, \"Move (You Make Me Feel So Good)\", reached No.", "1 on the US ''Billboard'' Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart and No.", "21 in the UK.", "In 1993, Moby toured as the headlining act with Orbital and Aphex Twin.", "A rift developed between Aphex Twin and himself, partly due to Moby's refusal to tolerate their cigarette smoke, so he travelled to each gig by plane, leaving the rest on the tour bus.", "In 1994, Moby put out ''Demons/Horses'', an electronic album of two 20-minute tracks under the name Voodoo Child.Moby's contract with Elektra allowed the opportunity to make his third full-length album, which was underway in 1994.He chose to include a variety of musical styles on the album that he either liked or had been influenced by, including electronic dance, ambient, rock, and industrial music.", "''Everything Is Wrong'' was released in March 1995 to critical praise; ''Spin'' magazine named it Album of the Year and some commentators considered it to be an album ahead of its time as it failed to crack the ''Billboard'' 200 or have an impact on the dance charts.", "In the UK, the album reached No.", "25 and the singles \"Hymn\" and \"Feeling So Real\" went to Nos.", "31 and 30, respectively.", "Elektra took advantage of its diverse sound by distributing tracks of the same style to corresponding radio stations nationwide.", "Early copies put out in the UK and Germany included a bonus CD of ambient music entitled ''Underwater''.", "Moby toured the album with some headline spots on the second stage at the 1995 Lollapalooza festival.", "He followed it with a double remix album, ''Everything Is Wrong—Mixed and Remixed''.The success of ''Everything Is Wrong'' had Moby reach a new peak in critical acclaim.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' thought the 29-year-old Moby was \"poised for greatness ... to make that big crossover\" from a respected underground artist to a mainstream dance and rock musician.", "''Billboard'' declared him \"King of techno\" and ''Spin'' named him \"the closest techno comes to a complete artist.\"", "In 1995, Moby was approached by Courtney Love to produce the next Hole album, but he declined.", "He directed the music video for \"Young Man's Stride\" by Mercury Rev.", "In 1995 and 1996, Moby put out a number of \"self-indulgent dance\" singles under the pseudonyms Lopez and DJ Cake on Trophy Records, his own Mute imprint, so he could release material that he was interested in without concern for its commercial impact.", "In 1996, Moby contributed \"Republican Party\" to the AIDS benefit album ''Offbeat: A Red Hot Soundtrip'' produced by the Red Hot Organization and released his second Voodoo Child album, ''The End of Everything''.While touring ''Everything Is Wrong'', Moby had grown bored with the electronic scene and felt the press had failed to understand his records and take them seriously.", "This marked a major stylistic change for his next album, ''Animal Rights'', combining guitar-driven rock songs with Moby on lead vocals and softer ambient tracks.", "Upon completing the album Moby said that it was \"weird, long, self-indulgent and difficult\".", "Its lead single is a cover version of \"That's When I Reach for My Revolver\" by post-punk group Mission of Burma.", "''Animal Rights'' was released in September 1996 in the UK, where it peaked at No.", "38, and in February 1997 in the US.", "It was poorly received by his dance fan base who felt Moby had abandoned them, creating doubts as to what kind of artist Moby really was.", "Moby pointed out that he had not abandoned his electronic music completely and had worked on dance and house mixes and film scores while making ''Animal Rights''.After ''Animal Rights'', Moby's manager recalled: \"We found ourselves struggling for even the slightest bit of recognition.", "He became a has-been in the eyes of a lot of people in the industry\".", "Despite the hit in sales and critical response, Moby promoted the album with a European tour with Red Hot Chili Peppers and Soundgarden, and headlined the Big Top tour with other dance and electronic DJs.", "He returned to the genre after liking the house music that a friend and DJ had played at a party.", "In October 1997, Moby displayed his range of music styles with the release of ''I Like to Score'', a compilation of his film soundtrack work with some re-recorded tracks.", "Among them are updated version of the \"James Bond Theme\" used for ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', music used in ''Scream'', and a cover of \"New Dawn Fades\" by Joy Division, an instrumental version of which appeared in ''Heat''.", "Late 1997 saw Moby start his first US tour in two years.In 1998, Elektra granted Moby's request to be released from his deal on the condition that he paid to leave, which amounted to \"quite a lot\".", "He felt Elektra did little to capitalise on the critical success of ''Everything Is Wrong'', and that it was only interested in radio friendly hits.", "Left without an American distributor, his only deal remained with the UK-based Mute Records.", "Moby considered himself an artist that did not belong to a major label as his music did not fit with the genres that they promoted.===1999–2004: ''Play'', worldwide success, and ''18''===Moby's fifth album, ''Play'', was released by Mute and V2 Records in May 1999.The project originated when a music journalist introduced Moby to the field recordings of Alan Lomax from the compilation album ''Sounds of the South: A Musical Journey From the Georgia Sea Islands to the Mississippi Delta''.", "Moby took an interest in the songs and formed samples from various tracks which he used to base new tracks of his own.", "Upon release in May 1999, ''Play'' had moderate sales but eventually sold over 10 million copies worldwide.", "Moby toured worldwide in support of the album, which lasted 22 months.", "Every track on ''Play'' was licensed to various films, advertisements, and television shows, as well as independent films and non-profit groups.", "The move was criticised and led to some to consider that Moby had become a sellout, but he later maintained that the licenses were granted mostly to independent films and non-profit projects, and agreed to them due to the difficulty of getting his music heard on the radio and television in the past.", "In 2007, ''The Washington Post'' published an article about a mathematical equation dubbed the \"Moby quotient\" that determined to what degree had a musical artist sold out.", "It was named in reference to his decision to license music from ''Play''.Area:One festival in 2001, which he foundedIn 2000, Moby contributed \"Flower\" to ''Gone in 60 Seconds''.", "He co-wrote \"Is It Any Wonder\" with Sophie Ellis-Bextor for her debut solo album, ''Read My Lips''.", "''Moby: Play - The DVD'', released in 2001, features the music videos produced for the album, live performances, and other bonus features.", "It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video.", "In 2001, Moby founded the Area:One Festival which toured the US and Canada across 17 shows that summer with a range of artists.", "The set included Outkast, New Order, Incubus, Nelly Furtado, and Paul Oakenfold, with Moby headlining.Moby started on the follow-up to ''Play'' in late 2000.Prior to working on tracks for ''18'', he got friends to search for records with vocals that he could use and make samples from and went on to write over 140 songs for the album.", "At the same time, Moby familiarised himself with the ProTools software and made ''18'' with it.", "Released in May 2002, ''18'' went to No.", "1 in the UK and eleven other countries, and No.", "4 in the US.", "It went on to sell over four million copies worldwide.", "Moby toured extensively for both ''Play'' and ''18'', playing over 500 shows in the next four years.", "The tour included the Area2 Festival in the summer of 2002, featuring a line-up of Moby, David Bowie, Blue Man Group, Busta Rhymes, and Carl Cox.", "In December 2002, during a tour stop at Paradise Rock Club in Boston, Moby was punched in the face and sprayed with mace by two or three assailants while signing autographs outside the venue.", "The incident left him with multiple bruises and cuts.In February 2002, Moby performed at the closing ceremony of the Winter Olympics.", "That month he hosted the half-hour MTV series ''Señor Moby's House of Music'', presenting a selection of electronic and dance music videos.", "His song \"Extreme Ways\" was used in all five of the ''Bourne'' films, from 2002 to 2016.Moby said that after it was used for the first, the producers originally sought a different artist for the second but they had too little time to secure someone, leading them to pick \"Extreme Ways\" for the entire series.", "In 2002, rapper Eminem mocked Moby in his song \"Without Me\" and its music video, dressing up like him and calling him an \"old baldheaded fag\" and his techno music outdated.", "Eminem had also shot a mock figure of Moby on stage.", "Moby put the attack down to Eminem having \"this unrequited crush on me.", "\"In 2003, Moby headlined the Glastonbury Festival on the final day.", "He co-wrote and produced \"Early Mornin'\" for Britney Spears' album ''In the Zone'' released that year.", "Moby returned to his dance and rave roots with the release of ''Baby Monkey'', the third album under his Voodoo Child moniker, in 2004.Later that year, he collaborated with Public Enemy on \"Make Love Fuck War\", a protest song against the Iraq War.=== 2004–2010: ''Hotel'', ''Last Night'', and ''Wait for Me'' ===Moby performing a DJ set in 2004Moby's seventh album, ''Hotel'', was released in March 2005.The album contains little use of samples, which Moby reasoned to using different audio recording software which had a sampling function that was too difficult to learn, \"so it was me just being lazy\".", "He nonetheless said that ''Hotel'' is a more satisfying album as a result.", "The instruments were recorded live by Moby except for the drums, for which he enlisted his longtime live drummer Scott Frassetto.", "The album features vocals from six other performers, including Laura Dawn and Shayna Steele.", "In 2013, Moby looked back on the album as his least favourite of his career, pointing out that it was the only one not recorded at his home studio.", "The singles \"Lift Me Up\" and \"Slipping Away\" became top-10 hits across Europe.", "Early copies of the album included a bonus CD of remixes and ambient music entitled ''Hotel: Ambient'' that was released on its own in 2014.In 2006, he accepted an offer to score the soundtrack for Richard Kelly's 2007 movie ''Southland Tales'', because he was a fan of Kelly's previous film, ''Donnie Darko''.", "In 2007, Moby also started a rock band, The Little Death with his friends Laura Dawn, Daron Murphy, and Aaron A. Brooks.", "Following the dissolution of V2 Records in 2007, Moby signed a new deal with Mute Records to handle his American distribution.", "In 2007 Moby produced and performed on a remake of \"The Bulrushes\" by The Bongos that appeared on the special anniversary edition of the group's debut album ''Drums Along the Hudson'', on Cooking Vinyl Records.", "From 2007 to 2008 he ran a series of New York club events titled \"Degenerates\".In 2008, Moby released ''Last Night'', an electronic dance album inspired by a night out in his New York City neighborhood.", "The album was recorded in Moby's home studio and features various guest vocalists, including Wendy Starland, MC Grandmaster Caz, Sylvia of Kudu, MC Aynzli, and the Nigerian 419 Squad.", "The singles from ''Last Night'' include \"Alice\" and \"Disco Lies\".Moby performing at the David Lynch Weekend in 2008Moby wished for the follow-up to ''Last Night'' to be emotional, personal, and melodic.", "He felt creatively inspired by a David Lynch speech at the BAFTA Award ceremony in the UK which prompted him to write new material that he liked with little regard to its mainstream commercial success.", "He decided against recording in a professional studio as he wanted to record the entire album at home, and chose to have the album mixed using analogue equipment.", "''Wait for Me'' was released on June 30, 2009.Moby and Lynch discussed the recording process of ''Wait for Me'' on Lynch's online channel, David Lynch Foundation Television Beta.", "The video to the first single, \"Shot in the Back of the Head\", offered as a free download, was directed by Lynch.Moby held a user-generated content competition to have fans create a video for \"Wait for Me\", the last single from the album, which was to be used as the official video.", "The winning entry was written and directed by Nimrod Shapira of Israel, and portrays the story of a girl who decides to invite Moby into her life.", "She attempts to do so by using a book called ''How to Summon Moby, A Guide for Dummies'', putting herself through bizarre and comical steps, each is a tribute to a different Moby video.", "The single was released in May 2010.The ''Wait for Me'' tour featured a full band.", "Moby raised over $75,000 from three shows in California to help those affected by domestic violence after funding for the state's domestic violence program had been cut.", "The tour also saw Moby headline the Falls Festival in Australia and various Sunset Sounds festivals.", "An ambient version ''Wait for Me'' was released in late 2009 as ''Wait for Me: Ambient'', which Moby did not produce.In 2010, Moby enlisted vocalist Phil Costello as a songwriting partner for a new heavy metal band, Diamondsnake.", "After writing 13 songs, they recruited guitarist Dave Hill and a drummer named Tomato to complete the line-up.", "They recorded their self-titled debut album in one day and released it for free on their website.", "It was promoted with a series of gigs in New York City and Los Angeles.", "Moby contributed four songs to the soundtrack of ''The Next Three Days'', including the single \"Mistake\".===2010–2015: ''Destroyed'' and ''Innocents''===Moby promoting the ''Destroyed'' book and album at a performance and discussion in the Brooklyn Museum, 2011In January 2010, Moby announced that he had started work on a new album.", "He later summarised its style as: \"Broken down melodic electronic music for empty cities at 2 a.m.\" The album was promoted with an EP containing three tracks from the album, given free to those who had signed up to Moby's mailing list, entitled ''Be the One'', in February 2011.The album, ''Destroyed'', was released in May 2011.A same-titled book of Moby's photography was released around the time of the album.", "Moby took to an online poll to decide the next single from ''Destroyed''; the fans picked \"Lie Down in Darkness\".", "This was followed by \"After\" and \"The Right Thing\", both influenced by what fans had picked.", "A limited edition remixed version of ''Destroyed'' was released in 2012 as ''Destroyed Remixed'' and includes new remixes by David Lynch, Holy Ghost!", "and System Divine, and a new 30-minute ambient track named \"All Sides Gone\".Moby toured worldwide throughout 2013, completing acoustic and DJ sets at various concerts and festivals.", "His DJ set at Coachella was produced in collaboration with NASA with various images from space projected onto screens during the performance.", "On Record Store Day in 2013, Moby released a 7-inch record, ''The Lonely Night'', featuring Screaming Trees vocalist Mark Lanegan.", "The track was subsequently released as a download with remixes by Moby, Photek, Gregor Tresher, and Freescha.In October 2013, Moby released ''Innocents''.", "He had worked on the album for the previous 18 months and hired Spike Stent to produce it.", "Moby used several guest vocalists on the album, and picked Neil Young and \"Broken English\" by Marianne Faithfull as the biggest influences to the musical style on the album.", "As with ''Destroyed'', the photographs used for the artwork were all shot by Moby.", "The first single from the album was \"A Case for Shame\", followed by \"The Perfect Life\", which featured Wayne Coyne.", "A casting call for its video asked \"for obese Speedo-sporting bikers, nude rollerskating ghosts, and an S&M gimp proficient in rhythmic gymnastics\".", "Moby promoted the album with three shows at the Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles, following his decision to undergo little touring from 2014.He wrote: \"Pretty much all I want to do in life is stay home and make music.", "So, thus: a 3 date world tour.", "\"Six of Moby's songs are feature in ''Charlie Countryman'' (2013).", "His music set the tone to ''Cathedrals of Culture'' (2014), a 3D documentary film about the soul of buildings, directed by Wim Wenders.", "In December 2014, Moby performed three shows of ambient music at the Masonic Lodge in Hollywood Forever Cemetery to support the release of ''Hotel: Ambient''.", "The performances were accompanied by visuals created by himself and with David Lynch.===2016–present: Recent albums and documentary===After ''Innocents'', Moby proceeded to make a new wave dance album with a choir, but realised the difficulty in recording a full choir in his home studio and resorted to multi-tracking vocals performed by himself and guests.", "He then decided against the new wave album and opted for one made by himself and seven guest vocalists he named the Void Pacific Choir.", "''These Systems Are Failing'' was announced in September 2016 and coincided with the first single release, \"Are You Lost In The World Like Me?\".", "Its video, by animator Steve Cutts, addresses smartphone addiction which won a Webby Award.", "''These Systems Are Failing'' was released on October 14, 2016.Moby's sole live performance of 2016 was at Circle V, a vegan food and music festival that he founded that took place on October 23 at the Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles.", "A second album with the Void Pacific Choir name followed in June 2017, entitled ''More Fast Songs About the Apocalypse'', influenced by the results of the 2016 United States presidential election.", "Released for free online, it was marketed from a spoof website using elected President Donald Trump's alleged PR alter-ego, John Miller.Moby performing in 2018Moby announced his fifteenth studio album, ''Everything Was Beautiful, and Nothing Hurt'', in December 2017.The announcement coincided with the release of the first single, \"Like a Motherless Child\".", "In contrast to the politically inspired and punk nature of the two Void Pacific Choir records, the album explores themes of spirituality, individuality, and humanity.", "The album was released on March 2, 2018.The second single, \"Mere Anarchy\", was described by Moby as \"post apocalypse, people are gone, and my friend Julie and I are time traveling aliens visiting the empty Earth.\"", "\"This Wild Darkness\" was the third single, released in February 2018.Moby described the song as \"an existential dialog between me and the gospel choir: me talking about my confusion, the choir answering with longing and hope.\"", "Moby promoted the album with three live shows in March 2018 with a full band, one at The Echo in Los Angeles and two at Rough Trade in New York City.", "All profits from the album and gigs were donated to animal rights organizations.In 2018, Moby was a guest performer on \"A$AP Forever\" by American rapper A$AP Rocky which samples \"Porcelain\".", "This resulted in Moby's second ever appearance on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 singles chart, having previously charted for \"Southside\", 17 years prior.", "Moby contributed several songs to the comedy ''Half Magic'' (2018) directed by Heather Graham.In March 2019, Moby released a follow-up to his first long ambient album, ''Long Ambients 2''.In January 2020, Moby announced that his new studio album ''All Visible Objects'' will be released on May 15.The first single, \"Power is Taken\" featuring D. H. Peligro, was released on the same day as the announcement.", "All profits from the album will be given to charity.In December 2020, Moby released another ambient album, ''Live Ambients – Improvised Recordings Vol.", "1''.", "It features tracks recorded under three conditions that he set himself: improvise with nothing written beforehand, no editing of the pieces after recording, and that every part of the process was to be \"calming\".", "The album was released on digital streaming platforms, followed by videos of Moby performing each track on December 30 on his YouTube channel.A documentary titled ''Moby Doc'' on Moby's life and career was released digitally and theatrically in May 2021.The film was produced by his production company Little Walnut.", "Moby's next album, ''Reprise'', was also released that month on Deutsche Grammophon.", "It features orchestral versions of his greatest hits with multiple guest artists.", "The album charted in 16 countries and includes vocals by Gregory Porter, Kris Kristofferson, Jim James and more.", "In May 2022, Moby released ''Reprise Remixes'', featuring remixes of tracks from the ''Reprise'' from various artists, including Topic, Anfisa Letyago, Planningtorock, and Biscuits.On June 1, 2022, Moby launched his new record label, Always Centered at Night.", "He established it to sign \"emerging and fascinating variety of singers to join with me in making music they might not have been able to make elsewhere.\"", "The first single, \"Medusa\", features Grammy nominated singer Aynzli Jones.On January 1, 2023, Moby released a two-and-a-half-hour ambient album ''Ambient 23''.", "It was made almost exclusively with dated drum machines and synthesizers, with his \"early ambient heroes\" as sources of inspiration, including Brian Eno and Jean-Michel Jarre.===Collaborations===Moby playing guitar with Joy Malcolm in 2008Moby has collaborated live with many of his heroes while on tour or at fundraisers.", "He has performed \"Walk on the Wild Side\" with Lou Reed, \"Me and Bobby McGee\" with Kris Kristofferson, \"Heroes\" and \"Cactus\" with David Bowie, \"Helpless\" with Bono and Michael Stipe, \"New Dawn Fades\" with New Order, \"Make Love, Fuck War\" with Public Enemy, \"Whole Lotta Love\" with Slash, and \"That's When I Reach For My Revolver\" with Mission of Burma.He has performed two duets with the French singer Mylène Farmer (\"Slipping Away (Crier la vie)\" in 2006 and \"Looking for My Name\" in 2008) and produced seven songs on her eighth album, ''Bleu Noir'', released on December 6, 2010.She also sang the vocals to the rework of the song \"Hyenas\" present on the Resound NYC album.In 1992 he contributed vocals to song \"Curse\" on Recoil's \"Bloodline\" (Alan Wilder's solo project, he was Depeche Mode member at time of that recording).", "Moby arguably later used this inspiration for his breakthrough 1999 album, Play, for which he used several old field recordings by Alan Lomax, much as Wilder had used a 1937 recording of White's \"Shake 'Em On Down\".In 2013, Moby was responsible for the soundtrack of the documentary ''The Crash Reel'', who tells the story of snowboarder Kevin Pearce.On October 16, 2015, Jean Michel Jarre released his compilation album ''Electronica 1: The Time Machine'', which included the track \"Suns have gone\" co-produced by Jarre and Moby.On September 24, 2016, Moby announced the release of an album titled ''These Systems Are Failing'', released under the name Moby & Void Pacific Choir.", "The followed the release of two singles from Moby & The Void Pacific Choir in 2015, \"Almost Loved\" & \"The Light Is Clear In My Eyes\".===TV work===Starz aired a special episode of ''Blunt Talk,'' the Patrick Stewart comedy which involved Moby.", "He had been friends with Jonathan Ames for a long time, and \"when we both lived in NY we did a lot of really strange, cabaret, vaudeville type shows together, and we just sort of stayed friends over the years.", "I guess when he and the other writers were writing ''Blunt Talk'' one of them thought it would be funny to include me as Patrick Stewart's character's ex-wife's current boyfriend.", "\"Moby was one of the first musicians to have an episode on Netflix's new music documentary series titled ''Once In a Lifetime Sessions''; where he records, discusses, and performs his music.", "''Moby Doc'', a documentary about the artist's life was released on May 28, 2021.His documentary ''Punk Rock Vegan Movie'' was released in February 2023." ], [ "Business ventures", "Moby's vegan restaurant, Little Pine, in Los AngelesStarting in around 2001, Moby launched a series of co-owned business ventures, with the two most prominent being the Little Idiot Collective—a New York City, U.S. bricks-and-mortar clothing store, comics store, and animation studio that sold the work of an \"illustrators collective\".", "In May 2002, Moby launched a small raw and vegan restaurant and tea shop called TeaNY in New York City with his then girlfriend Kelly Tisdale.", "In 2006, Moby said he had removed himself from any previous business projects.In November 2015, Moby opened the Vegan restaurant Little Pine in the Silver Lake neighborhood of Los Angeles, California.", "The restaurant serves organic, vegan, Mediterranean-inspired dishes and has a retail section with art and books, curated by Moby himself.", "All profits are donated to animal welfare organizations; in May 2016, Moby estimated the year's donations at $250,000.In December 2019, Moby launched the Little Pine lifestyle range of products and merchandise, with all profits donated to six charities.On August 23, 2016, Moby announced the inaugural Circle V Festival along with the official video for 'Don't Leave Me' by Moby & The Void Pacific Choir.", "The event took place at LA's Fonda Theatre and featured Blaqk Audio & Cold Cave on the bill amongst others in the evening and talks and vegan food stalls in the afternoon.", "Moby described Circle V as \"the coming together of my life's work, animal rights and music.", "I couldn't be more excited about this event and am so proud to be head-lining.", "\"The second Circle V event took place on November 18 this time at The Regent Theatre in Los Angeles.", "Moby headlined the event for the second year with artists Waka Flocka Flame, Dreamcar and Raury featuring on the bill." ], [ "Personal life", "Moby lived in New York City for 21 years.", "From 1996 to 2010, he lived in an apartment on Mott Street where he also recorded his albums.", "He then relocated to the Hollywood Hills area of Los Angeles, spending almost $4 million to purchase a castle known as Wolf's Lair (built in 1927 by developer L. Milton Wolf), spending an additional $3.5 million to restore it.", "He also owns an apartment in Little Italy, Manhattan.", "In 2014, Moby sold the castle and downsized to a smaller home in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles.Steve Buscemi, Moby, Arianna Huffington, and Lou Reed at a screening of the film ''Iraq for Sale: The War Profiteers'', 2006In June 2013, Moby and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning.Moby identifies himself as heterosexual and cisgender and had felt \"disappointed\" to be straight.", "He claimed in a book to have had a brief relationship with actress Natalie Portman, though she has denied this, calling Moby's account \"disturbing\" (as she was 18 at the time), with Portman further describing their interactions as \"a much older man being creepy with me\".", "He does date, but has stated that he feels more comfortable alone than in a relationship.", "In 2016 he was in a relationship, his first in ten years, that spanned at least eight months.", "He has no children.Moby practices meditation and has explored different types, including transcendental, Mettā, and Vipassanā.===Veganism and animal rights===In 1984, Moby was inspired to become a vegetarian by a cat named Tucker that he had found at a dump in Darien, Connecticut.", "\"My mom and I, with the help of George the dachshund, took care of Tucker and he grew up to be the happiest, healthiest cat I'd ever known\".", "In November 1987, while playing with Tucker, \"I decided that just as I would never do anything to harm Tucker, or any of our rescued animals, I also would never do anything to harm any animal, anywhere\", and became a vegan.", "He is a strong supporter of animal rights, and described it as his \"day job\" other than musical projects.In March 2016, Moby supported the social media campaign #TurnYourNoseUp to end factory farming in association with the nonprofit organization Farms Not Factories.In 2019, Moby had \"Vegan for life\" tattooed on his neck by his friend, tattoo artist Kat Von D. That November, he had \"Animal rights\" tattooed on his arms to commemorate the 32nd anniversary of being a vegan.", "He also had \"VX\" tattooed next to his right eye, the \"V\" standing for vegan and the \"X\" for straight edge, referencing his sobriety.In February 2023 he released ''Punk Rock Vegan Movie'', his documentary about the relationship between the worlds of punk rock and animal rights.===Drug use===From 1987 to 1995, Moby described his life as a \"very clean\" one and abstained from drugs, alcohol, and \"for the most part\", sex.", "After taking LSD once at nineteen, he started to suffer from panic attacks which he continued to experience but learned to deal with them more effectively.", "Shortly after his mother died from lung cancer in 1997, Moby recalled that he had \"an epiphany\" and experimented with alcohol, drugs, and sex which continued for four years after the commercial success of ''Play''.", "He became a self-confessed \"old-timey alcoholic\".", "During his ''18'' tour in 2002 he found himself being argumentative and alienating close friends.", "At the end of the year he wished to make amends and live a healthier lifestyle and promised a girlfriend that he would quit alcohol for one month; he lasted two weeks.", "Moby continued to drink to excess and would ask audiences at concerts to give him drugs.", "Matters culminated shortly after he turned 43 when he attempted suicide; he had his last drink on October 18, 2008, and has since attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings.", "In 2016, he said of his sobriety: \"Since I stopped and reoriented myself towards things that have meaning, everything has gotten a million times better\".===Spirituality and faith===Moby has adopted different faiths throughout his life.", "He identified himself as an atheist when he was growing up, followed by agnostic, then \"a good eight or ten years of being quite a serious Christian\", during which time he taught Bible studies.", "Around 1985, he read the teachings of Christ, including the New Testament and the Gospels and \"was instantly struck by the idea that Christ was somehow divine.", "When I say I love Christ and love the teachings of Christ, I mean that in the most simple and naïve and subjective way.", "I'm not saying I'm right, and I certainly wouldn't criticize anyone else's beliefs.", "\"In the liner notes of ''Animal Rights'' (1996), Moby wrote: \"I wouldn't necessarily consider myself a Christian in the conventional sense of the word, where I go to church or believe in cultural Christianity, but I really do love Christ and recognize him in whatever capacity as I can understand it as God.", "One of my problems with the church and conventional Christianity is it seems like their focus doesn't have much to do with the teachings of Christ, but rather with their own social agenda\".", "In 2014, Moby pointed out that if he needed to label himself, it would be as a \"Taoist–Christian–agnostic quantum mechanic.\"", "In 2019, Moby said that he is not a Christian, \"but my life is geared towards God ...", "I have no idea who or what God might be.", "\"===Charity===Moby is an advocate for a variety of causes, working with MoveOn.org, The Humane Society, and Farm Sanctuary, among others.", "He created MoveOn Voter Fund's Bush in 30 Seconds contest along with singer and MoveOn Cultural Director Laura Dawn and MoveOn Executive Director Eli Pariser.", "The music video for the song \"Disco Lies\" from ''Last Night'' has heavy anti-meat industrial themes.", "He also actively engages in nonpartisan activism and serves on the Board of Directors of Amend.org, a nonprofit organization that implements injury prevention programs in Africa.Moby is a member of the board of directors of the Institute for Music and Neurologic Function (IMNF), a not-for-profit organization dedicated to advancing scientific inquiry on music and the brain and to developing clinical treatments to benefit people of all ages.", "He has also performed on various benefit concerts to help increase awareness for music therapy and raise funds for the institute.", "In 2004, he was honored with the IMNF's Music Has Power Award for his advocacy of music therapy and for his dedication and support to its recording studio program.He is an advocate of net neutrality and he testified before United States House of Representatives committee debating the issue in 2006.In 2007, Moby launched MobyGratis.com, a website of unlicensed music for filmmakers and film students for use in an independent, non-commercial, or non-profit film, video, or short.", "If a film is commercially successful, all revenue from commercial licence fees granted via Moby Gratis is donated to Humane Society of the United States.In 2008, he participated in ''Songs for Tibet'', an album to support Tibet and the Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso.", "In a 2021 interview, he discussed the experience and defined the Dalai Lama \"a wonderful inspired and inspiring man\".In April 2009, Moby spoke about his personal experiences of Transcendental Meditation at the benefit concert Change Begins Within of the David Lynch Foundation in New York City.", "In April 2015, Moby performed \"Go\" at the evening of a David Lynch tribute event, hosted at the Theatre at Ace Hotel in Los Angeles, which highlighted the work of the David Lynch Foundation and raised funds to teach Transcendental Meditation to local youth.In April 2018, Moby auctioned over 100 pieces of musical equipment via Reverb.com to raise funds for the non-profit organisation Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, thinking it was better to sell it for a good cause rather than in storage.", "Moby held a second sale for the organisation in June 2018 consisting of his personal record collection, including records that he used to use for DJ sets in his early career and his own personal copy of his albums.", "A third was held in October 2018 that included the sale of almost 200 analog drum machines, 100 instruments, and his entire vinyl collection.In 2018, Moby participated in Al Gore's 24-hour broadcast on climate change and environmental issues.Moby is an advocate for Best Friends; he was part of the No-Kill Los Angeles (NKLA) launch celebration and directed a lyric video for his song \"Almost Home\" which features dogs and cats from the Best Friends Pet Adoption and Spay/Neuter Center in Mission Hills, California.===Photography===Moby developed an interest in photography at age ten when his uncle, a photographer for ''The New York Times'', gave him a Nikon F camera.", "He cites Edward Steichen as a major early influence.", "At 17 he set up a darkroom in his basement and pursued photography while at university.", "Moby kept his photography private until 2010, when he put some of his work on public display at the Clic Gallery and the Brooklyn Museum in New York City.", "In May 2011, Moby released a photography book containing pictures that were taken during the ''Wait for Me'' tour in 2010 named ''Destroyed''.", "It was released in conjunction with his same-titled album, and pictures from it were also put on display.", "From October to December 2014, Moby showcased his Innocents collection of large-scale photographs at the Fremin Gallery, featuring a post-apocalyptic theme and a cast of fictitious cult members wearing masks.===Books===In March 2010, Moby and animal activist Miyun Park released ''Gristle: From Factory Farms to Food Safety (Thinking Twice About the Meat We Eat)'', a collection of ten essays by various people in the food industry that they edited to detail \"unbiased, factual information about the consequences of animal production\" and factory farming.In 2014, Moby began writing an autobiography covering his life and career from his move to New York City in the late 1980s to the recording of ''Play'' in 1999.He enjoyed the experience, and wrote approximately 300,000 words before cutting it by half to reach a rough edit of the book.", "''Porcelain: A Memoir'' was released on May 17, 2016, by Penguin Press.", "Moby put out the compilation album ''Music from Porcelain'' to coincide the book's release, featuring his own tracks and a mixtape of tracks by other artists.His second memoir, ''Then It Fell Apart'' was released on May 2, 2019, and covers his life and career from 1999 to 2009.In September 2021, Moby published ''The Little Pine Cookbook'', featuring vegan recipes developed from his time owning his restaurant." ], [ "Discography", "'''Studio albums'''* ''Moby'' (1992)* ''Ambient'' (1993)* ''Everything Is Wrong'' (1995)* ''Animal Rights'' (1996)* ''Play'' (1999)* ''18'' (2002)* ''Hotel'' (2005)* ''Last Night'' (2008)* ''Wait for Me'' (2009)* ''Destroyed'' (2011)* ''Innocents'' (2013)* ''Long Ambients 1: Calm.", "Sleep.''", "(2016)* ''These Systems Are Failing'' (2016)* ''More Fast Songs About the Apocalypse'' (2017)* ''Everything Was Beautiful, and Nothing Hurt'' (2018)* ''Long Ambients 2'' (2019)* ''All Visible Objects'' (2020)* ''Live Ambients – Improvised Recordings Vol.", "1'' (2020)* ''Reprise'' (2021)* ''Ambient 23'' (2023)* ''Resound NYC'' (2023)" ], [ "Awards", " Award Year Nominee(s) Category Result BDS Certified Spin Awards 2003 \"South Side\" 300,000 Spins BMI Film & TV Awards 2002 Himself Certificate of Achievement BMI Pop Awards 2002 \"South Side\" Award-Winning Song Berlin Music Video Awards 2021 \"My Only Love\" Animation Billboard Music Awards2002 ''18'' Top Electronic Album HimselfTop Electronic Artist 2005 ''Hotel'' Top Electronic Album Billboard Music Video Awards2000\"Bodyrock\" Maximum Vision Award Dance Clip of the Year Brit Awards 2000HimselfInternational Male Solo Artist 2003 Classic Pop Readers' Awards 2020 ''Then It Fell Apart'' Book of the Year Clio Awards 2019 \"ASAP Forever\" (with ASAP Rocky) Best Visual Effects D&AD Awards 2000 \"Bodyrock\" Direction Wood Pencil 2019 \"ASAP Forever\" (with ASAP Rocky) Best Editing DanceStar Awards2000 Himself DanceStar of the Year ''Play'' Best Album 2003Himself Best US Act 2004 Outstanding Contribution to Dance Music ''18 B Sides + DVD'' Best Music DVD ECHO Awards 2006Himself Best International Male GAFFA-Prisen Awards2019 Best International Artist ''Everything Was Beautiful, and Nothing Hurt'' Best International Album Grammy Awards 2000 ''Play'' Best Alternative Music Performance \"Bodyrock\" Best Rock Instrumental Performance 2001 \"Natural Blues\" Best Dance Recording 2000 ''Play: The DVD'' Best Music Video, Long Form 2003 \"18\" Best Pop Instrumental Performance 2009 ''Last Night'' Best Electronic/Dance Album Hungarian Music Awards 2003 ''18'' Best Foreign Dance Album 2011 Himself Electronic Music Production of the Year IFPI Platinum Europe Awards 2001''Play'' Album Title 2002 2003''18'' Lunas del Auditorio 2004Himself Espectaculo Alternativo 2006Musica Electronica 2010 MTV Asia Awards 2003 Best Male MTV Europe Music Awards 1995Best Dance 2000 \"Natural Blues\" Best Video ''Play'' Best Album 2002Himself Web Awards Best Dance 2003 2005 Best Male MTV Russian Music Awards2005 Best International Act MTV Video Music Awards 2000 \"Natural Blues\"Best Male Video 2001 \"South Side\" 2002\"We Are All Made of Stars\" Best Cinematography MTV VMAJ 2003 Best Dance Video MVPA Awards 2000 \"Run On\" Electronic Video of the Year 2001\"South Side\" Pop Video of the Year Best Colorist/Telecine Best Hair in a Video \"Porcelain\" Alternative Video of the Year 2003 \"In This World\" Best Directional Debut Best Electronic Video 2007 \"New York, New York\" Best Choreography Music Television Awards2000Himself Best Male Best Dance \"Natural Blues\" Best Video 2008Himself Best Dance My VH1 Music Awards2001 Best Male \"South Side\" Best Collaboration Favorite Video NME Awards2000Himself Best Solo Artist Best Dance Act 2001 Best Live Act NRJ Music Awards2001 International Male Artist of the Year ''Play'' International Album of the Year 2007 Himself (with Mylene Farmer) Francophone Duo/Group of the Year Online Music Awards 1999Himself Best Electronic Fansite Q Awards 2000 Best Live Act 2002 Best Producer TMF Awards 2000 ''Play'' Best Album International Teen Choice Awards 2001 \"South Side\" Choice Dance Track 2002Himself Choice Male Artist Top of the Pops Awards 2002 Best Dance Act UK Music Video Awards2018 \"ASAP Forever\" (with ASAP Rocky) Best Urban Video - International Best Colour Grading in a Video 2020\"My Only Love\"Best Animation VH1/Vogue Fashion Awards2000 \"Natural Blues\" Visionary Video Viva Comet Awards \"Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad?\"", "Best International Video Himself Best Live Act Viva Zwei Audience Award Veggie Awards 2015 Person of the Year Webby Awards 2017 \"Are You Lost in the World Like Me?\"", "Animation Žebřík Music Awards1999 Himself Best International DJ ''Play'' Best International Album \"Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad?\"", "Best International Song \"Bodyrock\" Best International Video 2000 \"Porcelain\" Best International Song Himself Best International Instrumentalist Best International Personality Best International DJ 2001 2002 ''18'' Best International Album \"In This World\" Best International Song 2003 Himself Best International DJ 2005 ''Hotel'' Best International Album" ], [ "See also", "* List of animal rights advocates" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* *  – an online service to freely license Moby's music* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mötley Crüe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mötley Crüe''' is an American heavy metal band formed in Hollywood, California in 1981.Bassist Nikki Sixx and drummer Tommy Lee first joined together with guitarist/lead vocalist Greg Leon.", "But after some time, Leon was replaced by guitarist Mick Mars and lead vocalist Michael White respectively.", "The latter was soon replaced by Vince Neil and the Mötley Crüe moniker was chosen soon after that.", "The band has sold over 100 million albums worldwide.", "They have also achieved seven platinum or multi-platinum certifications, nine Top 10 albums on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart (including 1989's ''Dr.", "Feelgood'', which is Mötley Crüe's only album to reach number one), twenty-two Top 40 mainstream rock hits, and six Top 20 pop singles.", "The band has experienced several lineup changes over the years, leaving Sixx as the only constant member; these included the introduction of lead vocalist John Corabi (who was Neil's replacement from 1992 to 1996) and drummers Randy Castillo and Samantha Maloney, both of whom filled in for Lee following his departure from Mötley Crüe in 1999; he returned to the band in 2004.In October 2022, after 41 years of service, Mars announced his retirement from touring with the band, with former Marilyn Manson and Rob Zombie guitarist John 5 replacing him.The members of Mötley Crüe have often been noted for their hedonistic lifestyles and the androgynous personae they maintained.", "Following the hard rock and heavy metal origins on the band's first two albums, ''Too Fast for Love'' (1981) and ''Shout at the Devil'' (1983), the release of its third album ''Theatre of Pain'' (1985) saw Mötley Crüe joining the first wave of glam metal.", "The band is also known for their elaborate live performances, which feature flame thrower guitars, roller coaster drum kits, and heavy use of pyrotechnics such as fireworks and lighting Sixx on fire.", "Mötley Crüe's most recent studio album, ''Saints of Los Angeles'', was released on June 24, 2008.What was planned to be the band's final show took place on New Year's Eve, December 31, 2015.The concert was filmed for a theatrical and Blu-ray release in 2016.After two-and-a-half years of inactivity, Neil announced in September 2018 that Mötley Crüe had reunited and was working on new material.", "On March 22, 2019, the band released four new songs on the soundtrack for its Netflix biopic ''The Dirt'', based on the band's ''New York Times'' best-selling autobiography of the same name.", "The soundtrack went to number one on the iTunes All Genres Album Chart, number 3 on the ''Billboard'' Top Album and Digital Album sales charts, number 10 on the ''Billboard'' 200, and Top 10 worldwide.", "The autobiography returned to ''New York Times'' Best Seller list at number 6 on Nonfiction Print and number 8 on Nonfiction Combined Print & E-Book.", "Mötley Crüe embarked on its first major tour in seven years in the summer and fall of 2022, co-headlining a North American tour with Def Leppard." ], [ "History", "===1981–1983: Early history and ''Too Fast for Love''=== The nucleus of the group first came together in early 1981, when ex-Suite 19 guitarist/lead vocalist Greg Leon and drummer Tommy Lee decided to form a new band.", "They attended the farewell gig of a popular local band called London, and Lee was already impressed by the image and stage presence of their bassist, Nikki Sixx.", "Even before meeting Sixx, Lee claims he had posters of London on his bedroom walls.", "\"Tommy just loved how Nikki looked\", recalled Leon.", "\"He was gung-ho about him, saying, 'This is the guy we should get'.\"", "Sixx auditioned twice but Leon felt he was \"awful\", telling Lee \"He looks great.", "He's great on stage.", "But he can't play bass at all.\"", "Lee subsequently became friends with Sixx and went to his Hollywood home to listen to new material he was working on.", "The music had been rejected by his London bandmates for being too heavy, and Lee says he immediately began banging on the table in time with the music and \"everything just seemed to mesh\".", "Lee subsequently hired Sixx for the new band, prompting guitarist/vocalist Leon to quit in protest.", "\"I never played a show with Nikki Sixx.", "Tommy and I played together many times, but I was gone as soon as Nikki entered the picture.", "But they couldn't find a guitar player or singer initially, so they kept calling me.", "But I refused,\" Leon has said of his time in the band.", "Sixx and Lee began a search for new members and soon met guitarists Robin Moore (Jeff Gill) and Bob Deal, better known as Mick Mars, after answering an advertisement that he placed in ''The Recycler'' that read: \"Loud, rude and aggressive guitar player available\".", "Mars auditioned for Sixx, Moore and Lee, and was subsequently hired while Moore was fired at the same session according to the band's biography ''The Dirt''.", "Although a lead vocalist named O'Dean Peterson was auditioned, Lee had known Vince Neil from their high school days at Charter Oak High School in Covina, California, and the two had performed in different bands on the garage band circuit.", "Upon seeing him perform with the band Rock Candy at the Starwood in Hollywood, California, Lee suggested they have Neil join the band.", "At first Neil refused the offer.", "On the same day as Mars, lead vocalist Michael White, who previously played with Nikki Sixx in the band London, joined the band.", "But White eventually ended up leaving also.As the other members of Rock Candy started to think about moving in more of a New Wave direction and became involved in outside projects, Vince Neil grew anxious to try something else.", "Lee asked again; Neil was hired on April 1, 1981, and the band played its first gig at the Starwood nightclub on April 24.The newly formed band did not yet have a name.", "Sixx has said that he told his bandmates that he was \"thinking about calling the band Christmas\".", "The other members were not very receptive to that idea.", "Then, while trying to find a suitable name, Mars remembered an incident that occurred when he was playing with a band called White Horse, when one of the other band members called the group \"a motley looking crew\".", "He had remembered the phrase and later copied it down as 'Mottley Cru'.", "After slight modification of the spelling, \"Mötley Crüe\" was eventually selected as the band's name, with the stylistic decision suggested by Neil to add the two sets of metal umlauts, supposedly inspired by the German beer Löwenbräu, which the members were drinking at the time.", "Other than the periods of February 1992 to September 1996 and of March 1999 to September 2004, the lineup of Neil, Sixx, Lee, and Mars remained the same.The band soon met its first manager, Allan Coffman, the thirty-eight-year-old brother-in-law of a friend of Mars's driver.", "The band's first release was the single \"Stick to Your Guns/Toast of the Town\", which was released on its own record label, Leathür Records, which had a pressing and distribution deal with Greenworld Distribution in Torrance, California.", "On November 10, 1981, its debut album ''Too Fast for Love'' was self-produced and released on Leathür, selling 20,000 copies.", "Coffman's assistant Eric Greif set up a tour of Canada, while Coffman and Greif used Mötley Crüe's success in the Los Angeles club scene to negotiate with several record labels, eventually signing a recording contract with Elektra Records in early 1982.The debut album was then remixed by producer Roy Thomas Baker and re-released on August 20, 1982—two months after its Canadian Warner Music Group release using the original Leathür mixes—to coincide with the tour.During the \"Crüesing Through Canada Tour '82\", there were several widely publicized incidents.", "First, the band was arrested and then released at Edmonton International Airport for wearing their spiked stage wardrobe (considered \"dangerous weapons\") through customs, and for Neil arriving with a small carry-on filled with porn magazines (considered \"indecent material\"); both were staged PR stunts.", "Customs eventually had the confiscated items destroyed.", "Second, while playing Scandals Disco in Edmonton, a spurious \"bomb threat\" against the band made the front page of the ''Edmonton Journal'' on June 9, 1982; Lee and assistant band manager Greif were interviewed by police as a result.", "This too ended up being a staged PR stunt perpetrated by Greif.", "Lastly, Lee threw a television set from an upper story window of the Sheraton Caravan Hotel.", "Canadian rock magazine ''Music Express'' noted that the band was \"banned for life\" from the city.", "Despite the tour ending prematurely in financial disaster, it was the basis for the band's first international press.In 1983, the band changed management from Coffman to Doug Thaler and Doc McGhee.", "McGhee is best known for managing Bon Jovi and later Kiss, starting with their reunion tour in 1996.Greif subsequently sued all parties in a Los Angeles Superior Court action that dragged on for several years, and coincidentally later re-surfaced as manager of Sixx's former band, London.", "Coffman himself was sued by several investors to whom he had sold \"stock in the band\", including Michigan-based Bill Larson.", "Coffman eventually declared bankruptcy, as he had mortgaged his home at least three times to cover band expenses.===1983–1991: International fame and addiction struggles===\"Too Fast For Love\", the title track from the band's debut album, was reportedly recorded over a span of three days while the band members were under the influence of alcohol.", "The band became rapidly successful in the United States after playing at the US Festival on May 29, 1983, and also with the aid of the new medium of MTV.", "Their second album, ''Shout at the Devil'', was released on September 26, 1983.The album represented the band's mainstream breakthrough and would eventually be certified 4× platinum.", "The album generated controversy for its title track and album imagery, both of which invoked Satanism.", "They then gained the attention of then-former Black Sabbath singer Ozzy Osbourne and found themselves opening for Osbourne on his 1984 tour for ''Bark at the Moon''.", "The band members were well known for their backstage antics, outrageous clothing, extreme high-heeled boots, heavily applied make-up, and seemingly endless abuse of alcohol and drugs.The band members also had their share of run ins with the law.", "On December 8, 1984, Neil was driving home from a liquor run in his De Tomaso Pantera which ended in a head-on collision; his passenger, Hanoi Rocks drummer Nicholas \"Razzle\" Dingley, was killed.", "Neil, charged with a DUI and vehicular manslaughter, was sentenced to 30 days in jail (although he served only 18 days) and subsequently was sued for $2,500,000.The short jail term was negotiated by his lawyers, enabling Neil to tour and pay the civil suit.The band's third album ''Theatre of Pain'' was released on June 21, 1985 and dedicated in Dingley's honor, and it started a new glam metal phase in the band's style.", "''Theatre of Pain'' was commercially successful, reaching number 6 on the ''Billboard'' album charts and eventually being certified quadruple platinum.", "However, the recording of the album was fraught with tension in the wake of Neil's accident and Sixx's growing addiction, and members of the band have said that they consider it a creative disappointment.Mötley Crüe spent most of the next year on a world tour in support of ''Theatre of Pain''.", "In February 1986 in London, England Sixx suffered a near-fatal heroin overdose, and the person who sold him the drugs dumped his unconscious body in a dumpster.", "The incident inspired Sixx to write the song \"Dancing on Glass\" for their next album.The band's fourth album, ''Girls, Girls, Girls'', was released on May 15, 1987 and debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200.Sixx has said in interviews that he believes the album would have debuted at number 1 if not for behind the scenes maneuvering by Whitney Houston's record label.", "The band again changed their look for the album and subsequent tour, trading the glam elements of the previous album for a biker aesthetic.", "The band faced many of the same personal issues that plagued the recording of ''Theatre of Pain'' and Sixx has complained that those issues compromised the album's quality, although he has spoken more positively about the record in subsequent years.On December 23, 1987, Sixx suffered a heroin overdose.", "He was declared clinically dead on the way to the hospital, but the paramedic, who was a Mötley Crüe fan, revived Sixx with two shots of adrenaline.", "His two minutes in death were the inspiration for the song \"Kickstart My Heart\", which peaked at No.", "16 on the Mainstream U.S. chart, and which was featured on 1989's ''Dr.", "Feelgood'', their first U.S. number one album.", "From 1986 to 1987, Sixx kept a daily diary of his heroin addiction and eventually entered rehab in January 1988, prompting the band to cancel their planned dates for that year.While 1988 was the first year that Mötley Crüe did not tour, controversy again hit the band that year in the form of a lawsuit by Matthew Trippe.", "Trippe claimed that Sixx was hospitalized in 1983 after a car crash involving drugs and that he had been hired as Sixx's doppelgänger.", "The suit was regarding the loss of royalties from his time in Mötley Crüe and the case was not closed until 1993 when Trippe dropped his charges and disappeared from public view.Their decadent lifestyles almost shattered the band until managers Thaler and McGhee pulled an intervention and refused to allow the band to tour in Europe, fearing that \"some of them would come back in bodybags\".", "Shortly after, all the band members jointly entered drug rehabilitation in an effort to move forward as a band.After finding sobriety, Mötley Crüe reached its peak popularity with the release of their fifth album, the Bob Rock-produced ''Dr.", "Feelgood'', on September 1, 1989.Rock and the band recorded the album in Vancouver, with the band members recording their parts separately for the first time to reduce infighting and to focus on individual performance.", "Aerosmith lead singer Steven Tyler, who was recording the album ''Pump'' at the same studio, provided backing vocals.", "On October 14 of that year, it became a No.", "1 album and stayed on the charts for 114 weeks after its release.", "The band members each stated in interviews that, due in no small part to their collective push for sobriety, ''Dr.", "Feelgood'' was their most solid album musically to that point.", "The title track and \"Kickstart My Heart\" were both nominated for Grammys in the Best Hard Rock Category in 1990 and 1991, respectively, but lost both years to songs by Living Colour.", "The band did find some success at the American Music Awards, as ''Dr.", "Feelgood'' was nominated twice for Favorite Hard Rock/Metal Award, losing once to Guns N' Roses' ''Appetite for Destruction'', but winning the following year, beating out Aerosmith's ''Pump'' and Poison's ''Flesh & Blood''.", "Mötley Crüe was also nominated twice for Favorite Hard Rock/Metal Artist.In 1989, McGhee was fired after the band alleged he had broken several promises that he made in relation to the Moscow Music Peace Festival, including giving his other band, Bon Jovi, advantages in terms of slot placement.", "Thaler then assumed the role of sole band manager.The band spent the fall of 1989 and most of 1990 on a massive world tour, the band's biggest to that point.", "It was a major financial success but left the band feeling burnt out.", "In April 1990, Lee suffered a concussion during a mishap involving a rappelling drum kit stunt during a live concert in New Haven, Connecticut.On October 1, 1991, the band's first compilation album, ''Decade of Decadence 81–91'', was released.", "It peaked at No.", "2 on the ''Billboard'' 200 album chart.", "It was reportedly designed as \"just something for the fans\" while the band worked on the next \"all new\" album.===1992–2003: Years of turmoil===Vince Neil left the band in February 1992 following the release of ''Decade of Decadence'', during a period in which most other prominent glam metal bands of the 1980s were breaking up or otherwise seeing their popularity decline significantly amid the advent of grunge and alternative music.", "It remains unclear whether Neil was fired or quit the band.", "Sixx has long maintained that Neil quit, while Neil insists that he was fired.", "\"Any band has its little spats,\" Neil observed in 2000, \"and this one basically just stemmed from a bunch of 'fuck yous' in a rehearsal studio.", "It went from 'I quit' to 'You're fired' ...", "It was handled idiotically.", "The management just let one of the biggest bands in the world break up.", "\"In the running for the vacant frontman position was Kik Tracee vocalist Stephen Shareaux.", "Ultimately Neil was replaced by John Corabi (formerly of Angora and the Scream).", "Although Mötley's self-titled March 1994 release made the ''Billboard'' top ten (#7), the album was a commercial failure.", "It also prompted negative reactions from many fans due to Neil's absence and its sound.", "Corabi suggested the band bring back Neil, believing the latter would always be seen as the voice of the band.", "This eventually resulted in his own firing in 1996.Corabi spoke about his time with the band and his thoughts on the first record with Mötley Crüe.", "Corabi said: \"my record was the first record that they had done that didn't go platinum, didn't make some sort of crazy noise, and everybody panicked\".", "During his time away from the band, Neil released a moderately successful solo album, ''Exposed'' in 1993, and a less commercially successful follow-up, ''Carved in Stone'' in 1995.After ''Rolling Stone'' magazine broke out the news in their November 26 1996 issue, the band reunited with Neil in 1997, after their current manager, Allen Kovac, and Neil's manager, Bert Stein, set up a meeting between Neil, Lee, and Sixx.", "Agreeing to \"leave their egos at the door\", the band released ''Generation Swine''.", "Although it debuted at No.", "4, and in spite of a live performance at the American Music Awards, the album was a commercial failure, due in part to lack of support from their label.In 1998, Mötley's contractual ties with Elektra had expired, putting the band in total control of their future, including the ownership of the master recordings of all of their albums.", "Announcing the end of their relationship with Elektra, the band became one of the few groups to own and control their publishing and music catalog.", "They are one of only a handful of artists to own the masters to their material and reportedly did so by being the biggest pain they could be until Elektra got fed up and handed over the rights in order to get the band off their label.", "After leaving Elektra the band created their own label, Mötley Records.Mötley released their compilation ''Greatest Hits'' in late 1998, featuring two new songs, \"Bitter Pill\" and \"Enslaved\".", "In 1999, the band rereleased all their albums, dubbed as \"Crücial Crüe\".", "These limited-edition digital remasters included demos, plus live, instrumental, and previously unreleased tracks.", "In 1999 the band also released ''Supersonic and Demonic Relics'', an updated version of ''Decade of Decadence'' featuring the original songs from that album and several previously unreleased B-sides and remixes, as well as their first official live album ''Entertainment or Death'' (which was the original working title for the studio album ''Theatre of Pain'').", "The band then went on a co-headlining tour with The Scorpions.In 1999, Lee quit to pursue a solo career, due to increasing tensions with Neil.", "\"All we got was a call from his attorney saying he wasn't coming back,\" recalled the singer.", "\"He wasn't into rock 'n' roll anymore.", "He even said that rock is dead ...", "It all happened during a void in Mötley.", "We weren't even rehearsing, so it was no big deal.", "\"Lee was replaced by a longtime friend of the band, former Ozzy Osbourne drummer Randy Castillo.", "The band released ''New Tattoo'' in July 2000.Before the ensuing tour commenced, Castillo became ill with a duodenal ulcer.", "The band brought in former Hole drummer Samantha Maloney for the Maximum Rock tour with Megadeth as Castillo concentrated on his health.", "However, while Castillo was recovering from stomach surgery, he was diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma after finding a tumor on his jaw.", "He died on March 26, 2002.Soon afterward, the band went on hiatus.While the band was on hiatus, Sixx played in side projects 58 and Brides of Destruction.", "Neil was featured on the first season of VH1's reality show ''The Surreal Life'', and had his own special titled \"Remaking Vince Neil\", which focused on his solo career and attempts to get in better physical shape.", "Mars, who suffers from a hereditary form of arthritis which causes extensive spinal pain called ankylosing spondylitis, went into seclusion in 2001 dealing with health issues.", "Lee went on to form Methods of Mayhem and also performed as a solo artist during this time.A 2001 autobiography titled ''The Dirt'', co-authored by all four of the band members and Neil Strauss, presented Mötley as \"the world's most notorious rock band\".", "The book made the top ten on ''The New York Times Best Seller list'' and spent ten weeks there, and would return to the list after the film adaptation was released in spring 2019.In 2003, the band released two box sets entitled ''Music to Crash Your Car To: Vol.", "1'' and ''Vol.", "2'', featuring the music from their entire career.", "The titles of the collections were heavily criticized by Hanoi Rocks singer Michael Monroe, among others, due to their possible reference to Vince Neil and Razzle's fatal automobile accident, and that Neil was found guilty of manslaughter for the incident.===2004–2007: Reunion and renewed success===Nikki Sixx and Mick Mars performing onstage with Mötley Crüe, on June 14, 2005, in Glasgow, ScotlandA promoter in England, Mags Revell, began clamoring for a Mötley Crüe reunion, ostensibly presenting himself as the voice of anxious fans waiting for more from the band.", "After meeting with management several times, in September 2004, Sixx announced that he and Neil had returned to the studio and had begun recording new material.", "In December 2004, the four original members announced a reunion tour, staging an announcement event in which they arrived at the Hollywood Palladium in a hearse.", "The tour began on February 14, 2005, in San Juan, Puerto Rico.", "The resulting compilation album, ''Red, White & Crüe'', was released in February 2005.It features the band members' favorite original songs plus three new tracks, \"If I Die Tomorrow\", \"Sick Love Song\" (co-written by Sixx and James Michael), and a cover of the Rolling Stones' classic \"Street Fighting Man\".", "A small controversy was caused when it was suggested that neither Lee nor Mars played on the new tracks (duties were supposedly handled by Vandals drummer Josh Freese).", "However, a VH1 documentary of the band's reunion later showed that Lee did indeed play on some of the tracks.", "The Japanese release of ''Red, White & Crüe'' includes an extra new track titled \"I'm a Liar (and That's the Truth)\".", "''Red, White & Crüe'' charted at No.", "6 and has since gone platinum.On New Year's Eve 2004 the band appeared on a live episode of ''The Tonight Show''.", "Neil yelled an obscenity during the performance, leading to an FCC investigation.", "The NBC network responded by banning the band, leading to the band subsequently suing the network, claiming they were being unfairly punished.", "The lawsuit was eventually settled out of court and the band made several subsequent appearances on the network.In 2005, Mötley Crüe was involved in an animation-comedy spoof ''Disaster!", "'', which was written by Paul Benson and Matt Sullivan and which was used as the introduction film to concerts on their Carnival of Sins tour.", "That tour continued throughout 2005 and was commemorated with the release of a live album and DVD in 2006.In the fall of 2005 the band re-recorded \"Home Sweet Home\" as a duet with Linkin Park lead singer Chester Bennington and donated the proceeds to the victims of Hurricane Katrina.In 2006, Mötley Crüe went on the Route of All Evil Tour, co-headlining with Aerosmith and taking performers from Lucent Dossier Experience on the road with them.", "2006 also saw the band sign with Paramount Pictures and MTV Films to adapt their autobiography ''The Dirt'' into a movie, but the production was delayed for several years and the deal eventually fell through.", "In June 2007, Mötley Crüe set out on a small European tour.", "A lawsuit was filed by Neil, Mars and Sixx against Carl Stubner, Lee's manager.", "The three sued him for contracting for Lee to appear on two unsuccessful reality shows the band claim hurt its image.", "It was later reported on Motley.com that the lawsuit had been settled.In 2007, Sixx published his diaries as the bestselling autobiography ''The Heroin Diaries: A Year in the Life of a Shattered Rock Star'', covering the band's ''Girls, Girls, Girls'' world tour and his 1987 overdose, and Sixx's side project band Sixx:A.M. released ''The Heroin Diaries Soundtrack'' as a musical parallel to the novel.===2008–10: ''Saints of Los Angeles''===The band hosted the Motley Cruise from January 24 to 28 in 2008; this featured Ratt, Skid Row and Slaughter.On June 11, 2008, Mötley Crüe and manager Burt Stein filed suit against each other.", "Stein was Neil's personal manager and also, according to the band and rival manager Kovac, served as the band's manager at one time.", "The band and Kovac sued in Los Angeles County Superior Court, claiming Stein was not entitled to a cut of Mötley Crüe's earnings.", "Stein sued the same day in Nashville's federal court, saying he was entitled to 1.875 percent of what the band makes.", "Other litigation between the parties also ensued in Nevada.", "In July 2009, lawyers for both sides announced that the disputes had been \"amicably resolved\" through a \"global settlement\".Mötley Crüe's ninth studio album, titled ''Saints of Los Angeles'', was released in Japan on June 17, 2008, and in America on June 24, 2008.The album was originally titled ''The Dirt'', as it was loosely based on the band's autobiography of the same name, but the title was later changed.", "In the US, the album was released by Eleven Seven Music.", "Eleven Seven also took over US distribution of their back catalog.iTunes picked \"Saints of Los Angeles\" in their \"Best of 2008\" in the Rock category as the number one song.", "The song was also nominated for a Grammy Award in the \"Best Hard Rock Performance\" category, but lost to \"Wax Simulacra\" by The Mars Volta.", "The song was released in the music game series ''Rock Band'' as downloadable content the day the single was released.", "It was briefly sold as a ''Rock Band'' exclusive, making Mötley Crüe the first band to release a single exclusively through a video game.", "The song sold more units via ''Rock Band'' than it did via traditional streaming sites.", "Additionally, the entire ''Dr.", "Feelgood'' album was released as downloadable content in ''Rock Band'', excluding \"T.n.T.", "(Terror 'n Tinseltown)\".From July 1 to August 31, 2008, Mötley Crüe headlined the popular Crüe Fest music festival, which included opening acts Buckcherry, Papa Roach, Trapt, and Sixx:A.M.", "They then spent the fall and winter of that year on tour with Hinder, Theory of a Deadman and The Last Vegas.Mötley Crüe performs in alt=Mötley Crüe performs in Erie, Pennsylvania on March 7, 2009The band made a guest appearance in the fourth season finale of the FOX crime dramedy ''Bones'' on May 14, 2009, entitled \"The End in the Beginning\", performing the song \"Dr. Feelgood\".", "The following month they performed at the Download Festival at the Donington Park motorsports circuit (June 12–14, 2009), playing on the second stage on Friday night.Mötley Crüe headlined the ''Crüe Fest 2'' festival, which ran from July to September 2009.Supporting them were Godsmack, Theory of a Deadman, Drowning Pool, and Charm City Devils.", "The band's set celebrated the 20th anniversary of ''Dr.", "Feelgood'' by performing the album in its entirety on each night of the tour.", "They also re-released the album as a special 20th anniversary deluxe edition.Mötley Crüe headlined Ozzfest in 2010, along with Ozzy Osbourne and Rob Halford.", "Neil also released his third solo album and autobiography, both entitled ''Tattoos and Tequila''.===2011–2015: The Final Tour and retirement from touring===Mötley Crüe performs at Kaisaniemi Park in Helsinki, Finland in June 2012Mötley Crüe co-headlined a mid-year tour with Poison and special guests New York Dolls in 2011 for the band's 30th Anniversary and Poison's 25th anniversary.", "On August 30, 2011, Mötley Crüe, along with co-headliners Def Leppard and special guests Steel Panther, announced a UK Tour commencing in December 2011.In February 2012 the band appeared along with supermodel Adriana Lima in a commercial for the Kia Optima, which premiered during Super Bowl XLVI.", "February 2012 also saw the band host its first residency at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.", "In March 2012, Mötley Crüe announced a co-headlining tour with Kiss.", "The tour kicked off July 20 in Bristow, Virginia, and ran through September 23.In the spring and summer of 2013 the band toured throughout Canada with Big Wreck.", "The band returned to Las Vegas for a second residency in the fall of 2013.On January 28, 2014, at the conference inside Beacher's Madhouse Theater in Hollywood, Mötley Crüe announced the full details of its retirement, including a tour initially spanning 70 North American dates, with Alice Cooper playing as a special guest.", "The tour commenced in Grand Rapids, Michigan, on July 2, 2014.The band members had signed a \"cessation of touring agreement\", which prevented them from touring under the Mötley Crüe name beyond the end of 2015.In a later interview, Sixx talked about the possibility of releasing new music, saying that \"We have music written, but it's not put together yet\".", "He also speculated that the band would release it in a song-by-song format as opposed to a full-length album format, elaborating with \"It's hard, to be honest with you, to spend six or nine months to write eleven songs—all those lyrics ... everything ... the vocals, the guitars, the bass, the sonics, the mixing, the mastering, the artwork.", "... You put it out and nothing happens, because now people cherry-pick songs.", "So we go, 'Why don't we write songs and find vehicles to get one, two or four songs to ten million people rather than eleven songs to a hundred thousand people.", "\"During the tour the band played a new song, \"All Bad Things\", over the speakers throughout the venue before it took the stage.", "On November 22, 2014, in Spokane, Washington, at the Spokane Arena, Mötley Crüe played the final concert of the first North American leg of The Final Tour.On January 15, 2015, it was announced that the band's career would end with international concerts in Japan, Australia, Brazil and Europe before heading out for a second leg of North American concerts throughout 2015, ending with a concert at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas on December 27, followed by three concerts at Staples Center on December 28, 30 and 31, 2015.In May 2015, The Crüe and Alice Cooper announced a set of 12 concert dates for Europe at a conference in London.On September 19, 2015, the band played the Rock in Rio festival on the main stage.Mötley Crüe performed, for what was then advertised to be the last time, at Staples Center in Los Angeles on December 31, 2015.The band reported that its New Year's Eve show was going to be released as a film in 2016; the movie was titled ''Motley Crue: THE END''.===2018–present: Reunion, ''The Dirt'' film, new music, return to touring, and Mars' retirement===In 2017, frontman Vince Neil told host Sammy Hagar on the show ''Rock and Roll Road Trip'' that Mötley Crüe were \"completely done\".", "However, on September 13, 2018, Neil announced via Twitter that Mötley Crüe was recording four new songs; this was later also confirmed by bassist Nikki Sixx, who said that the new material was recorded for the film adaptation of the band's biography, ''The Dirt''.", "Neil also clarified that, though the band has signed a contract to no longer tour, they still plan to continue putting out new music for the future.Netflix released ''The Dirt'' biopic based on the book of the same name that coincided with an 18-song soundtrack on March 22, 2019.The film is directed by Jeff Tremaine, (''Jackass''), produced by Julie Yorn and Erik Olsen, executive produced by Rick Yorn, and co-produced by Kovac who is Mötley Crüe's manager, CEO of Eleven Seven Label Group and founder of Tenth Street Entertainment.", "''The Dirt'' stars Daniel Webber as Neil, Iwan Rheon (''Game of Thrones'') as Mars, Douglas Booth as Sixx and Colson Baker (aka Machine Gun Kelly) as Lee.", "Also starring in the movie is Pete Davidson (''Saturday Night Live'') as record executive Tom Zutaut.", "''Rolling Stone'' wrote that ''The Dirt'' is \"a truly debauched movie that delves deep into their rise from the early Eighties Sunset Strip metal scene to their days as arena headliners.\"", "The film portrays many of the adventures the band went on including touring with Ozzy Osbourne and the ''Theatre of Pain'' tour.The first new song from the soundtrack was \"The Dirt (Est.1981)\", which was released on February 22, 2019.The band wrote two other new songs, \"Ride With the Devil\" and \"Crash and Burn\", and covered Madonna's \"Like a Virgin\", on the album.", "The soundtrack additionally included fourteen previously released Mötley Crüe songs.", "It was produced by Bob Rock, who produced ''Dr.", "Feelgood'', and was released on March 22, 2019, on Mötley Records and Eleven Seven Music.", "The soundtrack hit the Billboard Top 10 at No.", "10, the first time Mötley Crüe hit the Billboard Top 10 in over a decade.The group's legacy was also featured on a 2019 episode of the Reelz documentary series ''Breaking the Band''.", "Both Neil and Sixx had a negative reaction to how things were portrayed in the episode.", "Sixx said they would be pursuing legal action and called Reelz \"the bottom of the barrel\".In November 2019, rumors started to circulate of the band reuniting for a 2020 tour with Def Leppard and Poison, following the success of Guns N' Roses' reunion tour.", "The band responded to an online petition rallying for the group's return, saying \"this is interesting...\".", "On November 18, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine reported that all four band members had agreed to come back together for the tour, utilizing a loophole in their \"Cessation of Touring\" contract.", "Later that same day, the band confirmed all reports with a statement on their website, posting a press release and a video of the contract being destroyed.", "On December 4, 2019, it was officially confirmed that Mötley Crüe would embark on The Stadium Tour with Def Leppard, Poison and Joan Jett & the Blackhearts in the summer of 2020.Also in December 2019 Mick Mars announced that his debut solo album would be released in the spring of 2020.On June 1, 2020, Mötley Crüe announced that The Stadium Tour would be rescheduled to June–September 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic; it was postponed once again to 2022, due to similar circumstances amid the pandemic.", "In January 2022, in the wake of the Omicron variant surge, Sixx was asked by a fan on Twitter if The Stadium Tour was still happening this year; his response was, \"We're 1000% hitting the road with Def Leppard for The Stadium Tour in mid-June...I can't f'ckin wait...\" Just prior to the start of the tour, Def Leppard guitarist Phil Collen announced that Mötley Crüe had \"signed up\" for another tour together in Europe, which is slated to take place in 2023; this claim was later confirmed by Def Leppard frontman Joe Elliott.In November 2021, Mötley Crüe sold their entire back catalogue to BMG Rights Management.In September 2022, Neil announced in an interview with the ''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' that the band would return for a US tour in 2023.In that same interview, he also ruled out the possibility of further studio albums, stating that they were \"strictly a touring band\".On October 26, 2022, Mick Mars retired as a touring member of the band due to ongoing health issues, according to a statement released by Mars' publicist.", "The next day, the band confirmed that John 5 would take Mars' place as their new touring guitarist, although he was later confirmed as a member of the band in April 2023.In a December interview with A Radio Rock in Brazil, Sixx confirmed that the band is not going away anytime soon, and stated that the band will be touring for eight more years.On April 6, 2023, Mars sued the band, alleging that they were trying to remove him.", "In response to the lawsuit, the band issued a statement on the same day, denying that they had fired Mars, and that while he was still a member, had quit touring.On April 19, 2023, the band announced that they are working on new music with record producer Bob Rock, ruling out the possibility of the band working with Mick Mars again.", "Sixx later released a statement on the upcoming album on May 15, 2023, stating that it had finished production and had begun mixing the album.", "In June 2023, Neil confirmed that the band is set to perform another stadium tour in 2024.In July 2023, Neil confirmed that the band recorded three brand new songs.", "In September 2023, John 5 confirmed the title of a new song as \"Dogs of War\".", "He also said that the band recorded a cover of \"(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (to Party!)\"", "by Beastie Boys." ], [ "Feuds", "===Metallica===Often clashing during the early 1980s, both bands were fighting for dominance in the Los Angeles rock scene during Metallica's primitive years prior to their relocation to the Bay Area.", "Both singer/guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich expressed their hatred of the hair metal scene in Los Angeles during the time and frequently attacked multiple up-and-coming local bands in multiple interviews, including Mötley Crüe.", "Allegedly before a show in 1982, Ulrich claimed he drunkenly screamed \"Fuck Mötley Crüe!\"", "at the band from outside the Troubadour in Hollywood, in which Sixx chased Ulrich in retaliation.", "Former lead guitarist Dave Mustaine during a 1983 interview had also taken aim at the band by claiming Crüe and glam metal were an abbreviation for \"Gay LA Music\".", "Though despite their public disdain for glam metal, Metallica were impressed by the production and commercial success of ''Dr.", "Feelgood'' in 1989, later hiring the album's producer Bob Rock to produce their self-titled fifth album in 1991.Several years later; both Sixx and Ulrich would reignite the animosity after Ulrich accused Mötley Crüe of performing to a backing track at the 1997 American Music Awards.", "Sixx responded via an online forum and would also attack Metallica's then-recent album ''Load'' insulting multiple members of the band for their change in sound and visual image.", "During a 2003 interview, Sixx would strangely defend Metallica's then-latest album ''St.", "Anger'' by claiming \"I have learned to have sympathy for the enemy\".", "In 2006, both Tommy Lee and former Metallica bassist Jason Newsted took part in a reality show entitled ''Rock Star: Supernova'' as they would both participate in creating a supergroup while the show's premise revolved around finding a frontman via contest.", "During a 2011 meet-and-greet in Mexico City, Hetfield was approached by a fan attacking Mötley Crüe due to their public image and frequent appearances in tabloids.", "Hetfield refused to directly respond to the fan's comments towards Mötley Crüe but did find humor in his insults toward the band.", "In 2015, Lee would reignite the feud when he posted a Tweet featuring a picture of Ulrich with the words \"Straight Outta Tempo\" superimposed over his face.", "Lee presumably used a meme maker intended to promote the 2015 N.W.A biopic ''Straight Outta Compton''.", "Following the post by Lee, Vince Neil had stated online that he was unaware of the feud with Metallica; however, during a later interview with an Oregon radio show, Neil was again asked about the band's current relationship with Metallica and hung up on the show's host.", "Things were alleged to have calmed down by 2017, when Hetfield appeared on Sixx's radio show 'Sixx Sense'.", "During an interview in 2021, Sixx applauded Metallica's longevity and praised several of their releases during an interview.===Guns N' Roses===Though Guns N' Roses were initially hired to open for Mötley Crüe during the summer of 1987, things grew hostile between both sides in 1988 after Vince Neil alleged that then-Guns N' Roses guitarist Izzy Stradlin had assaulted his then-wife Sharisse at the famed Cathouse club, according to Neil and club owner Riki Rachtman.", "Things came to a breaking point at the 1989 MTV Video Music Awards ironically following Mötley Crüe's presentation for the award of 'Best Metal Video' to Guns N' Roses, however; only bassist Duff McKagan and drummer Steven Adler appeared at the stage to accept the award.", "Following their performance with Tom Petty, Neil had rushed the side of the stage and threw a punch at Stradlin before being restrained by security.", "Guns N' Roses frontman Axl Rose was enraged with the incident, threatening Neil after security had separated the two.", "During an interview in August 1990, Rose later challenged Neil to a fight during an interview with Kurt Loder, claiming \"Anytime he wants it, Atlantic City; I Don't Care, We'll put money on it.\"", "Neil responded in early 1991 by also challenging Rose to a fight: \"Axl if you are watching this, I want to challenge you to a fight.", "I'm gonna give you time and I'm gonna give you the place.", "There's no backing out now buddy.", "It's time to put up or shut up.", "\", later expressing his intent to possibly host the fight in an arena.", "Reportedly, Eddie Van Halen and then-current Van Halen singer Sammy Hagar had offered money to possibly host the fight at Madison Square Garden in New York City.", "However, for unknown reasons, neither Rose or Neil responded to the offer.", "Neil claims Stradlin had called him with an apology for the incident, but the 1991 Guns N' Roses track \"Shotgun Blues\" was allegedly a diss track aimed at Neil.", "Tensions were reported to have died down shortly afterwards when both Tommy Lee and former Guns N' Roses guitarist Gilby Clarke participated with former-Metallica bassist Jason Newsted in a reality show entitled ''Rockstar: Supernova'', as they would contribute musical parts in the show's contest to find a vocalist of the newly formed supergroup.", "Things remained cordial until 2009 when Neil had lobbed insults towards Rose in response to Guns N' Roses' most recent album ''Chinese Democracy'', calling the record a flop and criticizing Rose for his management of the band at the time.", "In 2014, ''Revolver'' magazine honored Rose by calling him 'The World's Greatest Singer', Neil jokingly mocked the award on twitter, but deleted his response shortly afterward.===Godsmack===The feud between alternative metal band Godsmack and Mötley Crüe stems from the two sides clashing after Godsmack was hired as one of several supporting acts for Mötley Crüe during the band's 2009 Crüe Fest 2 tour.", "Godsmack frontman Sully Erna and drummer Shannon Larkin have claimed the feud originated from Mötley Crüe's treatment of the support bands on tour, particularly Godsmack's fans who allegedly often left venues early following their own performance.", "Larkin recalls in a 2011 interview with ''Loudwire'': \"Mötley Crüe's security were real weird with our guests getting backstage, like our guests might want to look at Mötley Crüe.", "Our guests were there to see us and they didn't care a shit about Mötley Crüe.", "Mötley Crüe is a legendary band that we all respect.", "When I was 17, I had 'Shout at the Devil' but it just kind of fronted us a little that they would think that our guests would be star-struck over them.", "So, that's where the bad blood came from.\"", "Sully Erna allegedly penned the 2010 track \"Cryin' Like a Bitch\" about Sixx in regards to his behavior towards Godsmack during the tour, though Shannon Larkin claims the song was written about former San Diego Chargers quarterback Philip Rivers.", "Sixx continued in a war of insults with the band as he alleged that Godsmack had asked to appear on his radio show multiple times, due to initial allegations of it being written as a diss track aimed at Sixx.", "During a 2015 appearance on the \"Jasta Show\" hosted by Hatebreed frontman Jamey Jasta, Erna would attack Sixx further by calling Sixx an 'Old, Fat, Washed-Up Has-Been'.", "Erna continued the tirade by even challenging Sixx to a fight, claiming: \"I'll say it straight out: I've never met a bigger fucking dick in my life than Nikki Sixx.", "He's a douchebag.", "He's straight-up a fucking douche, and I don't give a fuck what he says.", "He knows exactly where I am, and he knows exactly how he can find me anytime that motherfucker has the balls to come and look me up\".", "Following the interview; Sixx responded to Erna's comments on a Facebook livestream, calling him a baby.", "Sixx would also claim the band would refuse any future festival dates if they were booked on the same bill as Godsmack.===Steel Panther===The comedic glam metal band Steel Panther engaged in a feud with Mötley Crüe following a tour between the two bands and Def Leppard in 2011.Numerous members of Steel Panther claim they were heavily influenced by Mötley Crüe's music, however; touring with the band exhibited a hostile environment, particularly from Nikki Sixx and Tommy Lee.", "In the years following the tour, guitarist Satchel claimed Tommy Lee had been rather hostile towards multiple band members due to allegations that he and singer Michael Starr had sex with Lee's girlfriend at the time.", "Starr also commented on Mötley Crüe's other feud with Godsmack, claiming Sully Erna would severely beat Sixx in a fistfight.", "In a 2015 interview, Starr would claim the members of Mötley Crüe take themselves too seriously given the comedic nature of Steel Panther's music.", "Sixx would respond in 2016 claiming he prioritized taking his musical contributions much more seriously.", "During a 2018 interview, Satchel claimed \"There are bands that hate our guts... We did a tour a few years ago with Def Leppard and Mötley Crüe\".", "Things escalated in 2019 when drummer Stix Zadinia and Starr appeared in a video on the channel 'Little Punk People' where the two were asked which dead musicians they could revive; Starr jokingly claimed he wanted to bring back Vince Neil from the 1980s, enraging Sixx who later attacked Starr on twitter for his comment.", "Shortly following the response from Sixx, Steel Panther's band account replied with an interview Mötley Crüe gave from 1994 (whilst Neil was not a part of the band), in which Sixx and guitarist Mick Mars mocked and joked at Neil's weight following a jet ski accident.", "Though Mötley Crüe would not respond to the post, multiple band members of Steel Panther have praised Mötley Crüe's music as influential in multiple interviews afterwards.===Former Mötley Crüe members=======Mick Mars====On October 27, 2022, co-founding guitarist Mick Mars publicly announced his retirement from touring with the band after nearly 42 years due to complications with ankylosing spondylitis, a degenerative form of inflammatory arthritis leaving him unable to perform on tour.", "Shortly afterwards, the band announced longtime Rob Zombie guitarist John 5 would be his replacement during the ongoing tour.", "In an interview with ''Ultimate Guitar'' dated March 13, 2023, Carmine Appice, a friend of Mars', claimed that Mars, in addition to his declining health, had lost enjoyment for touring .", "Enraged with the comments, Nikki Sixx responded on twitter; attacking Appice, referring to him as 'a washed up drummer'.", "Following Sixx's comments; Mars would begin to attack the band during an interview with ''Variety'' published April 6, 2023, claiming the band's severance payout was 'laughable' as his royalties had allegedly been cut to 7.5% as a result of his retirement.", "Mars further claimed he was forced to retire as opposed to being fired by the band based on their own displeasure with his medical ailments.On April 7, 2023, Mars publicly filed a lawsuit against Mötley Crüe in the Los Angeles County Superior Court for unpaid royalties, claiming the band had severely cut his touring royalty agreement from 25% to 5% as a direct result of his retirement.", "The band's representative Sasha Frid had revealed claims that a 2008 legal agreement signed by all four band members had documented that no resigning participants would receive the same compensation attributable to live performances or merchandise sales if a particular member had chosen to quit the band.", "Mars' attorney Ed McPherson publicly attacked the band in a statement due to their failure to reveal updated financial documents in regards to Mars' payout agreement following his retirement in October.", "According to Mars' accounts in the lawsuit; he claims that the band had also forced him to sell off his remaining share in the band, labeling their behavior as 'bullying'.", "Nikki Sixx would make a public statement on twitter expressing his disappointment with the lawsuit but offered his public support for Mars nonetheless.", "Following this statement Mars would further attack the band in a ''Variety'' article, taking aim at Lee and Neil for their previous legal incidents and alleged the band had been performing with a backing track throughout the tour.During an interview with ''Rolling Stone'' on July 3, 2023; Mars elaborated further by claiming he has refused to speak with any members of the band ever again, stating his intention to pursue his full royalty percentage.", ", the matter remained in litigation.====John Corabi====Following the firing of Vince Neil in 1992, Mötley Crüe would hire John Corabi as their new lead singer prior to the recording of their 1994 self-titled album.", "Fan reactions were mixed due to the uncharted nature of the band's change in sound with Corabi, in addition to their new stylistic direction of the 1990s.", "As the band began writing for their upcoming seventh album ''Generation Swine'', tensions over the album's creative direction began to surface between the band and Corabi.", "Corabi blamed much of the poor songwriting and production on Nikki Sixx's leadership while Sixx blamed Corabi for being unable to write songs fluidly.", "The band had previously hired new manager Allen Kovac in 1994 prior to the release of the self-titled album, however the mixed response to the record in addition to backlash towards Corabi from longtime fans proved to be strenuous on the band's public image, resulting in the band firing Corabi during the recording process of ''Generation Swine''.", "The band were forced by management and fan responses to rehire Neil, however; tensions with Corabi remained high for multiple years following the split.", "Corabi would later sue the band in 1997 due to removal of his songwriting credits on the album.", "Despite the tensions, Corabi took part in a short-lived supergroup with Sixx entitled Brides of Destruction with L.A.", "Guns guitarist Tracii Guns in 2003.Corabi later outlined his tensions with Sixx would resurface during the project and would attack Sixx during multiple public interviews for his poor leadership and even insulted his playing abilities.", "Following guitarist Mick Mars' lawsuit against the band in 2023, Corabi expressed his support for Mars while criticizing the band's poor financial decisions." ], [ "Musical style and legacy", "Mötley Crüe's musical style is most commonly described as heavy metal, glam metal, and hard rock.", "According to AllMusic, the band has \"a knack for melding pop hooks to heavy metal theatrics.\"", "The band changed to a more alternative metal and grunge sound on ''Mötley Crüe'' (1994) and industrial rock on ''Generation Swine'' (1997).Music critic Martin Popoff's book ''The Top 500 Heavy Metal Songs of All Time'' lists seven of the band's songs in its ranking.", "Mötley Crüe was ranked tenth on MTV's list of \"Top 10 Heavy Metal Bands of All-Time\" and ninth on \"VH1's All Time Top Ten Metal Bands\".", "Music website Loudwire named the band the 22nd greatest metal band of all time.", "''Spin'' named ''Shout at the Devil'' the 11th best metal album of all time.", "In 2013 ''LA Weekly'' named the band the 3rd best \"hair metal\" band of all time.", "''Rolling Stone'' named ''Too Fast For Love'' the 22nd best metal album of all time.In 2006, the band received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.In 2014, the tribute album ''Nashville Outlaws'' was released, featuring country music stars including Rascal Flatts, LeAnn Rimes and Darius Rucker covering various Mötley Crüe songs.", "The album debuted at number 2 on the ''Billboard'' Country Album chart and number 5 on the ''Billboard'' 200." ], [ "Band members", "'''Current members'''* Nikki Sixx – bass, keyboards, backing vocals * Tommy Lee – drums, piano, backing vocals * Vince Neil – lead vocals, rhythm guitar * John 5 – lead guitar, backing vocals The duo of Sixx and Lee are called the \"Terror Twins\" (similar to Aerosmith's Toxic Twins).", "'''Current touring musicians'''*Laura D'Anzieri – backing vocals, dancer *Bailey Swift – backing vocals, dancer *Hannah Sutton – backing vocals, dancer '''Former members'''* Greg Leon – lead guitar, lead vocals * Mick Mars – lead guitar, backing vocals * Michael White – lead vocals * John Corabi – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass guitar * Randy Castillo – drums '''Former touring musicians'''* Emi Canyn – backing vocals * Donna McDaniel – backing vocals * Jozie DiMaria – dancer * Pearl Aday – backing vocals * Samantha Maloney – drums * Will Hunt – drums * Morgan Rose – drums * Allison Kyler – backing vocals, dancer * Annalisia Simone – backing vocals, dancer * Sofia Toufa – backing vocals, dancer * Tommy Clufetos – drums ===Timeline===" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "Discography", "'''Studio albums'''* ''Too Fast for Love'' (1981)* ''Shout at the Devil'' (1983)* ''Theatre of Pain'' (1985)* ''Girls, Girls, Girls'' (1987)* ''Dr.", "Feelgood'' (1989)* ''Mötley Crüe'' (1994)* ''Generation Swine'' (1997)* ''New Tattoo'' (2000)* ''Saints of Los Angeles'' (2008)" ], [ "Tours", "* 1981: ''Anywhere, USA'' Tour* 1981–1982: ''Boys in Action'' Tour* 1982: ''Crüesing Through Canada'' Tour* 1983-1984: ''Shout at the Devil Tour''* 1985–1986: ''Welcome to the Theatre of Pain'' Tour* 1987: ''Girls, Girls, Girls'' Tour* 1989–1990: ''Dr.", "Feelgood World'' Tour* 1991: ''Monsters of Rock'' Tour* 1994: ''Anywhere There's Electricity'' Tour* 1997: ''Live Swine Listening Party'' Tour* 1997: ''Mötley Crüe vs.", "The Earth'' Tour* 1998–1999: ''Greatest Hits'' Tour* June–September 1999: ''Maximum Rock'' Tour* 1999: ''Welcome to the Freekshow'' Tour* 2000: ''Maximum Rock 2000'' Tour* 2000: ''New Tattoo'' Tour* 2005: ''Red, White & Crüe ...", "Better Live Than Dead'' Tour* 2005–2006: ''Carnival of Sins'' Tour* 2007: ''Mötley Crüe'' Tour* July–August 2008: ''Crüe Fest'' Tour* October 2008 July 2009: ''Saints of Los Angeles'' Tour* July–September 2010: ''Crüe Fest 2'' Tour* 2010: ''The Dead of Winter'' Tour* 2010: ''Ozzfest'' Tour* 2011: ''Glam-A-Geddon'' Tour* October 2011: ''Mötley Crüe 30th Anniversary'' Tour* 2011: ''Mötley Crüe England'' Tour* 2012: ''European'' Tour* July 2012–March 2013: ''The Tour''* April–July 2013: ''North American Tour''* July 2014 December 2015: ''The Final Tour''* June 2022–September 2022: ''The Stadium Tour''* February 2023–November 2023: ''The World Tour''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maquis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maquis''' may refer to:" ], [ "Resistance groups", "* Maquis (World War II), predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance* Spanish Maquis, guerrillas who fought against Francoist Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War* The network of rural bases operated by the Communist Party of Kampuchea prior to the Cambodian Civil War" ], [ "Other uses", "* Maquis (''Star Trek''), fictional resistance movement in the ''Star Trek'' universe** \"The Maquis\" (''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine''), television episode that introduced the group* Maquis shrubland, a Mediterranean shrubland biome known as ''macchia'' in Italian* ''Aristotelia chilensis'', a bush in southern Chile, locally known as ''maqui''* Maquis (pigeon), a pigeon that received the Dickin Medal for service during the Second World War" ], [ "See also", "* * Maki (disambiguation)* Maqui (disambiguation)* Marquis (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mandriva Linux" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mandriva Linux''' (a fusion of the French distribution '''Mandrake Linux''' and the Brazilian distribution '''Conectiva Linux''') is a discontinued Linux distribution developed by Mandriva S.A.Each release lifetime was 18 months for base updates (Linux, system software, etc.)", "and 12 months for desktop updates (window managers, desktop environments, web browsers, etc.).", "Server products received full updates for at least five years after their release.The last release of Mandriva Linux was in August 2011.Most developers who were laid off went to Mageia.", "Later on, the remaining developers teamed up with community members and formed OpenMandriva, a continuation of Mandriva." ], [ "History", "The first release of Mandrake was based on Red Hat Linux (version 5.1) and K Desktop Environment 1 in July 1998.After that, it moved away from the Red Hat standard and Red Hat inspiration and influence on its own design and implementation, and became a completely separate distribution.", "Mandriva included a number of original tools that make system configuration less difficult.", "Mandriva Linux was the brainchild of Gaël Duval, who wanted to focus on ease of use for new users.This goal was met as Mandrake Linux gained a reputation as \"one of the easiest to install and user-friendly Linux distributions\".", "At this time Internet Explorer held a dominant share of the web browser market, and Microsoft a near monopoly in operating systems.", "Mandrake Linux earned praise as a Linux distribution that users could use all the time, without dual booting into Windows for compatibility with web sites or software unavailable under Linux.", "CNET called the user experience of Mandrake Linux 8.0 the most polished available at that time.Duval became the co-founder of Mandrakesoft, but was laid off from the company in 2006 along with many other employees.===Name changes===Installation screen of Linux-Mandrake 8.0From its inception until the release of version 8.0, Mandrake named its flagship distribution Linux-Mandrake.", "From version 8.1 to 9.2 the distribution name was reversed and called Mandrake Linux.In February 2004, MandrakeSoft lost a court case against Hearst Corporation, owners of King Features Syndicate.", "Hearst contended that MandrakeSoft infringed upon King Features' trademarked character Mandrake the Magician.", "As a precaution, MandrakeSoft renamed its products by removing the space between the brand name and the product name and changing the first letter of the product name to lower case, thus creating one word.", "Starting from version 10.0, Mandrake Linux became known as mandrakelinux, and its logo changed accordingly.", "Similarly, MandrakeMove (a Live CD version) became Mandrakemove.In April 2005, Mandrakesoft announced the corporate acquisition of Conectiva, a Brazilian-based company that produced a Linux distribution for Portuguese-speaking (Brazil) and Spanish-speaking Latin America.", "As a result of this acquisition and the legal dispute with Hearst Corporation, Mandrakesoft announced that the company was changing its name to Mandriva, and that their Linux distribution ''Mandrake Linux'' would henceforward be known as Mandriva Linux." ], [ "Features", "===Installation, control and administration===Mandriva Linux contained the Mandriva Control Center, which eases configuration of some settings.", "It has many programs known as Drakes or Draks, collectively named drakxtools, to configure many different settings.", "Examples include MouseDrake to set up a mouse, DiskDrake to set up disk partitions and drakconnect to set up a network connection.", "They are written using GTK+ and Perl, and most of them can run in both graphical and text mode using the ncurses interface.===Desktops===Mandriva Linux 2011 was released only with KDE Plasma Desktop, whereas other desktop environments were available but not officially supported.", "Older Mandriva versions also used KDE as standard but others such as GNOME were also supported.===Package manager===Rpmdrake, Mandriva's graphical package managerMandriva Linux used a package manager called urpmi, which functions as a wrapper to the .rpm binaries.", "It is similar to apt from Debian & Ubuntu, pacman from Arch Linux, yum or dnf from Fedora in that it allows seamless installation of a given software package by automatically installing the other packages needed.", "It is also media-transparent due to its ability to retrieve packages from various media, including network/Internet, CD/DVD and local disk.", "Urpmi also has an easy-to-use graphical front-end called rpmdrake, which is integrated into the Mandriva Control Center.===Live USB===A Live USB of Mandriva Linux can be created manually or with UNetbootin." ], [ "Versions", "From 2007–2011, Mandriva was released on a 6-month fixed-release cycle, similar to Ubuntu and Fedora.===Latest version===The latest stable version is Mandriva Linux 2011 (\"Hydrogen\"), released on 28 August 2011.===Development version===The development tree of Mandriva Linux has always been known as ''Cooker''.", "This tree is directly released as a new stable version.=== Version history ===+ Date Number Name Major Features1998-07 VeniceFirst release based on RedHat Linux; KDE 1.01998-12 Leeloo1999-02 FestenKDE 1.1; Last release with Kernel 2.0 series1999-05 VenusKernel 2.2.9; GNOME 1.0.91999-09 Helios2000-01 AirIncludes drakxtools 1.0 and urpmi 0.9, these packages later became most notable features among Mandrake/Mandriva based distributions.2000-05 HeliumLast release with KDE 1.1.x series2000-09 Odyssey (called Ulysses during beta)KDE 2.0; Last release with Kernel 2.2 series2001-03 TraktopelKernel 2.4.3; KDE 2.1.12001-09 VitaminKDE 2.2.12002-03 BluebirdLast release with KDE 2.2 series2002-09 DolphinKDE 3.0.3; OpenOffice.org 1.0.1; Gnome 2.0.22003-03 BambooIntroduce \"Galaxy\" theme; KDE 3.12003-09 FiveStarLast release with Kernel 2.4 series2004-03 Community and OfficialKernel 2.6.3; KDE 3.2.0; Last release with XFree86 4.32004-10 X11 r6.7.0 replaced XFree86; Use scim as unified i18n input method platform2005-04 Limited Edition 2005KDE 3.3.2; \"Mandrake\" brand removed from artworks(wallpaper, splash, etc.", ")2005-10 Mandriva Linux 2006KDE 3.4.2; First release with Mandriva branding; Support upgrade from Conectiva; Last release with \"Galaxy\" theme2006-10 Mandriva Linux 2007KDE 3.5; New theme \"la Ora\"; Rpmdrake package manager ui redesign; X.org server 1.1.12007-04 Mandriva Linux 2007 Spring2007-10 Mandriva Linux 20082008-04-09 Mandriva Linux 2008 SpringLast release with KDE 3.5 series2008-10 Mandriva Linux 2009DrakX installer redesign; KDE 4.1.22009-04-29 Mandriva Linux 2009 Spring2009-11 Mandriva Linux 20102010-07 Mandriva Linux 2010 Spring2010-12 Mandriva Linux 2010.2Last release with Ia Ora theme2011-08-28 Hydrogenuse rpm5.org fork; KDE desktop customized by Rosalab" ], [ "Editions", "Each release of Mandriva Linux was split into several different editions.", "Each edition is derived from the same master tree, most of which is available on the public mirrors: all free / open source software, and all non-free software which is under a license that allows unrestricted distribution to the general public, is available from the public mirrors.", "Only commercial software under a license that does not allow unrestricted distribution to the general public (but for which Mandriva has negotiated an agreement to distribute it with paid copies) is not available from public mirrors.===Mandriva Linux Free===Mandriva Linux Free was a 'traditional' distribution (i.e.", "one that comes with a dedicated installer, to install the distribution to the computer before it is run).", "It was 'free' in both senses: it consists entirely of free and open-source software, and it was made available for public download at no charge.", "It was usually available in CD (three or four discs) and DVD editions for x86 32- and 64-bit CPU architectures.", "It was aimed at users to whom software freedom is important, and also at users who prefer a traditional installer to the installable live CD system used by One.", "The package selection was tailored towards regular desktop use.", "It consisted of a subset of packages from the 'main' and 'contrib' sections of the master tree.", "Mandriva Linux Free was phased in 2011 in favor of a single edition approach with Mandriva Desktop 2011.===Mandriva Linux One===Mandriva Linux One's Live CDMandriva Linux One was a free to download hybrid distribution, being both a Live CD and an installer (with an installation wizard that includes disk partitioning tools).Several Mandriva Linux One versions were provided for each Mandriva Linux release preceding Mandriva 2008.Users could choose between different languages, select either the KDE or GNOME desktops and include or exclude non-free software.", "The default version included the KDE desktop with non-free software included.", "The One images consist of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib' and 'non-free' sections of the master tree, with the documentation files stripped from the packages to save space.Mandriva Linux One 2008 has a smaller range of versions.", "There are KDE and GNOME versions with the default set of languages.", "There are also two KDE versions with alternative sets of languages.", "All versions include non-free software.===Mandriva Linux Powerpack===Mandriva Linux Powerpack was a 'traditional' distribution (in other words, one that comes with a dedicated installer, DrakX, which is first used to install the distribution to the hard disk of the computer before it is run).", "It is the main commercial edition of Mandriva Linux, and as such, requires payment for its use.", "It contains several non-free packages intended to add value for the end user, including non-free drivers like the NVIDIA and ATI graphics card drivers, non-free firmware for wireless chips and modems, some browser plugins such as Java and Flash, and some full applications such as Cedega, Adobe Reader and RealPlayer.", "It was sold directly from the Mandriva Store website and through authorized resellers.", "It was also made available via a subscription service, which allowed unlimited downloads of Powerpack editions for the last few Mandriva releases for a set yearly fee.", "It consisted of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib', 'non-free' and 'restricted' sections of the master tree.In Mandriva Linux 2008, the Discovery and Powerpack+ editions were merged into Powerpack, which became Mandriva's only commercial offering.", "Users were able to choose between a novice-friendly Discovery-like setup or an installation process and desktop aimed at power users.===Mandriva Linux Discovery===Mandriva Linux Discovery was a commercial distribution aimed at first-time and novice Linux users.", "It was sold via the Mandriva Store website and authorized resellers, or could be downloaded by some subscribers to the Mandriva Club.", "Mandriva Linux 2008 does not include a Discovery edition, having added optional novice-friendly features to the Powerpack edition.In releases prior to Mandriva Linux 2007, Discovery was a 'traditional' distribution built on the DrakX installer.", "In Mandriva Linux 2007 and 2007 Spring, Discovery is a hybrid \"Live DVD\" which can be booted without installation or installed to hard disk in the traditional manner.Discovery was a DVD rather than a CD, allowing all languages to be provided on one disc.", "It consisted of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib', 'non-free' and 'non-free-restricted' sections of the master tree.", "The package selection was tailored towards novice desktop users.", "A theme chosen to be appealing to novice users was used, and the 'simplified' menu layout in which applications are described rather than named and not all applications are included was the default (for all other editions, the default menu layout was the 'traditional' layout, where all graphical applications installed on the system were included and were listed by name).===Mandriva Linux Powerpack+===Mandriva Linux Powerpack+ was a version of Powerpack with additional packages, mostly commercial software.", "Like Powerpack, it was sold directly from the Mandriva Store website and through authorized resellers; it was also a free download for Mandriva Club members of the Gold level and above.", "Powerpack+ was aimed at SOHO (small office / home office) users, with the expectation that it could be used to run a small home or office server machine as well as desktop and development workstations.", "The package selection was tailored with this in mind, including a wide range of server packages.", "It consisted of a subset of packages from the 'main', 'contrib', 'non-free' and 'restricted' sections of the master tree.Mandriva 2008 no longer includes a Powerpack+ edition; instead, the Powerpack edition includes all the available packages." ], [ "Derivatives", "Derivatives are distributions that are based on Mandriva Linux, some by Mandriva itself, others by independent projects.", "Some maintain compatibility with Mandriva Linux, so that installing a Mandriva Linux .rpm also works on the offspring.", "* OpenMandriva Lx - a continuation of Mandriva by the community* Mageia - a fork of Mandriva by the former laid off developers* PCLinuxOS - initially derived from Mandrake* ROSA Linux - a fork of Mandriva by the former laid off developers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Matteo Carcassi" ], [ "Introduction", "Matteo Carcassi'''Matteo Carcassi''' (8 April 1792 – 16 January 1853) was an Italian guitarist and composer." ], [ "Life", "Carcassi was born in Florence, Italy, and first studied the piano, but learned guitar when still a child.", "He quickly gained a reputation as a virtuoso concert guitarist.He moved to Germany in 1810, gaining almost immediate success.", "By 1815, he was living in Paris, earning his living as a teacher of both the piano and the guitar.", "On a concert tour in Germany in 1819, he met his friend Jean-Antoine Meissonnier for the first time.", "Also a well-known guitarist, Meissonnier published many of Carcassi's works in his Paris publishing house.", "For Meissonnier he also arranged a number of popular songs for guitar that were originally written for piano, including works by Théodore Labarre and Loïsa Puget.From 1820 on, Carcassi spent the majority of his time in Paris.", "In 1823, he performed an extremely successful series of concerts in London that earned him great fame, both as a performing artist and as a teacher.", "However, in Paris, a long time passed before his talents were truly recognized, partly because of the presence of Ferdinando Carulli.Carcassi was in Germany again during autumn 1824.Afterwards he performed in London, where his reputation now gave him access to more prestigious concert halls.", "Finally he returned to Paris.", "For several years, he made concert trips from here to the important musical centres of Europe.", "After a short return to performing in 1836, he quit his concert practice around 1840 and died in Paris in 1853." ], [ "Music", "Carcassi wrote a method for guitar (Op.", "59), first published with Schott in Mainz, in 1836.It is still valuable, relevant and interesting.", "His most famous works are collected in his 25 Études, Op.", "60.In these, he managed to blend technical skills and brilliant Romantic music.", "This is the reason his music is still played by so many classical guitarists today." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===Sheet music===* Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music 1 Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark* Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden**Large collection of free sheet music by Carcassi from ''Cantorion.org''.", "* Free scores Mutopia Project" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mazda" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as simply '''Mazda''', is a Japanese multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Fuchū, Hiroshima, Japan.", "The company was founded on January 30, 1920, as Toyo Cork Kogyo Co., Ltd., a cork-making factory, by Jujiro Matsuda.", "It changed its name to Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1927 and started producing vehicles in 1931.The name Mazda was derived from Ahura Mazda, the god of harmony, intelligence and wisdom in Zoroastrianism, as well as from the surname of the founder.", "Mazda is one of the largest automakers in Japan and the world.", "In 2015, it produced 1.5 million vehicles for global sales, of which nearly one million were made in Japan and the rest in various other countries.", "It ranked as the 15th-largest automaker by production volume globally in 2015.Mazda is known for its innovative technologies, such as the Wankel engine, the SkyActiv platform, and the Kodo Design language.", "It also has a long history of motorsport involvement, winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1991 with the rotary-powered Mazda 787B.", "Mazda has several alliances and partnerships with other automakers, such as Toyota, Nissan, Isuzu, Suzuki and Ford." ], [ "History", "=== Creation ===Mazda began as the Toyo Cork Kogyo Co., Ltd, as a cork-making factory founded in Hiroshima, Japan, January 30, 1920.Toyo Cork Kogyo renamed itself to Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1927.In the late 1920s the company had to be saved from bankruptcy by Hiroshima Saving Bank and other business leaders in Hiroshima.In 1931, Toyo Kogyo moved from manufacturing machine tools to vehicles with the introduction of the Mazda-Go auto rickshaw.", "The name ''Mazda'' came into existence with the production of the company's first three-wheeled trucks.", "Other candidates for a model name included ''Sumera-Go'', ''Tenshi-Go'', and more.Officially, the company states:The company's website further notes that the name also derives from the name of the company's founder, Jujiro Matsuda.", "The alternative proposed names mean \"god\" (''Sumera'') and \"angel\" (''Tenshi''); both indicate Matsuda's strong interest in human faith.The Mazda lettering was used in combination with the corporate emblem of Mitsubishi Motors, which was responsible for sales, to produce the Toyo Kogyo three-wheeled truck registered trademark.Toyo Kogyo produced weapons for the Japanese military throughout the Second World War, most notably the series 30 through 35 Type 99 rifle.", "The company formally adopted the Mazda name in 1984, though every automobile sold from the beginning bore that name.", "The Mazda R360 was introduced in 1960, followed by the Mazda Carol in 1962 and were sold at a specific retail dealership that sold passenger cars called \"Mazda Auto Store\" whereas commercial products were sold at \"Mazda Store\".", "As Mazda continued to offer passenger cars like the Savanna, Familia, Luce, Cosmo and Capella, they were added to the \"Mazda Auto Store\" network only.=== Wankel engine adoption ===Mazda Cosmo SportSymbol and corporate mark as seen on most Mazda cars from the Mazda R360 until 1975Beginning in the 1960s, Mazda was inspired by the NSU Ro 80 and decided to put a major engineering effort into development of the Wankel rotary engine as a way of differentiating itself from other Japanese auto companies.", "The company formed a business relationship with German company NSU and began with the limited-production Cosmo Sport of 1967, and continuing to the present day with the Pro Mazda Championship, Mazda has become the sole manufacturer of Wankel-type engines for the automotive market, mainly by way of attrition.", "(NSU and Citroën both gave up on the design during the 1970s, and prototype Corvette efforts by General Motors never made it to production.", ")This effort to bring attention to itself apparently helped, as Mazda rapidly began to export its vehicles.", "Both piston-powered and rotary-powered models made their way around the world.", "The rotary models quickly became popular for their combination of good power and light weight when compared to piston-engined competitors that required heavier V6 or V8 engines to produce the same power.", "The R100 and the RX series (RX-2, RX-3, and RX-4) led the company's export efforts.During 1968, Mazda started formal operations in Canada (MazdaCanada) although Mazdas were seen in Canada as early as 1959.In 1970, Mazda formally entered the American market (Mazda North American Operations) and was very successful there, going so far as to create the Mazda Rotary Pickup (based on the conventional piston-powered B-Series model) solely for North American buyers.", "To this day, Mazda remains the only automaker to have produced a Wankel-powered pickup truck.", "Additionally, it is also the only brand to have ever offered a rotary-powered bus (the Mazda Parkway, offered only in Japan) or station wagon (within the RX-3 and RX-4 lines for certain markets).", "After nine years of development, Mazda finally launched its new model in the U.S. in 1970.Mazda's rotary success continued until the onset of the 1973 oil crisis.", "As American buyers (as well as those in other nations) quickly turned to vehicles with better fuel efficiency, the relatively thirsty rotary-powered models began to fall out of favor.", "Combined with being the least-efficient automaker in Japan (in terms of productivity), inability to adjust to excess inventory and over-reliance on the U.S. market, the company suffered a huge loss in 1975.An already heavily indebted Toyo Kogyo was on the verge of bankruptcy and was only saved through the intervention of Sumitomo keiretsu group, namely Sumitomo Bank, and the company's subcontractors and distributors.", "However, the company had not totally turned its back on piston engines, as it continued to produce a variety of four-cylinder models throughout the 1970s.", "The smaller Familia line in particular became very important to Mazda's worldwide sales after 1973, as did the somewhat larger Capella series.Mazda RX-7 (first generation)Mazda refocused its efforts and made the rotary engine a choice for the sporting motorist rather than a mainstream powerplant.", "Starting with the lightweight RX-7 in 1978 and continuing with the modern RX-8, Mazda has continued its dedication to this unique powerplant.", "This switch in focus also resulted in the development of another lightweight sports car, the piston-powered Mazda MX-5 Miata (sold as the Eunos and later Mazda Roadster in Japan), inspired by the concept 'jinba ittai'.", "Introduced in 1989 to worldwide acclaim, the Roadster has been widely credited with reviving the concept of the small sports car after its decline in the late 1970s.=== Partnership with Ford ===From 1974 to 2015, Mazda had a partnership with the Ford Motor Company, which acquired a 24.5% stake in 1979, upped to a 33.4% ownership of Mazda in May 1995.Under the administration of Alan Mulally, Ford gradually divested its stake in Mazda from 2008 to 2015, with Ford holding 2.1% of Mazda stock as of 2014 and severing most production as well as development ties.3.5 L MZI Ford Cyclone Engine in Mazda CX-9 models.This partnership with Ford began owing to Mazda's financial difficulties during the 1960s.", "Starting in 1979 by expanding their 7 percent financial stake to 24.5%, Ford expanded an existing partnership with Mazda, resulting in various joint projects.", "The cooperation had begun in 1971 when the Mazda B-Series spawned a Ford Courier variant for North America, a version which was later offered in other markets as well.", "Mazda's Bongo and Titan cab-over trucks were sold with Ford badging in mainly Asia and the Pacific region beginning in 1976.These included large and small efforts in all areas of the automotive landscape, most notably in the realm of pickup trucks and smaller cars.", "Mazda began supplying manual transaxles to Ford in the spring of 1980.Mazda's Familia platform was used for Ford models like the Laser and Escort beginning in 1980, while the Capella architecture found its way into Ford's Telstar sedan and Probe sports models.During the 1980s, Ford-badged Mazda products replaced much of their own European-sourced lineup, especially in the Asia-Pacific markets, with the Laser replacing the Escort and the Telstar replacing the Cortina.", "In some cases, such as New Zealand and South Africa, these were assembled alongside their Mazda-badged equivalents, the Mazda 323 (Familia) and 626 (Capella).Following the closure of its own assembly plant in New Zealand, Mazda established a joint venture with Ford New Zealand known as Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ), while in South Africa, Ford's local subsidiary merged with Sigma Motor Corporation, which already assembled Mazdas in the country, to form Samcor, although the sharing of models proved unpopular with both Ford and Mazda customers.", "In other markets such as Australia, however, the 323 and 626 were always fully imported, with only the Laser and Telstar assembled locally.", "In Japan, the Laser and Telstar were also sold alongside their Mazda-badged brethren, but the Festiva was not sold as a Mazda 121 on the Japanese market.In North America, the Probe was built in a new Mazda company plant in Flat Rock, Michigan, along with the mainstream 626 sedan and a companion Mazda MX-6 sports coupe.", "Ford also lent Mazda some of its capacity when needed: the Mazda 121 sold in Europe and South Africa was, for a time, a variant of the Ford Fiesta built in plants in Europe and South Africa.", "Mazda also made an effort in the past to sell some of Ford's cars in Japan, mainly through its Autorama dealer group.Mazda also helped Ford develop the 1991 Explorer, which Mazda sold as the 2-door only Mazda Navajo from 1991 through 1994.However, Mazda's version was unsuccessful, while the Ford (available from the start as a 4-door or 2-door model) instantly became the best-selling sport-utility vehicle in the United States and kept that title for over a decade.", "Mazda has used Ford's Ranger pickup as the basis for its North American–market B-Series trucks, starting in 1994 and continuing through 2010, when Mazda discontinued the B-Series trucks to North America.Mazda MilleniaFollowing its long-held fascination with alternative engine technology, Mazda introduced the first Miller cycle engine for automotive use in the Millenia luxury sedan of 1995.Though the Millenia (and its Miller-type V6 engine) were discontinued in 2002, the company has recently introduced a much smaller Miller-cycle four-cylinder engine for use in its Demio starting in 2008.Mazda3Further financial difficulties at Mazda during the 1990s () caused Ford to increase its stake to a 33.4-percent controlling interest in May 1996.In June 1996, Henry Wallace was appointed president, and he set about restructuring Mazda and setting it on a new strategic direction.", "He laid out a new direction for the brand including the design of the present Mazda marque; he laid out a new product plan to achieve synergies with Ford, and he launched Mazda's digital innovation program to speed up the development of new products.", "At the same time, he started taking control of overseas distributors, rationalized dealerships and manufacturing facilities, and driving much-needed efficiencies and cost reductions in Mazda's operations.", "Much of his early work put Mazda back into profitability and laid the foundations for future success.", "Wallace was succeeded by James Miller in November 1997, followed in December 1999 by Ford executive Mark Fields, who has been credited with expanding Mazda's new product lineup and leading the turnaround during the early 2000s.", "Ford's increased influence during the 1990s allowed Mazda to claim another distinction in history, having maintained the first foreign-born head of a Japanese car company, Henry Wallace.=== Divestment by Ford ===Mazda6Amid the world financial crisis in the fall of 2008, reports emerged that Ford was contemplating a sale of its stake in Mazda as a way of streamlining its asset base.", "''BusinessWeek'' explained the alliance between Ford and Mazda has been a very successful one, with Mazda saving perhaps $90 million a year in development costs and Ford \"several times\" that, and that a sale of its stake in Mazda would be a desperate measure.", "On November 18, 2008, Ford announced that it would sell a 20% stake in Mazda, reducing its stake to 13.4%, thus surrendering control of the company, which it held since 1996.The following day, Mazda announced that, as part of the deal, it was buying back 6.8% of its shares from Ford for about US$185 million while the rest would be acquired by business partners of the company.", "It was also reported that Hisakazu Imaki would be stepping down as chief executive, to be replaced by Takashi Yamanouchi.", "On November 18, 2010, Ford reduced its stake further to 3%, citing the reduction of ownership would allow greater flexibility to pursue growth in emerging markets, and Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group was believed to become its largest shareholder.", "Ford and Mazda remained strategic partners through joint ventures and exchanges of technological information.MX-30On September 30, 2015, when Ford's shares had sunk to a little over 2% due to stock dilution, Ford sold its remaining shares in Mazda.=== Post-Ford efforts ===In 2011, Mazda raised more than 150 billion yen (US$1.9 billion) in a record share sale to replenish capital, as it suffered its biggest annual loss in 11 years.", "Part of the proceeds were used to build an auto plant in Salamanca, Mexico.", "The Mexican plant was built jointly by the company and Sumitomo Corporation.In May 2015, the company signed an agreement with Toyota to form a \"long-term partnership\", that would, among others, see Mazda supply Toyota with fuel-efficient SkyActiv gasoline and diesel engine technology in exchange for hydrogen fuel cell systems.== Brands ==Saitama, JapanThe Mazda Motors square symbol is based on Sumitomo family crest, which is an affiliated company of the Sumitomo Group.", "Autozam logoMazda tried using a number of different brands in the Japanese (and occasionally Australian) markets in the 1990s, including Autozam, Eunos, and ɛ̃fini.", "The motivation was brought on by market competition from other Japanese automakers efforts in offering vehicles at multiple Japanese dealership networks offered by Toyota, Nissan, and Honda.", "Mazda's implementation of brand diversification reflected a Japanese engineering philosophy, called Kansei engineering, which was used as an advertising slogan in North America.One of the oddest sub-brand was M2, used on three rare variants of the Eunos Roadster (the M2-1001, M2-1002 and M2-1028) and one of the Autozam AZ-1 (M2-1015).", "M2 even had its own avant-garde company headquarters, but was shut down after a very short period of operation.In early 1992, Mazda planned to release a luxury brand, Amati, to challenge Acura, Infiniti, and Lexus in North America, which was to begin selling in late 1993.The initial Amati range would have included the Amati 500 (which became the Eunos 800 in Japan and Australia, Mazda Millenia in the U.S., and Mazda Xedos 9 in Europe), a rebadged version of the Mazda Cosmo and the Amati 1000 (a rear-wheel drive V12 competitor to the Lexus LS400).", "The Amati brand was eventually scrapped before any cars hit the market.In Europe, the Xedos name was also associated with the Mazda Xedos 6, the two models were in production from 1992 until 1997.The Xedos line was marketed under the Mazda brand, and used the Mazda badge from the corresponding years.This diversification stressed the product development groups at Mazda past its limits.", "Instead of having a half-dozen variations on any given platform, developers were asked to work on dozens of different models at the same time.", "Consumers were confused as well by the explosion of similar new models.", "This selective marketing experiment was ended in the mid-1990s due to economic conditions, largely attributed to the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble in 1991." ], [ "Leadership", "Traditionally, Mazda has always been led by an executive leader known as the President and CEO.# Jujiro Matsuda (1920–1951)# Tsuneji Matsuda (1952–1970)# Kouhei Matsuda (1970–1977)# Yoshiki Yamasaki (1977–1984)# Kenichi Yamamoto (1984–1987)# Masanori Furuta (1987–1991)# Yoshihiro Wada (1991–1996)# Henry Wallace (1996–1997); appointed by Ford Motor Company, and the first non-Japanese CEO of a Japanese automaker# James E. Miller (1997–1999)# Mark Fields (1999–2002)# Lewis Booth (2002–2003)# Hisakazu Imaki (2003–2008)# Takashi Yamanouchi (2008–2013)# Masamichi Kogai (2013–2018)# Akira Marumoto (2018–2023)# Masahiro Moro (since June 2023)" ], [ "Markets", ", the United States is Mazda's biggest market, followed by China and Japan.", "Mazda's market share in the U.S. fell to a 10-year low of 1.7 percent in 2016.Mazda's brand loyalty was 39 percent in 2016, below the industry average of 53 percent.", "On October 24, 2022, Mazda decided to get rid of assets in Russia, with the company transferring a stake in a joint venture in Vladivostok to Sollers JSC for 1 euro." ], [ "Environmental efforts", "Mazda has conducted research in hydrogen-powered vehicles for several decades.", "Mazda has developed a hybrid version of its Premacy compact minivan using a version of its signature rotary engine that can run on hydrogen or gasoline named the Mazda Premacy Hydrogen RE Hybrid.", "Despite plans to release it in 2008, as of 2010 the vehicle is in limited trials.In 2010, Toyota and Mazda announced a supply agreement for the hybrid technology used in Toyota's Prius model.=== Bio-car ===Mazda is finding uses for biomaterials in its vehicles, including both plastics and fabrics made from corn starch, as it aims to become more environmentally-friendly.", "Mazda introduced some of these innovations (bioplastic internal consoles and bio-fabric seats) in its Mazda5 model at EcoInnovasia 2008, at the Queen Sirikit National Convention Center in Bangkok.", "Up to 30% of the interior parts in the Mazda5 are made of biomaterial components.=== SkyActiv technology ===SkyActiv technology is an umbrella name for a range of technologies used in certain new Mazda vehicles.", "These vehicles include the Mazda2/Demio, Mazda3/Axela, Mazda6/Atenza, and CX-5.Together these technologies increase fuel economy to a level similar to a hybrid drivetrain.", "Engine output is increased and emission levels are reduced.", "These technologies include high compression ratio gasoline engines (13.0 to 1), reduced compression diesel engines (14.0 to 1) with new 2-stage turbocharger design, highly efficient automatic transmissions, lighter weight manual transmissions, lightweight body designs and electric power steering.", "It is also possible to combine these technologies with a hybrid drivetrain for even greater fuel economy." ], [ "Motorsport", "In the racing world, Mazda has had substantial success with both its signature Wankel-engine cars (in two-rotor, three-rotor, and four-rotor forms) as well as its piston-engine models.", "Mazda vehicles and engines compete in a wide variety of disciplines and series around the world.", "In 1991, Mazda became the first Japanese automaker to win the 24 Hours of Le Mans overall.=== International competition ===Mazda's competition debut was on October 20, 1968, when two Mazda Cosmo Sport 110S coupes entered the 84-hour Marathon de la Route ultra-endurance race at the Nürburgring, one finishing in fourth place and the other breaking an axle after 81 hours.", "The next year, Mazda raced Mazda Familia R100 M10A coupes.", "After winning the Singapore Grand Prix in April 1969 and coming in fifth and sixth in the Spa 24 Hours (beaten only by Porsche 911s), on October 19, 1969, Mazda again entered the 84 hour Nürburgring race with four Familias.", "Only one of these finished, taking fifth place.The first racing victory by a Wankel-engined car in the United States was in 1973, when Pat Bedard won an IMSA RS race at Lime Rock Park in a Mazda RX-2.In 1976, Ray Walle, owner of Z&W Mazda, drove a Cosmo (Mazda RX-5) from the dealership in Princeton, New Jersey, to Daytona, won the Touring Class Under 2.5 Liters at the 24 Hours of Daytona, and drove the car back to New Jersey.", "The Cosmo placed 18th overall in a field of 72.The only modifications were racing brake pads, exhaust, and safety equipment.After substantial successes by the Mazda RX-2 and Mazda RX-3, the Mazda RX-7 has won more IMSA races in its class than any other model of automobile, with its hundredth victory on September 2, 1990.Following that, the RX-7 won its class in the IMSA 24 Hours of Daytona race ten years in a row, starting in 1982.The RX-7 won the IMSA Grand Touring Under Two Liter (GTU) championship each year from 1980 through 1987, inclusive.The Mazda 787B, winner of the 1991 24 Hours of Le Mans raceIn 1991, a four-rotor Mazda 787B (2622 cc actual, rated by FIA formula at 4708 cc) won the 24 Hours of Le Mans auto race outright.", "The 787B's triumph remains unparalleled, as it remains the only non-piston-engined car ever to win at Le Mans, and Mazda is the first Japanese brand to have won overall at Le Mans (though Nissan had closed down its World Sportscar Championship programme and Toyota had opted to take a sabbatical for most of 1991 in order to develop its 3.5-litre TS010).", "This led to a ban on rotary engines in the Le Mans race starting in 1992, which has since been rescinded.", "After the 1991 race, the winning engine was publicly dismantled for internal examination, which demonstrated that despite 24 hours of extremely hard use it had accumulated very little wear.The Le Mans win in 1991 followed a decade of class wins from other Mazda prototypes, including the 757 and 767.The Sigma MC74 powered by a Mazda 12A engine was the first engine and team from outside Western Europe or the United States to finish the entire 24 hours of the Le Mans race, in 1974.Mazda is also the most reliable finisher at Le Mans (with the exception of Honda, which has entered only three cars in only one year), with 67% of entries finishing.", "Mazda returned to prototype racing in 2005 with the introduction of the Courage C65 LMP2 car at the American Le Mans Series race at Road Atlanta.", "This prototype racer uses the Renesis Wankel from the RX-8.Mazdas have also enjoyed substantial success in World Land Speed competition, SCCA competition, drag racing, pro rally competition (the Familia appeared in the WRC several times during the late '80s and early '90s), the One Lap of America race (winning SUV & truck in a MazdaSpeed5), and other venues.", "Wankel engines have been banned for some time from international Formula One racing, as well as from United States midget racing, after Gene Angelillo won the North East Midget Racing Association championship in 1985 with a car powered by a 13B engine, and again in 1986 in a car powered by a 12A engine.=== Spec series ===The Cooper Tires Atlantic Championship powered by Mazda is a North American open wheel racing series.", "It is the top level of the MAZDASPEED ladder, a driver development program which rewards season winners of one level with automatic rides at the next level.", "Since 2006, the Atlantic Championship has been run exclusively with Swift 016.a chassis powered by Mazda-Cosworth MZR 2300 cc (2.3L) DOHC inline-4 engines producing .", "The cars are capable of speeds in excess of .Formula Mazda features open wheel race cars with Mazda engines, adaptable to both oval tracks and road courses, on several levels of competition.", "Since 1991, the professionally organized Pro Mazda Championship has been the most popular format for sponsors, spectators, and upward bound drivers.", "It is the second-highest level on the aforementioned Mazdaspeed driver development ladder.", "Engines for the Star Mazda series are all built by one engine builder, certified to produce the prescribed power, and sealed to discourage tampering.", "They are in a relatively mild state of racing tune, so that they are extremely reliable and can go years between motor rebuilds.Spec Miata has become one of the most popular and most affordable road racing classes in North America.", "The Spec Miata (SM) class is intended to provide the opportunity to compete in low-cost, production-based cars with limited modifications, suitable for racing competition.", "The rules are intentionally designed to be more open than the Showroom Stock class but more restricted than the Improved Touring class.Spec RX-7 is also a popular club racing class primarily due to the availability of first-generation RX7 cars and the low startup cost." ], [ "Sponsorships", "Mazda's headquarters in Fuchū, HiroshimaMazda is a major sponsor to several professional sports teams, including:*Hometown teams:**Sanfrecce Hiroshima (J.", "League): Originally known as Toyo Kogyo Soccer Club and founded in 1938, it was owned directly by Mazda until 1992 when Mazda reduced its share to professionalize the club for the new J.", "League.", "**Hiroshima Toyo Carp (Nippon Professional Baseball): The \"Toyo\" part of the team's name is in honor of Mazda's part-ownership of the team since 1968 (when Mazda was still known as Toyo Kogyo).", "The Matsuda family, descended from the founder of Mazda, holds the majority share in team ownership.", "*Teams abroad:**North Melbourne Football Club (Australian Football League)**AS Roma (Serie A)**ACF Fiorentina (Serie A)**SK Sigma Olomouc (Czech First League)**Nakhon Ratchasima (Thai League 1)The company also sponsors various marathon and relay race events in Japan, such as the Hiroshima International Peace Marathon and the Hiroshima Prefectural Ekiden Race, along with numerous other sporting and charity endeavors in Hiroshima and Hofu.", "Mazda was also the league sponsor for the now-defunct Australian Rugby Championship.Mazda maintained sponsorship of the Laguna Seca racing course in California from 2001 until February 2018, going so far as to use it for its own automotive testing purposes as well as the numerous racing events (including several Mazda-specific series) that it used to host, as well as for the 2003 launch of the Mazda RX-8.Since April 2018, the venue's primary corporate sponsor is WeatherTech.Mazda also sponsors the Western New York Flash, a professional women's soccer team that plays in the WPA and has some of the best players in the world, including world player of the year.Mazda has been a sponsor of Club Deportivo Universidad Católica's basketball team of the Liga Nacional de Básquetbol de Chile." ], [ "Marketing", "Mazda's past advertising slogans included: \"The more you look, the more you like\" (1970s to early 1980s); \"Experience Mazda\" (mid-1980s); \"An intense commitment to your total satisfaction, that's The Mazda Way\" (late 1980s); \"It Just Feels Right\" along with advertising describing Mazda's use of Kansei engineering (1990–1995); \"Passion for the road\" (1996); \"Get in.", "Be moved.\"", "(1997–2000).", "Another marketing slogan was \"Sakes Alive!", "\", for its truck line.Since 2000, Mazda has used the phrase \"Zoom-Zoom\" to describe what it calls the \"emotion of motion\" that it claims is inherent in its cars.", "Extremely successful and long-lasting (when compared to other automotive marketing taglines), the Zoom-Zoom campaign has now spread around the world from its initial use in North America.The Zoom-Zoom campaign has been accompanied by the \"Zoom-Zoom-Zoom\" song in many television and radio advertisements.", "The original version, performed by Jibril Serapis Bey (used in commercials in Europe, Japan and South Africa), was recorded long before it became the official song for Mazda as part of a soundtrack to the movie ''Only The Strong'' (released in 1993).", "The Serapis Bey version is a cover of a traditional Capoeira song, called \"Capoeira Mata Um\".", "In 2010, its current slogan is \"Zoom Zoom Forever\".", "The longer slogan (Used in TV ads) is \"Zoom Zoom, Today, Tomorrow, Forever\".Early ads in the Zoom-Zoom campaign also featured a young boy (Micah Kanters) whispering the \"Zoom-Zoom\" tagline.Since 2011, Mazda has still used the Zoom-Zoom tagline in another campaign called \"What Do You Drive?\".", "The punchline for this is \"At Mazda, we believe because if it's not worth driving, it's not worth building.", "We build Mazdas.", "What do you drive?", "\".In 2015, Mazda had launched a new campaign under a new tagline, \"Driving Matters\", coinciding with the release of the redesigned MX-5.This campaign was meant to solidify Mazda's \"Zoom Zoom\" slogan.", "A 60-second long advertisement titled \"A Driver's Life\", coincided with the new tagline on the following week." ], [ "See also", "* List of Mazda engines* List of Mazda facilities* List of Mazda model codes* List of Mazda vehicles" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minute" ], [ "Introduction", "A digital clock showing zero hours and one minuteThe '''minute''' is a unit of time defined as equal to 60 seconds.One hour contains 60 minutes.Although not a unit in the International System of Units (SI), the minute is accepted for use in the SI.", "The SI symbol for minutes is '''min''' (without a dot).", "The prime symbol is also sometimes used informally to denote minutes.In the UTC time standard, a minute on rare occasions has 61 seconds, a consequence of leap seconds; there is also a provision to insert a negative leap second, which would result in a 59-second minute, but this has never happened in more than 40 years under this system." ], [ "History", "Al-Biruni first subdivided the hour sexagesimally into minutes, seconds, thirds and fourths in 1000 CE while discussing Jewish months.Historically, the word \"minute\" comes from the Latin ''pars minuta prima'', meaning \"first small part\".", "This division of the hour can be further refined with a \"second small part\" (Latin: ''pars minuta secunda''), and this is where the word \"second\" comes from.", "For even further refinement, the term \"third\" ( of a second) remains in some languages, for example Polish (''tercja'') and Turkish (''salise''), although most modern usage subdivides seconds by using decimals.", "The symbol notation of the prime for minutes and double prime for seconds can be seen as indicating the first and second cut of the hour (similar to how the foot is the first cut of the yard or perhaps chain, with inches as the second cut).", "In 1267, the medieval scientist Roger Bacon, writing in Latin, defined the division of time between full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths (''horae'', ''minuta'', ''secunda'', ''tertia'', and ''quarta'') after noon on specified calendar dates.", "The introduction of the minute hand into watches was possible only after the invention of the hairspring by Thomas Tompion, an English watchmaker, in 1675." ], [ "See also", "* Clock face* International System of Units* Latitude and longitude* Orders of magnitude (time)" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Henry Campbell Black, ''Black's Law Dictionary'', 6th Edition, entry on Minute.", "West Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1991.", "* Eric W. Weisstein.", "\"Arc Minute.\"", "From MathWorldA Wolfram" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maurice Merleau-Ponty" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty''' (; 14 March 1908 – 3 May 1961) was a French phenomenological philosopher, strongly influenced by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger.", "The constitution of meaning in human experience was his main interest and he wrote on perception, art, politics, religion, biology, psychology, psychoanalysis, language, nature, and history.", "He was the lead editor of ''Les Temps modernes'', the leftist magazine he established with Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir in 1945.At the core of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy is a sustained argument for the foundational role that perception plays in the human experience of the world.", "Merleau-Ponty understands perception to be an ongoing dialogue between one's lived body and the world which it perceives, in which perceivers passively and actively strive to express the perceived world in concert with others.", "He was the only major phenomenologist of the first half of the twentieth century to engage extensively with the sciences.", "It is through this engagement that his writings became influential in the project of naturalizing phenomenology, in which phenomenologists use the results of psychology and cognitive science.Merleau-Ponty emphasized the body as the primary site of knowing the world, a corrective to the long philosophical tradition of placing consciousness as the source of knowledge, and maintained that the perceiving body and its perceived world could not be disentangled from each other.", "The articulation of the primacy of embodiment (''corporéité'') led him away from phenomenology towards what he was to call \"indirect ontology\" or the ontology of \"the flesh of the world\" (''la chair du monde''), seen in his final and incomplete work, ''The Visible and Invisible'', and his last published essay, \"Eye and Mind\".Merleau-Ponty engaged with Marxism throughout his career.", "His 1947 book, ''Humanism and Terror'', has been widely understood as defense of the Soviet farce trials.", "Slavoj Zizek opines that it avoids the definitive endorsement of a view on the Soviet Union, but instead engages with the Marxist theory of history as a critique of liberalism, in order to reveal an unresolved antinomy in modern politics, between humanism and terror: if human values can only be achieved through violent force, and if liberal ideas hide illiberal realities, how is just political action to be decided?", "Merleau-Ponty maintained an engaged though critical relationship to the Marxist left until the end of his life, particularly during his time as the political editor of the journal ''Les Temps modernes''." ], [ "Life", "Merleau-Ponty's grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, where he is buried with his mother Louise, his wife Suzanne, and his daughter Marianne.Maurice Merleau-Ponty was born in 1908 in Rochefort-sur-Mer, Charente-Inférieure (now Charente-Maritime), France.", "His father died in 1913 when Merleau-Ponty was five years old.", "After secondary schooling at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, Merleau-Ponty became a student at the École Normale Supérieure, where he studied alongside Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Simone Weil, Jean Hyppolite, and Jean Wahl.", "As Beauvoir recounts in her autobiography, she developed a close friendship with Merleau-Ponty and became smitten with him, but ultimately found him too well-adjusted to bourgeois life and values for her taste.", "He attended Edmund Husserl's \"Paris Lectures\" in February 1929.In 1929, Merleau-Ponty received his DES degree ('''', roughly equivalent to a M.A.", "thesis) from the University of Paris, on the basis of the (now-lost) thesis ''La Notion de multiple intelligible chez Plotin'' (\"Plotinus's Notion of the Intelligible Many\"), directed by Émile Bréhier.", "He passed the agrégation in philosophy in 1930.Merleau-Ponty was raised as a Roman Catholic.", "He was friends with the Christian existentialist author and philosopher Gabriel Marcel and wrote articles for the Christian leftist journal ''Esprit'', but he left the Catholic Church in 1937 because he felt his socialist politics were not compatible with the social and political doctrine of the Catholic Church.An article published in the French newspaper ''Le Monde'' in October 2014 makes the case of recent discoveries about Merleau-Ponty's likely authorship of the novel ''Nord.", "Récit de l'arctique'' (Grasset, 1928).", "Convergent sources from close friends (Beauvoir, Elisabeth \"Zaza\" Lacoin) seem to leave little doubt that '''Jacques Heller''' was a pseudonym of the 20-year-old Merleau-Ponty.Merleau-Ponty taught first at the Lycée de Beauvais (1931–33) and then got a fellowship to do research from the .", "From 1934 to 1935 he taught at the Lycée de Chartres.", "He then in 1935 became a tutor at the École Normale Supérieure, where he tutored a young Michel Foucault and Trần Đức Thảo and was awarded his doctorate on the basis of two important books: ''La structure du comportement'' (1942) and ''Phénoménologie de la Perception'' (1945).", "During this time, he attended Alexandre Kojeve's influential seminars on Hegel and Aron Gurwitsch's lectures on Gestalt psychology.In the spring of 1939, he was the first foreign visitor to the newly established Husserl Archives, where he consulted Husserl's unpublished manuscripts and met Eugen Fink and Herman Van Breda.", "In the summer of 1939, as France declared war on Nazi Germany, he served on the frontlines in the French Army, where he was wounded in battle in June 1940.Upon returning to Paris in the fall of 1940, he married Suzanne Jolibois, a Lacanian psychoanalyst, and founded an underground resistance group with Jean-Paul Sartre called \"Under the Boot\".", "He participated in an armed demonstration against the Nazi forces during the liberation of Paris.", "After teaching at the University of Lyon from 1945 to 1948, Merleau-Ponty lectured on child psychology and education at the Sorbonne from 1949 to 1952.He was awarded the Chair of Philosophy at the Collège de France from 1952 until his death in 1961, making him the youngest person to have been elected to a chair.Besides his teaching, Merleau-Ponty was also political editor for the leftist journal ''Les Temps modernes'' from its founding in October 1945 until December 1952.In his youth, he had read Karl Marx's writings and Sartre even claimed that Merleau-Ponty converted him to Marxism.", "E. K. Kuby states that while Merleau-Ponty was not a member of the French Communist Party and did not identify as a Communist, he laid out an argument justifying the Soviet farce trials and political violence for progressive ends in general in the work ''Humanism and Terror'' in 1947.Kuby states that, about three years after that, however, he renounced his earlier support for political violence, rejected Marxism, and advocated a liberal left position in ''Adventures of the Dialectic'' (1955).", "His friendship with Sartre and work with ''Les Temps modernes'' ended because of that, since Sartre still had a more favourable attitude towards Soviet communism.", "Merleau-Ponty was subsequently active in the French non-communist left and in particular in the Union of the Democratic Forces.Merleau-Ponty died suddenly of a stroke in 1961 at age 53, apparently while preparing for a class on René Descartes, leaving an unfinished manuscript which was posthumously published in 1964, along with a selection of Merleau-Ponty's working notes, by Claude Lefort as ''The Visible and the Invisible''.", "He is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris with his mother Louise, his wife Suzanne and their daughter Marianne." ], [ "Thought", "===Consciousness===In his ''Phenomenology of Perception'' (first published in French in 1945), Merleau-Ponty develops the concept of the body-subject (''le corps propre'') as an alternative to the Cartesian \"cogito\".", "This distinction is especially important in that Merleau-Ponty perceives the essences of the world existentially.", "Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually \"engaged\".", "The phenomenal thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of the human body and its sensory-motor functions.", "Taking up and \"communing with\" (Merleau-Ponty's phrase) the sensible qualities it encounters, the body as incarnated subjectivity intentionally elaborates things within an ever-present world frame, through use of its pre-conscious, pre-predicative understanding of the world's makeup.", "The elaboration, however, is \"inexhaustible\" (the hallmark of any perception according to Merleau-Ponty).", "Things are that upon which the body has a \"grip\" (''prise''), while the grip itself is a function of human connaturality with the world's things.", "The world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena in an ongoing \"becoming\".The essential partiality of the view of things, their being given only in a certain perspective and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality, but on the contrary establishes it, as there is no other way for things to be copresent in the world and with other things than through such \"''Abschattungen''\" (sketches, faint outlines, adumbrations).", "The thing transcends perception, but is manifest precisely by presenting itself to a range of possible views.", "The object of perception is immanently tied to its background—to the nexus of meaningful relations among objects within the world.", "Because the object is inextricably within the world of meaningful relations, each object reflects the other (much in the style of Leibniz's monads).", "Through involvement in the world – being-in-the-world – the perceiver tacitly experiences all the perspectives upon that object coming from all the surrounding things of its environment, as well as the potential perspectives that that object has upon the beings around it.Each object is a \"mirror of all others\".", "The perception of the object through all perspectives is not that of a propositional, or clearly delineated, perception; rather, it is an ambiguous perception founded upon the body's primordial involvement and understanding of the world and of the meanings that constitute the landscape's perceptual ''Gestalt''.", "Only after an integration within the environment so as to perceive objects as such can attention be turned toward particular objects within the landscape so as to define them more clearly.", "This attention, however, does not operate by clarifying what is already seen, but by constructing a new ''Gestalt'' oriented toward a particular object.", "Because the bodily involvement with things is always provisional and indeterminate, meaningful things are encountered in a unified though ever open-ended world.===The primacy of perception===From the time of writing ''Structure of Behavior'' and ''Phenomenology of Perception'', Merleau-Ponty wanted to show, in opposition to the idea that drove the tradition beginning with John Locke, that perception was not the causal product of atomic sensations.", "This atomist-causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents of the time, particularly in behaviourism.", "According to Merleau-Ponty, perception has an active dimension, in that it is a primordial openness to the lifeworld (the \"''Lebenswelt''\").This primordial openness is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception.", "The slogan of Husserl's phenomenology is \"all consciousness is consciousness of something\", which implies a distinction between \"acts of thought\" (the noesis) and \"intentional objects of thought\" (the noema).", "Thus, the correlation between noesis and noema becomes the first step in the constitution of analyses of consciousness.", "However, in studying the posthumous manuscripts of Husserl, who remained one of his major influences, Merleau-Ponty remarked that, in their evolution, Husserl's work brings to light phenomena which are not assimilable to noesis–noema correlation.", "This is particularly the case when one attends to the phenomena of the body (which is at once body-subject and body-object), subjective time (the consciousness of time is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought) and the other (the first considerations of the other in Husserl led to solipsism).The distinction between \"acts of thought\" (noesis) and \"intentional objects of thought\" (noema) does not seem, therefore, to constitute an irreducible ground.", "It appears rather at a higher level of analysis.", "Thus, Merleau-Ponty does not postulate that \"all consciousness is consciousness of something\", which supposes at the outset a noetic-noematic ground.", "Instead, he develops the thesis according to which \"all consciousness is perceptual consciousness\".", "In doing so, he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology, indicating that its conceptualisations should be re-examined in the light of the primacy of perception, in weighing up the philosophical consequences of this thesis.===Corporeity===Portrait of the 17th-century French philosopher René Descartes, one of the leading exponents of rationalism in the history of Western philosophy.Taking the study of perception as his point of departure, Merleau-Ponty was led to recognize that one's own body (''le corps propre'') is not only a thing, a potential object of study for science, but is also a permanent condition of experience, a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world.", "He therefore underlines the fact that there is an inherence of consciousness and of the body of which the analysis of perception should take account.", "The primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience, so to speak, insofar as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension.Merleau-Ponty demonstrates a corporeity of consciousness as much as an intentionality of the body, and so stands in contrast with the dualist ontology of mind and body in Descartes, a philosopher to whom Merleau-Ponty continually returned, despite the important differences that separate them.", "In the ''Phenomenology of Perception'' Merleau-Ponty wrote: \"Insofar as I have hands, feet, a body, I sustain around me intentions which are not dependent on my decisions and which affect my surroundings in a way that I do not choose\" (1962, p. 440).===Spatiality===The question concerning corporeity connects also with Merleau-Ponty's reflections on space (''l'espace'') and the primacy of the dimension of depth (''la profondeur'') as implied in the notion of ''being in the world'' (''être au monde''; to echo Heidegger's ''In-der-Welt-sein'') and of one's own body (''le corps propre'').", "Reflections on spatiality in phenomenology are also central to the advanced philosophical deliberations in architectural theory.===Language===The highlighting of the fact that corporeity intrinsically has a dimension of expressivity which proves to be fundamental to the constitution of the ego is one of the conclusions of ''The Structure of Behavior'' that is constantly reiterated in Merleau-Ponty's later works.", "Following this theme of expressivity, he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body, such as in intellectual operations and the products of one's cultural life.Photograph of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, considered to be the father of modern linguistics.He carefully considers language, then, as the core of culture, by examining in particular the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense—enriching his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body, but also by taking into account pathologies of language, painting, cinema, literature, poetry, and music.This work deals mainly with language, beginning with the reflection on artistic expression in ''The Structure of Behavior''—which contains a passage on El Greco (p. 203ff) that prefigures the remarks that he develops in \"Cézanne's Doubt\" (1945) and follows the discussion in ''Phenomenology of Perception''.", "The work, undertaken while serving as the Chair of Child Psychology and Pedagogy at the University of the Sorbonne, is not a departure from his philosophical and phenomenological works, but rather an important continuation in the development of his thought.As the course outlines of his Sorbonne lectures indicate , during this period he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried out in psychology, all in order to return to the study of the acquisition of language in children, as well as to broadly take advantage of the contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure to linguistics, and to work on the notion of structure through a discussion of work in psychology, linguistics and social anthropology.===Art===Merleau-Ponty distinguishes between primary and secondary modes of expression.", "This distinction appears in ''Phenomenology of Perception'' (p. 207, 2nd note Fr.", "ed.)", "and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language () (''The Prose of the World'', p. 10).", "Spoken language (), or secondary expression, returns to the speaker's linguistic baggage and cultural heritage, as well as the brute mass of relationships between signs and significations.", "Speaking language (), or primary expression, such as it is, is language in the production of a sense, language at the advent of a thought, at the moment where it makes itself an advent of sense.It is speaking language, that is to say, primary expression, that interests Merleau-Ponty and which keeps his attention through his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions, a subject which also overlaps with an analysis of action, of intentionality, of perception, as well as the links between freedom and external conditions.The notion of style occupies an important place in \"Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence\".", "In spite of certain similarities with André Malraux, Merleau-Ponty distinguishes himself from Malraux in respect to three conceptions of style, the last of which is employed in Malraux's ''The Voices of Silence''.", "Merleau-Ponty remarks that in this work \"style\" is sometimes used by Malraux in a highly subjective sense, understood as a projection of the artist's individuality.", "Sometimes it is used, on the contrary, in a very metaphysical sense (in Merleau-Ponty's opinion, a mystical sense), in which style is connected with a conception of an \"über-artist\" expressing \"the Spirit of Painting\".", "Finally, it sometimes is reduced to simply designating a categorization of an artistic school or movement.", "(However, this account of Malraux's notion of style—a key element in his thinking—is open to serious question.", ")For Merleau-Ponty, it is these uses of the notion of style that lead Malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of Italian Renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time, a conclusion that Merleau-Ponty disputes.", "According to Merleau-Ponty, it is important to consider the heart of this problematic, by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception, which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of historicity and intersubjectivity.", "(However, Merleau-Ponty's reading of Malraux has been questioned in a recent major study of Malraux's theory of art which argues that Merleau-Ponty seriously misunderstood Malraux.)", "For Merleau-Ponty, style is born of the interaction between two or more fields of being.", "Rather than being exclusive to individual human consciousness, consciousness is born of the pre-conscious style of the world, of Nature.===Science===In his essay ''Cézanne's Doubt'', in which he identifies Paul Cézanne's impressionistic theory of painting as analogous to his own concept of radical reflection, the attempt to return to, and reflect on, prereflective consciousness, Merleau-Ponty identifies science as the opposite of art.", "In Merleau-Ponty's account, whereas art is an attempt to capture an individual's perception, science is anti-individualistic.", "In the preface to his ''Phenomenology of Perception'', Merleau-Ponty presents a phenomenological objection to positivism: that it can reveal nothing about human subjectivity.", "All that a scientific text can explain is the particular individual experience of that scientist, which cannot be transcended.", "For Merleau-Ponty, science neglects the depth and profundity of the phenomena that it endeavors to explain.Merleau-Ponty understood science to be an ''ex post facto'' abstraction.", "Causal and physiological accounts of perception, for example, explain perception in terms that are arrived at only after abstracting from the phenomenon itself.", "Merleau-Ponty chastised science for taking itself to be the area in which a complete account of nature may be given.", "The subjective depth of phenomena cannot be given in science as it is.", "This characterizes Merleau-Ponty's attempt to ground science in phenomenological objectivity and, in essence, to institute a \"return to the phenomena\"." ], [ "Influence", "===Anticognitivist cognitive science===Merleau-Ponty's critical position with respect to science was stated in his Preface to the ''Phenomenology'': he described scientific points of view as \"always both naive and at the same time dishonest\".", "Despite, or perhaps because of, this view, his work influenced and anticipated the strands of modern psychology known as post-cognitivism.", "Hubert Dreyfus has been instrumental in emphasising the relevance of Merleau-Ponty's work to current post-cognitive research, and its criticism of the traditional view of cognitive science.Dreyfus's seminal critique of cognitivism (or the computational account of the mind), ''What Computers Can't Do'', consciously replays Merleau-Ponty's critique of intellectualist psychology to argue for the irreducibility of corporeal know-how to discrete, syntactic processes.", "Through the influence of Dreyfus's critique and neurophysiological alternative, Merleau-Ponty became associated with neurophysiological, connectionist accounts of cognition.With the publication in 1991 of ''The Embodied Mind'' by Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch, this association was extended, if only partially, to another strand of \"anti-cognitivist\" or post-representationalist cognitive science: embodied or enactive cognitive science, and later in the decade, to neurophenomenology.", "In addition, Merleau-Ponty's work has also influenced researchers trying to integrate neuroscience with the principles of chaos theory.It was through this relationship with Merleau-Ponty's work that cognitive science's affair with phenomenology was born, which is represented by a growing number of works, including* Ron McClamrock, ''Existential Cognition: Computational Minds in the World'' (1995)* Andy Clark, ''Being There'' (1997)* Jean Petitot et al.", "(eds.", "), ''Naturalizing Phenomenology'' (1999)* Alva Noë, ''Action in Perception'' (2004)* Shaun Gallagher, ''How the Body Shapes the Mind'' (2005)* Franck Grammont, Dorothée Legrand, and Pierre Livet (eds.", "), ''Naturalizing Intention in Action'' (2010)* The journal ''Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences''===Feminist philosophy===Merleau-Ponty has also been picked up by Australian and Nordic philosophers inspired by the French feminist tradition, including Rosalyn Diprose and .Heinämaa has argued for a rereading of Merleau-Ponty's influence on Simone de Beauvoir.", "(She has also challenged Dreyfus's reading of Merleau-Ponty as behaviorist, and as neglecting the importance of the phenomenological reduction to Merleau-Ponty's thought.", ")Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body has also been taken up by Iris Young in her essay \"Throwing Like a Girl,\" and its follow-up, \"'Throwing Like a Girl': Twenty Years Later\".", "Young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of men.", "Young observes that while a man who throws a ball puts his whole body into the motion, a woman throwing a ball generally restricts her own movements as she makes them, and that, generally, in sports, women move in a more tentative, reactive way.", "Merleau-Ponty argues that people experience the world in terms of the \"I can\" – that is, oriented towards certain projects based on capacity and habituality.", "Young's thesis is that in women, this intentionality is inhibited and ambivalent, rather than confident, experienced as an \"I cannot\".===Ecophenomenology==='''Ecophenomenology''' can be described as the pursuit of the relationalities of worldly engagement, both human and those of other creatures (Brown & Toadvine 2003).This engagement is situated in a kind of middle ground of relationality, a space that is neither purely objective, because it is reciprocally constituted by a diversity of lived experiences motivating the movements of countless organisms, nor purely subjective, because it is nonetheless a field of material relationships between bodies.", "It is governed exclusively neither by causality, nor by intentionality.", "In this space of in-betweenness, phenomenology can overcome its inaugural opposition to naturalism.David Abram explains Merleau-Ponty's concept of \"flesh\" (''chair'') as \"the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity\", and he identifies this elemental matrix with the interdependent web of earthly life.", "This concept unites subject and object dialectically as determinations within a more primordial reality, which Merleau-Ponty calls \"the flesh\" and which Abram refers to variously as \"the animate earth\", \"the breathing biosphere\" or \"the more-than-human natural world\".", "Yet this is not nature or the biosphere conceived as a complex set of objects and objective processes, but rather \"the biosphere as it is experienced and ''lived from within'' by the intelligent body — by the attentive human animal who is entirely a part of the world that he or she experiences.", "Merleau-Ponty's ecophenemonology with its emphasis on holistic dialog within the larger-than-human world also has implications for the ontogenesis and phylogenesis of language; indeed he states that \"language is the very voice of the trees, the waves and the forest\".Merleau-Ponty himself refers to \"that primordial being which is not yet the subject-being nor the object-being and which in every respect baffles reflection.", "From this primordial being to us, there is no derivation, nor any break...\" Among the many working notes found on his desk at the time of his death, and published with the half-complete manuscript of ''The Visible and the Invisible'', several make it evident that Merleau-Ponty himself recognized a deep affinity between his notion of a primordial \"flesh\" and a radically transformed understanding of \"nature\".", "Hence, in November 1960 he writes: \"Do a psychoanalysis of Nature: it is the flesh, the mother.\"", "And in the last published working note, written in March 1961, he writes: \"Nature as the other side of humanity (as flesh, nowise as 'matter').\"", "This resonates with the conception of space, place, dwelling, and embodiment (in the flesh and physical, vs. virtual and cybernetic), especially as they are addressed against the background of the unfolding of the essence of modern technology.", "Such analytics figure in a Heideggerian take on \"econtology\" as an extension of Heidegger's consideration of the question of being (''Seinsfrage'') by way of the fourfold (''Das Geviert'') of earth-sky-mortals-divinities (''Erde und Himmel, Sterblichen und Göttlichen'').", "In this strand of \"ecophenomenology\", ecology is co-entangled with ontology, whereby the worldly existential analytics are grounded in earthiness, and environmentalism is orientated by ontological thinking." ], [ "Bibliography", "The following table gives a selection of Merleau-Ponty's works in French and English translation.", "Year Original French English Translation 1942 ''La Structure du comportement'' (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1942) ''The Structure of Behavior'' trans.", "by Alden Fisher (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963; London: Methuen, 1965) 1945 ''Phénoménologie de la perception'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1945) ''Phenomenology of Perception'' trans.", "by Colin Smith (New York: Humanities Press, and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962); trans.", "revised by Forrest Williams (1981; reprinted, 2002); new trans.", "by Donald A. Landes (New York: Routledge, 2012) 1947 ''Humanisme et terreur, essai sur le problème communiste'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1947) ''Humanism and Terror: An Essay on the Communist Problem'' trans.", "by John O'Neill (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969) 1948 ''Sens et non-sens'' (Paris: Nagel, 1948, 1966) ''Sense and Non-Sense'' trans.", "by Hubert Dreyfus and Patricia Allen Dreyfus (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964) 1949–50 '''' (Paris: ''Bulletin de psychologie'', 236, vol.", "XVIII, 3–6, Nov. 1964) ''Consciousness and the Acquisition of Language'' trans.", "by Hugh J. Silverman (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973) 1949–52 ''Merleau-Ponty à la Sorbonne: résumé de cours, 1949-1952'' (Grenoble: Cynara, 1988) ''Child Psychology and Pedagogy: The Sorbonne Lectures 1949-1952'' trans.", "by Talia Welsh (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2010) 1951 ''Les Relations avec autrui chez l'enfant'' (Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1951, 1975) ''The Child's Relations with Others'' trans.", "by William Cobb in ''The Primacy of Perception'' ed.", "by James M. Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 96-155 1953 ''Éloge de la Philosophie, Lecon inaugurale faite au Collége de France, Le jeudi 15 janvier 1953'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1953) ''In Praise of Philosophy'' trans.", "by John Wild and James M. Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1963) 1955 ''Les aventures de la dialectique'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1955) ''Adventures of the Dialectic'' trans.", "by Joseph Bien (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973; London: Heinemann, 1974) 1958 ''Les Sciences de l'homme et la phénoménologie'' (Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1958, 1975) ''Phenomenology and the Sciences of Man'' trans.", "by John Wild in ''The Primacy of Perception'' ed.", "by James Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 43–95 1960 ''Éloge de la Philosophie et autres essais'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1960) ''In Praise of Philosophy and Other Essays'' trans.", "by John Wild, James M. Edie and John O'Neill (Northwestern University Press, 1988) 1960 ''Signes'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1960) ''Signs'' trans.", "by Richard McCleary (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964) 1961 ''L'Œil et l'esprit'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1961) ''Eye and Mind'' trans.", "by Carleton Dallery in ''The Primacy of Perception'' ed.", "by James Edie (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 159–190; revised translation by Michael Smith in ''The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader'' (1993), 121-149 1964 ''Le Visible et l'invisible, suivi de notes de travail'' Edited by Claude Lefort (Paris: Gallimard, 1964) ''The Visible and the Invisible, Followed by Working Notes'' trans.", "by Alphonso Lingis (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968) 1968 ''Résumés de cours, Collège de France 1952-1960'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1968) ''Themes from the Lectures at the Collège de France, 1952-1960'' trans.", "by John O'Neill (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970) 1969 ''La Prose du monde'' (Paris: Gallimard, 1969) ''The Prose of the World'' trans.", "by John O'Neill (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973; London: Heinemann, 1974)==See also== *Gestalt psychology*Process philosophy*Embodied cognition*Enactivism*Difference (philosophy)*Virtuality (philosophy)*Field (physics)*Hylomorphism*Autopoiesis*Emergence*Umwelt*Habit*Body schema*Affordance*Perspectivism*Reflexivity*Invagination (philosophy)*Incarnation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Abram, D. (1988).", "\"Merleau-Ponty and the Voice of the Earth\" ''Environmental Ethics'' 10, no.", "2 (Summer 1988): 101–20.", "* Abram, D. (1996).", "''The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World'', New York: Pantheon Books.", "* Alloa, E. (2017) ''Resistance of the Sensible World.", "An Introduction to Merleau-Ponty'', New York: Fordham University Press.", "* Alloa, E., F. Chouraqui & R. Kaushik, (2019) (eds.)", "''Merleau-Ponty and Contemporary Philosophy'', Albany: SUNY Press.", "* Barbaras, R. (2004) ''The Being of the Phenomenon.", "Merleau-Ponty's Ontology'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press.", "* Carbone, M. (2004) ''The Thinking of the Sensible.", "Merleau-Ponty's A-Philosophy'', Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* Clark, A.", "(1997) ''Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again''.", "Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.", "* Dillon, M. C. (1997) ''Merleau-Ponty's Ontology''.", "Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* Gallagher, S. (2003) ''How the Body Shapes the Mind''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Guilherme, Alexandre and Morgan, W. John, 'Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)-dialogue as being present to the other'.", "Chapter 6 in ''Philosophy, Dialogue, and Education: Nine modern European philosophers'', Routledge, London and New York, pp.", "89–108, .", "* Johnson, G., Smith, M. B.", "(eds.)", "(1993) ''The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader: Philosophy and Painting'', Chicago: Northwestern UP 1993.", "* Landes, D. (2013) ''Merleau-Ponty and the Paradoxes of Expression'', New York-London: Bloomsbury.", "* Lawlor, L., Evans, F.", "(eds.)", "(2000) ''Chiasms: Merleau-Ponty's Notion of Flesh'', Albany: SUNY Press.", "* Petitot, J., Varela, F., Pachoud, B. and Roy, J-M.", "(eds.)", "(1999) ''Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press.", "* Toadvine, T. (2009) ''Merleau-Ponty's Philosophy of Nature''.", "Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* Tilliette, X.", "(1970) ''Maurice Merleau-Ponty ou la mesure de l'homme'', Seghers, 1970.", "* Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. and Rosch, E. (1991) ''The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience''.", "Cambridge: MIT Press." ], [ "External links", "* Maurice Merleau-Ponty at 18 from the French Government website* English Translations of Merleau-Ponty's Work* Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Maurice Merleau-Ponty by Jack Reynolds* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Maurice Merleau-Ponty by Ted Toadvine* The Merleau-Ponty Circle — Association of scholars interested in the works of Merleau-Ponty* Maurice Merleau-Ponty page at ''Mythos & Logos''* Chiasmi International — Studies Concerning the Thought of Maurice Merleau-Ponty in English, French and Italian* O'Loughlin, Marjorie, 1995, \" Intelligent Bodies and Ecological Subjectivities: Merleau-Ponty's Corrective to Postmodernism's \"Subjects\" of Education.", "\"* Popen, Shari, 1995, \" Merleau-Ponty Confronts Postmodernism: A Reply to O'Loughlin.", "\"* Merleau-Ponty: Reckoning with the Possibility of an 'Other.", "'* The Journal of French Philosophy — the online home of the Bulletin de la Société Américaine de Philosophie de Langue Française* Online Merleau-Ponty Bibliography at PhilPapers.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Model organism" ], [ "Introduction", " ''Escherichia coli'' is a gram-negative prokaryotic model organism ''Drosophila melanogaster'', one of the most famous subjects for genetics experiments ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'', one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biologyA '''model organism''' (often shortened to '''model''') is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the model organism will provide insight into the workings of other organisms.", "Model organisms are widely used to research human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical.", "This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution.Studying model organisms can be informative, but care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another.In researching human disease, model organisms allow for better understanding the disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human.", "The species chosen will usually meet a determined taxonomic equivalency to humans, so as to react to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology as needed.", "Although biological activity in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of animal models.There are three main types of disease models: homologous, isomorphic and predictive.", "Homologous animals have the same causes, symptoms and treatment options as would humans who have the same disease.", "Isomorphic animals share the same symptoms and treatments.", "Predictive models are similar to a particular human disease in only a couple of aspects, but are useful in isolating and making predictions about mechanisms of a set of disease features.There are many model organisms.", "One of the first model systems for molecular biology was the bacterium ''Escherichia coli'', a common constituent of the human digestive system.", "Several of the bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) that infect ''E.", "coli'' also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and gene regulation (e.g.", "phages Lambda and T4).", "However, it is debated whether bacteriophages should be classified as organisms, because they lack metabolism and depend on functions of the host cells for propagation.Model organisms are drawn from all three domains of life, as well as viruses.", "Examples include ''Escherichia coli'' (''E.", "coli''), baker's yeast (''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''), the T4 phage virus, the fruit fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'', the flowering plant ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', guinea pigs (''Cavia porcellus''), and the mouse (''Mus musculus'')." ], [ "History", "The use of animals in research dates back to ancient Greece, with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and Erasistratus (304–258 BCE) among the first to perform experiments on living animals.", "Discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries included Antoine Lavoisier's use of a guinea pig in a calorimeter to prove that respiration was a form of combustion, and Louis Pasteur's demonstration of the germ theory of disease in the 1880s using anthrax in sheep.Research using animal models has been central to many of the achievements of modern medicine.", "It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry, and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease.", "For example, the results have included the near-eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation, and have benefited both humans and animals.", "From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan's work with the fruit fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'' identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes.", "''Drosophila'' became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries \"helped transform biology into an experimental science\".", "''D.", "melanogaster'' remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms.", "During the same time period, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of William Ernest Castle in collaboration with Abbie Lathrop led to generation of the DBA (\"dilute, brown and non-agouti\") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains.", "The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries.In the late 19th century, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs.", "He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease.", "The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after the delivery of antitoxin in the 1925 serum run to Nome.", "The success of animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States.Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as Frederick Banting's research in dogs, which determined that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with diabetes.", "This led to the 1922 discovery of insulin (with John Macleod) and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death.", "John Cade's research in guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of bipolar disorder, replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy.", "Modern general anaesthetics, such as halothane and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations.In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the polio virus, which led to his creation of a polio vaccine.", "The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years.", "Albert Sabin improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys; the Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in the United States by 1965.It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of 100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey.", "Sabin wrote in 1992, \"Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals.", "\"Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics, and the whooping cough vaccine.", "Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies, anthrax, glanders, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis, Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm, and other parasitic infections.", "Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful ''in vitro'' model system available." ], [ "Selection", "Models are those organisms with a wealth of biological data that make them attractive to study as examples for other species and/or natural phenomena that are more difficult to study directly.", "Continual research on these organisms focuses on a wide variety of experimental techniques and goals from many different levels of biology—from ecology, behavior and biomechanics, down to the tiny functional scale of individual tissues, organelles and proteins.", "Inquiries about the DNA of organisms are classed as genetic models (with short generation times, such as the fruitfly and nematode worm), experimental models, and genomic parsimony models, investigating pivotal position in the evolutionary tree.", "Historically, model organisms include a handful of species with extensive genomic research data, such as the NIH model organisms.Often, model organisms are chosen on the basis that they are amenable to experimental manipulation.", "This usually will include characteristics such as short life-cycle, techniques for genetic manipulation (inbred strains, stem cell lines, and methods of transformation) and non-specialist living requirements.", "Sometimes, the genome arrangement facilitates the sequencing of the model organism's genome, for example, by being very compact or having a low proportion of junk DNA (e.g.", "yeast, arabidopsis, or pufferfish).When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits.", "Among these are size, generation time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit.", "As comparative molecular biology has become more common, some researchers have sought model organisms from a wider assortment of lineages on the tree of life.===Phylogeny and genetic relatedness===The primary reason for the use of model organisms in research is the evolutionary principle that all organisms share some degree of relatedness and genetic similarity due to common ancestry.", "The study of taxonomic human relatives, then, can provide a great deal of information about mechanism and disease within the human body that can be useful in medicine.Various phylogenetic trees for vertebrates have been constructed using comparative proteomics, genetics, genomics as well as the geochemical and fossil record.", "These estimations tell us that humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor about 6 million years ago (mya).", "As our closest relatives, chimpanzees have a lot of potential to tell us about mechanisms of disease (and what genes may be responsible for human intelligence).", "However, chimpanzees are rarely used in research and are protected from highly invasive procedures.", "Rodents are the most common animal models.", "Phylogenetic trees estimate that humans and rodents last shared a common ancestor ~80-100mya.", "Despite this distant split, humans and rodents have far more similarities than they do differences.", "This is due to the relative stability of large portions of the genome, making the use of vertebrate animals particularly productive.Genomic data is used to make close comparisons between species and determine relatedness.", "Humans share about 99% of their genome with chimpanzees (98.7% with bonobos) and over 90% with the mouse.", "With so much of the genome conserved across species, it is relatively impressive that the differences between humans and mice can be accounted for in approximately six thousand genes (of ~30,000 total).", "Scientists have been able to take advantage of these similarities in generating experimental and predictive models of human disease." ], [ "Use", "There are many model organisms.", "One of the first model systems for molecular biology was the bacterium ''Escherichia coli'', a common constituent of the human digestive system.", "Several of the bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) that infect ''E.", "coli'' also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and gene regulation (e.g.", "phages Lambda and T4).", "However, it is debated whether bacteriophages should be classified as organisms, because they lack metabolism and depend on functions of the host cells for propagation.In eukaryotes, several yeasts, particularly ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' (\"baker's\" or \"budding\" yeast), have been widely used in genetics and cell biology, largely because they are quick and easy to grow.", "The cell cycle in a simple yeast is very similar to the cell cycle in humans and is regulated by homologous proteins.", "The fruit fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'' is studied, again, because it is easy to grow for an animal, has various visible congenital traits and has a polytene (giant) chromosome in its salivary glands that can be examined under a light microscope.", "The roundworm ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' is studied because it has very defined development patterns involving fixed numbers of cells, and it can be rapidly assayed for abnormalities." ], [ "Disease models", "Animal models serving in research may have an existing, inbred or induced disease or injury that is similar to a human condition.", "These test conditions are often termed as '''animal models of disease'''.", "The use of animal models allows researchers to investigate disease states in ways which would be inaccessible in a human patient, performing procedures on the non-human animal that imply a level of harm that would not be considered ethical to inflict on a human.The best models of disease are similar in etiology (mechanism of cause) and phenotype (signs and symptoms) to the human equivalent.", "However complex human diseases can often be better understood in a simplified system in which individual parts of the disease process are isolated and examined.", "For instance, behavioral analogues of anxiety or pain in laboratory animals can be used to screen and test new drugs for the treatment of these conditions in humans.", "A 2000 study found that animal models concorded (coincided on true positives and false negatives) with human toxicity in 71% of cases, with 63% for nonrodents alone and 43% for rodents alone.In 1987, Davidson et al.", "suggested that selection of an animal model for research be based on nine considerations.", "These include Animal models can be classified as homologous, isomorphic or predictive.", "Animal models can also be more broadly classified into four categories: 1) experimental, 2) spontaneous, 3) negative, 4) orphan.Experimental models are most common.", "These refer to models of disease that resemble human conditions in phenotype or response to treatment but are induced artificially in the laboratory.", "Some examples include:* The use of metrazol (pentylenetetrazol) as an animal model of epilepsy* Induction of mechanical brain injury as an animal model of post-traumatic epilepsy* Injection of the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine to dopaminergic parts of the basal ganglia as an animal model of Parkinson's disease.", "* Immunisation with an auto-antigen to induce an immune response to model autoimmune diseases such as Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis* Occlusion of the middle cerebral artery as an animal model of ischemic stroke* Injection of blood in the basal ganglia of mice as a model for hemorrhagic stroke* Sepsis and septic shock induction by impairing the integrity of barrier tissues, administering live pathogens or toxins* Infecting animals with pathogens to reproduce human infectious diseases* Injecting animals with agonists or antagonists of various neurotransmitters to reproduce human mental disorders* Using ionizing radiation to cause tumors* Using gene transfer to cause tumors* Implanting animals with tumors to test and develop treatments using ionizing radiation* Genetically selected (such as in diabetic mice also known as NOD mice)* Various animal models for screening of drugs for the treatment of glaucoma* The use of the ovariectomized rat in osteoporosis research* Use of ''Plasmodium yoelii'' as a model of human malariaSpontaneous models refer to diseases that are analogous to human conditions that occur naturally in the animal being studied.", "These models are rare, but informative.", "Negative models essentially refer to control animals, which are useful for validating an experimental result.", "Orphan models refer to diseases for which there is no human analog and occur exclusively in the species studied.The increase in knowledge of the genomes of non-human primates and other mammals that are genetically close to humans is allowing the production of genetically engineered animal tissues, organs and even animal species which express human diseases, providing a more robust model of human diseases in an animal model.Animal models observed in the sciences of psychology and sociology are often termed '''animal models of behavior'''.", "It is difficult to build an animal model that perfectly reproduces the symptoms of depression in patients.", "Depression, as other mental disorders, consists of endophenotypes that can be reproduced independently and evaluated in animals.", "An ideal animal model offers an opportunity to understand molecular, genetic and epigenetic factors that may lead to depression.", "By using animal models, the underlying molecular alterations and the causal relationship between genetic or environmental alterations and depression can be examined, which would afford a better insight into pathology of depression.", "In addition, animal models of depression are indispensable for identifying novel therapies for depression." ], [ "Important model organisms", "Model organisms are drawn from all three domains of life, as well as viruses.", "The most widely studied prokaryotic model organism is ''Escherichia coli'' (''E.", "coli''), which has been intensively investigated for over 60 years.", "It is a common, gram-negative gut bacterium which can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting.", "It is the most widely used organism in molecular genetics, and is an important species in the fields of biotechnology and microbiology, where it has served as the host organism for the majority of work with recombinant DNA.Simple model eukaryotes include baker's yeast (''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'') and fission yeast (''Schizosaccharomyces pombe''), both of which share many characters with higher cells, including those of humans.", "For instance, many cell division genes that are critical for the development of cancer have been discovered in yeast.", "''Chlamydomonas reinhardtii'', a unicellular green alga with well-studied genetics, is used to study photosynthesis and motility.", "''C.", "reinhardtii'' has many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.", "''Dictyostelium discoideum'' is used in molecular biology and genetics, and is studied as an example of cell communication, differentiation, and programmed cell death.Laboratory mice, widely used in medical researchAmong invertebrates, the fruit fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'' is famous as the subject of genetics experiments by Thomas Hunt Morgan and others.", "They are easily raised in the lab, with rapid generations, high fecundity, few chromosomes, and easily induced observable mutations.", "The nematode ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' is used for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology.", "It was first proposed as a model for neuronal development by Sydney Brenner in 1963, and has been extensively used in many different contexts since then.", "''C.", "elegans'' was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced, and as of 2012, the only organism to have its connectome (neuronal \"wiring diagram\") completed.", "''Arabidopsis thaliana'' is currently the most popular model plant.", "Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies, and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped.", "''A.", "thaliana'' was the first plant to have its genome sequenced.Among vertebrates, guinea pigs (''Cavia porcellus'') were used by Robert Koch and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, becoming a byword for \"laboratory animal\", but are less commonly used today.", "The classic model vertebrate is currently the mouse (''Mus musculus'').", "Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g.", "body size, obesity, muscularity, and voluntary wheel-running behavior.The rat (''Rattus norvegicus'') is particularly useful as a toxicology model, and as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse, while eggs and embryos from ''Xenopus tropicalis'' and ''Xenopus laevis'' (African clawed frog) are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience.", "Likewise, the zebrafish (''Danio rerio'') has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy during this time period.", "Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology, specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.Other important model organisms and some of their uses include: T4 phage (viral infection), ''Tetrahymena thermophila'' (intracellular processes), maize (transposons), ''hydras'' (regeneration and morphogenesis), cats (neurophysiology), chickens (development), dogs (respiratory and cardiovascular systems), ''Nothobranchius furzeri'' (aging), non-human primates such as the rhesus macaque and chimpanzee (hepatitis, HIV, Parkinson's disease, cognition, and vaccines), and ferrets (SARS-CoV-2)===Selected model organisms===The organisms below have become model organisms because they facilitate the study of certain characters or because of their genetic accessibility.", "For example, ''E.", "coli'' was one of the first organisms for which genetic techniques such as transformation or genetic manipulation has been developed.The genomes of all model species have been sequenced, including their mitochondrial/chloroplast genomes.", "Model organism databases exist to provide researchers with a portal from which to download sequences (DNA, RNA, or protein) or to access functional information on specific genes, for example the sub-cellular localization of the gene product or its physiological role.", "Model Organism Common name Informal classification Usage (examples) VirusPhi X 174ΦX174Virusevolution Prokaryote ''Escherichia coli''''E.", "coli'' Bacteriabacterial genetics, metabolism Eukaryote, unicellular ''Dictyostelium discoideum'' Amoeba immunology, host–pathogen interactions ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' Brewer's yeastBaker's yeast Yeastcell division, organelles, etc.", "''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' Fission yeast Yeast cell cycle, cytokinesis, chromosome biology, telomeres, DNA metabolism, cytoskeleton organization, industrial applications ''Chlamydomonas reinhardtii'' Algaehydrogen production ''Tetrahymena thermophila'', ''T.", "pyriformis'' Ciliateeducation, biomedical research ''Emiliania huxleyi'' Planktonsurface sea temperature Plant ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' Thale cress Flowering plantpopulation genetics ''Physcomitrella patens'' Spreading earthmoss Moss molecular farming ''Populus trichocarpa'' Balsam poplar Treedrought tolerance, lignin biosynthesis, wood formation, plant biology, morphology, genetics, and ecology Animal, nonvertebrate ''Caenorhabditis elegans''Nematode, Roundworm Wormdifferentiation, development ''Drosophila melanogaster'' Fruit fly Insectdevelopmental biology, human brain degenerative disease ''Callosobruchus maculatus'' Cowpea Weevil Insectdevelopmental biology Animal, vertebrate ''Danio rerio'' Zebrafish Fishembryonic development ''Fundulus heteroclitus'' Mummichog Fish effect of hormones on behavior ''Nothobranchius furzeri'' Turquoise killifish Fishaging, disease, evolution ''Oryzias latipes'' Japanese rice fish Fishfish biology, sex determination ''Anolis carolinensis'' Carolina anole Reptilereptile biology, evolution ''Mus musculus'' House mouse Mammaldisease model for humans ''Gallus gallus'' Red junglefowl Birdembryological development and organogenesis ''Taeniopygia castanotis'' Australian zebra finch Bird vocal learning, neurobiology ''Xenopus laevis''''Xenopus tropicalis'' African clawed frogWestern clawed frog Amphibianembryonic development" ], [ "Limitations", "Many animal models serving as test subjects in biomedical research, such as rats and mice, may be selectively sedentary, obese and glucose intolerant.", "This may confound their use to model human metabolic processes and diseases as these can be affected by dietary energy intake and exercise.", "Similarly, there are differences between the immune systems of model organisms and humans that lead to significantly altered responses to stimuli, although the underlying principles of genome function may be the same.", "The impoverished environments inside standard laboratory cages deny research animals of the mental and physical challenges are necessary for healthy emotional development.", "Without day-to-day variety, risks and rewards, and complex environments, some have argued that animal models are irrelevant models of human experience.Mice differ from humans in several immune properties: mice are more resistant to some toxins than humans; have a lower total neutrophil fraction in the blood, a lower neutrophil enzymatic capacity, lower activity of the complement system, and a different set of pentraxins involved in the inflammatory process; and lack genes for important components of the immune system, such as IL-8, IL-37, TLR10, ICAM-3, etc.", "Laboratory mice reared in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) conditions usually have a rather immature immune system with a deficit of memory T cells.", "These mice may have limited diversity of the microbiota, which directly affects the immune system and the development of pathological conditions.", "Moreover, persistent virus infections (for example, herpesviruses) are activated in humans, but not in SPF mice, with septic complications and may change the resistance to bacterial coinfections.", "“Dirty” mice are possibly better suitable for mimicking human pathologies.", "In addition, inbred mouse strains are used in the overwhelming majority of studies, while the human population is heterogeneous, pointing to the importance of studies in interstrain hybrid, outbred, and nonlinear mice.=== Unintended bias ===Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details about how experiments are done omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias.", "Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 study from McGill University in Montreal, Canada which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels.", "Another study in 2016 suggested that gut microbiomes in mice may have an impact upon scientific research.===Alternatives===Ethical concerns, as well as the cost, maintenance and relative inefficiency of animal research has encouraged development of alternative methods for the study of disease.", "Cell culture, or ''in vitro'' studies, provide an alternative that preserves the physiology of the living cell, but does not require the sacrifice of an animal for mechanistic studies.", "Human, inducible pluripotent stem cells can also elucidate new mechanisms for understanding cancer and cell regeneration.", "Imaging studies (such as MRI or PET scans) enable non-invasive study of human subjects.", "Recent advances in genetics and genomics can identify disease-associated genes, which can be targeted for therapies.Many biomedical researchers argue that there is no substitute for a living organism when studying complex interactions in disease pathology or treatments." ], [ "Ethics", "Debate about the ethical use of animals in research dates at least as far back as 1822 when the British Parliament under pressure from British and Indian intellectuals enacted the first law for animal protection preventing cruelty to cattle.", "This was followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 and 1849, which criminalized ill-treating, over-driving, and torturing animals.", "In 1876, under pressure from the National Anti-Vivisection Society, the Cruelty to Animals Act was amended to include regulations governing the use of animals in research.", "This new act stipulated that 1) experiments must be proven absolutely necessary for instruction, or to save or prolong human life; 2) animals must be properly anesthetized; and 3) animals must be killed as soon as the experiment is over.", "Today, these three principles are central to the laws and guidelines governing the use of animals and research.", "In the U.S., the Animal Welfare Act of 1970 (see also Laboratory Animal Welfare Act) set standards for animal use and care in research.", "This law is enforced by APHIS's Animal Care program.In academic settings in which NIH funding is used for animal research, institutions are governed by the NIH Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW).", "At each site, OLAW guidelines and standards are upheld by a local review board called the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).", "All laboratory experiments involving living animals are reviewed and approved by this committee.", "In addition to proving the potential for benefit to human health, minimization of pain and distress, and timely and humane euthanasia, experimenters must justify their protocols based on the principles of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement.", "\"Replacement\" refers to efforts to engage alternatives to animal use.", "This includes the use of computer models, non-living tissues and cells, and replacement of “higher-order” animals (primates and mammals) with “lower” order animals (e.g.", "cold-blooded animals, invertebrates) wherever possible.", "\"Reduction\" refers to efforts to minimize number of animals used during the course of an experiment, as well as prevention of unnecessary replication of previous experiments.", "To satisfy this requirement, mathematical calculations of statistical power are employed to determine the minimum number of animals that can be used to get a statistically significant experimental result.", "\"Refinement\" refers to efforts to make experimental design as painless and efficient as possible in order to minimize the suffering of each animal subject." ], [ "See also", "* Animals in space* Animal testing* Animal testing on invertebrates* Animal testing on rodents* Cellular model (numerical), e.g., ''Mycoplasma genitalium''.", "* Ensembl genome database of model organisms* Generic Model Organism Database* Genome project* History of animal testing* History of model organisms* History of research on ''Arabidopsis thaliana''* History of research on ''Caenorhabditis elegans''* Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis* Mouse models of colorectal and intestinal cancer* RefSeq - the Reference Sequence database" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Wellcome Trust description of model organisms* National Institutes of Health Comparative Medicine Program Vertebrate Models* NIH Using Model Organisms to Study Human Disease* National Institutes of Health Model Organism Sharing Policy* Why are Animals Used in NIH Research* Disease Animal Models – BSRC Alexander Fleming* Emice – National Cancer Institute* Knock Out Mouse Project – KOMP* Mouse Biology Program* Mutant Mouse Resource & Research Centers, National Institutes of Health, supported Mouse Repository* Rat Resource & Research Center – National Institutes of Health, supported Rat Repository* NIH Model Organism Research Reproducibility and Rigor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Materialism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Materialism''' is a form of philosophical monism which holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all things, including mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions of material things.", "According to philosophical materialism, mind and consciousness are by-products or epiphenomena of material processes (such as the biochemistry of the human brain and nervous system), without which they cannot exist.", "Materialism directly contrasts with idealism, according to which consciousness is the fundamental substance of nature.Materialism is closely related to physicalism—the view that all that exists is ultimately physical.", "Philosophical physicalism has evolved from materialism with the theories of the physical sciences to incorporate more sophisticated notions of physicality than mere ordinary matter (e.g.", "spacetime, physical energies and forces, and exotic matter).", "Thus, some prefer the term ''physicalism'' to ''materialism'', while others use the terms as if they were synonymous.Philosophies traditionally opposed or largely historically unreconciled to the scientific theories of materialism or physicalism include idealism, pluralism, dualism, panpsychism, and other forms of monism.", "Epicureanism is a philosophy of materialism from classical antiquity that was a major forerunner of modern science.", "Though ostensibly a deist, Epicurus affirmed the literal existence of the Greek gods in either some type of celestial \"heaven\" cognate from which they ruled the Universe (if not on a literal Mount Olympus), and his philosophy promulgated atomism, while Platonism taught roughly the opposite, despite Plato's teaching of Zeus as God." ], [ "Overview", "In 1748, French doctor and philosopher La Mettrie espouses a materialistic definition of the human soul in ''L'Homme Machine''.Materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology, and is thus different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism.", "For singular explanations of the phenomenal reality, materialism is in contrast to idealism, neutral monism, and spiritualism.", "It can also contrast with phenomenalism, vitalism, and dual-aspect monism.", "Its materiality can, in some ways, be linked to the concept of determinism, as espoused by Enlightenment thinkers.Despite the large number of philosophical schools and their nuances, all philosophies are said to fall into one of two primary categories, defined in contrast to each other: ''idealism'' and ''materialism''.", "The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality: the primary difference between them is how they answer two fundamental questions—what reality consists of, and how it originated.", "To idealists, spirit or mind or the objects of mind (''ideas'') are primary, and matter secondary.", "To materialists, matter is primary, and mind or spirit or ideas are secondary—the product of matter acting upon matter.The materialist view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically by René Descartes; by itself, materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized.", "In practice, it is frequently assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another.Modern philosophical materialists extend the definition of other scientifically observable entities such as energy, forces, and the spacetime continuum; some philosophers, such as Mary Midgley, suggest that the concept of \"matter\" is elusive and poorly defined.During the 19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels extended the concept of materialism to elaborate a ''materialist conception of history'' centered on the roughly empirical world of human activity (practice, including labor) and the institutions created, reproduced or destroyed by that activity.", "They also developed dialectical materialism, by taking Hegelian dialectics, stripping them of their idealist aspects, and fusing them with materialism (see Modern philosophy).=== Non-reductive materialism ===Materialism is often associated with reductionism, according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description, if they are genuine, must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description—typically, at a more reduced level.", "'''Non-reductive materialism''' explicitly rejects this notion, taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects, properties or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents.", "Jerry Fodor held this view, according to which empirical laws and explanations in \"special sciences\" like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of basic physics." ], [ "History", "===Early history=======Before Common Era====Materialism developed, possibly independently, in several geographically separated regions of Eurasia during what Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age ( 800–200 BC).In ancient Indian philosophy, materialism developed around 600 BC with the works of Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy.", "Kanada became one of the early proponents of atomism.", "The Nyaya–Vaisesika school (c. 600–100 BC) developed one of the earliest forms of atomism (although their proofs of God and their positing that consciousness was not material precludes labelling them as materialists).", "Buddhist atomism and the Jaina school continued the atomic tradition.Ancient Greek atomists like Leucippus, Democritus and Epicurus prefigure later materialists.", "The Latin poem ''De Rerum Natura'' by Lucretius (99 – c. 55 BC) reflects the mechanistic philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus.", "According to this view, all that exists is matter and void, and all phenomena result from different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called ''atoms'' (literally \"indivisibles\").", "''De Rerum Natura'' provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion, evaporation, wind, and sound.", "Famous principles like \"nothing can touch body but body\" first appeared in Lucretius's work.", "Democritus and Epicurus did not espouse a monist ontology, instead espousing the ontological separation of matter and space (i.e.", "that space is \"another kind\" of being).====Early Common Era====Wang Chong (27 – c. 100 AD) was a Chinese thinker of the early Common Era said to be a materialist.", "Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta (6th century) in his work ''Tattvopaplavasimha'' (''The Upsetting of All Principles'') refuted the Nyāya Sūtra epistemology.", "The materialistic Cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400; when Madhavacharya compiled ''Sarva-darśana-samgraha'' (''A Digest of All Philosophies'') in the 14th century, he had no Cārvāka (or Lokāyata) text to quote from or refer to.In early 12th-century al-Andalus, Arabian philosopher Ibn Tufail ( Abubacer) discussed materialism in his philosophical novel, ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'' (''Philosophus Autodidactus''), while vaguely foreshadowing historical materialism.====Modern philosophy====Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and Pierre Gassendi (1592–1665) represented the materialist tradition in opposition to the attempts of René Descartes (1596–1650) to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations.", "There followed the materialist and atheist ''abbé'' Jean Meslier (1664–1729), along with the French materialists: Julien Offray de La Mettrie, German-French Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789), Denis Diderot (1713–1784), and other French Enlightenment thinkers.", "In England, John \"Walking\" Stewart (1747–1822) believed matter has a moral dimension, which had a major impact on the philosophical poetry of William Wordsworth (1770–1850).In late modern philosophy, German atheist anthropologist Ludwig Feuerbach signaled a new turn in materialism in his 1841 book ''The Essence of Christianity'', which presented a humanist account of religion as the outward projection of man's inward nature.", "Feuerbach introduced '''anthropological materialism''', a version of materialism that views materialist anthropology as the universal science.Feuerbach's variety of materialism heavily influenced Karl Marx, who in the late 19th century elaborated the concept of historical materialism—the basis for what Marx and Friedrich Engels outlined as ''scientific socialism'':Through his ''Dialectics of Nature'' (1883), Engels later developed a \"materialist dialectic\" philosophy of nature, a worldview that Georgi Plekhanov, the father of Russian Marxism, called ''dialectical materialism''.", "In early 20th-century Russian philosophy, Vladimir Lenin further developed dialectical materialism in his 1909 book ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'', which connects his opponents' political conceptions to their anti-materialist philosophies.A more naturalist-oriented materialist school of thought that developed in the mid-19th century was '''German materialism''', which included Ludwig Büchner (1824–1899), the Dutch-born Jacob Moleschott (1822–1893), and Carl Vogt (1817–1895), even though they had different views on core issues such as the evolution and the origins of life.===Contemporary history=======Analytic philosophy====Contemporary analytic philosophers (e.g.", "Daniel Dennett, Willard Van Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, and Jerry Fodor) operate within a broadly physicalist or scientific materialist framework, producing rival accounts of how best to accommodate the mind, including functionalism, anomalous monism, and identity theory.Scientific materialism is often synonymous with, and has typically been described as, a reductive materialism.", "In the early 21st century, Paul and Patricia Churchland advocated a radically contrasting position (at least in regard to certain hypotheses): eliminative materialism.", "Eliminative materialism holds that some mental phenomena simply do not exist at all, and that talk of such phenomena reflects a spurious \"folk psychology\" and introspection illusion.", "A materialist of this variety might believe that a concept like \"belief\" has no basis in fact (e.g.", "the way folk science speaks of demon-caused illnesses).With reductive materialism at one end of a continuum (our theories will ''reduce'' to facts) and eliminative materialism at the other (certain theories will need to be ''eliminated'' in light of new facts), revisionary materialism is somewhere in the middle.====Continental philosophy====Contemporary continental philosopher Gilles Deleuze has attempted to rework and strengthen classical materialist ideas.", "Contemporary theorists such as Manuel DeLanda, working with this reinvigorated materialism, have come to be classified as ''new materialists''.", "'''New materialism''' has become its own subfield, with courses on it at major universities, as well as numerous conferences, edited collections and monographs devoted to it.Jane Bennett's 2010 book ''Vibrant Matter'' has been particularly instrumental in bringing theories of monist ontology and vitalism back into a critical theoretical fold dominated by poststructuralist theories of language and discourse.", "Scholars such as Mel Y. Chen and Zakiyyah Iman Jackson have critiqued this body of new materialist literature for neglecting to consider the materiality of race and gender in particular.Métis scholar Zoe Todd, as well as Mohawk (Bear Clan, Six Nations) and Anishinaabe scholar Vanessa Watts, query the colonial orientation of the race for a \"new\" materialism.", "Watts in particular describes the tendency to regard matter as a subject of feminist or philosophical care as a tendency too invested in the reanimation of a Eurocentric tradition of inquiry at the expense of an Indigenous ethic of responsibility.", "Other scholars, such as Helene Vosters, echo their concerns and have questioned whether there is anything particularly \"new\" about \"new materialism\", as Indigenous and other animist ontologies have attested to what might be called the \"vibrancy of matter\" for centuries.", "Others, such as Thomas Nail, have critiqued \"vitalist\" versions of new materialism for depoliticizing \"flat ontology\" and being ahistorical.Quentin Meillassoux proposed ''speculative materialism'', a post-Kantian return to David Hume also based on materialist ideas." ], [ "Defining \"matter\"", "The nature and definition of ''matter''—like other key concepts in science and philosophy—have occasioned much debate:* Is there a single kind of matter (''hyle'') that everything is made of, or are there multiple kinds?", "* Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (''hylomorphism'') or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (atomism)?", "\"Atomism in the Seventeenth Century\" ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'' Article by a philosopher who opposes atomism Information on Buddhist atomism Article on traditional Greek atomism \"Atomism from the 17th to the 20th Century\" ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Does matter have intrinsic properties (''substance theory'') or lack them (''prima materia'')?One challenge to the conventional concept of matter as tangible \"stuff\" came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century.", "Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable.", "This enables the ontological view that energy is ''prima materia'' and matter is one of its forms.", "In contrast, the Standard Model of particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions.", "On this view it could be said that fields are ''prima materia'' and the energy is a property of the field.According to the dominant cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, less than 5% of the universe's energy density is made up of the \"matter\" the Standard Model describes, and most of the universe is composed of dark matter and dark energy, with little agreement among scientists about what these are made of.With the advent of quantum physics, some scientists believed the concept of matter had merely changed, while others believed the conventional position could no longer be maintained.", "Werner Heisenberg said: \"The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct 'actuality' of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range.", "This extrapolation, however, is impossible...atoms are not things.", "\"The concept of matter has changed in response to new scientific discoveries.", "Thus materialism has no definite content independent of the particular theory of matter on which it is based.", "According to Noam Chomsky, any property can be considered material, if one defines matter such that it has that property.The philosophical materialist Gustavo Bueno uses a more precise term than ''matter'', the ''stroma.''" ], [ "Physicalism", "George Stack distinguishes between materialism and physicalism: But not all conceptions of physicalism are tied to verificationist theories of meaning or direct realist accounts of perception.", "Rather, physicalists believe that no \"element of reality\" is missing from the mathematical formalism of our best description of the world.", "\"Materialist\" physicalists also believe that the formalism describes fields of insentience.", "In other words, the intrinsic nature of the physical is non-experiential." ], [ "Religious and spiritual views", "===Christianity======Hinduism and Transcendental Club===Most Hindus and transcendentalists regard all matter as an illusion, or ''maya'', blinding humans from the truth.", "Transcendental experiences like the perception of Brahman are considered to destroy the illusion." ], [ "Criticism and alternatives", "===From contemporary physicists===Rudolf Peierls, a physicist who played a major role in the Manhattan Project, rejected materialism: \"The premise that you can describe in terms of physics the whole function of a human being... including knowledge and consciousness, is untenable.", "There is still something missing.", "\"Erwin Schrödinger said, \"Consciousness cannot be accounted for in physical terms.", "For consciousness is absolutely fundamental.", "It cannot be accounted for in terms of anything else.", "\"Werner Heisenberg wrote: \"The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct 'actuality' of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range.", "This extrapolation, however, is impossible...", "Atoms are not things.", "\"====Quantum mechanics====Some 20th-century physicists (e.g., Eugene Wigner and Henry Stapp), and some modern physicists and science writers (e.g., Stephen Barr, Paul Davies, and John Gribbin) have argued that materialism is flawed due to certain recent findings in physics, such as quantum mechanics and chaos theory.", "According to Gribbin and Davies (1991):====Digital physics====The objections of Davies and Gribbin are shared by proponents of digital physics, who view information rather than matter as fundamental.", "The physicist and proponent of digital physics John Archibald Wheeler wrote, \"all matter and all things physical are information-theoretic in origin and this is a participatory universe.\"", "Some founders of quantum theory, such as Max Planck, shared their objections.", "He wrote:James Jeans concurred with Planck, saying, \"The Universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine.", "Mind no longer appears to be an accidental intruder into the realm of matter.", "\"===Philosophical objections===In the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', Immanuel Kant argued against materialism in defending his transcendental idealism (as well as offering arguments against subjective idealism and mind–body dualism).", "But Kant argues that change and time require an enduring substrate.Postmodern/poststructuralist thinkers also express skepticism about any all-encompassing metaphysical scheme.", "Philosopher Mary Midgley argues that materialism is a self-refuting idea, at least in its eliminative materialist form.During the 20th century, several other philosophers also offered specific criticisms related to the fundamental concepts underlying scientific materialism.", "Among them was the Australian scholar Colin Murray Turbayne, who in his ''The Myth of Metaphor'' analyzes the limitations associated with several metaphors routinely incorporated as literal constructs in the \"mechanistic\" explanations of the universe first outlined by Isaac Newton and Descartes's mind-body dualism, such as \"substance\" and \"substratum\", which according to Turbayne have little if any meaning.", "He further argues that such physicalist theories of the universe generally rely upon mechanistic metaphors drawn through the use of deductive logic for the synthesis of their respective hypotheses.", "Turbayne observes that modern man has become victimized by the metaphors underlying these hypotheses, which have been unintentionally interpreted as examples of literal truth despite their limitations.", "====Varieties of idealism====Arguments for idealism, such as those of Hegel and Berkeley, often take the form of an argument against materialism; indeed, Berkeley's idealism was called ''immaterialism''.", "Now, matter can be argued to be redundant, as in bundle theory, and mind-independent properties can, in turn, be reduced to subjective percepts.", "Berkeley gives an example of the latter by pointing out that it is impossible to gather direct evidence of matter, as there is no direct experience of matter; all that is experienced is perception, whether internal or external.", "As such, matter's existence can only be inferred from the apparent (perceived) stability of perceptions; it finds absolutely no evidence in direct experience.If matter and energy are seen as necessary to explain the physical world, but incapable of explaining mind, dualism results.", "Emergence, holism and process philosophy seek to ameliorate the perceived shortcomings of traditional (especially mechanistic) materialism without abandoning materialism entirely.===Materialism as methodology===Some critics object to materialism as part of an overly skeptical, narrow or reductivist approach to theorizing, rather than to the ontological claim that matter is the only substance.", "Particle physicist and Anglican theologian John Polkinghorne objects to what he calls ''promissory materialism''—claims that materialistic science will eventually succeed in explaining phenomena it has not so far been able to explain.", "Polkinghorne prefers \"dual-aspect monism\" to materialism.Some scientific materialists have been criticized for failing to provide clear definitions of matter, leaving the term ''materialism'' without any definite meaning.", "Noam Chomsky states that since the concept of matter may be affected by new scientific discoveries, as has happened in the past, scientific materialists are being dogmatic in assuming the opposite." ], [ "See also", "* Aleatory materialism* Antimaterialism beliefs:**Gnosticism**Idealism**Immaterialism**Maya (religion)**Mind–body dualism**Platonic realism**Supernaturalism**Transcendentalism* Cārvāka* Christian materialism* Critical realism* Cultural materialism* Dialectical materialism* Economic materialism* Existence* French materialism* Grotesque body* Historical materialism* Hyle* Incorporeality* Madhyamaka, a philosophy of Middle Way* Marxist philosophy of nature* Materialist feminism* Metaphysical naturalism* Model-dependent realism* Naturalism (philosophy)* Philosophical materialism* Philosophy of mind* Physicalism* Postmaterialism* Quantum energy* Rational egoism* Reality in Buddhism* Scientistic materialism* Substance theory* Transcendence (religion)" ], [ "Notes", "'''a.'''", "Indeed, it has been noted it is difficult if not impossible to define one category without contrasting it with the other." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Buchner, L. (1920).", "''Force and Matter''.", "New York, Peter Eckler Publishing Co.* Churchland, Paul (1981). ''", "Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes''.", "The Philosophy of Science.", "Boyd, Richard; P. Gasper; J. D. Trout.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.", "* * * Fodor, J.A.", "(1974).", "\"Special Sciences\", ''Synthese'', Vol.", "28.", "* Gunasekara, Victor A.", "(2001). \"", "Buddhism and the Modern World\".", "''Basic Buddhism: A Modern Introduction to the Buddha's Teaching\".", "18 January 2008* Kim, J.", "(1994) Multiple Realization and the Metaphysics of Reduction, ''Philosophy and Phenomenological Research'', Vol.", "52.", "* La Mettrie, La Mettrie, Julien Offray de (1748).", "''L'Homme Machine'' (''Man a Machine'')* Lange, Friedrich A.", "(1925) '' The History of Materialism''.", "New York, Harcourt, Brace, & Co.* * Alternative * Schopenhauer, Arthur (1969).", "''The World as Will and Representation''.", "New York, Dover Publications, Inc.* Seidner, Stanley S. (10 June 2009).", "\"A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology\".", "''Mater Dei Institute''* * Vitzthum, Richard C. (1995) '' Materialism: An Affirmative History and Definition''.", "Amherst, New York, Prometheus Books." ], [ "External links", "**''Stanford Encyclopedia'':** Physicalism** Eliminative Materialism* Philosophical Materialism (by Richard C. Vitzthum) from infidels.org* Dictionary of the Philosophy of Mind on Materialism from the University of Waterloo* A new theory of ideomaterialism being a synthesis of idealism and materialism" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microelectronics" ], [ "Introduction", "An Integrated circuit (IC) as an example application in the field of microelectronics.", "The chip housing is opened to allow a view of the actual circuit.", "The golden connecting cables, which form the electrical wiring between the IC and the housing contacts, can be seen on the sides.", "'''Microelectronics''' is a subfield of electronics.", "As the name suggests, microelectronics relates to the study and manufacture (or microfabrication) of very small electronic designs and components.", "Usually, but not always, this means micrometre-scale or smaller.", "These devices are typically made from semiconductor materials.", "Many components of a normal electronic design are available in a microelectronic equivalent.", "These include transistors, capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and (naturally) insulators and conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices.", "Unique wiring techniques such as wire bonding are also often used in microelectronics because of the unusually small size of the components, leads and pads.", "This technique requires specialized equipment and is expensive.Digital integrated circuits (ICs) consist of billions of transistors, resistors, diodes, and capacitors.", "Analog circuits commonly contain resistors and capacitors as well.", "Inductors are used in some high frequency analog circuits, but tend to occupy larger chip area due to their lower reactance at low frequencies.", "Gyrators can replace them in many applications.As techniques have improved, the scale of microelectronic components has continued to decrease.", "At smaller scales, the relative impact of intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more significant.", "These are called '''parasitic effects''', and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.Today, microelectronics design is largely aided by Electronic Design Automation software." ], [ "See also", "* Digital electronics* Electrical engineering* Kelvin probe force microscope* Macroelectronics* Microscale chemistry* Nanoelectronics" ], [ "References", "* https://openlibrary.org/works/OL15759799W/Bits_on_Chips/" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mind" ], [ "Introduction", "phrenological mapping of the brain by Friedrich Eduard Bilz.", "Phrenology, a pseudoscience, was among the first attempts to correlate mental functions with specific parts of the brain.The '''mind''' (adjective form: '''mental''') is that which thinks, imagines, remembers, wills, and senses, or is the set of faculties responsible for such phenomena.", "The mind is also associated with experiencing perception, pleasure and pain, belief, desire, intention, and emotion.", "The mind can include conscious and non-conscious states as well as sensory and non-sensory experiences.", "The exact nature of the mind is disputed.", "Traditionally, minds were understood as substances, but contemporary philosophers tend to see them as collections of properties or capacities.", "There is a lengthy tradition in philosophy, religion, psychology, and cognitive science exploring what constitutes a mind, what its distinguishing properties are, and whether humans are the only beings that have minds.Mind, or mentality, is usually contrasted with body, matter, or physicality.", "The issue of the nature of this contrast and specifically the relation between mind and brain is called the mind–body problem.", "Traditional viewpoints included dualism and idealism, which consider the mind to be non-physical.", "Modern views often center around physicalism and functionalism, which hold that the mind is roughly identical with the brain or reducible to physical phenomena such as neuronal activity, though dualism and idealism continue to have many supporters.", "Another question concerns which types of beings are capable of having minds.", "For example, whether mind is exclusive to humans, possessed also by some or all animals, by all living things, whether it is a strictly definable characteristic at all, or whether mind can also be a property of some types of human-made machines.Different cultural and religious traditions often use different concepts of mind, resulting in different answers to these questions.", "Some see mind as a property exclusive to humans, whereas others ascribe properties of mind to non-living entities (e.g., panpsychism and animism), to animals, and to deities.", "Some of the earliest recorded speculations linked mind (sometimes described as identical with soul or spirit) to theories concerning both life after death, and cosmological and natural order, for example in the doctrines of Zoroaster, the Buddha, Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient Greek, Indian, and later Islamic, and medieval European philosophers.Psychologists such as Freud and James and computer scientists such as Turing developed influential theories about the nature of the mind.", "The possibility of nonbiological minds is explored in the field of artificial intelligence, which works closely with cybernetics and information theory to understand the ways in which information processing by nonbiological machines is comparable to or different from mental phenomena in the human mind.", "The mind is also sometimes portrayed as a stream of consciousness, where sense impressions and mental phenomena are constantly changing." ], [ "Etymology", "The original meaning of Old English ''gemynd'' was the faculty of memory, not of thought in general.", "Hence ''call to mind'', ''come to mind'', ''keep in mind'', ''to have mind of'', etc.", "The word retains this sense in Scotland.", "Old English had other words to express \"mind\", such as ''hyge'' \"mind, spirit\".The meaning of \"memory\" is shared with Old Norse, which has ''munr''.", "The word is originally from a PIE verbal root '''', meaning \"to think, remember\", whence also Latin'' mens'' \"mind\", Sanskrit '''' \"mind\" and Greek μένος \"mind, courage, anger\".The generalization of ''mind'' to include all mental faculties, thought, volition, feeling and memory, gradually develops over the 14th and 15th centuries." ], [ "Definitions", "The mind is often understood as a faculty that manifests itself in mental phenomena like sensation, perception, thinking, reasoning, memory, belief, desire, emotion and motivation.", "Mind or mentality is usually contrasted with body, matter or physicality.", "Central to this contrast is the intuition that minds exhibit various features not found in and maybe even incompatible with the material universe as described by the natural sciences.", "On the traditionally dominant substantialist view associated with René Descartes, minds are defined as independent thinking substances.", "But it is more common in contemporary philosophy to conceive minds not as substances but as properties or capacities possessed by humans and higher animals.Despite this agreement, there is still a lot of difference of opinion concerning what the exact nature of mind is and various competing definitions have been proposed.", "Philosophical definitions of mind usually proceed not just by listing various types of phenomena belonging to the mind but by searching the \"mark of the mental\": a feature that is shared by all mental states and only by mental states.", "''Epistemic approaches'' define mental states in terms of the privileged epistemic access the subject has to these states.", "This is often combined with a ''consciousness-based approach'', which emphasizes the primacy of consciousness in relation to mind.", "''Intentionality-based approaches'', on the other hand, see the power of minds to refer to objects and represent the world as being a certain way as the ''mark of the mental''.", "According to ''behaviorism'', whether an entity has a mind only depends on how it behaves in response to external stimuli while ''functionalism'' defines mental states in terms of the causal roles they play.", "The differences between these diverse approaches are substantial since they result in very different answers to questions like whether animals or computers have minds.There is a great variety of mental states.", "They fall into categories like sensory and non-sensory or conscious and unconscious.", "Various of the definitions listed above excel for states from one category but struggle to account for why states from another category are also part of the mind.", "This has led some theorists to doubt that there is a ''mark of the mental''.", "So maybe the term \"mind\" just refers to a cluster of loosely related ideas that do not share one unifying feature.", "Some theorists have responded to this by narrowing their definitions of mind to \"higher\" intellectual faculties, like thinking, reasoning and memory.", "Others try to be as inclusive as possible regarding \"lower\" intellectual faculties, like sensing and emotion.In popular usage, ''mind'' is frequently synonymous with ''thought'': the private conversation with ourselves that we carry on \"inside our heads\".", "Thus we \"make up our minds\", \"change our minds\" or are \"of two minds\" about something.", "One of the key attributes of the mind in this sense is that it is a private sphere to which no one but the owner has access.", "No one else can \"know our mind\".", "They can only interpret what we consciously or unconsciously communicate.=== Epistemic and consciousness-based approaches ===''Epistemic approaches'' emphasize that the subject has privileged access to all or at least some of their mental states.", "It is sometimes claimed that this access is ''direct'', ''private'' and ''infallible''.", "''Direct access'' refers to non-inferential knowledge.", "When someone is in pain, for example, they know directly that they are in pain, they do not need to infer it from other indicators like a body part being swollen or their tendency to scream when it is touched.", "But we arguably also have non-inferential knowledge of external objects, like trees or cats, through perception, which is why this criterion by itself is not sufficient.", "Another epistemic privilege often mentioned is that mental states are ''private'' in contrast to ''public'' external facts.", "For example, the fallen tree lying on a person's leg is directly open to perception by the bystanders while the victim's pain is private: only they know it directly while the bystanders have to infer it from their screams.", "It was traditionally often claimed that we have infallible knowledge of our own mental states, i.e.", "that we cannot be wrong about them when we have them.", "So when someone has an itching sensation, for example, they cannot be wrong about having this sensation.", "They can only be wrong about the non-mental causes, e.g.", "whether it is the consequence of bug bites or of a fungal infection.", "But various counterexamples have been presented to claims of infallibility, which is why this criterion is usually not accepted in contemporary philosophy.", "One problem for all ''epistemic approaches'' to the ''mark of the mental'' is that they focus mainly on conscious states but exclude unconscious states.", "A repressed desire, for example, is a mental state to which the subject lacks the forms of privileged epistemic access mentioned.One way to respond to this worry is to ascribe a privileged status to conscious mental states.", "On such a ''consciousness-based approach'', conscious mental states are non-derivative constituents of the mind while unconscious states somehow depend on their conscious counterparts for their existence.", "An influential example of this position is due to John Searle, who holds that unconscious mental states have to be accessible to consciousness to count as \"mental\" at all.", "They can be understood as dispositions to bring about conscious states.", "This position denies that the so-called \"deep unconscious\", i.e.", "mental contents inaccessible to consciousness, exists.", "Another problem for ''consciousness-based approaches'', besides the issue of accounting for the unconscious mind, is to elucidate the nature of consciousness itself.", "Consciousness-based approaches are usually interested in ''phenomenal consciousness'', i.e.", "in qualitative experience, rather than ''access consciousness'', which refers to information being available for reasoning and guiding behavior.", "Conscious mental states are normally characterized as qualitative and subjective, i.e.", "that there is something it is like for a subject to be in these states.", "Opponents of consciousness-based approaches often point out that despite these attempts, it is still very unclear what the term \"phenomenal consciousness\" is supposed to mean.", "This is important because not much would be gained theoretically by defining one ill-understood term in terms of another.", "Another objection to this type of approach is to deny that the conscious mind has a privileged status in relation to the unconscious mind, for example, by insisting that the deep unconscious exists.=== Intentionality-based approaches ===''Intentionality-based approaches'' see intentionality as the ''mark of the mental''.", "The originator of this approach is Franz Brentano, who defined intentionality as the characteristic of mental states to refer to or be about objects.", "One central idea for this approach is that minds represent the world around them, which is not the case for regular physical objects.", "So a person who believes that there is ice cream in the fridge represents the world as being a certain way.", "The ice cream can be represented but it does not itself represent the world.", "This is why a mind is ascribed to the person but not to the ice cream, according to the intentional approach.", "One advantage of it in comparison to the ''epistemic approach'' is that it has no problems to account for unconscious mental states: they can be intentional just like conscious mental states and thereby qualify as constituents of the mind.", "But a problem for this approach is that there are also some non-mental entities that have intentionality, like maps or linguistic expressions.", "One response to this problem is to hold that the intentionality of non-mental entities is somehow derivative in relation to the intentionality of mental entities.", "For example, a map of Addis Ababa may be said to represent Addis Ababa not intrinsically but only extrinsically because people ''interpret'' it as a representation.", "Another difficulty is that not all mental states seem to be intentional.", "So while beliefs and desires are forms of representation, this seems not to be the case for pains and itches, which may ''indicate'' a problem without ''representing'' it.", "But some theorists have argued that even these apparent counterexamples should be considered intentional when properly understood.=== Behaviorism and functionalism ===''Behaviorist'' definitions characterize mental states as dispositions to engage in certain publicly observable behavior as a reaction to particular external stimuli.", "On this view, to ascribe a belief to someone is to describe the tendency of this person to behave in certain ways.", "Such an ascription does not involve any claims about the internal states of this person, it only talks about behavioral tendencies.", "A strong motivation for such a position comes from empiricist considerations stressing the importance of observation and the lack thereof in the case of private internal mental states.", "This is sometimes combined with the thesis that we could not even learn how to use mental terms without reference to the behavior associated with them.", "One problem for behaviorism is that the same entity often behaves differently despite being in the same situation as before.", "This suggests that explanation needs to make reference to the internal states of the entity that mediate the link between stimulus and response.", "This problem is avoided by functionalist approaches, which define mental states through their causal roles but allow both external and internal events in their causal network.", "On this view, the definition of pain-state may include aspects such as being in a state that \"tends to be caused by bodily injury, to produce the belief that something is wrong with the body and ... to cause wincing or moaning\".One important aspect of both behaviorist and functionalist approaches is that, according to them, the mind is ''multiply realizable''.", "This means that it does not depend on the exact constitution of an entity for whether it has a mind or not.", "Instead, only its behavioral dispositions or its role in the causal network matter.", "The entity in question may be a human, an animal, a silicon-based alien or a robot.", "Functionalists sometimes draw an analogy to the software-hardware distinction where the mind is likened to a certain type of software that can be installed on different forms of hardware.", "Closely linked to this analogy is the thesis of computationalism, which defines the mind as an information processing system that is physically implemented by the neural activity of the brain.One problem for all of these views is that they seem to be unable to account for the phenomenal consciousness of the mind emphasized by ''consciousness-based approaches''.", "It may be true that pains are caused by bodily injuries and themselves produce certain beliefs and moaning behavior.", "But the causal profile of pain remains silent on the intrinsic unpleasantness of the painful experience itself.", "Some states that are not painful to the subject at all may even fit these characterizations." ], [ "Forms", "===Mental faculties===Broadly speaking, mental faculties are the various functions of the mind, or things the mind can \"do\".Thought is a mental act that allows humans to make sense of things in the world, and to represent and interpret them in ways that are significant, or which accord with their needs, attachments, goals, commitments, plans, ends, desires, etc.", "Thinking involves the symbolic or semiotic mediation of ideas or data, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reasoning, and making decisions.", "Words that refer to similar concepts and processes include deliberation, cognition, ideation, discourse and imagination.Thinking is sometimes described as a \"higher\" cognitive function and the analysis of thinking processes is a part of cognitive psychology.", "It is also deeply connected with our capacity to make and use tools; to understand cause and effect; to recognize patterns of significance; to comprehend and disclose unique contexts of experience or activity; and to respond to the world in a meaningful way.Memory is the ability to preserve, retain and subsequently recall knowledge, information, or experience.", "Although memory has traditionally been a persistent theme in philosophy, the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries also saw the study of memory emerge as a subject of inquiry within the paradigms of cognitive psychology.", "In recent decades, it has become one of the pillars of a new branch of science called cognitive neuroscience, a marriage between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.Imagination is the activity of generating or evoking novel situations, images, ideas or other qualia in the mind.", "It is a characteristically subjective ''activity'', rather than a direct or passive experience.", "The term is technically used in psychology for the process of reviving in the mind percepts of objects formerly given in sense perception.", "Since this use of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language, some psychologists have preferred to describe this process as \"imaging\" or \"imagery\" or to speak of it as \"reproductive\" as opposed to \"productive\" or \"constructive\" imagination.", "Things imagined are said to be seen in the \"mind's eye\".", "Among the many practical functions of imagination are the ability to project possible futures (or histories), to \"see\" things from another's perspective, and to change the way something is perceived, including to make decisions to respond to, or enact, what is imagined.Consciousness in mammals (this includes humans) is an aspect of the mind generally thought to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, sentience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment.", "It is a subject of much research in philosophy of mind, psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science.", "Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is subjective experience itself, and access consciousness, which refers to the global availability of information to processing systems in the brain.", "Phenomenal consciousness has many different experienced qualities, often referred to as qualia.", "Phenomenal consciousness is usually consciousness ''of'' something or ''about'' something, a property known as intentionality in philosophy of mind.=== Categories of mental phenomena ===The mental phenomena brought about by the faculties of the mind have been categorized according to various distinctions.", "Important distinctions group mental phenomena together according to whether they are ''sensory'', ''qualitative'', ''propositional'', ''intentional'', ''conscious'', ''occurrent'' or ''rational''.", "These different distinctions result in overlapping categorizations.", "Some mental phenomena, like perception or bodily awareness, are ''sensory'', i.e.", "based on the senses.", "These phenomena are of special interest to empiricists, who hold that they are our only source of knowledge about the external world.", "They are contrasted with ''non-sensory'' phenomena like thoughts or beliefs, which do not involve sense impressions.", "Sensory states are closely related to ''qualitative states'', which have qualia and are therefore associated with a subjective feeling of what it is like to be in this state.", "Sensory and qualitative states are often contrasted with ''propositional states'', which are sometimes said to be non-sensory and non-qualitative.", "Propositional states involve attitudes, like belief or desire, which a subject has towards a proposition.", "One problem with this contrast is that some propositional attitudes may have a subjective feeling to them, which would make them qualitative phenomena.", "This is the case, for example, when actively desiring something.", "Another problem with this contrast is that some mental phenomena, like perceptions, are both sensory and propositional.", "Propositional attitudes are ''intentional states'', which have as their characteristic that they refer to or are about objects or states of affairs.", "Some philosophers see intentionality as the mark of the mental, i.e.", "as what is shared by all and only by mental phenomena.", "Opponents of this position have argued that there are various mental phenomena, like pains and itches, that lack the representational aspect associated with intentionality and therefore count as non-intentional.", "This claim is sometimes even extended to all sensory phenomena.", "It sometimes held that all intentional states are propositional.", "While this is true for the paradigmatic cases, it has been argued that there is a form of object-directed intentionality, like the fear of snakes, that does not involve propositional attitudes, like the fear that one will be bitten by snakes.Another important distinction among mental states is whether they are ''conscious'' or not.", "Often two types of consciousness are distinguished: ''phenomenal consciousness and access consciousness''.", "''Phenomenal consciousness'' refers to actual experience.", "A common view is that some states, like sensations or pains, are necessarily associated with phenomenal consciousness while other states, like beliefs and desires, can be present both with and without phenomenal consciousness.", "According to some views, conscious mental states are more basic while unconscious states only count as mental if they can arise in phenomenal consciousness.", "''Access consciousness'', on the other hand, refers to mental states that are accessible: they carry information that is available for reasoning and guiding behavior.", "This notion is closely related to ''occurrent mental states'', which are not just accessible but also currently active or causally efficacious within the owner's mind.", "All phenomenally conscious mental states are occurrent but there may also be unconscious occurrent states, like repressed desires, that influence our behavior.", "Occurrent mental states contrast with ''standing'' or ''dispositional mental states'', which are part of the subject's mind even though they currently play no role in it.", "Mental phenomena are ''rational'' if they are well justified or obey the norms of rationality.", "''Irrational mental phenomena'', on the other hand, violate these norms.", "But not all mental phenomena are rationally evaluable: some are ''arational'' and exist outside the domain of rationality.", "They include urges, dizziness or hunger while beliefs and intentions are the paradigmatic examples of rationally evaluable states.", "Some hold that rationality depends only on structural principles that govern how different mental states should relate to each other while others define rationality in terms of responding correctly to reasons.===Mental contents===Mental contents are those items that are thought of as being \"in\" the mind, and capable of being formed and manipulated by mental processes and faculties.", "Examples include thoughts, concepts, memories, emotions, percepts and intentions.", "Philosophical theories of mental content include internalism, externalism, representationalism and intentionality.Memetics is a theory of mental content based on an analogy with Darwinian evolution, which was originated by Richard Dawkins and Douglas Hofstadter in the 1980s.", "It is an evolutionary model of cultural information transfer.", "A meme, analogous to a gene, is an idea, belief, pattern of behaviour (etc.)", "\"hosted\" in one or more individual minds, and can reproduce itself from mind to mind.", "Thus what would otherwise be regarded as one individual influencing another to adopt a belief, is seen memetically as a meme reproducing itself." ], [ "Relation to the brain", "In animals, the brain, or ''encephalon'' (Greek for \"in the head\"), is the control center of the central nervous system, responsible for thought.", "In most animals, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, equilibrioception, taste and olfaction.", "While all vertebrates have a brain, most invertebrates have either a centralized brain or collections of individual ganglia.", "Primitive animals such as sponges do not have a brain at all.", "Brains can be extremely complex.", "For example, the human brain contains around 86 billion neurons, each linked to as many as 10,000 others.Understanding the relationship between the brain and the mind –the mind–body problem – is one of the central issues in the history of philosophy, a challenging problem both philosophically and scientifically.", "There are three major philosophical schools of thought concerning the answer: dualism, materialism, and idealism.", "Dualism holds that the mind exists independently of the brain; materialism holds that mental phenomena are identical to neuronal phenomena; and idealism holds that only mental phenomena exist.Through most of history many philosophers found it inconceivable that cognition could be implemented by a physical substance such as brain tissue (that is neurons and synapses).", "Descartes, who thought extensively about mind-brain relationships, found it possible to explain reflexes and other simple behaviors in mechanistic terms, although he did not believe that complex thought, especially language, could be explained by reference to the physical brain alone.The most straightforward scientific evidence of a strong relationship between the physical brain matter and the mind is the impact physical alterations to the brain have on the mind, such as with traumatic brain injury and psychoactive drug use.", "Philosopher Patricia Churchland notes that drug-mind interaction indicates an intimate connection between the brain and the mind.", "A relatively popular example of the link between the brain and the mind is the case of Phineas Gage.", "Gage suffered impalement by an iron rod, which passed through his skull from below his left eye and left out the top of his head.", "Even though Gage survived the accident, he was not the same person.", "He had a complete personality change along with many changes in his social and professional relationships.", "It has been noted, however, that Gage's most serious mental changes were only temporary, and that he made a reasonable social and mental recovery.In addition to the philosophical questions, the relationship between mind and brain involves a number of scientific questions, including understanding the relationship between mental activity and brain activity, the exact mechanisms by which drugs influence cognition, and the neural correlates of consciousness.Theoretical approaches to explain how mind emerges from the brain include connectionism, computationalism and Bayesian brain." ], [ "Evolution", "The evolution of human intelligence refers to several theories that aim to describe how human intelligence has evolved in relation to the evolution of the human brain and the origin of language.The timeline of human evolution spans some 7 million years, from the separation of the genus ''Pan'' until the emergence of behavioral modernity by 50,000 years ago.", "Of this timeline, the first 3 million years concern ''Sahelanthropus'', the following 2 million concern ''Australopithecus'', while the final 2 million span the history of actual ''Homo'' species (the Paleolithic).Many traits of human intelligence, such as empathy, theory of mind, mourning, ritual, and the use of symbols and tools, are already apparent in great apes although in lesser sophistication than in humans.There is a debate between supporters of the idea of a sudden emergence of intelligence, or \"Great leap forward\" and those of a gradual or \"continuum hypothesis\".Theories of the evolution of intelligence include:* Robin Dunbar's social brain hypothesis* Geoffrey Miller's sexual selection hypothesis concerning sexual selection in human evolution* The ecological dominance-social competition (EDSC) explained by Mark V. Flinn, David C. Geary and Carol V. Ward based mainly on work by Richard D.", "Alexander.", "* The idea of intelligence as a signal of good health and resistance to disease.", "* The group selection theory contends that organism characteristics that provide benefits to a group (clan, tribe, or larger population) can evolve despite individual disadvantages such as those cited above.", "* The idea that intelligence is connected with nutrition, and thereby with status.", "A higher IQ could be a signal that an individual comes from and lives in a physical and social environment where nutrition levels are high, and vice versa." ], [ "Philosophy", "Philosophy of mind is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical body.", "The ''mind–body problem'', i.e.", "the relationship of the mind to the body, is commonly seen as the central issue in philosophy of mind, although there are other issues concerning the nature of the mind that do not involve its relation to the physical body.", "José Manuel Rodriguez Delgado writes, \"In present popular usage, soul and mind are not clearly differentiated and some people, more or less consciously, still feel that the soul, and perhaps the mind, may enter or leave the body as independent entities.", "\"''Dualism'' and ''monism'' are the two major schools of thought that attempt to resolve the mind–body problem.", "Dualism is the position that mind and body are in some way separate from each other.", "It can be traced back to Plato, Aristotle and the Nyaya, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy, but it was most precisely formulated by René Descartes in the 17th century.", "''Substance dualists'' argue that the mind is an independently existing substance, whereas ''Property dualists'' maintain that the mind is a group of independent properties that emerge from and cannot be reduced to the brain, but that it is not a distinct substance.The 20th century philosopher Martin Heidegger suggested that subjective experience and activity (i.e.", "the \"mind\") cannot be made sense of in terms of Cartesian \"substances\" that bear \"properties\" at all (whether the mind itself is thought of as a distinct, separate kind of substance or not).", "This is because the nature of subjective, ''qualitative'' experience is incoherent in terms of – or semantically incommensurable with the concept of – substances that bear properties.", "This is a fundamentally ontological argument.The philosopher of cognitive science Daniel Dennett, for example, argues there is no such thing as a narrative center called the \"mind\", but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of \"software\" running in parallel.", "Psychologist B.F. Skinner argued that the mind is an explanatory fiction that diverts attention from environmental causes of behavior; he considered the mind a \"black box\" and thought that mental processes may be better conceived of as forms of covert verbal behavior.Philosopher David Chalmers has argued that the third person approach to uncovering mind and consciousness is not effective, such as looking into other's brains or observing human conduct, but that a first person approach is necessary.", "Such a first person perspective indicates that the mind must be conceptualized as something distinct from the brain.The mind has also been described as manifesting from moment to moment, one thought moment at a time as a fast flowing stream, where sense impressions and mental phenomena are constantly changing.===Relation to the body===René Descartes' illustration of mind–body dualism.Descartes believed inputs are passed on by the sensory organs to the epiphysis in the brain and from there to the immaterial spirit.", "''Monism'' is the position that mind and body are not physiologically and ontologically distinct kinds of entities.", "This view was first advocated in Western Philosophy by Parmenides in the 5th century BC and was later espoused by the 17th century rationalist Baruch Spinoza.", "According to Spinoza's dual-aspect theory, mind and body are two aspects of an underlying reality which he variously described as \"Nature\" or \"God\".", "* ''Physicalists'' argue that only the entities postulated by physical theory exist, and that the mind will eventually be explained in terms of these entities as physical theory continues to evolve.", "* ''Idealists'' maintain that the mind is all that exists and that the external world is either mental itself, or an illusion created by the mind.", "* ''Neutral monists'' adhere to the position that perceived things in the world can be regarded as either physical or mental depending on whether one is interested in their relationship to other things in the world or their relationship to the perceiver.", "For example, a red spot on a wall is physical in its dependence on the wall and the pigment of which it is made, but it is mental in so far as its perceived redness depends on the workings of the visual system.", "Unlike dual-aspect theory, neutral monism does not posit a more fundamental substance of which mind and body are aspects.The most common monisms in the 20th and 21st centuries have all been variations of physicalism; these positions include behaviorism, the type identity theory, anomalous monism and functionalism.Many modern philosophers of mind adopt either a ''reductive'' or ''non-reductive physicalist'' position, maintaining in their different ways that the mind is not something separate from the body.", "These approaches have been particularly influential in the sciences, e.g.", "in the fields of sociobiology, evolutionary psychology and the various neurosciences.", "Other philosophers, however, adopt a non-physicalist position which challenges the notion that the mind is a purely physical construct.", "* ''Reductive physicalists'' assert that all mental states and properties will eventually be explained by scientific accounts of physiological processes and states.", "* ''Non-reductive physicalists'' argue that although the brain is all there ''is'' to the mind, the predicates and vocabulary used in mental descriptions and explanations are indispensable, and cannot be reduced to the language and lower-level explanations of physical science.Continued progress in neuroscience has helped to clarify many of these issues, and its findings have been taken by many to support physicalists' assertions.", "Nevertheless, our knowledge is incomplete, and modern philosophers of mind continue to discuss how subjective qualia and the intentional mental states can be naturally explained.", "There is also the problem of quantum mechanics, whose Copenhagen interpretation can be understood as a form of perspectivism.", "As the Copenhagen interpretation is not universally accepted, an exact mechanism of the collapse of the wave function remains elusive, and the role of mind in fundamental physical theory is unclear." ], [ "Scientific study", "Simplified diagram of ''Spaun'', a 2.5-million-neuron computational model of the brain.", "'''(A)''' The corresponding physical regions and connections of the human brain.", "'''(B)''' The mental architecture of Spaun.===Neuroscience===Neuroscience studies the nervous system, the physical basis of the mind.", "At the systems level, neuroscientists investigate how biological neural networks form and physiologically interact to produce mental functions and content such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory.", "The underlying physical basis of learning and memory is likely dynamic changes in gene expression that occur in brain neurons.", "Such expression changes are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms.", "Epigenetic regulation of gene expression ordinarily involves chemical modification of DNA or DNA-associated histone proteins.", "Such chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression.", "Epigenetic mechanisms employed in learning and memory include the DNMT3A promoted methylation and TET promoted demethylation of neuronal DNA as well as methylation, acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins.", "Also, long term excitation of neural pathways and subsequent endocrinal signaling, can provide a capacity for structural activation of gene expression in the histone code; allowing a potential mechanism of throughput epigenetic interaction with the nervous system.At a larger scale, efforts in computational neuroscience have developed large-scale models that simulate simple, functioning brains.", "As of 2012, such models include the thalamus, basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, and occipital cortex, and consequentially simulated brains can learn, respond to visual stimuli, coordinate motor responses, form short-term memories, and learn to respond to patterns.", "Currently, researchers aim to program the hippocampus and limbic system, hypothetically imbuing the simulated mind with long-term memory and crude emotions.By contrast, affective neuroscience studies the neural mechanisms of personality, emotion, and mood primarily through experimental tasks.===Cognitive science===Cognitive science examines the mental functions that give rise to information processing, termed cognition.", "These include perception, attention, working memory, long-term memory, producing and understanding language, learning, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making.", "Cognitive science seeks to understand thinking \"in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures\".At the birth of cognitive science in the 1960s and 1970s, the paradigm of the computational theory of mind was widely adopted.", "This paradigm holds that the mind is essentially a computational system, and its explanation needs to be provided in terms of a ''computational description''.", "More recently, rival paradigms gained ground within cognitive science, namely the ''neurophysical description'' and the ''intentional description''.Though the interface between neuroscience and an exact model of cognition is not yet made, progress in biological neuron models help to mathematically quantify cognitive neuroscience; and elaborate a theory of mind that can be provable.", "However a theoretically fundamental synthesis in psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and biophysics must be made; for the problem of mind and its faculties to gain tractable scientific ground.", "Over the past years, research in cognitive sciences has highlighted the importance of the body for cognition.", "Proponents of the embodied cognition theory of mind hold that cognition (and mental phenomena) is the product of active interactions between individuals and their surrounding environment.===Psychology===Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior, mental functioning, and experience.", "As both an academic and applied discipline, Psychology involves the scientific study of mental processes such as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, as well as environmental influences, such as social and cultural influences, and interpersonal relationships, in order to devise theories of human behavior.", "Psychological patterns can be understood as low cost ways of information processing.", "Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental health problems.Psychology differs from the other social sciences (e.g.", "anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology) due to its focus on experimentation at the scale of the individual, or individuals in small groups as opposed to large groups, institutions or societies.", "Historically, psychology differed from biology and neuroscience in that it was primarily concerned with mind rather than brain.", "Modern psychological science incorporates physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of perception, cognition, behaviour, and mental disorders.===Psychiatry, neurology and neurosurgery===Psychiatry, neurology and neurosurgery are the specialties within the field of medicine that are devoted to the study of the mind and to the treatment of humans with mental disorders and other medical conditions affecting the mind and nervous system.", "Psychiatrists, neurologists and neurosurgeons conduct research in clinical, academic and industry settings." ], [ "Mental health", "By analogy with the health of the body, one can speak metaphorically of a state of health of the mind, or mental health.", "Merriam-Webster defines mental health as \"a state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life\".", "According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there is no one \"official\" definition of mental health.", "Cultural differences, subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how \"mental health\" is defined.", "In general, most experts agree that \"mental health\" and \"mental disorder\" are not opposites.", "In other words, the absence of a recognized mental disorder is not necessarily an indicator of mental health.One way to think about mental health is by looking at how effectively and successfully a person functions.", "Feeling capable and competent; being able to handle normal levels of stress, maintaining satisfying relationships, and leading an independent life; and being able to \"bounce back\" or recover from difficult situations, are all signs of mental health.Psychotherapy is an interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living.", "This usually includes increasing individual sense of well-being and reducing subjective discomforting experience.", "Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship building, dialogue, communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (such as in a family).", "Most forms of psychotherapy use only spoken conversation, though some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, art, drama, narrative story, or therapeutic touch.", "Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s).", "Purposeful, theoretically based psychotherapy began in the 19th century with psychoanalysis; since then, scores of other approaches have been developed and continue to be created." ], [ "Non-human", "===Animal cognition===Animal cognition, or cognitive ethology, is a modern approach to the research and study of the mental capacities of animals.", "It has developed out of comparative psychology, and has also been strongly influenced by the approach of ethology, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology.", "Much of what was formerly known as \"animal intelligence\" is now thought of under this heading.", "Animal language acquisition, attempting to discern or understand the degree to which animal cognition can be revealed by linguistics-related study, has been controversial among cognitive linguists.", "There has been some examples of debate in regards to the methods and progress of animal cognition research, despite this there is still research being done in the field and progress is being made to better under stand the cognitive processes of animal life.===Artificial intelligence===Computer simulation of the branching architecture of the dendrites of pyramidal neurons In 1950 Alan M. Turing published \"Computing machinery and intelligence\" in ''Mind'', in which he proposed that machines could be tested for intelligence using questions and answers.", "This process is now named the Turing Test.", "The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was first used by John McCarthy who considered it to mean \"the science and engineering of making intelligent machines\".", "It can also refer to intelligence as exhibited by an artificial (''man-made'', ''non-natural'', ''manufactured'') entity.", "AI is studied in overlapping fields of computer science, psychology, neuroscience and engineering, dealing with intelligent behavior, learning and adaptation and usually developed using customized machines or computers.Research in AI is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks requiring intelligent behavior.", "Examples include control, planning and scheduling, the ability to answer diagnostic and consumer questions, handwriting, natural language, speech and facial recognition.", "As such, the study of AI has also become an engineering discipline, focused on providing solutions to real life problems, knowledge mining, software applications, strategy games like computer chess and other video games.", "One of the biggest limitations of AI is in the domain of actual machine comprehension.", "Consequentially natural-language understanding and connectionism (where behavior of neural networks is investigated) are areas of active research and development.The debate about the nature of the mind is relevant to the development of artificial intelligence.", "If the mind is indeed a thing separate from or higher than the functioning of the brain, then hypothetically it would be much more difficult to recreate within a machine, if it were possible at all.", "If, on the other hand, the mind is no more than the aggregated functions of the brain, then it will be possible to create a machine with a recognisable mind (though possibly only with computers much different from today's), by simple virtue of the fact that such a machine already exists in the form of the human brain." ], [ "Religion", "Many religions associate spiritual qualities to the human mind.", "These are often tightly connected to their mythology and ideas of afterlife.The Indian philosopher-sage Sri Aurobindo attempted to unite the Eastern and Western psychological traditions with his integral psychology, as have many philosophers and New religious movements.", "Judaism teaches that \"moach shalit al halev\", the mind rules the heart; humans can approach the Divine intellectually, through learning and behaving according to the Divine Will as enclothed in the Torah, and use that deep logical understanding to elicit and guide emotional arousal during prayer.", "Christianity has tended to see the mind (Greek ''nous'') as distinct from the soul (Greek ''psuche'') and sometimes further distinguished the spirit (Greek ''pneuma'').", "Western esoteric traditions sometimes refer to a mental body that exists on a plane other than the physical.", "Hinduism's various philosophical schools have debated whether the human soul (Sanskrit ''atman'') is distinct from, or identical to, ''Brahman'', the divine reality.", "Taoism sees the human being as contiguous with natural forces, and the mind as not separate from the body.", "Confucianism sees the mind, like the body, as inherently perfectible.===Buddhism===Buddhist teachings explain the moment-to-moment manifestation of the mind-stream.", "The components that make up the mind are known as the five aggregates (i.e., material form, feelings, perception, volition, and sensory consciousness), which arise and pass away continuously.", "The arising and passing of these aggregates in the present moment is described as being influenced by five causal laws: biological laws, psychological laws, physical laws, volitional laws, and universal laws.", "The Buddhist practice of mindfulness involves attending to this constantly changing mind-stream.According to Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti, the mind has two fundamental qualities: \"clarity and cognizes\".", "If something is not those two qualities, it cannot validly be called mind.", "\"Clarity\" refers to the fact that mind has no color, shape, size, location, weight, or any other physical characteristic, and \"cognizes\" that it functions to know or perceive objects.", "\"Knowing\" refers to the fact that mind is aware of the contents of experience, and that, in order to exist, mind must be cognizing an object.", "You cannot have a mind – whose function is to cognize an object – existing without cognizing an object.Mind, in Buddhism, is also described as being \"space-like\" and \"illusion-like\".", "Mind is space-like in the sense that it is not physically obstructive.", "It has no qualities which would prevent it from existing.", "In Mahayana Buddhism, mind is illusion-like in the sense that it is empty of inherent existence.", "This does not mean it does not exist, it means that it exists in a manner that is counter to our ordinary way of misperceiving how phenomena exist, according to Buddhism.", "When the mind is itself cognized properly, without misperceiving its mode of existence, it appears to exist like an illusion.", "There is a big difference however between being \"space and illusion\" and being \"space-like\" and \"illusion-like\".", "Mind is not composed of space, it just shares some descriptive similarities to space.", "Mind is not an illusion, it just shares some descriptive qualities with illusions.Buddhism posits that there is no inherent, unchanging identity (Inherent I, Inherent Me) or phenomena (Ultimate self, inherent self, Atman, Soul, Self-essence, Jiva, Ishvara, humanness essence, etc.)", "which is the experiencer of our experiences and the agent of our actions.", "In other words, human beings consist of merely a body and a mind, and nothing extra.", "Within the body there is no part or set of parts which is – by itself or themselves – the person.", "Similarly, within the mind there is no part or set of parts which are themselves \"the person\".", "A human being merely consists of five aggregates, or ''skandhas'' and nothing else.In the same way, \"mind\" is what can be validly conceptually labelled onto our mere experience of clarity and knowing.", "There is something separate and apart from clarity and knowing which is \"Awareness\", in Buddhism.", "\"Mind\" is that part of experience of the sixth sense door, which can be validly referred to as mind by the concept-term \"mind\".", "There is also not \"objects out there, mind in here, and experience somewhere in-between\".", "There is a third thing called \"awareness\" which exists being aware of the contents of mind and what mind cognizes.", "There are five senses (arising of mere experience: shapes, colors, the components of smell, components of taste, components of sound, components of touch) and mind as the sixth institution; this means, expressly, that there can be a third thing called \"awareness\" and a third thing called \"experiencer who is aware of the experience\".", "This awareness is deeply related to \"no-self\" because it does not judge the experience with craving or aversion.Clearly, the experience arises and is known by mind, but there is a third thing called Sati which is the \"real experiencer of the experience\" that sits apart from the experience and which can be aware of the experience in 4 levels.", "(Maha Sathipatthana Sutta)# Body,# Sensations (changes of the body mind),# Mind,# Contents of the mind (changes of the body mind).To be aware of these four levels one needs to cultivate equanimity toward Craving and Aversion.", "This is Called Vipassana which is different from the way of reacting with Craving and Aversion.", "This is the state of being aware and equanimous to the complete experience of here and now.", "This is the way of Buddhism, with regards to mind and the ultimate nature of minds (and persons).===Mortality===Due to the mind–body problem, a lot of interest and debate surrounds the question of what happens to one's conscious mind as one's body dies.", "During brain death all brain function permanently ceases.", "According to some neuroscientific views which see these processes as the physical basis of mental phenomena, the mind fails to survive brain death and ceases to exist.", "This permanent loss of consciousness after death is sometimes called \"eternal oblivion\".", "The belief that some spiritual or incorporeal component (soul) exists and that it is preserved after death is described by the term \"afterlife\"." ], [ "Parapsychology", "Parapsychology is the study of certain types of paranormal phenomena, or of phenomena which appear to be paranormal or not have any scientific basis, such as precognition, telekinesis and telepathy.The term is based on the Greek ''para'' ('beside, beyond'), ''psyche'' ('soul, mind'), and ''logos'' ('account, explanation') and was coined by psychologist Max Dessoir in or before 1889.J.B.", "Rhine tried to popularize \"parapsychology\" using fraudulent techniques as a replacement for the earlier term \"psychical research\", during a shift in methodologies which brought experimental methods to the study of psychic phenomena.", "Parapsychology is not accepted among the scientific community as science, as psychic abilities have not been demonstrated to exist.", "The status of parapsychology as a science has also been disputed, with many scientists regarding the discipline as pseudoscience." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of human intelligence – topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human intelligence, and more.", "* Outline of thought – topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields, and more.", "* Embodied cognition" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Max Bertolero and Danielle S. Bassett, \"How Matter Becomes Mind: The new discipline of network neuroscience yields a picture of how mental activity arises from carefully orchestrated interactions among different brain areas\", ''Scientific American'', vol.", "321, no.", "1 (July 2019), pp. 26–33.", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mahatma Gandhi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' (ISO: ''Mōhanadāsa Karamacaṁda Gāṁdhī''; 2 October 186930 January 1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist and political ethicist who employed nonviolent resistance to lead the successful campaign for India's independence from British rule.", "He inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.", "The honorific '''Mahātmā''' (), first applied to him in South Africa in 1914, is now used throughout the world.Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, Gandhi trained in the law at the Inner Temple in London, and was called to the bar in June 1891, at the age of 22.After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start a successful law practice, he moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit.", "He went on to live in South Africa for 21 years.", "There, Gandhi raised a family and first employed nonviolent resistance in a campaign for civil rights.", "In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India and soon set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against discrimination and excessive land-tax.Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, and, above all, achieving ''swaraj'' or self-rule.", "Gandhi adopted the short ''dhoti'' woven with hand-spun yarn as a mark of identification with India's rural poor.", "He began to live in a self-sufficient residential community, to eat simple food, and undertake long fasts as a means of both introspection and political protest.", "Bringing anti-colonial nationalism to the common Indians, Gandhi led them in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the Dandi Salt March in 1930 and in calling for the British to quit India in 1942.He was imprisoned many times and for many years in both South Africa and India.Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on religious pluralism was challenged in the early 1940s by a Muslim nationalism which demanded a separate homeland for Muslims within British India.", "In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan.", "As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab and Bengal.", "Abstaining from the official celebration of independence, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to alleviate distress.", "In the months following, he undertook several hunger strikes to stop the religious violence.", "The last of these was begun in Delhi on 12 January 1948, when he was 78.The belief that Gandhi had been too resolute in his defense of both Pakistan and Indian Muslims spread among some Hindus in India.", "Among these was Nathuram Godse, a militant Hindu nationalist from Pune, western India, who assassinated Gandhi by firing three bullets into his chest at an interfaith prayer meeting in Delhi on 30 January 1948.Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and worldwide as the International Day of Nonviolence.", "Gandhi is considered to be the Father of the Nation in post-colonial India.", "During India's nationalist movement and in several decades immediately after, he was also commonly called ''Bapu'' (Gujarati endearment for \"father\", roughly \"papa\", \"daddy\")." ], [ "Early life and background", "=== Parents ===Gandhi's father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi (1822–1885), served as the ''dewan'' (chief minister) of Porbandar state.", "His family originated from the then village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State.", "Although he only had been a clerk in the state administration and had an elementary education, Karamchand proved a capable chief minister.During his tenure, Karamchand married four times.", "His first two wives died young, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his third marriage was childless.", "In 1857, he sought his third wife's permission to remarry; that year, he married Putlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh, and was from a Pranami Vaishnava family.", "Karamchand and Putlibai had four children: a son, Laxmidas (–1914); a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862–1960); a second son, Karsandas (–1913).", "and a third son, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who was born on 2 October 1869 in Porbandar (also known as ''Sudamapuri''), a coastal town on the Kathiawar Peninsula and then part of the small princely state of Porbandar in the Kathiawar Agency of the British Raj.In 1874, Gandhi's father Karamchand left Porbandar for the smaller state of Rajkot, where he became a counsellor to its ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a less prestigious state than Porbandar, the British regional political agency was located there, which gave the state's ''diwan'' a measure of security.", "In 1876, Karamchand became ''diwan'' of Rajkot and was succeeded as ''diwan'' of Porbandar by his brother Tulsidas.", "His family then rejoined him in Rajkot.=== Childhood ===As a child, Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as \"restless as mercury, either playing or roaming about.", "One of his favourite pastimes was twisting dogs' ears.\"", "The Indian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and king Harishchandra, had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood.", "In his autobiography, he states that they left an indelible impression on his mind.", "He writes: \"It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number.\"", "Gandhi's early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.The family's religious background was eclectic.", "Mohandas was born into a Gujarati Hindu Modh Bania family.", "Gandhi's father Karamchand was Hindu and his mother Putlibai was from a Pranami Vaishnava Hindu family.", "Gandhi's father was of Modh Baniya caste in the varna of Vaishya.", "His mother came from the medieval Krishna bhakti-based Pranami tradition, whose religious texts include the Bhagavad Gita, the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and a collection of 14 texts with teachings that the tradition believes to include the essence of the Vedas, the Quran and the Bible.", "Gandhi was deeply influenced by his mother, an extremely pious lady who \"would not think of taking her meals without her daily prayers... she would take the hardest vows and keep them without flinching.", "To keep two or three consecutive fasts was nothing to her.", "\"Gandhi (right) with his eldest brother Laxmidas in 1886At age 9, Gandhi entered the local school in Rajkot, near his home.", "There, he studied the rudiments of arithmetic, history, the Gujarati language and geography.", "At the age of 11, he joined the High School in Rajkot, Alfred High School.", "He was an average student, won some prizes, but was a shy and tongue tied student, with no interest in games; his only companions were books and school lessons.=== Marriage ===In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Gokuldas Kapadia (her first name was usually shortened to \"Kasturba\", and affectionately to \"Ba\") in an arranged marriage, according to the custom of the region at that time.", "In the process, he lost a year at school but was later allowed to make up by accelerating his studies.", "His wedding was a joint event, where his brother and cousin were also married.", "Recalling the day of their marriage, he once said, \"As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives.\"", "As was the prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband.Writing many years later, Mohandas described with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his young bride: \"even at school I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever haunting me.\"", "He later recalled feeling jealous and possessive of her, such as when she would visit a temple with her girlfriends, and being sexually lustful in his feelings for her.In late 1885, Gandhi's father Karamchand died.", "Gandhi, then 16 years old, and his wife of age 17 had their first baby, who survived only a few days.", "The two deaths anguished Gandhi.", "The Gandhi couple had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900.In November 1887, the 18-year-old Gandhi graduated from high school in Ahmedabad.", "In January 1888, he enrolled at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar State, then the sole degree-granting institution of higher education in the region.", "However, he dropped out, and returned to his family in Porbandar." ], [ "Three years in London", "=== Student of law ===Commemorative plaque at 20 Baron's Court Road, Barons Court, LondonGandhi had dropped out of the cheapest college he could afford in Bombay.", "Mavji Dave Joshiji, a Brahmin priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family that he should consider law studies in London.", "In July 1888, his wife Kasturba gave birth to their first surviving son, Harilal.", "His mother was not comfortable about Gandhi leaving his wife and family, and going so far from home.", "Gandhi's uncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew.", "Gandhi wanted to go.", "To persuade his wife and mother, Gandhi made a vow in front of his mother that he would abstain from meat, alcohol and women.", "Gandhi's brother Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him.", "Putlibai gave Gandhi her permission and blessing.Gandhi in London as a law studentOn 10 August 1888, Gandhi, aged 18, left Porbandar for Mumbai, then known as Bombay.", "Upon arrival, he stayed with the local Modh Bania community whose elders warned him that England would tempt him to compromise his religion, and eat and drink in Western ways.", "Despite Gandhi informing them of his promise to his mother and her blessings, he was excommunicated from his caste.", "Gandhi ignored this, and on 4 September, he sailed from Bombay to London, with his brother seeing him off.", "Gandhi attended University College, London, where he took classes in English literature with Henry Morley in 1888–1889.He also enrolled at the Inns of Court School of Law in Inner Temple with the intention of becoming a barrister.", "His childhood shyness and self-withdrawal had continued through his teens.", "He retained these traits when he arrived in London, but joined a public speaking practice group and overcame his shyness sufficiently to practise law.He demonstrated a keen interest in the welfare of London's impoverished dockland communities.", "In 1889, a bitter trade dispute broke out in London, with dockers striking for better pay and conditions, and seamen, shipbuilders, factory girls and other joining the strike in solidarity.", "The strikers were successful, in part due to the mediation of Cardinal Manning, leading Gandhi and an Indian friend to make a point of visiting the cardinal and thanking him for his work.=== Vegetarianism and committee work ===Gandhi's time in London was influenced by the vow he had made to his mother.", "He tried to adopt \"English\" customs, including taking dancing lessons.", "However, he did not appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one of London's few vegetarian restaurants.", "Influenced by Henry Salt's writing, he joined the London Vegetarian Society, and was elected to its executive committee under the aegis of its president and benefactor Arnold Hills.", "An achievement while on the committee was the establishment of a Bayswater chapter.", "Some of the vegetarians he met were members of the Theosophical Society, which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature.", "They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the Bhagavad Gita both in translation as well as in the original.Gandhi had a friendly and productive relationship with Hills, but the two men took a different view on the continued LVS membership of fellow committee member Thomas Allinson.", "Their disagreement is the first known example of Gandhi challenging authority, despite his shyness and temperamental disinclination towards confrontation.Allinson had been promoting newly available birth control methods, but Hills disapproved of these, believing they undermined public morality.", "He believed vegetarianism to be a moral movement and that Allinson should therefore no longer remain a member of the LVS.", "Gandhi shared Hills' views on the dangers of birth control, but defended Allinson's right to differ.", "It would have been hard for Gandhi to challenge Hills; Hills was 12 years his senior and unlike Gandhi, highly eloquent.", "He bankrolled the LVS and was a captain of industry with his Thames Ironworks company employing more than 6,000 people in the East End of London.", "He was also a highly accomplished sportsman who later founded the football club West Ham United.", "In his 1927 ''An Autobiography, Vol.", "I'', Gandhi wrote:A motion to remove Allinson was raised, and was debated and voted on by the committee.", "Gandhi's shyness was an obstacle to his defence of Allinson at the committee meeting.", "He wrote his views down on paper but shyness prevented him from reading out his arguments, so Hills, the President, asked another committee member to read them out for him.", "Although some other members of the committee agreed with Gandhi, the vote was lost and Allinson excluded.", "There were no hard feelings, with Hills proposing the toast at the LVS farewell dinner in honour of Gandhi's return to India.=== Called to the bar ===Gandhi, at age 22, was called to the bar in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had died while he was in London and that his family had kept the news from him.", "His attempts at establishing a law practice in Bombay failed because he was psychologically unable to cross-examine witnesses.", "He returned to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, but he was forced to stop when he ran afoul of British officer Sam Sunny.In 1893, a Muslim merchant in Kathiawar named Dada Abdullah contacted Gandhi.", "Abdullah owned a large successful shipping business in South Africa.", "His distant cousin in Johannesburg needed a lawyer, and they preferred someone with Kathiawari heritage.", "Gandhi inquired about his pay for the work.", "They offered a total salary of £105 (~$4,143.31 2023 money) plus travel expenses.", "He accepted it, knowing that it would be at least a one-year commitment in the Colony of Natal, South Africa, also a part of the British Empire." ], [ "Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914)", "Bronze statue of Gandhi commemorating the centenary of the incident at the Pietermaritzburg Railway Station, unveiled by Archbishop Desmond Tutu on Church Street, Pietermaritzburg, in June 1993In April 1893, Gandhi, aged 23, set sail for South Africa to be the lawyer for Abdullah's cousin.", "He spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics and politics.Immediately upon arriving in South Africa, Gandhi faced discrimination because of his skin colour and heritage.", "He was not allowed to sit with European passengers in the stagecoach and told to sit on the floor near the driver, then beaten when he refused; elsewhere he was kicked into a gutter for daring to walk near a house, in another instance thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to leave the first-class.", "He sat in the train station, shivering all night and pondering if he should return to India or protest for his rights.", "He chose to protest and was allowed to board the train the next day.", "In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do.", "Indians were not allowed to walk on public footpaths in South Africa.", "Gandhi was kicked by a police officer out of the footpath onto the street without warning.When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, according to Herman, he thought of himself as \"a Briton first, and an Indian second\".", "However, the prejudice against him and his fellow Indians from British people that Gandhi experienced and observed deeply bothered him.", "He found it humiliating, struggling to understand how some people can feel honour or superiority or pleasure in such inhumane practices.", "Gandhi began to question his people's standing in the British Empire.The Abdullah case that had brought him to South Africa concluded in May 1894, and the Indian community organised a farewell party for Gandhi as he prepared to return to India.", "However, a new Natal government discriminatory proposal led to Gandhi extending his original period of stay in South Africa.", "He planned to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote, a right then proposed to be an exclusive European right.", "He asked Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill.", "Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa.", "He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in 1894, and through this organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force.", "In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him and he escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent.", "However, he refused to press charges against any member of the mob.Gandhi (middle, third from right) with the stretcher-bearers of the Indian Ambulance Corps during the Boer WarDuring the Boer War, Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to form a group of stretcher-bearers as the Natal Indian Ambulance Corps.", "According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi wanted to disprove the British colonial stereotype that Hindus were not fit for \"manly\" activities involving danger and exertion, unlike the Muslim \"martial races\".", "Gandhi raised eleven hundred Indian volunteers, to support British combat troops against the Boers.", "They were trained and medically certified to serve on the front lines.", "They were auxiliaries at the Battle of Colenso to a White volunteer ambulance corps.", "At the battle of Spion Kop Gandhi and his bearers moved to the front line and had to carry wounded soldiers for miles to a field hospital because the terrain was too rough for the ambulances.", "Gandhi and thirty-seven other Indians received the Queen's South Africa Medal.Kasturba (1902)In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian and Chinese populations.", "At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of ''Satyagraha'' (devotion to the truth), or nonviolent protest, for the first time.", "According to Anthony Parel, Gandhi was also influenced by the Tamil moral text ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'' after Leo Tolstoy mentioned it in their correspondence that began with \"A Letter to a Hindu\".", "Gandhi urged Indians to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so.", "Gandhi's ideas of protests, persuasion skills and public relations had emerged.", "He took these back to India in 1915.=== Europeans, Indians and Africans ===Gandhi focused his attention on Indians and Africans while he was in South Africa.", "He initially was not interested in politics.", "This changed, however, after he was discriminated against and bullied, such as by being thrown out of a train coach because of his skin colour by a white train official.", "After several such incidents with Whites in South Africa, Gandhi's thinking and focus changed, and he felt he must resist this and fight for rights.", "He entered politics by forming the Natal Indian Congress.", "According to Ashwin Desai and Goolam Vahed, Gandhi's views on racism are contentious in some cases.", "Gandhi suffered persecution from the beginning in South Africa.", "Like with other coloured people, white officials denied him his rights, and the press and those in the streets bullied and called him a \"parasite\", \"semi-barbarous\", \"canker\", \"squalid coolie\", \"yellow man\", and other epithets.", "People would spit on him as an expression of racial hate.Advertisement of the ''Indian Opinion'', a newspaper founded by GandhiWhile in South Africa, Gandhi focused on the racial persecution of Indians before he started to focus on racism against Africans.", "In some cases, state Desai and Vahed, his behaviour was one of being a willing part of racial stereotyping and African exploitation.", "During a speech in September 1896, Gandhi complained that the whites in the British colony of South Africa were \"degrading the Indian to the level of a raw Kaffir\".", "Scholars cite it as an example of evidence that Gandhi at that time thought of Indians and black South Africans differently.", "As another example given by Herman, Gandhi, at the age of 24, prepared a legal brief for the Natal Assembly in 1895, seeking voting rights for Indians.", "Gandhi cited race history and European Orientalists' opinions that \"Anglo-Saxons and Indians are sprung from the same Aryan stock or rather the Indo-European peoples\", and argued that Indians should not be grouped with the Africans.Years later, Gandhi and his colleagues served and helped Africans as nurses and by opposing racism.", "The Nobel Peace Prize winner Nelson Mandela is among admirers of Gandhi's efforts to fight against racism in Africa.", "The general image of Gandhi, state Desai and Vahed, has been reinvented since his assassination as though he was always a saint, when in reality his life was more complex, contained inconvenient truths, and was one that changed over time.", "Scholars have also pointed the evidence to a rich history of co-operation and efforts by Gandhi and Indian people with nonwhite South Africans against persecution of Africans and the Apartheid.In 1906, when the Bambatha Rebellion broke out in the colony of Natal, the then 36-year-old Gandhi, despite sympathising with the Zulu rebels, encouraged Indian South Africans to form a volunteer stretcher-bearer unit.", "Writing in the ''Indian Opinion'', Gandhi argued that military service would be beneficial to the Indian community and claimed it would give them \"health and happiness\".", "Gandhi eventually led a volunteer mixed unit of Indian and African stretcher-bearers to treat wounded combatants during the suppression of the rebellion.Gandhi photographed in South Africa (1909)The medical unit commanded by Gandhi operated for less than two months before being disbanded.", "After the suppression of the rebellion, the colonial establishment showed no interest in extending to the Indian community the civil rights granted to white South Africans.", "This led Gandhi to becoming disillusioned with the Empire and aroused a spiritual awakening with him; historian Arthur L. Herman wrote that his African experience was a part of his great disillusionment with the West, transforming him into an \"uncompromising non-cooperator\".By 1910, Gandhi's newspaper, ''Indian Opinion'', was covering reports on discrimination against Africans by the colonial regime.", "Gandhi remarked that the Africans are \"alone are the original inhabitants of the land.", "… The whites, on the other hand, have occupied the land forcibly and appropriated it to themselves.", "\"In 1910, Gandhi established, with the help of his friend Hermann Kallenbach, an idealistic community they named Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg.", "There he nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance.In the years after black South Africans gained the right to vote in South Africa (1994), Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments." ], [ "Struggle for Indian independence (1915–1947)", "At the request of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, conveyed to him by C. F. Andrews, Gandhi returned to India in 1915.He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and community organiser.Gandhi joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gokhale.", "Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system.", "Gandhi took Gokhale's liberal approach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look Indian.Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India.", "The British did not recognise the declaration but negotiations ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s.", "Gandhi and the Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consultation.", "Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders.", "Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan.", "In August 1947 the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved.=== Role in World War I ===In April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.", "Gandhi agreed to actively recruit Indians for the war effort.", "In contrast to the Zulu War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants.", "In a June 1918 leaflet entitled \"Appeal for Enlistment\", Gandhi wrote \"To bring about such a state of things we should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them...", "If we want to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army.\"", "He did, however, stipulate in a letter to the Viceroy's private secretary that he \"personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe.", "\"Gandhi's war recruitment campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence.", "Gandhi's private secretary noted that \"The question of the consistency between his creed of 'Ahimsa' (nonviolence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since.\"", "According to political and educational scientist Christian Bartolf, Gandhi's support for the war stemmed from his belief that true ahimsa could not exist simultaneously with cowardice.", "Therefore, he felt that Indians needed to be willing and capable of using arms before they voluntarily chose non-violence.In July 1918, Gandhi admitted that he couldn't persuade even one individual to enlist for the world war.", "\"So far I have not a single recruit to my credit apart,\" Gandhi wrote.", "He added: \"They object because they fear to die.", "\"=== Champaran agitations ===Gandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda and Champaran SatyagrahasGandhi's first major achievement came in 1917 with the Champaran agitation in Bihar.", "The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against largely Anglo-Indian plantation owners who were backed by the local administration.", "The peasants were forced to grow indigo (''Indigofera'' sp.", "), a cash crop for Indigo dye whose demand had been declining over two decades, and were forced to sell their crops to the planters at a fixed price.", "Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealed to Gandhi at his ashram in Ahmedabad.", "Pursuing a strategy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi took the administration by surprise and won concessions from the authorities.=== Kheda agitations ===In 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes.", "Gandhi moved his headquarters to Nadiad, organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable being Vallabhbhai Patel.", "Using non-co-operation as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threat of confiscation of land.", "A social boycott of ''mamlatdars'' and ''talatdars'' (revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation.", "Gandhi worked hard to win public support for the agitation across the country.", "For five months, the administration refused, but by the end of May 1918, the Government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended.", "In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.=== Khilafat movement ===In 1919, following World War I, Gandhi (aged 49) sought political co-operation from Muslims in his fight against British imperialism by supporting the Ottoman Empire that had been defeated in the World War.", "Before this initiative of Gandhi, communal disputes and religious riots between Hindus and Muslims were common in British India, such as the riots of 1917–18.Gandhi had already vocally supported the British crown in the first world war.", "This decision of Gandhi was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with ''swaraj'' (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I.", "The British government had offered, instead of self-government, minor reforms instead, disappointing Gandhi.", "Gandhi announced his ''satyagraha'' (civil disobedience) intentions.", "The British colonial officials made their counter move by passing the Rowlatt Act, to block Gandhi's movement.", "The Act allowed the British government to treat civil disobedience participants as criminals and gave it the legal basis to arrest anyone for \"preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without judicial review or any need for a trial\".Gandhi felt that Hindu-Muslim co-operation was necessary for political progress against the British.", "He leveraged the Khilafat movement, wherein Sunni Muslims in India, their leaders such as the sultans of princely states in India and Ali brothers championed the Turkish Caliph as a solidarity symbol of Sunni Islamic community (''ummah'').", "They saw the Caliph as their means to support Islam and the Islamic law after the defeat of Ottoman Empire in World War I. Gandhi's support to the Khilafat movement led to mixed results.", "It initially led to a strong Muslim support for Gandhi.", "However, the Hindu leaders including Rabindranath Tagore questioned Gandhi's leadership because they were largely against recognising or supporting the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.The increasing Muslim support for Gandhi, after he championed the Caliph's cause, temporarily stopped the Hindu-Muslim communal violence.", "It offered evidence of inter-communal harmony in joint Rowlatt ''satyagraha'' demonstration rallies, raising Gandhi's stature as the political leader to the British.", "His support for the Khilafat movement also helped him sideline Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who had announced his opposition to the ''satyagraha'' non-co-operation movement approach of Gandhi.", "Jinnah began creating his independent support, and later went on to lead the demand for West and East Pakistan.", "Though they agreed in general terms on Indian independence, they disagreed on the means of achieving this.", "Jinnah was mainly interested in dealing with the British via constitutional negotiation, rather than attempting to agitate the masses.In 1922 the Khilafat movement gradually collapsed following the end of the non-cooperation movement with the arrest of Gandhi.", "A number of Muslim leaders and delegates abandoned Gandhi and Congress.", "Hindu-Muslim communal conflicts reignited.", "Deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in United Provinces of Agra and Oudh alone.=== Non-co-operation ===With his book ''Hind Swaraj'' (1909) Gandhi, aged 40, declared that British rule was established in India with the co-operation of Indians and had survived only because of this co-operation.", "If Indians refused to co-operate, British rule would collapse and ''swaraj'' (Indian independence) would come.Gandhi with Annie Besant en route to a meeting in Madras in September 1921.Earlier, in Madurai, on 21 September 1921, Gandhi had adopted the loin-cloth for the first time as a symbol of his identification with India's poor.In February 1919, Gandhi cautioned the Viceroy of India with a cable communication that if the British were to pass the Rowlatt Act, he would appeal to Indians to start civil disobedience.", "The British government ignored him and passed the law, stating it would not yield to threats.", "The ''satyagraha'' civil disobedience followed, with people assembling to protest the Rowlatt Act.", "On 30 March 1919, British law officers opened fire on an assembly of unarmed people, peacefully gathered, participating in ''satyagraha'' in Delhi.People rioted in retaliation.", "On 6 April 1919, a Hindu festival day, he asked a crowd to remember not to injure or kill British people, but to express their frustration with peace, to boycott British goods and burn any British clothing they owned.", "He emphasised the use of non-violence to the British and towards each other, even if the other side used violence.", "Communities across India announced plans to gather in greater numbers to protest.", "Government warned him to not enter Delhi.", "Gandhi defied the order.", "On 9 April, Gandhi was arrested.On 13 April 1919, people including women with children gathered in an Amritsar park, and British Indian Army officer Reginald Dyer surrounded them and ordered troops under his command to fire on them.", "The resulting Jallianwala Bagh massacre (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of Sikh and Hindu civilians enraged the subcontinent, but was supported by some Britons and parts of the British media as a necessary response.", "Gandhi in Ahmedabad, on the day after the massacre in Amritsar, did not criticise the British and instead criticised his fellow countrymen for not exclusively using 'love' to deal with the 'hate' of the British government.", "Gandhi demanded that the Indian people stop all violence, stop all property destruction, and went on fast-to-death to pressure Indians to stop their rioting.The massacre and Gandhi's non-violent response to it moved many, but also made some Sikhs and Hindus upset that Dyer was getting away with murder.", "Investigation committees were formed by the British, which Gandhi asked Indians to boycott.", "The unfolding events, the massacre and the British response, led Gandhi to the belief that Indians will never get a fair equal treatment under British rulers, and he shifted his attention to ''swaraj'' and political independence for India.", "In 1921, Gandhi was the leader of the Indian National Congress.", "He reorganised the Congress.", "With Congress now behind him, and Muslim support triggered by his backing the Khilafat movement to restore the Caliph in Turkey, Gandhi had the political support and the attention of the British Raj.Gandhi spinning yarn, in the late 1920sGandhi expanded his nonviolent non-co-operation platform to include the ''swadeshi'' policy – the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods.", "Linked to this was his advocacy that ''khadi'' (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles.", "Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning ''khadi'' in support of the independence movement.", "In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and honours.", "Gandhi thus began his journey aimed at crippling the British India government economically, politically and administratively.The appeal of \"Non-cooperation\" grew, its social popularity drew participation from all strata of Indian society.", "Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment.", "He began his sentence on 18 March 1922.With Gandhi isolated in prison, the Indian National Congress split into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move.", "Furthermore, co-operation among Hindus and Muslims ended as Khilafat movement collapsed with the rise of Atatürk in Turkey.", "Muslim leaders left the Congress and began forming Muslim organisations.", "The political base behind Gandhi had broken into factions.", "Gandhi was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, having served only two years.=== Salt Satyagraha (Salt March) ===Original footage of Gandhi and his followers marching to Dandi in the Salt SatyagrahaAfter his early release from prison for political crimes in 1924, over the second half of the 1920s Gandhi continued to pursue ''swaraj''.", "He pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete independence for the country as its goal.", "After his support for World War I with Indian combat troops, and the failure of Khilafat movement in preserving the rule of Caliph in Turkey, followed by a collapse in Muslim support for his leadership, some such as Subhas Chandra Bose and Bhagat Singh questioned his values and non-violent approach.", "While many Hindu leaders championed a demand for immediate independence, Gandhi revised his own call to a one-year wait, instead of two.The British did not respond favourably to Gandhi's proposal.", "British political leaders such as Lord Birkenhead and Winston Churchill announced opposition to \"the appeasers of Gandhi\" in their discussions with European diplomats who sympathised with Indian demands.", "On 31 December 1929, an Indian flag was unfurled in Lahore.", "Gandhi led Congress in a celebration on 26 January 1930 of India's Independence Day in Lahore.", "This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organisation.", "Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the British salt tax in March 1930.Gandhi sent an ultimatum in the form of a letter personally addressed to Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India, on 2 March.", "Gandhi condemned British rule in the letter, describing it as \"a curse\" that \"has impoverished the dumb millions by a system of progressive exploitation and by a ruinously expensive military and civil administration...It has reduced us politically to serfdom.\"", "Gandhi also mentioned in the letter that the viceroy received a salary \"over five thousand times India's average income.\"", "In the letter, Gandhi also stressed his continued adherence to non-violent forms of protest.This was highlighted by the Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where, together with 78 volunteers, he marched from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself, with the declared intention of breaking the salt laws.", "The march took 25 days to cover 240 miles with Gandhi speaking to often huge crowds along the way.", "Thousands of Indians joined him in Dandi.", "On 5 May he was interned under a regulation dating from 1827 in anticipation of a protest that he had planned.", "The protest at Dharasana salt works on 21 May went ahead without him see.", "A horrified American journalist, Webb Miller, described the British response thus:This went on for hours until some 300 or more protesters had been beaten, many seriously injured and two killed.", "At no time did they offer any resistance.This campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.", "Congress estimates, however, put the figure at 90,000.Among them was one of Gandhi's lieutenants, Jawaharlal Nehru.According to Sarma, Gandhi recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products, which gave many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life.", "However, other scholars such as Marilyn French state that Gandhi barred women from joining his civil disobedience movement because he feared he would be accused of using women as a political shield.", "When women insisted on joining the movement and participating in public demonstrations, Gandhi asked the volunteers to get permissions of their guardians and only those women who can arrange child-care should join him.", "Regardless of Gandhi's apprehensions and views, Indian women joined the Salt March by the thousands to defy the British salt taxes and monopoly on salt mining.", "After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in the manner Gandhi inspired.=== Gandhi as folk hero ===Indian workers on strike in support of Gandhi in 1930Indian Congress in the 1920s appealed to Andhra Pradesh peasants by creating Telugu language plays that combined Indian mythology and legends, linked them to Gandhi's ideas, and portrayed Gandhi as a messiah, a reincarnation of ancient and medieval Indian nationalist leaders and saints.", "The plays built support among peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture, according to Murali, and this effort made Gandhi a folk hero in Telugu speaking villages, a sacred messiah-like figure.According to Dennis Dalton, it was Gandhi's ideas that were responsible for his wide following.", "Gandhi criticised Western civilisation as one driven by \"brute force and immorality\", contrasting it with his categorisation of Indian civilisation as one driven by \"soul force and morality\".", "Gandhi captured the imagination of the people of his heritage with his ideas about winning \"hate with love\".", "These ideas are evidenced in his pamphlets from the 1890s, in South Africa, where too he was popular among the Indian indentured workers.", "After he returned to India, people flocked to him because he reflected their values.", "Gandhi's first visit to Odisha in 1921, a general meeting held at the riverbed of KathajodiGandhi also campaigned hard going from one rural corner of the Indian subcontinent to another.", "He used terminology and phrases such as ''Rama-rajya'' from ''Ramayana'', Prahlada as a paradigmatic icon, and such cultural symbols as another facet of ''swaraj'' and ''satyagraha''.", "During his lifetime, these ideas sounded strange outside India, but they readily and deeply resonated with the culture and historic values of his people.=== Negotiations ===The government, represented by Lord Irwin, decided to negotiate with Gandhi.", "The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931.The British Government agreed to free all political prisoners, in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement.", "According to the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London for discussions and as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.", "The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists.", "Gandhi expected to discuss India's independence, while the British side focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transfer of power.", "Lord Irwin's successor, Lord Willingdon, took a hard line against India as an independent nation, began a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement.", "Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers.In Britain, Winston Churchill, a prominent Conservative politician who was then out of office but later became its prime minister, became a vigorous and articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long-term plans.", "Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in a widely reported 1931 speech:Churchill's bitterness against Gandhi grew in the 1930s.", "He called Gandhi as the one who was \"seditious in aim\" whose evil genius and multiform menace was attacking the British empire.", "Churchill called him a dictator, a \"Hindu Mussolini\", fomenting a race war, trying to replace the Raj with Brahmin cronies, playing on the ignorance of Indian masses, all for selfish gain.", "Churchill attempted to isolate Gandhi, and his criticism of Gandhi was widely covered by European and American press.", "It gained Churchill sympathetic support, but it also increased support for Gandhi among Europeans.", "The developments heightened Churchill's anxiety that the \"British themselves would give up out of pacifism and misplaced conscience\".=== Round Table Conferences ===Gandhi and his personal assistant Mahadev Desai at Birla House, 1939During the discussions between Gandhi and the British government over 1931–32 at the Round Table Conferences, Gandhi, now aged about 62, sought constitutional reforms as a preparation to the end of colonial British rule, and begin the self-rule by Indians.", "The British side sought reforms that would keep the Indian subcontinent as a colony.", "The British negotiators proposed constitutional reforms on a British Dominion model that established separate electorates based on religious and social divisions.", "The British questioned the Congress party and Gandhi's authority to speak for all of India.", "They invited Indian religious leaders, such as Muslims and Sikhs, to press their demands along religious lines, as well as B. R. Ambedkar as the representative leader of the untouchables.", "Gandhi vehemently opposed a constitution that enshrined rights or representations based on communal divisions, because he feared that it would not bring people together but divide them, perpetuate their status, and divert the attention from India's struggle to end the colonial rule.The Second Round Table conference was the only time he left India between 1914 and his death in 1948.He declined the government's offer of accommodation in an expensive West End hotel, preferring to stay in the East End, to live among working-class people, as he did in India.", "He based himself in a small cell-bedroom at Kingsley Hall for the three-month duration of his stay and was enthusiastically received by East Enders.", "During this time he renewed his links with the British vegetarian movement.East End crowd gathers to witness the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi, 1931After Gandhi returned from the Second Round Table conference, he started a new ''satyagraha''.", "He was arrested and imprisoned at the Yerwada Jail, Pune.", "While he was in prison, the British government enacted a new law that granted untouchables a separate electorate.", "It came to be known as the Communal Award.", "In protest, Gandhi started a fast-unto-death, while he was held in prison.", "The resulting public outcry forced the government, in consultations with Ambedkar, to replace the Communal Award with a compromise Poona Pact.=== Congress politics ===In 1934 Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership.", "He did not disagree with the party's position but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, which actually varied, including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro-business convictions, and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard.", "Gandhi also wanted to avoid being a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the Raj.Gandhi returned to active politics again in 1936, with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress.", "Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about India's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal.", "Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith in nonviolence as a means of protest.", "Despite Gandhi's opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress President, against Gandhi's nominee, Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya.", "Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat.", "Bose later left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi.=== World War II and ''Quit India movement'' ===Gandhi talking with Jawaharlal Nehru, his designated political heir, during the drafting of the Quit India Resolution in Bombay, August 1942Gandhi opposed providing any help to the British war effort and he campaigned against any Indian participation in World War II.", "The British government responded with the arrests of Gandhi and many other Congress leaders and killed over 1,000 Indians who participated in this movement.", "A number of violent attacks were also carried out by the nationalists against the British government.", "While Gandhi's campaign did not enjoy the support of a number of Indian leaders, and over 2.5 million Indians volunteered and joined the British military to fight on various fronts of the Allied Forces, the movement played a role in weakening the control over the South Asian region by the British regime and it ultimately paved the way for Indian independence.Gandhi's opposition to the Indian participation in World War II was motivated by his belief that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself.", "He also condemned Nazism and Fascism, a view which won endorsement of other Indian leaders.", "As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to ''Quit India'' in a 1942 speech in Mumbai.", "This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India.", "The British government responded quickly to the Quit India speech, and within hours after Gandhi's speech arrested Gandhi and all the members of the Congress Working Committee.", "His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.In 1942, Gandhi now nearing age 73, urged his people to completely stop co-operating with the imperial government.", "In this effort, he urged that they neither kill nor injure British people, but be willing to suffer and die if violence is initiated by the British officials.", "He clarified that the movement would not be stopped because of any individual acts of violence, saying that the ''\"ordered anarchy\"'' of ''\"the present system of administration\"'' was ''\"worse than real anarchy.\"''", "He urged Indians to ''karo ya maro'' (\"do or die\") in the cause of their rights and freedoms.Gandhi in 1942, the year he launched the Quit India MovementGandhi's arrest lasted two years, as he was held in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune.", "During this period, his long time secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack, his wife Kasturba died after 18 months' imprisonment on 22 February 1944; and Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack.", "While in jail, he agreed to an interview with Stuart Gelder, a British journalist.", "Gelder then composed and released an interview summary, cabled it to the mainstream press, that announced sudden concessions Gandhi was willing to make, comments that shocked his countrymen, the Congress workers and even Gandhi.", "The latter two claimed that it distorted what Gandhi actually said on a range of topics and falsely repudiated the Quit India movement.Gandhi was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation.", "He came out of detention to an altered political scene – the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlier had appeared marginal, \"now occupied the centre of the political stage\" and the topic of Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was a major talking point.", "Gandhi and Jinnah had extensive correspondence and the two men met several times over a period of two weeks in September 1944 at Jinnah's house in Bombay, where Gandhi insisted on a united religiously plural and independent India which included Muslims and non-Muslims of the Indian subcontinent coexisting.", "Jinnah rejected this proposal and insisted instead for partitioning the subcontinent on religious lines to create a separate Muslim homeland (later Pakistan).", "These discussions continued through 1947.While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organisational strength.", "Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control over events.", "At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands.", "At this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the Congress's leadership.=== Partition and independence ===Gandhi with Muhammad Ali Jinnah in September 1944Gandhi opposed the partition of the Indian subcontinent along religious lines.", "The Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the British to Quit India.", "However, the All-India Muslim League demanded \"Divide and Quit India\".", "Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress and the Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.Jinnah rejected Gandhi's proposal and called for Direct Action Day, on 16 August 1946, to press Muslims to publicly gather in cities and support his proposal for the partition of the Indian subcontinent into a Muslim state and non-Muslim state.", "Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the Muslim League Chief Minister of Bengal – now Bangladesh and West Bengal, gave Calcutta's police special holiday to celebrate the Direct Action Day.", "The Direct Action Day triggered a mass murder of Calcutta Hindus and the torching of their property, and holidaying police were missing to contain or stop the conflict.", "The British government did not order its army to move in to contain the violence.", "The violence on Direct Action Day led to retaliatory violence against Muslims across India.", "Thousands of Hindus and Muslims were murdered, and tens of thousands were injured in the cycle of violence in the days that followed.", "Gandhi visited the most riot-prone areas to appeal a stop to the massacres.Louis Mountbatten, Britain's last Viceroy of India, and his wife Edwina MountbattenArchibald Wavell, the Viceroy and Governor-General of British India for three years through February 1947, had worked with Gandhi and Jinnah to find a common ground, before and after accepting Indian independence in principle.", "Wavell condemned Gandhi's character and motives as well as his ideas.", "Wavell accused Gandhi of harbouring the single minded idea to \"overthrow British rule and influence and to establish a Hindu raj\", and called Gandhi a \"malignant, malevolent, exceedingly shrewd\" politician.", "Wavell feared a civil war on the Indian subcontinent, and doubted Gandhi would be able to stop it.The British reluctantly agreed to grant independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, but accepted Jinnah's proposal of partitioning the land into Pakistan and India.", "Gandhi was involved in the final negotiations, but Stanley Wolpert states the \"plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi\".The partition was controversial and violently disputed.", "More than half a million were killed in religious riots as 10 million to 12 million non-Muslims (Hindus and Sikhs mostly) migrated from Pakistan into India, and Muslims migrated from India into Pakistan, across the newly created borders of India, West Pakistan and East Pakistan.Gandhi spent the day of independence not celebrating the end of the British rule but appealing for peace among his countrymen by fasting and spinning in Calcutta on 15 August 1947.The partition had gripped the Indian subcontinent with religious violence and the streets were filled with corpses.", "Gandhi's fasting and protests are credited for stopping the religious riots and communal violence." ], [ "Death", "At 5:17 pm on 30 January 1948, Gandhi was with his grandnieces in the garden of Birla House (now Gandhi Smriti), on his way to address a prayer meeting, when Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, fired three bullets into his chest from a pistol at close range.", "According to some accounts, Gandhi died instantly.", "In other accounts, such as one prepared by an eyewitness journalist, Gandhi was carried into the Birla House, into a bedroom.", "There he died about 30 minutes later as one of Gandhi's family members read verses from Hindu scriptures.Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressed his countrymen over the All-India Radio saying:Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it.", "Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more.", "Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country.Memorial at the location of Gandhi's assassination in 1948.His stylised footsteps lead to the memorial.Godse, a Hindu nationalist, with links to the Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, made no attempt to escape; several other conspirators were soon arrested as well.", "The accused were Nathuram Vinayak Godse, Narayan Apte, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Shankar Kistayya, Dattatraya Parchure, Vishnu Karkare, Madanlal Pahwa, and Gopal Godse.The trial began on 27May 1948 and ran for eight months before Justice Atma Charan passed his final order on 10February 1949.The prosecution called 149 witnesses, the defense none.", "The court found all of the defendants except one guilty as charged.", "Eight men were convicted for the murder conspiracy, and others were convicted for violation of the Explosive Substances Act.", "Savarkar was acquitted and set free.", "Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte were sentenced to death by hanging and the remaining six (including Godse's brother, Gopal) were sentenced to life imprisonment.=== Funeral and memorials ===Gandhi's funeral was marked by millions of Indians.Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide.", "Over a million people joined the five-mile-long funeral procession that took over five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where he was assassinated, and another million watched the procession pass by.", "Gandhi's body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catch a glimpse of his body.", "The engine of the vehicle was not used; instead four drag-ropes held by 50 people each pulled the vehicle.", "All Indian-owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at India House in London.Rajghat, 31 January 1948.It was attended by Jawaharlal Nehru, Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, Maulana Azad, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sarojini Naidu and other national leaders.", "His son Devdas Gandhi lit the pyre.Gandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition.", "His ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services.", "Most of the ashes were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948, but some were secretly taken away.", "In 1997, Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad.", "Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at the source of the Nile River near Jinja, Uganda, and a memorial plaque marks the event.", "On 30 January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chowpatty.", "Another urn is at the palace of the Aga Khan in Pune (where Gandhi was held as a political prisoner from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles.The Birla House site where Gandhi was assassinated is now a memorial called Gandhi Smriti.", "The place near Yamuna river where he was cremated is the Rāj Ghāt memorial in New Delhi.", "A black marble platform, it bears the epigraph \"Hē Rāma\" (Devanagari: ''हे !", "राम'' or, ''Hey Raam'').", "These are said to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot." ], [ "Principles, practices, and beliefs", "Gandhi's statements, letters and life have attracted much political and scholarly analysis of his principles, practices and beliefs, including what influenced him.", "Some writers present him as a paragon of ethical living and pacifism, while others present him as a more complex, contradictory and evolving character influenced by his culture and circumstances.=== Truth and Satyagraha ===Plaque displaying one of Gandhi's quotes on rumourGandhi dedicated his life to discovering and pursuing truth, or ''Satya'', and called his movement satyagraha, which means \"appeal to, insistence on, or reliance on the Truth\".", "The first formulation of the ''satyagraha'' as a political movement and principle occurred in 1920, which he tabled as \"Resolution on Non-cooperation\" in September that year before a session of the Indian Congress.", "It was the ''satyagraha'' formulation and step, states Dennis Dalton, that deeply resonated with beliefs and culture of his people, embedded him into the popular consciousness, transforming him quickly into Mahatma.", "\"God is truth.", "The way to truth lies through ahimsa (nonviolence)\" – Sabarmati, 13 March 1927Gandhi based ''Satyagraha'' on the Vedantic ideal of self-realisation, ahimsa (nonviolence), vegetarianism, and universal love.", "William Borman states that the key to his ''satyagraha'' is rooted in the Hindu Upanishadic texts.", "According to Indira Carr, Gandhi's ideas on ''ahimsa'' and ''satyagraha'' were founded on the philosophical foundations of Advaita Vedanta.", "I. Bruce Watson states that some of these ideas are found not only in traditions within Hinduism, but also in Jainism or Buddhism, particularly those about non-violence, vegetarianism and universal love, but Gandhi's synthesis was to politicise these ideas.", "Gandhi's concept of ''satya'' as a civil movement, states Glyn Richards, are best understood in the context of the Hindu terminology of Dharma and ''Ṛta''.Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities.", "Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said \"God is Truth\".", "He would later change this statement to \"Truth is God\".", "Thus, ''satya'' (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is \"God\".", "Gandhi, states Richards, described the term \"God\" not as a separate power, but as the Being (Brahman, Atman) of the Advaita Vedanta tradition, a nondual universal that pervades in all things, in each person and all life.", "According to Nicholas Gier, this to Gandhi meant the unity of God and humans, that all beings have the same one soul and therefore equality, that ''atman'' exists and is same as everything in the universe, ahimsa (non-violence) is the very nature of this ''atman''.Salt Satyagraha to defy colonial law giving salt collection monopoly to the British.", "His ''satyagraha'' attracted vast numbers of Indian men and women.The essence of Satyagraha is \"soul force\" as a political means, refusing to use brute force against the oppressor, seeking to eliminate antagonisms between the oppressor and the oppressed, aiming to transform or \"purify\" the oppressor.", "It is not inaction but determined passive resistance and non-co-operation where, states Arthur Herman, \"love conquers hate\".", "A euphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is that it is a \"silent force\" or a \"soul force\" (a term also used by Martin Luther King Jr. during his \"I Have a Dream\" speech).", "It arms the individual with moral power rather than physical power.", "Satyagraha is also termed a \"universal force\", as it essentially \"makes no distinction between kinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friend and foe.", "\"Gandhi wrote: \"There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure.", "If we want to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant.", "Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause.\"", "Civil disobedience and non-co-operation as practised under Satyagraha are based on the \"law of suffering\", a doctrine that ''the endurance of suffering is a means to an end''.", "This end usually implies a moral upliftment or progress of an individual or society.", "Therefore, non-co-operation in Satyagraha is in fact a means to secure the co-operation of the opponent consistently with truth and justice.While Gandhi's idea of ''satyagraha'' as a political means attracted a widespread following among Indians, the support was not universal.", "For example, Muslim leaders such as Jinnah opposed the ''satyagraha'' idea, accused Gandhi to be reviving Hinduism through political activism, and began effort to counter Gandhi with Muslim nationalism and a demand for Muslim homeland.", "The untouchability leader Ambedkar, in June 1945, after his decision to convert to Buddhism and the first Law and Justice minister of modern India, dismissed Gandhi's ideas as loved by \"blind Hindu devotees\", primitive, influenced by spurious brew of Tolstoy and Ruskin, and \"there is always some simpleton to preach them\".B.R.", "Ambedkar (1945), What Congress and Gandhi have done to the Untouchables, Thacker & Co. Editions, First Edition, pp.", "v, 282–97 Winston Churchill caricatured Gandhi as a \"cunning huckster\" seeking selfish gain, an \"aspiring dictator\", and an \"atavistic spokesman of a pagan Hinduism\".", "Churchill stated that the civil disobedience movement spectacle of Gandhi only increased \"the danger to which white people there British India are exposed\".=== Nonviolence ===Gandhi with textile workers at Darwen, Lancashire, 26 September 1931Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle of nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale.", "The concept of nonviolence (''ahimsa'') has a long history in Indian religious thought, and is considered the highest dharma (ethical value/virtue), a precept to be observed towards all living beings (''sarvbhuta''), at all times (''sarvada''), in all respects (''sarvatha''), in action, words and thought.", "Gandhi explains his philosophy and ideas about ''ahimsa'' as a political means in his autobiography ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''.Even though Gandhi considered non-violence to be \"infinitely superior to violence\", he preferred violence to cowardice.", "He added that he \"would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honor than that she should in a cowardly manner become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonor\"." ], [ "Literary works", "''Young India'', a weekly journal published by Gandhi from 1919 to 1932Gandhi was a prolific writer.", "His signature style was simple, precise, clear and as devoid of artificialities.", "One of Gandhi's earliest publications, ''Hind Swaraj'', published in Gujarati in 1909, became \"the intellectual blueprint\" for India's independence movement.", "The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read \"No Rights Reserved\".", "For decades he edited several newspapers including ''Harijan'' in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the English language; ''Indian Opinion'' while in South Africa and, ''Young India'', in English, and ''Navajivan'', a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India.", "Later, ''Navajivan'' was also published in Hindi.", "In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers.Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiography, ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Gujarātī \"સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા\")'', of which he bought the entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.", "His other autobiographies included: ''Satyagraha in South Africa'' about his struggle there, ''Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule'', a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of John Ruskin's ''Unto This Last'' which was an early critique of political economy.", "This last essay can be considered his programme on economics.", "He also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc.", "Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books.", "In 1934, he wrote ''Songs from Prison'' while prisoned in Yerawada jail in Maharashtra.Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name ''The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi'' in the 1960s.", "The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes.", "In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as it contained a large number of errors and omissions.", "The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition." ], [ "Legacy", "Gandhi is noted as the greatest figure of the successful Indian independence movement against the British rule.", "He is also hailed as the greatest figure of modern India.", "American historian Stanley Wolpert described Gandhi as \"India's greatest revolutionary nationalist leader\" and the greatest Indian since the Buddha.", "In 1999, Gandhi was named \"Asian of the century\" by ''Asiaweek''.", "In a 2000 BBC poll, he was voted as the greatest man of the millennium.The word ''Mahatma'', while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the Sanskrit words ''maha'' (meaning ''Great'') and ''atma'' (meaning ''Soul'').", "He was publicly bestowed with the honorific title \"Mahatma\" in July 1914 at farewell meeting in Town Hall, Durban.", "Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title to Gandhi by 1915.In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.Innumerable streets, roads and localities in India are named after Gandhi.", "These include M.G.Road (the main street of a number of Indian cities including Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Lucknow, Kanpur, Gangtok and Indore), Gandhi Market (near Sion, Mumbai) and Gandhinagar (the capital of the state of Gujarat, Gandhi's birthplace).In 1961 the U.S. government issued two commemorative stamps in honor of Mahatma Gandhi.As of 2008, over 150 countries have released stamps on Gandhi.", "In October 2019, about 87 countries including Turkey, the United States, Russia, Iran, Uzbekistan, and Palestine released commemorative Gandhi stamps on the 150th anniversary of his birth.Florian asteroid 120461 Gandhi was named in his honour in September 2020.In October 2022, a statue of Gandhi was installed in Astana on the embankment of the rowing canal, opposite the cult monument to the defenders of Kazakhstan.On 15 December 2022, the United Nations headquarters in New York unveiled the statue of Gandhi.", "UN Secretary-General António Guterres called Gandhi an \"uncompromising advocate for peaceful co-existence\".=== Followers and international influence ===Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements.", "Leaders of the civil rights movement in the United States, including Martin Luther King Jr., James Lawson, and James Bevel, drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about nonviolence.", "King said \"Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics.\"", "King sometimes referred to Gandhi as \"the little brown saint\".", "Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi.", "Others include Steve Biko, Václav Havel, and Aung San Suu Kyi.", "Statue of Gandhi at York University Gandhi on a 1969 postage stamp of the Soviet Union Gandhi at Praça Túlio Fontoura, São Paulo, Brazil In his early years, the former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was a follower of the nonviolent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.", "Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as \"Gandhi inspired succeeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule.", "This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense, Mandela completed what Gandhi started.", "\"Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading Gandhi's ideas.", "In Europe, Romain Rolland was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book ''Mahatma Gandhi,'' and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism.", "In 1931, physicist Albert Einstein exchanged letters with Gandhi, and called him \"a role model for the generations to come\" in a letter writing about him.", "Einstein said of Gandhi:Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history.", "He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and devotion.", "The moral influence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entire civilised world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces.", "Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works.", "We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come.Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.Farah Omar, a political activist from Somaliland, visited India in 1930, where he met Gandhi and was influenced by Gandhi's non-violent philosophy, which he adopted in his campaign in British Somaliland.Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams).", "Madeleine Slade (known as \"Mirabehn\") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.In addition, the British musician John Lennon referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on nonviolence.", "In 2007, former US Vice President and environmentalist Al Gore drew upon Gandhi's idea of ''satyagraha'' in a speech on climate change.", "44th President of the United States Barack Obama said in September 2009 that his biggest inspiration came from Gandhi.", "His reply was in response to the question \"Who was the one person, dead or live, that you would choose to dine with?\".", "He continued that \"He's somebody I find a lot of inspiration in.", "He inspired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence.", "He ended up doing so much and changed the world just by the power of his ethics.", "\"''Time'' magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa, Martin Luther King Jr., Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Mandela as ''Children of Gandhi'' and his spiritual heirs to nonviolence.", "The Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston, Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.Gandhi's ideas had a significant influence on 20th-century philosophy.", "It began with his engagement with Romain Rolland and Martin Buber.", "Jean-Luc Nancy said that the French philosopher Maurice Blanchot engaged critically with Gandhi from the point of view of \"European spirituality\".", "Since then philosophers including Hannah Arendt, Etienne Balibar and Slavoj Žižek found that Gandhi was a necessary reference to discuss morality in politics.", "Recently in the light of climate change Gandhi's views on technology are gaining importance in the fields of environmental philosophy and philosophy of technology.=== Global days that celebrate Gandhi ===In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared Gandhi's birthday 2 October as \"the International Day of Nonviolence.\"", "First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace (DENIP in Spanish), 30 January is observed as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace in schools of many countries In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it is observed on 30 March.=== Awards ===Monument to Gandhi in Madrid, Spain''Time'' magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930.In the same magazine's 1999 list of The Most Important People of the Century, Gandhi was second only to Albert Einstein, who had called Gandhi \"the greatest man of our age\".", "The University of Nagpur awarded him an LL.D.", "in 1937.The Government of India awarded the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens.", "Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient.", "In 2011, Gandhi topped the TIME's list of top 25 political icons of all time.Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee, though he made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947.Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award.", "Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassinated before nominations closed.", "That year, the committee chose not to award the peace prize stating that \"there was no suitable living candidate\" and later research shows that the possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and that the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi.", "Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, \"The greatest omission in our 106-year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize.", "Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question\".", "When the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was \"in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi\".", "In the summer of 1995, the North American Vegetarian Society inducted him posthumously into the Vegetarian Hall of Fame.==== Father of the Nation ====Indians widely describe Gandhi as the Father of the Nation.", "Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address (on Singapore radio) on 6 July 1944 by Subhash Chandra Bose where Bose addressed Gandhi as \"The Father of the Nation\".", "On 28 April 1947, Sarojini Naidu during a conference also referred Gandhi as \"Father of the Nation\".", "He is also conferred the title \"Bapu\" (Gujarati: endearment for ''father'', ''papa'').=== Film, theatre and literature ===* A five-hour nine-minute long biographical documentary film, ''Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948'', made by Vithalbhai Jhaveri in 1968, quoting Gandhi's words and using black and white archival footage and photographs, captures the history of those times.", "Ben Kingsley portrayed him in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film ''Gandhi'', which won the Academy Award for Best Picture.", "It was based on the biography by Louis Fischer.", "The 1996 film ''The Making of the Mahatma'' documented Gandhi's time in South Africa and his transformation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised political leader.", "* Gandhi was a central figure in the 2006 comedy film ''Lage Raho Munna Bhai''.", "Jahnu Barua's ''Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara'' (I did not kill Gandhi), places contemporary society as a backdrop with its vanishing memory of Gandhi's values as a metaphor for the senile forgetfulness of the protagonist of his 2005 film, writes Vinay Lal.", "* In the tale ''Le Jour du Jugement Dernier'', in the collection ''Les Mémoires de Satan et autres contes loufoques'', by Pierre Cormon, God tries to judge Gandhi at the Last Judgement but realises that the character is more complex than he appears.", "* In 1967, Gandhi was set to be featured on the album cover of one of the best selling albums of The Beatles, ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'', however this idea was later cancelled due to respect for Gandhi.", "* The 1979 opera ''Satyagraha'' by American composer Philip Glass is loosely based on Gandhi's life.", "The opera's libretto, taken from the Bhagavad Gita, is sung in the original Sanskrit.", "* The 1995 Marathi play ''Gandhi Virudh Gandhi'' explored the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal.", "The 2007 film, ''Gandhi, My Father'' was inspired on the same theme.", "The 1989 Marathi play ''Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy'' and the 1997 Hindi play ''Gandhi Ambedkar'' criticised Gandhi and his principles.", "* Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life.", "Among them are D. G. Tendulkar with his ''Mahatma.", "Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi'' in eight volumes, Chaman Nahal's Gandhi Quartet, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with their ''Mahatma Gandhi'' in 10 volumes.", "The 2010 biography, ''Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India'' by Joseph Lelyveld contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life.", "Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage \"grossly distorts\" the overall message of the book.", "The 2014 film ''Welcome Back Gandhi'' takes a fictionalised look at how Gandhi might react to modern day India.", "The 2019 play ''Bharat Bhagya Vidhata'', inspired by Pujya Gurudevshri Rakeshbhai and produced by Sangeet Natak Akademi and Shrimad Rajchandra Mission Dharampur takes a look at how Gandhi cultivated the values of truth and non-violence.", "* \"Mahatma Gandhi\" is used by Cole Porter in his lyrics for the song \"You're the Top\" which is included in the 1934 musical ''Anything Goes''.", "In the song, Porter rhymes 'Mahatma Gandhi' with 'Napoleon Brandy.", "'* Gandhi is mentioned in the Kris Kristofferson song \"They Killed Him\".", "*=== Current impact within India ===Gandhi Mandapam, a temple in Kanyakumari, was erected in honour of Gandhi.India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbanisation, has rejected Gandhi's economics but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory.", "Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, \"modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one.", "His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power.\"", "By contrast, Gandhi is \"given full credit for India's political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy.", "\"Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in India, Gandhi Jayanti.", "Gandhi's image also appears on paper currency of all denominations issued by Reserve Bank of India, except for the one rupee note.", "Gandhi's date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as a Martyrs' Day in India.There are three temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.", "One is located at Sambalpur in Odisha and the second at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka and the third one at Chityal in the district of Nalgonda, Telangana.", "The Gandhi Memorial in Kanyakumari resembles central Indian Hindu temples and the Tamukkam or Summer Palace in Madurai now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.=== Descendants ===Family tree of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi (source: Gandhi Ashram Sabarmati)Gandhi's children and grandchildren live in India and other countries.", "Grandson Rajmohan Gandhi is a professor in Illinois and an author of Gandhi's biography titled ''Mohandas'', while another, Tarun Gandhi, has authored several authoritative books on his grandfather.", "Another grandson, Kanu Ramdas Gandhi (the son of Gandhi's third son Ramdas), was found living in an old age home in Delhi despite having taught earlier in the United States." ], [ "See also", "* Gandhi cap* Gandhi Teerth – Gandhi International Research Institute and Museum for Gandhian study, research on Mahatma Gandhi and dialogue* Inclusive Christianity* List of civil rights leaders* List of peace activists* Seven Social Sins (a.k.a.", "Seven Blunders of the World)* Trikaranasuddhi* Composite nationalism* Abdul Ghaffar Khan" ], [ "Notes", "=== Explanatory notes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "General and cited references", "=== Books ===* Ahmed, Talat (2018).", "''Mohandas Gandhi: Experiments in Civil Disobedience''.", ".", "* (see book article)* * Brown, Judith M. (2004).", "\"Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948)\", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press.", "* Brown, Judith M., and Anthony Parel, eds.", "''The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi'' (2012); 14 essays by scholars* 'Gandhi the Great'(2013) by Fevin Mohammed (PhD in Historical Research, Coordinated under Prof. Ram Prasad Sharma)* * * * Louis Fischer.", "''The Life of Mahatma Gandhi'' (1957) online* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; short biography for children* === Scholarly articles ===* Danielson, Leilah C. In My Extremity I Turned to Gandhi': American Pacifists, Christianity, and Gandhian Nonviolence, 1915–1941\".", "''Church History'' 72.2 (2003): 361–388.", "* Du Toit, Brian M. \"The Mahatma Gandhi and South Africa.\"", "''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 34#4 (1996): 643–660..* Gokhale, B. G. \"Gandhi and the British Empire\", ''History Today'' (Nov 1969), 19#11 pp 744–751 online.", "* Juergensmeyer, Mark.", "\"The Gandhi Revival – A Review Article.\"", "''The Journal of Asian Studies'' 43#2 (Feb. 1984), pp. 293–298.", "* Kishwar, Madhu.", "\"Gandhi on Women.\"", "''Economic and Political Weekly'' 20, no.", "41 (1985): 1753–758..* Murthy, C. S. H. N., Oinam Bedajit Meitei, and Dapkupar Tariang.", "\"The Tale Of Gandhi Through The Lens: An Inter-Textual Analytical Study Of Three Major Films-Gandhi, The Making Of The Mahatma, And Gandhi, My Father.\"", "''CINEJ Cinema Journal'' 2.2 (2013): 4–37.online* Power, Paul F. \"Toward a Revaluation of Gandhi's Political Thought.\"", "''Western Political Quarterly'' 16.1 (1963): 99–108 excerpt.", "* Rudolph, Lloyd I.", "\"Gandhi in the Mind of America.\"", "''Economic and Political Weekly'' 45, no.", "47 (2010): 23–26..=== Primary sources ===* * * * * * * (100 volumes).", "Free online access from Gandhiserve.", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Gandhi's correspondence with the Indian government 1942–1944* * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Miyamoto Musashi" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as '''Shinmen Takezō''', '''Miyamoto Bennosuke''' or, by his Buddhist name, '''Niten Dōraku''', was a Japanese swordsman, philosopher, strategist, writer and rōnin, who became renowned through stories of his unique double-bladed swordsmanship and undefeated record in his 61 duels (next is 33 by Itō Ittōsai).", "Musashi, as he was often simply known, is considered a ''Kensei'', a sword-saint of Japan.", "He was the founder of the Niten Ichi-ryū, or Nito Ichi-ryū, style of swordsmanship, and in his final years authored and ''Dokkōdō'' (獨行道, ''The Path of Aloneness'').Both documents were given to Terao Magonojō, the most important of Musashi's students, seven days before Musashi's death.", "''The Book of Five Rings'' deals primarily with the character of his Niten Ichi-ryū school in a concrete sense, i.e., his own practical martial art and its generic significance; ''The Path of Aloneness'', on the other hand, deals with the ideas that lie behind it, as well as his life's philosophy in a few short aphoristic sentences.The Miyamoto Musashi Budokan training center, located in Ōhara-chō (Mimasaka), Okayama prefecture, Japan was erected to honor his name and legend.The Miyamoto Musashi Budokan in Ōhara-chō (Mimasaka), Okayama prefecture, Japan" ], [ "Biography", "===Birth===The details of Miyamoto Musashi's early life are difficult to verify.", "Musashi himself simply states in ''The Book of Five Rings'' that he was born in Harima Province.", "''Niten Ki'' (an early biography of Musashi) supports the assertion that Musashi was born in 1584: \"He was born in Banshū, in Tenshō 12 1584, the Year of the Monkey.\"", "The historian Kamiko Tadashi, commenting on Musashi's text, notes: \"Munisai was Musashi's father ... he lived in Miyamoto village, in the Yoshino district of Mimasaka Province.", "Musashi was most probably born here.", "\"Musashi gives his full name and title in ''The Book of Five Rings'' as '''Shinmen Musashi-no-Kami Fujiwara no Harunobu''' (新免武蔵守藤原玄信).", "His father, Shinmen Munisai (新免無二斎) was an accomplished martial artist and master of the sword and ''jutte'' (also ''jitte'').", "Munisai, in turn, was the son of Hirata Shōgen (平田将監), a vassal of Shinmen ''Iga no Kami'', the lord of Takayama Castle in the Yoshino district of Mimasaka Province.", "Hirata was relied upon by Lord Shinmen and so was allowed to use the Shinmen name.", "As for \"Musashi\", ''Musashi no Kami'' was a court title, making him the nominal governor of Musashi Province.", "\"Fujiwara\" was the lineage from which Musashi claimed descent.===Upbringing===Musashi's eczema developed in his infancy, and this adversely affected his appearance.", "Another story claims that he never bathed himself because he did not want to be surprised unarmed.===First duel===According to the introduction of ''The Book of Five Rings'', Musashi states that his first successful duel was at the age of 13, against a samurai named Arima Kihei who fought using the Kashima Shintō-ryū style, founded by Tsukahara Bokuden (1489–1571).", "The main source of the duel is the ''Hyoho senshi denki'' (\"Anecdotes about the Deceased Master\").", "Summarized, its account goes as follows:===Travels and duels===In 1599, Musashi left his village, apparently at the age of 15 (according to the ''Tosakushi'', \"The Registry of the Sakushu Region\", although the ''Tanji Hokin Hikki'' says he was 16 years old in 1599, which agrees time-wise with the age reported in Musashi's first duel).", "His family possessions such as furniture, weapons, genealogy, and other records were left with his sister and her husband, Hirao Yoemon.", "He spent his time traveling and engaging in duels.====Duel with Sasaki Kojirō====In 1611, Musashi began practicing zazen at the Myōshin-ji temple, where he met Nagaoka Sado, vassal to Hosokawa Tadaoki; Tadaoki was a powerful lord who had received the Kumamoto Domain in west-central Kyūshū after the Battle of Sekigahara.", "Munisai had moved to northern Kyūshū and became Tadaoki's teacher, leading to the possibility that Munisai introduced Musashi to Sasaki Kojirō, another guest of the Hosokawa clan at the time.", "Somehow, a duel was proposed between the two; in some versions, Nagaoka proposed the duel, in others, Kojirō proposed it out of rivalry or jealously.", "Tokitsu believes that the duel was politically motivated, as a matter of consolidating Tadaoki's control over his fief.Sasaki Kojiro (right) engages Miyamoto Musashi on the shores of Ganryū Island.The duel was scheduled for April 13, 1612, when Musashi was approximately 30 years old.", "The departure by boat for the duel was arranged for the Hour of the Dragon in the early morning (approximately 8:00 AM) to the island of Ganryūjima, a small isle between Honshū and Kyūshū.", "While Hosokawa officials banned spectators, the island was filled with them anyway.", "Kojirō was known for wielding an oversized ''nodachi'' (Japanese greatsword) called a \"laundry-drying pole\" for its length, as well as being titled \"three-shaku silver blade\" (「三尺の白刃」).", "Using this sword, Kojirō was said to be known for a swift two-stroke sword technique called tsubame gaeshi (not to confuse with the judo move of the same name, which received the name as an homage), and he bore the nickname \"The Demon of the Western Provinces\".", "Kojirō arrived at the appointed time, but was then left to wait for hours; Musashi had overslept.", "Kojirō sent out servants to retrieve Musashi, who ate a full breakfast, taking his time.", "In some variants of the tale, Musashi intentionally arrives late as a sign of disrespect.", "As he sailed over the Kanmon Straits, Musashi carved a crude oversized ''bokken'' from one of the ship's oars with his knife, making an improvised wooden sword, possibly to help wake himself up.", "Upon his arrival, an irritated Kojirō chided Musashi's lateness and dramatically threw his scabbard into the sea, as a sign that he would not stop and would fight to the death.", "Musashi responded with a taunt of his own, saying that Kojirō clearly wasn't confident in himself if he thought he'd never get a chance to use a fine scabbard again.Gorinto dedicated to Sasaki Kojiro in Musashi Temple (Ohara).The two circled each other, and Kojirō leaped toward Musashi with his trademark overhead strike.", "Musashi, too, jumped and swung his weapon with a shout, and the two sword strokes met.", "Musashi's headband fell off, sliced by Kojirō's sword, but somehow, only the headband was cut rather than Musashi's skull.", "Musashi's strike, meanwhile, had struck true, cleaving Kojirō's skull.", "\"Seishin Chokudo\" (earnest heart, straight way) monument dedicated to Miyamoto Musashi, located in Kokura.", "These characters were engraved by Musashi on his bokken.", "It stands on the place where Musashi is supposed to have lived, at the foot of the castle.", "The Hombu dojo of a main branch of Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryū is in Kokura and demonstrates every year in front of this monument.===Later life===Miyamoto Musashi, ''Self-portrait,'' c. 1640Twenty-one years later, in 1633, Musashi began staying with Hosokawa Tadatoshi, ''daimyō'' of Kumamoto Castle, who had moved to the Kumamoto fief and Kokura, to train and paint.", "While he engaged in very few duels; one would occur in 1634 at the arrangement of Lord Ogasawara, in which Musashi defeated a lance specialist by the name of Takada Matabei.", "Musashi would officially become the retainer of the Hosokowa lords of Kumamoto in 1640.The ''Niten Ki'' records \"he received from Lord Tadatoshi: 17 retainers, a stipend of 300 koku, the rank of ''ōkumigashira'' 大組頭, and Chiba Castle in Kumamoto as his residence.", "\"Ōhara-chō, province of MimasakaThe grave-marker of Miyamoto Musashi, in present-day Kumamoto Prefecture (熊本県)Miyamoto Musashi kills a shark fish (Yamazame) in the mountains across the border of Echizen Province, by Utagawa KuniyoshiMiyamoto Musashi in his prime, wielding two bokken; woodblock print by Utagawa KuniyoshiIn the second month of 1641, Musashi wrote a work called the ''Hyoho Sanju Go'' (\"Thirty-five Instructions on Strategy\") for Hosokawa Tadatoshi.", "This work overlapped and formed the basis for the later ''The Book of Five Rings''.", "This was the year that his adopted son, Hirao Yoemon, became Master of Arms for the Owari fief.", "In 1642, Musashi suffered attacks of neuralgia, foreshadowing his future ill-health.", "In 1643 he retired to a cave named ''Reigandō'' as a hermit to write ''The Book of Five Rings''.", "He finished it in the second month of 1645.On the twelfth of the fifth month, sensing his impending death, Musashi bequeathed his worldly possessions, after giving his manuscript copy of ''The Book of Five Rings'' to the younger brother of Terao Magonojo, his closest disciple.", "He died in Reigandō cave around June 13, 1645 (''Shōhō 2, 19th day of the 5th month'').", "The ''Hyoho senshi denki'' described his passing:Miyamoto Musashi died of what is believed to be thoracic cancer.", "He died peacefully after finishing the text ''Dokkōdō'' (\"The Way of Walking Alone\", or \"The Way of Self-Reliance\"), 21 precepts on self-discipline to guide future generations." ], [ "Relationships", "Writings on Musashi's life rarely mention his relationship with women, and often when they do Musashi is regularly depicted as rejecting sexual advances in favor of focusing on his swordsmanship.", "Alternative interpretations have taken his lack of interest as an indication of homosexuality.", "In contrast many legends do feature Musashi in trysts with women, some of these also reflect the view that he would eventually choose to forego physical or emotional investments to attain further insight into his work.", "This predominant cultural view of Musashi is somewhat contradicted by old texts such as ''Dobo goen'' (1720) which relay his intimacy with the courtesan Kumoi during his middle age.", "The ''Bushu Denraiki'' also details Musashi fathering a daughter by a courtesan.", "It is uncertain if this courtesan and Kumoi were the same person.", "A rumor also connected Musashi with the ''oiran'' ." ], [ "Teachings", "Musashi created and refined a two-sword ''kenjutsu'' technique called ''niten'ichi'' (二天一, \"two heavens as one\") or ''nitōichi'' (二刀一, \"two swords as one\") or 'Niten Ichi-ryū' (A Kongen Buddhist Sutra refers to the two heavens as the two guardians of Buddha).", "In this technique, the swordsman uses ''both'' a large sword, and a \"companion sword\" at the same time, i.e.", "a katana with a wakizashi.The two-handed movements of temple drummers may have inspired him, although it could be that the technique was forged through Musashi's combat experience.", "''Jutte'' techniques were taught to him by his father—the ''jutte'' was often used in battle paired with a sword; the ''jutte'' would parry and neutralize the weapon of the enemy while the sword struck or the practitioner grappled with the enemy.", "Today Musashi's style of swordsmanship is known as Hyōhō Niten Ichi-ryū.Musashi was also an expert in throwing weapons.", "He frequently threw his short sword, and Kenji Tokitsu believes that shuriken methods for the wakizashi were the Niten Ichi Ryu's secret techniques.Musashi spent many years studying Buddhism and swordsmanship.", "He was an accomplished artist, sculptor, and calligrapher.", "Records also show that he had architectural skills.", "Also, he seems to have had a rather straightforward approach to combat, with no additional frills or aesthetic considerations.", "This was probably due to his real-life combat experience; although in his later life, Musashi followed a more artistic approach.", "He made various Zen brush paintings, calligraphy, and sculpted wood and metal.", "Even in ''The Book of Five Rings'' he emphasizes that samurai should understand other professions as well.", "Musashi's writings were very ambiguous, and translating them into English makes them even more so; thus many different translations of ''The Book of Five Rings'' can be found." ], [ "Timeline", "The following timeline follows, in chronological order (of which is based on the most accurate and most widely accepted information), the life of Miyamoto Musashi.", "Date Age Occurrence 1578−6 Musashi's brother, Shirota, is born.", "1584 0 Miyamoto Musashi is born.", "1591 6–7 Musashi is taken and raised by his uncle as a Buddhist.", "1596 11–12 Musashi duels with Arima Kihei in Hirafuku, Hyōgo Prefecture.", "1599 14–15 Duels with a man named Tadashima Akiyama in the northern part of Hyōgo Prefecture.", "1600 16 Believed to have fought in the Battle of Sekigahara (October 21) as part of the western army.", "Whether he actually participated in the battle is currently in doubt.", "1604 19–20 Musashi has three matches with the Yoshioka clan in Kyoto.", "(1) Match with Yoshioka Seijuro in Yamashiro Province, outside the city at Rendai Moor (west of Mt.", "Funaoka, Kita-ku, Kyoto).", "(2) Match with Yoshioka Denshichiro outside the city.", "(3) Match with Yoshioka Matashichiro outside the city at the pine of Ichijō-ji.", "Visits Kōfuku-ji, Nara and ends up dueling with Okuzōin Dōei, the Buddhist priest trained in the style of Hōzōin-ryū.", "1605–1612 20–28 Begins to travel again.", "1607 22–23 Munisai (Musashi's father) passes his teachings onto Musashi.", "Duels with the kusarigama expert Shishido (swordsman) in the western part of Mie Prefecture.", "1608 23–24 Duels Musō Gonnosuke, master of the five-foot staff in Edo.", "1610 25–26 Fights Hayashi Osedo and Tsujikaze Tenma in Edo.", "1611 26–27 Begins practicing zazen meditation.", "1612 28 Duel with Sasaki Kojirō takes place on April 13, on Ganryujima (Ganryu or Funa Island) off the coast of Shimonoseki in which Kojiro is defeated.", "Briefly opens a fencing school.", "1614–1615 30–31 Believed to have joined the troops of Toyotomi Hideyori in the Winter and Summer campaigns (November 8, 1614 – June 15, 1615) at Osaka Castle, but no significant contributions are documented.", "1615–1621 30–37 Comes into the service of Ogasawara Tadanao in Harima Province as a construction supervisor.", "1621 36–37 Duels Miyake Gunbei in Tatsuno, Hyōgo.", "1622 37–38 Sets up temporary residence at the castle town of Himeji, Hyōgo.", "1623 38–39 Travels to Edo.", "Adopts a son named Iori.", "1626 41–42 Adopted son Mikinosuke commits seppuku following in the tradition of Junshi.", "1627 42–43 Travels again.", "1628 43–44 Meets with Yagyū Hyōgonosuke in Nagoya, Owari Province.", "1630 45–46 Enters the service of Lord Hosokawa Tadatoshi.", "1633 48–49 Begins to extensively practice the arts.", "1634 49–50 Settles in Kokura, Fukuoka Prefecture for a short time with son Iori as a guest of Ogasawara Tadazane.", "1637–1638 53–54 Serves a major role in the Shimabara Rebellion (December 17, 1637 – April 15, 1638) and is the only documented evidence that Musashi served in battle.", "Was knocked off his horse by a rock thrown by one of the peasants.", "1641 56–57 Writes ''Hyoho Sanju-go''.", "1642 57–58 Suffers severe attacks from neuralgia.", "1643 58–59 Migrates into Reigandō where he lives as a hermit.", "1645 61 Finishes ''Go Rin No Sho''/''The Book of Five Rings''''.", "Dies from what is believed to be lung cancer." ], [ "Philosophy", "Calligraphy by MusashiIn Musashi's last book, , Musashi seems to take a very philosophical approach to looking at the \"craft of war\": \"There are five ways in which men pass through life: as gentlemen, warriors, farmers, artisans and merchants.", "\"Throughout the book, Musashi implies that the way of the Warrior, as well as the meaning of a \"true strategist\" is that of somebody who has made mastery of many art forms away from that of the sword, such as tea drinking (sadō), laboring, writing, and painting, as Musashi practiced throughout his life.", "Musashi was hailed as an extraordinary sumi-e artist in the use of ink monochrome as depicted in two such paintings: \"Shrike Perched in a Dead Tree\" (''Koboku Meigekizu'', 枯木鳴鵙図) and \"Wild Geese Among Reeds\" (''Rozanzu'', 魯山図).", "Going back to the ''Book of Five Rings'', Musashi talks deeply about the ways of Buddhism.He makes particular note of artisans and foremen.", "When he wrote the book, the majority of houses in Japan were made of wood.", "In the use of building a house, foremen have to employ strategy based upon the skill and ability of their workers.In comparison to warriors and soldiers, Musashi notes the ways in which the artisans thrive through events; the ruin of houses, the splendor of houses, the style of the house, the tradition and name or origins of a house.", "These too, are similar to the events which are seen to have warriors and soldiers thrive; the rise and fall of prefectures, countries and other such events are what make uses for warriors, as well as the literal comparisons: \"The carpenter uses a master plan of the building, and the way of strategy is similar in that there is a plan of campaign\".===Way of strategy=======Ni-Ten Ichi Ryu====Within the book, Musashi mentions that the use of two swords within strategy is equally beneficial to those who use the skill for individual duels or large engagements.", "The idea of using two hands for a sword is an idea that Musashi opposes because there is no fluidity in movement with two hands: \"If you hold a sword with both hands, it is difficult to wield it freely to left and right, so my method is to carry the sword in one hand.\"", "He also disagrees with the idea of using a sword with two hands on a horse and/or riding on unstable terrain, such as muddy swamps, rice fields, or within crowds of people.To learn the strategy of Ni-Ten Ichi Ryū, Musashi asserts that by training with two long swords, one in each hand, one will be able to overcome the cumbersome nature of using a sword in both hands.", "Although it is difficult, Musashi agrees that there are times in which the long sword must be used with two hands, but one whose skill is good enough should not need it.After using two long swords proficiently enough, mastery of a long sword, and a \"companion sword\", most likely a wakizashi, will be much increased: \"When you become used to wielding the long sword, you will gain the power of the Way and wield the sword well.", "\"In short, it could be seen, from the excerpts from ''The Book of Five Rings'', that real strategy behind Ni-Ten No Ichi Ryu, is that there is no real iron-clad method, path, or type of weaponry specific to the style of Ni-Ten No Ichi Ryu:===Religion===Even from an early age, Musashi separated his religion from his involvement in swordsmanship.", "Excerpts such as the one below, from ''The Book of Five Rings'', demonstrate a philosophy that is thought to have stayed with him throughout his life:However, the belief that Musashi disliked Shinto is inaccurate, as he criticises the Shintō-ryū style of swordsmanship, not Shinto, the religion.", "In Musashi's ''Dokkōdō'', his stance on religion is further elucidated: \"Respect Buddha and the gods without counting on their help.\"" ], [ "As an artist", "''Shrike in a barren tree'', by Miyamoto MusashiIn his later years, Musashi said in his ''The Book of Five Rings'': \"When I apply the principle of strategy to the ways of different arts and crafts, I no longer have need for a teacher in any domain.\"", "He proved this by creating recognized masterpieces of calligraphy and classic ink painting.", "His paintings are characterized by skilled use of ink washes and an economy of brush stroke.", "He especially mastered the \"broken ink\" school of landscapes, applying it to other subjects, such as his ''Kobokumeikakuzu'' (\"Shrike Perched on a Withered Branch\"; part of a triptych whose other two members were \"Hotei Walking\" and \"Sparrow on Bamboo\"), his ''Hotei Watching a Cockfight'', and his ''Rozanzu'' (\"Wild Geese Among Reeds\").", "The Book of Five Rings advocates involvement in calligraphy and other arts as a means of training in the art of war." ], [ "In Japanese and global culture", "===Miyamoto Musashi Budokan===On 20 May 2000, at the initiative of Sensei Tadashi Chihara the Miyamoto Musashi Budokan was inaugurated.", "It was built in Ōhara-Cho in the province of Mimasaka, the birthplace of the samurai.", "Inside the building, the life and journey of Miyamoto Musashi are remembered everywhere.", "Dedicated to martial arts, the Budokan is the source for all of Japan's official traditional saber and kendo schools.", "Practically, historically and culturally it is a junction for martial disciplines in the heart of traditional Japan dedicated to Musashi.The inauguration of the Miyamoto Musashi Budokan perpetuated the twinning established on March 4, 1999, between the inhabitants of Ōhara-Chō (Japanese province of Mimasaka) and the inhabitants of Gleizé.", "It was formalized in the presence of Sensei Tadashi Chihara, guarantor and tenth in the lineage of Miyamoto Musashi carrying a mandate from the mayor of Ōhara-Chō, and in the presence of the mayor of Gleizé Élisabeth Lamure.", "This event was extended during the mandate of the new mayor of Ōhara-Chō Fukuda Yoshiaki, by the official invitation from Japan and the consequent visit of the mayor of Gleizé for the inauguration of the Miyamoto Musashi Budokan on 10 May 2000, in the presence of personalities and Japanese authorities.=== Monuments ===File:Memorial Heiho Niten Ichi Ryu.jpg|Memorial Lyon-Japan Japan-France Heiho Niten Ichi Ryu (Gleizé).File:Stèle de la Mémoire du Japon à Jarnioux et Liergues.jpg|Memorial Lyon-Japan Japan-France Heiho Niten Ichi Ryu (Jarnioux).===In popular culture===Even in Musashi's time there were fictional texts resembling comic books.", "It is therefore quite difficult to separate fact from fiction when discussing his life.", "There have been numerous works of fiction made about or featuring Musashi.", "Eiji Yoshikawa's novelization (originally a 1930s daily newspaper serial) has greatly influenced successive fictional depictions (including the manga ''Vagabond'' by Takehiko Inoue) and is often mistaken for a factual account of Musashi's life.", "In 2012, writer Sean Michael Wilson and Japanese artist Chie Kutsuwada published an attempt at a more historically accurate manga entitled ''The Book of Five Rings: A Graphic Novel'', based on research and translations by William Scott Wilson.Onimusha, a video game series by Capcom, featured Musashi as a secret playable character in Onimusha Blade Warriors.The 1994 Squaresoft video game Live A Live and its 2022 remake feature Musashi as a boss in the game's Twilight of Edo Japan chapter.The 2008 video game ''Ryū ga Gotoku Kenzan!''", "was based on his life and personality.He also appeared in the manga ''Baki-Dou'' as a revived clone of himself with his real soul intact as one of the strongest fighters in the series, and used his two-sword style in almost every combat in which he was shown.In the video game Overwatch the playable character Genji used to have a voice line that quotes Musashi: \"Mi wo sutetemo myōri wa sutezu\" (身を捨てても名利は捨てず), which roughly translates to \"You may abandon your body, but you must preserve your honor.", "\"The card game Magic: The Gathering has a card based on him, Isshin, Two Heavens as One, named for his two swords as one technique.In the 2017 video game ''For Honor'', the \"Aramusha\" hero is loosely inspired by Musashi.", "The character is a ronin who wields two swords.In ''Cyberpunk 2077'' the character Takemura sends a text message to V that reads \"Even should you abandon your body, never abandon your honor.", "Never stray from the Way.", "Miyamoto Musashi\" This text can only be received after the mission Search and Destroy, if the player saves Takemura.The 2023 anime Onimusha was based loosely on the video game franchise of the same name and produced by Netflix.", "The series portrays a fictional version of an aging Musashi who embarks on a journey to defeat supernatural forces of evil using the Oni Gauntlet." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Statue of Hosokawa Tadatoshi.jpg|Statue of Hosokawa Tadatoshi within Suizen-ji Jōju-enFile:Japanese Crest Hosokawa Kuyou.svg|Mon of the Hosokawa clanFile:Hidari mitsudomoe.svg|Mon of Miyamoto Musashi born in Ōhara-chō province of MimasakaFile:Mitsubaaoi.svg|Mon of Tokugawa ShogunateFile:Statue of Musashi & Kojirō battle.jpg|Statue of Musashi & Kojiro Battle" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Hyodokyo'' (The Mirror of the Way of Strategy)* ''Hyoho Sanjugo Kajo'' (Thirty-five Instructions on Strategy)* ''Hyoho Shijuni Kajo'' (Forty-two Instructions on Strategy)* ''Dokkōdō'' (The Way to be Followed Alone)* ''Go Rin No Sho'' (The Book of Five Rings; a reference to the Five Rings of Zen Buddhism).", "Translated into English by Victor Harris as ''A Book of Five Rings'', London: Allison & Busby, 1974; Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press." ], [ "See also", "* Yagyū Munenori* Gosho Motoharu* Hōjō Akinokami* Sasaki Kojiro* Takuan Soho* Terao Magonojō* Eiji Yoshikawa* Bizen* Mimasaka* Ōhara-chō* Miyamoto Musashi Budokan* Miyamoto Musashi Station* Philosophy of war* List of military writers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Fiction===* (Manga/historical fiction)* (Manga/historical fiction)* (Manga/historical fiction)* (Historical fiction)===Children's books===* ===Essays===* * * * * * * ===Testimony===* Iwami Toshio Harukatsu soke (11th successor to Miyamoto Musashi), \"Musashi's teachings – philosophy first: translation in English\", ''Dragon'' n°7, January 2005, ed.", "Mathis; French original text: ''L'enseignement de Musashi est d'abord une philosophie''* Iwami Toshio Harukatsu soke (11th successor to Miyamoto Musashi), \"Musashi's principles\", ''Dragon'' n°13, January 2006, ed.", "Mathis; French original text: ''Les principes de Musashi''" ], [ "External links", "* miyamotomusashi.eu* Miyamoto Musashi Dojo * Some artwork by Miyamoto Musashi ( archive link)* The samurai warrior and Zen Buddhism (website of the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco)* Complete texts in English by Miyamoto Musashi* Miyamoto Musashi; his Swordsmanship and Book of Five Rings* Profile on Shambhala Publications website* Miyamoto Musashi, Dokkodo:The Path I Walk Is Mine Alone (2023) Sour Street Publishing" ] ]
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[ [ "Mondino" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mondino''' is an Italian surname.", "Notable people with the surname include:* Diana Mondino (born 1958), Argentine politician* Eduardo Mondino (born 1958), Argentine politician* Jean-Baptiste Mondino (born 1949), French photographer* Mahaut Mondino, French singer* Mondino de Luzzi, Italian physician, anatomist and professor of surgery" ], [ "See also", "* Mondini" ] ]
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[ [ "Multivariate statistics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Multivariate statistics''' is a subdivision of statistics encompassing the simultaneous observation and analysis of more than one outcome variable, i.e., ''multivariate random variables''.", "Multivariate statistics concerns understanding the different aims and background of each of the different forms of multivariate analysis, and how they relate to each other.", "The practical application of multivariate statistics to a particular problem may involve several types of univariate and multivariate analyses in order to understand the relationships between variables and their relevance to the problem being studied.In addition, multivariate statistics is concerned with multivariate probability distributions, in terms of both:*how these can be used to represent the distributions of observed data;:*how they can be used as part of statistical inference, particularly where several different quantities are of interest to the same analysis.Certain types of problems involving multivariate data, for example simple linear regression and multiple regression, are ''not'' usually considered to be special cases of multivariate statistics because the analysis is dealt with by considering the (univariate) conditional distribution of a single outcome variable given the other variables." ], [ "Multivariate analysis", "'''Multivariate analysis''' ('''MVA''') is based on the principles of multivariate statistics.", "Typically, MVA is used to address situations where multiple measurements are made on each experimental unit and the relations among these measurements and their structures are important.", "A modern, overlapping categorization of MVA includes: * Normal and general multivariate models and distribution theory* The study and measurement of relationships* Probability computations of multidimensional regions* The exploration of data structures and patternsMultivariate analysis can be complicated by the desire to include physics-based analysis to calculate the effects of variables for a hierarchical \"system-of-systems\".", "Often, studies that wish to use multivariate analysis are stalled by the dimensionality of the problem.", "These concerns are often eased through the use of surrogate models, highly accurate approximations of the physics-based code.", "Since surrogate models take the form of an equation, they can be evaluated very quickly.", "This becomes an enabler for large-scale MVA studies: while a Monte Carlo simulation across the design space is difficult with physics-based codes, it becomes trivial when evaluating surrogate models, which often take the form of response-surface equations.===Types of analysis===Many different models are used in MVA, each with its own type of analysis:# Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) extends the analysis of variance to cover cases where there is more than one dependent variable to be analyzed simultaneously; see also Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA).#Multivariate regression attempts to determine a formula that can describe how elements in a vector of variables respond simultaneously to changes in others.", "For linear relations, regression analyses here are based on forms of the general linear model.", "Some suggest that multivariate regression is distinct from multivariable regression, however, that is debated and not consistently true across scientific fields.# Principal components analysis (PCA) creates a new set of orthogonal variables that contain the same information as the original set.", "It rotates the axes of variation to give a new set of orthogonal axes, ordered so that they summarize decreasing proportions of the variation.# Factor analysis is similar to PCA but allows the user to extract a specified number of synthetic variables, fewer than the original set, leaving the remaining unexplained variation as error.", "The extracted variables are known as latent variables or factors; each one may be supposed to account for covariation in a group of observed variables.# Canonical correlation analysis finds linear relationships among two sets of variables; it is the generalised (i.e.", "canonical) version of bivariate correlation.# Redundancy analysis (RDA) is similar to canonical correlation analysis but allows the user to derive a specified number of synthetic variables from one set of (independent) variables that explain as much variance as possible in another (independent) set.", "It is a multivariate analogue of regression.# Correspondence analysis (CA), or reciprocal averaging, finds (like PCA) a set of synthetic variables that summarise the original set.", "The underlying model assumes chi-squared dissimilarities among records (cases).# Canonical (or \"constrained\") correspondence analysis (CCA) for summarising the joint variation in two sets of variables (like redundancy analysis); combination of correspondence analysis and multivariate regression analysis.", "The underlying model assumes chi-squared dissimilarities among records (cases).# Multidimensional scaling comprises various algorithms to determine a set of synthetic variables that best represent the pairwise distances between records.", "The original method is principal coordinates analysis (PCoA; based on PCA).# Discriminant analysis, or canonical variate analysis, attempts to establish whether a set of variables can be used to distinguish between two or more groups of cases.# Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) computes a linear predictor from two sets of normally distributed data to allow for classification of new observations.# Clustering systems assign objects into groups (called clusters) so that objects (cases) from the same cluster are more similar to each other than objects from different clusters.# Recursive partitioning creates a decision tree that attempts to correctly classify members of the population based on a dichotomous dependent variable.# Artificial neural networks extend regression and clustering methods to non-linear multivariate models.# Statistical graphics such as tours, parallel coordinate plots, scatterplot matrices can be used to explore multivariate data.# Simultaneous equations models involve more than one regression equation, with different dependent variables, estimated together.# Vector autoregression involves simultaneous regressions of various time series variables on their own and each other's lagged values.# Principal response curves analysis (PRC) is a method based on RDA that allows the user to focus on treatment effects over time by correcting for changes in control treatments over time.# Iconography of correlations consists in replacing a correlation matrix by a diagram where the “remarkable” correlations are represented by a solid line (positive correlation), or a dotted line (negative correlation).===Dealing with incomplete data===It is very common that in an experimentally acquired set of data the values of some components of a given data point are missing.", "Rather than discarding the whole data point, it is common to \"fill in\" values for the missing components, a process called \"imputation\"." ], [ "Important probability distributions", "There is a set of probability distributions used in multivariate analyses that play a similar role to the corresponding set of distributions that are used in univariate analysis when the normal distribution is appropriate to a dataset.", "These multivariate distributions are::*Multivariate normal distribution:*Wishart distribution:*Multivariate Student-t distribution.The Inverse-Wishart distribution is important in Bayesian inference, for example in Bayesian multivariate linear regression.", "Additionally, Hotelling's T-squared distribution is a multivariate distribution, generalising Student's t-distribution, that is used in multivariate hypothesis testing." ], [ "History", "Anderson's 1958 textbook,'' An Introduction to Multivariate Statistical Analysis'', educated a generation of theorists and applied statisticians; Anderson's book emphasizes hypothesis testing via likelihood ratio tests and the properties of power functions: admissibility, unbiasedness and monotonicity.MVA was formerly discussed solely in the context of statistical theories, due to the size and complexity of underlying datasets and its high computational consumption.", "With the dramatic growth of computational power, MVA now plays an increasingly important role in data analysis and has wide application in Omics fields." ], [ "Applications", "* Multivariate hypothesis testing*Dimensionality reduction* Latent structure discovery*Clustering* Multivariate regression analysis*Classification and discrimination analysis*Variable selection*Multidimensional analysis*Multidimensional scaling*Data mining" ], [ "Software and tools", "There are an enormous number of software packages and other tools for multivariate analysis, including:* JMP (statistical software)* MiniTab* Calc* PSPP* R* SAS (software)* SciPy for Python* SPSS* Stata* STATISTICA* The Unscrambler* WarpPLS* SmartPLS* MATLAB* Eviews*NCSS (statistical software) includes multivariate analysis.", "* The Unscrambler® X is a multivariate analysis tool.", "* SIMCA*DataPandit (Free SaaS applications by Let's Excel Analytics Solutions)" ], [ "See also", "* Estimation of covariance matrices* Important publications in multivariate analysis* Multivariate testing in marketing* Structured data analysis (statistics)* Structural equation modeling* RV coefficient* Bivariate analysis* Design of experiments (DoE)* Dimensional analysis* Exploratory data analysis* OLS* Partial least squares regression* Pattern recognition* Principal component analysis (PCA)* Regression analysis* Soft independent modelling of class analogies (SIMCA)* Statistical interference* Univariate analysis" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * A. Sen, M. Srivastava, ''Regression Analysis — Theory, Methods, and Applications'', Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2011 (4th printing).", "* * Malakooti, B.", "(2013).", "Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives.", "John Wiley & Sons.", "* T. W. Anderson, ''An Introduction to Multivariate Statistical Analysis'', Wiley, New York, 1958.", "* (M.A.", "level \"likelihood\" approach)* Feinstein, A. R. (1996) ''Multivariable Analysis''.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.", "* Hair, J. F. Jr. (1995) ''Multivariate Data Analysis with Readings'', 4th ed.", "Prentice-Hall.", "* Schafer, J. L. (1997) ''Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data''.", "CRC Press.", "(Advanced)* Sharma, S. (1996) ''Applied Multivariate Techniques''.", "Wiley.", "(Informal, applied)* Izenman, Alan J.", "(2008).", "Modern Multivariate Statistical Techniques: Regression, Classification, and Manifold Learning.", "Springer Texts in Statistics.", "New York: Springer-Verlag.", ".", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis, by G. David Garson* Mike Palmer: The Ordination Web Page* InsightsNow: Makers of ReportsNow, ProfilesNow, and KnowledgeNow" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 18" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 332 – Emperor Constantine the Great announces free distributions of food to the citizens in Constantinople.", "* 872 – Louis II of Italy is crowned for the second time as Holy Roman Emperor at Rome, at the age of 47.His first coronation was 28 years earlier, in 844, during the reign of his father Lothair I.", "*1096 – First Crusade: Around 800 Jews are massacred in Worms, Germany.", "*1152 – The future Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.", "He would become king two years later, after the death of his cousin once removed King Stephen of England.", "*1268 – The Principality of Antioch, a crusader state, falls to the Mamluk Sultan Baibars in the Siege of Antioch.", "*1291 – Fall of Acre, the end of Crusader presence in the Holy Land.", "*1302 – Bruges Matins, the nocturnal massacre of the French garrison in Bruges by members of the local Flemish militia.", "*1388 – During the Battle of Buyur Lake, General Lan Yu leads a Ming army forward to crush the Mongol hordes of Tögüs Temür, the Khan of Northern Yuan.", "*1499 – Alonso de Ojeda sets sail from Cádiz on his voyage to what is now Venezuela.", "*1565 – The Great Siege of Malta begins, in which Ottoman forces attempt and fail to conquer Malta.", "*1593 – Playwright Thomas Kyd's accusations of heresy lead to an arrest warrant for Christopher Marlowe.===1601–1900===*1631 – In Dorchester, Massachusetts, John Winthrop takes the oath of office and becomes the first Governor of Massachusetts.", "*1652 – Slavery in Rhode Island is abolished, although the law is not rigorously enforced.", "*1695 – The 1695 Linfen earthquake in Shannxi, Qing dynasty causes extreme damage and kills at least 52,000 people.", "*1756 – The Seven Years' War begins when Great Britain declares war on France.", "*1783 – First United Empire Loyalists reach Parrtown (later called Saint John, New Brunswick), Canada, after leaving the United States.", "*1794 – Battle of Tourcoing during the Flanders Campaign of the War of the First Coalition.", "*1803 – Napoleonic Wars: The United Kingdom revokes the Treaty of Amiens and declares war on France.", "*1804 – Napoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed Emperor of the French by the French Senate.", "*1811 – Battle of Las Piedras: The first great military triumph of the revolution of the Río de la Plata in Uruguay led by José Artigas.", "*1812 – John Bellingham is found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging for the assassination of British Prime Minister Spencer Perceval.", "*1843 – The Disruption in Edinburgh of the Free Church of Scotland from the Church of Scotland.", "*1848 – Opening of the first German National Assembly (Nationalversammlung) in Frankfurt, Germany.", "*1860 – United States presidential election: Abraham Lincoln wins the Republican Party presidential nomination over William H. Seward, who later becomes the United States Secretary of State.", "*1863 – American Civil War: The Siege of Vicksburg begins.", "*1896 – The United States Supreme Court rules in ''Plessy v. Ferguson'' that the \"separate but equal\" doctrine is constitutional.", "* 1896 – Khodynka Tragedy: A mass panic on Khodynka Field in Moscow during the festivities of the coronation of Russian Tsar Nicholas II results in the deaths of 1,389 people.", "*1900 – The United Kingdom proclaims a protectorate over Tonga.===1901–present===*1912 – The first Indian film, ''Shree Pundalik'' by Dadasaheb Torne, is released in Mumbai.", "*1917 – World War I: The Selective Service Act of 1917 is passed, giving the President of the United States the power of conscription.", "*1926 – Evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson disappears in Venice, California.", "*1927 – The Bath School disaster: Forty-five people, including many children, are killed by bombs planted by a disgruntled school-board member in Bath Township, Michigan.", "* 1927 – After being founded for 20 years, the Nationalist government approves Tongji University to be among the first national universities of the Republic of China.", "*1933 – New Deal: President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs an act creating the Tennessee Valley Authority.", "*1944 – World War II: Battle of Monte Cassino: Conclusion after seven days of the fourth battle as German paratroopers evacuate Monte Cassino.", "* 1944 – Deportation of Crimean Tatars by the Soviet Union.", "*1948 – The First Legislative Yuan of the Republic of China officially convenes in Nanking.", "*1953 – Jacqueline Cochran becomes the first woman to break the sound barrier.", "*1955 – Operation Passage to Freedom, the evacuation of 310,000 Vietnamese civilians, soldiers and non-Vietnamese members of the French Army from communist North Vietnam to South Vietnam following the end of the First Indochina War, ends.", "*1965 – Israeli spy Eli Cohen is hanged in Damascus, Syria.", "*1969 – Apollo program: Apollo 10 is launched.", "*1973 – Aeroflot Flight 109 is hijacked mid-flight and the aircraft is subsequently destroyed when the hijacker's bomb explodes, killing all 82 people on board.", "*1974 – Nuclear weapons testing: Under project Smiling Buddha, India successfully detonates its first nuclear weapon becoming the sixth nation to do so.", "*1977 – Likud party wins the 1977 Israeli legislative election, with Menachem Begin, its founder, as the sixth Prime Minister of Israel.", "*1980 – Mount St. Helens erupts in Washington, United States, killing 57 people and causing $3 billion in damage.", "* 1980 – Students in Gwangju, South Korea begin demonstrations calling for democratic reforms.", "*1990 – In France, a modified TGV train achieves a new rail world speed record of 515.3 km/h (320.2 mph).", "*1991 – Northern Somalia declares independence from the rest of Somalia as the Republic of Somaliland.", "*1993 – Riots in Nørrebro, Copenhagen, caused by the approval of the four Danish exceptions in the Maastricht Treaty referendum.", "Police open fire against civilians for the first time since World War II and injure 11 demonstrators.", "*1994 – Israeli troops finish withdrawing from the Gaza Strip, ceding the area to the Palestinian National Authority to govern.", "*2005 – A second photo from the Hubble Space Telescope confirms that Pluto has two additional moons, Nix and Hydra.", "*2006 – The post Loktantra Andolan government passes a landmark bill curtailing the power of the monarchy and making Nepal a secular country.", "*2009 – The LTTE are defeated by the Sri Lankan government, ending almost 26 years of fighting between the two sides.", "*2015 – At least 78 people die in a landslide caused by heavy rains in the Colombian town of Salgar.", "*2018 – A school shooting at Santa Fe High School in Texas kills ten people.", "* 2018 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 972 crashes in Santiago de las Vegas after takeoff from José Martí International Airport in Havana, Cuba, killing 112 of the 113 people on board.", "*2019 – United States presidential election: Joe Biden announces his presidential campaign." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1048 – Omar Khayyám, Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet (d. 1131)*1186 – Konstantin of Rostov (d. 1218)*1450 – Piero Soderini, Italian politician and diplomat (d. 1513)*1537 – Guido Luca Ferrero, Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1585)===1601–1900===*1631 – Stanislaus Papczyński, Polish priest and saint (d. 1701)*1662 – George Smalridge, English bishop (d. 1719)*1692 – (O.S.)", "Joseph Butler, English bishop, theologian, and apologist (d. 1752)*1711 – Roger Joseph Boscovich, Ragusan physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1787)*1777 – John George Children, English chemist, mineralogist, and zoologist (d. 1852)*1778 – Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, Irish soldier and diplomat, British Ambassador to Austria (d. 1854)*1785 – John Wilson, Scottish author and critic (d. 1854)*1797 – Frederick Augustus II of Saxony (d. 1854)*1822 – Mathew Brady, American photographer and journalist (d. 1896)*1824 – Wilhelm Hofmeister, German botanist (d. 1877)*1835 – Charles N. Sims, American Methodist preacher and 3rd chancellor of Syracuse University (d. 1908)*1850 – Oliver Heaviside, English engineer, mathematician, and physicist (d. 1925)*1851 – James Budd, American lawyer and politician, 19th Governor of California (d. 1908)* 1851 – Simon Kahquados, Potawatomi political activist (d. 1930)*1852 – Gertrude Käsebier, American photographer (d. 1934)*1854 – Bernard Zweers, Dutch composer and educator (d. 1924)*1855 – Francis Bellamy, American minister and author (d. 1931)*1862 – Josephus Daniels, American publisher and politician, 41st United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1948)*1867 – Minakata Kumagusu, Japanese author, biologist, naturalist and ethnologist (d. 1941) *1868 – Nicholas II of Russia (d. 1918)*1869 – Lucy Beaumont, English-American actress (d. 1937)*1871 – Denis Horgan, Irish shot putter and weight thrower (d. 1922)*1872 – Bertrand Russell, British mathematician, historian, and philosopher, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)*1876 – Hermann Müller, German journalist and politician, 12th Chancellor of Germany (d. 1931)*1878 – Johannes Terwogt, Dutch rower (d. 1977)*1882 – Babe Adams, American baseball player, manager, and journalist (d. 1968)*1883 – Eurico Gaspar Dutra, Brazilian marshal and politician, 16th President of Brazil (d. 1974)* 1883 – Walter Gropius, German-American architect, designed the John F. Kennedy Federal Building (d. 1969)*1886 – Jeanie MacPherson, American actress and screenwriter (d. 1946)*1889 – Thomas Midgley, Jr., American chemist and engineer (d. 1944)*1891 – Rudolf Carnap, German-American philosopher and academic (d. 1970)*1892 – Ezio Pinza, Italian-American actor and singer (d. 1957)*1895 – Augusto César Sandino, Nicaraguan rebel leader (d. 1934)*1896 – Eric Backman, Swedish runner (d. 1965)*1897 – Frank Capra, Italian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1991)*1898 – Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel, Turkish poet, author, and playwright (d. 1973)===1901–present===*1901 – Henri Sauguet, French composer (d. 1989)* 1901 – Vincent du Vigneaud, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)*1902 – Meredith Willson, American playwright and composer (d. 1984)*1904 – Jacob K. Javits, American colonel and politician, 58th New York Attorney General (d. 1986)* 1904 – Shunryū Suzuki, Japanese-American monk and educator (d. 1971)*1905 – Ruth Alexander, pioneering American pilot (d. 1930)* 1905 – Hedley Verity, English cricketer and soldier (d. 1943)*1907 – Irene Hunt, American author and educator (d. 2001)*1909 – Fred Perry, English tennis player and academic (d. 1995)*1910 – Ester Boserup, Danish economist and author (d. 1999)*1911 – Big Joe Turner, American blues/R&B singer (d. 1985) *1912 – Richard Brooks, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1992)* 1912 – Perry Como, American singer and television host (d. 2001)* 1912 – Walter Sisulu, South African politician (d. 2003)*1913 – Jane Birdwood, Baroness Birdwood, Canadian-English publisher and politician (d. 2000)*1914 – Pierre Balmain, French fashion designer, founded Balmain (d. 1982)* 1914 – Boris Christoff, Bulgarian-Italian opera singer (d. 1993)*1917 – Bill Everett, American author and illustrator (d. 1973)*1919 – Margot Fonteyn, British ballerina (d. 1991)*1920 – Pope John Paul II (d. 2005)* 1920 – Anthony Storr, English psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and author (d. 2001)*1921 – Michael A. Epstein, English pathologist and academic (d. 2024)* 1921 – Joan Eardley, British artist (d. 1963)*1922 – Bill Macy, American actor (d. 2019)* 1922 – Kai Winding, Danish-American trombonist and composer (d. 1983)*1923 – Jean-Louis Roux, Canadian actor and politician, 34th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 2013)* 1923 – Hugh Shearer, Jamaican journalist and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2004)*1924 – Priscilla Pointer, American actress* 1924 – Jack Whitaker, American sportscaster (d. 2019) *1925 – Lillian Hoban, American author and illustrator (d. 1998)*1927 – Richard Body, English politician (d. 2018)* 1927 – Ray Nagel, American football player and coach (d. 2015)*1928 – Pernell Roberts, American actor (d. 2010)*1929 – Jack Sanford, American baseball player and coach (d. 2000)* 1929 – Norman St John-Stevas, Baron St John of Fawsley, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (d. 2012)*1930 – Warren Rudman, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012)* 1930 – Fred Saberhagen, American soldier and author (d. 2007)*1931 – Don Martin, American cartoonist (d. 2000)* 1931 – Robert Morse, American actor (d. 2022)* 1931 – Kalju Pitksaar, Estonian chess player (d. 1995)* 1931 – Clément Vincent, Canadian farmer and politician (d. 2018)*1933 – Bernadette Chirac, French politician, First Lady of France* 1933 – H. D. Deve Gowda, Indian farmer and politician, 11th Prime Minister of India* 1933 – Don Whillans, English rock climber and mountaineer (d. 1985)*1934 – Dwayne Hickman, American actor and director (d. 2022)*1936 – Leon Ashley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2013)* 1936 – Türker İnanoğlu, Turkish director, producer, and screenwriter* 1936 – Michael Sandle, English sculptor and academic*1937 – Brooks Robinson, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2023)* 1937 – Jacques Santer, Luxembourger jurist and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Luxembourg*1938 – Janet Fish, American painter and academic*1939 – Patrick Cormack, Baron Cormack, English historian, journalist, and politician* 1939 – Giovanni Falcone, Italian lawyer and judge (d. 1992)* 1939 – Gordon O'Connor, Canadian general and politician, 38th Canadian Minister of Defence*1940 – Erico Aumentado, Filipino journalist, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012)*1941 – Gino Brito, Canadian wrestler and promoter* 1941 – Malcolm Longair, Scottish astronomer, physicist, and academic* 1941 – Miriam Margolyes, English-Australian actress and singer*1942 – Nobby Stiles, English footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2020)*1943 – Jimmy Snuka, Fijian wrestler (d. 2017)*1944 – Albert Hammond, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1944 – W. G. Sebald, German novelist, essayist, and poet (d. 2001)*1946 – Frank Hsieh, Taiwanese lawyer and politician, 40th Premier of the Republic of China* 1946 – Reggie Jackson, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1946 – Gerd Langguth, German political scientist and author (d. 2013)*1947 – John Bruton, Irish politician, 10th Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 2024)* 1947 – Gail Strickland, American actress*1948 – Joe Bonsall, American country/gospel singer * 1948 – Yi Mun-yol, South Korean author and academic* 1948 – Richard Swedberg, Swedish sociologist and academic* 1948 – Tom Udall, American lawyer and politician, 28th New Mexico Attorney General, United States Senator from New Mexico*1949 – Rick Wakeman, English progressive rock keyboardist and songwriter* 1949 – Walter Hawkins, American gospel music singer and pastor (d. 2010)*1950 – Rod Milburn, American hurdler and coach (d. 1997)* 1950 – Mark Mothersbaugh, American singer-songwriter and painter *1951 – Richard Clapton, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1951 – Jim Sundberg, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1951 – Angela Voigt, German long jumper (d. 2013)*1952 – Diane Duane, American author and screenwriter* 1952 – David Leakey, English general and politician* 1952 – George Strait, American singer, guitarist and producer* 1952 – Jeana Yeager, American pilot*1953 – Alan Kupperberg, American author and illustrator (d. 2015)*1954 – Wreckless Eric, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1954 – Eric Gerets, Belgian footballer and manager *1955 – Chow Yun-fat, Hong Kong actor and screenwriter*1956 – Catherine Corsini, French director and screenwriter* 1956 – John Godber, English playwright and screenwriter*1957 – Michael Cretu, Romanian-German keyboard player and producer * 1957 – Henrietta Moore, English anthropologist and academic*1958 – Rubén Omar Romano, Argentinian-Mexican footballer and coach* 1958 – Toyah Willcox, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actress *1959 – Graham Dilley, English cricketer and coach (d. 2011)* 1959 – Jay Wells, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1960 – Brent Ashton, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1960 – Jari Kurri, Finnish ice hockey player, coach, and manager* 1960 – Yannick Noah, French tennis player*1961 – Russell Senior, English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1963 – Marty McSorley, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1963 – Sam Vincent, American basketball player and coach*1964 – Ignasi Guardans, Spanish academic and politician*1966 – Renata Nielsen, Polish-Danish long jumper and coach* 1966 – Michael Tait, American singer-songwriter and producer *1967 – Nina Björk, Swedish journalist and author* 1967 – Heinz-Harald Frentzen, German race car driver* 1967 – Nancy Juvonen, American screenwriter and producer, co-founded Flower Films* 1967 – Mimi Macpherson, Australian environmentalist, entrepreneur and celebrity*1968 – Philippe Benetton, French rugby player* 1968 – Ralf Kelleners, German race car driver*1969 – Troy Cassar-Daley, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1969 – Martika, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress * 1969 – Antônio Carlos Zago, Brazilian footballer and manager*1970 – Tina Fey, American actress, producer, and screenwriter* 1970 – Tim Horan, Australian rugby player and sportscaster* 1970 – Billy Howerdel, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer * 1970 – Javier Cárdenas, Spanish singer, television and radio presenter* 1970 – Vicky Sunohara, Canadian former ice hockey player*1971 – Brad Friedel, American international soccer player, manager and sportscaster* 1971 – Mark Menzies, Scottish politician* 1971 – Nobuteru Taniguchi, Japanese race car driver*1972 – Turner Stevenson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1973 – Donyell Marshall, American basketball player and coach* 1973 – Aleksandr Olerski, Estonian footballer (d. 2011)*1974 – Nelson Figueroa, American baseball player and sportscaster*1975 – Jem, Welsh singer-songwriter and producer* 1975 – John Higgins, Scottish snooker player* 1975 – Jack Johnson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1976 – Ron Mercer, American basketball player* 1976 – Marko Tomasović, Croatian pianist and composer * 1976 – Oleg Tverdovsky, Ukrainian-Russian ice hockey player*1977 – Lee Hendrie, English footballer* 1977 – Danny Mills, English footballer and sportscaster* 1977 – Li Tie, Chinese footballer and manager*1978 – Ricardo Carvalho, Portuguese footballer* 1978 – Marcus Giles, American baseball player* 1978 – Charles Kamathi, Kenyan runner*1979 – Jens Bergensten, Swedish video game designer, co-designed ''Minecraft''* 1979 – Mariusz Lewandowski, Polish footballer* 1979 – Michal Martikán, Slovak slalom canoeist* 1979 – Milivoje Novaković, Slovenian footballer* 1979 – Julián Speroni, Argentinian footballer*1980 – Reggie Evans, American basketball player* 1980 – Michaël Llodra, French tennis player* 1980 – Diego Pérez, Uruguayan footballer*1981 – Mahamadou Diarra, Malian international footballer * 1981 – Ashley Harrison, Australian rugby league player*1982 – Jason Brown, English footballer* 1982 – Marie-Ève Pelletier, Canadian tennis player*1983 – Gary O'Neil, English footballer* 1983 – Luis Terrero, Dominican baseball player* 1983 – Vince Young, American football player*1984 – Ivet Lalova, Bulgarian sprinter* 1984 – Simon Pagenaud, French race car driver* 1984 – Darius Šilinskis, Lithuanian basketball player* 1984 – Joakim Soria, Mexican baseball player* 1984 – Niki Terpstra, Dutch cyclist*1985 – Oliver Sin, Hungarian painter* 1985 – Henrique Sereno, Portuguese footballer* 1986 – Kevin Anderson, South African tennis player*1988 – Taeyang, South Korean singer*1990 – Dimitri Daeseleire, Belgian footballer* 1990 – Yuya Osako, Japanese footballer* 1990 – Josh Starling, Australian rugby league player*1992 – Adwoa Aboah, British fashion model*1993 – Stuart Percy, Canadian ice hockey player* 1993 – Jessica Watson, Australian sailor*1998 – Polina Edmunds, American figure skater*1999 – Laura Omloop, Belgian singer-songwriter*2000 – Ryan Sessegnon, English footballer * 2000 – Steven Sessegnon, English footballer *2001 – Emma Navarro, American tennis player *2002 – Alina Zagitova, Russian figure skater*2009 – Hala Finley, American actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 526 – Pope John I* 893 – Stephen I of Constantinople (b.", "867)* 932 – Ma Shaohong, general of Later Tang* 947 – Emperor Taizong of the Liao Dynasty* 978 – Frederick I, duke of Upper Lorraine*1065 – Frederick, Duke of Lower Lorraine (b. c. 1003)*1096 – Minna of Worms, Jewish martyr killed during the Worms massacre (1096)*1160 – Eric Jedvardsson (King Eric IX) of Sweden (since 1156); (b. circa 1120)*1297 – Nicholas Longespee, Bishop of Salisbury*1401 – Vladislaus II of Opole (b.", "1332)*1410 – Rupert of Germany, Count Palatine of the Rhine (b.", "1352)*1550 – Jean, Cardinal of Lorraine (b.", "1498)*1551 – Domenico di Pace Beccafumi, Italian painter (b.", "1486)===1601–1900===*1675 – Stanisław Lubieniecki, Polish astronomer, historian, and theologian (b.", "1623)* 1675 – Jacques Marquette, French-American missionary and explorer (b.", "1637)*1692 – Elias Ashmole, English astrologer and politician (b.", "1617)*1721 – Maria Barbara Carillo, victim of the Spanish Inquisition (b.1625)*1733 – Georg Böhm, German organist and composer (b.", "1761)*1780 – Charles Hardy, English-American admiral and politician, 29th Colonial Governor of New York (b.", "1714)*1781 – Túpac Amaru II, Peruvian indigenous rebel leader (b.", "1742)*1792 – Levy Solomons, Canadian merchant and fur trader (b.", "1730)*1795 – Robert Rogers, English colonel (b.", "1731)*1799 – Pierre Beaumarchais, French playwright and publisher (b.", "1732)*1800 – Alexander Suvorov, Russian general (b.", "1729)*1807 – John Douglas, Scottish bishop and scholar (b.", "1721)*1808 – Elijah Craig, American minister, inventor, and educator, invented Bourbon whiskey (b.", "1738)*1844 – Richard McCarty, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1780)*1853 – Lionel Kieseritzky, Estonian-French chess player (b.", "1806)*1867 – Clarkson Stanfield, English painter (b.", "1793)*1889 – Isabella Glyn, Scottish-English actress (b.", "1823)*1900 – Félix Ravaisson-Mollien, French archaeologist and philosopher (b.", "1813)===1901–present===*1908 – Louis-Napoléon Casault, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (b.", "1823)*1909 – Isaac Albéniz, Spanish pianist and composer (b.", "1860)* 1909 – George Meredith, English novelist and poet (b.", "1828)*1910 – Eliza Orzeszkowa, Polish author and publisher (b.", "1841)* 1910 – Pauline Viardot, French soprano and composer (b.", "1821)*1911 – Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer and conductor (b.", "1860)*1916 – Chen Qimei, Chinese revolutionary (b.", "1878)*1922 – Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, French physician and parasitologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1845)*1941 – Werner Sombart, German economist and sociologist (b.", "1863)*1943 – Ōnishiki Daigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 28th Yokozuna (b.", "1883)*1947 – Hal Chase, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1883)*1955 – Mary McLeod Bethune, American educator and activist (b.", "1875)*1956 – Maurice Tate, English cricketer (b.", "1895)*1958 – Jacob Fichman, Israeli poet and critic (b.", "1881)*1963 – Ernie Davis, American football player, coach, and manager (b.", "1939)*1968 – Frank Walsh, Australian politician, 34th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1897)*1971 – Aleksandr Gennadievich Kurosh, Russian mathematician and theorist (b.", "1908)*1973 – Jeannette Rankin, American social worker and politician (b.", "1880)*1974 – Harry Ricardo, English engine designer and researcher (b.", "1885)*1975 – Leroy Anderson, American composer and conductor (b.", "1908)*1980 – Victims of Mount St. Helens eruption:** Reid Blackburn, American photographer and journalist (b.", "1952)** David A. Johnston, American volcanologist and geologist (b.", "1949)* 1980 – Ian Curtis, English singer-songwriter (b.", "1956)*1981 – Arthur O'Connell, American actor (b.", "1908)* 1981 – William Saroyan, American novelist, playwright, and short story writer (b.", "1908)*1987 – Mahdi Amel, Lebanese journalist, poet, and academic (b.", "1936)*1989 – Dorothy Ruth, American horse breeder and author (b.", "1921)*1990 – Jill Ireland, English actress (b.", "1936)*1995 – Elisha Cook, Jr., American actor (b.", "1903)* 1995 – Alexander Godunov, Russian-American ballet dancer and actor (b.", "1949)* 1995 – Brinsley Le Poer Trench, 8th Earl of Clancarty, Irish ufologist and historian (b.", "1911)* 1995 – Elizabeth Montgomery, American actress (b.", "1933)*1998 – Obaidullah Aleem, Indian-Pakistani poet and author (b.", "1939)*1999 – Augustus Pablo, Jamaican singer, keyboard player, and producer (b.", "1954)* 1999 – Betty Robinson, American runner (b.", "1911)*2000 – Stephen M. Wolownik, Russian-American composer and musicologist (b.", "1946)*2001 – Irene Hunt, American author and illustrator (b.", "1907)*2004 – Elvin Jones, American drummer and bandleader (b.", "1927)*2006 – Jaan Eilart, Estonian geographer, ecologist, and historian (b.", "1933)*2007 – Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1932)*2008 – Joseph Pevney, American actor and director (b.", "1911)* 2008 – Roberto García-Calvo Montiel, Spanish judge (b.", "1942)*2009 – Dolla, American rapper (b.", "1987)* 2009 – Wayne Allwine, American voice actor, sound effects editor and foley artist (b.", "1947) * 2009 – Velupillai Prabhakaran, Sri Lankan rebel leader, founded the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (b.", "1954)*2012 – Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German opera singer and conductor (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Peter Jones, English-Australian drummer and songwriter (b.", "1967)* 2012 – Alan Oakley, English bicycle designer, designed the Raleigh Chopper (b.", "1927)*2013 – Aleksei Balabanov, Russian director and screenwriter (b.", "1959)* 2013 – Jo Benkow, Norwegian soldier and politician (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Steve Forrest, American actor (b.", "1925)* 2013 – David McMillan, American football player (b.", "1981)* 2013 – Lothar Schmid, German chess player (b.", "1928)*2014 – Dobrica Ćosić, Serbian politician, 1st President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Hans-Peter Dürr, German physicist and academic (b.", "1929)* 2014 – Kaiketsu Masateru, Japanese sumo wrestler (b.", "1948)* 2014 – Chukwuedu Nwokolo, Nigerian physician and academic (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Wubbo Ockels, Dutch physicist and astronaut (b.", "1946)*2015 – Halldór Ásgrímsson, Icelandic accountant and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b.", "1947)* 2015 – Raymond Gosling, English physicist and academic (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Jean-François Théodore, French businessman (b.", "1946)*2017 – Roger Ailes, American businessman (b.", "1940)* 2017 – Jacque Fresco, American engineer and academic (b.", "1916)* 2017 – Chris Cornell, American singer (b.", "1964)*2019 – Austin Eubanks, American addiction recovery advocate, survivor of the Columbine shooting (b.", "1981)*2020 – Ken Osmond, American actor and police officer (b.", "1943)*2021 – Charles Grodin, American actor and talk show host (b.", "1935)* 2021 – Yolanda Tortolero, Venezuelan politician" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury**Eric IX of Sweden**Felix of Cantalice**Pope John I**Venantius of Camerino**May 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Baltic Fleet Day (Russia)*Day of Remembrance of Crimean Tatar genocide (Ukraine)*Independence Day (Somaliland) (unrecognized)*International Museum Day*National Speech Pathologist Day (United States)*Mullivaikkal Remembrance Day (Sri Lankan Tamils)*Revival, Unity, and Poetry of Magtymguly Day (Turkmenistan)*Teacher's Day (Syria)*Victory Day (Sri Lanka)*Remembrance Day (Sri Lanka)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 18" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Money laundering" ], [ "Introduction", "Placing \"dirty\" money in a service company, where it is layered with legitimate income and then integrated into the flow of money, is a common form of money laundering.", "'''Money laundering''' is the process of illegally concealing the origin of money, obtained from illicit activities such as drug trafficking, corruption, embezzlement or gambling, by converting it into a legitimate source.", "It is a crime in many jurisdictions with varying definitions.", "It is usually a key operation of organized crime.In United States law, money laundering is the practice of engaging in financial transactions to conceal the identity, source, or destination of illegally gained money.", "In United Kingdom law, the common law definition is wider.", "The act is defined as \"taking any action with property of any form which is either wholly or in part the proceeds of a crime that will disguise the fact that property is the proceeds of a crime or obscure the beneficial ownership of said property\".In the past, the term \"money laundering\" was applied only to financial transactions related to organized crime.", "Today its definition is often expanded by government and international regulators such as the US Office of the Comptroller of the Currency to mean \"any financial transaction which generates an asset or a value as the result of an illegal act,\" which may involve actions such as tax evasion or false accounting.", "In the UK, it does not need to involve money, but any economic good.", "Courts involve money laundering committed by private individuals, drug dealers, businesses, corrupt officials, members of criminal organizations such as the Mafia, and even states.As financial crime has become more complex and financial intelligence more important to combating international crime and terrorism, money laundering has become a prominent political, economic, and legal debate.", "Money laundering is ''ipso facto'' illegal; the acts generating the money almost always are themselves criminal in some way (for if not, the money would not need to be laundered)." ], [ "History", "While existing laws were used to fight money laundering during the period of Prohibition in the United States during the 1930s, dedicated Anti-Money Laundering legislation only was implemented in the 1980s.", "Organized crime received a major boost from Prohibition and a large source of new funds that were obtained from illegal sales of alcohol.", "The successful prosecution of Al Capone on tax evasion brought in a new emphasis by the state and law enforcement agencies to track and confiscate money, but existing laws against tax evasion could not be used once gangsters started paying their taxes.In the 1980s, the war on drugs led governments again to turn to money laundering rules in an attempt to track and seize the proceeds of drug crimes in order to catch the organizers and individuals running drug empires.", "It also had the benefit, from a law enforcement point of view, of turning rules of evidence \"upside down\".", "Law enforcers normally have to prove an individual is guilty to seize their property, but with money laundering laws money can be confiscated and it is up to the individual to prove that the source of funds is legitimate to get the money back.", "This makes it much easier for law enforcement agencies and provides for much lower burdens of proof.", "However, this process has been abused by some law enforcement agencies to take and keep money without strong evidence of related criminal activity, to be used to supplement their own budgets.The 11 September attacks in 2001, which led to the Patriot Act in the U.S. and similar legislation worldwide, led to a new emphasis on money laundering laws to combat terrorism financing.", "The Group of Seven (G7) nations used the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering to put pressure on governments around the world to increase surveillance and monitoring of financial transactions and share this information between countries.", "Starting in 2002, governments around the world upgraded money laundering laws and surveillance and monitoring systems of financial transactions.", "Anti-money laundering regulations have become a much larger burden for financial institutions and enforcement has stepped up significantly.During 2011–2015 a number of major banks faced ever-increasing fines for breaches of money laundering regulations.", "This included HSBC, which was fined $1.9 billion in December 2012, and BNP Paribas, which was fined $8.9 billion in July 2014 by the U.S. government.", "Many countries introduced or strengthened border controls on the amount of cash that can be carried and introduced central transaction reporting systems where all financial institutions have to report all financial transactions electronically.", "For example, in 2006, Australia set up the AUSTRAC system and required the reporting of all financial transactions." ], [ "Features", "===Definition===Money laundering is the conversion or transfer of property; the concealment or disguising of the nature of the proceeds; the acquisition, possession or use of property, knowing that these are derived from criminal acts; the participating in or assisting the movement of funds to make the proceeds appear legitimate.Money obtained from certain crimes, such as extortion, insider trading, drug trafficking, human trafficking, and illegal gambling is \"dirty\" and needs to be \"cleaned\" to appear to have been derived from legal activities, so that banks and other financial institutions will deal with it without suspicion.", "Money can be laundered by many methods that vary in complexity and sophistication.Money laundering typically involves three steps: The first involves introducing cash into the financial system by some means (\"placement\"); the second involves carrying out complex financial transactions to camouflage the illegal source of the cash (\"layering\"); and finally, acquiring wealth generated from the transactions of the illicit funds (\"integration\").", "Some of these steps may be omitted, depending upon the circumstances.", "For example, non-cash proceeds that are already in the financial system would not need to be placed.According to the United States Treasury Department:===Methods=======List of methods====Money laundering can take several forms, although most methodologies can be categorized into one of a few types.", "These include \"bank methods, smurfing also known as structuring, currency exchanges, and double-invoicing\".", "* Structuring: Often known as ''smurfing'', is a method of placement whereby cash is broken into smaller deposits of money, used to defeat suspicion of money laundering and to avoid anti-money laundering reporting requirements.", "A sub-component of this is to use smaller amounts of cash to purchase bearer instruments, such as money orders, and then ultimately deposit those, again in small amounts.", "* Bulk cash smuggling: This involves physically smuggling cash to another jurisdiction and depositing it in a financial institution, such as an offshore bank, that offers greater bank secrecy or less rigorous money laundering enforcement.", "* Cash-intensive businesses: In this method, a business typically expected to receive a large proportion of its revenue as cash uses its accounts to deposit criminally derived cash.", "This method of money laundering often causes organized crime and corporate crime to overlap.", "Such enterprises often operate openly and in doing so generate cash revenue from incidental legitimate business in addition to the illicit cash.", "In such cases the business will usually claim all cash received as legitimate earnings.", "Service businesses are best suited to this method, as such enterprises have little or no variable costs and/or a large ratio between revenue and variable costs, which makes it difficult to detect discrepancies between revenues and costs.", "Examples are parking structures, strip clubs, tanning salons, car washes, arcades, bars, restaurants, casinos, barber shops, DVD stores, movie theaters, and beach resorts.", "* Trade-based laundering: This method is one of the newest and most complex forms of money laundering.", "This involves under- or over-valuing invoices to disguise the movement of money.", "For example, the art market has been accused of being an ideal vehicle for money laundering due to several unique aspects of art such as the subjective value of art works as well as the secrecy of auction houses about the identity of the buyer and seller.", "* Shell companies and trusts: Trusts and shell companies disguise the true owners of money.", "Trusts and corporate vehicles, depending on the jurisdiction, need not disclose their true owner.", "Sometimes referred to by the slang term ''rathole'', though that term usually refers to a person acting as the fictitious owner rather than the business entity.", "* Round-tripping: Here, money is deposited in a controlled foreign corporation offshore, preferably in a tax haven where minimal records are kept, and then shipped back as a foreign direct investment, exempt from taxation.", "A variant on this is to transfer money to a law firm or similar organization as funds on account of fees, then to cancel the retainer and, when the money is remitted, represent the sums received from the lawyers as a legacy under a will or proceeds of litigation.", "* Bank capture: In this case, money launderers or criminals buy a controlling interest in a bank, preferably in a jurisdiction with weak money laundering controls, and then move money through the bank without scrutiny.", "* Invoice Fraud: An example is when a criminal contacts a company saying that the supplier payment details have changed.", "They then provide alternative, fraudulent details in order for you to pay them money.", "* Casinos: In this method, an individual walks into a casino and buys chips with illicit cash.", "The individual will then play for a relatively short time.", "When the person cashes in the chips, they will expect to take payment in a check, or at least get a receipt so they can claim the proceeds as gambling winnings.", "* Other gambling: Money is spent on gambling, preferably on high odds games.", "One way to minimize risk with this method is to bet on every possible outcome of some event that has many possible outcomes, so no outcome(s) have short odds, and the bettor will lose only the vigorish and will have one or more winning bets that can be shown as the source of money.", "The losing bets will remain hidden.", "* Black salaries: A company may have unregistered employees without written contracts and pay them cash salaries.", "Dirty money might be used to pay them.", "* Tax amnesties: For example, those that legalize unreported assets and cash in tax havens.", "* Transaction Laundering: When a merchant unknowingly processes illicit credit card transactions for another business.", "It is a growing problem and recognised as distinct from traditional money laundering in using the payments ecosystem to hide that the transaction even occurred (e.g.", "the use of fake front websites).", "Also known as \"undisclosed aggregation\" or \"factoring\".", "* Online job marketplaces such as Freelancer.com and Fiverr, which accept funds from clients and hold them in escrow to pay freelancers.", "A money launderer can post a token job on one of these sites, and send the money for the site to hold in escrow.", "The launderer (or his associate) can then sign on as a freelancer (using a different account and IP address), accept and complete the job, and be paid the funds.====Digital electronic money====In theory, electronic money should provide as easy a method of transferring value without revealing identity as untracked banknotes, especially wire transfers involving anonymity-protecting numbered bank accounts.", "In practice, however, the record-keeping capabilities of Internet service providers and other network resource maintainers tend to frustrate that intention.", "While some cryptocurrencies under recent development have aimed to provide for more possibilities of transaction anonymity for various reasons, the degree to which they succeed — and, in consequence, the degree to which they offer benefits for money laundering efforts — is controversial.", "Solutions such as ZCash and Monero ― known as ''privacy coins'' ― are examples of cryptocurrencies that provide unlinkable anonymity via proofs and/or obfuscation of information (ring signatures).", "While not suitable for large-scaled crimes, privacy coins like Monero are suitable for laundering money made through small-scaled crimes.Apart from traditional cryptocurrencies, Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) are also commonly used in connection with money laundering activities.", "NFTs are often used to perform Wash Trading by creating several different wallets for one individual, generating several fictitious sales and consequently selling the respective NFT to a third party.", "According to a report by Chainalysis these types of wash trades are becoming increasingly popular among money launderers especially due to the largely anonymous nature of transactions on NFT marketplaces.", "Auction platforms for NFT sales may face regulatory pressure to comply with anti-money laundering legislation.Additionally, cryptocurrency mixers have been increasingly used by cybercriminals over the past decade to launder funds.", "A mixer blends the cryptocurrencies of many users together to obfuscate the origins and owners of funds, enabling a greater degree of privacy on public blockchains like Bitcoin and Ethereum.", "Although not explicitly illegal in many jurisdictions, the legality of mixers is controversial.", "The use of the mixer Tornado Cash in the laundering of funds by the Lazarus Group led the Office of Foreign Assets Control to sanction it, prompting some users to sue the Treasury Department.", "Proponents have argued mixers allow users to protect their privacy and that the government lacks the authority to restrict access to decentralized software.", "In the United States, FinCEN requires mixers to register as money service businesses.In 2013, Jean-Loup Richet, a research fellow at ESSEC ISIS, surveyed new techniques that cybercriminals were using in a report written for the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.", "A common approach was to use a digital currency exchanger service which converted dollars into a digital currency called Liberty Reserve, and could be sent and received anonymously.", "The receiver could convert the Liberty Reserve currency back into cash for a small fee.", "In May 2013, the US authorities shut down Liberty Reserve charging its founder and various others with money laundering.Another increasingly common way of laundering money is to use online gaming.", "In a growing number of online games, such as ''Second Life'' and ''World of Warcraft,'' it is possible to convert money into virtual goods, services, or virtual cash that can later be converted back into money.To avoid the usage of decentralized digital money such as Bitcoin for the profit of crime and corruption, Australia is planning to strengthen the nation's anti-money laundering laws.The characteristics of Bitcoin—it is completely deterministic, protocol based and can be difficult to censor—make it possible to circumvent national laws using services like Tor to obfuscate transaction origins.", "Bitcoin relies completely on cryptography, not on a central entity running under a KYC framework.", "There are several cases in which criminals have cashed out a significant amount of Bitcoin after ransomware attacks, drug dealings, cyber fraud and gunrunning.", "However, many digital currency exchanges are now operating KYC programs under threat of regulation from the jurisdictions they operate in.====Reverse money laundering====Reverse money laundering is a process that disguises a legitimate source of funds that are to be used for illegal purposes.", "It is usually perpetrated for the purpose of financing terrorism but can be also used by criminal organizations that have invested in legal businesses and would like to withdraw legitimate funds from official circulation.", "Unaccounted cash received via disguising financial transactions is not included in official financial reporting and could be used to evade taxes, hand in bribes and pay \"under-the-table\" salaries.", "For example, in an affidavit filed on 24 March 2014 in United States District Court, Northern California, San Francisco Division, FBI special agent Emmanuel V. Pascau alleged that several people associated with the Chee Kung Tong organization, and California State Senator Leland Yee, engaged in reverse money laundering activities.The problem of such fraudulent encashment practices (''obnalichka'' in Russian) has become acute in Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union.", "The Eurasian Group on Combating Money Laundering and Financing of Terrorism (EAG) reported that the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Turkey, Serbia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia and Kazakhstan have encountered a substantial shrinkage of tax base and shifting money supply balance in favor of cash.", "These processes have complicated planning and management of the economy and contributed to the growth of the shadow economy.===Magnitude===Many regulatory and governmental authorities issue estimates each year for the amount of money laundered, either worldwide or within their national economy.", "In 1996, a spokesperson for the IMF estimated that 2–5% of the worldwide global economy involved laundered money.", "The Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF), an intergovernmental body set up to combat money laundering, stated, \"Due to the illegal nature of the transactions, precise statistics are not available and it is therefore impossible to produce a definitive estimate of the amount of money that is globally laundered every year.", "The FATF therefore does not publish any figures in this regard.\"", "Academic commentators have likewise been unable to estimate the volume of money with any degree of assurance.", "Various estimates of the scale of global money laundering are sometimes repeated often enough to make some people regard them as factual—but no researcher has overcome the inherent difficulty of measuring an actively concealed practice.Regardless of the difficulty in measurement, the amount of money laundered each year is in the billions of US dollars and poses a significant policy concern for governments.", "As a result, governments and international bodies have undertaken efforts to deter, prevent, and apprehend money launderers.", "Financial institutions have likewise undertaken efforts to prevent and detect transactions involving dirty money, both as a result of government requirements and to avoid the reputational risk involved.", "Issues relating to money laundering have existed as long as there have been large scale criminal enterprises.", "Modern anti-money laundering laws have developed along with the modern War on Drugs.", "In more recent times anti-money laundering legislation is seen as adjunct to the financial crime of terrorist financing in that both crimes usually involve the transmission of funds through the financial system (although money laundering relates to where the money has come ''from'', and terrorist financing relating to where the money is going ''to'').", "Finally people, vessels, organisations and governments can be sanctioned due to international law breaking, war (and of course tit-for-tat sanctions), and still want to move funds into markets where they are ''persona non grata''.Transaction laundering is a massive and growing problem.", "Finextra estimated that transaction laundering accounted for over $200 billion in the US in 2017 alone, with over $6 billion of these sales involving illicit goods or services, sold by nearly 335,000 unregistered merchants." ], [ "Notable cases", "1998 investigation, United States Senate, Contribution Laundering/Third-Party Transfers.", "Includes investigation of Gandhi Memorial International Foundation.", "* Bank of Credit and Commerce International: Unknown amount, estimated in billions, of criminal proceeds, including drug trafficking money, laundered during the mid-1980s.", "* Bank of New York: US$7 billion of Russian capital flight laundered through accounts controlled by bank executives, late 1990s.", "* BNP Paribas, in June 2014, pleaded guilty to falsifying business records and conspiracy, having violated U.S. sanctions against Cuba, Iran, and Sudan.", "It agreed to pay an $8.9 billion fine, the largest ever for violating U.S.", "sanctions.", "* BSI Bank, in May 2017, was shut down by the Monetary Authority of Singapore for serious breaches of anti-money laundering requirements, poor management oversight of the bank's operations, and gross misconduct of some of the bank's staff.", "* BTA Bank: $6 billion of bank funds embezzled or fraudulently loaned to shell companies and offshore holdings by the banks former chairman and CEO Mukhtar Ablyazov.", "* Charter House Bank: Charter House Bank in Kenya was placed under statutory management in 2006 by the Central Bank of Kenya after it was discovered the bank was being used for money laundering activities by multiple accounts containing missing customer information.", "More than $1.5 billion had been laundered before the scam was uncovered.", "* Danske Bank + Swedbank: $30 billion – $230 billion US dollars laundered through its Estonian branch.", "This was revealed on 19 September 2018.Investigations by Denmark, Estonia, the U.K. and the U.S. were joined by France in February 2019.On 19 February 2019, Danske Bank announced that it would cease operating in Russia and the Baltic States.", "This statement came shortly after Estonia's banking regulator Finantsinspektsioon announced that they would close the Estonian branch of Danske Bank.", "The investigation has grown to include Swedbank, which may have laundered $4.3 billion.", "More at Danske Bank money laundering scandal.", "* Deutsche Bank was accused in a vast money laundering scheme, dubbed the Global Laundromat, involving secret Russian accounts that were transferred from European Union banks in Estonia, Latvia and Cyprus between 2010 and 2014.Newspaper sources estimated the total value of laundered currency to be as high as $80bn.", "The bank is also under investigation for its involvement in Europe's biggest banking scandal through Denmark's Danske Bank, which laundered €200bn, also from Russian sources.", "* United Arab Emirates' Dubai Islamic Bank was accused of \"knowingly and purposefully\" providing \"financial services and other forms of material support to al-Qaeda operatives\" when the terrorist group was planning the execution of the 11 September attacks against the United States.", "In addition, the Sharjah branch of Standard Chartered Bank was also involved in opening the accounts of the terror operatives and allowing financial transactions to take place between them and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, \"the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks\".", "* FinCEN Files: On 21 September 2020, The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) revealed FinCEN Files, about the involvement of about $2tn of transactions by some of the world's biggest banks.", "FinCEN files also revealed that Dubai-based Gunes General Trading, based in Dubai funneled Iranian state money via UAE's central banking system and processed $142 million in 2011 and 2012.", "* Fortnite.", "In 2018 Cybersecurity firm Sixgill posed as customers and discovered that stolen credit card details may be used to purchase Fortnite's in-game currency (V-Bucks) then in-game purchases, to be sold for \"clean\" money.", "Epic Games, the makers of Fortnite, responded by urging customers to secure their accounts.", "* HSBC, in December 2012, paid a record $1.9 Billion fines for money-laundering hundreds of millions of dollars for drug traffickers, terrorists and sanctioned governments such as Iran.", "The money-laundering occurred throughout the 2000s.", "* Institute for the Works of Religion: Italian authorities investigated suspected money laundering transactions amounting to US$218 million made by the IOR to several Italian banks.", "* Liberty Reserve, in May 2013, was seized by United States federal authorities for laundering $6 billion.", "* Nauru: US$70 billion of Russian capital flight laundered through unregulated Nauru offshore shell banks, late 1990s* Sani Abacha: US$2–5 billion of government assets laundered through banks in the UK, Luxembourg, Jersey (Channel Islands), and Switzerland, by the president of Nigeria.", "* Standard Bank: Standard Bank South Africa London Branch – The Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) has fined Standard Bank PLC (Standard Bank) £7,640,400 for failings relating to its anti-money laundering (AML) policies and procedures over corporate and private bank customers connected to politically exposed persons (PEPs).", "* Standard Chartered: paid $330 million in fines for money-laundering hundreds of billions of dollars for Iran.", "The money-laundering took place in the 2000s and occurred for \"nearly a decade to hide 60,000 transactions worth $250 billion\".", "* Westpac: On 24 September 2020, Westpac and AUSTRAC agreed to a AUD $1.3 billion penalty over Westpac's breaches of the Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Act 2006 - the largest fine ever issued in Australian corporate history.===Individuals===* Jose Franklin Jurado-Rodriguez, a Harvard College and Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Economics Department alumnus, was convicted in Luxembourg in June 1990 \"in what was one of the largest drug money laundering cases ever brought in Europe\" and the US in 1996 of money laundering for the Cali Cartel kingpin Jose Santacruz Londono.", "Jurado-Rodriguez specialized in \"smurfing\".", "* Ng Lap Seng: The Chinese billionaire real estate developer from Macau was sentenced to four years in prison in May 2018 for bribing two diplomats, including former president of the United Nations General Assembly, John William Ashe, to help him build a conference center in Macau for the United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC), headed by Director Yiping Zhou.", "The corruption case was the worst financial scandal for the United Nations since the abuse of the Iraqi oil-for-food program more than 20 years ago.", "Ng Lap Seng, 69, was convicted in Federal District Court in Manhattan on two counts of violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, one count of paying bribes, one count of money laundering, and two counts of conspiracy.", "* Ferdinand Marcos: Unknown amount, estimated at US$10 billion of government assets laundered through banks and financial institutions in the United States, Liechtenstein, Austria, Panama, Netherlands Antilles, Cayman Islands, Vanuatu, Hong Kong, Singapore, Monaco, the Bahamas, the Vatican and Switzerland." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-Money Laundering Act (Switzerland)* Azerbaijani laundromat* Bank Secrecy Act* Danske Bank money laundering scandal* Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering* Gold laundering* Operation Greenback" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * UNODC on money-laundering and countering the financing of terrorism: profile from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime* Financial Market Integrity Unit of the World Bank* International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR), annual report issued by the United States Department of State in March every year (prepared by Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs) on country money laundering risk" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Midwifery" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Midwifery''' is the health science and health profession that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period (including care of the newborn), in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives.", "In many countries, midwifery is a medical profession (special for its independent and direct specialized education; should not be confused with the medical specialty, which depends on a previous general training).", "A professional in midwifery is known as a midwife.A 2013 Cochrane review concluded that \"most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications.\"", "The review found that midwifery-led care was associated with a reduction in the use of epidurals, with fewer episiotomies or instrumental births, and a decreased risk of losing the baby before 24 weeks' gestation.", "However, midwifery-led care was also associated with a longer mean length of labor as measured in hours." ], [ "Main areas of midwifery", "=== Pregnancy ======= First trimester ====Trimester means \"three months\".", "A normal pregnancy lasts about nine months and has three trimesters.First trimester screening varies by country.", "Women are typically offered urinalysis (UA) and blood tests including a complete blood count (CBC), blood typing (including Rh screen), syphilis, hepatitis, HIV, and rubella testing.", "Additionally, women may have chlamydia testing via a urine sample, and women considered at high risk are screened for sickle cell disease and thalassemia.", "Women must consent to all tests before they are carried out.", "The woman's blood pressure, height and weight are measured.", "Her past pregnancies and family, social, and medical history are discussed.", "Women may have an ultrasound scan during the first trimester which may be used to help find the estimated due date.", "Some women may have genetic testing, such as screening for Down syndrome.", "Diet, exercise, and common disorders of pregnancy such as morning sickness are discussed.This image shows the progression of pregnancy over the three trimesters.====Second trimester====The mother visits the midwife monthly or more often during the second trimester.", "The mother's partner and/or the birth companion may accompany her.", "The midwife will discuss pregnancy issues such as fatigue, heartburn, varicose veins, and other common problems such as back pain.", "Blood pressure and weight are monitored and the midwife measures the mother's abdomen to see if the baby is growing as expected.", "Lab tests such as a UA, CBC, and glucose tolerance test are done if clinically indicated.====Third trimester ====In the third trimester the midwife will see the mother every two weeks until week 36 and every week after that.", "Weight, blood pressure, and abdominal measurements will continue to be done.", "Lab tests such as a CBC and UA may be done with additional testing done for at-risk pregnancies.", "The midwife palpates the woman's abdomen to establish the lie, presentation and position of the fetus and later, the engagement.", "A pelvic exam may be done to see if the mother's cervix is dilating.", "The midwife and the mother discuss birthing options and write a birth care plan.=== Childbirth ======= Labor and delivery ====An illustration of normal head-first presentation.", "The membranes have ruptured and the cervix is fully dilated.Newborn rests as caregiver checks breath soundsMidwives are qualified to assist with a normal vaginal delivery while more complicated deliveries are handled by a health care provider who has had further training.", "Childbirth is divided into four stages.", ":'''First stage of labor''' The first stage of labour involves the opening of the cervix.", "In the early parts of this stage the cervix will become soft and thin thus preparing for the delivery of the baby.", "The first stage of labour is complete when the cervix has dilated the full 10cm.", "During the first stage of labor the mother begins to feel strong and regular contractions that come every 5 to 20 minutes and last 30 to 60 seconds.", "Contractions gradually become stronger, more frequent, and longer lasting.", ":'''Second stage of labor''' During the second stage the baby begins to move down the birth canal.", "As the baby moves to the opening of the vagina it \"crowns\", meaning the top of the head can be seen at the vaginal entrance.", "At one time an \"episiotomy\", (an incision in the tissue at the opening of the vagina) was done routinely because it was believed that it prevented excessive tearing and healed more readily than a natural tear.", "However, more recent research shows that a surgical incision may be more extensive than a natural tear, and is more likely to contribute to later incontinence and pain during sex than a natural tear would have.", ":The midwife assists the baby as needed and when fully emerged, cuts the umbilical cord.", "If desired, either of the baby's parents may cut the cord.", "In the past the cord was cut shortly after birth, but there is growing evidence that delayed cord clamping may benefit the infant.", ":'''Third stage of labor''' The third stage of labour is where the mother must deliver the placenta.", "In order for the mother to do this they may need to push.", "Just like the contractions in the first stage of labour they may experience one or two of these.", "The midwife may assist the mother in delivering the placenta by gently pulling on the umbilical cord.", ":'''Fourth stage of labor''' The fourth stage of labor is the period beginning immediately after the birth and extending for about six weeks.", "The World Health Organization describes this period as the most critical and yet the most neglected phase in the lives of mothers and babies.", "Until recently babies were routinely removed from their mothers following birth, however beginning around 2000, some authorities began to suggest that early skin-to-skin contact (placing the naked baby on the mother's chest) is of benefit to both mother and infant.", "As of 2014, early skin-to-skin contact is endorsed by all major organizations that are responsible for the well-being of infants.", "Thus, to help establish bonding and successful breastfeeding, the midwife carries out immediate mother and infant assessments as the infant lies on the mother's chest and removes the infant for further observations only after they have had their first breastfeed.Following the birth, if the mother had an episiotomy or a tearing of the perineum, it is sutured.", "The midwife does regular assessments for uterine contraction, fundal height, and vaginal bleeding.", "Throughout labor and delivery the mother's vital signs (temperature, blood pressure, and pulse) are closely monitored and her fluid intake and output are measured.", "The midwife also monitors the baby's pulse rate, palpates the mother's abdomen to monitor the baby's position, and does vaginal examinations as indicated.", "If the birth deviates from the norm at any stage, the midwife requests assistance from the multi-disciplinary team.==== Birthing positions ====Until the last century most women have used both the upright position and alternative positions to give birth.", "The lithotomy position was not used until the advent of forceps in the seventeenth century and since then childbirth has progressively moved from a woman supported experience in the home to a medical intervention within the hospital.There are significant advantages to assuming an upright position in labor and birth, such as stronger and more efficient uterine contractions aiding cervical dilatation, increased pelvic inlet and outlet diameters and improved uterine contractility.", "Upright positions in the second stage include sitting, squatting, kneeling, and being on hands and knees.===Postpartum period===For women who have a hospital birth, the minimum hospital stay is six hours.", "Women who leave before this do so against medical advice.", "Women may choose when to leave the hospital.", "Full postnatal assessments are conducted daily whilst inpatient, or more frequently if needed.", "A postnatal assessment includes the woman's observations, general well-being, breasts (either a discussion and assistance with breastfeeding or a discussion about lactation suppression), abdominal palpation (if she has not had a caesarean section) to check for involution of the uterus, or a check of her caesarean wound (the dressing does not need to be removed for this), a check of her perineum, particularly if she tore or had stitches, reviewing her lochia, ensuring she has passed urine and had her bowels open and checking for signs and symptoms of a DVT.", "The baby is also checked for jaundice, signs of adequate feeding, or other concerns.", "The baby has a nursery exam between six and seventy two hours of birth to check for conditions such as heart defects, hip problems, or eye problems.In the community, the community midwife sees the woman at least until day ten.", "This does not mean she sees the woman and baby daily, but she cannot discharge them from her care until day ten at the earliest.", "Postnatal checks include neonatal screening test (NST, or heel prick test) around day five.", "The baby is weighed and the midwife plans visits according to the health and needs of mother and baby.", "They are discharged to the care of the health visitor.===Care of the newborn===At birth, the baby receives an Apgar score at, at the least, one minute and five minutes of age.", "This is a score out of 10 that assesses the baby on five different areas—each worth between 0 and 2 points.", "These areas are: colour, respiratory effort, tone, heart rate, and response to stimuli.", "The midwife checks the baby for any obvious problems, weighs the baby, and measure head circumference.", "The midwife ensures the cord has been clamped securely and the baby has the appropriate name tags on (if in hospital).", "Babies lengths are not routinely measured.", "The midwife performs these checks as close to the mother as possible and returns the baby to the mother quickly.", "Skin-to-skin is encouraged, as this regulates the baby's heart rate, breathing, oxygen saturation, and temperature—and promotes bonding and breastfeeding.In some countries, such as Chile, the midwife is the professional who can direct neonatal intensive care units.", "This is an advantage for these professionals, who can use the knowledge of perinatology to bring a high quality care of the newborn, with medical or surgical conditions." ], [ "Midwifery-led continuity of care", "Clinical midwifery facilitator training midwives\"Babies\" for student practiceMidwifery-led continuity of care is where one or more midwives have the primary responsibility for the continuity of care for childbearing women, with a multidisciplinary network of consultation and referral with other health care providers.", "This is different from \"medical-led care\" where an obstetrician or family physician is primarily responsible.", "In \"shared-care\" models, responsibility may be shared between a midwife, an obstetrician and/or a family physician.", "The midwife is part of very intimate situations with the mother.", "For this reason, many say that the most important thing to look for in a midwife is comfort with them, as one will go to them with every question or problem.According to a Cochrane review of public health systems in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, \"most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications.\"", "Midwifery-led care has effects including the following:*a reduction in the use of epidurals, with fewer episiotomies or instrumental births.", "*a longer mean length of labour as measured in hours*increased chances of being cared for in labour by a midwife known by the childbearing woman*increased chances of having a spontaneous vaginal birth *decreased risk of preterm birth*decreased risk of losing the baby before 24 weeks' gestation, although there appears to be no differences in the risk of losing the baby after 24 weeks or overallThere was no difference in the number of Caesarean sections.", "All trials in the Cochrane review included licensed midwives, and none included lay or traditional midwives.", "Also, no trial included out of hospital birth.Compared to women in other care models, women in continuity models of midwifery care are more satisfied with their care.", "The updated version of the Cochrane review also shows a cost-saving effect in continuity models, compared to other midwifery models of care.In continuity models of midwifery care, the midwife-woman relationship is developing over time.", "The deepened relationship has shown to be of great importance and is in a systematic review described as \"the viechle through which personalised care, trust and empowerment are achieved in the continuity of care midwifery model\".In some cultures, midwifery is the most traditional way of carrying out a pregnancy and childbirth, and it has been conducted for multiple generations.", "Child birthing women in these cultures, take Zimbabwe for example, feel that health facilities are not as comforting as cultural roots of care.", "Also, according to the World Health Organization, women should be able to have their children where ever they feel the most safe, so if having a midwife and proceeding with an at-home birth is what makes some women feel safe, then midwifery-led continuity of care might be the best option for them." ], [ "History", "===Ancient history===A woman giving birth on a birth chair, from a work by German physician Eucharius RößlinIcon Birth of Mary (detail).", "Russia, 17th centuryIn ancient Egypt, midwifery was a recognized female occupation, as attested by the Ebers Papyrus which dates from 1900 to 1550 BCE.", "Five columns of this papyrus deal with obstetrics and gynecology, especially concerning the acceleration of parturition (the action or process of giving birth to offspring) and the birth prognosis of the newborn.", "The Westcar papyrus, dated to 1700 BCE, includes instructions for calculating the expected date of confinement and describes different styles of birth chairs.", "Bas reliefs in the royal birth rooms at Luxor and other temples also attest to the heavy presence of midwifery in this culture.Midwifery in Greco-Roman antiquity covered a wide range of women, including old women who continued folk medical traditions in the villages of the Roman Empire, trained midwives who garnered their knowledge from a variety of sources, and highly trained women who were considered physicians.", "However, there were certain characteristics desired in a \"good\" midwife, as described by the physician Soranus of Ephesus in the 2nd century.", "He states in his work, ''Gynecology'', that \"a suitable person will be literate, with her wits about her, possessed of a good memory, loving work, respectable and generally not unduly handicapped as regards her senses i.e., sight, smell, hearing, sound of limb, robust, and, according to some people, endowed with long slim fingers and short nails at her fingertips.\"", "Soranus also recommends that the midwife be of sympathetic disposition (although she need not have borne a child herself) and that she keep her hands soft for the comfort of both mother and child.", "Pliny, another physician from this time, valued nobility and a quiet and inconspicuous disposition in a midwife.", "There appears to have been three \"grades\" of midwives present: The first was technically proficient; the second may have read some of the texts on obstetrics and gynecology; but the third was highly trained and reasonably considered a medical specialist with a concentration in midwifery.Agnodice or Agnodike (Gr.", "Ἀγνοδίκη) was the earliest historical, and likely apocryphal, midwife mentioned among the ancient Greeks.Midwives were known by many different titles in antiquity, ranging from ''iatrinē'' (Gr.", "nurse), ''maia'' (Gr., midwife), ''obstetrix'' (Lat., obstetrician), and ''medica'' (Lat., doctor).", "It appears as though midwifery was treated differently in the Eastern end of the Mediterranean basin as opposed to the West.", "In the East, some women advanced beyond the profession of midwife (''maia'') to that of gynaecologist (''iatros gynaikeios'', translated as ''women's doctor''), for which formal training was required.", "Also, there were some gynecological tracts circulating in the medical and educated circles of the East that were written by women with Greek names, although these women were few in number.", "Based on these facts, it would appear that midwifery in the East was a respectable profession in which respectable women could earn their livelihoods and enough esteem to publish works read and cited by male physicians.", "In fact, a number of Roman legal provisions strongly suggest that midwives enjoyed status and remuneration comparable to that of male doctors.", "One example of such a midwife is Salpe of Lemnos, who wrote on women's diseases and was mentioned several times in the works of Pliny.Ancient Roman relief carving of a midwifeHowever, in the Roman West, information about practicing midwives comes mainly from funerary epitaphs.", "Two hypotheses are suggested by looking at a small sample of these epitaphs.", "The first is the midwifery was not a profession to which freeborn women of families that had enjoyed free status of several generations were attracted; therefore it seems that most midwives were of servile origin.", "Second, since most of these funeral epitaphs describe the women as freed, it can be proposed that midwives were generally valued enough, and earned enough income, to be able to gain their freedom.", "It is not known from these epitaphs how certain slave women were selected for training as midwives.", "Slave girls may have been apprenticed, and it is most likely that mothers taught their daughters.The actual duties of the midwife in antiquity consisted mainly of assisting in the birthing process, although they may also have helped with other medical problems relating to women when needed.", "Often, the midwife would call for the assistance of a physician when a more difficult birth was anticipated.", "In many cases the midwife brought along two or three assistants.", "In antiquity, it was believed by both midwives and physicians that a normal delivery was made easier when a woman sat upright.", "Therefore, during parturition, midwives brought a stool to the home where the delivery was to take place.", "In the seat of the birthstool was a crescent-shaped hole through which the baby would be delivered.", "The birthstool or chair often had armrests for the mother to grasp during the delivery.", "Most birthstools or chairs had backs which the patient could press against, but Soranus suggests that in some cases the chairs were backless and an assistant would stand behind the mother to support her.", "The midwife sat facing the mother, encouraging and supporting her through the birth, perhaps offering instruction on breathing and pushing, sometimes massaging her vaginal opening, and supporting her perineum during the delivery of the baby.", "The assistants may have helped by pushing downwards on the top of the mother's abdomen.Finally, the midwife received the infant, placed it in pieces of cloth, cut the umbilical cord, and cleansed the baby.", "The child was sprinkled with \"fine and powdery salt, or natron or aphronitre\" to soak up the birth residue, rinsed, and then powdered and rinsed again.", "Next, the midwives cleared away any and all mucus present from the nose, mouth, ears, or anus.", "Midwives were encouraged by Soranus to put olive oil in the baby's eyes to cleanse away any birth residue, and to place a piece of wool soaked in olive oil over the umbilical cord.", "After the delivery, the midwife made the initial call on whether or not an infant was healthy and fit to rear.", "She inspected the newborn for congenital deformities and testing its cry to hear whether or not it was robust and hearty.", "Ultimately, midwives made a determination about the chances for an infant's survival and likely recommended that a newborn with any severe deformities be exposed.A 2nd-century terracotta relief from the Ostian tomb of Scribonia Attice, wife of physician-surgeon M. Ulpius Amerimnus, details a childbirth scene.", "Scribonia was a midwife and the relief shows her in the midst of a delivery.", "A patient sits in the birth chair, gripping the handles and the midwife's assistant stands behind her providing support.", "Scribonia sits on a low stool in front of the woman, modestly looking away while also assisting the delivery by dilating and massaging the vagina, as encouraged by Soranus.The services of a midwife were not inexpensive; this fact that suggests poorer women who could not afford the services of a professional midwife often had to make do with female relatives.", "Many wealthier families had their own midwives.", "However, the vast majority of women in the Greco-Roman world very likely received their maternity care from hired midwives.", "They may have been highly trained or possessed only a rudimentary knowledge of obstetrics.", "Also, many families had a choice of whether or not they wanted to employ a midwife who practiced the traditional folk medicine or the newer methods of professional parturition.", "Like a lot of other factors in antiquity, quality gynecological care often depended heavily on the socioeconomic status of the patient.===Post-classical history===William Hunter attending a pregnant woman.", "The caption notes that \"not until a strenuous fight with the midwives was it customary for obstetricians to be present at confinements.", "\"===Modern history===From the 18th century, a conflict between surgeons and midwives arose, as medical men began to assert that their modern scientific techniques were better for mothers and infants than the folk medicine practiced by midwives.", "As doctors and medical associations pushed for a legal monopoly on obstetrical care, midwifery became outlawed or heavily regulated throughout the United States and Canada.", "In Northern Europe and Russia, the situation for midwives was a little easier - in the Duchy of Estonia in Imperial Russia, Professor Christian Friedrich Deutsch established a midwifery school for women at the University of Dorpat in 1811, which existed until World War I.", "It was the predecessor for the Tartu Health Care College.", "Training lasted for 7 months and in the end a certificate for practice was issued to the female students.", "Despite accusations that midwives were \"incompetent and ignorant\", some argued that poorly trained surgeons were far more of a danger to pregnant women.", "In 1846, the physician Ignaz Semmelweiss observed that more women died in maternity wards staffed by male surgeons than by female midwives, and traced these outbreaks of puerperal fever back to (then all-male) medical students not washing their hands properly after dissecting cadavers, but his sanitary recommendations were ignored until acceptance of germ theory became widespread.", "Midwife's case and contents, Scunthorpe Maternity Hospital, 1920s/30s (North Lincolnshire Museum)The argument that surgeons were more dangerous than midwives lasted until the study of bacteriology became popular in the early 1900s and hospital hygiene was improved.", "Women began to feel safer in the setting of the hospitals with the amount of aid and the ease of birth that they experienced with doctors.", "\"Physicians trained in the new century found a great contrast between their hospital and obstetrics practice in women’s homes where they could not maintain sterile conditions or have trained help.\"", "German social scientists Gunnar Heinsohn and Otto Steiger theorize that midwifery became a target of persecution and repression by public authorities because midwives possessed highly specialized knowledge and skills regarding not only assisting birth, but also contraception and abortion.====Contemporary====At late 20th century, midwives were already recognized as highly trained and specialized professionals in obstetrics.", "However, at the beginning of the 21st century, the medical perception of pregnancy and childbirth as potentially pathological and dangerous still dominates Western culture.", "Midwives who work in hospital settings also have been influenced by this view, although by and large they are trained to view birth as a normal and healthy process.", "While midwives play a much larger role in the care of pregnant mothers in Europe than in America, the medicalized model of birth still has influence in those countries, even though the World Health Organization recommends a natural, normal and humanized birth.The midwifery model of pregnancy and childbirth as a normal and healthy process plays a much larger role in Sweden and the Netherlands than the rest of Europe, however.", "Swedish midwives stand out, since they administer 80 percent of prenatal care and more than 80 percent of family planning services in Sweden.", "Midwives in Sweden attend all normal births in public hospitals and Swedish women tend to have fewer interventions in hospitals than American women.", "The Dutch infant mortality rate is one of the lowest rate in the world, at 4.0 deaths per thousand births, while the United States ranked twenty-second.", "Midwives in the Netherlands and Sweden owe a great deal of their success to supportive government policies." ], [ "See also", "* Afghanistan Midwifery Project* Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity* Global Library of Women's Medicine* International Confederation of Midwives* Obstetrics* Midwifery in Maya society" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* Craven, Christa.", "2007 A \"Consumer’s Right\" to Choose a Midwife: Shifting Meanings for Reproductive Rights under Neoliberalism.", "American Anthropologist, Vol.", "109, Issue 4, pp.", "701–712.In I.L.", "Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.", "* Ford, Anne R., & Wagner, Vicki.", "In Bourgeautt, Ivy L., Benoit, Cecilia, and Davis-Floyd, Robbie, ed.", "2004 Reconceiving Midwifery.", "McGill-Queen's University Press: Montreal & Kingston* MacDonald, Margaret.", "2007 At Work in the Field of Birth: Midwifery Narratives of Nature, Tradition, and Home.", "Vanderbilt University Press: Nashville* * Obstetricians in the city of Groningen." ], [ "Further reading", "* Litoff, Judy Barrett.", "\"An historical overview of midwifery in the United States.\"", "''Pre-and Peri-natal Psychology Journal'' 1990; 5(1): 5 online* Litoff, Judy Barrett.", "\"Midwives and History.\"", "In Rima D. Apple, ed., ''The History of Women, Health, and Medicine in America: An Encyclopedic Handbook'' (Garland Publishing, 1990) covers the historiography.", "* S. Solagbade Popoola, ''Ikunle Abiyamo: It is on Bent Knees that I gave Birth'' 2007 Research material, scientific and historical content based on traditional forms of African Midwifery from Yoruba of West Africa detailed within the Ifa traditional philosophy.", "Asefin Media Publication* *" ], [ "External links", "** International Confederation of Midwives (ICM)" ] ]
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[ [ "Mercedes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mercedes''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Mercedes (name), a Spanish feminine name, including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name or last name" ], [ "Automobile-related", "* Mercedes (marque), the pre-1926 brand name of German automobile models and engines built by Daimler Motors company* Mercedes-Benz, the post-1926 German brand of automobiles, engines, and trucks now owned by the Mercedes-Benz Group* Mercedes-AMG, a subsidiary of Daimler AG that builds customized and high performance Mercedes-branded automobiles* Mercedes-Benz in Formula One, the Mercedes Formula One racing team, currently known as Mercedes-AMG Petronas Motorsport* Mercedes-Benz in motorsport, its activities in sportscar racing, rallying, Formula Three, DTM, V8 Supercars Australia and Formula One* American Mercedes (1904 automobile), a company licensed to build Mercedes automobiles in America" ], [ "Places", "* Mercedes, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina** Mercedes Partido, Argentina* Mercedes, Corrientes, Argentina** Mercedes Department, Argentina* Mercedes, Costa Rica* Mercedes, Camarines Norte, Philippines* Mercedes, Eastern Samar, Philippines* Mercedes, Texas, United States* Mercedes, Uruguay* Mercedes Formation (disambiguation), geological formations in South America* Villa Mercedes, San Luis province, Argentina" ], [ "Ships", "* ''Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes'', a Spanish frigate sunk in 1804 off the coast of Portugal and thought to be discovered by the Odyssey Marine Exploration * Spanish cruiser ''Reina Mercedes'', an Alfonso XII-class unprotected cruiser of the Spanish Navy, scuttled in 1898 and later salvaged by the United States Navy* MV ''Mercedes'' I, a freighter shipwrecked off Florida in 1984* USS ''Mercedes'' (YT-108), scuttled on 2 January 1942.", "* BAP ''Mercedes'', a Peruvian Navy frigate in service from the 1840s to the 1850s* RFA ''Mercedes'', a collier which served with the Royal Fleet Auxiliary, see List of replenishment ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Mercedes'' (1933 film), a lost film, the first Spanish \"talkie\" film, directed by José María Castellví* Mercedes (1993 film), an Egyptian-Swiss film directed by Yousry Nasrallah* ''Mercedes'', a 1998 Iranian film directed by Masoud Kimiai* ''Mercedes'', a proposed gossamer-winged butterfly genus nowadays again included in ''Calycopis''* \"Mercedes\", a song by Joseph Arthur from the 1997 album ''Big City Secrets''* \"Mercedes\", a song by Deadmau5 from the 2014 album ''While(1<2)''* \"Mercedes\", a 2021 song by Brent Faiyaz* Mercedes College (Adelaide), South Australia* Mercedes College, Perth, Western Australia" ], [ "See also", "* ''Mr.", "Mercedes'', a 2014 detective novel by Stephen King* Mercedes-Euklid, an early 20th-century computing device* Mercedita (disambiguation)* Merced (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Miguel de Cervantes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra''' (; 29 September 1547 (assumed) – 22 April 1616 NS) was an Early Modern Spanish writer widely regarded as the greatest writer in the Spanish language and one of the world's pre-eminent novelists.", "He is best known for his novel ''Don Quixote'', a work often cited as both the first modern novel and \"the first great novel of world literature\".", "A 2002 poll of 100 well-known authors voted it the \"most meaningful book of all time\", from among the \"best and most central works in world literature\".Much of his life was spent in relative poverty and obscurity, which led to many of his early works being lost.", "Despite this, his influence and literary contribution are reflected by the fact that Spanish is often referred to as \"the language of Cervantes\".", "''An incident in the story of'' Don Quixote (1870), by Robert Hillingford.In 1569, Cervantes was forced to leave Spain and move to Rome, where he worked in the household of a cardinal.", "In 1570, he enlisted in a Spanish Navy infantry regiment, and was badly wounded at the Battle of Lepanto in October 1571 and lost the use of his left arm and hand.", "He served as a soldier until 1575, when he was captured by Barbary pirates; after five years in captivity, he was ransomed, and returned to Madrid.His first significant novel, titled ''La Galatea'', was published in 1585, but he continued to work as a purchasing agent, and later as a government tax collector.", "Part One of ''Don Quixote'' was published in 1605, and Part Two in 1615.Other works include the 12 ''Novelas ejemplares'' (''Exemplary Novels''); a long poem, the ''Viaje del Parnaso'' (''Journey to Parnassus''); and ''Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses'' (''Eight Plays and Eight Interludes'').", "The novel ''Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda'' (''The Travails of Persiles and Sigismunda''), was published posthumously in 1616." ], [ "Biography", "''Santa María la Mayor'', in Alcalá de Henares, where Cervantes was reputedly baptised; the square in front is named ''Plaza Cervantes''Despite his subsequent renown, much of Cervantes's life is uncertain, including his name, background and what he looked like.", "Although he signed himself ''Cerbantes'', his printers used ''Cervantes'', which became the common form.", "In later life, Cervantes used ''Saavedra'', the name of a distant relative, rather than the more usual ''Cortinas'', after his mother.", "But historian Luce López-Baralt, claimed that it comes from the word ''shaibedraa'' that in Arabic dialect means \"one-handed\", his nickname during his captivity.Another area of dispute is his religious background.", "It has been suggested that not only Cervantes's father but also his mother may have been New Christians.", "Anthony Cascardi writes, \"While the family might have had some claim to nobility they often found themselves in financial straits.", "Moreover, they may have been of converso origin, that is, converts to Catholicism of Jewish ancestry.", "In the Spain of Cervantes's days, this meant living under clouds of official suspicion and social mistrust, with far more limited opportunities than were enjoyed by members of the 'Old Christian' caste.\"", "According to Charles D. Presberg, there is no wide following for the view that Cervantes had converso origins.", "Cuban writer Roberto Echevarría asserts that the claims of Cervantes's converso origins are based on \"very flimsy evidence\", namely Cervantes's lack of social and financial progression in a time when such rewards were denied to most Spaniards regardless of social group.It is generally accepted Miguel de Cervantes was born around 29 September 1547, in Alcalá de Henares.", "He was the second son of barber-surgeon Rodrigo de Cervantes and his wife, Leonor de Cortinas ().", "Rodrigo came from Córdoba, Andalusia, where his father Juan de Cervantes was an influential lawyer.===1547 to 1566: Early years===Rodrigo was frequently in debt, or searching for work, and moved constantly.", "Leonor came from Arganda del Rey, and died in October 1593, at the age of 73; surviving legal documents indicate she had seven children, could read and write, and was a resourceful individual with a keen eye for business.", "When Rodrigo was imprisoned for debt from October 1553 to April 1554, she supported the family on her own.Cervantes's siblings were Andrés (born 1543), Andrea (born 1544), Luisa (born 1546), Rodrigo (born 1550), Magdalena (born 1554) and Juan.", "They lived in Córdoba until 1556, when his grandfather died.", "For reasons that are unclear, Rodrigo did not benefit from his will and the family disappears until 1564 when he filed a lawsuit in Seville.Seville was then in the midst of an economic boom, and Rodrigo managed rented accommodation for his elder brother Andres, who was a junior magistrate.", "It is contended that Cervantes attended the Jesuit college in Seville, where one of the teachers was Jesuit playwright Pedro Pablo Acevedo, who moved there in 1561 from Córdoba.", "However, legal records show his father got into debt once more and in 1566 the family moved to Madrid.===1566 to 1580: Military service and captivity===Monument of Cervantes erected in 1929 (Madrid)In the 19th century, a biographer discovered an arrest warrant for a Miguel de Cervantes, dated 15 September 1569, who was charged with wounding Antonio de Sigura in a duel.", "Although disputed at the time, largely on the grounds such behaviour was unworthy of so great an author, it is now accepted as the most likely reason for Cervantes leaving Madrid.He eventually made his way to Rome, where he found a position in the household of Giulio Acquaviva, an Italian bishop who spent 1568 to 1569 in Madrid, and was appointed Cardinal in 1570.When the 1570 to 1573 Ottoman–Venetian War began, Spain formed part of the Holy League, a coalition formed to support the Venetian Republic.", "Possibly seeing an opportunity to have his arrest warrant rescinded, Cervantes went to Naples, then part of the Crown of Aragon.Statue of Miguel de Cervantes at the harbour of Naupactus (Lepanto)The military commander in Naples was Álvaro de Sande, a friend of the family, who gave Cervantes a commission under the Marqués de Santa Cruz.", "At some point, he was joined in Naples by his younger brother Rodrigo.", "In September 1571, Cervantes sailed on board the ''Marquesa'', part of the Holy League fleet under Don John of Austria, illegitimate half brother of Phillip II of Spain; on 7 October, they defeated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto.", "''Cervantes at the battle of Lepanto'', by Augusto Ferrer-DalmauThis landmark sea battle, the most significant naval conflict since the Roman Battle of Actium (32 B.C.", "), stopped Muslim incursion into Europe, and for the first time allowed European Christians to feel that they were not to be overrun by Islam.According to his own account, although suffering from malaria, Cervantes was given command of a 12-man skiff, a small boat used for assaulting enemy galleys.", "The ''Marquesa'' lost 40 dead, and 120 wounded, including Cervantes, who received three separate wounds, two in the chest, and another that rendered his left arm useless, this last wound is the reason why he later was called \"''El Manco de Lepanto''\" (English: \"The one-handed man of Lepanto\", \"The one-armed man of Lepanto\"), a title that followed him for the rest of his life.", "His actions at Lepanto were a source of pride to the end of his life, while Don John approved no less than four separate pay increases for him.In ''Journey to Parnassus'', published two years before his death in 1616, Cervantes claimed to have \"lost the movement of the left hand for the glory of the right\".", "As with much else, the extent of his disability is unclear, the only source being Cervantes himself, while commentators cite his habitual tendency to praise himself.", "However, they were serious enough to earn him six months in the Civic Hospital at Messina, Sicily.Although he returned to service in July 1572, records show his chest wounds were still not completely healed in February 1573.Based mainly in Naples, he joined expeditions to Corfu and Navarino, and took part in the 1573 occupation of Tunis and La Goulette, which were recaptured by the Ottomans in 1574.Despite Lepanto, the war overall was an Ottoman victory, and the loss of Tunis a military disaster for Spain.", "Cervantes returned to Palermo, where he was paid off by the Duke of Sessa, who gave him letters of commendation.In early September 1575, Cervantes and Rodrigo left Naples on the galley ''Sol''; as they approached Barcelona on 26 September, their ship was captured by Ottoman corsairs, and the brothers taken to Algiers, to be sold as slaves, or – as was the case of Cervantes and his brother – held for ransom, if this would be more lucrative than their sale as slaves.", "Rodrigo was ransomed in 1577, but his family could not afford the fee for Cervantes, who was forced to remain.", "Turkish historian Rasih Nuri İleri found evidence suggesting Cervantes worked on the construction of the Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex, which means he spent at least part of his captivity in Istanbul.", "This is yet to be proven and no evidence has been published on the matter.By 1580, Spain was occupied with integrating Portugal, and suppressing the Dutch Revolt, while the Ottomans were at war with Persia; the two sides agreed a truce, leading to an improvement of relations.", "After almost five years, and four escape attempts, in 1580 Cervantes was set free by the Trinitarians, a religious charity that specialised in ransoming Christian captives, and returned to Madrid.===1580 to 1616: Later life and death===National Library of SpainWhile Cervantes was in captivity, both Don John and the Duke of Sessa died, depriving him of two potential patrons, while the Spanish economy was in dire straits.", "This made finding employment difficult; other than a period in 1581 to 1582, when he was employed as an intelligence agent in North Africa, little is known of his movements prior to 1584.In April of that year, Cervantes visited Esquivias, to help arrange the affairs of his recently deceased friend and minor poet, Pedro Laínez.", "There he met Catalina de Salazar y Palacios (), eldest daughter of the widowed Catalina de Palacios; her husband died leaving only debts, but the elder Catalina owned some land of her own.", "This may be why in December 1584, Cervantes married her daughter, then between 15 and 18 years old.", "The first use of the name ''Cervantes Saavedra'' appears in 1586, on documents related to their marriage.Shortly before this, his illegitimate daughter Isabel was born in November.", "Her mother, Ana Franca, was the wife of a Madrid innkeeper; they apparently concealed it from her husband, but Cervantes acknowledged paternity.", "When Ana Franca died in 1598, he asked his sister Magdalena to take care of his daughter.Convent of the Barefoot Trinitarians in Madrid.In 1587, Cervantes was appointed as a government purchasing agent, ''Commissary of the Royal Galleons'' in Seville, obtaining wheat and oil for the doomed Spanish Armada.", "He became a tax collector in 1592 and was briefly jailed for 'irregularities' in his accounts, but quickly released.", "Several applications for positions in Spanish America were rejected e.g.", "to the Council of Indies in 1590, though modern critics note images of the colonies appear in his work.From 1596 to 1600, he lived primarily in Seville, then returned to Madrid in 1606, where he remained for the rest of his life.", "In later years, he received some financial support from the Count of Lemos, although he was not included in the retinue Lemos took to Naples when appointed Viceroy in 1608.In July 1613, he joined the Third Order Franciscans, then a common way for Catholics to gain spiritual merit.", "It is generally accepted Cervantes died on 22 April 1616 (NS; the Gregorian calendar had superseded the Julian in 1582 in Spain and some other countries); the symptoms described, including intense thirst, correspond to diabetes, then untreatable.In accordance with his will, Cervantes was buried in the Convent of the Barefoot Trinitarians, in central Madrid.", "His remains went missing when moved during rebuilding work at the convent in 1673, and in 2014, historian Fernando de Prado launched a project to rediscover them.In January 2015, Francisco Etxeberria, the forensic anthropologist leading the search, reported the discovery of caskets containing bone fragments, and part of a board, with the letters 'M.C.'.", "Based on evidence of injuries suffered at Lepanto, on 17 March 2015 they were confirmed as belonging to Cervantes along with his wife and others.", "They were formally reburied at a public ceremony in June 2015." ], [ "Supposed likenesses", "No authenticated portrait of Cervantes is known to exist.", "The one most often associated with the author is attributed to Juan de Jáuregui, but both names were added at a later date.", "The El Greco painting in the , known as ''Retrato de un caballero desconocido'' (''Portrait of an Unknown Gentleman''), is cited as 'possibly' depicting Cervantes, but there is no evidence for this.", "It has been suggested that the portrait ''The Nobleman with his Hand on his Chest'', also by El Greco, may possibly depict Cervantes.", "However, The Prado itself, while mentioning, in passing, that \"specific names have been proposed for the sitter, including that of Cervantes\", and even \"that the painting could be a self-portrait of El Greco\", goes on to state that \"Without doubt, the most convincing suggestion has connected this figure with the Second Marquis of Montemayor, Juan de Silva y de Ribera, a contemporary of El Greco who was appointed military commander of the Alcázar in Toledo by Philip II and Chief Notary to the Crown, a position that would explain the solemn gesture of the hand, depicted in the act of taking an oath.", "\"The portrait by Luis de Madrazo, at the , painted in 1859, was based on his imagination.", "The image that appears on Spanish euro coins of €0.10, €0.20, and €0.50 is based on a bust, created in 1905." ], [ "Literary career and legacy", "The windmill scene from ''Don Quijote'', by Gustave DoréCervantes claimed to have written over 20 plays, such as ''El trato de Argel'', based on his experiences in captivity.", "Such works were extremely short-lived, and even Lope de Vega, the best-known playwright of the day, could not live on their proceeds.", "In 1585, he published ''La Galatea'', a conventional pastoral romance that received little contemporary notice; despite promising to write a sequel, he never did so.Aside from these, and some poems, by 1605, Cervantes had not been published for 20 years.", "In ''Don Quixote'', he challenged a form of literature that had been a favourite for more than a century, explicitly stating his purpose was to undermine 'vain and empty' chivalric romances.", "His portrayal of real life, and use of everyday speech in a literary context was considered innovative, and proved instantly popular.", "First published in January 1605, Don Quixote and Sancho Panza featured in masquerades held to celebrate the birth of Philip IV on 8 April.DoréHe finally achieved a degree of financial security, while its popularity led to demands for a sequel.", "In the foreword to his 1613 work, ''Novelas ejemplares'', dedicated to his patron, the Count of Lemos, Cervantes promises to produce one, but was pre-empted by an unauthorised version published in 1614, published under the name Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda.", "It is possible this delay was deliberate, to ensure support from his publisher and reading public; Cervantes finally produced the second part of ''Don Quixote'' in 1615.The two parts of ''Don Quixote'' are different in focus, but similar in their clarity of prose and their realism.", "The first was more comic, and had greater popular appeal.", "The second part is often considered more sophisticated and complex, with a greater depth of characterisation and philosophical insight.In addition to this, he produced a series of works between 1613 and his death in 1616.They include a collection of tales titled ''Exemplary Novels''.", "This was followed by ''Viaje del Parnaso'', ''Eight Comedies and Eight New Interludes'', and ''Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda'', completed just before his death, and published posthumously in January 1617.Cervantes was rediscovered by English writers in the mid-18th century.", "The literary editor John Bowle argued that Cervantes was as significant as any of the Greek and Roman authors then popular, and published an annotated edition in 1781.Now viewed as a significant work, at the time it proved a failure.", "However, ''Don Quixote'' has been translated into all major languages, in 700 editions.", "Mexican author Carlos Fuentes suggested that Cervantes and his contemporary William Shakespeare form part of a narrative tradition that includes Homer, Dante, Defoe, Dickens, Balzac, and Joyce.Sigmund Freud claimed he learnt Spanish to read Cervantes in the original; he particularly admired ''The Dialogue of the Dogs'' (''El coloquio de los perros''), from ''Exemplary Tales'', in which two dogs, Cipión and Berganza, share their stories; as one talks, the other listens, occasionally making comments.", "From 1871 to 1881, Freud and his close friend Eduard Silberstein wrote letters to each other, using the pennames Cipión and Berganza.In 1905, the tricentennial of the publication of ''Don Quixote'' was marked with celebrations in Spain; the 400th anniversary of his death in 2016, saw the production of ''Cervantina'', a celebration of his plays by the Compañía Nacional de Teatro Clásico in Madrid.", "''Man of La Mancha'', the 1965 musical, was loosely based on Cervantes' life.", "The Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library, is the world's largest digital archive of Spanish-language historical and literary works." ], [ "Bibliography", "The original title page of Cervantes's ''La Galatea'' (1585) As listed in ''Complete Works of Miguel de Cervantes'':* ''La Galatea'' (1585);* ''El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha'' (1605): First volume of ''Don Quixote''.", "* ''Novelas ejemplares'' (1613): a collection of 12 short stories of varied types about the social, political, and historical problems of Cervantes's Spain:** \"La gitanilla\" (\"The Gypsy Girl\")** \"El amante liberal\" (\"The Generous Lover\")** \"Rinconete y Cortadillo\" (\"Rinconete & Cortadillo\")** \"La española inglesa\" (\"The English Spanish Lady\")** \"El licenciado Vidriera\" (\"The Lawyer of Glass\")** \"La fuerza de la sangre\" (\"The Power of Blood\")** \"El celoso extremeño\" (\"The Jealous Man from Extremadura\")** \"La ilustre fregona\" (\"The Illustrious Kitchen-Maid\")** \"Novela de las dos doncellas\" (\"The Novel of the Two Damsels\")** \"Novela de la señora Cornelia\" (\"The Novel of Lady Cornelia\")** \"Novela del casamiento engañoso\" (\"The Novel of the Deceitful Marriage\")** \"El coloquio de los perros\" (\"The Dialogue of the Dogs\")* ''Segunda Parte del Ingenioso Cavallero sic Don Quixote de la Mancha'' (1615): Second volume of ''Don Quixote''.", "* ''Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda'' (1617).===Other works===frontispiece of the ''Viaje'' (1614)Cervantes is generally considered a mediocre poet; few of his poems survive.", "Some appear in ''La Galatea'', while he also wrote ''Dos Canciones à la Armada Invencible''.His sonnets include ''Al Túmulo del Rey Felipe en Sevilla'', ''Canto de Calíope'' and ''Epístola a Mateo Vázquez''.", "''Viaje del Parnaso'', or ''Journey to Parnassus'', is his most ambitious verse work, an allegory that consists largely of reviews of contemporary poets.He published a number of dramatic works, including ten extant full-length plays:* ''Trato de Argel''; based on his own experiences, deals with the life of Christian slaves in Algiers;* ''La Numancia''; intended as a patriotic work, dramatization of the long and brutal siege of Numantia, by Scipio Aemilianus, completing the transformation of the Iberian peninsula into the Roman province Hispania, or España.", "* ''El gallardo español'',* ''Los baños de Argel'',* ''La gran sultana, Doña Catalina de Oviedo'',* ''La casa de los celos'',* ''El laberinto de amor'',* ''La entretenida'',* ''El rufián dichoso'',* ''Pedro de Urdemalas'', a sensitive play about a ''picaro'', who joins a group of Gypsies for love of a girl.He also wrote eight short farces (''entremeses''):* ''El juez de los divorcios'',* ''El rufián viudo llamado Trampagos'',* ''La elección de los Alcaldes de Daganzo'',* ''La guarda cuidadosa'' (The Vigilant Sentinel),* ''El vizcaíno fingido'',* ''El retablo de las maravillas'',* ''La cueva de Salamanca''* ''El viejo celoso'' (The Jealous Old Man).These plays and entremeses, except for ''Trato de Argel'' and ''La Numancia'', made up ''Ocho Comedias y ocho entreméses nuevos, nunca representados'' (''Eight Comedies and Eight New Interludes, Never Before Performed''), which appeared in 1615.The dates and order of composition of Cervantes's entremeses are unknown.", "Faithful to the spirit of Lope de Rueda, Cervantes endowed them with novelistic elements, such as simplified plot, the type of descriptions normally associated with a novel, and character development.", "Cervantes included some of his dramas among the works he was most satisfied with." ], [ "Influence", "=== Places ===* Cervantes.", "A municipality in the province of Lugo, Galicia, Spain, but the name of the town is not based on Miguel de Cervantes (nor is there any evidence tying him or his family to this town).", "* Cervantes.", "A municipality in the province of Ilocos Sur, Philippines.", "* Cervantes.", "A township situated north of the Western Australian state capital Perth in Australia.=== Television ===* Cervantes is a recurring character in the Spanish television show ''El ministerio del tiempo'', portrayed by actor Pere Ponce.", "* Cervantes played a prominent role in the episode \"Gentlemen of Spain\" of the TV series ''Sir Francis Drake'' (1961–1962).", "He was portrayed by the actor Nigel Davenport and the plot had him heroically rescuing other Christian captives from the Barbary pirates." ], [ "See also", "* Casa de Cervantes* Instituto Cervantes* Miguel de Cervantes Prize* Miguel de Cervantes European University* Miguel de Cervantes Health Care Centre* Miguel de Cervantes High School* ''Miguel de Cervantes Memorial''* Miguel de Cervantes University" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", " * Bloom, Harold (ed.)", "2001.", "''Cervantes's Don Quixote (Modern Critical Interpretations)''.", "* Bloom, Harold (ed.)", "2005.", "''Miguel de Cervantes (Modern Critical Views)''.", "* Cascardi, Anthony J.", "(ed.)", "2002.", "''The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes''.", "* * * El Saffar, Ruth S.", "(ed.)", "1986.", "''Critical Essays on Cervantes''.", "Boston: G. K.", "Hall.", "* González Echevarría, Roberto (ed.)", "2005.", "''Cervantes' Don Quixote: A Casebook''.", "* Nelson, Lowry 1969.", "''Cervantes: A Collection of Critical Essays''.", "Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.", "* Pérez, Rolando (2016). \"", "What is Don Quijote/Don Quixote And…And…And the Disjunctive Synthesis of Cervantes and Kathy Acker.\"", "''Cervantes ilimitado: cuatrocientos años del Quijote''.", "Ed.", "Nuria Morgado.", "ALDEEU.", "75–100.", "* Pérez, Rolando (2021).", "\"Cervantes’s “Republic”: On Representation, Imitation, and Unreason\".", "''eHumanista 47'': 89-111.", "* Vázquez Montalbán, Manuel and Willi Glasauer (1988).", "''Scenes from World Literature and Portraits of Greatest Authors'', Círculo de Lectores.", "* Weber, Olivier, Flammarion (2011).", "''Le Barbaresque''." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes Spanish web site with multiple Cervantes links and audio of whole of Don Quixote* Famous Hispanics* The Cervantes Project with biographies and chronology* Information about Miguel de Cervantes* Cervantine Collection of the Biblioteca de Catalunya * Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616): Life and Portrait The Cervantes Project.", "Canavaggio, Jean.", "* Cervantes's Birthplace Museum * Miguel de Cervantes Collection From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress* Cervantes chatbot in Spanish" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maimonides" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moses ben Maimon''' (1138–1204), commonly known as '''Maimonides''' ( ) and also referred to by the Hebrew acronym '''Rambam''' (), was a Sephardic rabbi and philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars of the Middle Ages.", "In his time, he was also a preeminent astronomer and physician, serving as the personal physician of Saladin.", "He was born and lived in Córdoba within the Almoravid Empire (present-day Spain), on Passover eve, 1138 (or 1135), until his family was expelled for refusing to convert to Islam.", "Later, he lived in Morocco and Egypt and worked as a rabbi, physician and philosopher.During his lifetime, most Jews greeted Maimonides' writings on Jewish law and ethics with acclaim and gratitude, even as far away as Iraq and Yemen.", "Yet, while Maimonides rose to become the revered head of the Jewish community in Egypt, his writings also had vociferous critics, particularly in Spain.", "He died in Fustat, Egypt and, according to Jewish tradition, was buried in Tiberias.", "The Tomb of Maimonides in Tiberias is a popular pilgrimage and tourist site.He was posthumously acknowledged as one of the foremost rabbinic decisors and philosophers in Jewish history, and his copious work comprises a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship.", "His fourteen-volume still carries significant canonical authority as a codification of Halacha.Aside from being revered by Jewish historians, Maimonides also figures very prominently in the history of Islamic and Arab sciences and he is mentioned extensively in studies.", "Influenced by Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and his contemporary Ibn Rushd, he became a prominent philosopher and polymath in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds." ], [ "Name", "Maimonides referred to himself as \"Moses, son of Rabbi Maimon the Spaniard\" ().", "In Medieval Hebrew he was usually called ר\"ם, short for \"our Rabbi Moshe\", but mostly he is called רמב\"ם, short for \"our Rabbi, Moshe son of Maimon\" and pronounced ''Rambam''.In Arabic, he is sometimes called \"Moses 'son of Amram' son of Maimon, of Obadiah, the Cordoban\" (, ''Abū ʿImrān Mūsā bin Maimūn bin ʿUbaidallāh al-Qurṭubī''), or more often simply \"Moses, son of Maimon\" ().In Greek, the Hebrew ('son of') becomes the patronymic suffix , forming Μωησής Μαϊμονίδης \"Moses Maimonides\".He is sometimes known as הנשר הגדול ( The Great Eagle)." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===The dominion of the Almohad Caliphate at its greatest extent, 1200Maimonides was born 1138 (or 1135) in Córdoba, Andalusia, in the Muslim-ruled Almoravid Empire, during what some scholars consider to be the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, after the first centuries of the Moorish rule.", "His father Maimon ben Joseph, was a Spanish dayyan (Jewish judge).", "Aaron ha-Kohen later wrote that he had traced Maimonides' descent back to Simeon ben Judah ha-Nasi from the Davidic line.", "His ancestry, going back four generations, is given in his (Epistle to Yemen), as Moses son of Maimon the Judge, son of Joseph the Wise, son of Isaac the Rabbi, son of Obadiah the Judge.", "At the end of his commentary on the Mishna, however, a slightly different genealogy is presented: Moses son of Maimon the Judge, son of Joseph the Wise, son of Isaac the Judge, son of Joseph the Judge, son of Obadiah the Judge, son of Solomon the Rabbi, son of Obadiah the Judge.Maimonides studied Torah under his father, who had in turn studied under Rabbi Joseph ibn Migash, a student of Isaac Alfasi.", "At an early age, Maimonides developed an interest in sciences and philosophy.", "He read those Greek philosophers accessible in Arabic translations, and was deeply immersed in the sciences and learning of Islamic culture.Maimonides, who was revered for his personality as well as for his writings, led a busy life, and wrote many of his works while travelling or in temporary accommodation.===Exile===Maimonides' house in Fez, Morocco, according to local tradition.", "It is now occupied by the ''Dar al-Magana''.A Berber dynasty, the Almohads, conquered Córdoba in 1148 and abolished status (i.e., state protection of non-Muslims ensured through payment of a tax, the ) in some of their territories.", "The loss of this status forced the Jewish and Christian communities to choose between conversion to Islam, death, or exile.", "Many Jews were forced to convert, but due to suspicion by the authorities of fake conversions, the new converts had to wear identifying clothing that set them apart and made them subject to public scrutiny.Maimonides' family, along with most other Jews, chose exile.", "For the next ten years, Maimonides moved about in southern Spain and North Africa, eventually settling in Fez, Morocco.", "Some say that his teacher in Fez was Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Cohen Ibn Susan, until the latter was killed in 1165.During this time, he composed his acclaimed commentary on the Mishnah, during the years 1166–1168.Following this sojourn in Morocco, he lived in Palestine with his father and brother, before settling in Fustat in Fatimid Caliphate-controlled Egypt by 1168.There is mention that Maimonides first settled in Alexandria, and moved to Fustat only in 1171.While in Cairo, he studied in a yeshiva attached to a small synagogue, which now bears his name.", "In Palestine, he prayed at the Temple Mount.", "He wrote that this day of visiting the Temple Mount was a day of holiness for him and his descendants.Maimonides shortly thereafter was instrumental in helping rescue Jews taken captive during the Christian Amalric of Jerusalem's siege of the southeastern Nile Delta town of Bilbeis.", "He sent five letters to the Jewish communities of Lower Egypt asking them to pool money together to pay the ransom.", "The money was collected and then given to two judges sent to Palestine to negotiate with the Crusaders.", "The captives were eventually released.===Death of his brother===CórdobaFollowing this triumph, the Maimonides family, hoping to increase their wealth, gave their savings to his brother, the youngest son David ben Maimon, a merchant.", "Maimonides directed his brother to procure goods only at the Sudanese port of ʿAydhab.", "After a long, arduous trip through the desert, however, David was unimpressed by the goods on offer there.", "Against his brother's wishes, David boarded a ship for India, since great wealth was to be found in the East.", "Before he could reach his destination, David drowned at sea sometime between 1169 and 1177.The death of his brother caused Maimonides to become sick with grief.In a letter discovered in the Cairo Geniza, he wrote:===Nagid===Bas relief of Maimonides in the United States House of RepresentativesAround 1171, Maimonides was appointed the of the Egyptian Jewish community.", "Arabist Shelomo Dov Goitein believes the leadership he displayed during the ransoming of the Crusader captives led to this appointment.", "However he was replaced by Sar Shalom ben Moses in 1173.Over the controversial course of Sar Shalom's appointment, during which Sar Shalom was accused of tax farming, Maimonides excommunicated and fought with him for several years until Maimonides was appointed Nagid in 1195.A work known as \"Megillat Zutta\" was written by Abraham ben Hillel, who writes a scathing description of Sar Shalom while praising Maimonides as \"the light of east and west and unique master and marvel of the generation.", "\"===Physician===With the loss of the family funds tied up in David's business venture, Maimonides assumed the vocation of physician, for which he was to become famous.", "He had trained in medicine in both Spain and in Fez.", "Gaining widespread recognition, he was appointed court physician to al-Qadi al-Fadil, the chief secretary to Sultan Saladin, then to Saladin himself; after whose death he remained a physician to the Ayyubid dynasty.autograph from the Cairo Geniza with words in Arabic and their Romance translations, both written in Hebrew scriptIn his medical writings, Maimonides described many conditions, including asthma, diabetes, hepatitis, and pneumonia, and he emphasized moderation and a healthy lifestyle.", "His treatises became influential for generations of physicians.", "He was knowledgeable about Greek and Arabic medicine, and followed the principles of humorism in the tradition of Galen.", "He did not blindly accept authority but used his own observation and experience.", "Julia Bess Frank indicates that Maimonides in his medical writings sought to interpret works of authorities so that they could become acceptable.", "Maimonides displayed in his interactions with patients attributes that today would be called intercultural awareness and respect for the patient's autonomy.", "Although he frequently wrote of his longing for solitude in order to come closer to God and to extend his reflections—elements considered essential in his philosophy to the prophetic experience—he gave over most of his time to caring for others.", "In a famous letter, Maimonides describes his daily routine.", "After visiting the Sultan's palace, he would arrive home exhausted and hungry, where \"I would find the antechambers filled with gentiles and Jews ...", "I would go to heal them, and write prescriptions for their illnesses ... until the evening ... and I would be extremely weak.", "\"As he goes on to say in this letter, even on Shabbat he would receive members of the community.", "Still, he managed to write extended treatises, including not only medical and other scientific studies but some of the most systematically thought-through and influential treatises on halakha (rabbinic law) and Jewish philosophy of the Middle Ages.In 1172–74, Maimonides wrote his famous ''Epistle to Yemen''.", "It has been suggested that his \"incessant travail\" undermined his own health and brought about his death at 69 (although this is a normal lifespan).===Death===The Tomb of Maimonides in TiberiasMaimonides died on 12 December 1204 (20th of Tevet 4965) in Fustat.", "A variety of medieval sources beginning with Al-Qifti maintain that his body was interred near Lake Tiberias, though there is no contemporary evidence for his removal from Egypt.", "Gedaliah ibn Yahya records that \"He was buried in the Upper Galilee with elegies upon his gravestone.", "In the time of David Kimhi|David Kimhi, when the sons of Belial rose up to besmirch Maimonides .", ".", ".", "they did evil.", "They altered his gravestone, which previously had been inscribed 'choicest of the human race (מבחר המין האנושי)', so that instead it read 'the excommunicated heretic (מוחרם ומין)'.", "But later, after the provocateurs had repented of their act, and praised this great man, a student repaired the gravestone to read 'choicest of the Israelites (מבחר המין הישראלי)'\".", "Today, Tiberias hosts the Tomb of Maimonides, on which is inscribed \"From Moses to Moses arose none like Moses.", "\"Maimonides and his wife, the daughter of Mishael ben Yeshayahu Halevi, had one child who survived into adulthood, Abraham Maimonides, who became recognized as a great scholar.", "He succeeded Maimonides as Nagid and as court physician at the age of eighteen.", "Throughout his career, he defended his father's writings against all critics.", "The office of Nagid was held by the Maimonides family for four successive generations until the end of the 14th century.A statue of Maimonides was erected near the Córdoba Synagogue.Maimonides is sometimes said to be a descendant of King David, although he never made such a claim." ], [ "Works", "===Mishneh Torah===With , Maimonides composed a code of Jewish law with the widest-possible scope and depth.", "The work gathers all the binding laws from the Talmud, and incorporates the positions of the Geonim (post-Talmudic early Medieval scholars, mainly from Mesopotamia).", "It is also known as or simply () which has the numerical value 14, representing the 14 books of the work.", "The ''Mishneh Torah'' made following Jewish law easier for the Jews of his time, who were struggling to understand the complex nature of Jewish rules and regulations as they had adapted over the years.Later codes of Jewish law, e.g.", "Arba'ah Turim by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and Shulchan Aruch by Rabbi Yosef Karo, draw heavily on : both often quote whole sections verbatim.", "However, it met initially with much opposition.", "There were two main reasons for this opposition.", "First, Maimonides had refrained from adding references to his work for the sake of brevity; second, in the introduction, he gave the impression of wanting to \"cut out\" study of the Talmud, to arrive at a conclusion in Jewish law, although Maimonides later wrote that this was not his intent.", "His most forceful opponents were the rabbis of Provence (Southern France), and a running critique by Rabbi Abraham ben David (Raavad III) is printed in virtually all editions of .", "Nevertheless, Mishneh Torah was recognized as a monumental contribution to the systemized writing of halakha.", "Throughout the centuries, it has been widely studied and its halakhic decisions have weighed heavily in later rulings.In response to those who would attempt to force followers of Maimonides and his to abide by the rulings of his own Shulchan Aruch or other later works, Rabbi Yosef Karo wrote: \"Who would dare force communities who follow the Rambam to follow any other decisor of Jewish law, early or late?", "...", "The Rambam is the greatest of the decisors, and all the communities of the Land of Israel and the Arabistan and the Maghreb practice according to his word, and accepted him as their rabbi.", "\"An oft-cited legal maxim from his pen is: \"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death.\"", "He argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until defendants would be convicted merely according to the judge's caprice.===Other Judaic and philosophical works===''Guide for the Perplexed'' (Judeo-Arabic)Tractate Sukkah, written in Judeo-Arabic solitreoMaimonides composed works of Jewish scholarship, rabbinic law, philosophy, and medical texts.", "Most of Maimonides' works were written in Judeo-Arabic.", "However, the was written in Hebrew.", "In addition to Mishneh Torah, his Jewish texts were:* ''Commentary on the Mishna'' (Arabic , translated into Hebrew as ), written in Classical Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet.", "This was the first full commentary ever written on the entire Mishnah, which took Maimonides seven years to complete.", "It is considered one of the most important Mishnah commentaries, having enjoyed great popularity both in its Arabic original and its medieval Hebrew translation.", "The commentary includes three philosophical introductions which were also highly influential:** The Introduction to the Mishnah deals with the nature of the oral law, the distinction between the prophet and the sage, and the organizational structure of the Mishnah.", "** The Introduction to Mishnah Sanhedrin, chapter ten (), is an eschatological essay that concludes with Maimonides' famous creed (\"the thirteen principles of faith\").", "** The Introduction to Pirkei Avot, popularly called ''The Eight Chapters'', is an ethical treatise.", "* (''The Book of Commandments'').", "In this work, Maimonides lists all the 613 mitzvot traditionally contained in the Torah (Pentateuch).", "He describes fourteen (roots or principles) to guide his selection.", "* (''Letter of Martydom'')* ''The Guide for the Perplexed'', a philosophical work harmonising and differentiating Aristotle's philosophy and Jewish theology.", "Written in Judeo-Arabic under the title , and completed between 1186 and 1190.It has been suggested that the title is derived from the Arabic phrase ''dalīl al-mutaḥayyirin'' (guide of the perplexed) a name for God in a work by al-Ghazālī, echoes of whose work can be found elsewhere in Maimonides.", "The first translation of this work into Hebrew was done by Samuel ibn Tibbon in 1204 just prior to Maimonides' death.", "* , collected correspondence and responsa, including a number of public letters (on resurrection and the afterlife, on conversion to other faiths, and —addressed to the oppressed Jewry of Yemen).", "* , a fragment of a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud, identified and published by Saul Lieberman in 1947.===Medical works===Maimonides' achievements in the medical field are well known, and are cited by many medieval authors.", "One of his more important medical works is his ''Guide to Good Health'' (), which he composed in Arabic for the Sultan al-Afdal, son of Saladin, who suffered from depression.", "The work was translated into Latin, and published in Florence in 1477, becoming the first medical book to appear in print there.", "While his prescriptions may have become obsolete, \"his ideas about preventive medicine, public hygiene, approach to the suffering patient, and the preservation of the health of the soul have not become obsolete.\"", "Maimonides wrote ten known medical works in Arabic that have been translated by the Jewish medical ethicist Fred Rosner into contemporary English.", "Lectures, conferences and research on Maimonides, even recently in the 21st century, have been done at medical universities in Morocco.", "*, Suessmann Muntner (ed.", "), Mossad Harav Kook: Jerusalem 1963 (translated into Hebrew by Moshe Ibn Tibbon) ()* ''The Art of Cure – Extracts from Galen'' (Barzel, 1992, Vol.", "5) is essentially an extract of Galen's extensive writings.", "* ''Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates'' (Rosner, 1987, Vol.", "2; Hebrew: ) is interspersed with his own views.", "* ''Medical Aphorisms of Moses'' (Rosner, 1989, Vol.", "3) titled ''Fusul Musa'' in Arabic (\"Chapters of Moses\", Hebrew: ) contains 1500 aphorisms and many medical conditions are described.", "* ''Treatise on Hemorrhoids'' (in Rosner, 1984, Vol.", "1; Hebrew: ) discusses also digestion and food.", "* ''Treatise on Cohabitation'' (in Rosner, 1984, Vol.", "1) contains recipes as aphrodisiacs and anti-aphrodisiacs.", "* ''Treatise on Asthma'' (Rosner, 1994, Vol.", "6) discusses climates and diets and their effect on asthma and emphasizes the need for clean air.", "* ''Treatise on Poisons and Their Antidotes'' (in Rosner, 1984, Vol.", "1) is an early toxicology textbook that remained popular for centuries.", "* ''Regimen of Health'' (in Rosner, 1990, Vol.", "4; Hebrew: ) is a discourse on healthy living and the mind-body connection.", "* ''Discourse on the Explanation of Fits'' advocates healthy living and the avoidance of overabundance.", "* ''Glossary of Drug Names'' (Rosner, 1992, Vol.", "7) represents a pharmacopeia with 405 paragraphs with the names of drugs in Arabic, Greek, Syrian, Persian, Berber, and Spanish.====''The Oath of Maimonides''====The ''Oath of Maimonides'' is a document about the medical calling and recited as a substitute for the ''Hippocratic Oath''.", "It is not to be confused with a more lengthy ''Prayer of Maimonides''.", "These documents may not have been written by Maimonides, but later.", "The ''Prayer'' appeared first in print in 1793 and has been attributed to Markus Herz, a German physician, pupil of Immanuel Kant.===Treatise on logic===The ''Treatise on Logic'' (Arabic: ) has been printed 17 times, including editions in Latin (1527), German (1805, 1822, 1833, 1828), French (1936) by Moïse Ventura and in 1996 by Rémi Brague, and English (1938) by Israel Efros, and in an abridged Hebrew form.", "The work illustrates the essentials of Aristotelian logic to be found in the teachings of the great Islamic philosophers such as Avicenna and, above all, Al-Farabi, \"the Second Master,\" the \"First Master\" being Aristotle.", "In his work devoted to the Treatise, Rémi Brague stresses the fact that Al-Farabi is the only philosopher mentioned therein.", "This indicates a line of conduct for the reader, who must read the text keeping in mind Al-Farabi's works on logic.", "In the Hebrew versions, the Treatise is called ''The words of Logic'' which describes the bulk of the work.", "The author explains the technical meaning of the words used by logicians.", "The Treatise duly inventories the terms used by the logician and indicates what they refer to.", "The work proceeds rationally through a lexicon of philosophical terms to a summary of higher philosophical topics, in 14 chapters corresponding to Maimonides' birthdate of 14 Nissan.", "The number 14 recurs in many of Maimonides' works.", "Each chapter offers a cluster of associated notions.", "The meaning of the words is explained and illustrated with examples.", "At the end of each chapter, the author carefully draws up the list of words studied.Until very recently, it was accepted that Maimonides wrote the ''Treatise on Logic'' in his twenties or even in his teen years.", "Herbert Davidson has raised questions about Maimonides' authorship of this short work (and of other short works traditionally attributed to Maimonides).", "He maintains that Maimonides was not the author at all, based on a report of two Arabic-language manuscripts, unavailable to Western investigators in Asia Minor.", "Rabbi Yosef Kafih maintained that it is by Maimonides and newly translated it to Hebrew (as ) from the Judeo-Arabic." ], [ "Philosophy", "Through ''The Guide for the Perplexed'' and the philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the Mishna, Maimonides exerted an important influence on the Scholastic philosophers, especially on Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus.", "He was a Jewish Scholastic.", "Educated more by reading the works of Arab Muslim philosophers than by personal contact with Arabian teachers, he acquired an intimate acquaintance not only with Arab Muslim philosophy, but with the doctrines of Aristotle.", "Maimonides strove to reconcile Aristotelianism and science with the teachings of the Torah.", "In his ''Guide for the Perplexed'', he often explains the function and purpose of the statutory provisions contained in the Torah against the backdrop of the historical conditions.", "Maimonides is said to have been influenced by Asaph the Jew, who was the first Hebrew medical writer, and by Al-Ghazali, a prominent Persian philosopher.", "The book was highly controversial in its day, and was banned by French rabbis, who burnt copies of the work in Montpellier.===Thirteen principles of faith===In his commentary on the Mishnah (Tractate Sanhedrin, chapter 10), Maimonides formulates his \"13 principles of faith\"; and that these principles summarized what he viewed as the required beliefs of Judaism:# The existence of God.# God's unity and indivisibility into elements.# God's spirituality and incorporeality.# God's eternity.# God alone should be the object of worship.# Revelation through God's prophets.# The preeminence of Moses among the prophets.# That the entire Torah (both the Written and Oral law) are of Divine origin and were dictated to Moses by God on Mt.", "Sinai.# The Torah given by Moses is permanent and will not be replaced or changed.# God's awareness of all human actions and thoughts.# Reward of righteousness and punishment of evil.# The coming of the Jewish Messiah.# The resurrection of the dead.Maimonides is said to have compiled the principles from various Talmudic sources.", "These principles were controversial when first proposed, evoking criticism by Rabbis Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, and were effectively ignored by much of the Jewish community for the next few centuries.", "However, these principles have become widely held and are considered to be the cardinal principles of faith for Orthodox Jews.", "Two poetic restatements of these principles ( and ) eventually became canonized in many editions of the Siddur (Jewish prayer book).The omission of a list of these principles as such within his later works, the and ''The Guide for the Perplexed'', has led some to suggest that either he retracted his earlier position, or that these principles are descriptive rather than prescriptive.===Theology===Depiction of Maimonides teaching students about the 'measure of man' in an illuminated manuscriptMaimonides equated the God of Abraham to what philosophers refer to as the Necessary Being.", "God is unique in the universe, and the Torah commands that one love and fear God (Deut 10:12) on account of that uniqueness.", "To Maimonides, this meant that one ought to contemplate God's works and to marvel at the order and wisdom that went into their creation.", "When one does this, one inevitably comes to love God and to sense how insignificant one is in comparison to God.", "This is the basis of the Torah.The principle that inspired his philosophical activity was identical to a fundamental tenet of scholasticism: there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy.", "Maimonides primarily relied upon the science of Aristotle and the teachings of the Talmud, commonly claiming to find a basis for the latter in the former.Maimonides' admiration for the Neoplatonic commentators led him to doctrines which the later Scholastics did not accept.", "For instance, Maimonides was an adherent of apophatic theology.", "In this theology, one attempts to describe God through negative attributes.", "For example, one should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; it can be said that God is not non-existent.", "One should not say that \"God is wise\"; but it can be said that \"God is not ignorant,\" i.e., in some way, God has some properties of knowledge.", "One should not say that \"God is One,\" but it can be stated that \"there is no multiplicity in God's being.\"", "In brief, the attempt is to gain and express knowledge of God by describing what God is not, rather than by describing what God \"is.", "\"Maimonides argued adamantly that God is not corporeal.", "This was central to his thinking about the sin of idolatry.", "Maimonides insisted that all of the anthropomorphic phrases pertaining to God in sacred texts are to be interpreted metaphorically.", "A related tenet of Maimonidean theology is the notion that the commandments, especially those pertaining to sacrifices, are intended to help wean the Israelites away from idolatry.Maimonides also argued that God embodied reason, intellect, science, and nature, and was omnipotent and indescribable.", "He said that science, the growth of scientific fields, and discovery of the unknown by comprehension of nature was a way to appreciate God.===Character development===Maimonides taught about the developing of one's moral character.", "Although his life predated the modern concept of a personality, Maimonides believed that each person has an innate disposition along an ethical and emotional spectrum.", "Although one's disposition is often determined by factors outside of one's control, human beings have free will to choose to behave in ways that build character.", "He wrote, \"One is obligated to conduct his affairs with others in a gentle and pleasing manner.\"", "Maimonides advised that those with antisocial character traits should identify those traits and then make a conscious effort to behave in the opposite way.", "For example, an arrogant person should practice humility.", "If the circumstances of one's environment are such that it is impossible to behave ethically, one must move to a new location.===Prophecy===Maimonides agreed with \"the Philosopher\" (Aristotle) that the use of logic is the \"right\" way of thinking.", "He claimed that in order to understand how to know God, every human being must, by study, and meditation attain the degree of perfection required to reach the prophetic state.", "Despite his rationalistic approach, he does not explicitly reject the previous ideas (as portrayed, for example, by Rabbi Yehuda Halevi in his ) that in order to become a prophet, God must intervene.", "Maimonides teaches that prophecy is the highest purpose of the most learned and refined individuals.===The problem of evil===Maimonides wrote on theodicy (the philosophical attempt to reconcile the existence of a God with the existence of evil).", "He took the premise that an omnipotent and good God exists.", "In ''The Guide for the Perplexed'', Maimonides writes that all the evil that exists within human beings stems from their individual attributes, while all good comes from a universally shared humanity (Guide 3:8).", "He says that there are people who are guided by higher purpose, and there are those who are guided by physicality and must strive to find the higher purpose with which to guide their actions.To justify the existence of evil, assuming God is both omnipotent and omnibenevolent, Maimonides postulates that one who created something by causing its opposite not to exist is not the same as creating something that exists; so evil is merely the absence of good.", "God did not create evil, rather God created good, and evil exists where good is absent (Guide 3:10).", "Therefore, all good is divine invention, and evil both is not and comes secondarily.Maimonides contests the common view that evil outweighs good in the world.", "He says that if one were to examine existence only in terms of humanity, then that person may observe evil to dominate good, but if one looks at the whole of the universe, then he sees good is significantly more common than evil (Guide 3:12).", "Man, he reasons, is too insignificant a figure in God's myriad works to be their primary characterizing force, and so when people see mostly evil in their lives, they are not taking into account the extent of positive Creation outside of themselves.Maimonides believes that there are three types of evil in the world: evil caused by nature, evil that people bring upon others, and evil man brings upon himself (Guide 3:12).", "The first type of evil Maimonides states is the rarest form, but arguably of the most necessary—the balance of life and death in both the human and animal worlds itself, he recognizes, is essential to God's plan.", "Maimonides writes that the second type of evil is relatively rare, and that humanity brings it upon itself.", "The third type of evil humans bring upon themselves and is the source of most of the ills of the world.", "These are the result of people's falling victim to their physical desires.", "To prevent the majority of evil which stems from harm one does to oneself, one must learn how to respond to one's bodily urges.===Skepticism of astrology===Maimonides answered an inquiry concerning astrology, addressed to him from Marseille.", "He responded that man should believe only what can be supported either by rational proof, by the evidence of the senses, or by trustworthy authority.", "He affirms that he had studied astrology, and that it does not deserve to be described as a science.", "He ridicules the concept that the fate of a man could be dependent upon the constellations; he argues that such a theory would rob life of purpose, and would make man a slave of destiny.===True beliefs versus necessary beliefs===In ''The Guide for the Perplexed'' Book III, Chapter 28, Maimonides draws a distinction between \"true beliefs,\" which were beliefs about God that produced intellectual perfection, and \"necessary beliefs,\" which were conducive to improving social order.", "Maimonides places anthropomorphic personification statements about God in the latter class.", "He uses as an example the notion that God becomes \"angry\" with people who do wrong.", "In the view of Maimonides (taken from Avicenna), God does not become angry with people, as God has no human passions; but it is important for them to believe God does, so that they desist from doing wrong.=== Righteousness and charity ===Maimonides conceived of an eight-level hierarchy of tzedakah, where the highest form is to give a gift, loan, or partnership that will result in the recipient becoming self-sufficient instead of living upon others.", "In his view, the lowest form of ''tzedakah'' is to give begrudgingly.", "The eight levels are:# Giving begrudgingly# Giving less than you should, but giving it cheerfully# Giving after being asked# Giving before being asked# Giving when you do not know the recipient's identity, but the recipient knows your identity# Giving when you know the recipient's identity, but the recipient doesn't know your identity# Giving when neither party knows the other's identity# Enabling the recipient to become self-reliant===Eschatology=======The Messianic era====Perhaps one of Maimonides' most highly acclaimed and renowned writings is his treatise on the Messianic era, written originally in Judeo-Arabic and which he elaborates on in great detail in his Commentary on the Mishnah (Introduction to the 10th chapter of tractate Sanhedrin, also known as ).====Resurrection====Religious Jews believed in immortality in a spiritual sense, and most believed that the future would include a messianic era and a resurrection of the dead.", "This is the subject of Jewish eschatology.", "Maimonides wrote much on this topic, but in most cases he wrote about the immortality of the soul for people of perfected intellect; his writings were usually about the resurrection of dead bodies.", "Rabbis of his day were critical of this aspect of this thought, and there was controversy over his true views.Eventually, Maimonides felt pressured to write a treatise on the subject, known as \"The Treatise on Resurrection.\"", "In it, he wrote that those who claimed that he believed the verses of the Hebrew Bible referring to the resurrection were only allegorical were spreading falsehoods.", "Maimonides asserts that belief in resurrection is a fundamental truth of Judaism about which there is no disagreement.While his position on the World to Come (non-corporeal eternal life as described above) may be seen as being in contradiction with his position on bodily resurrection, Maimonides resolved them with a then unique solution: Maimonides believed that the resurrection was not permanent or general.", "In his view, God never violates the laws of nature.", "Rather, divine interaction is by way of angels, whom Maimonides often regards to be metaphors for the laws of nature, the principles by which the physical universe operates, or Platonic eternal forms.", "Thus, if a unique event actually occurs, even if it is perceived as a miracle, it is not a violation of the world's order.In this view, any dead who are resurrected must eventually die again.", "In his discussion of the 13 principles of faith, the first five deal with knowledge of God, the next four deal with prophecy and the Torah, while the last four deal with reward, punishment and the ultimate redemption.", "In this discussion Maimonides says nothing of a universal resurrection.", "All he says it is that whatever resurrection does take place, it will occur at an indeterminate time before the world to come, which he repeatedly states will be purely spiritual.====The World to Come====Maimonides distinguishes two kinds of intelligence in man, the one material in the sense of being dependent on, and influenced by, the body, and the other immaterial, that is, independent of the bodily organism.", "The latter is a direct emanation from the universal active intellect; this is his interpretation of the of Aristotelian philosophy.", "It is acquired as the result of the efforts of the soul to attain a correct knowledge of the absolute, pure intelligence of God.The knowledge of God is a form of knowledge which develops in us the immaterial intelligence, and thus confers on man an immaterial, spiritual nature.", "This confers on the soul that perfection in which human happiness consists, and endows the soul with immortality.", "One who has attained a correct knowledge of God has reached a condition of existence, which renders him immune from all the accidents of fortune, from all the allurements of sin, and from death itself.", "Man is in a position to work out his own salvation and his immortality.Baruch Spinoza's doctrine of immortality was strikingly similar.", "However, Spinoza teaches that the way to attain the knowledge which confers immortality is the progress from sense-knowledge through scientific knowledge to philosophical intuition of all things , while Maimonides holds that the road to perfection and immortality is the path of duty as described in the Torah and the rabbinic understanding of the oral law.Maimonides describes the world to come as the stage after a person lives their life in this world as well as the final state of existence after the Messianic Era.", "Some time after the resurrection of the dead, souls will live forever without bodies.", "They will enjoy the radiance of the Divine Presence without the need for food, drink or sexual pleasures.===Maimonides and Kabbalah===Maimonides was not known as a supporter of Kabbalah, although a strong intellectual type of mysticism has been discerned in his philosophy.", "In ''The Guide for the Perplexed'', Maimonides declares his intention to conceal from the average reader his explanations of esoteric meanings of Torah.", "The nature of these \"secrets\" is debated.", "Religious Jewish rationalists, and the mainstream academic view, read Maimonides' Aristotelianism as a mutually-exclusive alternative metaphysics to Kabbalah.", "Some academics hold that Maimonides' project fought against the Proto-Kabbalah of his time.Maimonides employed rationalism to defend Judaism rather than limit inquiry of only to rationalism.", "His rationalism, if not taken as an opposition, also assisted the Kabbalists, purifying their transmitted teaching from mistaken corporeal interpretations that could have been made from Hekhalot literature, though Kabbalists held that their theosophy alone allowed human access to Divine mysteries." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "The title page of ''The Guide for the Perplexed''Maimonides' is considered by Jews even today as one of the chief authoritative codifications of Jewish law and ethics.", "It is exceptional for its logical construction, concise and clear expression and extraordinary learning, so that it became a standard against which other later codifications were often measured.", "It is still closely studied in rabbinic (seminaries).", "The first to compile a comprehensive lexicon containing an alphabetically arranged list of difficult words found in Maimonides' was Tanḥum ha-Yerushalmi (1220–1291).", "A popular medieval saying that also served as his epitaph states, \"From Mosheh of the Torah to Mosheh Maimonides there was none like Mosheh.\"", "It chiefly referred to his rabbinic writings.However, Maimonides was also one of the most influential figures in medieval Jewish philosophy.", "His adaptation of Aristotelian thought to Biblical faith deeply impressed later Jewish thinkers, and had an unexpected immediate historical impact.", "Some more acculturated Jews in the century that followed his death, particularly in Spain, sought to apply Maimonides' Aristotelianism in ways that undercut traditionalist belief and observance, giving rise to an intellectual controversy in Spanish and southern French Jewish circles.", "The intensity of debate spurred Catholic Church interventions against \"heresy\" and a general confiscation of rabbinic texts.In reaction, the more radical interpretations of Maimonides were defeated.", "At least amongst Ashkenazi Jews, there was a tendency to ignore his specifically philosophical writings and to stress instead the rabbinic and halakhic writings.", "These writings often included considerable philosophical chapters or discussions in support of halakhic observance; David Hartman observes that Maimonides clearly expressed \"the traditional support for a philosophical understanding of God both in the Aggadah of Talmud and in the behavior of the hasid the pious Jew.\"", "Maimonidean thought continues to influence traditionally observant Jews.The most rigorous medieval critique of Maimonides is Hasdai Crescas' .", "Crescas bucked the eclectic trend, by demolishing the certainty of the Aristotelian world-view, not only in religious matters but also in the most basic areas of medieval science (such as physics and geometry).", "Crescas' critique provoked a number of 15th-century scholars to write defenses of Maimonides.Because of his path-finding synthesis of Aristotle and Biblical faith, Maimonides had an influence on Christian theologian Thomas Aquinas who refers to Maimonides in several of his works, including the ''Commentary on the Sentences''.Maimonides' combined abilities in the fields of theology, philosophy and medicine make his work attractive today as a source during discussions of evolving norms in these fields, particularly medicine.", "An example is the modern citation of his method of determining death of the body in the controversy regarding declaration of death to permit organ donation for transplantation.===Maimonides and the Modernists===Plaque of Maimonides at Rambam Medical Center, HaifaMaimonides remains one of the most widely debated Jewish thinkers among modern scholars.", "He has been adopted as a symbol and an intellectual hero by almost all major movements in modern Judaism, and has proven important to philosophers such as Leo Strauss; and his views on the importance of humility have been taken up by modern humanist philosophers.In academia, particularly within the area of Jewish Studies, the teaching of Maimonides has been dominated by traditional scholars, generally Orthodox, who place a very strong emphasis on Maimonides as a rationalist; one result is that certain sides of Maimonides' thought, including his opposition to anthropocentrism, have been obviated.", "There are movements in some postmodern circles to claim Maimonides for other purposes, as within the discourse of ecotheology.", "Maimonides' reconciliation of the philosophical and the traditional has given his legacy an extremely diverse and dynamic quality.===Tributes and memorials===1 ILS banknote.Maimonides has been memorialized in numerous ways.", "For example, one of the Learning Communities at the Tufts University School of Medicine bears his name.", "There is also Maimonides School in Brookline, Massachusetts, Maimonides Academy School in Los Angeles, California, Lycée Maïmonide in Casablanca, the Brauser Maimonides Academy in Hollywood, Florida, and Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York.", "Beit Harambam Congregation, a Sephardi synagogue in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is named after him.Issued from 8 May 1986 to 1995, the Series A of the Israeli New Shekel featured an illustration of Maimonides on the obverse and the place of his burial in Tiberias on the reverse on its 1-shekel bill.In 2004, conferences were held at Yale, Florida International University, Penn State, and the Rambam Hospital in Haifa, Israel, which is named after him.", "To commemorate the 800th anniversary of his death, Harvard University issued a memorial volume.", "In 1953, the Israel Postal Authority issued a postage stamp of Maimonides, pictured.In March 2008, during the Euromed Conference of Ministers of Tourism, The Tourism Ministries of Israel, Morocco and Spain agreed to work together on a joint project that will trace the footsteps of the Rambam and thus boost religious tourism in the cities of Córdoba, Fez and Tiberias.Between December 2018 and January 2019 the Israel Museum held a special exhibit dedicated to the writings of Maimonides." ], [ "Burial place", "Burial marker at the tomb of Rabbi Moses ben Maimon in Tiberias.He is buried in HaRambam compound in Tiberias.", "Other notable rabbis also buried in HaRambam compound / complex are:* Shelah HaKadosh* Eliezer ben Hurcanus* Yohanan ben Zakkai* Joshua ben Hananiah" ], [ "See also", "* Averroes* (''Epistle to Yemen'')* Maimonides Foundation* Mimouna" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Originally published by the Jewish Publication of America, Philadelphia.", "* * * * * See especially chapters 10 through 15.", "*** (Volume 5 translated by Uriel Barzel; foreword by Fred Rosner.", ")* * * * See chapters 5 through 8.", "* * reprint* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Maimonides: Abū ʿImrān Mūsā Moses ibn ʿUbayd Allāh Maymūn al‐Qurṭubī www.islamsci.mcgill.ca * * * *" ], [ "External links", ";About Maimonides* Maimonides entry in the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' (1906)* Maimonides entry in the Encyclopædia Britannica* Maimonides entry in the ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', 2nd edition (2007)* * \"Maimonides entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\"* Video lecture on Maimonides by Dr. Henry Abramson* Maimonides, a biography — book by David Yellin and Israel Abrahams* Maimonides as a Philosopher* The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides* \"The Moses of Cairo,\" Article from ''Policy Review''* Rambam and the Earth: Maimonides as a Proto-Ecological Thinker – reprint on neohasid.org from The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ecology* Anti-Maimonidean Demons by Jose Faur, describing the controversy surrounding Maimonides' works* David Yellin and Israel Abrahams, '' Maimonides'' (1903) (full text of a biography)* ( PDF version)* Maimonides at intellectualencounters.org * * *'' The Guide: An Explanatory Commentary on Each Chapter of Maimonides' Guide of The Perplexed'' by Scott Michael Alexander (covers all of Book I, currently);Maimonides' works* Steinberg '''The Rambam Mishneh Torah Codex''' on ''Amazon''* Steinberg '''The Rambam Chumash''' on ''Amazon''* Complete Mishneh Torah online, halakhic work of Maimonides* Sefer Hamitzvot, English translation* Oral Readings of Mishne Torah — Free listening and Download, site also had classes in Maimonides' ''Iggereth Teiman''* Maimonides 13 Principles * Intellectual Encounters – Main Thinkers – Moses Maimonides, in intellectualencounters.org* Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Autograph Draft , Egypt, 1180* British Library – Autograph responsum of Moses Maimonides, pre-eminent Jewish polymath and spiritual leader, Ilana Tahan* Digitized works by Maimonides at the Leo Baeck Institute;Texts by Maimonides* Siddur Mesorath Moshe, a prayerbook based on the early Jewish liturgy as found in Maimonides' Mishne Tora* Rambam's introduction to the Mishneh Torah (English translation)* Rambam's introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah (Hebrew-language full text)* The Guide For the Perplexed by Moses Maimonides translated into English by Michael Friedländer* Writings of Maimonides; manuscripts and early print editions.", "Jewish National and University Library* Facsimile edition of Moreh Nevukhim/The Guide for the Perplexed (illuminated Hebrew manuscript, Barcelona, 1347–48).", "The Royal Library, Copenhagen * University of Cambridge Library collection of Judeo-Arabic letters and manuscripts written by or to Maimonides.", "It includes the last letter his brother David sent him before drowning at sea.", "* A. Ashur, A newly discovered medical recipe written by Maimonides * M.A Friedman and A. Ashur, A newly-discovered autograph responsum of Maimonides **" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magnetic resonance imaging" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Magnetic resonance imaging''' ('''MRI''') is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body.", "MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves to generate images of the organs in the body.", "MRI does not involve X-rays or the use of ionizing radiation, which distinguishes it from computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans.", "MRI is a medical application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) which can also be used for imaging in other NMR applications, such as NMR spectroscopy.MRI is widely used in hospitals and clinics for medical diagnosis, staging and follow-up of disease.", "Compared to CT, MRI provides better contrast in images of soft tissues, e.g.", "in the brain or abdomen.", "However, it may be perceived as less comfortable by patients, due to the usually longer and louder measurements with the subject in a long, confining tube, although \"open\" MRI designs mostly relieve this.", "Additionally, implants and other non-removable metal in the body can pose a risk and may exclude some patients from undergoing an MRI examination safely.MRI was originally called NMRI (nuclear magnetic resonance imaging), but \"nuclear\" was dropped to avoid negative associations.", "Certain atomic nuclei are able to absorb radio frequency (RF) energy when placed in an external magnetic field; the resultant evolving spin polarization can induce a RF signal in a radio frequency coil and thereby be detected.", "In clinical and research MRI, hydrogen atoms are most often used to generate a macroscopic polarization that is detected by antennas close to the subject being examined.", "Hydrogen atoms are naturally abundant in humans and other biological organisms, particularly in water and fat.", "For this reason, most MRI scans essentially map the location of water and fat in the body.", "Pulses of radio waves excite the nuclear spin energy transition, and magnetic field gradients localize the polarization in space.", "By varying the parameters of the pulse sequence, different contrasts may be generated between tissues based on the relaxation properties of the hydrogen atoms therein.Since its development in the 1970s and 1980s, MRI has proven to be a versatile imaging technique.", "While MRI is most prominently used in diagnostic medicine and biomedical research, it also may be used to form images of non-living objects, such as mummies.", "Diffusion MRI and functional MRI extend the utility of MRI to capture neuronal tracts and blood flow respectively in the nervous system, in addition to detailed spatial images.", "The sustained increase in demand for MRI within health systems has led to concerns about cost effectiveness and overdiagnosis." ], [ "Mechanism", "===Construction and physics===Schematic of a cylindrical superconducting MR scanner.", "Top: cross section of the cylinder with primary coil, gradient coils and RF transmit coilsBottom: longitudinal section of the cylinder and table, showing the same coils and the RF receive coil.In most medical applications, hydrogen nuclei, which consist solely of a proton, that are in tissues create a signal that is processed to form an image of the body in terms of the density of those nuclei in a specific region.", "Given that the protons are affected by fields from other atoms to which they are bonded, it is possible to separate responses from hydrogen in specific compounds.", "To perform a study, the person is positioned within an MRI scanner that forms a strong magnetic field around the area to be imaged.", "First, energy from an oscillating magnetic field is temporarily applied to the patient at the appropriate resonance frequency.", "Scanning with X and Y gradient coils causes a selected region of the patient to experience the exact magnetic field required for the energy to be absorbed.", "The atoms are excited by a RF pulse and the resultant signal is measured by a receiving coil.", "The RF signal may be processed to deduce position information by looking at the changes in RF level and phase caused by varying the local magnetic field using gradient coils.", "As these coils are rapidly switched during the excitation and response to perform a moving line scan, they create the characteristic repetitive noise of an MRI scan as the windings move slightly due to magnetostriction.", "The contrast between different tissues is determined by the rate at which excited atoms return to the equilibrium state.", "Exogenous contrast agents may be given to the person to make the image clearer.The major components of an MRI scanner are the main magnet, which polarizes the sample, the shim coils for correcting shifts in the homogeneity of the main magnetic field, the gradient system which is used to localize the region to be scanned and the RF system, which excites the sample and detects the resulting NMR signal.", "The whole system is controlled by one or more computers.A mobile MRI unit visiting Glebefields Health Centre, Tipton, EnglandMRI requires a magnetic field that is both strong and uniform to a few parts per million across the scan volume.", "The field strength of the magnet is measured in teslas – and while the majority of systems operate at 1.5 T, commercial systems are available between 0.2 and 7 T. Whole-body MRI systems for research applications operate in e.g.", "9.4T, 10.5T, 11.7T.", "Even higher field whole-body MRI systems e.g.", "14 T and beyond are in conceptual proposal or in engineering design.", "Most clinical magnets are superconducting magnets, which require liquid helium to keep them at low temperatures.", "Lower field strengths can be achieved with permanent magnets, which are often used in \"open\" MRI scanners for claustrophobic patients.", "Lower field strengths are also used in a portable MRI scanner approved by the FDA in 2020.Recently, MRI has been demonstrated also at ultra-low fields, i.e., in the microtesla-to-millitesla range, where sufficient signal quality is made possible by prepolarization (on the order of 10–100 mT) and by measuring the Larmor precession fields at about 100 microtesla with highly sensitive superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs).===T1 and T2===Effects of TR and TE on MR signalPD-weighted MRI scansEach tissue returns to its equilibrium state after excitation by the independent relaxation processes of T1 (spin-lattice; that is, magnetization in the same direction as the static magnetic field) and T2 (spin-spin; transverse to the static magnetic field).To create a T1-weighted image, magnetization is allowed to recover before measuring the MR signal by changing the repetition time (TR).", "This image weighting is useful for assessing the cerebral cortex, identifying fatty tissue, characterizing focal liver lesions, and in general, obtaining morphological information, as well as for post-contrast imaging.To create a T2-weighted image, magnetization is allowed to decay before measuring the MR signal by changing the echo time (TE).", "This image weighting is useful for detecting edema and inflammation, revealing white matter lesions, and assessing zonal anatomy in the prostate and uterus.The information from MRI scans comes in the form of image contrasts based on differences in the rate of relaxation of nuclear spins following their perturbation by an oscillating magnetic field (in the form of radiofrequency pulses through the sample).", "The relaxation rates are a measure of the time it takes for a signal to decay back to an equilibrium state from either the longitudinal or transverse plane.Magnetization builds up along the z-axis in the presence of a magnetic field, B0, such that the magnetic dipoles in the sample will, on average, align with the z-axis summing to a total magnetization Mz.", "This magnetization along z is defined as the equilibrium magnetization; magnetization is defined as the sum of all magnetic dipoles in a sample.", "Following the equilibrium magnetization, a 90° radiofrequency (RF) pulse flips the direction of the magnetization vector in the xy-plane, and is then switched off.", "The initial magnetic field B0, however, is still applied.", "Thus, the spin magnetization vector will slowly return from the xy-plane back to the equilibrium state.", "The time it takes for the magnetization vector to return to its equilibrium value, Mz, is referred to as the longitudinal relaxation time, T1.Subsequently, the rate at which this happens is simply the reciprocal of the relaxation time: .", "Similarly, the time in which it takes for Mxy to return to zero is T2, with the rate .", "Magnetization as a function of time is defined by the Bloch equations.Diagram of changing magnetization and spin orientations throughout spin-lattice relaxation experimentT1 and T2 values are dependent on the chemical environment of the sample; hence their utility in MRI.", "Soft tissue and muscle tissue relax at different rates, yielding the image contrast in a typical scan.The standard display of MR images is to represent fluid characteristics in black-and-white images, where different tissues turn out as follows: Signal T1-weighted T2-weighted '''High'''* Fat* Subacute hemorrhage* Melanin* Protein-rich fluid* Slowly flowing blood* Paramagnetic or diamagnetic substances, such as gadolinium, manganese, copper* Cortical pseudolaminar necrosis* Anatomy* More water content, as in edema, tumor, infarction, inflammation and infection* Extracellularly located methemoglobin in subacute hemorrhage* Fat* Pathology '''Intermediate''' Gray matter darker than white matter White matter darker than grey matter '''Low'''* Bone* Urine* CSF* Air* More water content, as in edema, tumor, infarction, inflammation, infection, hyperacute or chronic hemorrhage* Low proton density as in calcification* Bone* Air* Low proton density, as in calcification and fibrosis* Paramagnetic material, such as deoxyhemoglobin, intracellular methemoglobin, iron, ferritin, hemosiderin, melanin* Protein-rich fluid" ], [ "Diagnostics", "=== Usage by organ or system ===Patient being positioned for MR study of the head and abdomenMRI has a wide range of applications in medical diagnosis and more than 25,000 scanners are estimated to be in use worldwide.", "MRI affects diagnosis and treatment in many specialties although the effect on improved health outcomes is disputed in certain cases.MRI is the investigation of choice in the preoperative staging of rectal and prostate cancer and has a role in the diagnosis, staging, and follow-up of other tumors, as well as for determining areas of tissue for sampling in biobanking.==== Neuroimaging ====MRI diffusion tensor imaging of white matter tractsMRI is the investigative tool of choice for neurological cancers over CT, as it offers better visualization of the posterior cranial fossa, containing the brainstem and the cerebellum.", "The contrast provided between grey and white matter makes MRI the best choice for many conditions of the central nervous system, including demyelinating diseases, dementia, cerebrovascular disease, infectious diseases, Alzheimer's disease and epilepsy.", "Since many images are taken milliseconds apart, it shows how the brain responds to different stimuli, enabling researchers to study both the functional and structural brain abnormalities in psychological disorders.", "MRI also is used in guided stereotactic surgery and radiosurgery for treatment of intracranial tumors, arteriovenous malformations, and other surgically treatable conditions using a device known as the N-localizer.", "New tools that implement artificial intelligence in healthcare have demonstrated higher image quality and morphometric analysis in neuroimaging with the application of a denoising system.The record for the highest spatial resolution of a whole intact brain (postmortem) is 100 microns, from Massachusetts General Hospital.", "The data was published in NATURE on 30 October 2019.==== Cardiovascular ====MR angiogram in congenital heart diseaseCardiac MRI is complementary to other imaging techniques, such as echocardiography, cardiac CT, and nuclear medicine.", "It can be used to assess the structure and the function of the heart.", "Its applications include assessment of myocardial ischemia and viability, cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, iron overload, vascular diseases, and congenital heart disease.==== Musculoskeletal ====Applications in the musculoskeletal system include spinal imaging, assessment of joint disease, and soft tissue tumors.", "Also, MRI techniques can be used for diagnostic imaging ofsystemic muscle diseases including genetic muscle diseases.Swallowing movement of throat and oesophagus can cause motion artifact over the imaged spine.", "Therefore, a saturation pulse applied over this region the throat and oesophagus can help to avoid this artifact.", "Motion artifact arising due to pumping of the heart can be reduced by timing the MRI pulse according to heart cycles.", "Blood vessels flow artifacts can be reduced by applying saturation pulses above and below the region of interest.==== Liver and gastrointestinal ====Hepatobiliary MR is used to detect and characterize lesions of the liver, pancreas, and bile ducts.", "Focal or diffuse disorders of the liver may be evaluated using diffusion-weighted, opposed-phase imaging and dynamic contrast enhancement sequences.", "Extracellular contrast agents are used widely in liver MRI, and newer hepatobiliary contrast agents also provide the opportunity to perform functional biliary imaging.", "Anatomical imaging of the bile ducts is achieved by using a heavily T2-weighted sequence in magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP).", "Functional imaging of the pancreas is performed following administration of secretin.", "MR enterography provides non-invasive assessment of inflammatory bowel disease and small bowel tumors.", "MR-colonography may play a role in the detection of large polyps in patients at increased risk of colorectal cancer.==== Angiography ====Magnetic resonance angiographyMagnetic resonance angiography (MRA) generates pictures of the arteries to evaluate them for stenosis (abnormal narrowing) or aneurysms (vessel wall dilatations, at risk of rupture).", "MRA is often used to evaluate the arteries of the neck and brain, the thoracic and abdominal aorta, the renal arteries, and the legs (called a \"run-off\").", "A variety of techniques can be used to generate the pictures, such as administration of a paramagnetic contrast agent (gadolinium) or using a technique known as \"flow-related enhancement\" (e.g., 2D and 3D time-of-flight sequences), where most of the signal on an image is due to blood that recently moved into that plane (see also FLASH MRI).Techniques involving phase accumulation (known as phase contrast angiography) can also be used to generate flow velocity maps easily and accurately.", "Magnetic resonance venography (MRV) is a similar procedure that is used to image veins.", "In this method, the tissue is now excited inferiorly, while the signal is gathered in the plane immediately superior to the excitation plane—thus imaging the venous blood that recently moved from the excited plane." ], [ "Contrast agents", "MRI for imaging anatomical structures or blood flow do not require contrast agents since the varying properties of the tissues or blood provide natural contrasts.", "However, for more specific types of imaging, exogenous contrast agents may be given intravenously, orally, or intra-articularly.", "Most contrast agents are either paramagnetic (e.g.", ": gadolinium, manganese, europium), and are used to shorten T1 in the tissue they accumulate in, or super-paramagnetic (SPIONs), and are used to shorten T2 and T2* in healthy tissue reducing its signal intensity (negative contrast agents).", "The most commonly used intravenous contrast agents are based on chelates of gadolinium, which is highly paramagnetic.", "In general, these agents have proved safer than the iodinated contrast agents used in X-ray radiography or CT. Anaphylactoid reactions are rare, occurring in approx.", "0.03–0.1%.", "Of particular interest is the lower incidence of nephrotoxicity, compared with iodinated agents, when given at usual doses—this has made contrast-enhanced MRI scanning an option for patients with renal impairment, who would otherwise not be able to undergo contrast-enhanced CT.Gadolinium-based contrast reagents are typically octadentate complexes of gadolinium(III).", "The complex is very stable (log K > 20) so that, in use, the concentration of the un-complexed Gd3+ ions should be below the toxicity limit.", "The 9th place in the metal ion's coordination sphere is occupied by a water molecule which exchanges rapidly with water molecules in the reagent molecule's immediate environment, affecting the magnetic resonance relaxation time.", "de Gruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110685701-007 DOI 10.1515/9783110685701-007 For details see MRI contrast agent.In December 2017, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States announced in a drug safety communication that new warnings were to be included on all gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs).", "The FDA also called for increased patient education and requiring gadolinium contrast vendors to conduct additional animal and clinical studies to assess the safety of these agents.Although gadolinium agents have proved useful for patients with kidney impairment, in patients with severe kidney failure requiring dialysis there is a risk of a rare but serious illness, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, which may be linked to the use of certain gadolinium-containing agents.", "The most frequently linked is gadodiamide, but other agents have been linked too.", "Although a causal link has not been definitively established, current guidelines in the United States are that dialysis patients should only receive gadolinium agents where essential and that dialysis should be performed as soon as possible after the scan to remove the agent from the body promptly.In Europe, where more gadolinium-containing agents are available, a classification of agents according to potential risks has been released.", "In 2008, a new contrast agent named gadoxetate, brand name Eovist (US) or Primovist (EU), was approved for diagnostic use: This has the theoretical benefit of a dual excretion path." ], [ "Sequences", "An MRI sequence is a particular setting of radiofrequency pulses and gradients, resulting in a particular image appearance.", "The T1 and T2 weighting can also be described as MRI sequences." ], [ "Other specialized configurations", "=== Magnetic resonance spectroscopy ===Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is used to measure the levels of different metabolites in body tissues, which can be achieved through a variety of single voxel or imaging-based techniques.", "The MR signal produces a spectrum of resonances that corresponds to different molecular arrangements of the isotope being \"excited\".", "This signature is used to diagnose certain metabolic disorders, especially those affecting the brain, and to provide information on tumor metabolism.Magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) combines both spectroscopic and imaging methods to produce spatially localized spectra from within the sample or patient.", "The spatial resolution is much lower (limited by the available SNR), but the spectra in each voxel contains information about many metabolites.", "Because the available signal is used to encode spatial and spectral information, MRSI requires high SNR achievable only at higher field strengths (3 T and above).", "The high procurement and maintenance costs of MRI with extremely high field strengths inhibit their popularity.", "However, recent compressed sensing-based software algorithms (''e.g.", "'', SAMV) have been proposed to achieve super-resolution without requiring such high field strengths.=== Real-time MRI ===Real-time MRI of a human heart at a resolution of 50 msReal-time MRI refers to the continuous imaging of moving objects (such as the heart) in real time.", "One of the many different strategies developed since the early 2000s is based on radial FLASH MRI, and iterative reconstruction.", "This gives a temporal resolution of 20–30 ms for images with an in-plane resolution of 1.5–2.0 mm.", "Balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP) imaging has a better image contrast between the blood pool and myocardium than the FLASH MRI, yet it will produce severe banding artifact when the B0 inhomogeneity is strong.", "Real-time MRI is likely to add important information on diseases of the heart and the joints, and in many cases may make MRI examinations easier and more comfortable for patients, especially for the patients who cannot hold their breathings or who have arrhythmia.=== Interventional MRI ===The lack of harmful effects on the patient and the operator make MRI well-suited for interventional radiology, where the images produced by an MRI scanner guide minimally invasive procedures.", "Such procedures use no ferromagnetic instruments.A specialized growing subset of interventional MRI is intraoperative MRI, in which an MRI is used in surgery.", "Some specialized MRI systems allow imaging concurrent with the surgical procedure.", "More typically, the surgical procedure is temporarily interrupted so that MRI can assess the success of the procedure or guide subsequent surgical work.=== Magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound ===In guided therapy, high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) beams are focused on a tissue, that are controlled using MR thermal imaging.", "Due to the high energy at the focus, the temperature rises to above 65 °C (150 °F) which completely destroys the tissue.", "This technology can achieve precise ablation of diseased tissue.", "MR imaging provides a three-dimensional view of the target tissue, allowing for the precise focusing of ultrasound energy.", "The MR imaging provides quantitative, real-time, thermal images of the treated area.", "This allows the physician to ensure that the temperature generated during each cycle of ultrasound energy is sufficient to cause thermal ablation within the desired tissue and if not, to adapt the parameters to ensure effective treatment.=== Multinuclear imaging ===Hydrogen has the most frequently imaged nucleus in MRI because it is present in biological tissues in great abundance, and because its high gyromagnetic ratio gives a strong signal.", "However, any nucleus with a net nuclear spin could potentially be imaged with MRI.", "Such nuclei include helium-3, lithium-7, carbon-13, fluorine-19, oxygen-17, sodium-23, phosphorus-31 and xenon-129.23Na and 31P are naturally abundant in the body, so they can be imaged directly.", "Gaseous isotopes such as 3He or 129Xe must be hyperpolarized and then inhaled as their nuclear density is too low to yield a useful signal under normal conditions.", "17O and 19F can be administered in sufficient quantities in liquid form (e.g.", "17O-water) that hyperpolarization is not a necessity.", "Using helium or xenon has the advantage of reduced background noise, and therefore increased contrast for the image itself, because these elements are not normally present in biological tissues.Moreover, the nucleus of any atom that has a net nuclear spin and that is bonded to a hydrogen atom could potentially be imaged via heteronuclear magnetization transfer MRI that would image the high-gyromagnetic-ratio hydrogen nucleus instead of the low-gyromagnetic-ratio nucleus that is bonded to the hydrogen atom.", "In principle, heteronuclear magnetization transfer MRI could be used to detect the presence or absence of specific chemical bonds.Multinuclear imaging is primarily a research technique at present.", "However, potential applications include functional imaging and imaging of organs poorly seen on 1H MRI (e.g., lungs and bones) or as alternative contrast agents.", "Inhaled hyperpolarized 3He can be used to image the distribution of air spaces within the lungs.", "Injectable solutions containing 13C or stabilized bubbles of hyperpolarized 129Xe have been studied as contrast agents for angiography and perfusion imaging.", "31P can potentially provide information on bone density and structure, as well as functional imaging of the brain.", "Multinuclear imaging holds the potential to chart the distribution of lithium in the human brain, this element finding use as an important drug for those with conditions such as bipolar disorder.=== Molecular imaging by MRI ===MRI has the advantages of having very high spatial resolution and is very adept at morphological imaging and functional imaging.", "MRI does have several disadvantages though.", "First, MRI has a sensitivity of around 10−3 mol/L to 10−5 mol/L, which, compared to other types of imaging, can be very limiting.", "This problem stems from the fact that the population difference between the nuclear spin states is very small at room temperature.", "For example, at 1.5 teslas, a typical field strength for clinical MRI, the difference between high and low energy states is approximately 9 molecules per 2 million.", "Improvements to increase MR sensitivity include increasing magnetic field strength and hyperpolarization via optical pumping or dynamic nuclear polarization.", "There are also a variety of signal amplification schemes based on chemical exchange that increase sensitivity.To achieve molecular imaging of disease biomarkers using MRI, targeted MRI contrast agents with high specificity and high relaxivity (sensitivity) are required.", "To date, many studies have been devoted to developing targeted-MRI contrast agents to achieve molecular imaging by MRI.", "Commonly, peptides, antibodies, or small ligands, and small protein domains, such as HER-2 affibodies, have been applied to achieve targeting.", "To enhance the sensitivity of the contrast agents, these targeting moieties are usually linked to high payload MRI contrast agents or MRI contrast agents with high relaxivities.", "A new class of gene targeting MR contrast agents has been introduced to show gene action of unique mRNA and gene transcription factor proteins.", "These new contrast agents can trace cells with unique mRNA, microRNA and virus; tissue response to inflammation in living brains.", "The MR reports change in gene expression with positive correlation to TaqMan analysis, optical and electron microscopy.=== Parallel MRI ===It takes time to gather MRI data using sequential applications of magnetic field gradients.", "Even for the most streamlined of MRI sequences, there are physical and physiologic limits to the rate of gradient switching.", "Parallel MRI circumvents these limits by gathering some portion of the data simultaneously, rather than in a traditional sequential fashion.", "This is accomplished using arrays of radiofrequency (RF) detector coils, each with a different 'view' of the body.", "A reduced set of gradient steps is applied, and the remaining spatial information is filled in by combining signals from various coils, based on their known spatial sensitivity patterns.", "The resulting acceleration is limited by the number of coils and by the signal to noise ratio (which decreases with increasing acceleration), but two- to four-fold accelerations may commonly be achieved with suitable coil array configurations, and substantially higher accelerations have been demonstrated with specialized coil arrays.", "Parallel MRI may be used with most MRI sequences.After a number of early suggestions for using arrays of detectors to accelerate imaging went largely unremarked in the MRI field, parallel imaging saw widespread development and application following the introduction of the SiMultaneous Acquisition of Spatial Harmonics (SMASH) technique in 1996–7.The SENSitivity Encoding (SENSE) and Generalized Autocalibrating Partially Parallel Acquisitions (GRAPPA) techniques are the parallel imaging methods in most common use today.", "The advent of parallel MRI resulted in extensive research and development in image reconstruction and RF coil design, as well as in a rapid expansion of the number of receiver channels available on commercial MR systems.", "Parallel MRI is now used routinely for MRI examinations in a wide range of body areas and clinical or research applications.=== Quantitative MRI ===Most MRI focuses on qualitative interpretation of MR data by acquiring spatial maps of relative variations in signal strength which are \"weighted\" by certain parameters.", "Quantitative methods instead attempt to determine spatial maps of accurate tissue relaxometry parameter values or magnetic field, or to measure the size of certain spatial features.Examples of quantitative MRI methods are:* T1-mapping (notably used in cardiac magnetic resonance imaging)* T2-mapping* Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM)* Quantitative fluid flow MRI (i.e.", "some cerebrospinal fluid flow MRI)* Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE)Quantitative MRI aims to increase the reproducibility of MR images and interpretations, but has historically require longer scan times.Quantitative MRI (or qMRI) sometimes more specifically refers to multi-parametric quantitative MRI, the mapping of multiple tissue relaxometry parameters in a single imaging session.Efforts to make multi-parametric quantitative MRI faster have produced sequences which map multiple parameters simultaneously, either by building separate encoding methods for each parameter into the sequence,or by fitting MR signal evolution to a multi-parameter model.=== Hyperpolarized gas MRI ===Traditional MRI generates poor images of lung tissue because there are fewer water molecules with protons that can be excited by the magnetic field.", "Using hyperpolarized gas an MRI scan can identify ventilation defects in the lungs.", "Before the scan, a patient is asked to inhale hyperpolarized xenon mixed with a buffer gas of helium or nitrogen.", "The resulting lung images are much higher quality than with traditional MRI." ], [ "Safety", "MRI is, in general, a safe technique, although injuries may occur as a result of failed safety procedures or human error.", "Contraindications to MRI include most cochlear implants and cardiac pacemakers, shrapnel, and metallic foreign bodies in the eyes.", "Magnetic resonance imaging in pregnancy appears to be safe, at least during the second and third trimesters if done without contrast agents.", "Since MRI does not use any ionizing radiation, its use is generally favored in preference to CT when either modality could yield the same information.", "Some patients experience claustrophobia and may require sedation or shorter MRI protocols.", "Amplitude and rapid switching of gradient coils during image acquisition may cause peripheral nerve stimulation.MRI uses powerful magnets and can therefore cause magnetic materials to move at great speeds, posing a projectile risk, and may cause fatal accidents.", "However, as millions of MRIs are performed globally each year, fatalities are extremely rare.MRI machines can produce loud noise, up to 120 dB(A).", "This can cause hearing loss, tinnitus and hyperacusis, so appropriate hearing protection is essential for anyone inside the MRI scanner room during the examination.===Overuse===Medical societies issue guidelines for when physicians should use MRI on patients and recommend against overuse.", "MRI can detect health problems or confirm a diagnosis, but medical societies often recommend that MRI not be the first procedure for creating a plan to diagnose or manage a patient's complaint.", "A common case is to use MRI to seek a cause of low back pain; the American College of Physicians, for example, recommends against imaging (including MRI) as unlikely to result in a positive outcome for the patient." ], [ "Artifacts", "Motion artifact (T1 coronal study of cervical vertebrae)An MRI artifact is a visual artifact, that is, an anomaly during visual representation.", "Many different artifacts can occur during magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), some affecting the diagnostic quality, while others may be confused with pathology.", "Artifacts can be classified as patient-related, signal processing-dependent and hardware (machine)-related." ], [ "Non-medical use", "MRI is used industrially mainly for routine analysis of chemicals.", "The nuclear magnetic resonance technique is also used, for example, to measure the ratio between water and fat in foods, monitoring of flow of corrosive fluids in pipes, or to study molecular structures such as catalysts.Being non-invasive and non-damaging, MRI can be used to study the anatomy of plants, their water transportation processes and water balance.", "It is also applied to veterinary radiology for diagnostic purposes.", "Outside this, its use in zoology is limited due to the high cost; but it can be used on many species.In palaeontology it is used to examine the structure of fossils.Forensic imaging provides graphic documentation of an autopsy, which manual autopsy does not.", "CT scanning provides quick whole-body imaging of skeletal and parenchymal alterations, whereas MR imaging gives better representation of soft tissue pathology.", "All that being said, MRI is more expensive, and more time-consuming to utilize.", "Moreover, the quality of MR imaging deteriorates below 10 °C." ], [ "History", "In 1971 at Stony Brook University, Paul Lauterbur applied magnetic field gradients in all three dimensions and a back-projection technique to create NMR images.", "He published the first images of two tubes of water in 1973 in the journal ''Nature'', followed by the picture of a living animal, a clam, and in 1974 by the image of the thoracic cavity of a mouse.", "Lauterbur called his imaging method zeugmatography, a term which was replaced by (N)MR imaging.", "In the late 1970s, physicists Peter Mansfield and Paul Lauterbur developed MRI-related techniques, like the echo-planar imaging (EPI) technique.Raymond Damadian’s work into nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has been incorporated into MRI, having built one of the first scanners.Advances in semiconductor technology were crucial to the development of practical MRI, which requires a large amount of computational power.", "This was made possible by the rapidly increasing number of transistors on a single integrated circuit chip.", "Mansfield and Lauterbur were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their \"discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging\"." ], [ "See also", "* Amplified magnetic resonance imaging* Electron paramagnetic resonance* High-definition fiber tracking* High-resolution computed tomography* History of neuroimaging* International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine* Jemris* List of neuroimaging software* Magnetic immunoassay* Magnetic particle imaging* Magnetic resonance elastography* ''Magnetic Resonance Imaging'' (journal)* Magnetic resonance microscopy* Nobel Prize controversies – Physiology or medicine* Rabi cycle* Robinson oscillator* Sodium MRI* Virtopsy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * A Guided Tour of MRI: An introduction for laypeople National High Magnetic Field Laboratory* The Basics of MRI.", "''Underlying physics and technical aspects''.", "* Video: What to Expect During Your MRI Exam from the Institute for Magnetic Resonance Safety, Education, and Research (IMRSER)* Royal Institution Lecture – MRI: A Window on the Human Body* A Short History of Magnetic Resonance Imaging from a European Point of View* How MRI works explained simply using diagrams* Real-time MRI videos: Biomedizinische NMR Forschungs GmbH.", "* Paul C. Lauterbur, Genesis of the MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) notebook, September 1971 (all pages freely available for download in variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections at digital.sciencehistory.org)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Group (mathematics)" ], [ "Introduction", "The manipulations of the Rubik's Cube form the Rubik's Cube group.|alt=A Rubik's cube with one side rotatedIn mathematics, a '''group''' is a set with an operation that satisfies the following constraints: the operation is associative and has an identity element, and every element of the set has an inverse element.", "Many mathematical structures are groups endowed with other properties.", "For example, the integers with the addition operation form an infinite group, which is generated by a single element called (these properties characterize the integers in a unique way).The concept of a group was elaborated for handling, in a unified way, many mathematical structures such as numbers, geometric shapes and polynomial roots.", "Because the concept of groups is ubiquitous in numerous areas both within and outside mathematics, some authors consider it as a central organizing principle of contemporary mathematics.In geometry, groups arise naturally in the study of symmetries and geometric transformations: The symmetries of an object form a group, called the symmetry group of the object, and the transformations of a given type form a general group.", "Lie groups appear in symmetry groups in geometry, and also in the Standard Model of particle physics.", "The Poincaré group is a Lie group consisting of the symmetries of spacetime in special relativity.", "Point groups describe symmetry in molecular chemistry.The concept of a group arose in the study of polynomial equations, starting with Évariste Galois in the 1830s, who introduced the term ''group'' (French: ) for the symmetry group of the roots of an equation, now called a Galois group.", "After contributions from other fields such as number theory and geometry, the group notion was generalized and firmly established around 1870.Modern group theory—an active mathematical discipline—studies groups in their own right.", "To explore groups, mathematicians have devised various notions to break groups into smaller, better-understandable pieces, such as subgroups, quotient groups and simple groups.", "In addition to their abstract properties, group theorists also study the different ways in which a group can be expressed concretely, both from a point of view of representation theory (that is, through the representations of the group) and of computational group theory.", "A theory has been developed for finite groups, which culminated with the classification of finite simple groups, completed in 2004.Since the mid-1980s, geometric group theory, which studies finitely generated groups as geometric objects, has become an active area in group theory." ], [ "Definition and illustration", "===First example: the integers===One of the more familiar groups is the set of integers together with addition.", "For any two integers and , the sum is also an integer; this ''closure'' property says that is a binary operation on .", "The following properties of integer addition serve as a model for the group axioms in the definition below.", "*For all integers , and , one has .", "Expressed in words, adding to first, and then adding the result to gives the same final result as adding to the sum of and .", "This property is known as ''associativity''.", "*If is any integer, then and .", "Zero is called the ''identity element'' of addition because adding it to any integer returns the same integer.", "*For every integer , there is an integer such that and .", "The integer is called the ''inverse element'' of the integer and is denoted .The integers, together with the operation , form a mathematical object belonging to a broad class sharing similar structural aspects.", "To appropriately understand these structures as a collective, the following definition is developed.===Definition===A group is a non-empty set together with a binary operation on , here denoted \"\", that combines any two elements and of to form an element of , denoted , such that the following three requirements, known as '''group axioms''', are satisfied:;Associativity: For all , , in , one has .", ";Identity element: There exists an element in such that, for every in , one has and .", ":Such an element is unique (see below).", "It is called the ''identity element'' (or sometimes ''neutral element'') of the group.", ";Inverse element: For each in , there exists an element in such that and , where is the identity element.", ":For each , the element is unique (see below); it is called ''the inverse'' of and is commonly denoted .===Notation and terminology===Formally, the group is the ordered pair of a set and a binary operation on this set that satisfies the group axioms.", "The set is called the ''underlying set'' of the group, and the operation is called the ''group operation'' or the ''group law''.A group and its underlying set are thus two different mathematical objects.", "To avoid cumbersome notation, it is common to abuse notation by using the same symbol to denote both.", "This reflects also an informal way of thinking: that the group is the same as the set except that it has been enriched by additional structure provided by the operation.For example, consider the set of real numbers , which has the operations of addition and multiplication .", "Formally, is a set, is a group, and is a field.", "But it is common to write to denote any of these three objects.The ''additive group'' of the field is the group whose underlying set is and whose operation is addition.", "The ''multiplicative group'' of the field is the group whose underlying set is the set of nonzero real numbers and whose operation is multiplication.More generally, one speaks of an ''additive group'' whenever the group operation is notated as addition; in this case, the identity is typically denoted , and the inverse of an element is denoted .", "Similarly, one speaks of a ''multiplicative group'' whenever the group operation is notated as multiplication; in this case, the identity is typically denoted , and the inverse of an element is denoted .", "In a multiplicative group, the operation symbol is usually omitted entirely, so that the operation is denoted by juxtaposition, instead of .The definition of a group does not require that for all elements and in .", "If this additional condition holds, then the operation is said to be commutative, and the group is called an abelian group.", "It is a common convention that for an abelian group either additive or multiplicative notation may be used, but for a nonabelian group only multiplicative notation is used.Several other notations are commonly used for groups whose elements are not numbers.", "For a group whose elements are functions, the operation is often function composition ; then the identity may be denoted id.", "In the more specific cases of geometric transformation groups, symmetry groups, permutation groups, and automorphism groups, the symbol is often omitted, as for multiplicative groups.", "Many other variants of notation may be encountered.=== Second example: a symmetry group ===Two figures in the plane are congruent if one can be changed into the other using a combination of rotations, reflections, and translations.", "Any figure is congruent to itself.", "However, some figures are congruent to themselves in more than one way, and these extra congruences are called symmetries.", "A square has eight symmetries.", "These are:+ The elements of the symmetry group of the square, .", "Vertices are identified by color or number.", "alt=A square with its four corners marked by 1 to 4 (keeping it as it is) alt=The square is rotated by 90° clockwise; the corners are enumerated accordingly.", "(rotation by 90° clockwise) alt=The square is rotated by 180° clockwise; the corners are enumerated accordingly.", "(rotation by 180°) alt=The square is rotated by 270° clockwise; the corners are enumerated accordingly.", "(rotation by 270° clockwise) alt=The square is reflected vertically; the corners are enumerated accordingly.", "(vertical reflection) alt=The square is reflected horizontally; the corners are enumerated accordingly.", "(horizontal reflection) alt=The square is reflected along the SW–NE diagonal; the corners are enumerated accordingly.", "(diagonal reflection) alt=The square is reflected along the SE–NW diagonal; the corners are enumerated accordingly.", "(counter-diagonal reflection)* the identity operation leaving everything unchanged, denoted id;* rotations of the square around its center by 90°, 180°, and 270° clockwise, denoted by , and , respectively;* reflections about the horizontal and vertical middle line ( and ), or through the two diagonals ( and ).These symmetries are functions.", "Each sends a point in the square to the corresponding point under the symmetry.", "For example, sends a point to its rotation 90° clockwise around the square's center, and sends a point to its reflection across the square's vertical middle line.", "Composing two of these symmetries gives another symmetry.", "These symmetries determine a group called the dihedral group of degree four, denoted .", "The underlying set of the group is the above set of symmetries, and the group operation is function composition.", "Two symmetries are combined by composing them as functions, that is, applying the first one to the square, and the second one to the result of the first application.", "The result of performing first and then is written symbolically ''from right to left'' as (\"apply the symmetry after performing the symmetry \").", "This is the usual notation for composition of functions.The group table lists the results of all such compositions possible.", "For example, rotating by 270° clockwise () and then reflecting horizontally () is the same as performing a reflection along the diagonal ().", "Using the above symbols, highlighted in blue in the group table:+ Group table of The elements , , , and form a subgroup whose group table is highlighted in red (upper left region).", "A left and right coset of this subgroup are highlighted in green (in the last row) and yellow (last column), respectively.", "The result of the composition , the symmetry , is highlighted in blue (below table center).Given this set of symmetries and the described operation, the group axioms can be understood as follows.", "''Binary operation'': Composition is a binary operation.", "That is, is a symmetry for any two symmetries and .", "For example,that is, rotating 270° clockwise after reflecting horizontally equals reflecting along the counter-diagonal ().", "Indeed, every other combination of two symmetries still gives a symmetry, as can be checked using the group table.", "''Associativity'': The associativity axiom deals with composing more than two symmetries: Starting with three elements , and of , there are two possible ways of using these three symmetries in this order to determine a symmetry of the square.", "One of these ways is to first compose and into a single symmetry, then to compose that symmetry with .", "The other way is to first compose and , then to compose the resulting symmetry with .", "These two ways must give always the same result, that is,For example, can be checked using the group table:''Identity element'': The identity element is , as it does not change any symmetry when composed with it either on the left or on the right.", "''Inverse element'': Each symmetry has an inverse: , the reflections , , , and the 180° rotation are their own inverse, because performing them twice brings the square back to its original orientation.", "The rotations and are each other's inverses, because rotating 90° and then rotation 270° (or vice versa) yields a rotation over 360° which leaves the square unchanged.", "This is easily verified on the table.In contrast to the group of integers above, where the order of the operation is immaterial, it does matter in , as, for example, but .", "In other words, is not abelian." ], [ "History", "The modern concept of an abstract group developed out of several fields of mathematics.", "The original motivation for group theory was the quest for solutions of polynomial equations of degree higher than 4.The 19th-century French mathematician Évariste Galois, extending prior work of Paolo Ruffini and Joseph-Louis Lagrange, gave a criterion for the solvability of a particular polynomial equation in terms of the symmetry group of its roots (solutions).", "The elements of such a Galois group correspond to certain permutations of the roots.", "At first, Galois's ideas were rejected by his contemporaries, and published only posthumously.", "More general permutation groups were investigated in particular by Augustin Louis Cauchy.", "Arthur Cayley's ''On the theory of groups, as depending on the symbolic equation '' (1854) gives the first abstract definition of a finite group.Geometry was a second field in which groups were used systematically, especially symmetry groups as part of Felix Klein's 1872 Erlangen program.", "After novel geometries such as hyperbolic and projective geometry had emerged, Klein used group theory to organize them in a more coherent way.", "Further advancing these ideas, Sophus Lie founded the study of Lie groups in 1884.The third field contributing to group theory was number theory.", "Certain abelian group structures had been used implicitly in Carl Friedrich Gauss's number-theoretical work ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' (1798), and more explicitly by Leopold Kronecker.", "In 1847, Ernst Kummer made early attempts to prove Fermat's Last Theorem by developing groups describing factorization into prime numbers.The convergence of these various sources into a uniform theory of groups started with Camille Jordan's (1870).", "Walther von Dyck (1882) introduced the idea of specifying a group by means of generators and relations, and was also the first to give an axiomatic definition of an \"abstract group\", in the terminology of the time.", "As of the 20th century, groups gained wide recognition by the pioneering work of Ferdinand Georg Frobenius and William Burnside, who worked on representation theory of finite groups, Richard Brauer's modular representation theory and Issai Schur's papers.", "The theory of Lie groups, and more generally locally compact groups was studied by Hermann Weyl, Élie Cartan and many others.", "Its algebraic counterpart, the theory of algebraic groups, was first shaped by Claude Chevalley (from the late 1930s) and later by the work of Armand Borel and Jacques Tits.The University of Chicago's 1960–61 Group Theory Year brought together group theorists such as Daniel Gorenstein, John G. Thompson and Walter Feit, laying the foundation of a collaboration that, with input from numerous other mathematicians, led to the classification of finite simple groups, with the final step taken by Aschbacher and Smith in 2004.This project exceeded previous mathematical endeavours by its sheer size, in both length of proof and number of researchers.", "Research concerning this classification proof is ongoing.", "Group theory remains a highly active mathematical branch, impacting many other fields, as the examples below illustrate." ], [ "Elementary consequences of the group axioms", "Basic facts about all groups that can be obtained directly from the group axioms are commonly subsumed under ''elementary group theory''.", "For example, repeated applications of the associativity axiom show that the unambiguity ofgeneralizes to more than three factors.", "Because this implies that parentheses can be inserted anywhere within such a series of terms, parentheses are usually omitted.===Uniqueness of identity element===The group axioms imply that the identity element is unique; that is, there exists only one identity element: any two identity elements and of a group are equal, because the group axioms imply .", "It is thus customary to speak of ''the'' identity element of the group.===Uniqueness of inverses===The group axioms also imply that the inverse of each element is unique: Let a group element have both and as inverses.", "( and are distinct.)", "Then:Therefore, it is customary to speak of ''the'' inverse of an element.===Division===Given elements and of a group , there is a unique solution in to the equation , namely .", "It follows that for each in , the function that maps each to is a bijection; it is called ''left multiplication'' by or ''left translation'' by Similarly, given and , the unique solution to is .", "For each , the function that maps each to is a bijection called ''right multiplication'' by or ''right translation'' by === Equivalent definition with relaxed axioms ===The group axioms for identity and inverses may be \"weakened\" to assert only the existence of a left identity and left inverses.", "From these ''one-sided axioms'', one can prove that the left identity is also a right identity and a left inverse is also a right inverse for the same element.", "Since they define exactly the same structures as groups, collectively the axioms are not weaker.In particular, assuming associativity and the existence of a left identity (that is, ) and a left inverse for each element (that is, ), one can show that every left inverse is also a right inverse of the same element as follows.Indeed, one has: Similarly, the left identity is also a right identity:: These proofs require all three axioms (associativity, existence of left identity and existence of left inverse).", "For a structure with a looser definition (like a semigroup) one may have, for example, that a left identity is not necessarily a right identity.The same result can be obtained by only assuming the existence of a right identity and a right inverse.However, only assuming the existence of a ''left'' identity and a ''right'' inverse (or vice versa) is not sufficient to define a group.", "For example, consider the set with the operator satisfying and .", "This structure does have a left identity (namely, ), and each element has a right inverse (which is for both elements).", "Furthermore, this operation is associative (since the product of any number of elements is always equal to the rightmost element in that product, regardless of the order in which these operations are done).", "However, is not a group, since it lacks a right identity." ], [ "Basic concepts", "When studying sets, one uses concepts such as subset, function, and quotient by an equivalence relation.", "When studying groups, one uses instead subgroups, homomorphisms, and quotient groups.", "These are the analogues that take the group structure into account.===Group homomorphisms===Group homomorphisms are functions that respect group structure; they may be used to relate two groups.", "A ''homomorphism'' from a group to a group is a function such thatIt would be natural to require also that respect identities, , and inverses, for all in .", "However, these additional requirements need not be included in the definition of homomorphisms, because they are already implied by the requirement of respecting the group operation.The ''identity homomorphism'' of a group is the homomorphism that maps each element of to itself.", "An ''inverse homomorphism'' of a homomorphism is a homomorphism such that and , that is, such that for all in and such that for all in .", "An ''isomorphism'' is a homomorphism that has an inverse homomorphism; equivalently, it is a bijective homomorphism.", "Groups and are called ''isomorphic'' if there exists an isomorphism .", "In this case, can be obtained from simply by renaming its elements according to the function ; then any statement true for is true for , provided that any specific elements mentioned in the statement are also renamed.The collection of all groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, form a category, the category of groups.An injective homomorphism factors canonically as an isomorphism followed by an inclusion, for some subgroup of .Injective homomorphisms are the monomorphisms in the category of groups.===Subgroups===Informally, a ''subgroup'' is a group contained within a bigger one, : it has a subset of the elements of , with the same operation.", "Concretely, this means that the identity element of must be contained in , and whenever and are both in , then so are and , so the elements of , equipped with the group operation on restricted to , indeed form a group.", "In this case, the inclusion map is a homomorphism.In the example of symmetries of a square, the identity and the rotations constitute a subgroup , highlighted in red in the group table of the example: any two rotations composed are still a rotation, and a rotation can be undone by (i.e., is inverse to) the complementary rotations 270° for 90°, 180° for 180°, and 90° for 270°.", "The subgroup test provides a necessary and sufficient condition for a nonempty subset ''H'' of a group ''G'' to be a subgroup: it is sufficient to check that for all elements and in .", "Knowing a group's subgroups is important in understanding the group as a whole.Given any subset of a group , the subgroup generated by consists of all products of elements of and their inverses.", "It is the smallest subgroup of containing .", "In the example of symmetries of a square, the subgroup generated by and consists of these two elements, the identity element , and the element .", "Again, this is a subgroup, because combining any two of these four elements or their inverses (which are, in this particular case, these same elements) yields an element of this subgroup.===Cosets===In many situations it is desirable to consider two group elements the same if they differ by an element of a given subgroup.", "For example, in the symmetry group of a square, once any reflection is performed, rotations alone cannot return the square to its original position, so one can think of the reflected positions of the square as all being equivalent to each other, and as inequivalent to the unreflected positions; the rotation operations are irrelevant to the question whether a reflection has been performed.", "Cosets are used to formalize this insight: a subgroup determines left and right cosets, which can be thought of as translations of by an arbitrary group element .", "In symbolic terms, the ''left'' and ''right'' cosets of , containing an element , areThe left cosets of any subgroup form a partition of ; that is, the union of all left cosets is equal to and two left cosets are either equal or have an empty intersection.", "The first case happens precisely when , i.e., when the two elements differ by an element of .", "Similar considerations apply to the right cosets of .", "The left cosets of may or may not be the same as its right cosets.", "If they are (that is, if all in satisfy ), then is said to be a ''normal subgroup''.In , the group of symmetries of a square, with its subgroup of rotations, the left cosets are either equal to , if is an element of itself, or otherwise equal to (highlighted in green in the group table of ).", "The subgroup is normal, because and similarly for the other elements of the group.", "(In fact, in the case of , the cosets generated by reflections are all equal: .", ")===Quotient groups===Suppose that is a normal subgroup of a group , anddenotes its set of cosets.Then there is a unique group law on for which the map sending each element to is a homomorphism.Explicitly, the product of two cosets and is , the coset serves as the identity of , and the inverse of in the quotient group is .The group , read as \" modulo \", is called a ''quotient group'' or ''factor group''.The quotient group can alternatively be characterized by a universal property.+ Group table of the quotient group The elements of the quotient group are and .", "The group operation on the quotient is shown in the table.", "For example, .", "Both the subgroup and the quotient are abelian, but is not.", "Sometimes a group can be reconstructed from a subgroup and quotient (plus some additional data), by the semidirect product construction; is an example.The first isomorphism theorem implies that any surjective homomorphism factors canonically as a quotient homomorphism followed by an isomorphism: .Surjective homomorphisms are the epimorphisms in the category of groups.===Presentations===Every group is isomorphic to a quotient of a free group, in many ways.For example, the dihedral group is generated by the right rotation and the reflection in a vertical line (every element of is a finite product of copies of these and their inverses).Hence there is a surjective homomorphism from the free group on two generators to sending to and to .Elements in are called ''relations''; examples include .In fact, it turns out that is the smallest normal subgroup of containing these three elements; in other words, all relations are consequences of these three.The quotient of the free group by this normal subgroup is denoted .This is called a ''presentation'' of by generators and relations, because the first isomorphism theorem for yields an isomorphism .", "A presentation of a group can be used to construct the Cayley graph, a graphical depiction of a discrete group." ], [ "Examples and applications", "A periodic wallpaper pattern gives rise to a wallpaper group.Examples and applications of groups abound.", "A starting point is the group of integers with addition as group operation, introduced above.", "If instead of addition multiplication is considered, one obtains multiplicative groups.", "These groups are predecessors of important constructions in abstract algebra.Groups are also applied in many other mathematical areas.", "Mathematical objects are often examined by associating groups to them and studying the properties of the corresponding groups.", "For example, Henri Poincaré founded what is now called algebraic topology by introducing the fundamental group.", "By means of this connection, topological properties such as proximity and continuity translate into properties of groups.The fundamental group of a plane minus a point (bold) consists of loops around the missing point.", "This group is isomorphic to the integers under addition.Elements of the fundamental group of a topological space are equivalence classes of loops, where loops are considered equivalent if one can be smoothly deformed into another, and the group operation is \"concatenation\" (tracing one loop then the other).", "For example, as shown in the figure, if the topological space is the plane with one point removed, then loops which do not wrap around the missing point (blue) can be smoothly contracted to a single point and are the identity element of the fundamental group.", "A loop which wraps around the missing point times cannot be deformed into a loop which wraps times (with because the loop cannot be smoothly deformed across the hole, so each class of loops is characterized by its winding number around the missing point.", "The resulting group is isomorphic to the integers under addition.In more recent applications, the influence has also been reversed to motivate geometric constructions by a group-theoretical background.", "In a similar vein, geometric group theory employs geometric concepts, for example in the study of hyperbolic groups.", "Further branches crucially applying groups include algebraic geometry and number theory.In addition to the above theoretical applications, many practical applications of groups exist.", "Cryptography relies on the combination of the abstract group theory approach together with algorithmical knowledge obtained in computational group theory, in particular when implemented for finite groups.", "Applications of group theory are not restricted to mathematics; sciences such as physics, chemistry and computer science benefit from the concept.=== Numbers ===Many number systems, such as the integers and the rationals, enjoy a naturally given group structure.", "In some cases, such as with the rationals, both addition and multiplication operations give rise to group structures.", "Such number systems are predecessors to more general algebraic structures known as rings and fields.", "Further abstract algebraic concepts such as modules, vector spaces and algebras also form groups.==== Integers ====The group of integers under addition, denoted , has been described above.", "The integers, with the operation of multiplication instead of addition, do ''not'' form a group.", "The associativity and identity axioms are satisfied, but inverses do not exist: for example, is an integer, but the only solution to the equation in this case is , which is a rational number, but not an integer.", "Hence not every element of has a (multiplicative) inverse.==== Rationals ====The desire for the existence of multiplicative inverses suggests considering fractionsFractions of integers (with nonzero) are known as rational numbers.", "The set of all such irreducible fractions is commonly denoted .", "There is still a minor obstacle for , the rationals with multiplication, being a group: because zero does not have a multiplicative inverse (i.e., there is no such that ), is still not a group.However, the set of all ''nonzero'' rational numbers does form an abelian group under multiplication, also denoted Associativity and identity element axioms follow from the properties of integers.", "The closure requirement still holds true after removing zero, because the product of two nonzero rationals is never zero.", "Finally, the inverse of is , therefore the axiom of the inverse element is satisfied.The rational numbers (including zero) also form a group under addition.", "Intertwining addition and multiplication operations yields more complicated structures called rings and – if division by other than zero is possible, such as in – fields, which occupy a central position in abstract algebra.", "Group theoretic arguments therefore underlie parts of the theory of those entities.===Modular arithmetic===addition modulo 12.Here, .|alt=The clock hand points to 9 o'clock; 4 hours later it is at 1 o'clock.Modular arithmetic for a ''modulus'' defines any two elements and that differ by a multiple of to be equivalent, denoted by .", "Every integer is equivalent to one of the integers from to , and the operations of modular arithmetic modify normal arithmetic by replacing the result of any operation by its equivalent representative.", "Modular addition, defined in this way for the integers from to , forms a group, denoted as or , with as the identity element and as the inverse element of .A familiar example is addition of hours on the face of a clock, where 12 rather than 0 is chosen as the representative of the identity.", "If the hour hand is on and is advanced hours, it ends up on , as shown in the illustration.", "This is expressed by saying that is congruent to \"modulo \" or, in symbols,For any prime number , there is also the multiplicative group of integers modulo .", "Its elements can be represented by to .", "The group operation, multiplication modulo , replaces the usual product by its representative, the remainder of division by .", "For example, for , the four group elements can be represented by .", "In this group, , because the usual product is equivalent to : when divided by it yields a remainder of .", "The primality of ensures that the usual product of two representatives is not divisible by , and therefore that the modular product is nonzero.", "The identity element is represented and associativity follows from the corresponding property of the integers.", "Finally, the inverse element axiom requires that given an integer not divisible by , there exists an integer such that that is, such that evenly divides .", "The inverse can be found by using Bézout's identity and the fact that the greatest common divisor In the case above, the inverse of the element represented by is that represented by , and the inverse of the element represented by is represented , as .", "Hence all group axioms are fulfilled.", "This example is similar to above: it consists of exactly those elements in the ring that have a multiplicative inverse.", "These groups, denoted , are crucial to public-key cryptography.===Cyclic groups===alt=A hexagon whose corners are located regularly on a circleA ''cyclic group'' is a group all of whose elements are powers of a particular element .", "In multiplicative notation, the elements of the group arewhere means , stands for , etc.", "Such an element is called a generator or a primitive element of the group.", "In additive notation, the requirement for an element to be primitive is that each element of the group can be written asIn the groups introduced above, the element is primitive, so these groups are cyclic.", "Indeed, each element is expressible as a sum all of whose terms are .", "Any cyclic group with elements is isomorphic to this group.", "A second example for cyclic groups is the group of th complex roots of unity, given by complex numbers satisfying .", "These numbers can be visualized as the vertices on a regular -gon, as shown in blue in the image for .", "The group operation is multiplication of complex numbers.", "In the picture, multiplying with corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotation by 60°.", "From field theory, the group is cyclic for prime : for example, if , is a generator since , , , and .Some cyclic groups have an infinite number of elements.", "In these groups, for every non-zero element , all the powers of are distinct; despite the name \"cyclic group\", the powers of the elements do not cycle.", "An infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to , the group of integers under addition introduced above.", "As these two prototypes are both abelian, so are all cyclic groups.The study of finitely generated abelian groups is quite mature, including the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups; and reflecting this state of affairs, many group-related notions, such as center and commutator, describe the extent to which a given group is not abelian.===Symmetry groups===tiling of the hyperbolic plane''Symmetry groups'' are groups consisting of symmetries of given mathematical objects, principally geometric entities, such as the symmetry group of the square given as an introductory example above, although they also arise in algebra such as the symmetries among the roots of polynomial equations dealt with in Galois theory (see below).", "Conceptually, group theory can be thought of as the study of symmetry.", "Symmetries in mathematics greatly simplify the study of geometrical or analytical objects.", "A group is said to act on another mathematical object ''X'' if every group element can be associated to some operation on ''X'' and the composition of these operations follows the group law.", "For example, an element of the (2,3,7) triangle group acts on a triangular tiling of the hyperbolic plane by permuting the triangles.", "By a group action, the group pattern is connected to the structure of the object being acted on.In chemistry, point groups describe molecular symmetries, while space groups describe crystal symmetries in crystallography.", "These symmetries underlie the chemical and physical behavior of these systems, and group theory enables simplification of quantum mechanical analysis of these properties.", "For example, group theory is used to show that optical transitions between certain quantum levels cannot occur simply because of the symmetry of the states involved.Group theory helps predict the changes in physical properties that occur when a material undergoes a phase transition, for example, from a cubic to a tetrahedral crystalline form.", "An example is ferroelectric materials, where the change from a paraelectric to a ferroelectric state occurs at the Curie temperature and is related to a change from the high-symmetry paraelectric state to the lower symmetry ferroelectric state, accompanied by a so-called soft phonon mode, a vibrational lattice mode that goes to zero frequency at the transition.Such spontaneous symmetry breaking has found further application in elementary particle physics, where its occurrence is related to the appearance of Goldstone bosons.alt=A schematic depiction of a Buckminsterfullerene moleculealt=A schematic depiction of an Ammonia moleculealt=A schematic depiction of a cubane molecule125px Buckminsterfullerene displaysicosahedral symmetryAmmonia, NH3.Its symmetry group is of order 6, generated by a 120° rotation and a reflection.Cubane C8H8 features octahedral symmetry.The tetrachloroplatinate(II) ion, PtCl42- exhibits square-planar geometryFinite symmetry groups such as the Mathieu groups are used in coding theory, which is in turn applied in error correction of transmitted data, and in CD players.", "Another application is differential Galois theory, which characterizes functions having antiderivatives of a prescribed form, giving group-theoretic criteria for when solutions of certain differential equations are well-behaved.", "Geometric properties that remain stable under group actions are investigated in (geometric) invariant theory.===General linear group and representation theory===vectors (the left illustration) multiplied by matrices (the middle and right illustrations).", "The middle illustration represents a clockwise rotation by 90°, while the right-most one stretches the -coordinate by factor 2.|alt=Two vectors have the same length and span a 90° angle.", "Furthermore, they are rotated by 90° degrees, then one vector is stretched to twice its length.Matrix groups consist of matrices together with matrix multiplication.", "The ''general linear group'' consists of all invertible -by- matrices with real entries.", "Its subgroups are referred to as ''matrix groups'' or ''linear groups''.", "The dihedral group example mentioned above can be viewed as a (very small) matrix group.", "Another important matrix group is the special orthogonal group .", "It describes all possible rotations in dimensions.", "Rotation matrices in this group are used in computer graphics.", "''Representation theory'' is both an application of the group concept and important for a deeper understanding of groups.", "It studies the group by its group actions on other spaces.", "A broad class of group representations are linear representations in which the group acts on a vector space, such as the three-dimensional Euclidean space .", "A representation of a group on an -dimensional real vector space is simply a group homomorphismfrom the group to the general linear group.", "This way, the group operation, which may be abstractly given, translates to the multiplication of matrices making it accessible to explicit computations.A group action gives further means to study the object being acted on.", "On the other hand, it also yields information about the group.", "Group representations are an organizing principle in the theory of finite groups, Lie groups, algebraic groups and topological groups, especially (locally) compact groups.=== Galois groups ===''Galois groups'' were developed to help solve polynomial equations by capturing their symmetry features.", "For example, the solutions of the quadratic equation are given byEach solution can be obtained by replacing the sign by or ; analogous formulae are known for cubic and quartic equations, but do ''not'' exist in general for degree 5 and higher.", "In the quadratic formula, changing the sign (permuting the resulting two solutions) can be viewed as a (very simple) group operation.", "Analogous Galois groups act on the solutions of higher-degree polynomial equations and are closely related to the existence of formulas for their solution.", "Abstract properties of these groups (in particular their solvability) give a criterion for the ability to express the solutions of these polynomials using solely addition, multiplication, and roots similar to the formula above.Modern Galois theory generalizes the above type of Galois groups by shifting to field theory and considering field extensions formed as the splitting field of a polynomial.", "This theory establishes—via the fundamental theorem of Galois theory—a precise relationship between fields and groups, underlining once again the ubiquity of groups in mathematics." ], [ "Finite groups", "A group is called ''finite'' if it has a finite number of elements.", "The number of elements is called the order of the group.", "An important class is the ''symmetric groups'' , the groups of permutations of objects.", "For example, the symmetric group on 3 letters is the group of all possible reorderings of the objects.", "The three letters ABC can be reordered into ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA, forming in total 6 (factorial of 3) elements.", "The group operation is composition of these reorderings, and the identity element is the reordering operation that leaves the order unchanged.", "This class is fundamental insofar as any finite group can be expressed as a subgroup of a symmetric group for a suitable integer , according to Cayley's theorem.", "Parallel to the group of symmetries of the square above, can also be interpreted as the group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle.The order of an element in a group is the least positive integer such that , where representsthat is, application of the operation \"\" to copies of .", "(If \"\" represents multiplication, then corresponds to the th power of .)", "In infinite groups, such an may not exist, in which case the order of is said to be infinity.", "The order of an element equals the order of the cyclic subgroup generated by this element.More sophisticated counting techniques, for example, counting cosets, yield more precise statements about finite groups: Lagrange's Theorem states that for a finite group the order of any finite subgroup divides the order of .", "The Sylow theorems give a partial converse.The dihedral group of symmetries of a square is a finite group of order 8.In this group, the order of is 4, as is the order of the subgroup that this element generates.", "The order of the reflection elements etc.", "is 2.Both orders divide 8, as predicted by Lagrange's theorem.", "The groups of multiplication modulo a prime have order .=== Finite abelian groups ===Any finite abelian group is isomorphic to a product of finite cyclic groups; this statement is part of the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups.Any group of prime order is isomorphic to the cyclic group (a consequence of Lagrange's theorem).", "Any group of order is abelian, isomorphic to or .But there exist nonabelian groups of order ; the dihedral group of order above is an example.=== Simple groups ===When a group has a normal subgroup other than and itself, questions about can sometimes be reduced to questions about and .", "A nontrivial group is called ''simple'' if it has no such normal subgroup.", "Finite simple groups are to finite groups as prime numbers are to positive integers: they serve as building blocks, in a sense made precise by the Jordan–Hölder theorem.=== Classification of finite simple groups ===Computer algebra systems have been used to list all groups of order up to 2000.But classifying all finite groups is a problem considered too hard to be solved.The classification of all finite ''simple'' groups was a major achievement in contemporary group theory.", "There are several infinite families of such groups, as well as 26 \"sporadic groups\" that do not belong to any of the families.", "The largest sporadic group is called the monster group.", "The monstrous moonshine conjectures, proved by Richard Borcherds, relate the monster group to certain modular functions.The gap between the classification of simple groups and the classification of all groups lies in the extension problem." ], [ "Groups with additional structure", "An equivalent definition of group consists of replacing the \"there exist\" part of the group axioms by operations whose result is the element that must exist.", "So, a group is a set equipped with a binary operation (the group operation), a unary operation (which provides the inverse) and a nullary operation, which has no operand and results in the identity element.", "Otherwise, the group axioms are exactly the same.", "This variant of the definition avoids existential quantifiers and is used in computing with groups and for computer-aided proofs.This way of defining groups lends itself to generalizations such as the notion of group object in a category.", "Briefly, this is an object with morphisms that mimic the group axioms.===Topological groups===The unit circle in the complex plane under complex multiplication is a Lie group and, therefore, a topological group.", "It is topological since complex multiplication and division are continuous.", "It is a manifold and thus a Lie group, because every small piece, such as the red arc in the figure, looks like a part of the real line (shown at the bottom).|alt=A part of a circle (highlighted) is projected onto a line.Some topological spaces may be endowed with a group law.", "In order for the group law and the topology to interweave well, the group operations must be continuous functions; informally, and must not vary wildly if and vary only a little.", "Such groups are called ''topological groups,'' and they are the group objects in the category of topological spaces.", "The most basic examples are the group of real numbers under addition and the group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication.", "Similar examples can be formed from any other topological field, such as the field of complex numbers or the field of -adic numbers.", "These examples are locally compact, so they have Haar measures and can be studied via harmonic analysis.", "Other locally compact topological groups include the group of points of an algebraic group over a local field or adele ring; these are basic to number theory Galois groups of infinite algebraic field extensions are equipped with the Krull topology, which plays a role in infinite Galois theory.", "A generalization used in algebraic geometry is the étale fundamental group.===Lie groups===A ''Lie group'' is a group that also has the structure of a differentiable manifold; informally, this means that it looks locally like a Euclidean space of some fixed dimension.", "Again, the definition requires the additional structure, here the manifold structure, to be compatible: the multiplication and inverse maps are required to be smooth.A standard example is the general linear group introduced above: it is an open subset of the space of all -by- matrices, because it is given by the inequalitywhere denotes an -by- matrix.Lie groups are of fundamental importance in modern physics: Noether's theorem links continuous symmetries to conserved quantities.", "Rotation, as well as translations in space and time, are basic symmetries of the laws of mechanics.", "They can, for instance, be used to construct simple models—imposing, say, axial symmetry on a situation will typically lead to significant simplification in the equations one needs to solve to provide a physical description.", "Another example is the group of Lorentz transformations, which relate measurements of time and velocity of two observers in motion relative to each other.", "They can be deduced in a purely group-theoretical way, by expressing the transformations as a rotational symmetry of Minkowski space.", "The latter serves—in the absence of significant gravitation—as a model of spacetime in special relativity.", "The full symmetry group of Minkowski space, i.e., including translations, is known as the Poincaré group.", "By the above, it plays a pivotal role in special relativity and, by implication, for quantum field theories.", "Symmetries that vary with location are central to the modern description of physical interactions with the help of gauge theory.", "An important example of a gauge theory is the Standard Model, which describes three of the four known fundamental forces and classifies all known elementary particles." ], [ "Generalizations", "More general structures may be defined by relaxing some of the axioms defining a group.", "The table gives a list of several structures generalizing groups.For example, if the requirement that every element has an inverse is eliminated, the resulting algebraic structure is called a monoid.", "The natural numbers (including zero) under addition form a monoid, as do the nonzero integers under multiplication .", "Adjoining inverses of all elements of the monoid produces a group , and likewise adjoining inverses to any (abelian) monoid produces a group known as the Grothendieck group of .A group can be thought of as a small category with one object in which every morphism is an isomorphism: given such a category, the set is a group; conversely, given a group , one can build a small category with one object in which .More generally, a groupoid is any small category in which every morphism is an isomorphism.", "In a groupoid, the set of all morphisms in the category is usually not a group, because the composition is only partially defined: is defined only when the source of matches the target of .Groupoids arise in topology (for instance, the fundamental groupoid) and in the theory of stacks.Finally, it is possible to generalize any of these concepts by replacing the binary operation with an -ary operation (i.e., an operation taking arguments, for some nonnegative integer ).", "With the proper generalization of the group axioms, this gives a notion of -ary group.", "+ExamplesSetNatural numbers '''N'''Integers '''Z'''Rational numbers '''Q'''Real numbers '''R'''Complex numbers '''C'''Integers modulo 3'''Z'''/3'''Z''' = {0, 1, 2}Operation + × + × + − × ÷ + ×Closed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Identity 0 1 0 1 0 N/A 1 N/A 0 1 Inverse N/A N/A −''a'' N/A −''a'' N/A 1/''a''(''a'' ≠ 0) N/A 0, 2, 1, respectively N/A, 1, 2, respectively Associative Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Commutative Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Structure monoid monoid abelian group monoid abelian group quasi-group monoid quasi-group abelian group monoid" ], [ "See also", "* List of group theory topics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "===General references===* , Chapter 2 contains an undergraduate-level exposition of the notions covered in this article.", "* * , an elementary introduction.", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .===Special references===* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* * .", "* * .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* * .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * * * * .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* ===Historical references===* * .", "* * .", "* .", "* (Galois work was first published by Joseph Liouville in 1843).", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marilyn Manson (band)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marilyn Manson''' is an American rock band formed by namesake lead singer Marilyn Manson and guitarist Daisy Berkowitz in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in 1989.Originally named '''Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids''', they gained a local cult following in South Florida in the early 1990s with their theatrical live performances.", "In 1993, they were the first act signed to Trent Reznor's Nothing Records label.", "Until 1996, the name of each member was created by combining the first name of a female sex symbol and the last name of a serial for example, Marilyn Monroe and Charles Manson.", "Their lineup has changed between many of their album releases; the eponymous lead singer is the only remaining original member.In the past, band members dressed in outlandish makeup and costumes, and engaged in intentionally shocking behavior both onstage and off.", "Their lyrics often received criticism for their anti-religious sentiment and references to sex, violence and drugs, while their live performances were frequently called offensive and obscene.", "On several occasions, protests and petitions led to the group being blocked from performing, with at least three US states passing legislation banning the group from performing at state-owned venues.", "They released a number of platinum-selling albums, including ''Antichrist Superstar'' (1996) and ''Mechanical Animals'' (1998).", "These albums, along with their highly stylized music videos and worldwide touring, brought public recognition to Marilyn Manson.", "In 1999, news media, infamously, falsely blamed the band for influencing the perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre.As this controversy began to wane throughout the 2000s, so did the band's mainstream popularity.", "Despite this, Jon Wiederhorn of MTV, in June 2003, referred to Marilyn Manson as \"the only true artist today\".", "Marilyn Manson is widely regarded as being one of the most iconic and controversial figures in rock music, with the band and its lead singer influencing numerous other groups and musicians, both in metal-associated acts and also in wider popular culture.", "VH1 ranked Marilyn Manson as the seventy-eighth best rock band on their ''100 Great Artists of Hard Rock''.", "They were inducted into the ''Kerrang!''", "Hall of Fame in 2000, and have been nominated for four Grammy Awards.", "In the U.S., the band has seen ten of its releases debut in the top ten, including two number-one albums.", "Marilyn Manson have sold in excess of 50 million records worldwide." ], [ "History", "===Formation and The Spooky Kids (1989–1992)===In 1989, Brian Warner was a college student working towards a degree in journalism at Broward College, gaining experience by writing music articles for the South Florida lifestyle magazine ''25th Parallel''.", "It was in this capacity that he met several of the musicians to whom his own band would later be compared, including My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult and Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails.", "That December, he met Scott Putesky, who proposed the two form a band, after reading some lyrics and poems written by Warner.", "Warner, guitarist Putesky and bassist Brian Tutunick recorded their first demo tape as Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids in 1990, taking on the stage names of Marilyn Manson, Daisy Berkowitz and Olivia Newton Bundy, respectively.", "Bundy left the band soon after, and was replaced by Gidget Gein, born Brad Stewart.", "They were later joined on keyboard by Stephen Bier, who called himself Madonna Wayne Gacy.", "In 1991, drummer Fred Streithorst joined the band under the name Sara Lee Lucas.The stage names adopted by each member were representative of a concept the band considered central: the dichotomy of good and evil, and the existence of both, together, in every whole.", "\"Marilyn Monroe had a dark side\", explained Manson in his autobiography, \"just as Charles Manson has a good, intelligent side.\"", "Over the next six years, all of the band's members would adopt names that combined the first name of a female sex symbol and the surname of a serial killer.", "Images of both Monroe and Manson, as well as of other famous and infamous figures, were common in the band's early promotional materials.The Spooky Kids' popularity in the area grew quickly and because of the band's highly visual concerts, which drew from performance art and used many shock techniques such as \"naked women nailed to a cross, a child in a cage, or bloody animal body parts.\"", "Band members variously performed in women's clothing or bizarre costumes; and, for lack of a professional pyrotechnician, would set their own stage props on fire.", "The band would contrast these theatrics with elements drawn from their youth: characters from 1970s and '80s children's television made regular, often grotesquely altered, appearances on band flyers and newsletters, and were frequently sampled in their music.", "They continued to perform and release cassettes – shortening their name to Marilyn Manson in 1992 – until the summer of 1993, when they drew the attention of Reznor, who had just founded his own label, Nothing Records.===''Portrait of an American Family'' and ''Smells Like Children'' (1993–1995)===Left to right: Twiggy, Gacy and Manson performing at the \"A Night of Nothing\" industry showcase, 1995Reznor offered the band a contract with the label, as well as an opening slot supporting Nine Inch Nails on their upcoming \"Self Destruct Tour\".", "After accepting both offers, recording sessions for their debut studio album began in July 1993 with Swans producer Roli Mosimann at Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida.", "Recording a selection of new songs along with material from their Spooky Kids repertoire, the first version of their debut, titled ''The Manson Family Album'', was completed by the end of the month.", "However, it was not well received.", "The band's members, along with Reznor, criticized Mosimann's production as being flat, lifeless and poorly representative of the band's live performances.", "At the same time, Gidget Gein had begun to lose control of his addiction to heroin.", "Before reworking the album, the band played two shows in Florida under the name Mrs. Scabtree.", "This band featured Manson on drums, Gacy on keyboard, Berkowitz on guitar, and Jessicka from Jack Off Jill sharing vocal duties with Jeordie White of Coral Springs thrash band Amboog-a-Lard.", "Four other local musicians, bassists Mark Dubin of Sister Venus and Patrick Joyce from The Itch, guitarist Miles Hie and violinist Mary Karlzen were also involved.Reznor agreed to rework production of ''The Manson Family Album'' in October 1993 at Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles.", "Gein, who had been hospitalized after his fourth heroin overdose, was not invited to participate, and was fired from the band soon after, replaced by White, of Amboog-a-Lard, who undertook the alias Twiggy Ramirez.", "After seven weeks of mixing, re-recording and remixing, the album – now titled ''Portrait of an American Family'' – was presented to Nothing's parent label Interscope.", "The album was released on July 19, 1994, and peaked at number thirty-five on ''Billboard''s Top Heatseekers album chart.", "The band began its first national headlining tour in December 1994, with Jack Off Jill opening.", "During the band's stint as opening act on the Nine Inch Nails tour, Manson met Church of Satan founder Anton LaVey.", "LaVey bestowed the title of \"Reverend\" on Manson– meaning a person who is revered by the church, and not necessarily one who dedicates their life to preaching the religion to others, as with a priest or minister.", "Manson would use this title in the liner notes of the band's following album, citing himself as \"Reverend Marilyn Manson\".In March 1995, the band began a two-month tour, this time with Monster Voodoo Machine as support.", "This would be drummer Sara Lee Lucas's last tour with the band.", "Kenneth Wilson, better known by his stage name Ginger Fish, then joined the group before they embarked on a tour with rock band Danzig and metal band Korn.", "The band then relocated to the new home of Nothing Studios in New Orleans to begin work on remixes and b-sides for ''Portrait''s third single, \"Dope Hat\", releasing a music video inspired by the boat ride scene from the 1971 movie ''Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory''.", "The proposed single eventually developed into ''Smells Like Children'', which included the band's version of the Eurythmics' \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\", their first hit; the song's music video was placed in heavy rotation on MTV, in stark contrast with the \"Dope Hat\" video, which the same channel had banished to late-night airplay only a few months prior.===''Antichrist Superstar'' (1996–1997)===The band's second studio album, ''Antichrist Superstar'', was released on October 8, 1996.It was recorded at Nothing Studios with Reznor, Manson, Sean Beavan and former Skinny Puppy member and longtime producer Dave Ogilvie sharing co-production duties; members of both Marilyn Manson and Nine Inch Nails took part in its recording.", "The process of making the album was a long and difficult one, highlighted by experiments involving sleep deprivation and near-constant drug use, in an effort to create a violent and hostile environment suited to the album's content.", "During this time, antagonism between band members was high.", "Daisy Berkowitz, the band's founding guitarist, departed the band partway through the album's recording process, with Twiggy performing much of the album's guitar work.", "Timothy Linton responded to an advert seeking Berkowitz's replacement.", "He would form a close relationship with Madonna Wayne Gacy, who was responsible for the inclusion of one of the major sources of inspiration for the album: Kabbalah.", "Breaking with the six-year tradition of naming band members after female icons and serial killers, Zim Zum was chosen as Linton's stage name.", "It was derived from the Lurianic Kabbalah concept of Tzimtzum.", "\"The Beautiful People\" was released as the album's lead single.", "It created enough anticipation for ''Antichrist Superstar'' that the album debuted at number three on the ''Billboard'' 200 with first-week sales of 132,000 copies.", "Manson also appeared on the cover of ''Rolling Stone'', who awarded the band their 'Best New Artist' accolade in 1997.The year-long \"Dead to the World Tour\" followed, which was the band's longest and widest-ranging tour yet.", "In the US, however, the band was receiving more attention than ever before, and not all of it was positive.", "As the tour was getting underway, the band found itself the target of bipartisan congressional hearings, led by conservative violent entertainment watchdog group Empower America (now known as FreedomWorks) co-directors Republican Secretary of Education William Bennett and Democratic U.S.", "Senator Joseph Lieberman, to determine the effects, if any, of violent lyrics on young listeners.", "In addition, nearly every performance of the tour was picketed by religious organizations.In July 1997, Manson collaborated with British trip hop group Sneaker Pimps for the single \"Long Hard Road Out of Hell\" from the soundtrack to the 1997 film ''Spawn''.", "The band released their second EP, ''Remix & Repent'', on November 25, 1997.It featured new versions of ''Antichrist Superstar'''s four singles: \"The Beautiful People\", \"Tourniquet\", \"Antichrist Superstar\" and \"Man That You Fear\".", "In February 1998, Manson released his autobiography, ''The Long Hard Road Out of Hell'', as well as a live video entitled ''Dead to the World''.", "It was also confirmed that ''Antichrist Superstar'' would be the first installment in a concept album trilogy which the band called their triptych.===''Mechanical Animals'' (1998–1999)===Manson as ''Mechanical Animals'' antagonist, \"Omega\"The band released the second part of their triptych, ''Mechanical Animals'', on September 15, 1998.Co-produced by the band's lead singer with Sean Beavan and Michael Beinhorn, the album moved away from the industrial rock production of its predecessor and was strongly influenced by 1970s glam rock, particularly David Bowie's 1974 album ''Diamond Dogs''.", "Billy Corgan served as an unofficial consultant to the band during the early development of the album.", "After playing a few songs for him, Corgan advised them that \"This is definitely the right direction\" but to \"go all the way with it.", "Don't just hint at it\", referring to its inclusion of glam influences.", "To suit their new musical style, the band also recast itself as a glam rock outfit, setting aside the \"rotting-corpse chic\" of the previous era in favor of attire more suited to the genre, incorporating leather, platform boots and brightly dyed hair.", "The band also relocated from New Orleans to Los Angeles, while Zim Zum was replaced by guitarist John Lowery of 2wo, whose stage name, John 5, was given to him by Manson during their first lunch meeting.Interscope's promotion of the album was massive, with the label erecting enormous billboards of the lead singer as an androgynous extraterrestrial in both Times Square and Sunset Strip.", "Repeated appearances on MTV and other networks helped propel the album's lead single, \"The Dope Show\", to number twelve on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart, becoming the band's highest-charting single yet.", "The song's music video was critically acclaimed, winning two awards at the 1998 ''Billboard'' Music Video Awards as well as the Best Cinematography award at the 1999 MTV VMA's; while the song was also nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards.", "The album would go on to debut at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200, with first week sales of over 223,000.After a brief promotional campaign, the band set out on the \"Beautiful Monsters Tour\" with Hole.", "The tour would be a problematic one, and was marred by frequent on–and–off stage exchanges between Manson and Hole vocalist Courtney Love.", "Private disputes also arose over the tour's financial arrangements, with Hole unwittingly financing most of Manson's production costs, which were disproportionately high relative to Hole's.", "The tour was to include thirty-seven shows spanning over a two-month period, although Hole left after taking part in just nine of the scheduled dates.", "A broken ankle from Manson also forced the postponement of the next two shows, with the remainder of the tour being renamed \"Rock Is Dead\" and Jack Off Jill and Nashville Pussy taking over select opening slots.The final four dates of the tour were canceled out of respect for the victims of the Columbine High School massacre.", "The latter half of 1999 and much of 2000 was a period of relative silence for the band, who refused to take part in interviews and retreated from public life.", "They shelved plans for a proposed single and music video for their cover of AC/DC's \"Highway to Hell\", which appeared on the soundtrack to ''Detroit Rock City''.", "They spent this period writing and recording in a secluded studio in Death Valley, with only the live album ''The Last Tour on Earth'' appearing during this time.", "A studio outtake from ''Antichrist Superstar'', titled \"Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes\", served as its only single.===''Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)'' (2000–2001)===''Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)'' was released on November 11, 2000.Produced by the band's lead singer with Dave Sardy, the album also features programming and pre-production editing by Bon Harris of Nitzer Ebb.", "The band wrote over 100 songs for the album, which was a return to the darker, more abrasive sound of ''Antichrist Superstar''.", "Much of its content was written in response to the Columbine massacre, with the album's third single, \"The Nobodies\", directly referring to the shootings.", "Described by the band's frontman as the third part of a trilogy which began with ''Antichrist Superstar'' and continued in ''Mechanical Animals'', its overarching theme is an exploration of the relationship between death and fame in American culture, and its lyrics and artwork contain many references to John F. Kennedy and Lee Harvey Oswald, John Lennon and Mark David Chapman, and Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth.", "The \"Guns, God and Government Tour\" elaborated on ''Holy Wood'''s central theme, and with its logo – a rifle and handguns arranged to resemble the Christian cross – Manson made no attempt to conceal what he saw as the source of that fascination.The band also revealed that within their concept album trilogy, ''Holy Wood'' serves as prequel to ''Mechanical Animals'' and ''Antichrist Superstar'' despite the latter two preceding ''Holy Wood'' in release date.", "Each album contains its own distinct storyline, which can be linked together to create a larger overarching storyline encompassing all three.", "Manson has offered this much in the way of an interpretation: \"''Holy Wood'' is about wanting to fit into a world that didn't want me, and fighting really hard to get there.", "The album's deepest elements are idealism and the desire to start a revolution.", "If you begin with ''Holy Wood'', then ''Mechanical Animals'' really talks about how that revolution gets taken away from you and turned into a product, and then ''Antichrist Superstar'' is where you're given a choice to decide if you're going to be controlled by the power that you created or if you want to destroy yourself and then start over.", "It just becomes a cycle.", "\"The band initially declined to join the 2001 lineup of Ozzy Osbourne's Ozzfest, as its June 21 date in Denver would mark their first appearance in Colorado since the Columbine massacre.", "After the band announced on their website that they would perform in Denver, they were protested by religious groups.", "The band planned to \"balance out\" their \"violent lyrics\" by quoting biblical texts, \"so we can examine the virtues of wonderful Christian stories of disease, murder, adultery, suicide and child sacrifice.\"", "The tour was documented by a DVD of the same name, which was released on October 29, 2002.In addition to a compilation style concert songs from multiple individual shows edited together to appear as a single performance, it includes a thirty-minute short film titled \"The Death Parade\".", "This was followed by ''Guns, God and Government – Live in LA'' in 2009, which depicts their performance of January 13, 2001, at Los Angeles's Grand Olympic Auditorium in its entirety.Earlier in 2001, the band released a cover of Gloria Jones's \"Tainted Love\" on the soundtrack to ''Not Another Teen Movie''.", "The song became the band's biggest international hit yet, peaking at number one in numerous European territories.", "In 2002, Jonathan Davis of Korn invited Marilyn Manson to record vocals on a track titled \"Redeemer\", which was released on his soundtrack to ''Queen of the Damned''.", "Manson also appeared in Michael Moore's 2002 documentary, ''Bowling for Columbine''; his appearance was filmed on the same day as their Denver Ozzfest performance.", "When Moore asked what Manson would have said to the students at Columbine, he replied, \"I wouldn't say a single word to them.", "I would listen to what they have to say, and that's what no one did.", "\"===''The Golden Age of Grotesque'' and ''Lest We Forget'' (2002–2006)===With the \"triptych\" of previous albums complete, the band was free to begin a fresh project.", "In 2002, Manson created an original score for the ''Resident Evil'' film with former KMFDM multi-instrumentalist Tim Skold.", "Soon after, Skold became an official band member when Twiggy Ramirez amicably left the group, citing creative differences.", "After finding inspiration through Manson's girlfriend Dita Von Teese in the swing and burlesque movements of 1920s Berlin, the band recorded ''The Golden Age of Grotesque'', which was released on May 7, 2003, and debuted atop the ''Billboard'' 200 album chart, selling over 118,000 copies on its first week.", "It was also an international success, particularly in Europe, where it sold over 400,000 copies on its first week, and topping various national record charts, as well as ''Billboard'''s European Albums Chart.", "The album also appeared on several critics' year-end lists, and won a 2003 Metal Edge Readers' Choice Award for \"Album of the Year\".Performing at Ozzfest (2003)Eschewing the lyrical depth and symbolism found on ''Holy Wood'', the album was relatively straightforward: in an extended metaphor, Manson compares his own often-criticized work to the ''Entartete Kunst'' banned by the Nazi regime.", "Lyrically, Manson utilizes the narrative mode of stream of consciousness throughout the album to examine the human psyche in times of crisis, specifically focusing on the mindset of lunatics and children, as, according to Manson, \"they don't follow the rules of society.\"", "Several songs incorporate elements commonly found in playground chants and nursery rhymes, which Manson would \"pervert into something ugly and lurid.\"", "The work of Kurt Weill was also noted as an influence, along with the lucid dreams the singer was having during its production, with Manson explaining that he would \"wake up and say, 'I want to write a song that sounds like a stampeding elephant,' or 'I want to write a song that sounds like a burning piano.", "'\"Manson began his long-term collaboration with Austrian-Irish artist Gottfried Helnwein, working together on several multi-media projects associated with the album, including the exhibitions and installation art projects featured at the album's launch party at The Key Club in Los Angeles, the album artwork, the music video to lead single \"mOBSCENE\", as well as the artwork which accompanied Manson's essay for The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum.", "Limited edition copies of the album included a DVD titled ''Doppelherz'' (Double-heart), a 25-minute surrealist short film directed by Manson which featured art direction by Helnwein.", "Another world tour followed, \"Grotesk Burlesk\", which furthered the album's Weimar Republic-inspired theme by adding Helnwein-created stage dressing and elements of German ''Kabarett'' to the group's performances.", "Manson and the band members began appearing both on-and off-stage in designer suits created by Jean-Paul Gaultier.", "''Lest We Forget: The Best Of'' was released on September 28, 2004, and was referred to by Manson as a \"farewell\" compilation.", "It was the last album released under Nothing Records, as the label was dissolved following a lawsuit filed by Reznor against his former manager and business partner, John Malm.", "The compilation was supported by the \"Against All Gods Tour\", as well as a single–a cover of Depeche Mode's \"Personal Jesus\".", "It was the first and only tour to feature Mark Chaussee of Rob Halford's Fight on lead guitar, replacing John 5, whose relationship with Manson had soured over the previous year.", "Former Nine Inch Nails drummer Chris Vrenna also replaced Ginger Fish, who fractured his wrist, skull and cheekbone after falling several feet off his drum riser during a performance at a German awards ceremony.===''Eat Me, Drink Me'' (2007–2008)===Skold and Manson during the \"Rape of the World Tour\"By late 2005, the band had composed 18 new songs, but work on their sixth studio album was halted when Manson focused his attention on various film and art projects, including the development of his screenplay, ''Phantasmagoria: The Visions of Lewis Carroll'', as well as a minor role in the Lucy Liu movie ''Rise: Blood Hunter''.", "He also launched a self-proclaimed art movement, the Celebritarian Corporation, which included artist Gottfried Helnwein, fashion designer Steven Klein and director Anthony Silva, as well as announcing plans to open an art gallery and publish a book of his paintings.", "It was after opening the Celebritarian Corporation Gallery Of Fine Art on Melrose Avenue in 2006 that work started on new material, with Manson writing lyrics over Skold's already existing compositions.The resulting material was composed and recorded entirely by Skold, and does not feature writing or performance contributions from any other member of the band.", "Its content is largely inspired by personal troubles relating to Manson's failed marriage to Von Teese, and his burgeoning relationship with then-19-year old actress Evan Rachel Wood.", "The band made their debut appearance on ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' on October 31, 2006, performing their cover of \"This Is Halloween\" from a deluxe edition re-release of ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' soundtrack.", "This would be their last performance featuring longtime keyboardist Madonna Wayne Gacy, who would go on to file a $20m lawsuit against the band the following year for unpaid \"partnership proceeds\".The album was preceded by the release of a single, \"Heart-Shaped Glasses (When the Heart Guides the Hand)\", whose music video was shot using director James Cameron's 3D Fusion Camera System technology.", "The video caused controversy upon release, with several sources claiming that it featured genuine footage of Manson and Wood engaged in sexual intercourse.", "Wood was reportedly paid \"the highest music video salary in history\" to appear in the video.", "''Eat Me, Drink Me'' was released on June 5, 2007, and entered the ''Billboard'' 200 at number eight with first week sales of 88,000 copies.", "It also peaked in the top ten of most major international album charts, as well as at number two on ''Billboard'''s European Albums Chart.", "\"Putting Holes in Happiness\" was released as the album's second single.To promote the album, the band embarked on the nine-month \"Rape of the World Tour\", which featured Skold on lead guitar, former The Prodigy bassist Rob Holliday and longtime drummer Ginger Fish; while Vrenna rejoined the band as their live keyboardist.", "The first leg of the tour was a co-headlining set with American thrash metal band Slayer, with support coming from Bleeding Through.", "In November 2007, Manson confirmed that he and Skold had begun work on the band's next studio album, with Slayer's Kerry King, former The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha and Nick Zinner of Yeah Yeah Yeahs set to feature.", "By the beginning of 2008, however, Twiggy Ramirez had rejoined the band as bassist, resulting in the exit of Skold, with Holliday moving from bass to lead guitar for the remaining duration of the tour.", "Future collaborations with Skold were not ruled out.===''The High End of Low'' (2009–2010)===In 2008, former Limp Bizkit guitarist Wes Borland joined the band for their headlining show at the 2008 ETP Fest in South Korea.", "However, Borland left the group to reunite with Limp Bizkit, later saying that he was reluctant to be a \"hired gun\", citing the band's refusal to record any of the nine songs he submitted for their upcoming album.", "R&B singer Ne-Yo claimed in early December that he would hold writing sessions with the band's frontman on new material, although Manson denied it, saying that he had \"never even met Ne-Yo.", "I can assure him that he would not want to be associated with something this godless.", "\"''The High End of Low'' was recorded throughout 2008, with Manson recording vocals at his Hollywood Hills home studio between November and January 5, 2009.Produced by Manson, Twiggy and Vrenna with ''Antichrist Superstar'' and ''Mechanical Animals'' co-producer Sean Beavan, Manson described the album as containing \"extreme\" autobiographical content relating to the dissolution of his engagement to Wood, and as being \"very ruthless, heavy and violent\".", "Its fifteen songs appear on the album in the order they were written.", "The penultimate track, \"Into the Fire\", portrays the vocalist's mental state on Christmas Day, wherein he attempted to contact Wood 158 times, cutting himself with a razorblade on the face or hands for each corresponding attempt.", "The album's final song, \"15\", was completed on Manson's January 5 birthday – hence the name.", "Manson utilized his entire home as a canvas to document the disintegration of the relationship, writing its lyrics on walls and coupling them with paintings and drawings relating to Wood, as well as used condoms, bags of cocaine and other drug paraphernalia.", "\"We're from America\" was released as a free download on the band's website on March 27, 2009, while a Hot Topic-exclusive CD single followed two weeks later.", "After playing an instrumental version of \"Arma-goddamn-motherfuckin-geddon\" to Interscope's A&R department, it was chosen as the album's official lead single, with an employee telling Manson, \"This is gonna be a hit!\".", "Manson then quipped to the employee, \"Well, I'm glad that you have no consideration for what I might put on top of it.\"", "A heavily censored version of the profanity-laced track – re-titled to \"Arma ... geddon\" – was serviced to radio from April 13, and peaked at number thirty-seven on ''Billboard'''s Mainstream Rock chart, becoming their lowest-peaking single in the process.", "The album was released on May 20, 2009 and debuted at number four on the ''Billboard'' 200 with sales of over 49,000 copies, their lowest opening week figure since ''The Last Tour on Earth'' debuted with 26,000 copies in 1999.Prior to ''The High End of Low'''s release, Manson made a series of disparaging comments regarding Interscope and its artistic censorship; as well as its then-CEO Jimmy Iovine, who Manson said \"wasn't smart enough to understand what we do\", and publicly claiming that the label \"cares more about Vitamin Water the private equity venture of Interscope-signed 50 Cent than music.\"", "Reznor – who, as of 2015, remains friends with Iovine – responded by calling Manson a \"dopey clown\" and claiming that \"He is a malicious guy and will step on anybody's face to succeed and cross any line of decency.\"", "While promoting the album in the UK, Manson appeared inebriated in a series of interviews.", "An interview for ''Alan Carr: Chatty Man'' recorded during this time remains unaired, due to graphic language and content.", "A music video for \"Running to the Edge of the World\" – in which Manson beats a Wood lookalike to death – was released on November 4 and was condemned as a perceived glorification of violence against women.", "The band parted ways with Interscope on December 3.They settled the lawsuit filed by former keyboardist Stephen Bier (aka M.W.", "Gacy), with Manson's insurance company paying Bier's attorney's fees and Bier receiving no monetary value.===''Born Villain'' (2011–2013)===Upon parting with Interscope, Manson said \"a lot of the creative control on which my hands were tied has been regained\", while stating that the band had been writing new material while touring their previous album.", "Manson attested that its lyrical content would be \"more romantic\" yet \"self-abusive\", and described its sonic elements as being \"suicide death metal\".", "Fred Sablan joined the band in July 2010.By October, Twiggy described the album as being \"almost done\", and opined that \"It's our best record yet.", "I mean, everyone always says that, but I think this is our best work so far.", "It's kind of like a little more of a punk rock ''Mechanical Animals'', without sounding too pretentious.\"", "The following month, it was announced that the band had signed a joint-venture deal with London-based indie label Cooking Vinyl.", "As part of the deal, the band would retain creative control over their artistic direction, with the band and label sharing profits equally after the label recoups costs associated with marketing, promotion and distribution.For much of 2011, Manson removed himself from the public spotlight and ceased almost all communication with fans, only taking a break from his self-imposed sequestration to appear in the music video for \"Tempat Ku\" by Brunei rock band D'Hask.", "On February 24, longtime drummer Ginger Fish announced his resignation from the group.", "On May 22, their website underwent a complete overhaul.", "A 26-second clip of an unreleased song, tentatively titled \"I am among no one\", was uploaded to their Vimeo account, along with a new logo.After being impressed by his directorial work on one of Kid Cudi's music videos, Manson employed actor Shia LaBeouf to direct a short film entitled ''Born Villain''.", "Contrary to media reports that the project would be a \"making-of\" video documenting the album's recording, ''Born Villain'' was a surrealist short featuring a previously unreleased track, \"Overneath the Path of Misery\".", "Containing numerous references to ''Macbeth'', it was inspired by Jodorowsky's ''The Holy Mountain'' and Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí's 1929 silent film ''Un Chien Andalou''.", "To promote the project, LaBeouf and his girlfriend, photographer Karolyn Pho, graffitied areas of LA with its artwork.", "LaBeouf and Pho later photographed their work, and released it as a limited edition book titled ''Campaign'', which was bundled with a DVD of the film.", "In November, Vrenna departed the band to focus on other production work, whilst indicating that production of their eighth studio album was \"largely completed\".The album was preceded by the release of \"No Reflection\", which Manson leaked to KROQ-FM on March 7, 2012.Cooking Vinyl CEO Martin Goldschmidt called the leak a \"masterstroke\", saying \"we had all these exclusives lined up around the world, and then Manson blew them all.", "We're already getting more radio play than the whole of the last record.\"", "The song went on to peak at number twenty-six on the Mainstream Rock chart, spending fourteen weeks on the chart, and was their best-performing single there since \"Personal Jesus\" in 2004.", "''Born Villain'' was released worldwide from April 25, debuting at number ten on the ''Billboard'' 200 and atop both the Independent Albums and Top Hard Rock Albums charts.", "The album spent two weeks at number one on the UK Rock Albums Chart.", "A remix EP for \"Slo-Mo-Tion\" followed on November 5.The band embarked on the seventeen-month \"Hey Cruel World... Tour\" from the end of April, which was interspersed by co-headlining tours with Rob Zombie (\"Twins of Evil\") and Alice Cooper (\"Masters of Madness\").===''The Pale Emperor'' (2014–2016)===In August 2012, it was announced that Manson would play a fictionalized version of himself in a four-episode arc of the sixth season of TV series ''Californication''.", "While filming its season finale at the Greek Theatre in LA, Manson met the series' composer, Tyler Bates, and the two discussed a potential collaboration.", "Manson confirmed that production started on new material by May 2013.Four months later, Sablan announced that he had left the group.One track from the album, \"Cupid Carries a Gun\" was used as the opening theme to ''Salem'' from its second episode onwards, which premiered on US television on April 27.In October, a large portion of the album track \"Killing Strangers\" was predominantly featured in the Keanu Reeves movie ''John Wick''.", "\"Third Day of a Seven Day Binge\" was released for free download on the band's website on October 26, and served as the album's first official single.", "The band performed several new songs live for the first time as they played a handful of concerts around southern California in October and early November.", "\"Deep Six\" was released on December 16, with a music video following three days later.", "It went on to peak at number eight on ''Billboard'''s Mainstream Rock chart, making it the band's highest-ever peaking single on ''Billboard''.", "\"Cupid Carries a Gun\" was released as the album's third official single on January 8, 2015.", "''The Pale Emperor'' was released on January 15 in the US.", "It is dedicated to Manson's mother, who died in May 2014 after an eight-year battle with Alzheimer's disease and dementia.", "It was both a critical and commercial success, debuting at number eight on the ''Billboard'' 200 with sales of over 51,000 copies, their largest opening-week figure since ''Eat Me, Drink Me'' in 2007.Numerous publications referred to it as the band's best album in over a decade.", "It would go on to appear on several 'best of 2015' lists, with ''Rolling Stone'' dubbing it the 'best metal album' of 2015.Music videos for both \"The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles\" and \"Third Day of a Seven Day Binge\" were released in May and July, respectively.The band embarked on the nearly-two year-long The Hell Not Hallelujah Tour in support of the album, which was interspersed by a co-headlining tour with The Smashing Pumpkins titled The End Times.", "In February 2016, Manson contributed vocals to a version of David Bowie's \"Cat People (Putting Out Fire)\" on ''Countach (For Giorgio)'', a tribute album to Giorgio Moroder curated by Shooter Jennings.", "A 16-bit music video for the song was released five months later.", "Also in February, details were announced of another co-headlining tour, this time with Slipknot.", "The tour was scheduled to begin on June 9 in Salt Lake City and consist of thirty-four dates in Amphitheatres throughout North America, with support from Of Mice & Men.", "However, the first twelve dates of the tour were postponed after an examination revealed that Corey Taylor had broken two vertebrae in his neck.", "The tour began on June 28 in Nashville, Tennessee, with the postponed shows rescheduled for August.===''Heaven Upside Down'' (2017–2018)===While touring with The Smashing Pumpkins, Manson indicated a \"strong possibility\" of working with Corgan on new material, and also revealed plans to collaborate with Korn frontman Jonathan Davis on a \"Southern-sounding, acoustic\" project.", "Manson announced in an interview with KEGL in November that work had begun on the band's tenth studio album, while also confirming that Twiggy, Bates and Sharone would all be involved in its recording.", "''Antichrist Superstar'' was reissued on cassette exclusively in Europe as part of Record Store Day 2016.To celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the album's release, Manson indicated that a special edition of ''Antichrist Superstar'' would be issued on October 20, although this failed to materialize.", "Among its bonus content would have been a previously unreleased film, created during the \"Dead to the World Tour\".On July 19, Manson announced that the band's tenth studio album had the working title ''SAY10'', and predicted a release date of Valentine's Day 2017.In September, Manson confirmed that the band were \"putting the finishing touches\" on the album, and said: \"It's not very much in any way like ''The Pale Emperor''.", "It's pretty violent in its nature for some reason, and it's not emotional in the same way.", "It's got a chip on its shoulder.", "I can't wait for people to hear it.", "I think they're going to be quite surprised.\"", "On November 8 – the day of the 2016 US presidential election – Manson released a teaser clip of a new music video created alongside ''Final Girl'' director Tyler Shields.", "It featured scenes of Manson brandishing a knife while standing over a decapitated corpse.", "According to ''The Daily Beast''s Marlow Stern, the decapitated figure is dressed to resemble Donald Trump.", "Manson would later say that the figure in the video \"wasn't anyone except if you wanted it to be them.", "\"The album was not released in February 2017, and instead a long series of cryptic videos were posted to Marilyn Manson's personal Instagram account over the course of just under 2 months, before Manson revealed on May 9 that the album had been named ''Heaven Upside Down''.", "The band began their Heaven Upside Down Tour on July 20, 2017, in Budapest.", "The first single from the album, \"We Know Where You Fucking Live\", was released on September 11, with the album due to follow on October 6.A second single, \"Kill4Me\", was released on September 20.The band's founding guitarist, Daisy Berkowitz, died on October 22, 2017, at the age of 49; he had been diagnosed with Stage IV colorectal cancer in 2013.Two days later, Manson announced he had \"decided to part ways\" with bassist Twiggy, after a rape allegation was made against Twiggy by his former girlfriend, Jack Off Jill vocalist Jessicka; for the rest of the tour, Juan Alderete (formerly of Racer X and The Mars Volta) joined.", "In July 2018, Manson embarked on the Twins of Evil: The Second Coming Tour in the US with co-headliner Rob Zombie and special guest Deadly Apples.===''We Are Chaos'' (2019–present)===In March 2019, Manson announced that he was nearly finished recording his next studio album and that country musician Shooter Jennings was involved.", "Later that year, drummer Gil Sharone announced he was leaving the band to pursue \"other current and future projects\", with former Black Flag drummer Brandon Pertzborn hired as his replacement.", "Manson also revealed that Bates is no longer involved with the group, and that the album would be produced by Jennings and feature contributions from his drummer Jamie Douglass.", "In July, Manson embarked on the Twins of Evil: Hell Never Dies Tour in the US and Canada with co-headliner Rob Zombie, followed by festivals and headline dates with support from Deadly Apples.", "The band released their cover of The Doors' \"The End\" on streaming music services in November, with a limited edition vinyl scheduled to be issued on March 6, 2020.The song was recorded for the soundtrack to the upcoming miniseries ''The Stand'', based on Stephen King's novel of the same name.", "Manson is set to appear in the miniseries.", "The band are set to appear as the opening act for Ozzy Osbourne during his No More Tours II series, a North American tour beginning in May 2020.However the tour was eventually cancelled along with Manson's performances after Ozzy Osbourne was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease.On January 13, 2020, live bassist Juan Alderete was involved in a bicycle accident which left him with a diffuse axonal injury, a type of traumatic brain injury.", "A GoFundMe page has been created to help cover the cost of his medical expenses.", "On April 29, Manson and Jennings confirmed they had finished work on the band's eleventh studio album, with both calling it a \"masterpiece\".", "On July 28, Manson announced that a new single titled \"We Are Chaos\" would be released the following day.", "The next day, the track was released alongside the announcement of the band's upcoming eleventh studio album titled ''We Are Chaos'' set for release on September 11, 2020.At the same time, the band revealed the album cover and the track list.", "The album debuted at number eight on the ''Billboard'' 200, making it their tenth top ten release on the chart.In February 2021, Loma Vista Recordings announced they would not promote or participate in the distribution of any future recordings released by the band, following former girlfriend Evan Rachel Wood and various other accusations that the band's vocalist sexually and psychologically abused them.", "In November 2021, former band member Tim Skold announced he was again working on new material with Marilyn Manson.", "In May 2023, Brandon Pertzborn left Marilyn Manson to join The Offspring as their drummer.", "Also in May, Marilyn Manson became active again on social media, posting two new pictures and announcing that there's \"something new for you to hear\"." ], [ "Musical style", "Although the band's music has often been labeled as shock rock by mainstream media, Manson disputes the use of the label, preferring instead to identify his band's music as rock and roll.", "The band combined industrial, goth, shock rock and metal into a \"creative bricolage\".", "AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the band \"draws equally from schlock metal, progressive metal, new wave, goth rock, and industrial rock\".", "AllMusic also described the band's music as \"glam-influenced industrial metal\".", "''The Daily Texan'' wrote that the band \"originally found success during the rise and popularity of nu metal\", however \"Manson distanced himself from that movement, preferring alternative metal anguish over cookie monster-sounding raps.\"", "According to ''The Evolution of Goth Culture'', the goth subculture \"resisted this takeover of the goth name by Marilyn Manson and their fans\" initially, but the band's music would eventually be identified as being goth rock and industrial metal, even though Manson himself has been reluctant to \"pigeonhole\" his band as goth or metal.", "''Rolling Stone'' described the band's music as \"heavy, industrialized goth rock\", while AllMusic contends that the band merely borrows from gothic rock's imagery.", "''Consequence of Sound'' wrote that \"gothic darkness and industrial rock pervades all of\" the band's music.", "''Stereogum'' wrote that \"metal has never been an integral part of Manson’s sound\" and although the band utilizes \"varying degrees of gritty, distorted guitar\", the magazine suggested that the core of their music was actually pop music.From 1996 to his departure in 2002, Twiggy was their chief musical contributor, co-writing many of the band's biggest hits with Manson during this period.", "Despite never receiving a writing credit, drummer Ginger Fish provided substantial pre-production assistance to both Manson and Twiggy while composing demos for ''Antichrist Superstar''.", "His drums loops and sound effects would go on to be predominantly featured on several tracks, most notably \"The Beautiful People\".", "John 5 and Tim Skold were also prevalent composers, while ''The Pale Emperor'' and ''Heaven Upside Down'' were composed entirely by Tyler Bates.All of the band's lyrics are written by Manson, whose songwriting style varies between albums.", "Utilizing aesthetics often found within spoken-word poetry, his writing features comedy, puns, and double entendres, and he makes frequent use of alliteration.", "The band's witticisms often take the form of neologisms, delivered several at a time in rapid-fire succession.", "Lyrical content has emerged from a wide range of subjects, including love, sex and sexuality, sexual abuse, rape, consumerism, politics, revenge, suicide, capitalism, violence and mortality, as well as the Bible and Greek mythology.Manson predominantly delivers lyrics in a melodic fashion, although he invariably enhances his vocal register by utilizing several extended vocal techniques, such as vocal fry, screaming, growling and crooning.", "His voice can emit five different tones simultaneously, which mixing engineer Robert Carranza discovered can form a pentagram when imported into a phrasal analyzer.", "He possesses a baritone vocal type.", "His lowest bass note of A1 can be heard in \"Arma-goddamn-motherfuckin-geddon\", while his highest note, an E6 – the first note of the whistle register – can be heard on the ''Born Villain'' song \"Hey, Cruel World ...\"." ], [ "Influences", "Manson's earliest musical memory was listening to Kiss during a family road trip; he has since cited the band as a major influence.", "As a child, he would imitate Kiss's ''kabuki''-like makeup and draw pictures of Gene Simmons and Peter Criss.", "The earliest incarnation of the band was conceived by Manson at a Fort Lauderdale nightclub called The Reunion Room in December 1989, where he was introduced to Big Black's ''Songs About Fucking'' by his future keyboardist, Stephen Bier.", "Daisy Berkowitz played in several punk rock outfits before co-founding the Spooky Kids, and was influenced by acts such as the New York Dolls and the Jim Carroll Band, whose \"People Who Died\" was covered regularly at live shows.As its only permanent member, Manson heads the direction of the band's sound; he has been influenced by the shock rock of artists such as Arthur Brown, Alice Cooper, The Doors, Black Sabbath/Ozzy Osbourne and Iggy Pop.", "His biggest influence, however, was David Bowie, whom he credited with \"changing his life forever\".", "The two have often been compared by mainstream media, particularly in relation to their ability to shift genre and style – replete with a new look and musical philosophy – with each studio release.", "Manson's two favorite songs are Bowie's \"Quicksand\" and \"Ashes to Ashes\".", "For several years, Manson sang Bowie's \"Cat People (Putting Out Fire)\" as a vocal warm up exercise before live performances; he later covered the song with musician Shooter Jennings.During their period at Nothing Records, the band's sound gathered sonic elements from other outfits on that label's roster, particularly Nine Inch Nails, with Reznor co-producing their first two studio albums.", "Manson has cited Queen as an influence on the band's more melodic work, while new wave and synthpop acts such as Depeche Mode and Gary Numan have been noted as influencing their electronic material.", "Manson said of the latter, \"I was always into his apocalyptic fiction lyrics.", "He pioneered electronic dance music.\"", "The work of gothic rock acts such as The Cure and Bauhaus has also been cited, with Twiggy saying that \"as far as guitar and bass combinations go\", Bauhaus's Daniel Ash and David J were \"a really big influence\".", "Manson's other influences include The Beatles, Rihanna, Madonna, Prince, White Zombie, Johnny Cash, Jimi Hendrix, N.W.A, The Smashing Pumpkins, Justin Timberlake, Ministry, Led Zeppelin, the occult, horror comics, and the King James Bible." ], [ "Impact and legacy", "Marilyn Manson have been credited with creating some of the most recognizable and visually defining music videos of the MTV Generation, with some commentators suggesting that their music videos played a significant role in the band's commercial success.", "Their work frequently incorporates surrealist iconography and purposefully grotesque imagery, and their style has been emulated by other performers.", "Joseph Schafer of ''Stereogum'' said in 2015 that \"perhaps no single artist has mastered the music video as a medium so well as Marilyn Manson.\"", "They have received numerous awards and accolades for their work.", "Three of their videos – \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\", \"The Beautiful People\" and \"The Dope Show\" – received a total of five MTV Video Music Award nominations, with the latter winning the Award for Best Cinematography at the 1999 ceremony.", "The clip for \"The Dope Show\" also won two awards at the 1998 ''Billboard'' Music Video Awards.", "\"The Beautiful People\" appeared at number fifty-four on MTV's list of the '100 Greatest Music Videos Ever Made'.", "as well as at number one-hundred on MuchMusic's 100 Greatest Videos Ever.", "Their 2003 video for \"(s)AINT\" was referred to by ''NME'' as \"one of the most explicit music videos ever made\", and was included in lists of the 'Most Controversial Music Videos' by both ''Time'' and ''SF Weekly''.The band have received several Kerrang!", "Awards throughout their career, and were inducted into the ''Kerrang!''", "Hall of Fame in 2000.Manson also received their Icon Award in 2005, as well as their Lifetime Achievement Award ten years later.", "The publication has ranked ''Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)'' as the eleventh greatest rock album of the 2000s, and in 2015 they listed Manson as the twenty-eighth greatest rockstar in the world.", "VH1 included Marilyn Manson at seventy-eight on their list of the '100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock', and also included \"The Beautiful People\" at number eighty-six on their list of the ''100 Greatest Hard Rock Songs''.", "Similarly, Gigwise included Manson at number thirty-six in their list of the '60 Greatest Solo Artists of All Time'.", "In 2016, Manson was presented with an Icon Award at the Alternative Press Music Awards.", "The band has also received four Grammy Award nominations, including two for Best Metal Performance, along with nominations for Best Hard Rock Performance and Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance.", "Marilyn Manson have sold over 50 million records worldwide.Several commentators have referred to the band's lead singer as being one of the most iconic and controversial figures in heavy metal music, with some going so far as to call him a \"pop culture icon\".", "''Paste'' magazine said there were \"few artists in the 90s as shocking as Marilyn Manson, the most famous of the shock-rockers.\"", "''Rolling Stone'' editor Lorraine Ali credited ''Antichrist Superstar'' with marking the end of the reign of grunge within popular music, writing that Marilyn Manson \"offered total escapism as a true alternative\", elaborating that the album was \"a volatile reaction to five years of earnest, post-Nirvana rock.\"", "In 2003, Jon Wiederhorn of MTV called Manson \"the only major performer today who can justifiably call himself an artist.\"", "Graham Hartmann of ''Loudwire'' said that the band's best songs document \"a career that is unlike any other that came before\", highlighting their mix of a \"rock 'n' roll mentality with profound lyrics narrating the progression of society in real time, Manson has developed a polarizing identity as both a beloved hero and a reviled villain.\"", "Hannah Ewers of ''The Guardian'' wrote in 2016 that the band's music has \"never been more relevant than at this time of cultural and political turbulence.", "Whether his lyrics are addressing America's gun crime problem, sexual abuse, religious hypocrisy or consumerism, Manson remains a relevant cultural figure rather than a 90s one, because he continues to address the times without lapsing into a parody\", and opined: \"As long as young people are angry (which they are), he will have listeners.", "\"The band has been noted as influencing numerous groups within metal-associated genres, such as American Head Charge, Babymetal, Black Veil Brides, Combichrist, Kittie, Korn, Motionless in White, Murderdolls, Mushroomhead, New Years Day, September Mourning, Slipknot, and Vanna.", "Outside of heavy metal, both the band and its lead singer have inspired a diverse group of acts, including the Astroid Boys, Avril Lavigne, Charli XCX, Creeper, Die Antwoord, Eminem, Grimes, Halsey, Lady Gaga, Lana Del Rey, Lil Uzi Vert, Lisa Marie Presley, Muse, My Chemical Romance, Mykki Blanco, Natalia Kills, Porcelain Black, Salem, Skrillex, Skylar Grey and Years & Years.", "Garbage vocalist Shirley Manson has called Manson an \"amazing figure and provocateur and agitator\" and said that he was \"always challenging you to think about the church, to think about sexuality and to think about society in different ways.", "We just don't have singers like that anymore.\"", "Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins has commended Manson's manipulation of the culture of celebrity, saying: \"He's very savvy, in that he lets people think things about him or plays into things to see what will happen, almost like a performance artist.", "He's a visionary in a way, because he identified a culture that was coming and now that culture is everywhere.\"" ], [ "Controversies", "In December 1996, Secretary of Education William Bennett, along with U.S.", "Senator Joe Lieberman and former Pennsylvania Secretary of State C. DeLores Tucker, held a press conference wherein they questioned MCA – the owner of Interscope – president Edgar Bronfman Jr.'s ability to head the label competently whilst profiting from \"profanity-laced\" albums by artists such as Tupac Shakur, Snoop Doggy Dogg and Marilyn Manson.", "The following November, Representative Sam Brownback chaired a hearing of the Committee on Government Affairs.", "At this subcommittee, Lieberman once again criticized the band's music, calling it \"vile, hateful, nihilistic and damaging\", and repeated his request that Seagram – then-owner of MCA – \"start ... disassociating itself from Marilyn Manson.\"", "The subcommittee also heard from Raymond Kuntz, of Burlington, North Dakota, who blamed his son Richard's suicide on ''Antichrist Superstar—''specifically the song \"The Reflecting God\".The band's live performances have also come under fire—the ''Dead to the World Tour'', in particular, was followed by protesters at nearly every North American venue it visited.", "Several state legislatures, including the Utah State Legislature, South Carolina Legislature and the Virginia General Assembly, enacted legislation specifically targeting the group, which banned them from performing in state-operated venues.", "These laws would later be repealed, following separate lawsuits from fans, the American Civil Liberties Union, and Ozzy Osbourne, who sued the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority after they forced the cancellation of the New Jersey date of the 1997 Ozzfest at Giants Stadium.On June 30, 2003, the mutilated body of fourteen-year old schoolgirl Jodi Jones was discovered in woodland near her home in Easthouses, Scotland.", "The injuries sustained by Jones closely resembled those of actress Elizabeth Short, who was murdered in 1947 and was popularly referred to by media as the Black Dahlia.", "Jones's boyfriend, then-fifteen year old Luke Mitchell, was arrested on suspicion of her murder ten months later.", "During a search of his home, detectives confiscated a copy of ''The Golden Age of Grotesque'' containing the short film ''Doppelherz''.", "It was purchased two days after Jones's death.", "A ten-minute excerpt from the film, as well as several paintings by Manson depicting the Black Dahlia's mutilated body, were presented as evidence during the trial.", "Mitchell was found guilty of murder and sentenced to serve a minimum of twenty years in prison.The band's scheduled appearance at the Park Live Festival in Moscow on June 27, 2014, was canceled moments before they were due to arrive on stage, after authorities received numerous bomb threats, while hundreds of activists affiliated with the Russian Orthodox Church protested outside the venue.", "The incident culminated in the assault of several members of the band and crew near their hotel.", "Two days later, a performance in Novosibirsk was also canceled when authorities refused to grant permission for the show to go ahead, accusing Manson of insulting the beliefs of the Orthodox church and of \"promoting sadomasochism\".", "Later that year, Manson garnered significant media attention when a video depicting the simulated rape of Lana Del Rey was posted onto YouTube by production company Sturmgruppe.", "The video, titled \"Sturmgruppe 2013 Reel\", showed simulated footage of film director Eli Roth attacking Del Rey, which was interspersed by unrelated images from two of the band's previous music videos—\"No Reflection\" and \"Slo-Mo-Tion\".", "Manson's representatives released a statement to ''Billboard'' denying any involvement in the production of the rape scenes.In October 2017, Twiggy Ramirez was accused of sexual assault by ex-girlfriend Jessicka Addams during their relationship in the mid-90s.", "Soon after, Manson announced that he had \"decided to part ways\" with his longterm bassist.", "Several days later, Ramirez released a statement which said: \"I have only recently been made aware of these allegations from over 20 years ago.", "I do not condone non-consensual sex of any kind.", "I will be taking some time to spend with my family and focus on maintaining my several years of sobriety.", "If I have caused anyone pain, I apologize and truly regret it.", "\"===School shootings=======Columbine massacre====On April 20, 1999, Columbine High School students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold killed twelve students and a teacher, and wounded twenty-one others before committing suicide.", "In the days following the massacre, media reports surfaced alleging that they were influenced by violence in entertainment, specifically movies, video games and music.", "The pair were widely reported as being fans of German bands KMFDM and Rammstein, but the majority of blame was directed at Marilyn Manson.Five days after the incident, longtime music industry critics Republican former Secretary of Education William Bennett and Democratic U.S.", "Senator Joseph Lieberman cited the band as a contributing factor to the massacre during an appearance on ''Meet the Press''.", "Soon after, sensationalist headlines such as \"Killers Worshipped Rock Freak Manson\" and \"Devil-Worshipping Maniac Told Kids To Kill\" began appearing in media coverage of the tragedy (such as Fox News).", "The Mayor of Denver, Wellington Webb, successfully petitioned promoters to cancel KBPI-FM's annual 'Birthday Bash', at which the band was scheduled to appear.", "Coloradoan politicians such as Governor Bill Owens and Republican Representative Tom Tancredo accused Manson of promoting \"hate, violence, death, suicide, drug use and the attitudes and actions of the Columbine High School killers.\"", "Later reports stated that neither Harris nor Klebold was a fan of Marilyn Manson.", "The band canceled the remaining four dates of the Rock Is Dead Tour out of respect for the victims, while maintaining that music, movies, books or video games were not to blame.Eleven days after the massacre, Manson wrote an op-ed piece for ''Rolling Stone'', titled \"Columbine: Whose Fault Is It?", "\", where he rebuked the ensuing hysteria and \"witch hunt\", and castigated America's gun culture, the political influence of the National Rifle Association, and the media's culpability in similarly violent events in the future – through their irresponsible coverage – in facilitating the placement of blame on a scapegoat, instead of informing the populace of genuine societal issues.====Other shootings====The controversy connecting the band and school shootings continued on October 10, 2007, following the SuccessTech Academy shooting.", "After being punched in the face by another student while exiting a bathroom, Asa Coon shot his attacker – Michael Peek – in the abdomen.", "Armed with two revolvers, he then proceeded down a hallway, where he wounded another student and two teachers by firing into two occupied classrooms, before entering a nearby bathroom and committing suicide.", "Coon was wearing a black Marilyn Manson T-shirt during the incident.On May 18, 2009, 15-year-old Justin Doucet, a student at Larose Middle School in Lafourche Parish, Louisiana, entered the school armed with a .25-caliber Automatic Colt Pistol.", "When seventh-grade teacher Jessica Plaisance refused to comply with Doucet's demand to say \"Hail Marilyn Manson\", he fired two shots, narrowly missing her head, before turning the gun on himself.", "He died from his injuries a week later." ], [ "Band members", "'''Current members'''* Marilyn Manson – lead vocals, guitars, keyboards, programming, drums, percussion, tambourine, saxophone, pan flute (1989–present)* Paul Wiley – guitars, programming, backing vocals (2018–present; touring 2014–2018)* Juan Alderete – bass, backing vocals (2018–present; touring 2017–2018)'''Former members'''* Zsa Zsa Speck – keyboards (1990)* Olivia Newton Bundy – bass (1989–1990)* Gidget Gein – bass (1990–1993; died 2008)* Sara Lee Lucas – drums, programming (1991–1995)* Daisy Berkowitz – guitars, programming, percussion, harmonica (1989–1996; died 2017)* Zim Zum – guitars, keyboards (1996–1998)* John 5 – guitars, keyboards (1998–2004)* Madonna Wayne Gacy – keyboards, synthesizers, programming, samples, percussion, brass instruments (1990–2007)* Tim Skold – guitars, bass, keyboards, backing vocals (2002–2008)* Ginger Fish – drums, programming (1995–2011)* Chris Vrenna – keyboards, synthesizers, programming, samples (2007–2011); drums (2011; touring 2004–2005)* Fred Sablan – bass, guitars (2010–2014)* Twiggy Ramirez – bass, guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (1993–2002, 2008–2014; touring 2014–2017)* Tyler Bates – guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (2014–2015, 2015–2018)* Gil Sharone – drums (2014–2019)* Brandon Pertzborn – drums (2019–2023);Former touring members* Mark Chaussee – guitars (2004–2005)* Rob Holliday – guitars (2008); bass, backing vocals (2007–2008)* Wes Borland – guitars (2008–2009)* Andy Gerold – bass (2009)* Jason Sutter – drums (2012–2013)* Spencer Rollins – keyboards, guitars (2013)* Daniel Fox – keyboards, percussion (2015–2017)" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Portrait of an American Family'' (1994)* ''Antichrist Superstar'' (1996)* ''Mechanical Animals'' (1998)* ''Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)'' (2000)* ''The Golden Age of Grotesque'' (2003)* ''Eat Me, Drink Me'' (2007)* ''The High End of Low'' (2009)* ''Born Villain'' (2012)* ''The Pale Emperor'' (2015)* ''Heaven Upside Down'' (2017)* ''We Are Chaos'' (2020)" ], [ "Tours", "* Independent Touring (The Spooky Kids) (1990–93)* Portrait of an American Family (1994–95)* Smells Like Children Tour (1995–1996)* Dead to the World Tour (1996–97)* Mechanical Animals Tour (1998–99)* Beautiful Monsters Tour (1999)* Rock Is Dead Tour (1999)* Guns, God and Government Tour (2000–01)* Grotesk Burlesk Tour (2003–04)* Against All Gods Tour (2004–05)* Rape of the World Tour (2007–08)* The High End of Low Tour (2009)* Hey Cruel World... Tour/Twins of Evil Tour/Masters of Madness Tour (2012–13)* The Hell Not Hallelujah Tour/The End Times Tour (2015)* Heaven Upside Down Tour/Twins of Evil: The Second Coming Tour/Twins of Evil: Hell Never Dies Tour (2017–19)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "'''Grammy Awards'''1999\"The Dope Show\"Best Hard Rock Performance2001\"Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes\"Best Metal Performance2004\"mOBSCENE\"2013\"No Reflection\"Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * The Official Marilyn Manson Encyclopedia*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mortimer J. Adler" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mortimer Jerome Adler''' (December 28, 1902 – June 28, 2001) was an American philosopher, educator, encyclopedist, and popular author.", "As a philosopher he worked within the Aristotelian and Thomistic traditions.", "He taught at Columbia University and the University of Chicago, served as chairman of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' board of editors, and founded the Institute for Philosophical Research.He lived for long stretches in New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, and San Mateo, California." ], [ "Biography", "=== Intellectual development and philosophic evolution ===While doing newspaper work and taking night classes during his adolescence, Adler encountered works of men he would come to call heroes: Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, John Locke, John Stuart Mill, and others, who \"were assailed as irrelevant by student activists in the 1960s and subjected to 'politically correct' attack in later decades.\"", "His thought evolved toward the correction of what he considered \"philosophical mistakes\", as reflected in his 1985 book ''Ten Philosophical Mistakes: Basic Errors in Modern Thought''.", "In Adler's view, these errors were introduced by Descartes on the continent and by Thomas Hobbes and David Hume in Britain, and were caused by a \"culpable ignorance\" about Aristotle by those who rejected the conclusions of dogmatic philosophy without acknowledging its sound classical premises.", "These modern errors were compounded and perpetuated, according to Adler, by Kant and the idealists and existentialists on the one side, and by John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham, and Bertrand Russell and the English analytic tradition on the other.", "Adler held that he corrected these mistakes with reference to insights and distinctions drawn from the Aristotelian tradition.=== New York City ===Adler was born in Manhattan, New York City, on December 28, 1902, to Jewish immigrants from Germany: Clarissa (Manheim), a schoolteacher, and Ignatz Adler, a jewelry salesman.", "He dropped out of school at age 14 to become a copy boy for the ''New York Sun'', with the ultimate aspiration of becoming a journalist.", "Adler soon returned to school to take writing classes at night, where he discovered the western philosophical tradition.", "After his early schooling and work, he went on to study at Columbia University and contributed to the student literary magazine, ''The Morningside,'' a poem \"Choice\" (in 1922 when Charles A. Wagner was editor-in-chief and Whittaker Chambers an associate editor).", "Though he refused to take the required swimming test for a bachelor's degree (a matter that was rectified when Columbia gave him an honorary degree in 1983), he stayed at the university and eventually received an instructorship and finally a doctorate in psychology.", "While at Columbia University, Adler wrote his first book: ''Dialectic'', published in 1927.Adler worked with Scott Buchanan at the People's Institute and then for many years on their respective Great Books efforts.", "(Buchanan was the founder of the Great Books program at St. John's College).=== Chicago ===In 1930, Robert Hutchins, the newly appointed president of the University of Chicago, whom Adler had befriended some years earlier, arranged for Chicago's law school to hire him as a professor of the philosophy of law.", "The philosophers at Chicago (who included James H. Tufts, E. A. Burtt, and George H. Mead) had \"entertained grave doubts as to Dr. Adler's competence in the field of philosophy\" and resisted Adler's appointment to the university's Department of Philosophy.", "Adler was the first \"non-lawyer\" to join the law school faculty.", "After the Great Books seminar inspired Chicago businessman and university trustee Walter Paepcke to found the Aspen Institute, Adler taught philosophy to business executives there.=== Popular appeal ===Adler long strove to bring philosophy to the masses, and some of his works (such as ''How to Read a Book'') became popular bestsellers.", "He was also an advocate of economic democracy and wrote an influential preface to Louis O. Kelso's ''The Capitalist Manifesto''.", "Adler was often aided in his thinking and writing by Arthur Rubin, an old friend from his Columbia undergraduate days.", "In his own words:Dwight Macdonald once criticized Adler's popular style by saying \"Mr. Adler once wrote a book called ''How to Read a Book''.", "He should now read a book called ''How to Write a Book''.\"" ], [ "Encyclopedia and Educational Reform", "Adler and Hutchins went on to found the Great Books of the Western World program and the Great Books Foundation.", "In 1952, Adler founded and served as director of the Institute for Philosophical Research.", "He also served on the Board of Editors of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', compiled its Syntopicon and later Propaedia, and succeeded Hutchins as its chairman from 1974.As the director of editorial planning for the fifteenth edition of ''Britannica'' from 1965, he was instrumental in the major reorganization of knowledge embodied in that edition.", "He introduced the Paideia Proposal which resulted in his founding the Paideia Program, a grade school curriculum centered around guided reading and discussion of difficult works (as judged for each grade).", "With Max Weismann, he founded the Center for the Study of the Great Ideas in 1990 in Chicago." ], [ "Religion and theology", "Adler was born into a nonobservant Jewish family.", "In his early twenties, he discovered St. Thomas Aquinas, and in particular the ''Summa Theologica''.", "Many years later, he wrote that its \"intellectual austerity, integrity, precision and brilliance ... put the study of theology highest among all of my philosophical interests.\"", "An enthusiastic Thomist, he was a frequent contributor to Catholic philosophical and educational journals, as well as a frequent speaker at Catholic institutions, so much so that some assumed he was a convert to Catholicism.", "But that was reserved for later.In 1940, James T. Farrell called Adler \"the leading American fellow-traveller of the Roman Catholic Church.\"", "What was true for Adler, Farrell said, was what was \"postulated in the dogma of the Roman Catholic Church,\" and he \"sang the same tune\" as avowed Catholic philosophers like Étienne Gilson, Jacques Maritain, and Martin D'Arcy.", "He also greatly admired Henri Bergson, the French Jewish philosopher and Nobel laureate, whose books the Catholic church had indexed as prohibited.", "Bergson refused to convert during the collaborationist Vichy regime, and despite the Statute on Jews he instead restated his previous views and was thus stripped of all his previous posts and honors.", "Farrell attributed Adler's delay in joining the Church to his being among those Christians who \"wanted their cake and ... wanted to eat it too\" and compared him to the Emperor Constantine, who waited until he was on his deathbed to formally become a Catholic.Adler took a long time to make up his mind about theological issues.", "When he wrote ''How to Think About God: A Guide for the Twentieth-Century Pagan'' in 1980, he claimed to consider himself the pagan of the book's subtitle.", "In volume 51 of the ''Mars Hill Audio Journal'' (2001), Ken Myers includes his 1980 interview with Adler, conducted after ''How to Think About God'' was published.", "Myers reminisces, \"During that interview, I asked him why he had never embraced the Christian faith himself.", "He explained that while he had been profoundly influenced by a number of Christian thinkers during his life, ... there were moral – not intellectual – obstacles to his conversion.", "He didn't explain any further.", "\"Myers notes that Adler finally \"surrendered to the Hound of Heaven\" and \"made a confession of faith and was baptized\" as an Episcopalian in 1984, only a few years after that interview.", "Offering insight into Adler's conversion, Myers quotes him from a subsequent 1990 article in ''Christianity'' magazine: \"My chief reason for choosing Christianity was because the mysteries were incomprehensible.", "What's the point of revelation if we could figure it out ourselves?", "If it were wholly comprehensible, then it would just be another philosophy.", "\"According to his friend Deal Hudson, Adler \"had been attracted to Catholicism for many years\" and \"wanted to be a Roman Catholic, but issues like abortion and the resistance of his family and friends\" kept him away.", "Many thought he was baptized as an Episcopalian rather than a Catholic solely because of his \"wonderful – and ardently Episcopal – wife\" Caroline.", "Hudson suggests it is no coincidence that it was only after her death in 1998 that he took the final step.", "In December 1999, in San Mateo, where he had moved to spend his last years, Adler was formally received into the Catholic Church by a long-time friend and admirer, Bishop Pierre DuMaine.", "\"Finally,\" wrote another friend, Ralph McInerny, \"he became the Roman Catholic he had been training to be all his life\".Despite not being a Catholic for most of his life, on account of his lifelong participation in the Neo-Thomist movement and his almost equally long membership in the American Catholic Philosophical Association, this latter, according to McInerny is willing to consider Adler \"a Catholic philosopher\"." ], [ "Philosophy", "Adler referred to Aristotle's ''Nicomachean Ethics'' as the \"ethics of common sense\" and also as \"the only moral philosophy that is sound, practical, and undogmatic.\"", "Thus, it is the only ethical doctrine that answers all the questions that moral philosophy should and can attempt to answer, neither more nor less, and that has answers that are true by the standard of truth that is appropriate and applicable to normative judgments.", "In contrast, Adler believed that other theories or doctrines try to answer more questions than they can or fewer than they should, and their answers are mixtures of truth and error, particularly the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant.Adler was a self-proclaimed \"moderate dualist\" and viewed the positions of psychophysical dualism and materialistic monism to be opposite sides of two extremes.", "Regarding dualism, he dismissed the extreme form of dualism that stemmed from such philosophers as Plato (body and soul) and Descartes (mind and matter), as well as the theory of extreme monism and the mind–brain identity theory.", "After eliminating the extremes, Adler subscribed to a more moderate form of dualism.", "He believed that the brain is only a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for conceptual thought; that an \"immaterial intellect\" is also requisite as a condition; and that the difference between human and animal behavior is a radical difference in kind.", "Adler defended this position against many challenges to dualistic theories.===Freedom and free will===The meanings of \"freedom\" and \"free will\" have been and are under debate, and the debate is confused because there is no generally accepted definition of either term.", "Adler's \"Institute for Philosophical Research\" spent ten years studying the \"idea of freedom\" as the word was used by hundreds of authors who have discussed and disputed freedom.", "The study was published in 1958 as Volume One of ''The Idea of Freedom'', subtitled ''A Dialectical Examination of the Idea of Freedom'' with subsequent comments in ''Adler's Philosophical Dictionary''.", "Adler's study concluded that a delineation of three kinds of freedom – circumstantial, natural, and acquired – is necessary for clarity on the subject.# \"Circumstantial freedom\" denotes \"freedom from coercion or restraint.", "\"# \"Natural freedom\" denotes \"freedom of a free will\" or \"free choice.\"", "It is the freedom to determine one's own decisions or plans.", "This freedom exists in everyone inherently, regardless of circumstances or state of mind.# \"Acquired freedom\" is the freedom \"to will as we ought to will\" and, thus, \"to live as one ought to live.\"", "This freedom is not inherent: it must be acquired by a change whereby a person gains qualities as \"good, wise, virtuous, etc.", "\"===Religion===As Adler's interest in religion and theology increased, he made references to the Bible and the need to test articles of faith for compatibility with the conclusions of the science of nature and of philosophers.", "In his 1981 book ''How to Think About God'', Adler attempts to demonstrate God as the exnihilator (the creator of something from nothing).", "Adler stressed that even with this conclusion, God's existence cannot be proven or demonstrated, but only established as true beyond a reasonable doubt.", "However, in a recent re-review of the argument, John Cramer concluded that recent developments in cosmology appear to converge with and support Adler's argument, and that in light of such theories as the multiverse, the argument is no worse for wear and may, indeed, now be judged somewhat more probable than it was originally.Adler believed that, if theology and religion are living things, there is nothing intrinsically wrong about efforts to modernize them.", "They must be open to change and growth like everything else.", "Furthermore, there is no reason to be surprised when discussions such as those about the \"death of God\" – a concept drawn from Friedrich Nietzsche – stir popular excitement as they did in the recent past and could do so again today.", "According to Adler, of all the great ideas, the idea of God has always been and continues to be the one that evokes the greatest concern among the widest group of men and women.", "However, he was opposed to the idea of converting atheism into a new form of religion or theology." ], [ "Personal life", "Mortimer Adler was married twice and had four children.", "He married Helen Boynton in 1927.Together they adopted two children, Mark and Michael, in 1938 and 1940, respectively.", "They divorced in 1960.In 1963, Adler married Caroline Pring, his junior by thirty-four years; they had two children, Douglas and Philip." ], [ "Awards", "*1985, Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement*1993, Aspen Hall of Fame" ], [ "Published works", "* ''Dialectic'' (1927)* ''The Nature of Judicial Proof: An Inquiry into the Logical, Legal, and Empirical Aspects of the Law of Evidence'' (1931, with Jerome Michael)* ''Diagrammatics'' (1932, with Maude Phelps Hutchins)* ''Crime, Law and Social Science'' (1933, with Jerome Michael)* ''Art and Prudence: A Study in Practical Philosophy'' (1937)* ''What Man Has Made of Man: A Study of the Consequences of Platonism and Positivism in Psychology'' (1937)* ''St.", "Thomas and the Gentiles'' (1938)* ''The Philosophy and Science of Man: A Collection of Texts as a Foundation for Ethics and Politics'' (1940)* ''How to Read a Book: The Art of Getting a Liberal Education'' (1940), 1966 edition subtitled ''A Guide to Reading the Great Books'', 1972 revised edition with Charles Van Doren, ''The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading'': * ''Problems for Thomists: The Problem of Species'' (1940) * ''A Dialectic of Morals: Towards the Foundations of Political Philosophy'' (1941)* * ''How to Think About War and Peace'' (1944)* ''The Revolution in Education'' (1944, with Milton Mayer)* * .", "* ''The Capitalist Manifesto'' (1958, with Louis O. Kelso) * ''The New Capitalists: A Proposal to Free Economic Growth from the Slavery of Savings'' (1961, with Louis O. Kelso)* ''The Idea of Freedom: A Dialectical Examination of the Controversies about Freedom'' (1961)* ''Great Ideas from the Great Books'' (1961)* ''The Conditions of Philosophy: Its Checkered Past, Its Present Disorder, and Its Future Promise'' (1965)* ''The Difference of Man and the Difference It Makes'' (1967)* ''The Time of Our Lives: The Ethics of Common Sense'' (1970)* ''The Common Sense of Politics'' (1971)* ''The American Testament'' (1975, with William Gorman)* ''Some Questions About Language: A Theory of Human Discourse and Its Objects'' (1976)* ''Philosopher at Large: An Intellectual Autobiography'' (1977)* ''Reforming Education: The Schooling of a People and Their Education Beyond Schooling'' (1977, edited by Geraldine Van Doren)* ''Aristotle for Everybody: Difficult Thought Made Easy'' (1978) * ''How to Think About God: A Guide for the 20th-Century Pagan'' (1980) * ''Six Great Ideas: Truth–Goodness–Beauty–Liberty–Equality–Justice'' (1981) * ''The Angels and Us'' (1982)* ''The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto'' (1982) * ''How to Speak / How to Listen'' (1983) * ''Paideia Problems and Possibilities: A Consideration of Questions Raised by The Paideia Proposal'' (1983)* ''A Vision of the Future: Twelve Ideas for a Better Life and a Better Society'' (1984) * ''The Paideia Program: An Educational Syllabus'' (1984, with Members of the Paideia Group) * ''Ten Philosophical Mistakes: Basic Errors In Modern Thought – How they came about, their consequences, and how to avoid them.''", "(1985) * ''A Guidebook to Learning: For a Lifelong Pursuit of Wisdom'' (1986)* ''We Hold These Truths: Understanding the Ideas and Ideals of the Constitution'' (1987).", "* ''Reforming Education: The Opening of the American Mind'' (1988, edited by Geraldine Van Doren)* ''Intellect: Mind Over Matter'' (1990)* ''Truth in Religion: The Plurality of Religions and the Unity of Truth'' (1990) * ''Haves Without Have-Nots: Essays for the 21st Century on Democracy and Socialism'' (1991) * ''Desires, Right & Wrong: The Ethics of Enough'' (1991)* ''A Second Look in the Rearview Mirror: Further Autobiographical Reflections of a Philosopher At Large'' (1992)* ''The Great Ideas: A Lexicon of Western Thought'' (1992)* ''Natural Theology, Chance, and God'' (''The Great Ideas Today'', 1992)** ''Art, the Arts, and the Great Ideas'' (1994)* .", "* ''How to Think About The Great Ideas'' (2000) * ''How to Prove There Is a God'' (2011) ===Anthologies, collections and surveys edited by Adler===* ''Scholasticism and Politics'' (1940)* ''Great Books of the Western World'' (1952, 52 volumes), 2nd edition 1990, 60 volumes* ''A Syntopicon: An Index to The Great Ideas'' (1952, 2 volumes), 2nd edition 1990* ''The Great Ideas Program'' (1959–1963, 10 volumes), with Peter Wolff, Seymour Cain, and V.J.", "McGill * ''The Great Ideas Today'' (1961–77, 17 volumes), with Robert Hutchins, 1978–99, 21 volumes* ''The Negro in American History'' (1969, 3 volumes), with Charles Van Doren* ''Gateway to the Great Books'' (1963, 10 volumes), with Robert Hutchins* ''The Annals of America'' (1968, 21 volumes)* ''Propædia: Outline of Knowledge and Guide to The New Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition'' (1974, 30 volumes)* ''Great Treasury of Western Thought'' (1977, with Charles Van Doren)" ], [ "See also", "* List of American philosophers* Educational perennialism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *Lacy, Tim.", "''The Dream of a Democratic Culture: Mortimer J. Adler and the Great Books Idea.''", "(Palgrave Studies in Cultural and Intellectual History.)", "New York City: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.", "()* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Center for the Study of The Great Ideas** * Adler papers at University of Texas at Austin* Adler papers at Syracuse University* Guide to the Mortimer J. Adler Papers 1914–1995 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center* Many of the National Educational Television program \"Great Ideas\" in which he featured around 1957 are available online in American Archive of Public Broadcasting" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 11" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 330 – Constantine the Great dedicates the much-expanded and rebuilt city of Byzantium, changing its name to New Rome and declaring it the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.", "*868 – A copy of the Diamond Sūtra is published, making it the earliest dated and printed book known.", "*973 – In the first coronation ceremony ever held for an English monarch, Edgar the Peaceful is crowned King of England, having ruled since 959 AD.", "His wife, Ælfthryth, is crowned queen, the first recorded coronation for a Queen of England.", "*1068 – Matilda of Flanders, wife of William the Conqueror, is crowned Queen of England.", "*1258 – Louis IX of France and James I of Aragon sign the Treaty of Corbeil, renouncing claims of feudal overlordship in one another's territories and separating the House of Barcelona from the politics of France.===1601–1900===*1713 – Great Northern War: After losing the Battle of Helsinki to the Russians, the Swedish and Finnish troops burn the entire city, so that it would not remain intact in the hands of the Russians.", "*1812 – Prime Minister Spencer Perceval is assassinated by John Bellingham in the lobby of the British House of Commons.", "*1813 – William Lawson, Gregory Blaxland and William Wentworth discover a route across the Blue Mountains, opening up inland Australia to settlement.", "*1857 – Indian Rebellion of 1857: Indian rebels seize Delhi from the British.", "*1880 – Seven people are killed in the Mussel Slough Tragedy, a gun battle in California.", "*1889 – An attack upon a U.S. Army paymaster and escort results in the theft of over $28,000 and the award of two Medals of Honor.", "*1894 – Four thousand Pullman Palace Car Company workers go on a wildcat strike.===1901–present===*1919 – Uruguay becomes a signatory to the Buenos Aires copyright treaty.", "*1970 – The 1970 Lubbock tornado kills 26 and causes $250 million in damage.", "*1985 – Fifty-six spectators die and more than 200 are injured in the Bradford City stadium fire.", "*1996 – After the aircraft's departure from Miami, a fire started by improperly handled chemical oxygen generators in the cargo hold of Atlanta-bound ValuJet Airlines Flight 592 causes the Douglas DC-9 to crash in the Florida Everglades, killing all 110 on board.", "*1997 – Deep Blue, a chess-playing supercomputer, defeats Garry Kasparov in the last game of the rematch, becoming the first computer to beat a world-champion chess player in a classic match format.", "*1998 – India conducts three underground atomic tests in Pokhran.", "*2011 – An earthquake of magnitude 5.1 hits Lorca, Spain.", "*2013 – Fifty-two people are killed in a bombing in Reyhanlı, Turkey.", "*2014 – Fifteen people are killed and 46 injured in Kinshasa, DRC, in a stampede caused by tear gas being thrown into soccer stands by police officers.", "*2016 – One hundred and ten people are killed in an ISIL bombing in Baghdad.", "*2022 – The Burmese military executes at least 37 villagers during the Mon Taing Pin massacre in Sagaing, Myanmar." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1571 – Niwa Nagashige, Japanese daimyō (d. 1637)===1601–1900===*1715 – Johann Gottfried Bernhard Bach, German organist (d. 1739)*1752 – Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, German physician, physiologist, and anthropologist (d. 1840)*1797 – José Mariano Salas, Mexican general and politician (d. 1867)*1811 – Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel, Swiss politician (d. 1893)* 1811 – Chang and Eng Bunker, Siamese-American showmen, the original conjoined twins (d. 1874)*1852 – Charles W. Fairbanks, American journalist and politician, 26th United States Vice President (d. 1918)*1854 – Jack Blackham, Australian cricketer (d. 1932)*1869 – Archibald Warden, English tennis player (d. 1943)*1871 – Frank Schlesinger, American astronomer and author (d. 1943)*1875 – Harriet Quimby, American pilot and screenwriter (d. 1912)*1881 – Al Cabrera, Spanish-Cuban baseball player and manager (d. 1964)* 1881 – Jan van Gilse, Dutch composer and conductor (d. 1944)* 1881 – Theodore von Kármán, Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, and engineer (d. 1963)*1888 – Irving Berlin, Belarusian-American pianist and composer (d. 1989)* 1888 – Willis Augustus Lee, American admiral (d. 1945)*1889 – Paul Nash, British painter (d. 1946)*1890 – Willie Applegarth, English-American sprinter (d. 1958)* 1890 – Helge Løvland, Norwegian decathlete (d. 1984)*1894 – Martha Graham, American dancer and choreographer (d. 1991)*1895 – Jacques Brugnon, French tennis player (d. 1978)* 1895 – Jiddu Krishnamurti, Indian philosopher and speaker (d. 1986)* 1895 – William Grant Still, American composer and conductor (d. 1978)*1896 – Josip Štolcer-Slavenski, Croatian composer and academic (d. 1955)*1897 – Robert E. Gross, American businessman (d. 1961)===1901–present=== *1901 – Rose Ausländer, Ukrainian-English poet and author (d. 1988)* 1901 – Gladys Rockmore Davis, American painter (d. 1967)*1902 – Edna Ernestine Kramer, American mathematician (d. 1984)*1903 – Charlie Gehringer, American baseball player and manager (d. 1993)*1904 – Salvador Dalí, Spanish artist (d. 1989)*1905 – Lise de Baissac, Mauritian-born SOE agent, war hero (d. 2004)* 1905 – Catherine Bauer Wurster, American architect and public housing advocate (d. 1964)*1907 – Rip Sewell, American baseball player and coach (d. 1989)*1911 – Mitchell Sharp, Canadian economist and politician, 23rd Canadian Minister of Finance (d. 2004)* 1911 – Phil Silvers, American actor and comedian (d. 1985)*1912 – Saadat Hasan Manto, Indian-Pakistani author and screenwriter (d. 1955)*1916 – Camilo José Cela, Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)*1918 – Richard Feynman, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)*1921 – Robin Barbour, Scottish minister and author (d. 2014)* 1921 – Hildegard Hamm-Brücher, German politician (d. 2016)*1924 – Antony Hewish, English astronomer and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)*1925 – Edward J.", "King, American football player and politician, 66th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 2006)*1927 – Bernard Fox, British actor (d. 2016)* 1927 – Gene Savoy, American explorer, author, and scholar (d. 2007)*1930 – Edsger W. Dijkstra, Dutch computer scientist and academic (d. 2002)* 1930 – Stanley Elkin, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 1995)*1932 – Valentino Garavani, Italian fashion designer*1933 – Louis Farrakhan, American religious leader*1934 – Jim Jeffords, American captain, lawyer, and politician (d. 2014)* 1934 – Jack Twyman, American basketball player (d. 2012)*1935 – Francisco Umbral, Spanish journalist and author (d. 2007)*1937 – Ildikó Újlaky-Rejtő, Hungarian Olympic and world champion foil fencer*1938 – Narendra Patel, Baron Patel, Tanzanian-English obstetrician, academic, and politician*1941 – Eric Burdon, English musician * 1941 – Ian Redpath, Australian cricketer and coach*1943 – Nancy Greene, Canadian skier and politician*1944 – John Benaud, Australian cricketer*1948 – Jack Cantoni, French rugby player (d. 2013)* 1948 – Nirj Deva, Sri Lankan-English politician*1950 – Jeremy Paxman, English journalist and author* 1950 – Sadashiv Amrapurkar, Indian actor (d. 2014)*1951 – Ed Stelmach, Canadian farmer and politician, 13th Premier of Alberta*1954 – John Gregory, English footballer and manager*1955 – John DeStefano Jr., American politician, 49th Mayor of New Haven*1957 – Mike Nesbitt, Northern Irish journalist and politician*1962 – Steve Bono, American football player*1963 – Natasha Richardson, English actress (d. 2009)*1964 – Tim Blake Nelson, American actor* 1964 – Bobby Witt, American baseball player* 1964 – Floyd Youmans, American baseball player, coach, and manager*1967 – Alberto García Aspe, Mexican footballer and manager*1969 – Mitch Healey, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1969 – Simon Vroemen, Dutch runner*1970 – Harold Ford Jr., American lawyer and politician* 1970 – Jason Queally, English cyclist*1972 – Tomáš Dvořák, Czech decathlete and coach*1973 – Tsuyoshi Ogata, Japanese runner*1974 – Stanley Gene, Papua New Guinean rugby league player* 1974 – Darren Ward, English-Welsh footballer and coach* 1974 – Tony Warner, English born Trinidadian international footballer and coach*1975 – Francisco Cordero, Dominican-American baseball player*1976 – Kardinal Offishall, Canadian rapper and record producer/executive *1977 – Pablo Gabriel García, Uruguayan footballer* 1977 – Victor Matfield, South African rugby player, coach, and sportscaster* 1977 – Bobby Roode, Canadian professional wrestler*1978 – Laetitia Casta, French model and actress*1981 – Lauren Jackson, Australian basketball player*1981 – JP Karliak, American actor, voice actor and comedian*1982 – Cory Monteith, Canadian actor and singer (d. 2013)*1983 – Matt Leinart, American football player* 1983 – Steven Sotloff, American-Israeli journalist (d. 2014) * 1983 – Holly Valance, Australian actress, singer and model*1984 – Andrés Iniesta, Spanish footballer*1985 – Beau Ryan, Australian rugby league player and television host*1986 – Abou Diaby, French footballer* 1986 – Miguel Veloso, Portuguese footballer*1987 – Lim Seul-ong, South Korean singer and actor * 1987 – Monica Roșu, Romanian gymnast*1988 – Jeremy Maclin, American football player* 1988 – Brad Marchand, Canadian ice hockey player*1989 – Alyssa Brown, Canadian artistic gymnast* 1989 – Giovani dos Santos, Mexican international footballer* 1989 – Cam Newton, American football player*1992 – Thibaut Courtois, Belgian footballer* 1992 – Pablo Sarabia, Spanish footballer* 1992 – Bobi, Portuguese Rafeiro do Alentejo, oldest recorded dog*1993 – Maurice Harkless, American-Puerto Rican basketball player*1994 – Hagos Gebrhiwet, Ethiopian runner* 1994 – Nene Macdonald, Papua New Guinean rugby league player*1995 – Gelson Martins, Portuguese footballer* 1995 – Sachia Vickery, American tennis player*1996 – Adin Hill, Canadian ice hockey player*1997 – Lana Condor, American actress*1998 – Viktória Kužmová, Slovak tennis player*1999 – Sabrina Carpenter, American singer and actress*2000 – Yūki Tsunoda, Japanese racing driver" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 912 – Leo VI the Wise, Byzantine Emperor, the second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (b.866).===1601–1900===*1610 – Matteo Ricci, Italian priest and mathematician (b.", "1552)*1778 – William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b.", "1708)*1779 – John Hart, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1711)*1812 – Spencer Perceval, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1762)*1848 – Tom Cribb, English boxer (b.", "1781)*1849 – Juliette Récamier, French businesswoman (b.", "1777)*1882 – Frederick Innes, Scottish-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1816)*1889 – John Cadbury, English businessman and philanthropist, founded the Cadbury Company (b.", "1801)===1901–present===*1908 – Charles Kingston, Australian politician, 20th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1850)*1916 – Karl Schwarzschild, German astronomer and physicist (b.", "1873)*1918 – George Elmslie, Australian politician, 25th Premier of Victoria (b.", "1861)*1920 – James Colosimo, Italian-American mob boss (b.", "1878)* 1920 – William Dean Howells, American novelist, literary critic, and playwright (b.", "1837)*1927 – Juan Gris, Spanish painter and sculptor (b.", "1887)*1929 – Jozef Murgaš, Slovak-American priest, architect, botanist, and painter (b.", "1864)*1938 – George Lyon, Canadian golfer and cricketer (b.", "1858)*1946 – Seán McCaughey Irish Republican, Hunger Striker*1955 – Gilbert Jessop, English cricketer (b.", "1874)*1960 – John D. Rockefeller Jr., American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1874)*1963 – Herbert Spencer Gasser, American physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1888)*1967 – James E. Brewton, American painter (b.", "1930)*1979 – Lester Flatt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1914)*1981 – Odd Hassel, Norwegian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1897)* 1981 – Bob Marley, Jamaican singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1945)*1983 – Zenna Henderson, American writer (b.", "1917)*1985 – Chester Gould, American cartoonist, created ''Dick Tracy'' (b.", "1900)*1986 – Fritz Pollard, American football player and coach (b.", "1894)*1988 – Kim Philby, British-Soviet double agent (b.", "1912) *1990 – Stratos Dionysiou, Greek Singer, composer and lyricist (b.", "1935)*1994 – Timothy Carey, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1928)*2001 – Douglas Adams, English novelist and screenwriter (b.", "1952)*2002 – Renaude Lapointe, Canadian journalist and politician (b.", "1912)* 2002 – Bill Peet, American animator and screenwriter (b.", "1915)*2003 – Noel Redding, English bass player (b.", "1945)*2005 – Léo Cadieux, Canadian politician, 17th Canadian Minister of National Defence (b.", "1908)*2006 – Floyd Patterson, American boxer and actor (b.", "1935)*2007 – Malietoa Tanumafili II, Samoan ruler (b.", "1913)*2008 – John Rutsey, Canadian drummer (b.", "1953)*2009 – Abel Goumba, Central African physician and politician, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (b.", "1926)* 2009 – Claudio Huepe, Chilean economist and politician, Chilean Minister Secretary-General of Government (b.", "1939)* 2009 – Sardarilal Mathradas Nanda, Indian admiral (b.", "1915)*2010 – Doris Eaton Travis, American dancer and vaudevillian (b.", "1904)*2011 – Robert Traylor, American basketball player (b.", "1977)*2019 – Peggy Lipton, American actress, model, and singer (b.", "1946)* 2019 – Thomas Silverstein, American murderer (b.", "1952)*2020 – Jerry Stiller, American comedian, actor (b.", "1927) *2021 – Colt Brennan, American quarterback (b.", "1983)* 2021 – Norman Lloyd, American actor, producer and director (b.", "1914)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Anthimus of Rome**Gangulphus of Burgundy**Majolus of Cluny**Mamertus, the first of the Ice Saints" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 11" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max Weber" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maximilian Karl Emil Weber''' (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society.", "He was one of the central figures in the development of sociology and the social sciences, and his ideas profoundly influence social theory and research.Born in Erfurt in 1864, Weber studied law and history in Berlin, Göttingen, and Heidelberg.", "After earning his doctorate in law in 1889 and habilitation in 1891, he married his cousin Marianne Schnitger and taught in Freiburg and Heidelberg.", "In 1897, he had a breakdown after his father died following an argument.", "Weber ceased teaching and travelled until the early 1900s.", "He recovered and wrote ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''.", "During the First World War, he supported Germany's war effort, but became critical of it and supported democratisation.", "He also gave the lectures \"Science as a Vocation\" and \"Politics as a Vocation\".", "After the war, Weber cofounded the German Democratic Party, unsuccessfully ran for office, and advised the drafting of the Weimar Constitution.", "Becoming frustrated with politics, he resumed teaching in Vienna and Munich.", "He possibly contracted the Spanish flu and died of pneumonia in 1920 at the age of 56.A book, ''Economy and Society'', was left unfinished.One of Weber's main intellectual concerns was in understanding the processes of rationalisation, secularisation, and disenchantment.", "He formulated a thesis arguing that such processes were associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity.", "Weber also argued that the Protestant work ethic influenced the creation of capitalism in ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''.", "It was the earliest part in his broader consideration of the world religions, as he later examined the religions of China, India, and ancient Judaism.", "In terms of government, Weber argued that states were defined by their monopoly on violence and categorised social authority into three distinct forms: charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal.", "Weber was also a key proponent of methodological antipositivism, arguing for the study of social action through interpretive rather than purely empiricist methods.", "Weber made a variety of other contributions to economic sociology, political sociology, and the sociology of religion.After his death, the rise of Weberian scholarship was slowed by the political instability of the Weimar Republic and the rise of Nazi Germany.", "In the post-war era, organised scholarship began to appear, led by Talcott Parsons, who used Weber's works to support his idea of structural functionalism.", "Over the course of the twentieth century, Weber's reputation rose due to the publication of translations of his works and scholarly interpretations of his life and works.", "He began to be regarded as a founding father of sociology, alongside Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim.", "As a result of these works, Weber is commonly regarded as one of the central figures in the development of the social sciences." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and education===Maximilian Karl Emil Weber was born on 21 April 1864 in Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Prussia, but his family moved to Berlin in 1869.He was the oldest of eight children to Max Weber Sr. and his wife Helene Fallenstein.", "Over the course of his life, Weber Sr. held posts as a lawyer, civil servant, and parliamentarian for the National Liberal Party in the Prussian Landtag and German Reichstag.", "His involvement in public life immersed his home in both politics and academia, as his salon welcomed scholars and public figures such as the philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey, the jurist Levin Goldschmidt, and the historian Theodor Mommsen.", "The young Max Weber and his brother Alfred, who also became a sociologist, passed their formative years in this intellectual atmosphere.", "Fallenstein was partly descended from the French Huguenot , which had obtained wealth through international commerce and the textile industry.", "Over time, Weber Jr. was affected by the marital and personality tensions between his father, who enjoyed material pleasures while overlooking religious and philanthropic causes, and his mother, a devout Calvinist who engaged in philanthropy.Alfred (center) and Karl (right), in 1879|alt=A group photograph of Max Weber with his brothers Alfred and KarlWeber entered the in Charlottenburg in 1870, before attending the between 1872 and 1882.While in class, bored and unimpressed with his teachers, Weber secretly read all forty volumes by the writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.", "Goethe later exerted an important influence on his thought and methodology.", "Before entering university, he read many other classical works, including those by the philosopher Immanuel Kant.", "For Christmas in 1877, a thirteen-year-old Max Weber gifted his parents two historical essays, entitled \"About the Course of German history, with Special Reference to the Positions of the Emperor and the Pope\", and \"About the Roman Imperial Period from Constantine to the Migration Period\".", "Two years later, also during Christmastime, he wrote another historical essay, \"Observations on the Ethnic Character, Development, and History of the Indo-European Nations\".", "All of these essays were non-derivative contributions to the philosophy of history and were derived from Weber's reading of \"numerous sources\".In 1882, Weber enrolled in Heidelberg University as a law student, later studying at Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin and the University of Göttingen.", "Simultaneously with his studies, he practiced law and worked as a lecturer.", "In 1886, Weber passed the Referendar examination, which was comparable to the bar association examination in the British and U.S. legal systems.", "Throughout the late 1880s, Weber continued his study of law and history.", "Under the tutelage of Levin Goldschmidt and Rudolf von Gneist, Weber earned his law doctorate in 1889 by writing a dissertation on legal history titled ''Development of the Principle of Joint Liability and a Separate Fund of the General Partnership out of the Household Communities and Commercial Associations in Italian Cities''.", "It was a part of a longer work, ''On the History of Commercial Partnerships in the Middle Ages, Based on Southern European Documents'', published in the same year.", "Two years later, working with the statistician August Meitzen, Weber completed his habilitation, a post-doctoral thesis, titled ''Roman Agrarian History and Its Significance for Public and Private Law''.", "Having thus become a , Weber joined the faculty of Friedrich Wilhelm University, lecturing, doing research, and consulting for the government.Weber's years as a university student were dotted with several periods of military service, the longest of which lasted between October 1883 to September 1884.During this time, he was in Strasbourg and attended classes taught by his uncle, the historian Hermann Baumgarten.", "Weber befriended Baumgarten and he influenced Weber's growing liberalism and criticism of Otto von Bismarck's domination of German politics.", "During his first few years in university, he was a member of a fraternity and placed emphasis on drinking beer and fencing.", "He was a member of the '''' and obtained several duelling scars on the left side of his face as the result of his duelling.", "His mother was displeased by his behaviour and slapped him when he came home after his third semester ended in 1883.However, Weber matured, increasingly began to take his mother's side in family arguments, and grew estranged from his father.===Marriage===alt=Max Weber, right, and Marianne, left, in 1894Max Weber had a relationship and semi-engagement with Emmy Baumgarten, the daughter of Hermann Baumgarten, from 1887 until her declining mental health caused him to break off their relationship five years later.", "Afterwards, he entered a relationship with his distant cousin Marianne Schnitger in 1893 and married her on 20 September.", "The marriage granted long-awaited financial independence to Weber, allowing him to finally leave his parents' household.", "They had no children.", "Marianne was a feminist activist and an author in her own right.", "She was instrumental in collecting, editing, and publishing Weber's writings in book form after his death, while her biography of him is an important source for understanding Weber's life.", "In 1909, they befriended a former student of his, Else von Richthofen, and the pianist Mina Tobler.", "After a failed attempt to court Richthofen, Weber began an affair with Tobler in 1911.Eight years later, he began a sadomasochistic affair with Richthofen.", "Meanwhile, she was simultaneously conducting an affair with his brother, Alfred.", "Weber's affairs lasted until his death in 1920.===Early work and breakdown===In the years between the completion of his dissertation and habilitation, Weber took an interest in contemporary social policy.", "In 1888, he joined the .", "The was an organisation of reformist thinkers who were generally members of the historical school of economics.", "He also involved himself in politics, participating in the founding of the left-leaning Evangelical Social Congress in 1890.It applied a Protestant perspective to the political debate regarding the Social question.", "In the same year, the established a research program to examine the , which was the western migration of ethnically German agricultural labourers from eastern Germany and the corresponding influx of Polish farm workers into it.", "Weber was put in charge of the study and wrote a large part of the final report, which generated considerable attention and controversy, marking the beginning of his renown as a social scientist.From 1893 to 1899, Weber was a member of the Pan-German League (), an organisation that campaigned against the influx of Polish workers; the degree of his support for the Germanisation of Poles and similar nationalist policies continues to be debated by modern scholars.", "Weber and his wife moved to Freiburg in 1894, where he was appointed professor of economics at the University of Freiburg.", "During his tenure there, in 1895, he gave a provocative lecture titled \"The Nation State and Economic Policy\", where he criticised the immigration of Poles and blamed the Junkers for perpetuating Slavic immigration to serve their selfish interests.", "It influenced the politician Friedrich Naumann to create the National-Social Association, which was a Christian socialist and nationalist political organisation.", "Weber was pessimistic regarding the association's ability to succeed, and it dissolved after winning a single seat in the Reichstag during the 1903 German federal election.", "In 1896, Weber accepted an appointment to a chair in economics and finance at Heidelberg University.", "There, Weber and his wife became the central figures in the eponymous '''Weber Circle''', which included Georg Jellinek, Ernst Troeltsch, and Werner Sombart.", "Younger scholars, such as György Lukács and Robert Michels, also joined it.In 1897, Weber Sr. died two months after a severe quarrel with his son that remained unresolved.", "After this, Weber became increasingly prone to depression, nervousness, and insomnia, which made it difficult for him to fulfill his duties as a professor.", "His condition forced him seek an exemption from his teaching obligations, which he was granted in 1899.He spent time in a sanatorium in the in 1898 and a different one in Bad Urach in 1900.Weber also travelled to Corsica and Italy between 1899 and 1903 in order to alleviate his illness.", "He fully withdrew from teaching in 1903 and did not return to it until 1918.Weber's ordeal with mental illness was carefully described in a personal chronology that was later destroyed by his widow.", "The reason for its destruction was possibly because Marianne feared that Weber's work would have been discredited by the Nazis if his experience with mental illness were widely known.===Later work===alt=Max Weber in 1907, holding a hookahOnce he had recovered from his illness, Weber accepted a position as an associate editor of the in 1904, alongside his colleagues Edgar Jaffé and Werner Sombart.", "It facilitated his reintroduction to academia and became one of the most prominent social science journals as a result of his efforts.", "Weber published some of his most seminal works in this journal, including his book ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'', which became his most famous work and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of religion on the development of economic systems.", "In it, he argued that the source for the spirit of capitalism was in the Reformation.", "More specifically, he traced it to the Puritan religions.", "They placed great importance on work, to a degree where other actions mattered less.", "They had a religious calling to work that caused them to systematically obtain wealth.", "The Puritans wished to prove that they were members of the elect who were destined to go to Heaven.", "Benjamin Franklin's personal ethic, as described in his \"Advice to a Young Tradesman\", was used as an example of the economic ethic that the Protestant sects had.", "The thesis also contained themes that later proved central to his scholarship: rationalisation and the ideal type.", "Rationalisation pertained to the increasing systemisation of life that ultimately caused religious influence to decline.", "Rationalisation also caused Western society to be caught in the (\"iron cage\" or \"steel-hard casing\") that was the economic order that was created by modern capitalism.", "The ideal types were representative figures, or case studies, that represented concepts.Also in 1904, Max Weber was invited to participate in the Congress of Arts and Sciences held in connection with the World's fair (Louisiana Purchase Exposition) in St. Louis, alongside his wife, Werner Sombart, Ernst Troeltsch, and other German scholars.", "Taking advantage of the fair, the Webers embarked on a trip that began and ended in New York City and lasted for almost three months.", "They travelled throughout the country, from New England to the Deep South.", "Different communities were visited, including German immigrant towns and African American communities.", "Among the places visited was North Carolina, where some of his relatives in the Fallenstein family had settled.", "Weber used the trip to learn more about America and this experience played a role in the development of the Protestant work ethic.", "He used the trip to find social and theological conditions that could contribute to his thesis.", "Weber also used the trip to further his knowledge of the United States' social and economic conditions more generally.", "After returning, Weber felt that he was unable to resume regular teaching at that time and continued on as a private scholar, helped by an inheritance in 1907.In 1909, disappointed with the , he co-founded the German Sociological Association () and served as its first treasurer.", "He resigned from the position in 1912.===Political involvements===Later, during the spring of 1913, Weber holidayed in the Monte Verità community in Ascona.", "While holidaying, he was advising Frieda Gross in her custody battle for her children.", "He opposed Erich Mühsam's involvement due to Mühsam's support for anarchism, arguing that the case needed to be dealt with by bourgeois reformers who were not \"derailed\".", "A year later, also in spring, he again holidayed in Ascona.", "In the community, there were several different expressions of the radical political and lifestyle reform movements that were in existence at the time.", "They included naturism, free love, and Western esotericism, among others.", "Weber was critical of the anarchist and erotic movements in Ascona, as he viewed their fusion as having been politically absurd.====First World War====At the outbreak of First World War, Weber, aged 50, volunteered for service and was appointed as a reserve officer in charge of organising the army hospitals in Heidelberg, a role he fulfilled until the end of 1915.Weber's views on the war and the expansion of the German Empire changed during the course of the conflict.", "Early on, he supported nationalist rhetoric and the war effort, though with some hesitation, viewing the war as a necessity to fulfill German duty as a leading state power.", "In time, however, Weber became one of the most prominent critics of both German expansionism and the Kaiser's war policies.", "Weber publicly criticised the Belgian annexation policy and unrestricted submarine warfare, later supporting calls for constitutional reform, democratisation, and universal suffrage.alt=Max Weber, facing right, lecturing with Ernst Toller in the center of the backgroundHe and his wife also participated in the 1917 Lauenstein Conferences that were held at in Bavaria.", "These conferences were planned by the publisher Eugen Diederichs and brought together intellectuals, including Theodor Heuss, Ernst Toller, and Werner Sombart.", "Weber's presence elevated his profile in Germany and served to dispel some of the romantic atmosphere of the event.", "After he spoke at the first one, he became involved in the planning for the second one, as Diederichs thought that the conferences needed someone who could serve as an oppositional figure.", "In this capacity, he argued against the political romanticism that was being espoused by Max Maurenbrecher, a former theologian.", "Weber also opposed what he saw as the excessive rhetoric of the youth groups and nationalists at Lauenstein, instead supporting the democratisation of Germany.", "For Weber and the younger participants, the romantic intent of the conferences was irrelevant to the determination of Germany's future.In November, shortly after the second conference, Weber was invited by the Free Student Youth, a student organisation, to give a lecture in Munich.", "The resulting lecture was titled \"Science as a Vocation\".", "In it, he described an inner calling as having been necessary for one to enter scholarship.", "Weber thought that only a particular type of person was able to have a career in academia.", "He used his own career as an example of a person whose career was in academia.", "Recalling the arguments that he made regarding the Protestant work ethic, he stated that the path forward in scholarship required the scholar to understand the potential for a lack of success and be methodical in their research.", "Specialisation was also an aspect of modern scholarship that a scholar needed to engage in.", "A major aspect of his commentary on the role of the scholar in modernity related to disenchantment and intellectual rationalisation.", "These processes resulted in the value of scholarship being questioned.", "Weber argued that scholarship could provide certainty through its starting presumptions, despite its inability to give absolute answers.====Weimar Republic====Following the end of the war, Weber unsuccessfully ran for a seat in the Weimar National Assembly in January 1919 as a member of the liberal German Democratic Party, which he had co-founded.", "He also advised the National Assembly in its drafting of the Weimar Constitution.", "While he was campaigning for his party, Weber critiqued the left and complained about the leaders of the leftist Spartacus League, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg.", "He regarded the German Revolution of 1918–1919 as having been responsible for Germany's inability to fight against Poland's claims on its territory in the east.", "His opposition to it may have prevented Friedrich Ebert, the new president of Germany and a member of the Social Democratic Party, from appointing Weber as a minister or ambassador.", "Weber was, at the same time, critical of the Treaty of Versailles, which he believed unjustly assigned war guilt to Germany.", "Instead, Weber believed that many countries were guilty of starting it, not just Germany.", "In making this case, Weber argued that Russia was the only great power that actually desired the war.", "He also regarded Germany as not having been culpable for the invasion of Belgium.", "Overall, Weber's political efforts were largely unsuccessful, with the exception of his support for a strong presidency that would be democratically elected.Max Weber in 1918On 28 January 1919, after his electoral defeat, Weber delivered a lecture titled \"Politics as a Vocation\", which commented on what he saw as the inherent violence and dishonesty among politicians.", "About the nature of politicians, he concluded that, \"in nine out of ten cases they are windbags puffed up with hot air about themselves.", "They are not in touch with reality, and they do not feel the burden they need to shoulder; they just intoxicate themselves with romantic sensations.\"", "His lecture was prompted by the political turmoil of the early Weimar Republic and was requested by the Free Student Youth.", "He defined politics as having been divided into three aspects: passion, judgment, and responsibility.", "There was also a division between conviction and responsibility.", "These two concepts were sharply divided, but it was possible for them to be present in a single individual, particularly the ideal politician.", "The types of authority were themselves divided into traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal.", "Ultimately, Weber thought that the political issues of his day required consistent effort to resolve, rather than the quick solutions that the students preferred.Shortly before he left to join the delegation in Versailles on 13 May 1919, Max Weber used his connections with the deputies of the German National People's Party to meet with Erich Ludendorff.", "He spent several hours unsuccessfully trying to convince Ludendorff to surrender himself to the Allies.", "This debate also shifted to other subjects, such as who was culpable for the failure of the war effort.", "Weber thought that the high command had failed, while Ludendorff regarded Weber as a supporter of democracy who was partially responsible for the revolution.", "Weber tried to disabuse him of that notion by expressing support for a democratic system with a strong executive.", "Since he held Ludendorff responsible for the failure of the German war effort and having sent many young Germans to die on the battlefield, Weber thought that he should surrender himself and assume the status of a political martyr.", "However, Ludendorff was not willing to do so and wished to simply live off of his pension.===Last years===alt=A photograph of Max Weber's graveFrustrated with politics, Weber resumed teaching, first at the University of Vienna in 1918, then at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1919.In Vienna, Weber filled a previously vacant chair in political economy that he had been in consideration for since October 1917.Later, in Munich, he was appointed to Lujo Brentano's chair in social science, economic history, and political economy.", "He accepted the appointment in order to be closer to his mistress, Else von Richthofen.", "Responding to requests by his students, he gave a series of lectures on economic history.", "The student transcriptions of it were later edited and published as the ''General Economic History'' by and in 1923.Many colleagues and students in Munich attacked his response to the German Revolution, while some right-wing students protested in front of his home.In early 1920, Max Weber gave a seminar that contained a discussion of Oswald Spengler's ''The Decline of the West''.", "Weber respected him and privately described him as having been \"a very brilliant and scholarly dilettante\".", "That seminar provoked some of his students, who knew Spengler personally, to suggest that he debate Spengler alongside other scholars.", "They met in the Munich town hall and debated for two days.", "The audience was primarily young Germans of different political perspectives, including communists.", "While neither Weber nor Spengler were able to convince the other of their points, Weber was more cautious and careful in his arguments against Spengler than the other debaters were.", "After the debate, the students did not feel that they had an answer to the question of what should be done to resolve the issues that Germany faced after the end of the First World War.Lili, one of Max Weber's sisters, committed suicide on 7 April 1920 as a result of the end of her affair with the pedagogue Paul Geheeb.", "He thought positively of it, as he thought that it was justified and aligned with his perspective that suicide could be an honourable act.", "Weber and his wife took in Lili's four children and planned to raise them.", "He was uncomfortable with his newfound role as a father figure but thought that Marianne was fulfilled as a woman by this event.", "She later formally adopted the children in 1928.Weber wished for her to stay with the children in Heidelberg or move closer to Geheeb's (\"Odenwald School\"), so that he could be alone in Munich with his mistress, Else von Richthofen.", "He left the decision to Marianne, but she said that only he could make the decision to leave for himself.", "While this was occurring, Weber began to believe that own life had reached its end.On 4 June 1920, Weber's students were informed that he needed to cancel classes due to a cold.", "By 14 June 1920, the cold had turned into influenza and he died of pneumonia in Munich.", "He had likely contracted the Spanish flu and been subjected to insufficient medical care.", "Else von Richthofen, who was present by his deathbed alongside his wife, thought that he could have survived his illness if he had been given better treatment.", "His body was cremated in the Munich after a secular ceremony, and the urn that contained his ashes were later buried in the Heidelberg '''' in 1921.The funeral service was attended by his students, including and Karl Loewenstein, and fellow scholars, such as Lujo Brentano.", "At the time of his death, Weber had not finished writing his on sociological theory: ''Economy and Society''.", "His widow, Marianne, helped prepare it for its publication in 1922.She later published a biography of her late husband in 1926, which became one of the central historical accounts of his life." ], [ "Methodology", "Sociology, for Max Weber, was \"a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects\".", "In his methodology, he distinguished himself from Durkheim, Marx, and other classical figures, in that his primary focus was on individuals and culture.", "Whereas Durkheim focused on the society, Weber concentrated on the individual and their actions (i.e.", "structure and action).", "Compared to Marx, who argued for the primacy of the material world over the world of ideas, Weber valued ideas as motivating actions of individuals.", "He was open to the idea that social phenomena could have several different causes and placed importance on social actors' interpretations of their actions.======In terms of methodology, Weber was primarily concerned with the question of objectivity and subjectivity, going on to distinguish social action from social behavior, noting that social action must be understood through how individuals subjectively relate to one another.", "According to him, the study of social action through interpretive means or (\"to understand\") needed to be based upon understanding the subjective meaning and purpose that individuals attached to their actions.", "Social actions may have had easily identifiable and objective means, but might have had much more subjective ends.", "Weber noted that the importance of subjectivity in the social sciences made the creation of fool-proof, universal laws much more difficult than in the natural sciences and that the amount of objective knowledge that social sciences were able to create was limited.", "Overall, Weber supported the goal of objective science as one worth striving for, though he noted that it was ultimately an unreachable goal.The principle of methodological individualism, which holds that social scientists should seek to understand collectivities solely as the result and the context of the actions of individual persons, can be traced to Weber, particularly to the first chapter of ''Economy and Society'', in which he argued that only individuals \"can be treated as agents in a course of subjectively understandable action\".", "In other words, Weber contended that social phenomena can be understood scientifically only to the extent that they are captured by models of the behaviour of purposeful individuals, ideal types, from which actual historical events necessarily deviate due to accidental and irrational factors.", "The analytical constructs of an ideal type never exist in reality, but provide objective benchmarks against which real-life constructs can be measured.Weber's methodology was developed in the context of wider debates about methodology of social sciences.", "The first of which was the (\"method dispute\").", "His position was close to historicism, as he understood social actions as being heavily tied to particular historical contexts and its analysis required the understanding of subjective motivations of individuals.", "Therefore, his methodology emphasised the use of comparative historical analysis.", "As such, he was more interested in explaining how a certain outcome was the result of various historical processes rather than predicting an outcome of those processes in the future.", "The second debate that shaped Weber's perspective on methodology was the (\"value-judgment dispute\").", "This debate was held between 1909 and 1914 on the subject of value-judgements in the social sciences.", "It originated with a debate between the supporters of the idea that ethics was an important consideration in the field of economics and those who opposed that in the .", "Weber's position was that the social sciences should strive to be value-free.", "In his view, scholars and students needed to avoid using their position to promote political values in the classroom.", "The choosing of values was something that science had no part in.", "With regards to economics, he argued that the productivity was not a useful scientific concept, as it could impede the proper evaluation of economic phenomena." ], [ "Theories", "===Rationalisation===Rationalisation and the question of individual freedom in an increasingly rational society, was a central theme in Weber's scholarship.", "This theme was situated in the larger context of the relationship between psychological motivations, cultural values, and beliefs, and the structure of the society.", "Weber understood rationalisation as increasing knowledge, growing impersonality, and the enhanced control of social and material life.", "Weber was ambivalent towards rationalisation.", "He admitted that it was responsible for many advances, particularly freeing humans from traditional, restrictive, and illogical social guidelines.", "However, he also criticised it for dehumanising individuals as \"cogs in the machine\" and curtailing their freedom, trapping them in the bureaucratic iron cage of rationality and bureaucracy.", "His studies of the subject began with ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''.", "In it, he argued that the redefinition of the connection between work and piety in Protestantism and especially in ascetic Protestant denominations, particularly Calvinism, shifted human effort towards rational efforts aimed at achieving economic gain.", "In Protestantism, piety towards God was expressed through one's secular vocation.", "The rational roots of this doctrine, he argued, soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious and so the latter were eventually discarded.Weber continued his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on the classification of legitimate authority into three typesrational-legal, traditional, and charismaticof which rational-legal was the dominant one in the modern world.", "In these works, Weber described what he saw as society's movement towards rationalisation.", "Bureaucratic states justified themselves through rationality and were supported by expert knowledge, which was what made them rational.", "Rationalisation could also be seen in the economy, with the development of highly rational and calculating capitalism.", "Capitalism's rationality related to its basis in calculation, which separated it from alternative forms of economic organization.", "State bureaucracy and capitalism served as the twin pillars of the developing rational society.", "The preexisting traditions that relied on the trades were eliminated as a result of those changes.", "Weber also saw rationalisation as one of the main factors that set the European West apart from the rest of the world.Related to rationalisation was the process of disenchantment, in which the world was becoming more explained and less mystical, moving from polytheistic religions to monotheistic ones and finally to the Godless science of modernity.", "Older explanations of why events occurred relied on the belief in supernatural interference in the material world.", "Due to disenchantment, this gave way to rational and scientific explanations for events.", "According to the ''Sociology of Religion'' religious activity began with actions in the material world that people associated with vague spirits and gave magical meanings to.", "Over time, these magical beliefs became increasingly systemised and the spirits became gods that were represented by symbols.", "Polytheism and organised religion were the results of this increasing theological systemisation.", "Western monotheism was spurred on by increasing rationality, which resulted in specific gods being focused on by groups for political and economic purposes, creating a universal religion.", "For Weber, Protestantism encouraged an increased pursuit of rationality that led to the devaluing of itself.", "In turn, this devaluation led to nihilism through its destruction of unifying values.====''The Rational and Social Foundations of Music''====Max Weber also applied rationalisation to music in his ''The Rational and Social Foundations of Music''.", "In writing it, he was partially influenced by his affair with the pianist Mina Tobler.", "Meanwhile, the scholarly impetus was a sense that Western music was the only type that had become harmonic, while the music of other cultures was more intense and focused on hearing.", "He thought that music was becoming increasingly rational and had moved away from the conditions that had defined it under feudalism.", "Similarly, he argued that changes in the construction of musical instruments and simultaneous social and economic changes had influenced that shift.", "Musical instruments became more advanced as new materials and construction processes were developed, while the socio-economic positions of the players of different instruments shifted.", "In creating this theory, he was influenced by the scientist Hermann von Helmholtz's application of science to the discussion of harmonisation in music.", "Weber opposed his interpretation of it, which he viewed as having been reductionist.===Sociology of religion===Weber's work in the field of sociology of religion began with the book ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''.", "It continued with his analyses in ''The Religion of China'', ''The Religion of India'', and ''Ancient Judaism''.", "However, his work on other religions was interrupted by his sudden death in 1920, which prevented him from following ''Ancient Judaism'' with studies of early Christianity and Islam.", "The three main themes within the books were: religious ideas' effect on economic activities, the relationship between social stratification and religious ideas, and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilisation.", "His goal was to find reasons for the different developmental paths of the cultures of the Western world and the Eastern world, without making value judgments, unlike the contemporaneous social Darwinists.", "Weber simply wanted to explain the distinctive elements of Western civilisation.", "Weber also proposed a socio-evolutionary model of religious change where societies moved from magic to ethical monotheism, with the intermediatory steps of polytheism, pantheism, and monotheism.", "According to him, this was the result of growing economic stability, which allowed for professionalisation and the evolution of an increasingly sophisticated priesthood.", "As societies grew more complex and encompassed different groups, a hierarchy of gods developed.", "Meanwhile, as their power became more centralised, the concept of a universal God became more popular and desirable.====''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''====''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' is Weber's most famous work.", "It was the start of his research on how religions affected how economic systems developed.", "In the book, he put forward the thesis that the Protestant work ethic, which was derived from the theological ideas of the Reformation, influenced the development of capitalism.", "Weber was looking for elective affinities between the Protestant work ethic and capitalism.", "He noted that there was at post-Reformation shift of Europe's economic centre away from Catholic countries such as France, Spain and Italy, and towards Protestant countries such as the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and Germany.", "Weber also noted that societies that had more Protestants also had a more highly developed capitalist economy.", "Similarly, in societies with different religions, most successful business leaders were Protestant.", "Weber thus argued that Roman Catholicism impeded the development of the capitalist economy in the West, as did other religions such as Confucianism and Buddhism elsewhere in the world.Christian religious devotion was historically accompanied by the rejection of mundane affairs, including economic pursuit.", "Weber argued that the origin of modern capitalism was in the religious ideas of the Reformation.", "According to him, certain types of Protestantismnotably Calvinismwere supportive of the rational pursuit of economic gain and the worldly activities that were dedicated to it, seeing those activities as having been endowed with moral and spiritual significance.", "The spirit of capitalism was found in the desire to work hard in a way that pleased the worker and signified their worth, originally had a basis in theology.", "In particular, the Protestant work ethic motivated the believers to work hard, be successful in business, and reinvest their profits in further development rather than frivolous pleasures.", "Weber thought that self-restraint, hard work, and a belief that wealth could be a sign of salvation were representative of ascetic Protestantism.", "The notion of a calling, when combined with Predestination, meant that each individual had to take action to prove their salvation to themselves.", "However, the success that the religious principles created ultimately removed them as an influence on modern capitalism as a result of its creation of a worldly perspective.", "As a result, the inheritors of that system were entrapped in a socioeconomic iron cage.====''The Religion of China''====''The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism'' was Weber's second major work on the sociology of religion.", "edited and translated this text into English.", "Weber focused on those aspects of Chinese society that were different from those of Western Europe, especially those aspects that contrasted with Puritanism.", "As part of that, he questioned why capitalism had not developed in China.", "He focused on the issues of Chinese urban development, Chinese patrimonialism and officialdom and Chinese religion and philosophy (primarily Confucianism and Taoism), as the areas in which Chinese development significantly differed from the European route.", "According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism were superficially similar, but were actually largely different from one another.", "Instead, they were mutually exclusive types of rational thought, each attempting to prescribe a way of life based on religious dogma.", "Notably, they both valued self-control and restraint and did not oppose accumulation of wealth.", "However, both of those qualities were simply means to different final goals.", "Confucianism's goal was \"a cultured status position\", while Puritanism's goal was to create individuals who were \"tools of God\".", "For Weber, Puritans sought rational control of the world and rejected its irrationality while Confucians sought rational acceptance of that state of affairs.", "Therefore, Weber stated that it was the difference in social attitudes and mentality, shaped by the respective dominant religions, that contributed to the development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China.====''The Religion of India''====''The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism'' was Weber's third major work on the sociology of religion.", "In this work he dealt with the structure of Indian society, with the orthodox doctrines of Hinduism and the heterodox doctrines of Buddhism, with modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of Indian society.", "In Weber's view, Hinduism in India, like Confucianism in China, was a barrier for capitalism.", "The Indian caste system, which developed in post-Classical India and served as the source for legitimate social interactions, served as a key part of that.", "Both Hinduism and the high status of the Brahmins upheld the caste system.", "The Brahmins used their monopoly on education and theological authority to maintain their position, while Hinduism created a psychological justification for it in the form of the cycle of reincarnation.", "A person's position in the caste order was thought to have been determined by one's actions in their past life.", "As a result, advancement of the soul and obeying the predetermined order were more important than seeking advancement in the material world, including economic advancement.Weber ended his research of society and religion in India by bringing in insights from his previous work on China to discuss the similarities of the Asian belief systems.", "He noted that the believers saw the meaning of life as otherworldly mystical experience.", "The social world was fundamentally divided between the educated elite, following the guidance of a prophet or wise man and the uneducated masses whose beliefs are centered on magic.", "In Asia, there was no Messianic prophecy to give both educated and uneducated followers meaning in their regular lives.", "Weber juxtaposed such Messianic prophecies, notably from the Near East, with the exemplary prophecies found on the Asian mainland, focused more on reaching to the educated elites and enlightening them on the proper ways to live one's life, usually with little emphasis on hard work and the material world.", "It was those differences that prevented Western countries from following the paths of the earlier Chinese and Indian civilisations.", "His next work, ''Ancient Judaism'', was an attempt to prove this theory.====''Ancient Judaism''====In ''Ancient Judaism'', his fourth major work on the sociology of religion, Weber attempted to explain the factors that resulted in the early differences between Eastern and Western religiosity.", "He contrasted the innerworldly asceticism developed by Western Christianity with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in India.", "Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world, rather than withdraw from its imperfections.", "This fundamental characteristic of Christianity originally stemmed from ancient Jewish prophecy.", "Weber classified Jewish people as having been a pariah people, which meant that they were separated from the society that contained them.", "He examined the creation and social structure of the ancient Jewish people.", "In his view, the Israelites maintained order through a covenant with the war god Yahweh and the practice of warrior asceticism.", "Under Solomon, that changed into a more law-based and organised society than the old confederation was.", "Religiously, the priests replaced the previous charismatic religious leaders.", "Weber interpreted the rise of prophets from the shepherds as having begun with Elijah, who promulgated political prophesies and served as an opponent of the monarchy.====Theodicy====The concept of theodicy played a role in Max Weber's interpretation of theology and religion throughout his corpus.", "This involved both his scholarly and personal interests in the subject.", "It was central to his conception of humanity, which he interpreted as having been connected with finding meaning.", "Amongst German scholars who sought to determine how a world created by an omnibenevolent and omnipotent being can contain suffering, theodicy was a popular subject of study.", "As part of this tradition, Weber was careful in his study of the subject.", "Rather than interpreting it through a theological or ethical lens, he interpreted it through a social one.", "Furthermore, he incorporated Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of into his discussion of the topic.", "However, he disagreed with Nietzsche's emotional discussion of the topic and his interpretation of it as having been a Jewish-derived expression of slave morality.He divided theodicy into three main types:# Persian dualism – God is not all powerful and misfortune comes from outside his power# Indian doctrine of karma – God is not all powerful and misfortune comes from inside oneself# Doctrine of predestination – Only a chosen few will be saved from damnationWeber defined the importance of societal class within religion by examining the difference between the theodicies of fortune and misfortune and to what class structures they apply.", "The concept of the work ethic was attached to the theodicy of fortune.", "Therefore, because of the Protestant work ethic, there was an increase of higher class outcomes and more education among Protestants.", "Those without the work ethic believed in the theodicy of misfortune, believing wealth and happiness were granted in the afterlife.", "Another example of how this belief of religious theodicy influences class, was that those of lower economic status the poor, tended towards deep religiousness and faith as a way to comfort themselves and provided hope for a more prosperous future, while those of higher economic status preferred the sacraments or actions that proved their right to possess greater wealth.===The state, politics, and government===In political sociology, one of Weber's most influential contributions is his lecture \"Politics as a Vocation\", in which he defined the state as an entity that was \"based on the legitimate use of force\".", "Accordingly, Weber proposed that politics is the sharing of state power between various groups, whereas political leaders were those who wield this power.", "A politician needed to marry the oppositional and '''' (the \"ethic of conviction\" and the \"ethic of responsibility\").", "An adherent of the justified their actions based on their consequences.", "Meanwhile, an adherent of the justified their actions based on their ideals.", "While Weber thought that both of them would ideally be present in a politician, he associated them with different types of people and mindsets.", "These different types of people and mindsets reflected the pacifists and those who wanted to reverse Germany's loss in the First World War, respectively.Weber distinguished three ideal types of legitimate authority:# Charismatic authority – familial and religious# Traditional authority – patriarchs, patrimonialism, feudalism# Rational-legal authority – modern law and state, bureaucracyIn his view, all historical relationships between rulers and ruled contained these elements, which could be analysed on the basis of this tripartite distinction.", "Weber noted that the instability of charismatic authority forced it to routinise into a more structured form of authority.", "In an ideal type of traditional rule, sufficient resistance to a ruler led to a \"traditional revolution\".", "The move towards a rational-legal structure of authority, using a bureaucratic structure, is inevitable in the end.", "Therefore, this theory could sometimes be viewed as part of the sociocultural evolution theory.", "That was tied to his broader concept of rationalisation by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction.Weber described many ideal types of public administration and government in his ''Economy and Society''.", "His critical study of the bureaucratisation of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work.", "Weber began the study of bureaucracy and his works led to the popularisation of the term.", "Many aspects of contemporary public administration date back to him and a classic, hierarchically organised civil service of the Continental type is called \"Weberian civil service\".", "As the most efficient and rational way of organising, bureaucratisation was the key part of the rational-legal authority.", "Furthermore, he saw it as the key process in the ongoing rationalisation of Western society.Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of the bureaucracy, which resulted in a need for a more efficient administrative system, including:# The growth in space and population being administered# The growth in complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out and the existence of a monetary economyThe development of communication and transportation technologies made more efficient administration possible, and popularly requested, and the democratisation and rationalisation of culture resulted in demands that the new system treat everyone equally.", "Weber's ideal bureaucracy was characterised by hierarchical organisation, delineated lines of authority in a fixed area of activity, action taken on the basis of written rules, bureaucratic officials needing expert training, rules being implemented neutrally, and career advancement depending on technical qualifications judged by organisations.", "While recognising bureaucracy as the most efficient form of organisation and even indispensable for the modern state, Weber also saw it as a threat to individual freedoms and the ongoing bureaucratisation as leading to a \"polar night of icy darkness\", in which increasing rationalisation of human life trapped individuals in the iron cage of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control.", "To counteract bureaucrats, the system needed entrepreneurs and politicians.====Social stratification====Weber also formulated a three-component theory of stratification, with social class, social status and political party as conceptually distinct elements.", "This distinction was most clearly described in Weber's essay \"The Distribution of Power Within the : Classes, , Parties\", which was first published in his book ''Economy and Society''.", "Status served as one of the central ways in which people were ranked in society.", "As part of it, issues of honour and prestige were important.", "With regards to class, the theory placed heavy emphasis on class conflict and private property as key its definition.", "While Weber drew upon Marx's interpretation of class conflict in his definition of class, he did not see it as being the defining aspect of all social relations and stratification.", "Political parties were not given as much attention by Weber as the other two components were, as he thought that they were not particularly effectual in their actions.", "They existed to seek power to benefit their members materially or ideologically.The three components of Weber's theory were:# Social class – Based on an economically determined relationship with the market# Status () – Based on non-economic qualities such as honour and prestige# Party – Affiliations in the political domainThis conceptualization emerged from Weber's study of farm labour and the stock exchange, as he found social relationships that could not be explained through economic class alone.", "The Junkers had social rules regarding marriage between different social levels and farm labourers had a strong sense of independence, neither of which was economically based.", "Weber maintained a sharp distinction between the terms \"status\" and \"class\", although non-scholars tend to use them interchangeably in casual use.", "Status and its focus on honour emerged from the , which denoted the part of society where loyalty originated from.", "Class emerged from the , a subdivision of the that included rationally driven markets and legal organisation.", "Parties emerged from a combination of the two.", "Weber interpreted life chances, the opportunities to improve one's life, as having been a definitional aspect of class.", "It related to the differences in access to opportunities that different people might have had in their lives.", "The relationship between status and class was not straightforward.", "One of them could lead to the other, but an individual or group could have success in one but not the other.===Study of the city===As part of his overarching effort to understand the unique development of the Western world, Weber produced a detailed general study of the city as the characteristic locus of the social and economic relations, political arrangements, and ideas that eventually came to define the West.", "This resulted in a monograph, ''The City''.", "According to Weber, the city as a politically autonomous organisation of people living in close proximity, employed in a variety of specialised trades, and physically separated from the surrounding countryside.", "That structure only fully developed in the West and significantly shaped its cultural evolution.", "Weber argued that Judaism, early Christianity, theology, and later the political party and modern science, were only possible in the urban context that reached a full development in the West alone.", "He also saw in the history of medieval European cities the rise of a unique form of non-legitimate domination that successfully challenged the existing forms of legitimate domination (traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal) that had prevailed until then in the Medieval world.===Economics===Weber regarded himself primarily as an economist, and all his professorial appointments were in economics, though today his contributions in that field are largely overshadowed by his role as a founder of modern sociology.", "As a political economist and economic historian, Weber belonged to the German historical school of economics, represented by academics such as Gustav von Schmoller and his student Werner Sombart.", "However, even though Weber's research interests were very much in line with this school, his views on methodology and marginal utility diverged significantly from those of other German historicists.", "Instead, they were closer to those of Carl Menger and the Austrian school of economics, the traditional rivals of the historical school.", "The division caused by the caused Weber to support a broad interpretation of economics that combined economic theory, economic history, and economic sociology in the form of '''' (\"social economics\").====''Economy and Society''====A page from the manuscript of the sociology of law within ''alt=A page from the ''Economy and Society'' manuscriptWeber's ''Economy and Society'' is an essay collection that he was working on at the time of his death in 1920.After his death, the final organisation and editing of the book fell to his widow Marianne.", "The final German form published in 1922 reflected Marianne's editorial work and intellectual commitment.", "The composition includes a wide range of essays dealing with Weber's views regarding sociology, social philosophy, politics, social stratification, world religion, diplomacy, and other subjects.", "Beginning in 1956, the German jurist Johannes Winckelmann began editing and organising the German edition of ''Economy and Society'' based on his study of the papers that Weber left at his death.", "English versions of the work were published as a collected volume in 1968, as edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich.", "As a result of the various editions in German and English, there are differences between the organisation of the different volumes.====Methodological individualism====While his research interests placed a strong emphasis on interpreting economic history, Weber's support of methodological individualism represented a break with the historical school and an agreement with the founder of the Austrian school, Carl Menger, in the (\"debate over methods\").", "The term \"methodological individualism\", which came into common usage in modern debates regarding the connection between microeconomics and macroeconomics, was coined by the Austrian-American economist Joseph Schumpeter in 1908 as a way of referring to Weber's views on the subject.", "Despite the usage of \"individualism\" in the term, Weber did not interpret the individual as being the true source for sociological explanations.", "Instead, while only individuals could engage in intentional action, they were not necessarily separate from the collective group.", "He interpreted methodological individualism as having had close proximity to (\"interpretive\") sociology, as actions can be interpreted subjectively.", "Similarly, it is also related to ideal types in that it involves discussions of abstract and rational models of human behaviour.====Marginal utility====Unlike other historicists, Weber accepted Marginal utility and taught it to his students.", "Weber's overall economic sociology was based on it.", "In 1908, Weber published an article, \"Marginal Utility Theory and 'The Fundamental Law of Psychophysics'\", in which he drew a sharp methodological distinction between psychology and economics and attacked the claims that the marginal theory of value in economics reflected the form of the psychological response to stimuli as described by the Weber–Fechner law.", "This article was also a rejection of the dependence of the economic theory of value on the laws of psychophysics.", "Weber also included a similar discussion of marginal utility theory in the second chapter of ''Economy and Society''.", "Both marginal utility theory and declining utility's roles in his writings were implied through his usage of instrumentally rational action that chapter.====Economic calculation====Like his colleague Werner Sombart, Weber regarded economic calculation, particularly double-entry bookkeeping, as having played a significant role in rationalisation and the development of capitalism.", "Weber's preoccupation with the importance of economic calculation led him to critique socialism as a system that lacked a mechanism for allocating resources efficiently to satisfy human needs.", "Otto Neurath, a socialist thinker, thought that prices would not exist and central planners would use in-kind, rather than monetary, economic calculation in a completely socialised economy.", "According to Weber, this type of coordination was inefficient because it was incapable of solving the problem of imputation, which related to the difficulties in accurately determining the relative values of capital goods.", "Weber wrote that, under socialism, the value of goods had to be determined.", "However, there was no clear method for doing so in that economic system.", "Planned economies were, therefore, irrational.", "This argument against socialism was made independently, at approximately the same time, by Ludwig von Mises.", "Weber himself had a significant influence on Mises, whom he had befriended when they were both at the University of Vienna in the spring of 1918.However, Mises ultimately regarded him as having been a historian, rather than an economist." ], [ "Inspirations", "Max Weber was strongly influenced by German idealism, particularly by neo-Kantianism.", "He was exposed to it by Heinrich Rickert, who was his professorial colleague at the University of Freiburg.", "Especially important to Weber's work is the neo-Kantian belief that reality was essentially chaotic and incomprehensible, with all rational order deriving from the way the human mind focused attention on certain aspects of reality and organised the resulting perceptions.", "Weber's opinions regarding the methodology of the social sciences showed parallels with the work of contemporary neo-Kantian philosopher and pioneering sociologist Georg Simmel.", "Weber was also influenced by Kantian ethics more generally, which he nonetheless came to think of as obsolete in a modern age lacking in religious certainties.", "His interpretation of Kant and neo-Kantianism was pessimistic as a result.Weber was responding to the effect that Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy had on modern thought.", "His goal in the field of ethics was to find freedom that was not arbitrarily defined in what he interpreted as an age that moved past metaphysics.", "That represented a division between the parts of his thought that represented Kantianism and Nietzscheanism.", "After his debate with Oswald Spengler in 1920, Weber was recorded as having said that the world was largely intellectually influenced by Nietzsche and Marx.", "In ''The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' and \"Science as a Vocation\", Weber negatively described \"\" (\"the 'last men'\"), who were Nietzschean \"specialists without spirit\" who Weber warned about in both texts.", "Similarly, he also used Nietzsche's concept of in his discussion of theodicy, but he interpreted it differently.", "Weber disliked Nietzsche's emotional approach to the subject and did not interpret it as having been a type of slave morality that was derived from Judaism.While a student in Charlottenburg, Weber read all forty volumes by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who later exerted an influence over his methodology and concepts.", "For Weber, Goethe was one of the seminal figures in German history.", "In his writings, including ''The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'', Weber quoted Goethe on several occasions.", "His usage of \"elective affinity\" in his writings may have been derived from Goethe, as it had been used as the title of one of Goethe's works.", "Weber was also influenced by Goethe's usage of the Greek (\"fate\").", "That concept influenced Weber's perspective that one's fate was inevitable and that one was able to use experience to create intellectual passion.", "He thought that Goethe, his Faust, and Nietzsche's Zarathustra were figures that represented the and expressed the quality of human action by ceaselessly striving for knowledge.Another major influence in Weber's life was the writings of Karl Marx and the workings of socialist thought in academia and active politics.", "While he shared some of Marx's consternation with bureaucratic systems and maligned them as having been capable of advancing their own logic to the detriment of human freedom and autonomy, Weber viewed conflict as perpetual and inevitable and did not host the spirit of a materially available utopia.", "Writing in 1932, Karl Löwith contrasted the work of Marx and Weber, arguing that both were interested in the causes and effects of Western capitalism, but they viewed it through different lenses.", "Marx viewed capitalism through the lens of alienation, while Weber used the concept of rationalisation to interpret it.", "Weber also expanded Marx's interpretation of alienation from the specific idea of the worker who was alienated from his work to similar situations that involved intellectuals and bureaucrats.", "Scholars during the Cold War frequently interpreted Weber as having been \"a bourgeois answer to Marx\", but he was actually responding to the issues that were relevant to the bourgeoisie in Wilhelmine Germany.", "In that regard, he focused on the conflict between rationality and irrationality." ], [ "Legacy", "Weber's most influential work was on economic sociology, political sociology, and the sociology of religion.", "Along with Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim, he is commonly regarded as one of the founders of modern sociology.", "He was instrumental in developing an antipositivist, hermeneutic, tradition in the social sciences.", "Weber influenced many scholars across the political spectrum.", "Left-leaning social theorists, such as Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, György Lukács and Jürgen Habermas were influenced by his discussion of modernity and its friction with modernization.", "As part of that, his analysis of modernity and rationalisation significantly influenced the critical theory associated with the Frankfurt School.", "Right-leaning scholars, including Carl Schmitt, Joseph Schumpeter, Leo Strauss, Hans Morgenthau, and Raymond Aron, emphasised different elements of his thought.", "They placed importance on his discussion of strong leaders in democracy, political ethic's relationship with value-freedom and value-relativism, and combatting bureaucracy through politically based struggle.", "The scholars who have examined his works philosophically, including Strauss, Hans Henrik Bruun, and Alfred Schütz, have traditionally looked at them through the lens of Continental philosophy.===Weber studies===Weberian scholarship's beginnings were delayed by the ongoing disruption of academic life in the Weimar Republic.", "Hyper-inflation caused Weber's support for parliamentary democracy to be countered by the decline the respect that professors had for it.", "The alienation that they experienced from politics caused many of them to become pessimistic and closer to the historical viewpoints espoused by Oswald Spengler in his ''The Decline of the West''.", "Furthermore, universities were coming under increased state control and influence.", "After the Nazi Party took power, that process accelerated.", "The previously dominant style of sociology, that of Alfred Vierkandt and Leopold von Wiese, was largely replaced by a sociology that was dominated by support for the Nazis.", "Hans Freyer and Othmar Spann were representative of that movement, while Werner Sombart moved towards support for collectivism.", "The rise of the Nazi Party had relegated Weber's scholarship to a marginal position in the Germany academy.", "However, some Weberian scholars had left Germany while this process was going on, with most of them settling in the United States and the United Kingdom.These scholars began to involve themselves in American and British scholarship at a time when Weber's writings, such as the ''General Economic History'', were beginning to be translated into English.", "Talcott Parsons, an American scholar, was influenced by his readings of Weber and Sombart as a student in Germany during the 1920s.", "He obtained permission from Marianne Weber to publish a translation of ''The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' in his 1930 essay collection, the ''Collected Essays on the Sociology of Religion''.", "This translated version, which was heavily edited by the publisher, was not initially successful.", "Parsons used this translation as part of his effort to create an academic sociology, which resulted in his 1937 book ''The Structure of Social Action''.", "In it, Parson's argued that Weber and Durkheim were foundational figures in sociology.", "His book was not successful until after the Second World War.", "He then published a translation of ''Economy and Society'' as ''The Theory of Social and Economic Organization''.", "His increasing prominence as a scholar led to this volume's own elevated influence.", "Other translations began to appear, including C. Wright Mills and ''From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology'' in 1946.Their volume was a collection of excerpts from Weber's writings.", "In the last year of the decade, Edward Shils edited a translation of Weber's ''Collected Essays on Methodology'', which was published as ''The Methodology of the Social Sciences''.As the 1940s ended, Max Weber's reputation as a scholar was rising through its interpretation through the lenses of Parsons's structural functionalism and Mills's conflict theory.", "Over the course of the next few decades, continued publications of translated versions of Weber's works began to appear, including ones on law, religion, music, and the city.", "Despite the flawed nature of many of the translations, it became possible to obtain a largely complete view of Weber's scholarship.", "That was still impeded by the unorganised way in which the translations were published, which prevented scholars from knowing the connections between the different texts.", "In 1968, a complete translation of ''Economy and Society'' in the way that it was prepared by Marianne Weber was published.", "While an interpretation of Weber that was separate from Parson's structural functionalism had begun with ''From Max Weber'', a more political and historical interpretation was forwarded by Reinhard Bendix's 1948 ''Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait'', Ralf Dahrendorf's 1957 ''Class and Conflict in an Industrial Society'', and John Rex's 1962 ''Key Problems in Sociological Theory''.", "Raymond Aron's interpretation of Weber in his 1965 text, ''Main Currents in Sociological Thought'', gave an alternative to Parson's perspective on the history of sociology.", "Weber, while still integral to it, was being framed as one of the three foundational figures, the other two were Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim.", "Anthony Giddens solidified that interpretation of the three scholars with the publication of his ''Capitalism and Modern Social Theory'' in 1971.After the end of the 1970s, more of Weber's less prominent publications began to be published.", "That effort coincided with the continued writings of critical commentaries on his works and idea, including the creation of a scholarly journal in 2000, ''Max Weber Studies'', that is devoted to such scholarship.======The idea of publishing a collected edition of Max Weber's complete works was pushed forward by Horst Baier in 1972.A year later, the '''', a multi-volume set of all of Max Weber's writings, began to take shape.", "Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Wolfgang Schluchter, , M. Rainer Lepsius, and were the initial editors.", "After Mommsen's death in 2004, succeeded him.", "Winckelmann, Lepsius, and Baier also died before the completion of the project.", "The writings were organised in a combination of chronological order and by subject, with the material that was not intended to be published by Weber in purely chronological order.", "The final editions of each text were used, with the exception of ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'', which was published in both its first and final forms.", "Mohr Siebeck was selected to publish the volumes.", "The project was presented to the academic community in 1981 with the publication of a prospectus that was colloquially referred to as the \"green brochure\".", "It outlined the three sections of the series: \"Writings and Speeches\", \"Letters\", and \"Lecture Manuscripts and Lecture Notes\".", "Four years later, the project entered publication.", "It concluded in June 2020 and contains forty-seven volumes, including two index volumes." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "See also", "* Interpretations of Max Weber's liberalism* Sociology of law* Speeches of Max Weber" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Max Weber-Gesamtausgabe'' * ''Max Weber Studies''* * Im Fokus: Max Weber at Heidelberg University * * * ===Online editions===* * * Max Weber at Zeno.org * Max Weber at SocioSite*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max Horkheimer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Max Horkheimer''' (; ; 14 February 1895 – 7 July 1973) was a German philosopher and sociologist who was famous for his work in critical theory as a member of the Frankfurt School of social research.", "Horkheimer addressed authoritarianism, militarism, economic disruption, environmental crisis, and the poverty of mass culture using the philosophy of history as a framework.", "This became the foundation of critical theory.", "His most important works include ''Eclipse of Reason'' (1947), ''Between Philosophy and Social Science'' (1930–1938) and, in collaboration with Theodor Adorno, ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'' (1947).", "Through the Frankfurt School, Horkheimer planned, supported and made other significant works possible." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===On 14 February 1895, Horkheimer was born the only son of Moritz and Babetta Horkheimer.", "Horkheimer was born into a conservative, wealthy Orthodox Jewish family.", "His father was a successful businessman who owned several textile factories in the Zuffenhausen district of Stuttgart, where Max was born.", "Moritz expected his son to follow in his footsteps and own the family business.", "Max was taken out of school in 1910 to work in the family business, where he eventually became a junior manager.", "During this period he would begin two relationships that would last for the rest of his life.", "First, he met Friedrich Pollock, who would later become a close academic colleague, and who would remain Max's closest friend.", "He also met Rose Riekher, his father's personal secretary.", "Eight years Max's senior, a Christian, and from a lower economic class, Riekher (whom Max called \"Maidon\") was not considered a suitable match by Moritz Horkheimer.", "Despite this, Max and Maidon would marry in 1926 and remain together until her death in 1969.In 1917, his manufacturing career ended and his chances of taking over his family business were interrupted when he was drafted into World War I.", "However, Horkheimer avoided service, being rejected on medical grounds.===Education===In the spring of 1919, after failing an army physical, Horkheimer enrolled at Munich University.", "While living in Munich, he was mistaken for the revolutionary playwright Ernst Toller and arrested and imprisoned.", "After being released, Horkheimer moved to Frankfurt am Main, where he studied philosophy and psychology under Hans Cornelius.", "There, he met Theodor Adorno, several years his junior, with whom he would strike a lasting friendship and a collaborative relationship.", "After an abortive attempt at writing a dissertation on gestalt psychology, Horkheimer, with Cornelius's direction, completed his doctorate in philosophy with a 78-page dissertation titled ''The Antinomy of Teleological Judgment'' (''Zur Antinomie der teleologischen Urteilskraft'').", "In 1925, Horkheimer was habilitated with a dissertation entitled ''Kant's Critique of Judgment as Mediation between Practical and Theoretical Philosophy'' (''Über Kants Kritik der Urteilskraft als Bindeglied zwischen theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie'').", "Here, he met Friedrich Pollock, who would be his colleague at the Institute of Social Research.", "The following year, Max was appointed ''Privatdozent.''", "Shortly after, in 1926, Horkheimer married Rose Riekher.===Institute of Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung)===In 1926, Horkheimer was an \"unsalaried lecturer in Frankfurt.\"", "Shortly after, in 1930, he was promoted to professor of philosophy at Frankfurt University.", "In the same year, when the Institute for Social Research's (now known as Frankfurt School of Critical Theory) directorship became vacant, after the departure of Carl Grünberg, Horkheimer was elected to the position \"by means of an endowment from a wealthy businessman\".", "The Institute had had its beginnings in a Marxist study group started by Felix Weil, a one-time student of political science at Frankfurt who used his inheritance to fund the group as a way to support his leftist academic aims.", "Pollock and Horkheimer were partners with Weil in the early activities of the institute.Horkheimer worked to make the Institute a purely academic enterprise.", "As director, he changed Frankfurt from an orthodox Marxist school to a heterodox school for critical social research.", "The following year publication of the institute's ''Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung'' began, with Horkheimer as its editor.", "Horkheimer intellectually reoriented the institute, proposing a programme of collective research aimed at specific social groups (specifically the working class) that would highlight the problem of the relationship of history and reason.", "The Institute focused on integrating the views of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud.", "The Frankfurt School attempted this by systematically hitching together the different conceptual structures of historical materialism and psychoanalysis.During the time between Horkheimer's being named Professor of Social Philosophy and director of the Institute in 1930, the Nazi party became the second largest party in the Reichstag.", "In the midst of the violence surrounding the Nazis' rise, Horkheimer and his associates began to prepare for the possibility of moving the Institute out of Germany.", "Horkheimer's ''venia legendi'' was revoked by the new Nazi government because of the Marxian nature of the institute's ideas as well as its prominent Jewish association.", "When Hitler was named the Chancellor in 1933, the institute was thus forced to close its location in Germany.", "He emigrated to Geneva, Switzerland and then to New York City the following year, where Horkheimer met with the president of Columbia University, Nicholas Murray Butler, to discuss hosting the institute.", "To Horkheimer's surprise, the president agreed to host the Institute in exile as well as offer Horkheimer a building for the institute.", "In July 1934, Horkheimer accepted an offer from Columbia to relocate the institute to one of their buildings.In 1940, Horkheimer received American citizenship and moved to the Pacific Palisades district of Los Angeles, California, where his collaboration with Adorno would yield the ''Dialectic of Enlightenment.''", "In 1942, Horkheimer assumed the directorship of the Scientific Division of the American Jewish Committee.", "In this capacity, he helped launch and organize a series of five Studies in Prejudice, which were published in 1949 and 1950.The most important of these was the pioneering study in social psychology entitled ''The Authoritarian Personality'', itself a methodologically advanced reworking of some of the themes treated in a collective project produced by the Institute in its first years of exile, Studies in Authority and Family.", "In the years that followed, Horkheimer did not publish much, although he continued to edit ''Studies in Philosophy and Social Science'' as a continuation of the ''Zeitschrift.''", "In 1949, he returned to Frankfurt where the Institute for Social Research reopened in 1950.Between 1951 and 1953 Horkheimer was rector of the University of Frankfurt.", "In 1953, Horkheimer stepped down from director of the Institute and took on a smaller role in the institute, while Adorno became director.===Later years===Horkheimer continued to teach at the university until his retirement in the mid-1960s.", "In 1953, he was awarded the Goethe Plaque of the City of Frankfurt, and was later named an honorary citizen of Frankfurt for life.", "He returned to the United States in 1954 and 1959 to lecture as a frequent visiting professor at the University of Chicago.", "In the late 1960s, Horkheimer supported Pope Paul VI's stand against artificial contraception, specifically the pill, arguing that it would lead to the end of romantic love.===Legacy===He remained an important figure until his death in Nuremberg in 1973.Max Horkheimer with the help of Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Leo Lowenthal, Otto Kirchheimer, Frederick Pollock and Neumann developed \"Critical Theory\".", "According to Larry Ray \"Critical Theory\" has \"become one of the most influential social theories of the twentieth century\"." ], [ "Thought", "Horkheimer's work is marked by a concern to show the relation between affect (especially suffering) and concepts (understood as action-guiding expressions of reason).", "In that, he responded critically to what he saw as the one-sidedness of both neo-Kantianism (with its focus on concepts) and ''Lebensphilosophie'' (with its focus on expression and world-disclosure).", "He did not think that either was wrong, but he insisted that the insights of each school on its own could not adequately contribute to the repair of social problems.", "Horkheimer focused on the connections between social structures, networks/subcultures and individual realities and concluded that we are affected and shaped by the proliferation of products on the marketplace.", "It is also important to note that Horkheimer collaborated with Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm, Theodor Adorno, and Walter Benjamin.===Critical theory===Through critical theory, a social theory focusing on critiquing and changing society, Horkheimer \"attempted to revitalize radical social, and cultural criticism\" and discussed authoritarianism, militarism, economic disruption, environmental crisis and the poverty of mass culture.", "Horkheimer helped to create critical theory through a mix of radical and conservative lenses that stem from radical Marxism and end up in \"pessimistic Jewish transcendentalism\".", "He developed his critical theory by examining his own wealth while witnessing the juxtaposition of the bourgeois and the impoverished.", "This critical theory embraced the future possibilities of society and was preoccupied with forces which moved society toward rational institutions that would ensure a true, free, and just life.", "He was convinced of the need to \"examine the entire material and spiritual culture of mankind\" in order to transform society as a whole.", "Horkheimer sought to enable the working class to reclaim their power in order to resist the lure of fascism.", "Horkheimer stated himself that \"the rationally organized society that regulates its own existence\" was necessary along with a society that could \"satisfy common needs\".", "To satisfy these needs, it reached out for a total understanding of history and knowledge.", "Through this, critical theory develops a \"critique of bourgeois society through which 'ideology critique' attempted to locate the 'utopian content' of dominant systems of thought\".", "Above all, critical theory sought to develop a critical perspective in the discussion of all social practices.=== Writing =======''Between Philosophy and Social Science''====\"Between Philosophy and Social Science\" appeared between 1930 and 1938, during the time the Frankfurt school moved from Frankfurt to Geneva to Columbia University.", "It included: \"Materialism and Morality\", \"The Present Situation of Moral Philosophy and the Tasks of an Institute for Social Research\", \"On the Problem of Truth\", \"Egoism and the Freedom Movement\", \"History and Psychology\", \"A New Concept of Ideology\", \"Remarks on Philosophical Anthropology\", and \"The Rationalism Debate in Contemporary Philosophy\".", "It also included \"The Present Situation of Social Philosophy and the Tasks for an Institute of Social Research\", \"Egoism and Freedom Movements\" and \"Beginnings of the Bourgeois Philosophy of History\".", "The essays within \"Between Philosophy and Social Science\" were Horkheimer's attempts to \"remove the individual from mass culture, a function for philosophy from the commodification of everything\".", "Horkheimer was extremely invested in the individual.", "In one of his writings, he states, \"When we speak of an individual as a historical entity, we mean not merely the space-time and the sense existence of a particular member of the human race, but in addition, his awareness of his own individuality as a conscious human being, including recognition of his own identity.\".", "\"The Present Situation of Social Philosophy and the Tasks for an Institute of Social Research\" was not only included in this volume, but it was also used as Horkheimer's inaugural speech as director of the Frankfurt School.", "In this speech he related economic groups to the struggles and challenges of real life.", "Horkheimer often referenced human struggle and used this example in his speech because it was a topic he understood well.", "\"Egoism and Freedom Movements\" and \"Beginnings of the Bourgeois Philosophy of History\" are the longest of the essays.", "The first is an evaluation of Machiavelli, Hobbes and Vico; the latter discusses the bourgeois control.", "In Beginnings of the Bourgeois Philosophy of History, Horkheimer explained \"what he learned from the bourgeois rise to power and what of the bourgeois he thought was worth preserving.The volume also looks at the individual as the \"troubled center of philosophy.\"", "Horkheimer expressed that \"there is no formula that defines the relationship among individuals, society and nature for all time\".", "To understand the problem of the individual further, Horkheimer included two case studies on the individual: one on Montaigne and one on himself.==== ''Eclipse of Reason'' ====Horkheimer's book, ''Eclipse of Reason'', started in 1941 and published in 1947, is broken into five sections: Means and Ends, Conflicting Panaceas, The Revolt of Nature, The Rise and Decline of the Individual, and On the Concept of Philosophy.", "The ''Eclipse of Reason'' focuses on the concept of reason within the history of Western philosophy, which can only be fostered in an environment of free, critical thinking while also linking positivist and instrumental reason with the rise of fascism.", "He distinguishes between objective, subjective and instrumental reason, and states that we have moved from the former through the center and into the latter (though subjective and instrumental reason are closely connected).", "Objective reason deals with universal truths that dictate that an action is either right or wrong.", "It is a concrete concept and a force in the world that requires specific modes of behavior.", "The focus in the objective faculty of reason is on the ends, rather than the means.", "Subjective reason is an abstract concept of reason, and focuses primarily on means.", "Specifically, the reasonable nature of the purpose of action is irrelevant – the ends only serve the purpose of the subject (generally self-advancement or preservation).", "To be \"reasonable\" in this context is to be suited to a particular purpose, to be \"good for something else\".", "This aspect of reason is universally conforming, and easily furnishes ideology.", "In instrumental reason, the sole criterion of reason is its operational value or purposefulness, and with this, the idea of truth becomes contingent on mere subjective preference (hence the relation with subjective reason).", "Because subjective/instrumental reason rules, the ideals of a society, for example democratic ideals, become dependent on the \"interests\" of the people instead of being dependent on objective truths.", "Horkheimer writes, \"Social power is today more than ever mediated by power over things.", "The more intense an individual's concern with power over things, the more will things dominate him, the more will he lack any genuine individual traits, and the more will his mind be transformed into an automation of formalized reason.\"", "Horkheimer acknowledges that objective reason has its roots in Reason (\"Logos\" in Greek) and concludes, \"If by enlightenment and intellectual progress we mean the freeing of man from superstitious belief in evil forces, in demons and fairies, in blind fate – in short, the emancipation from fear – then denunciation of what is currently called reason is the greatest service we can render.", "\"==== ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'' ====Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno collaborated to publish ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'', which was originally published in 1944.The inspiration for this piece came from when Horkheimer and Adorno had to flee Germany, because of Hitler, and go to New York.", "They went to America and \"absorbed the popular culture\"; thinking that it was a form of totalitarianism.", "Nonetheless, Dialectic of Enlightenment's main argument was to serve as a wide-ranging critique of the \"self-destruction of enlightenment\".", "The work criticized popular culture as \"the product of a culture industry whose goal was to stupefy the masses with endless mass produced copies of the same thing\" (Lemert).", "Along with that, Horkheimer and Adorno had a few arguments; one being that these mass-produced products only appear to change over time.", "Horkheimer and Adorno stated that these products were so standardized in order to help consumers comprehend and appreciate the products with little attention given to them.", "They expressed, \"the result is a constant reproduction of the same thing\" (Adorno and Horkheimer, 1993 1944).", "However, they also explain how pseudo-individuality is encouraged among these products in order to keep the consumers coming back for more.", "They argue that small differences in products within the same area are acceptable.The similar patterns found in the content of popular culture (films, popular songs and radio) have the same central message; \"it's all linked to \"the necessity of obedience of the masses to the social hierarchy in place in advanced capitalist societies\".", "These products appeal to the masses and encourage conformity to the consumers.", "In return, capitalism remains in power while buyers continue to consume from the industry.", "This is dangerous because the consumers' belief that the powers of technology are liberating, starts to increase.", "To support their claim, Horkheimer and Adorno, \"proposed an antidote: not just thinking the relations of ''things'', but also, as an immediate second step, thinking ''through'' that thinking, self-reflexively.\"", "In other words, technology lacks self-reflexivity.", "Nonetheless, Horkheimer and Adorno believed that art was an exception, because it \"is an open-ended system with no fixed rules\"; thus, it could not be an object of the industry." ], [ "Criticisms", "Perry Anderson sees Horkheimer's attempt to make the Institute purely academic as \"symptomatic of a more universal process, the emergence of a 'Western Marxism' divorced from the working-class movement and dominated by academic philosophers and the 'product of defeat'\" because of the isolation of the Russian Revolution.", "Rolf Wiggershaus, author of ''The Frankfurt School'' believed Horkheimer lacked the audacious theoretical construction produced by those like Marx and Lukács and that his main argument was that those living in misery had the right to material egoism.", "In his book, \"Social Theory\", Alex Callinicos claims that ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'' offers no systematic account of conception of rationality, but rather professes objective reason intransigently to an extent.", "Charles Lemert discusses in his book ''Social Theory'' that in writing ''Dialectic of Enlightenment'', Horkheimer and Adorno lack sufficient sympathy for the cultural plight of the average working person, unfair to criticize the tastes of ordinary people, and that popular culture does not really buttress social conformity and stabilize capitalism as much as the Frankfurt school thinks.Ingar Solty, in a February 2020 ''Jacobin'' magazine article, notes that the work of Horkheimer, Adorno, and the Frankfurt School as a whole is marked by \"the vast historical defeats suffered by the interwar socialist movement.\"", "He notes, \"Horkheimer and Adorno thus became increasingly pessimistic with regards to the working class's ability to overthrow capitalism ... Horkheimer did not conduct empirical research on capitalism and its crises ... the hierarchical nature of the international division of labor, the organization of internationalizing capitalism in a system of nation-states, the origins of imperialism and inter-imperial rivalries, or such ... For Horkheimer, the working class had been a revolutionary subject only in the abstract ... it was essentially an empty placeholder for the subject which would overthrow an economic and social system which they considered wrong.", "If it failed to live up to its expectations, then it could easily be replaced by another subject of revolution — or the conclusion that there was no way out (of capitalism).", "\"Solty contextualizes Horkheimer's (and, by implication, the Frankfurt School's) \"return from 'revolutionary optimism' to 'revolutionary pessimism'\" by noting, \"many postwar radical leftists and anti-capitalists, especially those not organized in real workers’ parties, were disappointed revolutionaries.", "The German writer Alfred Andersch, who had been close to the KPD before 1933 and then withdrawn into “inner emigration,” called the West German postwar left a “homeless left.” The working classes’ betrayals seemed to continue after 1945.After the short-lived socialist revival, the Cold War and the internationalization of the New Deal as the Keynesian welfare state seemed to have completely absorbed what was left of revolutionary working-class spirit.", "This led many disappointed leftists to culture and ideology as levels of analyses which could explain this failure of the working class.\"", "Solty identifies Horkheimer's (and, implicitly, the Frankfurt School's) work as an important influence on that of Michel Foucault: \"Ultimately, both Horkheimer and Foucault only considered the defense of remaining elements of freedom and the identification of “micro-powers” of domination a possibility, but changes in the macro-power structures were out of reach.", "In other words, a Left was born that was no longer oriented toward “counter-hegemony” (as per Antonio Gramsci), as a way of building toward power, but rather “anti-hegemony” (Horkheimer, Foucault, etc.", "), as John Sanbonmatsu put it in his critique of postmodernism.\"" ], [ "Selected works", "*''Authority and the Family'' (1936)*''Traditional and Critical Theory'' (1937)*''Dialectic of Enlightenment'' (1947) – with Theodor Adorno *''Eclipse of Reason'' (1947) (orig.", "1941 \"The End of Reason\" Studies in Philosophy and Social Sciences Vol.", "IX) *''Egoism and the Freedom Movement''*''The Longing for the Totally Other''*''Critique of Instrumental Reason'' (1967) *''Critical Theory: Selected Essays'' (1972) *''Dawn & Decline'' (1978) * His collected works have been issued in German as ''Max Horkheimer'': ''Gesammelte Schriften'' (1985–1996).", "19 volumes, edited by Alfred Schmidt and Gunzelin Schmid Noerr.", "S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main.===Articles===* \"The social function of philosophy\", in ''Studies in Philosophy and Social Science'', vol.", "8, n°3, New-York, 1939.", "*\"The Authoritarian State\".", "15 (Spring 1973).", "New York: Telos Press." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "*Abromeit, John.", "''Max Horkheimer and the Foundations of the Frankfurt School.''", "Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press, 2011.", "*Jay, Martin.", "''The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923–1950.''", "Second edition.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.", "*Schirmacher, Wolfgang.", "''German 20th Century Philosophy: The Frankfurt School.''", "New York: Continuum, 2000.", "*Wiggershaus, Rolf.", "''The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories, and Political Significance.''", "Boston: MIT Press, 1995." ], [ "External links", "* Max Horkheimer Internet Archive contains complete texts of ''Enlightenment as Mass Deception'' (1944), ''Theism and Atheism'' (1963) and ''Feudal Lord, Customer, and Specialist'' (1964).", "* Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology Online: Max Horkheimer* ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'': Max Horkheimer* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'': Max Horkheimer biography" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Myanmar''' (, ), officially the '''Republic of the Union of Myanmar''', also known as '''Burma''' (the official name until 1989), is a country in Southeast Asia.", "It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has a population of about 55 million.", "It is bordered by Bangladesh and India to its northwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest.", "The country's capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city is Yangon (formerly Rangoon).Early civilisations in the area included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Myanmar and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Myanmar.", "In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley, and following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture, and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country.", "The Pagan Kingdom fell to Mongol invasions, and several warring states emerged.", "In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo dynasty, the country became the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a short period.", "The early 19th-century Konbaung dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well.", "The British East India Company seized control of the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century, and the country became a British colony.", "After a brief Japanese occupation, Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies.", "On 4 January 1948, Myanmar declared independence under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947.Myanmar's post-independence history has continued to be checkered by unrest and conflict.", "The coup d'état in 1962 resulted in a military dictatorship under the Burma Socialist Programme Party.", "On 8 August 1988, the 8888 Uprising then resulted in a nominal transition to a multi-party system two years later, but the country's post-uprising military council refused to cede power, and has continued to rule the country through to the present.", "The country remains riven by ethnic strife among its myriad ethnic groups and has one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars.", "The United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systemic human rights violations in the country.", "In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed.", "Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners were released and the 2015 Myanmar general election was held, leading to improved foreign relations and eased economic sanctions, although the country's treatment of its ethnic minorities, particularly in connection with the Rohingya conflict, continued to be a source of international tension and consternation.", "Following the 2020 Myanmar general election, in which Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a clear majority in both houses, the Burmese military (Tatmadaw) again seized power in a coup d'état.", "The coup, which was widely condemned by the international community, led to continuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmar and has been marked by violent political repression by the military, as well as a larger outbreak of the civil war.", "The military also arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging from corruption to the violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of the charges against her are \"politically motivated\" according to independent observers.Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit, Non-Aligned Movement, ASEAN, and BIMSTEC, but it is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations despite once being part of the British Empire.", "Myanmar is a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.", "The country is very rich in natural resources, such as jade, gems, oil, natural gas, teak and other minerals, as well as also endowed with renewable energy, having the highest solar power potential compared to other countries of the Great Mekong Subregion.", "However, Myanmar has long suffered from instability, factional violence, corruption, poor infrastructure, as well as a long history of colonial exploitation with little regard to human development.", "In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.", "The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by cronies of the military junta.", "Myanmar is one of the least developed countries; as of 2020, according to the Human Development Index, it ranks 147 out of 189 countries in terms of human development, the lowest in Southeast Asia.", "Since 2021, more than 600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to the surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million people in dire need of humanitarian assistance." ], [ "Etymology", "The name of the country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those using ''Myanmar'' versus ''Burma''.", "Both names derive from the earlier Burmese ''Mranma'' or ''Mramma'', an ethnonym for the majority Burman ethnic group, of uncertain etymology.", "The terms are also popularly thought to derive from Sanskrit ''Brahma Desha'', 'land of Brahma'.In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: ''Burma'' became ''Myanmar''.", "The renaming remains a contested issue.", "Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use ''Burma'' because they do not recognise the legitimacy or authority of the military government.The country's official full name is \"Republic of the Union of Myanmar\" (, '''', ).", "Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form \"Union of Burma\" instead.", "In English, the country is popularly known as either ''Burma'' or ''Myanmar''.", "In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on the register used and is either '''' () or '''' ().Official United States foreign policy retains ''Burma'' as the country's name although the State Department's website lists the country as ''Burma (Myanmar)''.", "The United Nations uses ''Myanmar'', as does the ASEAN and as do Australia, Russia, Germany, China, India, Bangladesh, Norway, Japan, Switzerland, and Canada.", "Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name ''Myanmar'', including the BBC, CNN, Al Jazeera, Reuters, and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.", "Myanmar is known by a name deriving from ''Burma'' in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek.", "French-language media consistently use ''Birmanie''.There are at least nine different pronunciations of the English name ''Myanmar'', and no single one is standard.", "Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in major British and American dictionaries.", "Dictionaries—such as Collins—and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables.As John Wells explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English, in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate a long vowel: .", "So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as or of Burma as by some speakers in the UK and most speakers in North America is in fact a spelling pronunciation based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory ===Pyu city-states, Archaeological evidence shows that ''Homo erectus'' lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more ''erectus'' finds after 75,000 years ago.", "The first evidence of ''Homo sapiens'' is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar.", "Evidence of Neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.The Bronze Age arrived when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.", "Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Region.", "The Iron Age began around 500 BCE with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.", "Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE.", "Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials.", "This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.=== Early city-states ===Around the second century BCE the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar.", "The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.", "The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral.", "The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s.", "In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan.", "It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur.=== Pagan Kingdom ===Pagodas and kyaungs in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan KingdomPagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery.", "In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.", "The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century.", "Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched.", "Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone.", "Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.Temples at Mrauk U.Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century.", "Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind.", "Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley.", "The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged.", "In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.The kingdom was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods.In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of unification but could never quite reassemble the lost empire.", "Having held off Ava, the Mon-speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years.", "In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward.", "In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities.", "Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued.", "This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture.", "Burmese literature \"grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse\", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.", "Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.=== Taungoo and Konbaung ===Portuguese ruler mounting an Elephant and his soldiers .", "Philips, Jan Caspar (draughtsman and engraver)Toungoo Empire under Bayinnaung in 1580Qianlong.", "''萬國來朝圖/万国来朝图''Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava.", "Taungoo's young, ambitious King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War.", "His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan.", "However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599.Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614.It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim.", "The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century.", "The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs.", "Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years.", "From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na.", "In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom.", "Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the First Anglo-Burmese War.After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy.", "By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War against Qing China.With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776.Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya).", "Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817).", "It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War.", "In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War.", "King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States.", "The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion.", "For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley.", "The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).", "Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.=== British Burma (1885–1948) ===The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King Thibaw Minmortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944In the 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan.", "Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory.", "Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars, continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.", "With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886.Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma.", "Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.", "Burmese resentment was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s.", "Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions.", "Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement.", "U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike.On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma.", "Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II.", "He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition.", "In 1940, before Japan formally entered the war, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.As a major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II by the Japanese invasion.", "Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed.", "A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942.Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.", "A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945.The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting.", "Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken.", "Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.", "The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II.Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945 Transaction 2007 (Werner Gruhl is former chief of NASA's Cost and Economic Analysis Branch with a lifetime interest in the study of the First and Second World Wars.", ")Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state.", "Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historic Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947.In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government.", "But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.=== Independence (1948–1962) ===British governor Hubert Elvin Rance and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag-raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 (Independence Day of Burma)On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947.The new country was named the ''Union of Burma'', with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister.", "Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth.", "A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities, and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.In 1961, U Thant, the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962.Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term 'federalism' as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.=== Military rule (1962–2011) ===On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then.", "Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general.", "Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism, which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974.Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).", "During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.", "There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed.", "On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.", "In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant.", "Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising.", "Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC).", "In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests.", "The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.SLORC changed the country's official English name from the \"Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma\" to the \"Union of Myanmar\" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law.In May 1990, the government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won earning 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats).", "However, the military junta refused to cede power and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.General Than Shwe took over the Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar's top ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011.On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.", "On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning \"city of the kings\".Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads ''non-violence: national movement'' in Burmese.", "In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.Cyclone Nargis in southern Myanmar, May 2008.In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.", "The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed.", "There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed.", "The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.", "It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless.", "In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.", "Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar.", "For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese, Wa, and Kachin.", "During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China.=== Civil wars ===Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948.These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict.", "Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict, between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government; a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State; and a conflict between the Shan, Lahu, and Karen minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country.", "In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar.Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015.The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.", "During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels.", "Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China and Myanmar.=== Period of liberalisation, 2011–2021 ===The military-backed Government had promulgated a \"Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy\" in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when the Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it.", "The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels.U.S.", "President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012A general election in 2010 - the first for twenty years - was boycotted by the NLD.", "The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of the votes; fraud, however, was alleged.", "A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retired general Thein Sein as president.A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or reforms – then took place.", "By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.", "In response, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Myanmar in December 2011 – the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years – meeting both President Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.Aung San Suu Kyi's NLD party participated in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred it.", "In the April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats.", "The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.Myanmar's improved international reputation was indicated by ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014.Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine State and Karen State.==== 2015 general elections ====General elections were held on 8 November 2015.These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since the 1990 general election (which was annulled).", "The results gave the NLD an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016, and on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of state counsellor, a role akin to a prime minister.=== Coup d'état and civil war ===In Myanmar's 2020 parliamentary election, the ostensibly ruling National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi, competed with various other smaller parties – particularly the military-affiliated Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP).", "Suu Kyi's NLD won the 2020 Myanmar general election on 8 November in a landslide, The USDP, regarded as a proxy for the military, suffered a \"humiliating\" defeat – even worse than in 2015 – capturing only 33 of the 476 elected seats.As the election results began emerging, the USDP rejected them, urging a new election with the military as observers.", "More than 90 other smaller parties contested the vote, including more than 15 who complained of irregularities.", "However, election observers declared there were no major irregularities.", "However, despite the election commission validating the NLD's overwhelming victory, the USDP and Myanmar's military persistently alleged fraud.In January, 2021, just before the new parliament was to be sworn in, The NLD announced that Suu Kyi would retain her State Counsellor role in the upcoming government.In the early morning of 1 February 2021, the day parliament was set to convene, the Tatmadaw, Myanmar's military, detained Suu Kyi and other members of the ruling party.", "The military handed power to military chief Min Aung Hlaing and declared a state of emergency for one year and began closing the borders, restricting travel and electronic communications nationwide.", "The military announced it would replace the existing election commission with a new one, and a military media outlet indicated new elections would be held in about one year – though the military avoided making an official commitment to that.", "The military expelled NLD party Members of Parliament from the capital city, Naypyidaw.", "By 15 March 2021 the military leadership continued to extend martial law into more parts of Yangon, while security forces killed 38 people in a single day of violence.Protesters against the military coup in MyanmarBy the second day of the coup, thousands of protesters were marching in the streets of Yangon, and other protests erupted nationwide, largely halting commerce and transportation.", "Despite the military's arrests and killings of protesters, the first weeks of the coup found growing public participation, including groups of civil servants, teachers, students, workers, monks and religious leaders – even normally disaffected ethnic minorities.The coup was immediately condemned by the United Nations Secretary General, and leaders of democratic nations.", "The U.S. threatened sanctions on the military and its leaders, including a \"freeze\" of US$1 billion of their assets in the U.S. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Russia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines and China refrained from criticizing the military coup.", "A United Nations Security Council resolution called for the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and the other detained leaders – a position shared by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.International development and aid partners – business, non-governmental, and governmental – hinted at suspension of partnerships with Myanmar.", "Banks were closed and social media communications platforms, including Facebook and Twitter, removed Tatmadaw postings.", "Protesters appeared at Myanmar embassies in foreign countries.", "The National Unity Government then declared the formation of an armed wing on 5 May 2021, a date that is often cited as the start of a full-scale civil war.", "This armed wing was named the People's Defence Force (PDF) to protect its supporters from military junta attacks and as a first step towards a Federal Union Army.", "The civil war is ongoing as of 2024." ], [ "Geography", "Myanmar has a total area of .", "It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E.", "Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India.", "Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan for a Sino-Myanmar border total of .", "It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast.", "Myanmar has of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China.", "Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of , is the highest point in Myanmar.", "Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.", "The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.", "The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river at nearly , flows into the Gulf of Martaban.", "Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.", "The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.=== Administrative divisions ===Myanmar is divided into seven states () and seven regions (), formerly called divisions.", "Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by Myanmar's dominant ethnic group).", "States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities.", "The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.Below are the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village groups and villages in each division and state of Myanmar as of 31 December 2001: No.", "State/Region Districts Townships Cities/Towns Wards Villagegroups Villages 1 Kachin State 4 18 20 116 606 2630 2 Kayah State 2 7 7 29 79 624 3 Kayin State 3 7 10 46 376 2092 4 Chin State 2 9 9 29 475 1355 5 Sagaing Region 8 37 37 171 1769 6095 6 Tanintharyi Region 3 10 10 63 265 1255 7 Bago Region 4 28 33 246 1424 6498 8 Magway Region 5 25 26 160 1543 4774 9 Mandalay Region 7 31 29 259 1611 5472 10 Mon State 2 10 11 69 381 1199 11 Rakhine State 4 17 17 120 1041 3871 12 Yangon Region 4 45 20 685 634 2119 13 Shan State 11 54 54 336 1626 15513 14 Ayeyarwady Region6 26 29 219 1912 11651 '''Total''' '''63''' '''324''' '''312''' '''2548''' '''13742''' '''65148'''=== Climate ===Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator.", "It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over of rain annually.", "Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately , while average annual rainfall in the dry zone in central Myanmar is less than .", "The northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of .", "Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of .Previously and currently analysed data, as well as future projections on changes caused by climate change predict serious consequences to development for all economic, productive, social, and environmental sectors in Myanmar.", "In order to combat the hardships ahead and do its part to help combat climate change Myanmar has displayed interest in expanding its use of renewable energy and lowering its level of carbon emissions.", "Groups involved in helping Myanmar with the transition and move forward include the UN Environment Programme, Myanmar Climate Change Alliance, and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation which directed in producing the final draft of the Myanmar national climate change policy that was presented to various sectors of the Myanmar government for review.In April 2015, it was announced that the World Bank and Myanmar would enter a full partnership framework aimed to better access to electricity and other basic services for about six million people and expected to benefit three million pregnant woman and children through improved health services.", "Acquired funding and proper planning has allowed Myanmar to better prepare for the impacts of climate change by enacting programs which teach its people new farming methods, rebuild its infrastructure with materials resilient to natural disasters, and transition various sectors towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions.=== Biodiversity ===The limestone landscape of Kayin StateMyanmar is a biodiverse country with more than 16,000 plant, 314 mammal, 1131 bird, 293 reptile, and 139 amphibian species, and 64 terrestrial ecosystems including tropical and subtropical vegetation, seasonally inundated wetlands, shoreline and tidal systems, and alpine ecosystems.", "Myanmar houses some of the largest intact natural ecosystems in Southeast Asia, but the remaining ecosystems are under threat from land use intensification and over-exploitation.", "According to the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems categories and criteria more than a third of Myanmar's land area has been converted to anthropogenic ecosystems over the last 2–3 centuries, and nearly half of its ecosystems are threatened.", "Despite large gaps in information for some ecosystems, there is a large potential to develop a comprehensive protected area network that protects its terrestrial biodiversity.Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016, among the worst in the South Asian region.", "The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (i.e.", "highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142).", "Myanmar performs best (i.e.", "lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21) but with declining fish stocks.", "Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (i.e.", "a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.", "Myanmar is one of the most highly vulnerable countries to climate change; this poses a number of social, political, economic and foreign policy challenges to the country.", "The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.18/10, ranking it 49th globally out of 172 countries.Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems.", "Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and ''Magnolia champaca''.", "Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced.", "In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest area and wildlife habitat.", "The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared.", "In much of central Myanmar (the dry zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar.", "In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry.", "Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes.", "The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl.", "Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles.", "Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources." ], [ "Government and politics", "Myanmar operates ''de jure'' as a unitary assembly-independent republic under its 2008 constitution.", "But in February 2021, the civilian government led by Aung San Suu Kyi, was deposed by the Tatmadaw.", "In February 2021, Myanmar military declared a one-year state emergency and First Vice President Myint Swe became the Acting President of Myanmar and handed the power to the Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services Min Aung Hlaing and he assumed the role Chairman of the State Administration Council, then Prime Minister.", "The President of Myanmar acts as the de jure head of state and the Chairman of the State Administration Council acts as the de facto head of government.Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008.The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive president accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.The legislature, called the Assembly of the Union, is bicameral and made up of two houses: the 224-seat upper House of Nationalities and the 440-seat lower House of Representatives.", "The upper house consists 168 members who are directly elected and 56 who are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces.", "The lower house consists of 330 members who are directly elected and 110 who are appointed by the armed forces.=== Political culture ===The major political parties are the National League for Democracy and the Union Solidarity and Development Party.Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was approved in a referendum in May 2008.The results, 92.4% of the 22 million voters with an official turnout of 99%, are considered suspect by many international observers and by the National League of Democracy with reports of widespread fraud, ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.The elections of 2010 resulted in a victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party.", "Various foreign observers questioned the fairness of the elections.", "One criticism of the election was that only government-sanctioned political parties were allowed to contest in it and the popular National League for Democracy was declared illegal.", "However, immediately following the elections, the government ended the house arrest of the democracy advocate and leader of the National League for Democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi, and her ability to move freely around the country is considered an important test of the military's movement toward more openness.Myanmar rates as a corrupt nation on the Corruption Perceptions Index with a rank of 130th out of 180 countries worldwide, with 1st being least corrupt, .=== Foreign relations ===Myanmar President Thein Sein meets US President Barack Obama in Yangon, 2012Though the country's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have historically been strained, the situation has markedly improved since the reforms following the 2010 elections.", "After years of diplomatic isolation and economic and military sanctions, the United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid to Myanmar in November 2011 and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on 13 January 2012 The European Union has placed sanctions on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.Sanctions imposed by the United States and European countries against the former military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies.", "Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction.", "The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country.", "Under India's Look East policy, fields of co-operation between India and Myanmar include remote sensing, oil and gas exploration, information technology, hydropower and construction of ports and buildings.", "Myanmar also has close political relations with Vietnam and Japan.In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Myanmar president to visit the White House in 47 years.", "President Barack Obama praised the former general for political and economic reforms and the cessation of tensions between Myanmar and the United States.", "Political activists objected to the visit because of concerns over human rights abuses in Myanmar, but Obama assured Thein Sein that Myanmar will receive U.S. support.", "The two governments agreed to sign a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement on 21 May 2013.In June 2013, Myanmar held its first ever summit, the World Economic Forum on East Asia 2013.A regional spinoff of the annual World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the summit was held on 5–7 June and attended by 1,200 participants, including 10 heads of state, 12 ministers and 40 senior directors from around the world.=== Military ===A Myanmar Air Force Mikoyan MiG-29 multirole fighterMyanmar has received extensive military aid from China in the past.Myanmar has been a member of ASEAN since 1997.Though it gave up its turn to hold the ASEAN chair and host the ASEAN Summit in 2006, it chaired the forum and hosted the summit in 2014.In November 2008, Myanmar's political situation with neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.", "Controversy surrounding the Rohingya population also remains an issue between Bangladesh and Myanmar.Myanmar's armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000.The Tatmadaw comprises the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force.", "The country ranked twelfth in the world for its number of active troops in service.", "The military is very influential in Myanmar, with all top cabinet and ministry posts usually held by military officials.", "Official figures for military spending are not available.", "Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but Myanmar's military forces' expenses are high.", "Myanmar imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.Myanmar is building a research nuclear reactor near Pyin Oo Lwin with help from Russia.", "It is one of the signatories of the nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957.The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor.", "In 2010 as part of the leaked diplomatic cables, Myanmar was suspected of using North Korean construction teams to build a fortified surface-to-air missile facility.", "As of 2019, the United States Bureau of Arms Control assessed that Myanmar is not in violation of its obligations under the Non-Proliferation Treaty but that the Myanmar government had a history of non-transparency on its nuclear programs and aims.Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Myanmar by consensus.", "But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Myanmar to end its systematic violations of human rights.", "In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition.", "South Africa also voted against the resolution.=== Human rights and internal conflicts ===States and regions affected by fighting during and after 1995 are highlighted in yellow.There is consensus that the former military regime in Myanmar (1962–2010) was one of the world's most repressive and abusive regimes.", "In November 2012, Samantha Power, Barack Obama's Special Assistant to the President on Human Rights, wrote on the White House blog that \"Serious human rights abuses against civilians in several regions continue, including against women and children.\"", "Members of the United Nations and major international human rights organisations have issued repeated and consistent reports of widespread and systematic human rights violations in Myanmar.", "The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly called on the Burmese military junta to respect human rights and in November 2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution \"strongly condemning the ongoing systematic violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms\" and calling on the Burmese military regime \"to take urgent measures to put an end to violations of international human rights and humanitarian law.", "\"International human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations in Myanmar.", "The ''Freedom in the World 2011'' report by Freedom House notes, \"The military junta has ... suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity.\"", "In July 2013, the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners indicated that there were approximately 100 political prisoners being held in Burmese prisons.", "Evidence gathered by a British researcher was published in 2005 regarding the extermination or \"Burmisation\" of certain ethnic minorities, such as the Karen, Karenni and Shan.Mae La camp, Tak, Thailand, one of the largest of nine UNHCR camps in ThailandBased on the evidence gathered by Amnesty photographs and video of the ongoing armed conflict between the Myanmar military and the Arakan Army (AA), attacks escalated on civilians in Rakhine State.", "Ming Yu Hah, Amnesty International's Deputy Regional Director for Campaigns said, the UN Security Council must urgently refer the situation in Myanmar to the International Criminal Court.", "The military is notorious for rampant use of sexual violence.==== Child soldiers ====Child soldiers were reported in 2012 to have played a major part in the Burmese Army.", "''The Independent'' reported in June 2012 that \"Children are being sold as conscripts into the Burmese military for as little as $40 and a bag of rice or a can of petrol.\"", "In September 2012, the Myanmar Armed Forces released 42 child soldiers, and the International Labour Organization met with representatives of the government as well as the Kachin Independence Army to secure the release of more child soldiers.==== Slavery and human trafficking ====Forced labour and human trafficking are common in Myanmar.", "Human trafficking happens mostly to women who are unemployed and have low incomes.", "They are deceived by brokers that better opportunities and wages exist for them abroad.", "In 2017, the government reported 185 trafficking cases.", "The government of Burma makes little effort to eliminate human trafficking.", "The U.S. State Department reported that both the government and Tatmadaw were complicit in sex and labour trafficking.", "Women and girls from all ethnic groups and foreigners have been victims of sex trafficking in Myanmar.", "They are forced into prostitution, marriages or pregnancies.", "Sex trafficking in Myanmar has been fuelled by factors like internal conflict, political instability, land confiscation, poor border management, and government restrictions on providing travel documents.A cyber-scam industry in Myanmar’s borderlands has involved human trafficking, forced labour and other abuses.", "Many of the scam centres are in territories controlled by junta allies like the Border Guard Force.", "In August 2023, a report from the Office of the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights noted that at least 120,000 people in Myanmar were trapped in such centres by criminal gangs.==== Genocide allegations and crimes against Rohingya people ====Displaced alt=The Rohingya people have consistently faced human rights abuses by the Burmese regime that has refused to acknowledge them as Burmese citizens (despite some of them having lived in Burma for over three generations)—the Rohingya have been denied Burmese citizenship since the enactment of a 1982 citizenship law.", "The Burmese regime has attempted to forcibly expel Rohingya and bring in non-Rohingyas to replace them—this policy has resulted in the expulsion of approximately half of the 800,000 Rohingya from Burma, while the Rohingya people have been described as \"among the world's least wanted\" and \"one of the world's most persecuted minorities.", "\"Rohingya are not allowed to travel without official permission, are banned from owning land, and are required to sign a commitment to have no more than two children.", "As of July 2012, the Myanmar government does not include the Rohingya minority group—classified as stateless Bengali Muslims from Bangladesh since 1982—on the government's list of more than 130 ethnic races and, therefore, the government states that they have no claim to Myanmar citizenship.Since the democratic transition began in 2011, there has been continuous violence as 280 people have been killed and 140,000 forced to flee from their homes in the Rakhine state in 2014.A UN envoy reported in March 2013 that unrest had re-emerged between Myanmar's Buddhist and Muslim communities, with violence spreading to towns that are located closer to Yangon.==== Government reforms ====According to the Crisis Group, since Myanmar transitioned to a new government in August 2011, the country's human rights record has been improving.", "Previously giving Myanmar its lowest rating of 7, the 2012 ''Freedom in the World'' report also notes improvement, giving Myanmar a 6 for improvements in civil liberties and political rights, the release of political prisoners, and a loosening of restrictions.", "In 2013, Myanmar improved yet again, receiving a score of 5 in civil liberties and 6 in political freedoms.The government has assembled a National Human Rights Commission that consists of 15 members from various backgrounds.", "Several activists in exile, including Thee Lay Thee Anyeint members, have returned to Myanmar after President Thein Sein's invitation to expatriates to return home to work for national development.", "In an address to the United Nations Security Council on 22 September 2011, Myanmar's Foreign Minister Wunna Maung Lwin confirmed the government's intention to release prisoners in the near future.The government has also relaxed reporting laws, but these remain highly restrictive.", "In September 2011, several banned websites, including YouTube, Democratic Voice of Burma and Voice of America, were unblocked.", "A 2011 report by the Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations found that, while contact with the Myanmar government was constrained by donor restrictions, international humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs) see opportunities for effective advocacy with government officials, especially at the local level.", "At the same time, international NGOs are mindful of the ethical quandary of how to work with the government without bolstering or appeasing it.", "alt=Following Thein Sein's first ever visit to the UK and a meeting with Prime Minister David Cameron, the Myanmar president declared that all of his nation's political prisoners will be released by the end of 2013, in addition to a statement of support for the well-being of the Rohingya Muslim community.", "In a speech at Chatham House, he revealed that \"We Myanmar government are reviewing all cases.", "I guarantee to you that by the end of this year, there will be no prisoners of conscience in Myanmar.", "\"Homosexual acts are illegal in Myanmar and can be punishable by life imprisonment.In 2016, Myanmar leader Aung San Suu Kyi was accused of failing to protect Myanmar's Muslim minority.", "Since August 2017 Doctors Without Borders have treated 113 Rohingya refugee females for sexual assault with all but one describing military assailants." ], [ "Economy", "Myanmar's economy is one of the fastest growing economies in the world with a nominal GDP of US$76.09 billion in 2019 and an estimated purchasing power adjusted GDP of US$327.629 billion in 2017 according to the World Bank.", "Foreigners are able to legally lease but not own property.", "In December 2014, Myanmar set up its first stock exchange, the Yangon Stock Exchange.The informal economy's share in Myanmar is one of the biggest in the world and is closely linked to corruption, smuggling and illegal trade activities.", "In addition, decades of civil war and unrest have contributed to Myanmar's current levels of poverty and lack of economic progress.", "Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure.", "Goods travel primarily across the Thai border (where most illegal drugs are exported) and along the Irrawaddy River.", "Notably, opium production in Myanmar is the world's second-largest source of opium after Afghanistan, producing some 25% of the world's opium, forming part of the Golden Triangle.", "While opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by 33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88% increase in yield potential to 790 metric tonnes in 2022 according to latest data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey 2022.With that said, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has also warned that opium production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country's February 1 military coup persists, with significant public health and security consequences for much of Asia.", "At the same time, the Golden Triangle, and specifically Shan State of Myanmar, is believed to be the largest methamphetamine producing area in the world.", "The growing signs of an intensification of methamphetamine manufacturing activity within and around the Golden Triangle, and a corresponding decrease in the number of production facilities dismantled in other parts of the region, suggests that methamphetamine manufacture in East and Southeast Asia is now consolidated into the lower Mekong region.", "Countries in East and Southeast Asia have collectively witnessed sustained increases in seizures of methamphetamine over the last decade, totalling over 171 tons and a record of over 1 billion methamphetamine tablets in 2021 according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, more than any other part of the world.", "In April and May 2020, Myanmar authorities reported Asia's largest ever drug operation in Shan State totalling what was believed to be 193 million methamphetamine tablets, hundreds of kilogrammes of crystal methamphetamine as well as some heroin, and over 162,000 litres and 35.5 tons of drug precursors as well as sophisticated production equipment and several staging and storage facilities.Both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit in the early 2010s.", "Many Western nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, historically imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar.", "The United States and European Union eased most of their sanctions in 2012.From May 2012 to February 2013, the United States began to lift its economic sanctions on Myanmar \"in response to the historic reforms that have been taking place in that country.\"", "Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, the Philippines, South Korea, India, and Thailand.", "The military has stakes in some major industrial corporations of the country (from oil production and consumer goods to transportation and tourism).=== Economic history ===The trains are relatively slow in Myanmar.", "The railway trip from Bagan to Mandalay takes about 7.5 hours ().Under the British administration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of the social hierarchy, with Europeans at the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom.", "Forcefully integrated into the world economy, Burma's economy grew by involving itself with extractive industries and cash crop agriculture.", "However, much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans.", "The country became the world's largest exporter of rice, mainly to European markets, while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation.", "Being a follower of free market principles, the British opened up the country to large-scale immigration with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s.", "Historian Thant Myint-U states, \"This was out of a total population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year.\"", "By then, in most of Burma's largest cities, Rangoon, Akyab, Bassein and Moulmein, the Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population.", "The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted with a \"racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear\".Crude oil production, an indigenous industry of Yenangyaung, was taken over by the British and put under Burmah Oil monopoly.", "British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853.European firms produced 75% of the world's teak.", "The wealth was, however, mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans.", "In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined and did not recover for several decades.", "During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed a scorched earth policy.", "They destroyed major government buildings, oil wells and mines that developed for tungsten (Mawchi), tin, lead and silver to keep them from the Japanese.", "Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies.After independence, the country was in ruins with its major infrastructure completely destroyed.", "With the loss of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained independence from the British.", "After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the state was declared the owner of all of the land in Burma.", "The government tried to implement an eight-year plan partly financed by injecting money into the economy, but this caused inflation to rise.", "The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture.", "While the economy continued to grow at a slower rate, the country eschewed a Western-oriented development model, and by the 1980s, was left behind capitalist powerhouses like Singapore which were integrated with Western economies.", "Myanmar asked for admittance to a least developed country status in 1987 to receive debt relief.=== Agriculture ===Rice is Myanmar's largest agricultural product.The major agricultural product is rice, which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area.", "Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight.", "Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute, 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996.By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.", "In 2008 rice production was estimated at 50 million tons.=== Extractive industries ===Myanmar produces precious stones such as rubies, sapphires, pearls, and jade.", "Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue.", "Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems.", "Myanmar's \"Valley of Rubies\", the mountainous Mogok area, north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires.Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines.", "Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run.", "The government of Myanmar controls the gem trade by direct ownership or by joint ventures with private owners of mines.Rare-earth elements are also a significant export, as Myanmar supplies around 10% of the world's rare earths.", "Conflict in Kachin State has threatened the operations of its mines as of February 2021.Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.", "Myanmar Engineering Society has identified at least 39 locations capable of geothermal power production and some of these hydrothermal reservoirs lie quite close to Yangon which is a significant underutilised resource for electrical production.=== Tourism ===Tourists in MyanmarU Bein Bridge in MandalayThe government receives a significant percentage of the income of private-sector tourism services.", "The most popular available tourist destinations in Myanmar include big cities such as Yangon and Mandalay; religious sites in Mon State, Pindaya, Bago and Hpa-An; nature trails in Inle Lake, Kengtung, Putao, Pyin Oo Lwin; ancient cities such as Bagan and Mrauk-U; as well as beaches in Nabule, Ngapali, Ngwe-Saung, and Mergui.", "Nevertheless, much of the country is off-limits to tourists, and interactions between foreigners and the people of Myanmar, particularly in the border regions, are subject to police scrutiny.", "They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment and, in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit \"unnecessary contact\" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.The most common way for travellers to enter the country is by air.", "According to the website ''Lonely Planet'', getting into Myanmar is problematic: \"No bus or train service connects Myanmar with another country, nor can you travel by car or motorcycle across the border – you must walk across.\"", "They further state that \"It is not possible for foreigners to go to/from Myanmar by sea or river.\"", "There are a few border crossings that allow the passage of private vehicles, such as the border between Ruili (China) to Mu-se, the border between Htee Kee (Myanmar) and Phu Nam Ron (Thailand)—the most direct border between Dawei and Kanchanaburi, and the border between Myawaddy and Mae Sot, Thailand.", "At least one tourist company has successfully run commercial overland routes through these borders since 2013.Flights are available from most countries, though direct flights are limited to mainly Thai and other ASEAN airlines.", "According to ''Eleven'' magazine, \"In the past, there were only 15 international airlines and increasing numbers of airlines have begun launching direct flights from Japan, Qatar, Taiwan, South Korea, Germany and Singapore.\"" ], [ "Demographics", "A block of apartments in downtown Yangon, facing Bogyoke Market.", "Much of Yangon's urban population resides in densely populated flats.PopulationYearMillion1950 17.12000 46.1 The provisional results of the 2014 Myanmar Census showed that the total population was 51,419,420.This figure includes an estimated 1,206,353 persons in parts of northern Rakhine State, Kachin State and Kayin State who were not counted.", "People who were out of the country at the time of the census are not included in these figures.", "There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Myanmar in Thailand, and millions more work illegally.", "Burmese citizens account for 80% of all migrant workers in Thailand.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, Burma's population was approximately 10 million.", "The national population density is , among the lowest in Southeast Asia.Myanmar's fertility rate in 2011 was 2.23, slightly above the replacement level and low compared to Southeast Asian countries of similar economic standing.", "There has been a significant decline in fertility in the 2000s, from a rate of 4.7 children per woman in 1983, down to 2.4 in 2001, despite the absence of any national population policy.", "The fertility rate is much lower in urban areas.The relatively rapid decline in fertility is attributed to several factors, including extreme delays in marriage (almost unparalleled among developing countries in the region), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and the high proportion of single, unmarried women of reproductive age, with 25.9% of women aged 30–34 and 33.1% of men and women aged 25–34 being single.These patterns stem from economic dynamics, including high income inequality, which results in residents of reproductive age opting for delay of marriage and family-building in favour of attempting to find employment and establish some form of wealth; the average age of marriage in Myanmar is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women.=== Largest cities ====== Ethnic groups ===alt=Myanmar is ethnically diverse.", "The government recognises 135 distinct ethnic groups.", "There are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Myanmar, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizeable populations of Tai–Kadai, Hmong–Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon–Khmer) peoples.The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population.", "10% of the population are Shan.", "The Kayin make up 7% of the population.", "The Rakhine people constitute 4% of the population.", "Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population.", "Myanmar's ethnic minority groups prefer the term \"ethnic nationality\" over \"ethnic minority\" as the term \"minority\" furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of what is often described as \"Burmanisation\"—the proliferation and domination of the dominant Bamar culture over minority cultures.Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer.", "Overseas Indians are 2%.", "The remainder are Kachin, Chin, Rohingya, Anglo-Indians, Gurkha, Nepali and other ethnic minorities.", "Included in this group are the Anglo-Burmese.", "Once forming a large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and the United Kingdom.", "It is estimated that 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in Myanmar.", ", 110,000 Burmese refugees were living in refugee camps in Thailand.Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia.", "Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 minority refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being Rohingya, Karen, and Karenni are principally located along the Thai-Myanmar border.", "There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s.", "The refugee camps are under the care of the Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC).", "Since 2006, over 55,000 Burmese refugees have been resettled in the United States.The persecution of Burmese Indians, Burmese Chinese and other ethnic groups after the military coup headed by General Ne Win in 1962 led to the expulsion or emigration of 300,000 people.", "They migrated to escape racial discrimination and the wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise that took place in 1964.The Anglo-Burmese at this time either fled the country or changed their names and blended in with the broader Burmese society.Many Rohingya Muslims have fled Myanmar.", "Many refugees headed to neighbouring Bangladesh, including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of the King Dragon operation in Arakan.", "250,000 more left in 1991.=== Languages ===Myanmar is home to four major language families: Sino-Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, Austroasiatic, and Indo-European.", "Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken.", "They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Chinese (mainly Hokkien).", "The primary Tai–Kadai language is Shan.", "Mon, Palaung, and Wa are the major Austroasiatic languages spoken in Myanmar.", "The two major Indo-European languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.", "More than a hundred languages are spoken in total.", "Since many of them are known only within small tribes around the country, they may have been lost (many if not all) after a few generations.Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is related to Tibetan and Chinese.", "It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 5th century.", "The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century.", "It is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and diacritics for each language.=== Religion ===Many religions are practised in Myanmar.", "Religious edifices and orders have been in existence for many years.", "The Christian and Muslim populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get government jobs, the main route to success in the country.", "Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in eastern Myanmar, where over 3,000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.", "More than 200,000 Muslims have fled to Bangladesh by 2007 to escape persecution.A large majority of the population practices Buddhism; estimates range from 80% to 89%.", "According to 2014 Myanmar Census, 87.9% of the population identifies as Buddhists.", "Theravāda Buddhism is the most widespread.", "There are some 500,000 Buddhist monks and 75,000 nuns in this country of 54 million.", "Other religions are practised largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some religious minorities such as the Rohingya people, who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and treated as illegal immigrants instead, and Christians in Chin State.According to 2014 census, 6.2% of the population identifies as Christian; 4.3% as Muslim; 0.8% as followers of tribal religions; 0.5% as Hindus; 0.2% as followers of other religions; and 0.1% follow no religion.", "According to the 2010 estimates of the Pew Research Center, 7% of the population is Christian; 4% is Muslim; 1% follows traditional animistic beliefs; and 2% follow other religions, including Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, and East Asian religions.", "Jehovah's Witnesses have been present since 1914 and have about 80 congregations around the country and a branch office in Yangon publishing in 16 languages.", "A tiny Jewish community in Yangon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi.Praying Buddhist monks in Shwedagon PagodaAlthough Hinduism is practised by 0.5% of the population, it was a major religion in Myanmar's past.", "Burmese folk religion is practised by many Bamars alongside Buddhism.=== Health ===The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor.", "The government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.", "Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals.", "Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment.", "The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Myanmar is 240.This is compared with 219.3 in 2008 and 662 in 1990.The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 73 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 47.According to Doctors without Borders, 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented by antiretroviral therapy drugs and proper treatment.HIV/AIDS, recognised as a disease of concern by the Myanmar Ministry of Health, is most prevalent among sex workers and intravenous drug users.", "In 2005, the estimated adult HIV prevalence rate in Myanmar was 1.3% (200,000–570,000 people), according to UNAIDS, and early indicators of any progress against the HIV epidemic are inconsistent.", "However, the National AIDS Programme Myanmar found that 32% of sex workers and 43% of intravenous drug users in Myanmar have HIV.=== Education ===Students on their way to school, Kalaymyo, Sagaing Region, MyanmarAccording to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official literacy rate as of 2000 was 90%.", "Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates.", "The educational system of Myanmar is operated by the government agency, the Ministry of Education.", "The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system after nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Myanmar.", "Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been an increase in privately funded English language schools in the early 21st century.", "Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, approximately 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level.There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Myanmar, a total of 146 higher education institutions.", "There are 10 technical training schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools.", "There are four international schools acknowledged by WASC and College Board—The International School Yangon, Myanmar International School, Yangon International School, and International School of Myanmar in Yangon.", "Myanmar was ranked 127th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021.=== Crime ===Myanmar had a murder rate of 15.2 per 100,000 population with a total of 8,044 murders in 2012.Factors influencing Myanmar's high murder rate include communal violence and armed conflict.", "Myanmar is one of the world's most corrupt nations.", "The 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index ranked the country at number 171, out of 176 countries in total.", "Myanmar is the world's second largest producer of opium after Afghanistan, producing some 25% of the world's opium, and forms part of the Golden Triangle.", "The opium industry was a monopoly during colonial times and has since been illegally operated by corrupt officials in the Burmese military and rebel fighters, primarily as the basis for heroin manufacture.", "Myanmar is the largest producer of methamphetamines in the world, with the majority of ''Ya ba'' found in Thailand produced in Myanmar, particularly in the Golden Triangle and northeastern Shan State, which borders Thailand, Laos and China.", "Burmese-produced ''ya ba'' is typically trafficked to Thailand via Laos, before being transported through the northeastern Thai region of Isan." ], [ "Culture", "Kinnayi Kinnaya danceA diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, with majority culture primarily Buddhist and Bamar.", "Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries, manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre.", "The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism.", "Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the ''Yama Zatdaw'', an adaptation of India's ''Ramayana'', has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play.", "Buddhism is practised along with nat worship, which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.A Buddhist Shinbyu ceremony in Mandalay.In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life.", "Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people.", "A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events for a boy, during which he enters the monastery for a short time.", "All male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty.", "Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies () at the same time.", "Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival.", "Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.Arakan (Rakhine) girl pours water at revellers during the Burmese New Year Thingyan Water Festival in Yangon.British colonial rule introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar.", "Myanmar's education system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom.", "Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon.", "Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northeast, practice Christianity.", "According to ''The World Factbook'', the Burman population is 68% and the ethnic groups constitute 32%.", "In contrast, the exiled leaders and organisations claim the country is 40% ethnic.=== Cuisine ===Burmese cuisine is characterised by extensive use of fish products such as fish sauce, ngapi (fermented seafood) and dried prawn.", "Mohinga is the traditional breakfast dish and is Myanmar's national dish.", "Seafood is a common ingredient in coastal cities, while meat and poultry are more commonly used in landlocked cities like Mandalay.", "Freshwater fish and shrimp have been incorporated into inland cooking as a primary source of protein and are used in a variety of ways, fresh, salted whole or filleted, salted and dried, made into a salty paste, or fermented sour and pressed.", "Burmese cuisine also includes a variety of salads (''a thoke''), centred on one major ingredient, ranging from starches like rice, wheat and rice noodles, glass noodles and vermicelli, to potato, ginger, tomato, kaffir lime, long bean, and lahpet (pickled tea leaves).=== Sport ===The Lethwei, Bando, Banshay, and Pongyi thaing martial arts and chinlone are traditional sports in Myanmar.", "Football is played all over the country, even in villages, and its national team is ruled by the Myanmar Football Federation.", "The 2013 Southeast Asian Games took place in Naypyidaw, Yangon, Mandalay and Ngwesaung Beach in December representing the third occasion that the event has been staged in Myanmar.", "Myanmar previously hosted the games in 1961 and 1969.=== Art ===Burmese traditional art concepts are popular and respected by the Burmese people and people from abroad.", "Burmese contemporary art has developed quite rapidly on its own terms.", "Artists born after the 1980s have had greater chances of art practice outside the country.One of the first to study western art was Ba Nyan.", "Together with Ngwe Gaing and a handful of other artists, they were the pioneers of western painting style.", "Later on most young children learned the concepts from them.", "Some well known contemporary artists are Lun Gywe, Aung Kyaw Htet, MPP Yei Myint, Myint Swe, Min Wai Aung, Aung Myint, Kin Maung Yin, Po Po and Zaw Zaw Aung.=== Media and communications ===Because of Myanmar's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population.", "Some are privately owned.", "All programming must meet with the approval of the censorship board.", "The Burmese government announced on 20 August 2012 that it would stop censoring media before publication.", "Following the announcement, newspapers and other outlets no longer required approved by state censors; however, journalists in the country can still face consequences for what they write and say.", "In April 2013, international media reports were published to relay the enactment of the media liberalisation reforms that we announced in August 2012.For the first time in numerous decades, the publication of privately owned newspapers commenced in the country.==== Internet ====Kayan women in a village near Inle Lake, 2010Internet use is estimated to be relatively low compared to other countries.", "Myanmar's internet used to be subject to censorship, and authorities viewed e-mails and posts on Internet blogs until 2012 when the government removed media censorship.", "During the strict censorship days, activity at internet cafes was regulated, and one blogger named Zarganar was sentenced to prison for publishing a video of destruction caused by Cyclone Nargis in 2008; Zarganar was released in October 2011.In regards to communications infrastructure, Myanmar is the last ranked Asian country in the World Economic Forum's Networked Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies.", "With 139 countries reported on, Myanmar ranked number 133 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking.=== Film ===Myanmar's first film was a documentary of the funeral of Tun Shein—a leading politician of the 1910s, who campaigned for Burmese independence in London.", "The first Burmese silent film ''Myitta Ne Thuya'' (''Love and Liquor'') in 1920 which proved a major success, despite its poor quality.", "During the 1920s and 1930s, many Burmese-owned film companies made and produced several films.", "The first Burmese sound film was produced in 1932 in Bombay, India with the title Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya (Money Can't Buy It).", "After World War II, Burmese cinema continued to address political themes.", "Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had a strong propaganda element.In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government.", "Film stars who had been involved in the political activities were banned from appearing in films.", "The government issues strict rules on censorship and largely determines who produces films, as well as who gets academy awards.Over the years, the movie industry has also shifted to producing many lower-budget direct-to-video films.", "Most of the movies produced nowadays are comedies.", "In 2008, only 12 films worthy of being considered for an Academy Award were made, although at least 800 VCDs were produced.", "Myanmar is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled ''Chroniques Birmanes'' by Québécois author and animator, Guy Delisle.", "The graphic novel was translated into English under the title ''Burma Chronicles'' in 2008.In 2009, a documentary about Burmese videojournalists called ''Burma VJ'' was released.", "This film was nominated for Best Documentary Feature at the 2010 Academy Awards.", "''The Lady'' had its world premiere on 12 September 2011 at the 36th Toronto International Film Festival." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Myanmar* Censorship in Myanmar* Burmese language" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Pronunciations of ''Myanmar''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Cameron, Ewan.", "\"The State of Myanmar\", ''History Today'', May 2020, vol.", "70, issue 4, pp. 90–93.", "* * Combs, Daniel.", "''Until the World Shatters: Truth, Lies, and the Looting of Myanmar'' (2021).", "* * * * * \"Burma's Western Border as Reported by the Diplomatic Correspondence(1947–1975)\" by Aye Chan" ], [ "External links", "'''Government'''* Republic of the Union of Myanmar – President's Office* Myanmar National Portal* Chief of State and Cabinet Members from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)'''General information'''* General information about Myanmar * Burma Myanmar search Engine* Burma.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Burma from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Burma profile from BBC News* Myanmar at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* * * Interactive timeline of turning points in Burmese history* Key Development Forecasts for Myanmar from International Futures* Online Burma/Myanmar Library: Classified and annotated links to more than 17,000 full-text documents on Burma/Myanmar* Historical Photographs of Burma Southeast Asia Digital Library" ] ]
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[ [ "Mediterranean (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mediterranean Sea''' is a major body of water south of Europe, west of Asia and north of Africa.", "'''Mediterranean''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Geography", "* Mediterranean seas, an oceanographic term to designate a mostly enclosed sea that has limited exchange of deep water with outer oceans* Mediterranean Basin, the European, Asian, and African land areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea* Mediterranean climate, a type of climate that resembles the weather in the Mediterranean basin* Mediterranean Europe, those European countries that have a Mediterranean coastline* Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, an ecoregion found in various parts of the world, named for the Mediterranean basin* A list of Mediterranean countries" ], [ "Politics and military", "* Mediterranean States, the two countries of Cyprus and Malta* Union for the Mediterranean, a political partnership of European, African and Middle Eastern countries* Mediterranean Dialogue, a forum of cooperation between NATO and seven countries of the Mediterranean* Mediterranean Theater of Operations, a major theatre of World War II* Mediterranean pass, a document which identified a ship as being protected under a treaty with states of the Barbary Coast* Méditerranée, the name of a historical department of the First French Empire in present-day Italy" ], [ "Other uses", "* \"The Mediterranean\" (''La Méditerranée''), a historical work by Fernand Braudel* Ansa Mediterranean, an Italian news agency* Mediterranean League, a football league played in Spain during the Spanish Civil War* Mediterranean diet, a modern nutritional recommendation inspired by traditional dietary patterns of Greece, Southern Italy, Spain and Portugal** Mediterranean cuisine, the food from the cultures adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea* Mediterranean race, a historical racial classification* Familial Mediterranean fever, a hereditary inflammatory disorder* Mediterranean University, a university located in Podgorica, Montenegro" ], [ "See also", "* British Mediterranean Airways, an airline in the United Kingdom* Mediterranean Ridge, a wide ridge in the bed of the Mediterranean Sea* Mediterranean noir, a literary style in fiction* Mediterranean Revival architecture, a design style during the 20th century* Classical antiquity* ''Mediterranea'' (film), a 2015 film* Mediterranean Universities Union, an association of universities based in the Mediterranean basin* Mediterranean Grand Prix, a motor race held in Sicily from 1962 until 1998* Mediterranean Games, a multi-sport games held every four years* Mediterranean Harbor, one of the Tokyo Disney Sea's themed areas* List of Mediterranean fleets* Mediterranean Squadron (disambiguation)* Mediterranean Shearwater (disambiguation)* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 24" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 919 – The nobles of Franconia and Saxony elect Henry the Fowler at the Imperial Diet in Fritzlar as king of the East Frankish Kingdom.", "*1218 – The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt.", "*1276 – Magnus Ladulås is crowned King of Sweden in Uppsala Cathedral.", "*1487 – The ten-year-old Lambert Simnel is crowned in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, Ireland, with the name of Edward VI in a bid to threaten King Henry VII's reign.", "*1567 – Erik XIV of Sweden and his guards murder five incarcerated Swedish nobles.", "*1595 – ''Nomenclator'' of Leiden University Library appears, the first printed catalog of an institutional library.===1601–1900===*1607 – Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in North America, is founded.", "*1621 – The Protestant Union is formally dissolved.", "*1626 – Peter Minuit buys Manhattan.", "*1667 – The French Royal Army crosses the border into the Spanish Netherlands, starting the War of Devolution opposing France to the Spanish Empire and the Triple Alliance.", "*1683 – The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, England, opens as the world's first university museum.", "*1689 – The English Parliament passes the Act of Toleration protecting dissenting Protestants but excluding Roman Catholics.", "*1738 – John Wesley is converted, essentially launching the Methodist movement; the day is celebrated annually by Methodists as Aldersgate Day and a church service is generally held on the preceding Sunday.", "*1798 – The Irish Rebellion of 1798 led by the United Irishmen against British rule begins.", "*1813 – South American independence leader Simón Bolívar enters Mérida, leading the invasion of Venezuela, and is proclaimed ''El Libertador'' (\"The Liberator\").", "*1822 – Battle of Pichincha: Antonio José de Sucre secures the independence of the Presidency of Quito.", "*1832 – The First Kingdom of Greece is declared in the London Conference.", "*1844 – Samuel Morse sends the message \"What hath God wrought\" (a biblical quotation, Numbers 23:23) from a committee room in the United States Capitol to his assistant, Alfred Vail, in Baltimore, Maryland, to inaugurate a commercial telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington D.C.*1856 – John Brown and his men kill five slavery supporters at Pottawatomie Creek, Kansas.", "*1861 – American Civil War: Union troops occupy Alexandria, Virginia.", "*1873 – Patrick Francis Healy becomes the first black president of a predominantly white university in the United States.", "*1883 – The Brooklyn Bridge in New York City is opened to traffic after 14 years of construction.", "*1900 – Second Boer War: The United Kingdom annexes the Orange Free State.===1901–present===*1915 – World War I: Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary, joining the conflict on the side of the Allies.", "*1930 – Amy Johnson lands in Darwin, Northern Territory, becoming the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia (she left on May 5 for the 11,000 mile flight).", "*1935 – The first night game in Major League Baseball history is played in Cincinnati, Ohio, with the Cincinnati Reds beating the Philadelphia Phillies 2–1 at Crosley Field.", "*1940 – Igor Sikorsky performs the first successful single-rotor helicopter flight.", "*1940 – Acting on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, NKVD agent Iosif Grigulevich orchestrates an unsuccessful assassination attempt on exiled Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky in Coyoacán, Mexico.", "*1941 – World War II: In the Battle of the Atlantic, the German battleship ''Bismarck'' sinks the pride of the Royal Navy, , killing all but three crewmen.", "*1944 – Börse Berlin building burns down after being hit in an air raid during World War II.", "*1944 – Congress of Përment occurs which establishes a provisional government in Albania in areas under partisan control, the first independent Albanian government since 1939.In honor of this the national emblem of Albania inscribed this date from 1946 until 1992.", "*1948 – Arab–Israeli War: Egypt captures the Israeli kibbutz of Yad Mordechai, but the five-day effort gives Israeli forces time to prepare enough to stop the Egyptian advance a week later.", "*1956 – The first Eurovision Song Contest is held in Lugano, Switzerland.", "*1958 – United Press International is formed through a merger of the United Press and the International News Service.", "*1960 – Following the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, the largest ever recorded earthquake, Cordón Caulle begins to erupt.", "*1961 – American civil rights movement: Freedom Riders are arrested in Jackson, Mississippi, for \"disturbing the peace\" after disembarking from their bus.", "*1962 – Project Mercury: American astronaut Scott Carpenter orbits the Earth three times in the ''Aurora 7'' space capsule.", "*1967 – Egypt imposes a blockade and siege of the Red Sea coast of Israel.", "* 1967 – Belle de Jour, directed by Luis Buñuel, is released.", "*1976 – The Judgment of Paris takes place in France, launching California as a worldwide force in the production of quality wine.", "*1981 – Ecuadorian president Jaime Roldós Aguilera, his wife, and his presidential committee die in an aircraft accident while travelling from Quito to Zapotillo minutes after the president gave a famous speech regarding the 24 de mayo anniversary of the Battle of Pichincha.", "*1982 – Liberation of Khorramshahr: Iranians recapture of the port city of Khorramshahr from the Iraqis during the Iran–Iraq War.", "*1988 – Section 28 of the United Kingdom's Local Government Act 1988, a controversial amendment stating that a local authority cannot intentionally promote homosexuality, is enacted.", "*1991 – Israel conducts Operation Solomon, evacuating Ethiopian Jews to Israel.", "*1992 – The last Thai dictator, General Suchinda Kraprayoon, resigns following pro-democracy protests.", "* 1992 – The ethnic cleansing in Kozarac, Bosnia and Herzegovina begins when Serbian militia and police forces enter the town.", "*1993 – Eritrea gains its independence from Ethiopia.", "* 1993 – Roman Catholic Cardinal Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo and five other people are assassinated in a shootout at Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Guadalajara International Airport in Mexico.", "*1994 – Four men are convicted of bombing the World Trade Center in New York in 1993; each one is sentenced to 240 years in prison.", "*1995 – While attempting to return to Leeds Bradford Airport in the United Kingdom, Knight Air Flight 816 crashes in Dunkeswick, North Yorkshire, killing all 12 people on board.", "*1999 – The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in The Hague, Netherlands indicts Slobodan Milošević and four others for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Kosovo.", "*2000 – Israeli troops withdraw from southern Lebanon after 22 years of occupation.", "*2002 – Russia and the United States sign the Moscow Treaty.", "*2014 – A 6.4 magnitude earthquake occurs in the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey, injuring 324 people.", "* 2014 – At least three people are killed in a shooting at Brussels' Jewish Museum of Belgium.", "*2019 – Twenty-two students die in a fire in Surat (India).", "* 2019 – Under pressure over her handling of Brexit, British Prime Minister Theresa May announces her resignation as Leader of the Conservative Party, effective as of June 7.", "*2022 – A mass shooting occurs at Robb Elementary School in Uvalde, Texas, United States, resulting in the deaths of 21 people, including 19 children." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*15 BC – Germanicus, Roman general (d. 19)*1335 – Margaret of Bohemia, Queen of Hungary (d. 1349)*1494 – Pontormo, Italian painter (d. 1557)*1522 – John Jewel, English bishop (d. 1571)*1544 – William Gilbert, English physician, physicist, and astronomer (d. 1603)*1576 – Elizabeth Carey, Lady Berkeley, English courtier (d. 1635)===1601–1900===*1616 – John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale, Scottish politician, Secretary of State, Scotland (d. 1682)*1628 – Marek Sobieski, Polish noble (d. 1652)*1669 – Emerentia von Düben, Swedish royal favorite (d. 1743)*1671 – Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1737)*1686 – Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, Polish-German physicist and engineer, developed the Fahrenheit scale (d. 1736)*1689 – Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea, English politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1769)*1743 – Jean-Paul Marat, Swiss-French physician, journalist, and politician (d. 1793)*1789 – Cathinka Buchwieser, German operatic singer and actress (d.1828)*1794 – William Whewell, English priest and philosopher (d. 1866)*1803 – Alexander von Nordmann, Finnish biologist and paleontologist (d. 1866)*1810 – Abraham Geiger, German rabbi and scholar (d. 1874)*1816 – Emanuel Leutze, German-American painter (d. 1868)*1819 – Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom (d. 1901)*1830 – Alexei Savrasov, Russian painter and academic (d. 1897)*1855 – Arthur Wing Pinero, English actor, director, and playwright (d. 1934)*1861 – Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 1940)*1863 – George Grey Barnard, American sculptor (d. 1938)*1868 – Charlie Taylor, American engineer and mechanic (d. 1956)*1870 – Benjamin N. Cardozo, American lawyer and judge (d. 1938)* 1870 – Jan Smuts, South African lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of South Africa (d. 1950)*1874 – Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine (d. 1878)*1875 – Robert Garrett, American discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1961)*1878 – Lillian Moller Gilbreth, American psychologist and engineer (d. 1972)*1879 – H. B. Reese, American candy maker, created Reese's Peanut Butter Cups (d. 1956)*1886 – Paul Paray, French organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1979)*1887 – Mick Mannock, Irish soldier and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1918)*1891 – William F. Albright, American archaeologist, philologist, and scholar (d. 1971)*1892 – Elizabeth Foreman Lewis, American author and educator (d. 1958)*1895 – Samuel Irving Newhouse Sr., American publisher, founded Advance Publications (d. 1979)*1899 – Suzanne Lenglen, French tennis player (d. 1938)* 1899 – Henri Michaux, Belgian-French poet and painter (d. 1984)*1900 – Eduardo De Filippo, Italian actor and screenwriter (d. 1984)===1901–present===*1901 – José Nasazzi, Uruguayan footballer and manager (d. 1968)*1902 – Lionel Conacher, Canadian football player and politician (d. 1954)* 1902 – Sylvia Daoust, Canadian sculptor (d. 2004)*1904 – Chūhei Nambu, Japanese jumper and journalist (d. 1997)*1905 – George Nakashima, American woodworker and architect (d. 1990)* 1905 – Mikhail Sholokhov, Russian novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)*1909 – Wilbur Mills, American banker and politician (d. 1992)*1910 – Jimmy Demaret, American golfer (d. 1983)*1913 – Joe Abreu, American baseball player and soldier (d. 1993)*1914 – Lilli Palmer, German-American actress (d. 1986)*1916 – Roden Cutler, Australian lieutenant and politician, 32nd Governor of New South Wales (d. 2002)*1917 – Alan Campbell, Baron Campbell of Alloway, English lawyer and judge (d. 2013)*1918 – Coleman Young, American politician, 66th Mayor of Detroit (d. 1997)*1922 – Siobhán McKenna, Irish actress (d. 1986)*1924 – Philip Pearlstein, American soldier and painter (d. 2022)*1925 – Carmine Infantino, American illustrator and educator (d. 2013)* 1925 – Mai Zetterling, Swedish actress and director (d. 1994)*1926 – Stanley Baxter, Scottish actor and screenwriter*1928 – William Trevor, Irish novelist, playwright and short story writer (d. 2016)*1932 – Arnold Wesker, English playwright and producer (d. 2016)*1933 – Jane Byrne, American lawyer and politician, 50th Mayor of Chicago (d. 2014)* 1933 – Réal Giguère, Canadian television host and actor (d. 2019)* 1933 – Aharon Lichtenstein, French-Israeli rabbi and author (d. 2015)*1935 – Joan Micklin Silver, American director and screenwriter (d. 2020)*1936 – Harold Budd, American composer and poet (d. 2020)*1937 – Maryvonne Dupureur, French runner and educator (d. 2008)* 1937 – Archie Shepp, American saxophonist and composer*1938 – Prince Buster, Jamaican singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2016)* 1938 – Tommy Chong, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1940 – Joseph Brodsky, Russian-American poet and essayist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)*1941 – Bob Dylan, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, artist, writer, and producer; Nobel Prize laureate* 1941 – Patricia Hollis, Baroness Hollis of Heigham, English academic and politician*1942 – Ali Bacher, South African cricketer and manager* 1942 – Hannu Mikkola, Finnish race car driver (d. 2021)* 1942 – Ichirō Ozawa, Japanese lawyer and politician, Japanese Minister of Home Affairs*1943 – Gary Burghoff, American actor*1944 – Patti LaBelle, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1944 – Dominique Lavanant, French actress*1945 – Terry Callier, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2012)* 1945 – Steven Norris, English engineer and politician* 1945 – Richard Ottaway, English lieutenant and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs* 1945 – Priscilla Presley, American actress and businesswoman*1946 – Tansu Çiller, Turkish politician, Prime Minister of Turkey* 1946 – Jesualdo Ferreira, Portuguese footballer and manager* 1946 – Irena Szewińska, Russian-Polish sprinter (d. 2018)*1947 – Albert Bouchard, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer* 1947 – Mike De Leon, Filipino director, producer, screenwriter and cinematographer* 1947 – Mike Reid, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and American football player* 1947 – Waddy Wachtel, American guitarist, singer-songwriter, and record producer* 1947 – Martin Winterkorn, German businessman*1948 – Richard Dembo, French director and screenwriter (d. 2004)*1949 – Jim Broadbent, English actor* 1949 – Roger Deakins, English cinematographer*1953 – Alfred Molina, English actor*1955 – Rosanne Cash, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1955 – Philippe Lafontaine, Belgian singer and songwriter* 1955 – Rajesh Roshan, Indian composer*1956 – R. B. Bernstein, American constitutional historian* 1956 – Larry Blackmon, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1956 – Dominic Grieve, English lawyer and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales* 1956 – Michael Jackson, Irish archbishop*1958 – Chip Ganassi, American race car driver, team owner and businessman*1959 – Pelle Lindbergh, Swedish-American ice hockey player (d. 1985)* 1959 – Barry O'Farrell, Australian politician, 43rd Premier of New South Wales*1960 – Guy Fletcher, English keyboard player, guitarist, and producer* 1960 – Bill Harrigan, Australian rugby league referee and sportscaster* 1960 – Kristin Scott Thomas, English actress*1961 – Lorella Cedroni, Italian philosopher and theorist (d. 2013)* 1961 – Alain Lemieux, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach*1962 – Héctor Camacho, Puerto Rican-American boxer (d. 2012)* 1962 – Gene Anthony Ray, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (d. 2003)*1963 – Ivan Capelli, Italian race car driver and sportscaster* 1963 – Michael Chabon, American novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter* 1963 – Joe Dumars, American basketball player* 1963 – Rich Rodriguez, American football player and coach* 1963 – Valerie Taylor, American computer scientist and educator*1964 – Liz McColgan, Scottish educator and runner* 1964 – Adrian Moorhouse, English swimmer* 1964 – Isidro Pérez, Mexican boxer (d. 2013)* 1964 – Pat Verbeek, Canadian ice hockey player and manager*1965 – John C. Reilly, American actor* 1965 – Shinichirō Watanabe, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter*1966 – Éric Cantona, French footballer, manager, and actor* 1966 – Ricky Craven, American race car driver and sportscaster*1967 – Tamer Karadağlı, Turkish actor* 1967 – Andrey Borodin, Russian-English economist and businessman* 1967 – Eric Close, American actor* 1967 – Heavy D, Jamaican-American rapper, producer, and actor (d. 2011)* 1967 – Carlos Hernández, Venezuelan-American baseball player and manager*1969 – Martin McCague, Northern Irish-English cricketer* 1969 – Jacob Rees-Mogg, English politician* 1969 – Rich Robinson, American guitarist and songwriter* 1969 – Mandar Agashe, Indian music director and businessman*1971 – Kris Draper, Canadian ice hockey player and manager*1972 – Greg Berlanti, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1973 – Rodrigo, Argentinian singer-songwriter (d. 2000)* 1973 – Bartolo Colón, Dominican-American baseball player* 1973 – Shirish Kunder, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1973 – Vladimír Šmicer, Czech footballer and manager*1974 – Sébastien Foucan, French runner and actor* 1974 – Masahide Kobayashi, Japanese baseball player and coach* 1974 – Magnus Manske, German biochemist and computer programmer, developed MediaWiki*1975 – Will Sasso, Canadian actor and comedian * 1975 – Marc Gagnon, Canadian speed skater* 1975 – Giannis Goumas, Greek footballer and coach* 1975 – Maria Lawson, English singer-songwriter*1976 – Alessandro Cortini, Italian-American singer and keyboard player* 1976 – Catherine Cox, New Zealand-Australian netball player* 1976 – Silje Vige, Norwegian singer*1977 – Jeet Gannguli, Indian score composer, music director and singer*1978 – Elijah Burke, American wrestler* 1978 – Johan Holmqvist, Swedish ice hockey player* 1978 – Brad Penny, American baseball player* 1978 – Rose, French singer, songwriter and composer*1979 – Tracy McGrady, American basketball player* 1979 – Kareem McKenzie, American football player*1980 – Jason Babin, American football player* 1980 – Anthony Minichiello, Australian rugby league player*1981 – Andy Lee, Australian comedian, actor, and screenwriter*1982 – Issah Gabriel Ahmed, Ghanaian footballer* 1982 – Rian Wallace, American football player*1983 – Custódio Castro, Portuguese footballer* 1983 – Pedram Javaheri, Iranian-American meteorologist and journalist* 1983 – Woo Seung-yeon, South Korean model and actress (d. 2009)*1984 – Sarah Hagan, American actress* 1984 – Dmitri Kruglov, Estonian footballer* 1984 – Masaya Takahashi, Japanese wrestler*1985 – Tim Bridgman, English race car driver*1986 – Mark Ballas, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, dancer, and actor* 1986 – Giannis Kontoes, Greek footballer*1987 – Guillaume Latendresse, Canadian ice hockey player*1988 – Artem Anisimov, Russian ice hockey player* 1988 – Monica Lin Brown, American sergeant* 1988 – Billy Gilman, American musician* 1988 – Lucian Wintrich, American political artist and White House correspondent* 1988 – Denis Petrić, Slovenian footballer*1989 – G-Eazy, American rapper* 1989 – Andrew Jordan, English race car driver* 1989 – Kalin Lucas, American basketball player*1990 – Mattias Ekholm, Swedish ice hockey player*1990 – Joey Logano, American race car driver*1991 – Aled Davies, Welsh discus thrower* 1991 – Cody Eakin, Canadian ice hockey player*1992 – Marcus Bettinelli, English footballer*1994 – Rodrigo De Paul, Argentine footballer* 1994 – Jarell Martin, American basketball player* 1994 – Emily Nicholl, Scottish netball player* 1994 – Daiya Seto, Japanese swimmer* 1994 – Emily Temple Wood, American 2016 Wikipedian of the Year award*1999 – Tarjei Sandvik Moe, Norwegian actor" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 688 – Ségéne, bishop of Armagh (b. c. 610)*1089 – Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury*1136 – Hugues de Payens, first Grand Master of the Knights Templar (b. c. 1070)*1153 – David I of Scotland (b.", "1083)*1201 – Theobald III, Count of Champagne (b.", "1179)*1351 – Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman, Moroccan sultan (b.", "1297)*1408 – Taejo of Joseon (b.", "1335)*1425 – Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany, Scottish politician (b.", "1362)*1456 – Ambroise de Loré, French commander (b.", "1396)*1543 – Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish mathematician and astronomer (b.", "1473)===1601–1900===*1612 – Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (b.", "1563)*1627 – Luis de Góngora, Spanish poet and cleric (b.", "1561)*1632 – Robert Hues, English mathematician and geographer (b.", "1553)*1665 – Mary of Jesus of Ágreda, Spanish Franciscan abbess and mystic (b.", "1602)*1734 – Georg Ernst Stahl, German physician and chemist (b.", "1660)*1792 – George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, English admiral and politician, 16th Governor of Newfoundland (b.", "1718)*1806 – John Campbell, 5th Duke of Argyll, Scottish field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Argyllshire (b.", "1723)*1843 – Sylvestre François Lacroix, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1765)*1848 – Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, German author and composer (b.", "1797)*1861 – Elmer E. Ellsworth, American colonel (b.", "1837)*1872 – Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, German painter and illustrator (b.", "1794)*1879 – William Lloyd Garrison, American journalist and activist (b.", "1805)*1881 – Samuel Palmer, English painter and illustrator (b.", "1805)===1901–present===*1901 – Louis-Zéphirin Moreau, Canadian bishop (b.", "1824)*1908 – Old Tom Morris, Scottish golfer and architect (b.", "1821)*1915 – John Condon, Irish-English soldier (b.", "1896)*1919 – Amado Nervo, Mexican poet, journalist, and educator (b.", "1870)*1929 – Nikolai von Meck, Russian engineer (b.", "1863)*1939 – Fanny Searls, American biologist (b.", "1851)*1941 – Lancelot Holland, English admiral (b.", "1887)*1945 – Robert Ritter von Greim, German field marshal and pilot (b.", "1892)*1948 – Jacques Feyder, Belgian actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1885)*1949 – Alexey Shchusev, Russian architect, designed Lenin's Mausoleum and Moscow Kazanskaya railway station (b.", "1873)*1950 – Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, English field marshal and politician, 43rd Governor-General of India (b.", "1883)*1951 – Thomas N. Heffron, American actor, director, screenwriter (b.", "1872)*1956 – Martha Annie Whiteley, English chemist and mathematician (b.", "1866)*1958 – Frank Rowe, Australian public servant (b.", "1895)*1959 – John Foster Dulles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 52nd United States Secretary of State (b.", "1888)*1963 – Elmore James, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1918)*1965 – Sonny Boy Williamson II, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (b.", "1908)*1974 – Duke Ellington, American pianist and composer (b.", "1899)*1976 – Denise Pelletier, Canadian actress (b.", "1923)*1979 – Ernest Bullock, English organist, composer, and educator (b.", "1890)*1981 – Herbert Müller, Swiss race car driver (b.", "1940)*1984 – Vince McMahon Sr., American wrestling promoter and businessman, founded WWE (b.", "1914)*1988 – Freddie Frith, English motorcycle road racer (b.", "1909)*1990 – Arthur Villeneuve, Canadian painter (b.", "1910)*1991 – Gene Clark, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1944)*1992 – Hitoshi Ogawa, Japanese race car driver (b.", "1956)*1995 – Harold Wilson, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1916)*1996 – Enrique Álvarez Félix, Mexican actor (b.", "1934)* 1996 – Joseph Mitchell, American journalist and author (b.", "1908)*1997 – Edward Mulhare, Irish actor (b.", "1923)*2000 – Kurt Schork, American journalist and scholar (b.", "1947)* 2000 – Majrooh Sultanpuri, Indian poet and songwriter (b.", "1919)*2002 – Wallace Markfield, American author (b.", "1926)*2003 – Rachel Kempson, English actress (b.", "1910)*2004 – Henry Ries, German-American photographer (b.", "1917)* 2004 – Milton Shulman, Canadian author and critic (b.", "1913)* 2004 – Edward Wagenknecht, American critic and educator (b.", "1900)*2005 – Carl Amery, German activist and author (b.", "1922)* 2005 – Arthur Haulot, Belgian journalist and poet (b.", "1913)* 2005 – Guy Tardif, Canadian academic and politician (b.", "1935)*2006 – Henry Bumstead, American art director and production designer (b.", "1915)* 2006 – Claude Piéplu, French actor (b.", "1923)* 2006 – Michał Życzkowski, Polish technician and educator (b.", "1930)*2008 – Dick Martin, American actor, comedian, and director (b.", "1922)* 2008 – Jimmy McGriff, American organist and bandleader (b.", "1936)*2009 – Jay Bennett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1963)*2010 – Ray Alan, English ventriloquist, actor, and screenwriter (b.", "1930)* 2010 – Paul Gray, American bass player and songwriter (b.", "1972)* 2010 – Raymond V. Haysbert, American businessman and activist (b.", "1920)* 2010 – Petr Muk, Czech singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1965)* 2010 – Anneliese Rothenberger, German soprano and actress (b.", "1926)*2011 – Huguette Clark, American heiress, painter, and philanthropist (b.", "1906)* 2011 – Hakim Ali Zardari, Indian-Pakistani businessman and politician (b.", "1930)*2012 – Klaas Carel Faber, Dutch-German SS officer (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Kathi Kamen Goldmark, American journalist and author (b.", "1948)* 2012 – Jacqueline Harpman, Belgian psychoanalyst and author (b.", "1929)* 2012 – Juan Francisco Lombardo, Argentinian footballer (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Lee Rich, American production manager and producer (b.", "1918)*2013 – Helmut Braunlich, German-American violinist and composer (b.", "1929)* 2013 – Ron Davies, Welsh footballer (b.", "1942)* 2013 – Gotthard Graubner, German painter (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Haynes Johnson, American journalist and author (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Pyotr Todorovsky, Ukrainian-Russian director and screenwriter (b.", "1925)*2014 – David Allen, English cricketer (b.", "1935)* 2014 – Stormé DeLarverie, known as the \"Rosa Parks of the lesbian community\" (b.", "1920)* 2014 – Mahafarid Amir Khosravi, Iranian businessman (b.", "1969)* 2014 – Knowlton Nash, Canadian journalist and author (b.", "1927)* 2014 – John Vasconcellos, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1932)*2015 – Dean Carroll, English rugby player (b.", "1962)* 2015 – Kenneth Jacobs, Australian lawyer and judge (b.", "1917)* 2015 – Tanith Lee, English author (b.", "1947)*2018 – John Bain (TotalBiscuit), English gaming commentator and critic (b.", "1984)* 2018 – Gudrun Burwitz, daughter of Margarete Himmler and Heinrich Himmler (b.", "1929)*2023 – Tina Turner, American-Swiss rock and pop singer, dancer, actress and author (b.", "1939)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Aldersgate Day/Wesley Day (Methodism)* Battle of Pichincha Day (Ecuador)* Bermuda Day (Bermuda), celebrated on the nearest weekday if May 24 falls on the weekend.", "* Christian feast day:** Anna Pak Agi (one of The Korean Martyrs)** Donatian and Rogatian** Jackson Kemper (Episcopal Church)** Joanna** Mary, Help of Christians** Sarah (celebrated by the Romani people of Camargue)** Vincent of Lérins** May 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Commonwealth Day (Belize)* Independence Day (Eritrea), celebrates the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia in 1993.", "* Lubiri Memorial Day (Buganda)* Saints Cyril and Methodius Day (Eastern Orthodox Church, Julian Calendar) and its related observance:** Bulgarian Education and Culture and Slavonic Literature Day (Bulgaria)** Saints Cyril and Methodius, Slavonic Enlighteners' Day (North Macedonia)* Victoria Day; celebrated on Monday on or before May 24.", "(Canada), and its related observance:** National Patriots' Day or ''Journée nationale des patriotes'' (Quebec)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 24" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Poland Is Not Yet Lost" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Poland Is Not Yet Lost'''\", also known as the \"'''Dąbrowski's Mazurka'''\", and the \"'''Song of the Polish Legions in Italy'''\", is the national anthem of Poland.", "The original lyrics were written by Józef Wybicki in Reggio Emilia, in Northern Italy, between 16 and 19 July 1797, two years after the Third Partition of Poland erased the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from the map.", "Its initial purpose was to raise the morale of Jan Henryk Dąbrowski's Polish Legions that served with Napoleon Bonaparte in the Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars. \"\"", "expressed the idea that the nation of Poland, despite lacking an independent state of their own, had not disappeared as long as the Polish people endured and fought in its name.The music is an unattributed mazurka and considered a \"folk tune\" that Polish composer Edward Pałłasz categorizes as \"functional art\" which was \"fashionable among the gentry and rich bourgeoisie\".", "Pałłasz wrote, \"Wybicki probably made use of melodic motifs he had heard and combined them in one formal structure to suit the text\".When Poland re-emerged as an independent state in 1918, \"\" became its ''de facto'' national anthem.", "It was officially adopted as the national anthem of Poland in 1927.It also inspired similar songs by other peoples struggling for independence during the 19th century, such as the Ukrainian national anthem and the song \"Hej, Sloveni\" which was used as the national anthem of socialist Yugoslavia during that state's existence." ], [ "Etymology", "One of a series of postcards, designed by Juliusz Kossak, illustrating the lyrics of \"\"It is also known by its original title, \"\" (, \"Song of the Polish Legions in Italy\").", "English translations of its Polish incipit (\"\" ) include: \"Poland has not yet perished\", \"Poland has not perished yet\", \"Poland is not lost\", \"Poland is not lost yet\", and \"Poland is not yet lost\"." ], [ "Lyrics", "Wybicki's manuscript of the ''Song of the Polish Legions in Italy''The original lyrics, authored by Wybicki, are a poem consisting of six quatrains and a refrain quatrain repeated after all but the last stanza, all following an ABAB rhyme scheme.", "The official lyrics, based on a variant from 1806, \"Poland has not yet died\" suggesting a more violent cause of the nation's possible death.", "Wybicki's original manuscript was in the hands of his descendants until February 1944, when it was lost in Wybicki's great-great-grandson, Johann von Roznowski's home in Charlottenburg during the Allied bombing of Berlin.", "The manuscript is known today only from facsimile copies, twenty four of which were made in 1886 by Edward Rożnowski, Wybicki's grandson, who donated them to Polish libraries.The main theme of the poem is the idea that was novel in the times of early nationalisms based on centralized nation-statesthat the lack of political sovereignty does not preclude the existence of a nation.", "As Adam Mickiewicz explained in 1842 to students of Slavic Literature in Paris, the song \"The famous song of the Polish legions begins with lines that express the new history: Poland has not perished yet as long as we live.", "These words mean that people who have in them what constitutes the essence of a nation can prolong the existence of their country regardless of its political circumstances and may even strive to make it real again...\" The song also includes a call to arms and expresses the hope that, under General Dąbrowski's command, the legionaries would rejoin their nation and retrieve \"what the alien force has seized\" through armed struggle.Bonaparte has shown us ways to victory''The chorus and subsequent stanzas include heart-lifting examples of military heroes, set as role models for Polish soldiers: Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, Napoleon, Stefan Czarniecki and Tadeusz Kościuszko.Dąbrowski, for whom the anthem is named, was a commander in the failed 1794 Kościuszko Uprising against Russia.", "After the Third Partition in 1795, he came to Paris to seek French aid in re-establishing Polish independence and, in 1796, he started the formation of the Polish Legions, a Polish unit of the French Revolutionary Army.Bonaparte was, at the time when the song was written, a commander of the Italian campaign of French Revolutionary Wars and Dąbrowski's superior.", "Having already proven his skills as a military leader, he is described in the lyrics as the one \"who has shown us ways to victory.\"", "Bonaparte is the only non-Polish person mentioned by name in the Polish anthem.Czarniecki to Poznań...''Stefan Czarniecki was a 17th-century hetman, famous for his role in driving the Swedish army out of Poland after an occupation that had left the country in ruins and is remembered by Poles as the Deluge.", "With the outbreak of a Dano-Swedish War, he continued his fight against Sweden in Denmark, from where he \"returned across the sea\" to fight the invaders alongside the king who was then at the Royal Castle in Poznań.", "In the same castle, Józef Wybicki, started his career as a lawyer (in 1765).Kościuszko, mentioned in a stanza now missing from the anthem, became a hero of the American Revolutionary War before coming back to Poland to defend his native country from Russia in the war of 1792 and a national uprising he led in 1794.One of his major victories during the uprising was the Battle of Racławice where the result was partly due to Polish peasants armed with scythes.", "Alongside the scythes, the song mentioned other types of weaponry, traditionally used by the Polish ''szlachta'', or nobility: the sabre, known in Polish as ''szabla'', and the backsword.Basia (a female name, diminutive of Barbara) and her father are fictional characters.", "They are used to represent the women and elderly men who waited for the Polish soldiers to return home and liberate their fatherland.", "The route that Dąbrowski and his legions hoped to follow upon leaving Italy is hinted at by the words \"we'll cross the Vistula, we'll cross the Warta\", two major rivers flowing through the parts of Poland that were in Austrian and Prussian hands at the time.", "Modern official Polish lyrics IPA transcription English translation Wybicki's lyrics(original spelling) English translation'''I'''Poland has not yet perished,So long as we still live.What the foreign force has taken from us,We shall with sabre retrieve.", "'''I'''Poland has not yet died,So long as we still live.What the foreign power has seized from us,We shall recapture with a sabre.𝄆 March, march, Dąbrowski,From Italy to Poland.Under your commandWe shall rejoin the nation.", "𝄇𝄆 March, march, Dąbrowski,To Poland from the Italian land.Under your commandWe shall rejoin the nation.", "𝄇'''II'''We'll cross the Vistula, we'll cross the Warta,We shall be Polish.Bonaparte has given us the exampleOf how we should prevail.", "'''II'''We'll cross the Vistula, we'll cross the Warta,We shall be Polish.Bonaparte has given us the exampleOf how we should prevail.", "'''III'''Like Czarniecki to PoznańAfter the Swedish annexation,To save our homeland,We shall return across the sea.", "'''III'''Like Czarniecki to PoznańReturned across the seaTo save his homelandAfter the Swedish partition.", "'''IV'''The German nor the Muscovite will settleWhen, with a backsword in hand,\"Concord\" will be everybody's watchwordAnd so will be our fatherland.", "'''IV'''A father, in tears,Says to his BasiaListen, our boys are saidTo be beating the tarabans.", "'''V'''A father, in tears,Says to his BasiaListen, our boys are saidTo be beating the tarabans.", "'''VI'''All exclaim in unison,\"Enough of this captivity!", "\"We've got the scythes of Racławice,Kościuszko, if God wills." ], [ "Music", "The melody of the Polish anthem is a lively and rhythmical mazurka.", "Mazurka as a musical form derives from the stylization of traditional melodies for the folk dances of Mazovia, a region in central Poland.", "It is characterized by a triple meter and strong accents placed irregularly on the second or third beat.", "Considered one of Poland's national dances in pre-partition times, it owes its popularity in 19th-century West European ballrooms to the mazurkas of Frédéric Chopin.The composer of \"\" is unknown.", "The melody is most probably Wybicki's adaptation of a folk tune that had already been popular during the second half of the 18th century.", "The composition used to be erroneously attributed to Michał Kleofas Ogiński who was known to have written a march for Dąbrowski's legions.", "Several historians confused Ogiński's \"\" (\"March for the Polish Legions\") with Wybicki's mazurka, possibly due to the mazurka's chorus \"March, march, Dąbrowski\", until Ogiński's sheet music for the march was discovered in 1938 and proven to be a different piece of music than Poland's national anthem.The first composer to use the anthem for an artistical music piece is always stated to be Karol Kurpiński.", "In 1821 he composed his piano/organ Fugue on \"Jeszcze Polska nie zginęła\" (it was published in 1821 in Warsaw; the first modern edition by Rostislaw Wygranienko was printed only in 2009).", "However, Karol Lipiński used it in an overture for his opera ''Kłótnia przez zakład'' composed and staged in Lviv .", "was the next who arranged \"\" for the piano.", "The arrangement, accompanied by the lyrics in Polish and French, was published 1829 in Paris.", "German composers who were moved by the suffering of the November Uprising wove the mazurek into their works.", "Examples include Richard Wagner's Polonia Overture and Albert Lortzing's ''Der Pole und sein Kind''.The current official musical score of the national anthem was arranged by Kazimierz Sikorski and published by the Polish Ministry of Culture and National Heritage.", "Sikorski's harmonization allows for each vocal version to be performed either ''a cappella'' or together with any of the instrumental versions.", "Some orchestra parts, marked in the score as ''ad libitum'', may be left out or replaced by other instruments of equivalent musical scale.In 1908, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, later to become the first Prime Minister of independent Poland, quoted the anthem in a disguised way in his Symphony in B minor \"Polonia\".", "He scored it in duple meter rather than its standard triple meter.The anthem was quoted by Edward Elgar in his symphonic prelude ''Polonia'', composed in 1915." ], [ "Regulations", "The national anthem is, along with the national coat of arms and the national colors, one of three national symbols defined by the Polish constitution.As such, it is protected by law which declares that treating the national symbols \"with reverence and respect\" is the \"right and obligation\" of every Polish citizen and all state organs, institutions and organizations.", "The anthem should be performed or reproduced especially at celebrations of national holidays and anniversaries.", "Civilians should pay respect to the anthem by standing in a dignified manner; additionally, men should uncover their heads.", "Members of uniformed services should stand at attention; if their uniform includes headgear and they are not standing in an organized group, they should also perform the two-finger salute.", "The song is required to be played in the key of F-major if played for a public purpose.", "Color guards pay respect to the anthem by dipping their banners." ], [ "History", "=== Origin ===Jan Henryk Dąbrowski (1755–1818)In 1795, after a prolonged decline and despite last-minute attempts at constitutional reforms and armed resistance, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was ultimately partitioned by its three neighbors: Russia, Prussia and Austria.", "A once vast and powerful empire was effectively erased from the map while monarchs of the partitioning powers pledged never to use the name \"Poland\" in their official titles.", "For many, including even leading representatives of the Polish Enlightenment, this new political situation meant an end of the Polish nation.", "In the words of Hugo Kołłątaj, a notable Polish political thinker of the time, \"Poland no longer belonged to currently extant nations,\" while historian Tadeusz Czacki declared that Poland \"was now effaced from the number of nations.", "\"Józef Wybicki (1747–1822)Meanwhile, Polish patriots and revolutionaries turned for help to France, Poland's traditional ally, which was at war with Austria (member of the First Coalition) at the time.", "Józef Wybicki was among the leading moderate émigré politicians seeking French aid in re-establishing Polish independence.", "In 1796, he came up with the idea of creating Polish Legions within the French Revolutionary Army.", "To this end, he convinced General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, a hero of the Greater Poland campaign of the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, to come to Paris and present the plan to the French Directory.", "Dąbrowski was sent by the Directory to Napoleon who was then spreading the French Revolution in northern Italy.", "In January 1797, the newly created French-controlled Cisalpine Republic accepted Dąbrowski's offer and a Polish legion was formed.", "Dąbrowski and his soldiers hoped to fight against Austria under Napoleon and, subsequently, march across the Austrian territory, \"from Italy to Poland\", where they would ignite a national uprising.A commemorative plaque in Reggio Emilia, ItalyIn early July 1797, Wybicki arrived in Reggio Emilia where the Polish Legions were then quartered and where he wrote the ''Song of the Polish Legions'' soon afterwards.", "He first sung it at a private meeting of Polish officers in the Legions' headquarters at the episcopal palace in Reggio.", "The first public performance most probably took place on 16 July 1797 during a military parade in Reggio's Piazza del Duomo (Cathedral Square).", "On 20 July, it was played again as the Legions were marching off from Reggio to Milan, the Cisalpine capital.With its heart-lifting lyrics and folk melody, the song soon became a popular tune among Polish legionaries.", "On 29 August 1797, Dąbrowski already wrote to Wybicki from Bologna: \"soldiers gain more and more taste for your song.\"", "It appealed to both officers, usually émigré noblemen, and simple soldiers, most of whom were Galician peasants who had been drafted into the Austrian army and captured as POWs by the French.", "The last stanza, referring to Kościuszko, who famously fought for freedom of the entire nation rather than the nobility alone, and the \"scythes of Racławice\", seems to be directed particularly at the latter.", "Wybicki may have even hoped for Kościuszko to arrive in Italy and personally lead the Legions which might explain why the chorus \"March, march, Dąbrowski\" is not repeated after the last stanza.", "At that time Wybicki was not yet aware that Kościuszko had already returned to Philadelphia.=== Rising popularity ===The song became popular in Poland as soon as late 1797 and quickly became an object of variations and modifications.", "A variant from 1798 introduced some stylistic changes, which have since become standard, such as replacing '''' (\"not dead\") with '''' (\"not perished\") or '''' (\"to Poland from the Italian land\") with '''' (\"from the Italian land to Poland\").", "It also added four new stanzas, now forgotten, written from the viewpoint of Polish patriots waiting for General Dąbrowski to bring freedom and human rights to Poland.", "''Father, in tears, says to his Basia...''The ultimate fate of the Polish Legions in Italy was different from that promised by Wybicki's song.", "Rather than coming back to Poland, they were exploited by the French government to quell uprisings in Italy, Germany and, later, in Haiti where they were decimated by war and disease.", "Polish national hopes were revived with the outbreak of a Franco-Prussian war (part of the War of the Fourth Coalition) in 1806.Napoleon called Dąbrowski and Wybicki to come back from Italy and help gather support for the French army in Polish-populated parts of Prussia.", "On 6 November 1806, both generals arrived in Poznań, enthusiastically greeted by locals singing \"Poland Is Not Yet Lost\".", "The ensuing Greater Poland Uprising and Napoleon's victory over Russian forces at Friedland led to the creation of a French-controlled Polish puppet state known as the Duchy of Warsaw.", "\"Poland Is Not Yet Lost\" was one of the most popular patriotic songs in the duchy, stopping short of becoming that entity's national anthem.", "Among other occasions, it was sung in Warsaw on 16 June 1807 to celebrate the battle of Friedland, in Kraków as it was liberated by Prince Józef Poniatowski on 19 July 1809, and at a ball in Warsaw on 23 December 1809, the birthday of Frederick Augustus, King of Saxony and Duke of Warsaw.", "On the occasion of Dąbrowski's name day on 25 December 1810 in Poznań, Dąbrowski and Wybicki led the mazurka to the tune of \"Poland Is Not Yet Lost\".", "Although the melody of Wybicki's song remained unchanged and widely known, the lyrics kept changing.", "With the signing of a Franco-Russian alliance at Tilsit in 1807, the fourth stanza, specifically mentioning Russians as Poland's enemies, was removed.", "The last stanza, referring to Kościuszko, who had grown suspicious of Napoleon and refused to lend his support to the emperor's war in Poland, met the same fate.The anthem is mentioned twice in ''Pan Tadeusz'', the Polish national epic written by Adam Mickiewicz in 1834, but set in the years 1811–1812.The author makes the first reference to the song when Tadeusz, the main protagonist, returns home and, recalling childhood memories, pulls the string of a chiming clock to hear the \"old Dąbrowski's Mazurka\" once again.", "Musical boxes and musical clocks playing the melody of ''Poland Is Not Yet Lost'' belonged to popular patriotic paraphernalia of that time.", "The song appears in the epic poem again when Jankiel, a Jewish dulcimerist and ardent Polish patriot, plays the mazurka in the presence of General Dąbrowski himself.Charles Michel Guilbert d'Anelle, ''Expiring Soldier of Liberty'' (1849).", "The painting shows a dying freedom fighter scrawling \"Poland is not yet lost\" in his blood.With Napoleon's defeat and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 came a century of foreign domination over Poland interspersed with occasional bursts of armed rebellion.", "''Poland Is Not Yet Lost'' continued to be sung throughout that period, especially during national uprisings.", "During the November Uprising against Russia in 1830–1831, the song was chanted in the battlefields of Stoczek, Olszynka Grochowska and Iganie.", "In peacetime, Polish patriots performed it at homes, official functions and political demonstrations.", "New variants of the song, of various artistic value and length of life, abounded.", "At least 16 alternative versions were penned during the November Uprising alone.", "At times, Dąbrowski's name was replaced by other national heroes: from Józef Chłopicki during the November Uprising to Józef Piłsudski during the First World War to Władysław Sikorski during the Second World War.", "New lyrics were also written in regional dialects of Polish, from Silesia to Ermland and Masuria.", "A variant known as ''Marsz Polonii'' (\"March Polonia\") spread among Polish immigrants in the Americas.Mass political emigration following the defeat of the November Uprising, known as the Great Emigration, brought ''Poland Is Not Yet Lost'' to Western Europe.", "It soon found favor from Britain to France to Germany where it was performed as a token of sympathy with the Polish cause.", "It was also highly esteemed in Central Europe where various, mostly Slavic, peoples struggling for their own independence, looked to the Polish anthem for inspiration.", "Back in Poland, however, especially in the parts under Russian and Prussian rule, it was becoming increasingly risky to sing the anthem in public.", "Polish patriotic songs were banned in Prussia in 1850; between 1873 and 1911, German courts passed 44 sentences for singing such songs, 20 of which were specifically for singing ''Poland Is Not Yet Lost''.", "In Russian Poland, public performance of the song often ended with a police intervention.=== Choice of national anthem ===When Poland re-emerged as an independent state after World War I in 1918, it had to make a decision about its national symbols.", "While the coat of arms and the flag were officially adopted as soon as 1919, the question of a national anthem had to wait.", "Apart from \"Poland Is Not Yet Lost\", there were other popular patriotic songs which could compete for the status of an official national anthem.Sheet music for ''Bogurodzica'' from 1407In the Middle Ages, the role of a national anthem was played by hymns.", "Among them were ''Bogurodzica'' (), one of the oldest (11th–12th century) known literary texts in Polish, and the Latin ''Gaude Mater Polonia'' (\"Rejoice, Mother Poland\"), written in the 13th century to celebrate the canonization of Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów, the patron saint of Poland.", "Both were chanted on special occasions and on battlefields.", "The latter is sung nowadays at university ceremonies.", "During the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, several songs, both religious and secular, were written with the specific purpose of creating a new national anthem.", "Examples include the 16th-century Latin prayer '''' (\"Prayer for the Commonwealth and the King\") by a Calvinist poet, Andrzej Trzeciński, and \"\" (\"Hymn to the Love of the Fatherland\") written in 1744 by Prince-Bishop Ignacy Krasicki.", "They failed, however, to win substantial favor with the populace.", "Another candidate was \"\" (\"God is Born\"), whose melody was originally a 16th-century coronation polonaise (dance) for Polish kings.The official anthem of the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland was \"\" ( \"National Song to the King's Well-being\") written in 1816 by Alojzy Feliński and Jan Kaszewski.", "Initially unpopular, it evolved in the early 1860s into an important religious and patriotic hymn.", "The final verse, which originally begged \"Save, Oh Lord, our King\", was substituted with \"Return us, Oh Lord, our free Fatherland\" while the melody was replaced with that of a Marian hymn.", "The result, known today as ''Boże, coś Polskę'' (from the first lines \"Boże!", "Coś Polskę przez tak liczne wieki / Otaczał blaskiem potęgi i chwały...\", \"Lord!", "Who for so many ages enclosed Poland with the light of power and glory...\"), has been sung in Polish churches ever since, with the final verse alternating between \"Return...\" and \"Bless, Oh Lord, our free Fatherland\", depending on Poland's political situation.A national song that was particularly popular during the November Uprising was \"Warszawianka\", originally written in French as \"\" by Casimir Delavigne, with melody by Karol Kurpiński.", "The song praised Polish insurgents taking their ideals from the French July Revolution of 1830.A peasant rebellion against Polish nobles, which took place in western Galicia in 1846 and was encouraged by Austrian authorities who wished to thwart a new uprising attempt, moved Kornel Ujejski to write a mournful chorale entitled \"\" (\"With the Smoke of Fires\").", "With the music composed by , it became one of the most popular national songs of the time, although it declined into obscurity during the 20th century.", "In 1908, Maria Konopnicka and Feliks Nowowiejski created \"Rota\" (\"The Oath\"), a song protesting against the oppression of the Polish population of the German Empire, who were subject to eviction from their land and forced assimilation.", "First publicly performed in 1910, during a quincentennial celebration of the Polish–Lithuanian victory over the Teutonic Knights at Grunwald, it too became one of the most treasured national Polish songs.At the inauguration of the UN in 1945, no delegation from Poland had been invited.", "The Polish pianist Artur Rubinstein, who was to perform the opening concert at the inauguration, began the concert by stating his deep disappointment that the conference did not have a delegation from Poland.", "Rubinstein later described becoming overwhelmed by a blind fury and angrily pointing out to the public the absence of the Polish flag.", "He then sat down to the piano and played \"Poland Is Not Yet Lost\" loudly and slowly, repeating the final part in a great thunderous ''forte''.", "When he had finished, the public rose to their feet and gave him a great ovation.Over 60 years later, on 2005-09-22, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, President of Poland, said:" ], [ "Influence", "During the European Revolutions of 1848, \"Poland Is Not Yet Lost\" won favor throughout Europe as a revolutionary anthem.", "This led the Slovak poet Samo Tomášik to write the ethnic anthem, \"Hej, Sloveni\", based on the melody of the Polish national anthem.", "It was later adopted by the First Congress of the Pan-Slavic Movement in Prague as the Pan-Slavic Anthem.", "During the Second World War, a translation of this anthem became the national anthem of Yugoslavia, and later, Serbia and Montenegro.", "The similarity of the anthems sometimes caused confusion during these countries' football or volleyball matches.", "However, after the 2006 split between the two, neither Serbia nor Montenegro kept the song as its national anthem, instead choosing \"Bože pravde\" and \"Oj, svijetla majska zoro\" respectively.", "The Polish national anthem is also notable for influencing the lyrics of the Ukrainian anthem, \"Shche ne vmerla Ukrayina\" (''Ukraine's glory has not yet perished'').The line \"Poland is not lost yet\" has become proverbial in some languages.", "For example, in German, ''noch ist Polen nicht verloren'' is a common saying meaning \"all is not lost\".Additionally, the Italian anthem, Il Canto degli Italiani, contains a reference to the Partitions of Poland by Prussia, Austria and Russia, due to the close relations between the two countries." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Poland: \"Mazurek Dąbrowskiego\" (Poland Is Not Yet Lost), Audio, information, lyrics ( archive link)* Museum of the National Anthem at Będomin – A museum dedicated to the National Anthem (Polish)* The Polish National Anthem – The promotional website \"Polska\" features a page on the anthem with an instrumental version.", "* Hymn Polski – The website for the Center for Citizenship Education features a page on the anthem than includes vocal and instrumental versions.", "* Virtual Library of Polish Literature – A copy of the oldest known recording of the anthem, 1926 by Ignacy Dygas, is available here.", "* Russian-Records.com – Edison phonograph cylinder record performed by Stanisław Bolewski.", "It is probably the oldest recording of the anthem." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mahjong" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mahjong''' or '''mah-jongg''' (English pronunciation: ) is a tile-based game that was developed in the 19th century in China and has spread throughout the world since the early 20th century.", "It is played by four players (with some three-player variations found in parts of China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam, and Southeast Asia).", "The game and its regional variants are widely played throughout East and Southeast Asia and have also become popular in Western countries.", "The game has also been adapted into a widespread online entertainment.", "Similar to the Western card game rummy, mahjong is a game of skill, strategy, and luck.", "To distinguish it from mahjong solitaire, it is sometimes referred to as '''mahjong rummy'''.The game is played with a set of 144 tiles based on Chinese characters and symbols, although many regional variations may omit some tiles or add unique ones.", "In most variations, each player begins by receiving 13 tiles.", "In turn, players draw and discard tiles until they complete a legal hand using the 14th drawn tile to form four melds (or sets) and a pair (eye).", "A player can also win with a small class of special hands.", "While many variations of mahjong exist, most variations have some basic rules in common including how a piece is drawn and discarded, the use of suits (numbered tiles) and honors (winds and dragons), the basic kinds of melds allowed, how to deal the tiles and the order of play.", "Beyond these basic common rules, numerous regional variations exist which may have notably different criteria for legal melds and winning hands, radically different scoring systems and even elaborate extra rules.", "A group of players may introduce their own house rules which can notably change the feel of play." ], [ "Etymology", "The game was originally called ()meaning sparrowwhich is still used in several Chinese languages, mostly in the south, such as Cantonese and Hokkien.", "It is said that the clacking of tiles during shuffling resembles the chattering of sparrows.", "It has also been suggested that the name came from an evolution of an earlier card game called Madiao from which mahjong tiles were adapted.", "Other languages, such as Sichuanese, Shanghainese and Standard Mandarin, now call the game (''májiàng''), which is a nasal erhua form of the original name.", "Its name is similar in other languages, except in Thai, where it is called (''phai nok krachok''), a calque meaning \"sparrow cards\"." ], [ "Old Hong Kong mahjong rules", "A set of mahjong tilesThere are many highly varied versions of mahjong both in rules and tiles used.", "\"Old Hong Kong mahjong\" uses the same basic features and rules as the majority of the different variations of the game.", "This form of mahjong uses all of the tiles of the most commonly available sets, includes no exotic complex rules, and has a relatively small set of scoring sets/hands with a simple scoring system.", "For these reasons Hong Kong mahjong is a suitable variation for the introduction of game rules and play and is the focus of this article.=== Game equipment ===Old Hong Kong mahjong is played with a standard set of 144 mahjong tiles (though cards may be used).", "Sets often include counters (to keep score), dice (to decide how to deal), and a marker to show who the dealer is and which round is being played.", "Some sets include racks to hold the tiles, especially if they are larger or smaller than standard tiles or have an odd shape.", "Mahjong sets originating from the United States, Japan or Southeast Asia will likely have extra tiles or specialized markings.The tiles are split into three categories: suited, honors, and bonus tiles.+ Mahjong tile count per set Set Count Suited Dots 36 Bamboo 36 Characters 36 Honors Winds 16 Dragons 12 Bonus Flowers 4 Seasons 4 Total '''144'''==== Suited tiles ====Suited tiles are divided into three suits and each are numbered from 1 to 9.The suits are bamboos, dots, and characters.", "There are four identical copies of each suited tile totaling 108 tiles.Numbers123456789SuitsDots50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50pxBamboo50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50pxCharacters50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50pxThe bamboo suit is also known as \"sticks\", \"strings\" or \"bams\" suit; the first tile usually has a bird (traditionally, a peacock or sparrow) instead of a single bamboo.", "The dots suit is also known as the \"wheels\", \"circles\", \"coins\", \"stones\", \"marbles\" or \"balls\" suit.", "The characters suit is also known as the \"myriads\", \"cracks\" or \"numbers\" suit since the top characters are numbers in the Chinese orthography, and the bottom characters (in traditional Chinese characters) are the Chinese orthography of \"ten thousand\".==== Honors tiles ====There are two different sets of honors tiles: winds and dragons.", "The winds are east, south, west, and north, beginning with east.", "The dragons are red, green, and white.", "The white dragon has a blue or black frame on the face of the piece or in some sets is entirely blank.", "These tiles have no numerical sequence like the suited tiles (for example the bamboo pieces number 1 to 9).", "Like the suited tiles, there are four identical copies of each honors tile, for a total of 28 honors tiles.+ WindsEastSouthWestNorth50px 50px50px 50px+ DragonsRedGreenWhite50px 50px50px==== Bonus tiles ====There are two sets of bonus tiles: flowers and seasons.", "The flower and season tiles play a unique role in the mechanics of the game.", "When drawn, the bonus tile is not added into a player's hand but are instead set aside and kept near the player's other tiles for scoring purposes should they win the hand, and an extra tile is drawn in replacement of the bonus tile.In addition, unlike the suited and honors tiles, there is only a single tile of each bonus tile, so there are a total of four flower and four season tiles in the set.", "The tiles have a different artistic rendering of a specific type of flower or season.+ Flowers No Image Name Character Direction 150px Plum blossom East 250px Orchid South 350px Chrysanthemum West 450px Bamboo North+ Seasons No Image Name Character Direction 150px Spring East 250px Summer South 350px Autumn West 450px Winter NorthIt is not necessary to know the names or the Chinese characters of each bonus tile, only the number, as this is associated with a specific direction, and the player receives bonus points when the bonus tile matches the seat direction.", "There is no relation between the bonus tile \"bamboo\" flower and the bamboo suit of suited tiles (e.g.", "4 bamboo).", "In traditional Chinese culture, the Four Gentlemen are the plum (winter), orchid (spring), bamboo (summer), and chrysanthemum (autumn) which are regarded as the representative plants of those seasons, but people regard it as plum blossom (spring), orchid (summer), chrysanthemum (autumn) and bamboo (winter) now.=== Choosing table positions and first dealer ===Chinese diceThe dealer is chosen by various means.", "For example, each player throws dice with the highest count taking the dealer position, second-highest taking south etc.", "Or one player may place one tile of each wind face down and shuffle them.", "Each player randomly select one of these tiles and these tiles dictate their wind position.", "Each player sits down at their respective position (called the wind position) at the table in positions of an inverted compass: East is dealer, the right of the dealer is South, across is West, and the left is North.", "The order of play is traditionally counter-clockwise.=== Hands, rounds, and matches ===Cubic dealer and prevailing wind markerA match consists of four rounds, each representing a \"prevailing wind\", starting with East.", "Once the first round is completed, a second round begins with South as the prevailing wind, and so on.", "Wind position is significant in that it affects the scoring of the game.", "A mahjong set with winds in play will usually include a separate prevailing wind marker (typically a die marked with the wind characters in a holder).In each round at least four hands are played, with each player taking the position of dealer.", "In the first hand of each round, Player 1 (winner of the dice toss) is East and therefore dealer.", "In the second hand, Player 2 takes the East position, shifting the seat winds amongst the players counterclockwise (though players do not physically move their chairs).", "This continues until all four players have been East (dealer).", "A marker is used to mark which player is East and often the round number.", "(In sets with racks, a rack may be marked differently to denote the dealer.", ")Whenever a player in the East position (dealer) wins a hand, or if there is no winner (a draw or \"goulash hand\"), an extra hand is played with the same seating positions and prevailing wind as in the previous hand.", "This means that a match may potentially have no limit to the number of hands played (though some players will set a limit of three consecutive hands allowed with the same seat positions and prevailing wind).Example of games:+ Example of a standard 16-hand game with two extra hands played(per no-winner hand (goulash) and per east winning hand) Round Hand number Prevailing wind Player 1 Player 2 Player 3 Player 4 Comment 1 1 East East (dealer) South West North 2 North East (dealer) South West 3 West North East (dealer) South 4 South West North East (dealer) 2 5 South East (dealer) South West North 6 North East (dealer) South West 7 West North East (dealer) South No one wins (goulash) Extra hand West North East (dealer) South Repeat of seat positions 8 South West North East (dealer) 3 9 West East (dealer) South West North 10 North East (dealer) South West 11 West North East (dealer) South 12 South West North East (dealer) 4 13 North East (dealer) South West North 14 North East (dealer) South West East wins hand Extra hand North East (dealer) South West Repeat of seat positions 15 West North East (dealer) South 16 South West North East (dealer) === Dealing tiles =======Shuffling tiles====All tiles are placed face down on the table and are shuffled.", "By convention all players should participate in shuffling using both hands moving the pieces around the table rigorously and loudly for a lengthy period.", "Tiles may get flipped up during this process and players should flip them facing down as soon as possible to avoid identifying the location of the revealed tiles.====Stacking tiles====Walls with slight diagonal offset and player positions marked with cardinal directions, including the dealer (E), along with counting orderEach player then stacks a row of 18 tiles, two tiles high in front of them (for a total of 36 tiles).", "Players then push each side of their stack together to form a square wall.Regular players usually place their stacks in a slightly diagonal position (about 20 to 30 degrees anti-clockwise); the right end of their stack is pushed slightly further in to the centre of the table to meet almost the middle of the stack of the player on the right.", "This creates a smaller square wall the length of about half of each stack, with walls extended away from each corner of the square.", "The diagonally positioned stacks and a smaller square creates a bigger space for players' tiles and also makes an ergonomic position for drawing tiles from the stack.====Drawing tiles====The dealer throws three dice in the square wall and sums up the total.", "Counting anti-clockwise so that the dealer is 1 (or 5, 9, 13, 17), so that south (player to the right) is 2 (or 6, 10, 14, 18), etc., a player's quarter of the wall is chosen.", "Some house rules may use only two dice but have double throws to increase randomness.", "In the case of double throws, the player of the chosen wall makes the second throw.Using the same total on the dice (or the total of the two throws), the player whose wall is chosen then counts the stacks of tiles from right to left.", "(For double throws, the count may extend to the left side player's stack.)", "This determines the location where the 'deck' of tiles is cut.", "Starting from the left of the stacks counted, the dealer draws four tiles for himself, and players in anti-clockwise order draw blocks of four tiles until all players have 12 tiles, so that the stacks decrease clockwise.", "Each player then draws one last tile to make a 13-tile hand.", "The tile to be drawn is always the topmost tile left of the cut.Dealing does not have to be strictly this way and may be done quite differently based on house rules.", "Tiles may flip over when being dealt and players should agree in advance on how to deal with the problem.", "Solutions include having the dealer penalised points, shuffling the turned over piece back into the wall somehow, allowing the player to whom the tiles were dealt to take the piece or not (meaning the dealer must take it as his/her 14th piece), or other house rules.Each player now sets aside any flowers or seasons they may have drawn and takes turns to draw replacement tiles from the wall in the anti-clockwise direction from the dealer.", "If a player gets any flowers or seasons tiles in the replacement draw, the players must wait for the next turn to draw replacement tiles.While drawing the 13th piece to complete the initial hand, the dealer (E) will typically also draw a 14th piece (both highlighted in blue) to initiate the game.====Game play starts====The dealer draws a piece from the wall in clockwise direction, adding it to their hand.", "Typically, this draw is performed during the initial deal to speed up play.", "If this does not complete a legal hand, the dealer then discards a piece (throwing it into the middle of the wall with no particular order in mind).=== Rules ===Local play on the street in Lanzhou Each player in turn, in counterclockwise direction, draws a tile from the wall; as long as the tile drawn is not one of the bonus tiles, the player proceeds to discard a tile (either the tile just drawn, or a tile in the hand) to maintain a hand of 13.The discarded tile is thrown into the centre and, if desired, the player announces out loud what the piece is.", "The other players have an opportunity to seize the discarded tile; if no one takes it, the turn continues to the next player.", "Play continues this way until one player has a legal winning hand and calls out the win (each region does this call differently—no Asian version uses the word \"mahjong\" to signal a win) while revealing their hand.There are four different ways that regular order of play can be interrupted:#A bonus tile (flower or season) is drawn#A meld (pong, kong, or chow) is made from a discard#Going mahjong (declaring a winning hand)#Robbing a kongDuring play, each player's hand should always be 13 tiles (meaning in each turn a tile must be picked up and another discarded).", "The count of 13 tiles do not include any bonus tiles (flowers and seasons), which are set to the side, nor does it include the fourth added piece of a kong.", "If a player is seen to have fewer or more than 13 tiles in their hand outside of their turn they are penalised.==== Legal hand ====A winning hand consists of 14 tiles.", "Since players always have 13 tiles in their hand during play, they must win by either drawing a piece from the wall that completes a 14-tile hand (\"winning from the wall\") or claiming a discard from another player which completes a 14-tile hand (\"winning by discard\").", "The winning hand is made of four ''melds'' (a specific pattern of three pieces) and the ''eyes'' (a pair of identical pieces).", "The exceptions to this rule are the special hands listed below.Most players play with a table minimum, meaning a winning hand must score a minimum number of points (which can be seen in the scoring section).", "In Hong Kong mahjong the most common point set is three, but can be higher or lower depending on house rules.==== Melds ===='''Melds''' are groups of tiles within the player's hand, consisting of either a pong (three identical tiles), a kong (four identical tiles), a chow (three suited tiles all of the same suit, in numerical sequence), or eyes (two identical tiles needed in a winning hand).", "Melds may be formed by drawing a tile from the wall, or by seizing another player's discard.", "There are rules governing which player has priority for a discard, and whether the meld should be exposed (displayed to all players) or remain concealed, depending on the manner in which the meld is formed.==== Interruption of play ====The regular anti-clockwise order of turns may be interrupted for four events:===== 1.Flower or season =====Whenever a player draws a flower or season, it is announced and then placed to the side (it is not considered a part of the 13-tile hand, but in the event that player wins, they may earn bonus points for them) and the last tile of the wall is drawn as a replacement tile so that the player has the 14 pieces needed before their discard.", "This may happen successively in a player's turn.===== 2.Melding another player's discard =====When a player discards a tile, other players may steal the tile to complete a meld.", "Stealing tiles has both advantages (quickly forming a winning hand and scoring extra points) and disadvantages (being forced to reveal part of one's hand to other players and not being able to change the meld once declared).When a meld (pong, kong, or chow) is declared through a discard, the player must state the type of meld to be declared and expose the meld by placing the three (or four) tiles face up.", "The player must then discard a tile, and play continues to the right.", "If the player who melds a discard is not directly after the discarder (in order of play), one or two players will essentially miss their turn as play continues anti-clockwise from the player who declared the meld.If multiple players call for a discarded tile, priority for the discard depends on the declared action of the player stealing the discard.# Highest priority goes to the player who needs the discarded tile to win the hand.", "A player may take the tile to win the hand from any other player.# Next priority goes to the player who declares a pong or kong using the discard.", "A player who calls for a pong or kong may take the discard from any other player.", "Only one player can be in this position because there are only four of any tile in a mahjong set.# Last priority goes to the player who declares a chow using the discard.", "Players may only call for a chow from the discard of the player immediately prior to them unless the tile is the final one required to win the hand.===== 3.Winning a hand =====The act of winning a hand interrupts play to assess the validity of the hand won.", "Upon confirmation, the player is awarded the hand's value per the specific game's rule.======From a discard======If at any point in the game a player can use another player's discard to complete a legal hand (and with the agreed minimum points), they declare a win and reveal their winning hand.", "This ends the hand, and scoring commences.", "If more than one player can use a discard to win the hand, multiple ways can handle the situation based on agreed table rules: The players might count the points they would win with the discard and the winner is the one with the higher score, the winner might simply be the player closest to the discarder in order of turn, or multiple players may be granted the win simultaneously.======From the wall======Alternatively, a player may also win by drawing a tile that completes a legal hand.", "This is called \"winning from the wall\".", "In Hong Kong mahjong, winning from the wall doubles the number of base points each loser must pay.======False Win======Technically, the declaration for winning a hand may be done at any time.", "However, the player must have a complete and legal hand.", "Otherwise, the player is penalized.", "The penalty depends on table rules.", "The player may forfeit points to the other players.", "Another potential penalty is the player who called out the false win must play the rest of the hand with their tiles face up on the table so other players can see them (open hand).", "Some methods apply the penalty at the end of the entire game.", "Again, the table rules dictate the enforcement of the penalty.===== 4.Robbing a kong =====A rarely occurring and high-scoring feature of Hong Kong mahjong is a move called robbing the kong.", "If a player declares a kong by adding a fourth piece to a melded pong but another player can use that piece to complete a hand, the completing player takes priority to win the hand and may steal that piece from the player who intended to declare the kong.==== Examples of winning hands ====Below are two examples of winning hands.", "A winning hand must consist of four melds (pongs, kongs, or chows) and a pair (eyes) and must also score the agreed table minimum.Most players include table variations in their games, of which some non-standard are included.", "The hands of ''seven different pairs'' and ''13 orphans'' are examples which do not have four melds and the eyes.", "They are described in more detail below.==== Repeated hands ====If the dealer wins the hand, they will remain the dealer and an extra hand is played in addition to the minimum 16 hands in a match.An extra hand is also played if there is no winner by the time all the tiles in the wall have been drawn.", "When there is no winner it is known as a \"goulash hand\".", "Depending on table rules, the winner of the next game may take an agreed number of points from each player, carrying over the points from the non-winning hand to the winning one.", "If there are two or three goulash hands in a row then the winner would collect a considerable number of points from each player on top of their scoring hand.", "Because extra hands may be played every time a dealer wins or if there is a goulash hand, a match of 16 hands can easily become a match of 20 or even much more.As table rules add a large amount of flexibility for players, they can choose to disregard the rule of extra hands and pass on the dealership regardless of who wins or if it results in a goulash hand.", "This puts a maximum estimated limit on the game duration and provides some amount of predictability.====Rhythm of play====Players may agree on table rules if the pace of the game is brisk or leisurely.", "For brisk games players may agree that a couple seconds after a discard are allowed for a \"window of opportunity\" before the next player picks up from the wall.", "Usually it is agreed once the next player has waited the duration of the \"window of opportunity\" and draws a tile from the wall, the previous discard is lost and cannot be claimed.=== Scoring ===Old Hong Kong scoring is relatively simple.", "There is only one winner (or if there is a draw the hand is replayed).", "The winner must have a legal hand that meets the minimum ''faan'' points agreed to in advance (not including any bonus points).", "Only the winner scores, the other players pay the winner various sums.", "After each hand ends, the winner counts all of his or her ''faan'' points.", "* ''Faan'' points depend on:** The composition of the entire hand** How the hand was won** Bonus tiles** Special patterns** A few other special criteria.", "* In order to win, a player needs to have at least the minimum ''faan'' value agreed in advance (often 3).", "Bonus tiles and a few other elements are not included in the minimum ''faan'' value a player needs to form a legal winning hand.", "For example, in a three ''faan'' minimum game, if a player has two ''faan'' points and one bonus point, the player has not met the proper requirements to win and will need to gain another ''faan'' point before calling a win.", "Though the bonus points cannot be included in the minimum points needed to win, they are included in the overall score after a player wins.", "* The other players do not score their hand.", "Once the winner has added his or her points (''faan'' points plus bonus points) they must be converted into base points (the chart is below).", "These base points represent how much the opponents pay to the winner* Players then pay the winner (in money or when not gambling with \"chips or points\") based on three factors:** The base points (''faan'' points and bonus points converted into a payment unit)** If the player won from the wall (doubles the points)** If the player was the dealer (doubles the points).==== Concealed vs. revealed meld and hand ====A concealed meld is one that contains no tiles stolen from another player's discard.", "A concealed hand is one made up of only concealed melds.", "Many variations distinguish between a concealed hand (winning from the wall) and a semi concealed hand (the last tile is a stolen discard).", "In most mahjong variations having a concealed hand can be valuable in scoring.", "Hong Kong mahjong does not award concealed melds/hands as generously as others.", "Concealed hands only the case with a few limit hands or half-limit hands (thirteen orphans, heavenly gates, four concealed pongs) as well as a complete hand (seven pairs) and over several melds (three concealed pongs).+Meld summary Meld Type Quantity Eligible tiles When completed by ...", "Suited Honors Bonus Drawing Seizing a discard Pong 3(identical set) Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Concealed Exposed Kong 4(identical set) Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Concealed (add to concealed pong) Exposed (add to concealed pong) Exposed from exposed (add to exposed pong) Chow 3(consecutive within suit) Yes Yes No No No No Concealed Exposed (only from preceding player) Eyes 2(identical set) Yes Yes Yes Yes No No For the win, if hand has sufficient value Only permitted to complete a winning hand==== ''Faan'' value ========= Basic ''faan'' value =====A winning hand must include an agreed minimum amount of ''faan'' value (often 3).", "Some examples of scoring include:+ Sample ''faan'' scoring Type Item ''Faan'' value Basic A pong/kong of dragons 1 A pong/kong of seat wind or round wind 1 All suited 1 ''Common hand'': All chows and a pair of suited tiles 1 ''All-pong (kong) hand'': Only pongs/kongs and any pair 3 ''Clean hand'': Only one suit (bamboos, circles, or characters) with honors 3 Advanced 3 concealed pongs/kongs 3 3 kongs 3 7 pairs (special pattern) 4 ''Pure hand'': only one suit and no honors (only circles, bamboos or characters) 7 ''Little dragons'': 2 pongs of dragons and a pair of the third dragon 5 ''Little winds'': 3 pongs of winds and a pair of the fourth wind 6===== Bonus ''faan'' =====+ Bonus ''faan'' by manner of winning (not counted towards the minimum ''faan'' needed) Item ''Faan'' value Winning from the wall 1 Robbing the kong 1 Winning on the last tile from the wall or its subsequent discard 1+ Bonus ''faan'' from flowers and seasons (not counted towards the minimum ''faan'' needed) Item ''Faan'' value No flower or season tiles in hand 1 Having own flower (seat flower) 1 Having own season (seat season) 1 All four flowers 2 (plus 1 for own flower) All four seasons 2 (plus 1 for own season) All eight flowers and seasons (exceedingly rare) Automatic win with maximum paymentA player only scores a bonus ''faan'' for flowers or seasons if it is their own flower or season (East=1, South=2, West=3 and North=4) or if the player has all four flowers or all four seasons (scoring 5 ''faan'' in total).==== Payment ====The losers pay the winning player points based on several criteria and depending on whether the game is for fun or for money.", "How points are reckoned is agreed by players beforehand.", "For example, they can keep a tally, exchange chips, or pay one another with money.", "The ''faan'' value of a hand is converted into base points which are then used to calculate the points the losers pay the winner.", "The table is progressive, doubling the number of base points when reaching a certain ''faan'' point target.", "The following is the Old Hong Kong simplified table; for other tables, see Hong Kong mahjong scoring rules.+ Base points (Old Hong Kong Simplified) ''Faan'' points Base points 3 1 4 2 5 6 7 4 8 9 10+ 8 (limit)This table is based on play where 3 ''faan'' is the minimum needed in order to win with a legal hand.", "If a player has 3 ''faan'', then their hand is worth one base point.", "A winning hand with 9 ''faan'' is worth four base points.", "Losing players must give the winning player the value of these base points.", "The following special cases result in doubled base points:* If the winner wins from the wall, their base points are doubled.", "* If the hand was won by discard, the discarder doubles the amount they owe the winner.", "* If the winner is east, all losers double the base points.", "* If the east player is a losing player, they pay double the points to the winner.If two of these criteria apply to any player, they must double and then redouble the points owed to the winner.===== Examples =====+Hand Player Base points '''1'''West wins with 3 ''faan'' (scoring 1 base point) from the wall (doubling value) East (dealer) 1 (base points) ×2 (doubling for winning from wall) ×2 (doubling for being east) = –4 South 1 (base points) ×2 (doubling for winning from wall) = –2 West '''4''' (from east) + '''2''' (from south) + '''2''' (from north) = '''+8''' North 1 (base points) ×2 (doubling for winning from wall) = –2 '''2'''North wins with 6 ''faan'' (2 base points) on a discard from south (double penalty to South) East (dealer) 2 (base points) ×2 (doubling for being east) = –4 South 2 (base points) ×2 (discarding winning piece) = –4 West 2 (base points) = –2 North '''4''' (from east) + '''4''' (from south) + '''2''' (from west) = '''+10''' '''3'''East wins with 10 ''faan'' (8 base points) on discard from west (double penalty to West) East (dealer) '''16''' (from south) + '''32''' (from west) + '''16''' (from north) = '''+64''' South 8 (base points) ×2 (paying to east) = –16 West 8 (base points) ×2 (paying to east) ×2 (discarding winning piece) = –32 North 8 (base points) ×2 (paying to east) = –16Hong Kong mahjong is essentially a payment system of doubling and redoubling, where winning from the wall adds great value to the final payment and where the dealer is highly rewarded or penalised if they win or lose.===== Limit hands =====In Hong Kong mahjong there are a series of \"limit hands\".", "These are exceptional hands, difficult to obtain, and are very valuable in point scoring.", "As many table rules put a limit on the number of points a winner's hand can score, full limit hands score that maximum.", "Table rules dictate if these rare and special hands are allowed, which ones, and the limit for scoring.", "A common scoring limit is 64 points, which is the highest base points doubled twice.", "A winner receives the scoring limit from each player without any doubling.Some limit hands by necessity must be completely concealed (not discards used) or semi-concealed (the only discard used is the one needed to win).", "This includes the 13 orphans, 4 concealed pongs, heavenly hand and earthly hand.", "It is usually expected that the heavenly gates hand be concealed or semi-concealed.", "As for the dragon limit hands and the great winds, table rules dictate whether the hand must be concealed or not.", "Some table rules claim that a semi-concealed hand (winning from a discard) scores a half-limit.Some groups also play with the \"great flowers\" rule.", "If a player picks up all four flowers and all four seasons during their hand, they instantly win the hand and receive the maximum points from all of the players.", "This is exceptionally rare.In all the hands that require pongs, each pong can be replaced by the corresponding kong.+ Limit Hands (Maximum number of fan agreed) Hand Explanation with example 天糊 Heavenly hand The dealer draws a winning hand at the beginning of the game.", "地糊 Earthly hand A player completes a winning hand with the dealer's first discard (in most variants, provided the dealer does not draw a kong).", "十三么 Thirteen orphans 1 and 9 of each suit, one of each wind, one of each dragon, and one extra piece of any of those thirteen elements 25px 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px – 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px 么九 Terminals Only 1s and 9s.", "25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 绿一色 Pure green hand All tiles are green in color, i.e.", "they can only comprise pongs, sequences and eye using 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 of bamboo or green dragon (not recognized in all games) 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px - 25px 25px 九蓮寶燈 Nine Gates 1112345678999 of any suit (that is, 1 to 9 plus two additional 1s and 9s); any one extra piece of the same suit suffices to win.", "This hand always has 4 melds (either 1 pong and 3 chows or 2 pongs and 2 chows, depending on the extra) and the eyes.", "In the example below, there are two pongs (111 and 999), two chows (234 and 678), and the extra 5 forms the eyes.", "25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px 25px 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 四暗刻 Self triplets Four concealed pongs, plus eyes 十八羅漢 All kongs Four kongs, plus eyes 25px 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 大四喜 Great winds A pong of each wind, plus eyes 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 七對子 Seven pairs A special winning hand that comprises any seven pairs/eyes (not recognized in all games) 25px 25px – 25px 25px – 25px 25px – 25px 25px – 25px 25px – 25px 25px – 25px 25px==== Other examples of high-scoring hands ====+ Other special high-scoring hands Hand Explanation with example 對對糊 All pongs / kongs All melds are pongs and/or kongs.", "(3 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 混一色 Clean hand / Mixed suit Hand consists of only a single suit and honors tiles.", "The Pearl, Jade, and Ruby Dragon limit hands (using white, green or red dragon tiles respectively) are special instances of clean hands.", "(3 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 清一色 Pure suit hand All tiles are the same suit.", "(7 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 混么九 Mixed terminals Only 1s and 9s, and honor tiles.", "(5 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 小三元 Little dragons Two pongs of dragons and a pair of the third dragon.", "(5 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 小四喜 Little winds Three pongs of winds and a pair of the fourth wind.", "(6 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 字一色 All honors tiles Only winds and dragons, no suited tiles (10 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 大三元 Great dragons Pongs of all three dragons.", "(8 ''faan'') 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 25px – 25px 25px 槓上槓自摸 Win by double kong Self-pick the winning tile by obtaining it in a replacement after a second consecutive kong.", "(9 ''faan'')" ], [ "Variations", "Video of an uncharacteristic five-player gameVariations may have far more complicated scoring systems, add or remove tiles, and include far more scoring elements and limit hands.In many places, players often observe one version and are either unaware of other variations or claim that different versions are incorrect.", "In mainland China alone, there are over thirty variants.", "Many variations today differ only by scoring.===Chinese variants===* '''Changsha mahjong''' is widely played in Hunan Province.", "Like Wuhan mahjong, players need to obtain special Jong consisting of only tiles of two, five or eight.", "Changsha mahjong forbids using winds and some special tiles, those tiles are first drawn out from the table when playing.", "Winners each round get a special drawing session for bonuses, usually doubling the score.", "* '''Chinese classical mahjong''' is the oldest surviving variety of mahjong and was the version introduced to America in the 1920s under various names.", "It has a small, loyal following in the West, although few play it in Asia.", "All players score and it is possible to score higher than the winner.", "* '''Competition mahjong''' is an international standard founded by All-China Sports Federation in July 1998 that some mahjong societies have adopted for competition play and in some cases for all play.", "It includes a large variety of different scoring rules in a way that emphasizes strategy and calculation ability.", "* '''Fujian mahjong''', thirteen tile hands.", "Certain tiles can be wild.", "No dragons.", "Winds are treated as bonuses.", "* '''Harbin mahjong''', popular in northeastern China, using only 108 suit and 4 red dragon tiles.", "The player's hand must meet a set of few conditions (e.g.", "at least one chow / pong, at least one terminal or red dragon, etc.)", "and be declared \"ready\" in order to win, with points earned by discard or self-draw and a bonus tile revealed when the player wins.", "* '''Hong Kong mahjong''' or '''Cantonese mahjong''' is a more common form of mahjong, differing in minor scoring details from the Chinese Classical variety.", "It does not allow multiple players to win from a single discard.", "* '''Shenyang mahjong''', a fast-paced version with 13-tile hands.", "Valid winning hands must contain all 3 suits, honor or terminal tiles, and at least one open pung.", "* '''''' is a growing variety, particularly in southern China, disallowing chi melds, and using only the suited tiles.", "Play continues until a loser is decided or a draw.", "It can be played very quickly.", "* '''''', or '''''Lisi''''' (): the players must win with the first four blocks drawn which are placed separately in front of the others.", "These four blocks cannot be touched until the player has a ready hand.", "* '''''' using normally seven jokers, with special scoring such as ''joker-free'', ''joker-waiting-pair'', ''catch-5'', ''dragon'', ''joker-suited-dragon''.", "* '''Wuhan mahjong''' is growing rapidly and become popular in southern China.", "It is different from other parts of China such that it has a tile that can be used as everything called Laizi, and the player has to have a set of special two tiles, namely two, five, eight, as prerequisite for winning.", "Another variation has become the new trend.", "Special tiles need to be discarded.", "* '''Xiangyang mahjong''' is played with three players, and without winds, seasons, flowers and one suit of dots, bamboo and characters.", "It places special emphasis on the 5 tile giving extra points for any hand made using a 5 tile.===Other variants===* '''American mahjong''' is a form of mahjong standardized by the National Mah Jongg League and the American Mah-Jongg Association.", "It uses joker tiles, the Charleston, plus melds of five or more tiles, treats bonus tiles as honors, and eschews the chow and the notion of a standard hand.", "Legal hands are changed annually.", "Purists claim that this makes American mahjong a separate game.", "In addition, the NMJL and AMJA variations, which have minor scoring differences, are commonly referred to as ''mahjongg'' or ''mah-jongg'' (with 2 Gs, often hyphenated).", "* '''''' is the variety prevalent in Taiwan and involves hands of sixteen tiles (as opposed to the thirteen-tile hands in other versions), features bonuses for dealers and recurring dealerships, and allows multiple players to win from a single discard.", "* '''Japanese classical mahjong''' is still used in tournaments.", "It is closer to the Chinese classical scoring system but only the winner scores.", "* '''Japanese Mahjong''' is a standardized form of mahjong in Japan and South Korea, and is also found prevalently in video games.", "In addition to scoring changes, the rules of ''rīchi'' (ready hand) and ''dora'' (bonus tiles) are unique highlights of this variant.", "In addition, tile discards are specifically arranged in front of each player by discard order, to take discarded tiles into account during play.", "Some rules replace some number 5 tiles with red tiles so that they can eventually get more value.", "* '''Korean mahjong''' is unique in many ways and is an excellent version for three players.", "One suit is omitted completely (usually the bamboo set or 2–8 of bamboo) as well as the seasons.", "The scoring is simpler and the play is faster.", "No melded chows are allowed and concealed hands are common.", "Riichi (much like its Japanese cousin) is an integral part of the game as well.", "* '''Pussers bones''' is a fast-moving variant developed by sailors in the Royal Australian Navy.", "It uses an alternative vocabulary, such as ''Eddie'', ''Sammy'', ''Wally'', and ''Normie'', instead of ''East'', ''South'', ''West'', and ''North'' respectively.", "* '''Singaporean mahjong''' and Malaysian mahjong are two similar variants with much in common with Hong Kong mahjong.", "Unique elements are the use of four animal bonus tiles (cat, mouse, cockerel, and centipede) as well as certain alternatives in the scoring rules, which allow payouts midway through the game if certain conditions (such as a ''kong'') are met.", "Melds may also be presented in a form different from most other variations.", "* '''South African mahjong''' is a variant of Cantonese mahjong.", "It is very similar in terms of game play and follows most of the rules and regulations of Cantonese mahjong.", "However, there are some minor differences in scoring, e.g.", "the limit on the maximum points a hand can be rewarded is three or four ''faan'' depending on the ''house'' rules.", "A chicken hand (gai wu) is normally considered a value hand.", "Depending on the house rules flowers may also be used to boost scoring.", "* '''Thai mahjong''' has eight specialized jokers with eight extra flowers and eight animals for a total of 168 tiles.", "* '''Vietnamese mahjong''' has the same eight specialized jokers but with only eight different extra flowers for a total of 160 tiles.", "A modern variant triplicates or quadruplicates the jokers for a total of 176 or 184 tiles.", "* '''Western classical mahjong''' is a descendant of the version of mahjong introduced by Babcock to America in the 1920s.", "Today, this term largely refers to the \"Wright-Patterson\" rules, used in the U.S. military, and other similar American-made variants that are closer to the Babcock rules.", "* '''Three player mahjong''' (or 3-''ka'') is a simplified three-person mahjong that involves hands of 13 tiles (with a total of 84 tiles on the table) and may use jokers depending on the variation.", "Any rule set can be adapted for three players; however, this is far more common and accepted in Japan, Korea, Malaysia and the Philippines.", "It usually eliminates one suit entirely, or tiles 2–8 in one suit leaving only the terminals.", "It needs fewer people to start a game and the turnaround time of a game is short—hence, it is considered a fast game.", "In some versions there is a jackpot for winning in which whoever accumulates a point of 10 is considered to hit the jackpot or whoever scores three hidden hands first.", "The Malaysian and Korean versions drop one wind and may include a seat dragon.=== Equipment ======= Tables ====Interior of an automatic mahjong table.Mahjong playing surfaces are typically square and small enough to be within arm's length of all equipment.", "The edges are raised to prevent tiles from sliding off and the surface is covered in felt to limit wear on the tiles.", "Automatic dealing tables, often used for high stakes playing and tournaments, are able to shuffle tiles, build walls, and randomize dice.", "It is an elaborate device built into a table which uses two alternating sets of tiles .", "It shuffles one set of tiles while the players play on the other set.", "After the round is finished the tiles are dropped into the table and the standby wall raises upwards.====Tiles====The following chart shows the most generic set of tilesNumbers123456789SuitsDots50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50pxBamboo50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50pxCharacters50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50pxHonors/BonusWindsDragonsBonusEastSouthWestNorthRedGreenWhiteSeasonsFlowers50px50px50px50px50px50px50px25px25px25px25px25px25px25px25pxThere are variations that feature specific use of tiles.", "Some three-player versions remove the North wind and one Chinese provincial version has no honors.", "Korean mahjong removes the bamboo suit or at least its numbers 2–8 so that terminals can be used.", "Japanese mahjong rarely uses flowers or seasons.", "The seasons are removed in Korean mahjong, while many Southeast Asian sets have more flower series.==== Wild cards and jokers ====Some mahjong variants accept wildcard tiles.", "The wildcard tiles are decided at the beginning of the game by choosing one random tile.", "The wild card could be the immediately following tile on the wall, after distributing tiles to all players, or it could also be separately decided by a dice throw.", "Wildcard tiles cannot be discarded and can only replace tiles in chows.", "Wildcard tiles cannot replace tiles in pongs and kongs.", "For example, if a character 4 is chosen, then character 4 and the next sequential tile, character 5, can be used as wild cards in this round.", "(When the wildcard indicator is chosen and exposed, only 3 tiles remain of the same denomination, so the next tile in the suit will also be used as a wildcard, adding to 7 wildcard tiles for 4 players.)", "Also, if a tile numbered 9 is the indicator, the suits circle back to 1, after 9.Thus, the number 9 and 1 are wild cards.Also, if the chosen tile is not in the suited tiles, the wild cards are decided in rules:Top eight are Vietnamese jokers.", "Bottom four are Chinese.", "Wild card tile chosen Another wildcard East South South West West North North East Red Dragon Green Dragon Green Dragon White Dragon White Dragon Red DragonThe bonus tiles are not available for wild cards.A feature of several variations of mahjong, most notably in American mahjong, is the notion of some number of Joker tiles.", "They may be used as a wild card: a substitute for any tile in a hand, or, in some variations, only tiles in melds.", "Another variation is that the Joker tile may ''not'' be used for melding.", "Depending on the variation, a player may replace a Joker tile that is part of an exposed meld belonging to any player with the tile it represents.Rules governing discarding Joker tiles also exist; some variations permit the Joker tile to take on the identity of any tile, and others only permit the Joker tile to take on the identity of the previously discarded tile (or the absence of a tile, if it is the first discard).Joker tiles may or may not affect scoring, depending on the variation.", "Some special hands may require the use of Joker tiles (for example, to represent a \"fifth tile\" of a certain suited or honor tile).In American mahjong, it is illegal to pass Jokers during the Charleston.===== Flowers =====Japanese rule sets discourage the use of flowers and seasons.", "Korean rules and three-player mahjong in the Korean/Japanese tradition use only flowers.", "In Singapore and Malaysia an extra set of bonus tiles of four animals are used.", "The rule set includes a unique function in that players who get two specific animals get a one-time immediate payout from all players.", "In Taiwanese mahjong, getting all eight flowers and seasons constitutes an automatic win of the hand and specific payout from all players.Four of the flower tiles represent the four noble plants of Confucian reckoning:* 🀢 plum,* 🀣 orchid,* 🀥 chrysanthemum,* and 🀤 bamboo.Plum Orchid Chrysanthemum BambooThe other 4 flower tiles (or season tiles) represent seasons:* 🀦 spring,* 🀧 summer,* 🀨 autumn,* and 🀩 winter.Spring Summer Autumn WinterThese animal tiles are used in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and local variations.", "They represent the cat, mouse, rooster and centipede.", "Like flower tiles, they also function as bonus tiles.", "However, as they have no corresponding seat position, any player who draws one of these gets a bonus point.Cat Mouse Rooster Centipede===== Walls =====All tiles are placed face down and shuffled.", "Each player then stacks a row of tiles two tiles high in front of them, the length of the row depending on the number of tiles in use:* 136 tiles: 17 stacks for each player** Suits of circles, bamboos, and characters + winds + dragons* 144 tiles: 18 stacks for each player* 148 tiles: 19 stacks for dealer and player opposite, 18 for rest* 152 tiles: 19 stacks for each player====Dice, markers, and counting pieces====Mahjong counting sticks: Left are Chinese while the right are JapaneseDepending on the variation, two or three dice are usually used to decide what part of the wall to start dealing from.", "They are six-sided dice, traditionally but not necessarily Chinese dice with red one and four pips.The dealer marker is a round or square object that the dealer places to the side to remind players who the dealer is.", "The wind marker may be used which indicates the current prevailing wind.", "In some cases the dealer marker and the wind marker are represented by one large marker, usually a small wheel where one can swivel the outer circle to indicate the prevailing wind (which the dealer holds onto), a cube with the four winds placed onto four of the sides which can be placed in a hollow square (the dealer holds onto it), or a cylinder locked into frame which can be rolled to expose the wind on the top.", "Japanese mahjong, especially in a gambling environment, may optionally use four yakitori markers to indicate which players have not won a hand yet and has to pay a penalty.There are a variety of counting pieces used in different countries.", "They range from Chinese or Japanese counting sticks (thin sticks with various dots on them to represent various points), jetons, play money, paper and pencil, or various apps on touchscreen devices used to calculate and keep scores.=== Rules ===Japanese and Korean mahjong have some special rules.", "A player cannot win by a discard if that player had already discarded that piece, where players' discards are kept in neat rows in front of them.", "Players may declare ready, meaning that they need one tile to win, cannot change their hand and win extra points if they win.", "Some rules may replace some of the number 5 tiles with red tiles, as they can earn more points.", "Korean mahjong does not allow melded (stolen) chows.Taiwanese mahjong adds three tiles to a hand requiring a 5th set to be formed, making a clean hand or all-pong hand very difficult to procure.American mahjong has distinctive game mechanics and the article on American mahjong details these.", "Some differences include many special patterns, a different scoring system and the use of jokers and five-of-a-kind.==== Charleston ====In the American variations it is required that, before each hand begins, a Charleston be enacted.", "In the first exchange, three tiles are passed to the player on one's right; in the next exchange, the tiles are passed to the player opposite, followed by three tiles passed to the left.", "If all players are in agreement, a second Charleston is performed; however, any player may decide to stop passing after the first Charleston is complete.", "The Charleston is followed by an optional pass to the player across of one, two, or three tiles.", "The Charleston, a distinctive feature of American mahjong, may have been borrowed from card games such as Hearts.=== Hands ===Many variations have specific hands, some of which are common while some are optional depending on regions and players.", "One example is the Pure Green hand made of chows or pongs using 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 of bamboo and green dragon.==== Ready hands ====When a hand is one tile short of winning (for example: 1 Bamboo 2 Bamboo 3 Bamboo 1 Bamboo 2 Bamboo 3 Bamboo 2 Bamboo 3 Bamboo 7 Bamboo 8 Bamboo 9 Bamboo Green Dragon Green Dragon, waiting for: 1 Bamboo, 4 Bamboo, or Green Dragon, as 1 Bamboo can be the eyes), the hand is said to be a ready hand, or more figuratively, \"on the pot\".", "The player holding a ready hand is said to be ''waiting'' for certain tiles.", "It is common to be waiting for two or three tiles, and some variations award points for a hand that is waiting for one tile.", "In 13-tile mahjong, the largest number of tiles for which a player can wait is 13 (the ''thirteen wonders'', or ''13 orphans'', a nonstandard special hand).", "Ready hands must be declared in some variations of mahjong, while other variations prohibit the same.Some variations of mahjong, most notably Japanese and Korean ones, allow a player to declare .", "A declaration of ''rīchi'' is a promise that any tile drawn by the player is immediately discarded unless it constitutes a win.", "Standard requirements for ''rīchi'' are that the hand be ''closed'' or have no melds declared (other than a concealed kong) and that players already have points for declaration of ''rīchi''.", "A player who declares ''rīchi'' and wins usually receives a point bonus for their hand directly, and a player who won with ''rīchi'' also has the advantage to open the inner dora which leads to higher possibilities to match such a card, thus has more chance to grant additional bonus.", "However, a player who declares ''rīchi'' and loses is usually penalised in some fashion.", "Declaring a nonexistent ''rīchi'' is also penalised in some way.In some variations, a situation in which all four players declare a ''rīchi'' is an automatic drawn game, as it reduces the game down to pure luck, i.e., who gets their needed tile first.=== Draws ===If only the dead wall remains (or if no dead wall exists and the wall is depleted) and no one has won, the hand is drawn or \"goulashed\".", "A new hand begins, and depending on the variant, the Game Wind may change.", "For example, in most playing circles in Singapore, if there is at least one kong when the hand is a draw, the following player of the dealer becomes the next dealer; otherwise, the dealer remains dealer.Japanese mahjong has a special rule called sanchahō, which is, if three players claim the same discard in order to win, the hand is drawn.", "One reason for this is that there are cases in which bars of 1,000 points for declaring ''rīchi'' cannot be divided by three.", "The rule is treated the same as \"abortive draws\".==== Abortive draws ====In Japanese mahjong, rules allow abortive draws to be declared while tiles are still available.", "They can be declared under the following conditions:* On a player's first turn when no meld has been declared yet, if a player has nine different terminal (also known as major) or honor tiles, the player may declare the hand to be drawn (for example, 1 Circle 4 Circle 5 Circle 9 Circle 1 Bamboo 4 Bamboo 6 Bamboo 9 Bamboo 1 Character East Wind West Wind Red Dragon Red Dragon White Dragon, but could also go for the nonstandard ''thirteen wonders'' hand as well).", "* Four winds' barrier: On the first turn without any meld declarations, if all 4 players discard the same Wind tile, the hand is drawn.", "* Yonin rīchi: If all four players declare ''rīchi'', the hand is drawn.", "* Four kongs' abort: The hand is drawn when the fourth kong is declared, unless all four kongs were declared by a single player.", "Still, the hand is drawn when another player declares a fifth kong.===Scoring===Scoring in mahjong involves points, with a monetary value for points agreed upon by players.", "Although in many variations scoreless hands are possible, many require that hands be of some point value in order to win the hand.While the basic rules are more or less the same throughout mahjong, the greatest divergence between variations lies in the scoring systems.", "Like the rules, there is a generalized system of scoring, based on the method of winning and the winning hand, from which Chinese and Japanese base their roots.", "American mahjong generally has greatly divergent scoring rules, as well as greatly divergent general rules.Because of the large differences between the various systems of scoring (especially for Chinese variants), groups of players will often agree on particular scoring rules before a game.====Points====Points (terminology of which differs from variation to variation) are obtained by matching the winning hand with different criteria scoring different values.", "The points obtained may be modified into scores for each player using some (typically exponential) functions.", "Some criteria may be also in terms of both points and score.In many variations the dealer receives no scoring bonus and does not maintain their turn by winning or a dead hand.In classical mahjong all players score points.", "Points are given for sets and hand composition and winning bonuses, doubled and redoubled for basic patterns.", "Sometimes a loser may score more points than a winner.", "Japanese mahjong has a complex scoring system with several stages of scoring, rules and exceptions, evening out scores and bonus points at the end of a match.", "Korean mahjong has a simple scoring system where only winner scores without any form of doubling.Some variations give points for concealed hands, in which case no melds are made except by winning on a discard.In Old Hong Kong mahjong:* Only the winner scores points.", "* Winning hands are scored by totaling the point value of each element in the hand.", "Points are distinct from the actual payment received from each player.", "* The winner receives points (also known as faan among some players) for:** Individual melds,** The composition of the entire hand,** How the hand was won,** Bonus tiles,** Special patterns,** A few other special criteria.", "* In order to win, a player needs to have at least the minimum points agreed in advance (often 3).", "* Bonus points are separate from the minimum points a player needs to win.", "* If a player goes mahjong with a legal and minimum hand, their hand is scored by adding their points and bonus points together.", "* The payment received from each player depends on three factors:** The point value of the hand,** If the player won from a discard or from the wall, and** If the player was the dealer or not.=== Comparison ===+ Mahjong variations Variation Hong Kong Competition Japanese Korean 3 Player HK NewRed Taiwan AmericanClassical Singapore Malaysian 4 Player Malaysian 3 Player Vietnam SichuanCharactersCircles Bamboo DragonsWinds Flowers Optional Seasons Optional Four Arts and Four Noble Professions/Emperors and Empresses Animals Scoring Base Faan Faan Multipliers Simple Faan Simple Simple American Multipliers Faan Faan Faan Faan Varies Scoring Winner Winner Winner Winner Winner Winner Winner Winner All Winner All All Winner Varies Complete hand tiles 14 14 14 14 14 14 17 14 14 14 14 14 14Varies Minimum Points (in variations units) 3f 8 1y 2p 5f Varies 7/10t Varies 3f 2u ?", "5f ?Varies===Mahjong solitaire===A single player game employs the tiles of mahjong, usually played on computers or devices.", "Gameplay is entirely unrelated to mahjong or its variations and is a recent invention.", "A two-player version was published by Nintendo.", "The game involves stacking tiles face up in various elaborate patterns and removing uncovered matching tiles at the end of rows." ], [ "Competition", "The top 3 in the World Mahjong Championship in Tokyo, October 2002.Left: John J. O'Connor (2nd place).", "In the middle: world champion Mai Hatsune, from Japan.", "Right: Yuichi Ikeya (3rd place).In 1998, in the interest of dissociating illegal gambling from Mahjong, the China State Sports Commission published a new set of rules, now generally referred to as Chinese Official rules or International Tournament rules (see Guobiao Majiang).", "The principles of the new, wholesome Mahjong are no gambling, no drinking, and no smoking.", "In international tournaments, players are often grouped in teams to emphasize that Mahjong from now on is considered a sport.The new rules are highly pattern-based.", "The rulebook contains 81 combinations, based on patterns and scoring elements popular in classic and modern regional Chinese variants; some table practices of Japan have also been adopted.", "Points for flower tiles (each flower is worth one point) may not be added until the player has scored eight points.", "The winner of a game receives the score from the player who discards the winning tile, plus eight basic points from each player; in the case of ''zimo'' (self-drawn win), they receive the value of this round plus eight points from all players.The new rules were first used in an international tournament in Tokyo, where, in 2002, the first global tournament in mahjong was organized by the Mahjong Museum, the Japan Mahjong Organizing Committee, and the city council of Ningbo, China.", "One hundred players participated, mainly from Japan and China, but also from Europe and the United States.", "Mai Hatsune, from Japan, became the first world champion.", "The following year saw the first annual China Mahjong Championship, held in Hainan; the next two annual tournaments were held in Hong Kong and Beijing.", "Most players were Chinese; players from other nations attended as well.In 2005, the first Open European Mahjong Championship was held in the Netherlands, with 108 players.", "The competition was won by Masato Chiba from Japan.", "The second European championship in Copenhagen (2007) was attended by 136 players and won by Danish player Martin Wedel Jacobsen.", "The first Online European Mahjong Championship was held on the Mahjong Time server in 2007, with 64 players, and the winner was Juliani Leo, from the U.S., and the Best European Player was Gerda van Oorschot, from the Netherlands.", "The Third Open European Mahjong Championship 2009 at Baden/Vienna, Austria, was won by Japanese player Koji Idota, while runner-up Bo Lang from Switzerland became European Champion.", "There were 152 participants.In 2006, the World Mahjong Organization (WMO) was founded in Beijing, China, with the cooperation of, amongst others, the Japan Mahjong Organizing Committee (JMOC) and the European Mahjong Association (EMA).", "This organization held its first World Mahjong Championship in November 2007 in the Chinese town of Chengdu, attended by 144 participants from all over the world.", "It was won by Li Li, a Chinese student at Tsinghua University.", "The next World Championship took place in Utrecht, the Netherlands, 27 to 29 August 2010.Other major international tournaments include the Mahjong International League's World Mahjong Sports Games and the privately sponsored World Series Of Mahjong.American mahjong tournaments are held in virtually every state—the largest is in Las Vegas, Nevada, twice a year, and in Atlantic City, New Jersey, by Mah Jongg Madness (MJM), and an annual cruise is hosted by the National Mah Jongg League and MJM.", "MJM tournaments host between 150 and 500 participants at these larger events; there are several smaller-scale, but equally successful, tournaments held annually by other hosts.", "Prize pools are based on the number participating.", "Rules are based on the National Mah Jongg League standard rules." ], [ "History", "Money-suited cardsMahjong is based on draw-and-discard card games that were popular in 18th and 19th century China, some of which are still popular today.", "They were played with a stripped deck of money-suited cards.", "Each deck is divided into three suits of '''Cash''' or coins, '''Strings''' of cash, and '''Myriads''' of strings.", "There are nine ranks in each suit.", "In addition, there are three wild cards: '''Red flower''', '''White flower''', and '''Old thousand'''.", "Depending on the game, there are multiple copies of each card.Games scholar David Parlett has written that the Western card games Conquian and Rummy share a common origin with Mahjong.", "All these games involve players drawing and discarding tiles or cards to make melds.", "Khanhoo is an early example of such a game.", "The most likely ancestor to Mahjong was ''pènghú'' which was played with 120 or 150 cards.", "During the late 19th century, ''pènghú'' was used interchangeably with ''máquè'' in both card and tile form.It is not known when the conversion from cards to tiles took place precisely but it most likely occurred in the middle of the 19th century.", "The earliest surviving tile sets date to around 1870 and were acquired in Fuzhou, Shanghai, and Ningbo.", "These sets differ from modern ones in several ways.", "In the Glover sets, there were no \"flower\" and ''fā'' (\"green dragon\") tiles.", "In their place were \"king\" tiles for heaven, earth, man, and harmony and also for each of the 4 \"winds\" which may have acted as bonus tiles.", "In the contemporaneous Himly set, there were no ''zhōng'' (\"red dragon\") tiles either.", "Instead there were the wild cards known as Cash Flower, String Flower, and Myriad Flower plus an additional tile, the king of everything.", "These early jokers are still found in the Vietnamese and Thai sets.", "They may have been removed as the tiles share the same titles as the leaders of the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864).", "For example, Hong Xiuquan was the self-styled \"Heavenly King of Great Peace\" and his top subordinates were called east king, south king, west king, and north king.The ban on gambling after the founding of the People's Republic in 1949 led to a decline in playing.", "The game itself was banned during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).", "Today, it is a favorite pastime in China and other Chinese-speaking communities.=== Mahjong in the West ===Glover to the Long Island Historical Society in 1875The first Western records about mahjong seem to correspond to the papers of British Consul General F.E.B.", "Harvey, around the time when he served as consul in Ningbo, during the 1860s.", "He mentions in his papers making the acquaintance of an English-fluent, rank-three official under the Daoguang Emperor, Chen Yumen, who taught him the game.", "In the same writings he details the rules he was taught by Chen.", "In 1895, British sinologist William Henry Wilkinson wrote a paper which mentioned a set of cards known in central China by the name of ''ma chioh'', literally, hemp sparrow, which he maintained was the origin of the term Mahjong.", "He did not explain the dialect of the originator or region specific etymology of this information.", "By 1910, there were written accounts in many languages, including French and Japanese.The game was imported to the United States in the 1920s.", "The first Mahjong sets sold in the U.S. were sold by Abercrombie & Fitch starting in 1920.It became a success in Washington, D.C., and the co-owner of the company, Ezra Fitch, sent emissaries to Chinese villages to buy every Mahjong set they could find.", "Abercrombie & Fitch sold a total of 12,000 Mahjong sets.", "Mahjong became a central part of cultural bonding for Chinese Americans in the 1920s and '30s in Chinatown, Manhattan and was part of community building for suburban American Jewish women in the 1940s and 50s.Also in 1920, Joseph Park Babcock published his book ''Rules of Mah-Jongg'', also known as the \"red book\".", "This was the earliest version of Mahjong known in America.", "Babcock had learned Mahjong while living in China.", "His rules simplified the game to make it easier for Americans to take up, and his version was common through the Mahjong fad of the 1920s.", "Later, when the 1920s fad died out, many of Babcock's simplifications were abandoned.The game has taken on a number of trademarked names, such as \"Pung Chow\" and the \"Game of Thousand Intelligences\".", "Mahjong nights in America often involved dressing and decorating rooms in Chinese style.", "Several hit songs were recorded during the Mahjong fad, most notably \"Since Ma Is Playing Mah Jong\" by Eddie Cantor.Many variants of Mahjong developed during this period.", "By the 1930s, many revisions of the rules developed that were substantially different from Babcock's classical version (including some that were considered fundamentals in other variants, such as the notion of a standard hand).", "Standardization came with the formation of the National Mah Jongg League (NMJL) in 1937, along with the first American Mahjong rulebook, ''Maajh: The American Version of the Ancient Chinese Game'', written by NMJL's first president and co-founder, Viola L. Cecil.", "In 1999, a second organization was formed, the American Mah Jongg Association.In the United Kingdom, British author Alan D. Millington revived the Chinese classical game of the 1920s with his book ''The Complete Book of Mah-jongg'' (1977).", "This handbook includes a formal rules set for the game.=== Current development ===Students in the United States learning how to play MahjongThere are many governing bodies which often host exhibition games and tournaments for modern and traditional Mahjong gaming.Mahjong, as of 2010, is the most popular table game in Japan.", "As of 2008, there were approximately 7.6 million Mahjong players in Japan and an estimated 8,900 Mahjong parlors did ¥300 billion (converting to US$2.8 billion according to exchange rates for 30 April 2020) in sales.", "There are several manga and anime (e.g.", "''Saki'' and ''Akagi'') devoted to dramatic and comic situations involving Mahjong.", "Since the 1980s, hundreds of different Mahjong arcade machines in Japanese video arcades have been created, including strip versions.", "Newer units can connect with other arcade machines across the Internet.Mahjong culture is still deeply ingrained in the Chinese community.", "Sam Hui wrote Cantopop songs using Mahjong as their themes, and Hong Kong movies have often included scenes of Mahjong games.", "Many gambling movies have been filmed in Hong Kong, and a recent subgenre is the Mahjong movie.Although the popularity of the game in China is still broad, since 1949, mahjong was frowned upon by the government because it is seen as a means of gambling addiction, an issue that the government always sought to tackle.Prolonged playing of Mahjong may trigger epileptic seizures according to a 2007 study.", "To date there are 23 reported cases of Mahjong-induced seizures in the English medical literature.", "Some doctors speculate that this may be due to stress and complex manual movement correlated with intense brain function similar to playing chess or card games such as poker.Studies by doctors have also shown in Hong Kong that the game is beneficial for individuals suffering from dementia or cognitive memory difficulties, leading to the development of Mahjong therapy.Researchers have also used artificial intelligence techniques to develop Mahjong-playing agents using neural networks and reinforcement learning.", "They have shown that a self-learning machine can be trained to compete with some of the best Richi Mahjong players.Mahjong was also adapted into several puzzle video games such as ''Mahjong Trails'', listed as one of the top-grossing games on Facebook." ], [ "Superstitions", "Even though both skill and chance play a fundamental role in the game, there is no shortage of superstitions in which players believe where they sit, how they hold their pieces or objects they have on their person will somehow affect the outcome.", "For example, players will try to find seats with the best feng shui or wear their lucky clothing or trinkets.", "Some believe that specific pieces (one dot, for example) bode bad luck if received in their opening hand.More elaborate superstitions in mahjong range from those found in the game poker, such as not counting one's wins and losses, to the comical, such as changing one's undergarments after a loss.", "As with all superstitions in gaming, none of them have been properly demonstrated as effective, though, for some, the rituals have become an integral part of the game experience and its aesthetics." ], [ "Glossary", "EnglishChineseJapaneseCommentOriginally means bar of 100 pence.Originally meant pennies.Originally means 10000 pence.Originally a fifth Wind.Entered the set by 1890.Run of three tiles from the same suit.Three identical tiles (three of a kind).Four identical tiles (four of a kind).Forming a Chow from discardCalling a winDeclaring a completed hand.Drawing the tile from the wall required to complete a legal hand on one's turn.Discarding a tile from which another player calls a winReady handA hand that is one tile away from winning.False MahjongCalling a win without a legal hand.Having too few tiles to win (e.g.", "if a player forgets to draw a tile after declaring a kong).", "In literal Chinese: \"small husband\".Having too many tiles to win (e.g.", "if a player draws a tile by mistake after calling a pong from a discard).", "In literal Chinese: \"big husband\".When no player has won the round.", "*Heavenly Hand (天糊)*Big Four Winds (大四喜)*Big Three Dragons (大三元)*All Kongs (十八羅漢)*All Honor Tiles (字一色)*Thirteen Orphans (十三幺)*Nine Gates (九蓮宝燈)*Four Concealed Triplets (四暗刻)*All Triplets (對對糊)*Mixed one suit (混一色)*All one suit (清一色)*Pinfu (平糊)*Little Three Dragons (小三元)*Little Four Winds (小四喜)" ], [ "Unicode", "Mahjong tiles were added to the Unicode Standard in April, 2008 with the release of version 5.1.The Unicode block for Mahjong tiles is U+1F000–U+1F02F:" ], [ "In popular culture", "In the Korean drama series ''My Love from the Star'', main character Do Min Joon (played by Kim Soo-Hyun) regularly plays Mah-jong.", "He is the best player in Seoul.", "In Wong Kar-Wai's film ''In the Mood for Love'', which takes place in 1962 in Hong Kong, the families and owners who live in the boarding house play there for entire nights.The manga and anime ''Saki'' revolves around a high school Mahjong club.", "Miyanaga Saki is forced to join the club as she hates Mahjong.", "''Akagi'' also deals with Mah-jong.", "This is the story of a college student who quickly becomes a prodigy of the game, evolving within the Yakuza.", "Many other manga are dedicated to it, like ''Ten'', which is a sequel to ''Akagi'', but also ''Furiten-kun'', ''The Legend of the Gambler: Tetsuya'' and ''The Legend of Koizumi''.In Thomas Harris's novel ''Red Dragon'', a serial killer, who calls himself the \"Red Dragon\", carves the Mahjong symbol corresponding to his nickname on a tree (chap.", "10), which is identified as such later (at the end of chap.", "12).", "The two film adaptations of this novel also take up this key element of the screenplay.Mahjong serves as a minor plot point in the 2016 ''Arrival'' where General Shang uses the game to interact with the aliens.In the video game ''Yakuza: Like a Dragon'', the player can take part in Mah-jong games in the form of mini-games.", "In ''Final Fantasy XIV'', it is possible to play Doman Mahjong, a version strongly inspired by Mah-jong Riichi, at the Gold Saucer (a casino inspired by ''Final Fantasy VII'').", "The player can choose to compete against the computer or play against other people.", "The MMORPG offers two game rules: with or without kuitan.", "The option with kuitan authorizes the formation of the yaku Tanyao after the announcement of chi, pon or kan." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese playing cards* Khanhoo* Madiao* Mah-Jongg (lemur), a pet owned by the Courtaulds* Mahjong and artificial intelligence* Mahjong tiles* Mahjong video game* Singaporean mahjong" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Further reading ===* Lo, Amy.", "''The Book of Mahjong: An Illustrated Guide''.", "Tuttle Publishing: 2001.", "*Zhou, H. X.", "& Wang, Y. L. (2002).", "The Origin and Development of Mahjong.", "Journal Of Ningbo University(Liberal Arts Edition)*Rep, J.", "(2007).", "The great mahjong book: History, lore and play.", "North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle Pub..* Oxfeld, Ellen, ''Blood, Sweat, and Mahjong: Family and Enterprise in an Overseas Chinese Community''.", "Cornell University Press: 1993..* Pritchard, David B., ''Teach Yourself mahjong''.", "McGraw-Hill/Contemporary: 2001..* Sloper, Tom., ''Mah-Jongg: Game of the Orient.''", "Self-published: n.d.* Wright Patterson Mah Jongg Group, ''Mah Jongg; Wright-Patterson Rules''.", "Wright Patterson Mah Jongg Group: 1963.==== Historical research ====* Culin, Stewart, ‘The Game of Ma-Jong, its Origin and Significance’.", "In: ''Brooklyn Museum Quarterly,'' Brooklyn, NY, Vol.", "XI, 1924, p. 153–168.Also found at; Gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca* Depaulis, Thierry, ‘Embarrassing Tiles: Mahjong and the Taipings’.", "In: ''The Playing-Card'', Vol.", "35, No.", "3, 2007, pp.", "148 – 153.", "* Ebashi, Takashi, ‘Proto Mahjong.", "Mahjong Tiles in the 19th Century’.", "In: ''Mahjong Museum Report'', Vol.", "5, No.2, Issue 9, April 2005, pp.", "14 – 17 (in Japanese).", "* Lo, Andrew, ‘China’s Passion for Pai: Playing Cards, Dominoes, and Mahjong’.", "In: ''Asian Games: The Art of Contest'', Colin Mackenzie and Irving Finkel, eds.", "Asia Society.", "2004.pp. 217–231.", "*Greene, M. (2016).", "The Game People Played: Mahjong in Modern Chinese Society and Culture.", "Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review, 5(1), 1–27.doi:10.1353/ach.2016.0001* Stanwick, Michael, ‘Mahjong(g) Before Mahjong(g): Part 1’.", "In: ''The Playing-Card'', Vol.", "32, No.", "4, 2004, pp. 153–162.", "* Stanwick, Michael, ‘Mahjong(g) Before Mahjong(g): Part 2’.", "In: ''The Playing-Card'', Vol.", "32, No.", "5, 2004, pp. 206–215.", "* Stanwick, Michael, ‘Mahjong(g), Before and After Mahjong(g): Part 1’.", "In: ''The Playing-Card'', Vol.", "34, No.", "4, 2006, pp. 259–268.", "* Stanwick, Michael, ‘Mahjong(g), Before and After Mahjong(g): Part 2’.", "In: ''The Playing-Card'', Vol.", "35, No.", "1, 2006, pp. 27–39.", "* Stanwick, Michael and Xu, Hongbing, 'Flowers and Kings: A Hypothesis of their Function in Early Ma Que'.", "In: ''The Playing-Card'', Vol.", "37, No.", "1, 2008, pp. 29–40.", "* Stanwick, Michael and Xu, Hongbing, 'From Cards to Tiles: The Origin of Mahjong(g)'s Earliest Suit Names'.", "In: ''The Playing-Card'', Vol.", "41, No.", "1, 2012, pp. 52–67.", "* Wilkinson, William H.,(1890): Published in 1901 as pp 184–194 of ''Catalogue of the Collection of Playing Cards Bequeathed to the Trustees of the British Museum'', F. M.", "O’Donoghue.", "* Wilkinson, William H.,(1893): Published in Culin, ''Games of the Orient'', Tuttle, 1958.First published under the title ''Korean Games, with Notes on the Corresponding Games of China and Japan'', University of Pennsylvania, 1895.", "* Wilkinson, William H., ‘Chinese Origin of Playing Cards’, in ''The American Anthropologist'', Volume VIII, 1895, pp.", "61–78.Can also be found at; ==== Chinese classic ====* * * ==== Chinese official ====* ''Competition mahjong Official International Rulebook''.", "Takeshobo: 2002..* ''Handbook for the Competitions of the Chinese MaJiang. ''", "Organizing Committee of Chinese MaJiang: 2005.", "* Hatsune, Mai and Takunori Kajimoto, translation by Ryan Morris '' World-Class Mahjong with World Champion Mai Hatsune'': 2005.", "* Pritchard, David B., ''The New mahjong''.", "Right Way: 2004.." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 12" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 254 – Pope Stephen I succeeds Pope Lucius I, becoming the 23rd pope of the Catholic Church, and immediately takes a stand against Novatianism.", "* 907 – Zhu Wen forces Emperor Ai into abdicating, ending the Tang dynasty after nearly three hundred years of rule.", "*1191 – Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre in Cyprus; she is crowned Queen consort of England the same day.", "*1328 – Antipope Nicholas V, a claimant to the papacy, is consecrated in Rome by the Bishop of Venice.", "*1364 – Jagiellonian University, the oldest university in Poland, is founded in Kraków.", "*1497 – Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola.", "*1510 – The Prince of Anhua rebellion begins when Zhu Zhifan kills all the officials invited to a banquet and declares his intent on ousting the powerful Ming dynasty eunuch Liu Jin during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor.", "*1551 – National University of San Marcos, the oldest university in the Americas, is founded in Lima, Peru.", "*1588 – French Wars of Religion: Henry III of France flees Paris after Henry I, Duke of Guise, enters the city and a spontaneous uprising occurs.", "*1593 – London playwright Thomas Kyd is arrested and tortured by the Privy Council for libel.===1601–1900===*1743 – Maria Theresa of Austria is crowned Queen of Bohemia after defeating her rival, Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor.", "*1778 – Heinrich XI, count of the Principality of Reuss-Greiz, is elevated to Prince by Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor.", "*1780 – American Revolutionary War: In the largest defeat of the Continental Army, Charleston, South Carolina is taken by British forces.", "*1797 – War of the First Coalition: Napoleon Bonaparte conquers Venice.", "*1808 – Finnish War: Swedish-Finnish troops, led by Captain Karl Wilhelm Malmi, conquer the city of Kuopio from Russians after the Battle of Kuopio.", "*1821 – The first major battle of the Greek War of Independence against the Turks is fought in Valtetsi.", "*1846 – The Donner Party of pioneers departs Independence, Missouri for California, on what will become a year-long journey of hardship and cannibalism.", "*1862 – American Civil War: Union Army troops occupy Baton Rouge, Louisiana.", "*1863 – American Civil War: Battle of Raymond: Two divisions of James B. McPherson's XVII Corps turn the left wing of Confederate General John C. Pemberton's defensive line on Fourteen Mile Creek, opening up the interior of Mississippi to the Union Army during the Vicksburg Campaign.", "*1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Spotsylvania Court House: Union troops assault a Confederate salient known as the \"Mule Shoe\", with some of the fiercest fighting of the war, much of it hand-to-hand combat, occurring at \"the Bloody Angle\" on the northwest.", "*1865 – American Civil War: The Battle of Palmito Ranch: The first day of the last major land action to take place during the Civil War, resulting in a Confederate victory.", "*1870 – The Manitoba Act is given the Royal Assent, paving the way for Manitoba to become a province of Canada on July 15.", "*1881 – In North Africa, Tunisia becomes a French protectorate.", "*1885 – North-West Rebellion: The four-day Battle of Batoche, pitting rebel Métis against the Canadian government, comes to an end with a decisive rebel defeat.", "*1888 – In Southeast Asia, the North Borneo Chartered Company's territories become the British protectorate of North Borneo.===1901–present===*1926 – The Italian-built airship ''Norge'' becomes the first vessel to fly over the North Pole.", "* 1926 – The 1926 United Kingdom general strike ends.", "*1932 – Ten weeks after his abduction, Charles Jr., the infant son of Charles Lindbergh, is found dead near Hopewell, New Jersey, just a few miles from the Lindberghs' home.", "*1933 – The Agricultural Adjustment Act, which restricts agricultural production through government purchase of livestock for slaughter and paying subsidies to farmers when they remove land from planting, is signed into law by President Franklin D.", "Roosevelt.", "* 1933 – President Roosevelt signs legislation creating the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the predecessor of the Federal Emergency Management Agency.", "*1937 – The Duke and Duchess of York are crowned as King George VI and Queen Elizabeth of the United Kingdom in Westminster Abbey.", "*1941 – Konrad Zuse presents the Z3, the world's first working programmable, fully automatic computer, in Berlin.", "*1942 – World War II: Second Battle of Kharkov: In eastern Ukraine, Red Army forces under Marshal Semyon Timoshenko launch a major offensive from the Izium bridgehead, only to be encircled and destroyed by the troops of Army Group South two weeks later.", "* 1942 – World War II: The U.S. tanker SS ''Virginia'' is torpedoed in the mouth of the Mississippi River by the .", "*1948 – Wilhelmina, Queen regnant of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, cedes the throne to her daughter Juliana.", "*1949 – Cold War: The Soviet Union lifts its blockade of Berlin.", "*1965 – The Soviet spacecraft ''Luna 5'' crashes on the Moon.", "*1968 – Vietnam War: North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces attack Australian troops defending Fire Support Base Coral.", "*1975 – Indochina Wars: Democratic Kampuchea naval forces capture the SS Mayaguez.", "*1978 – In Zaire, rebels occupy the city of Kolwezi, the mining center of the province of Shaba (now known as Katanga); the local government asks the US, France and Belgium to restore order.", "*1982 – During a procession outside the shrine of the Virgin Mary in Fátima, Portugal, security guards overpower Juan María Fernández y Krohn before he can attack Pope John Paul II with a bayonet.", "*1989 – The San Bernardino train disaster kills four people, only to be followed a week later by an underground gasoline pipeline explosion, which kills two more people.", "*1998 – Four students are shot at Trisakti University, leading to widespread riots and the fall of Suharto.", "*2002 – Former US President Jimmy Carter arrives in Cuba for a five-day visit with Fidel Castro, becoming the first President of the United States, in or out of office, to visit the island since the Cuban Revolution.", "*2003 – The Riyadh compound bombings in Saudi Arabia, carried out by al-Qaeda, kill 39 people.", "*2006 – Mass unrest by the Primeiro Comando da Capital begins in São Paulo (Brazil), leaving at least 150 dead.", "* 2006 – Iranian Azeris interpret a cartoon published in an Iranian magazine as insulting, resulting in massive riots throughout the country.", "*2008 – An earthquake (measuring around 8.0 magnitude) occurs in Sichuan, China, killing over 69,000 people.", "* 2008 – U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement conducts the largest-ever raid of a workplace in Postville, Iowa, arresting nearly 400 immigrants for identity theft and document fraud.", "*2010 – Afriqiyah Airways Flight 771 crashes on final approach to Tripoli International Airport in Tripoli, Libya, killing 103 out of the 104 people on board.", "*2015 – A train derailment in Philadelphia kills eight people and injures more than 200.", "* 2015 – Massive Nepal earthquake kills 218 people and injures more than 3,500.", "*2017 – The WannaCry ransomware attack impacts over 400,000 computers worldwide, targeting computers of the United Kingdom's National Health Services and Telefónica computers.", "*2018 – Paris knife attack: A man is fatally shot by police in Paris after killing one and injuring several others." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1325 – Rupert II, Elector Palatine (d. 1398)*1401 – Emperor Shōkō of Japan (d. 1428)*1479 – Pompeo Colonna, Catholic cardinal (d. 1532)*1496 – Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1560)*1590 – Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1621)===1601–1900===*1606 – Joachim von Sandrart, German art-historian and painter (d. 1688)*1622 – Louis de Buade de Frontenac, French-Canadian soldier and politician, third Governor General of New France (d. 1698)*1626 – Louis Hennepin, Flemish priest and missionary (d. 1705)*1670 – Augustus II the Strong, Polish king (d. 1733)*1700 – Luigi Vanvitelli, Italian architect and engineer, designed the Palace of Caserta and Royal Palace of Milan (d. 1773)*1725 – Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans (d. 1785)*1739 – Johann Baptist Wanhal, Czech-Austrian organist and composer (d. 1813)*1754 – Franz Anton Hoffmeister, German composer and publisher (d. 1812)*1755 – Giovanni Battista Viotti, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1824)*1767 – Manuel Godoy, Spanish field marshal and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1851)*1774 – Ellis Cunliffe Lister, English politician (d. 1853)*1776 – José de La Mar, Peruvian military leader, President of Peru (d. 1830)*1777 – Mary Reibey, Australian businesswoman (d. 1855)*1803 – Justus von Liebig, German chemist and academic (d. 1873)*1804 – Robert Baldwin, Canadian lawyer and politician, third Premier of West Canada (d. 1858)*1806 – Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Finnish philosopher and politician (d. 1881)*1812 – Edward Lear, English poet and illustrator (d. 1888)*1814 – Adolf von Henselt, German pianist and composer (d. 1889)*1820 – Florence Nightingale, Italian-English nurse, social reformer, and statistician (d. 1910)*1825 – Orélie-Antoine de Tounens, French lawyer and explorer (d. 1878)*1828 – Dante Gabriel Rossetti, English poet and painter (d. 1882)*1829 – Pavlos Carrer, Greek composer and educator (d. 1896)*1839 – Tôn Thất Thuyết, Vietnamese mandarin (d. 1913)*1840 – Alejandro Gorostiaga, Chilean colonel (d. 1912)*1842 – Jules Massenet, French composer (d. 1912)*1845 – Gabriel Fauré, French pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1924)*1850 – Henry Cabot Lodge, American historian and politician (d. 1924)* 1850 – Frederick Holder, Australian politician, 19th Premier of South Australia (d. 1909)*1859 – William Alden Smith, American lawyer and politician (d. 1932)* 1859 – Frank Wilson, English-Australian politician, ninth Premier of Western Australia (d. 1918)*1863 – Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury, Bengali writer, painter, violin player and composer, technologist and entrepreneur (d. 1915)*1867 – Hugh Trumble, Australian cricketer and accountant (d. 1938)*1869 – Carl Schuhmann, German gymnast, wrestler, and weightlifter (d. 1946)*1872 – Anton Korošec, Slovenian priest and politician, tenth Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (d. 1940)*1873 – J. E. H. MacDonald, English-Canadian painter (d. 1932)*1874 – Clemens von Pirquet, Austrian pediatrician and immunologist (d. 1929)*1875 – Charles Holden, English architect, designed the Bristol Central Library (d. 1960)*1880 – Lincoln Ellsworth, American explorer (d. 1951)*1885 – Paltiel Daykan, Lithuanian-Israeli lawyer and jurist (d. 1969)* 1885 – Saneatsu Mushanokōji, Japanese author (d. 1976)*1886 – Ernst A. Lehmann, German captain and pilot (d. 1937)*1889 – Abelardo L. Rodríguez, substitute president of Mexico (d. 1967)* 1889 – Otto Frank, German-Swiss businessman and Holocaust survivor; father of diarist Anne Frank (d. 1980)*1892 – Fritz Kortner, Austrian-German actor and director (d. 1970)*1895 – William Giauque, Canadian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1982)* 1895 – Jiddu Krishnamurti, Indian-American philosopher and author (d. 1986)* 1897 – Earle Nelson, American serial killer and rapist (d. 1928)*1900 – Helene Weigel, Austrian-German actress (d. 1971)===1901–present===*1901 – The Duke of Paducah, American country comedian, radio host and banjo player (d. 1986) *1903 – Faith Bennett, British actress and ATA pilot during WWII (d. 1969) * 1903 – Wilfrid Hyde-White, English actor (d. 1991)*1905 – Édouard Rinfret, Canadian lawyer and politician, Postmaster General of Canada (d. 1994)*1907 – Leslie Charteris, English author and screenwriter (d. 1993)* 1907 – Katharine Hepburn, American actress (d. 2003)*1908 – Nicholas Kaldor, Hungarian-English economist (d. 1986)*1910 – James Dudley, American baseball player, wrestling manager and executive (d. 2004)* 1910 – Johan Ferrier, Surinamese educator and politician, first President of Suriname (d. 2010)* 1910 – Dorothy Hodgkin, English biochemist, crystallographer, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994) * 1910 – Gordon Jenkins, American pianist and composer (d. 1984)*1911 – Charles Biro, American author and illustrator (d. 1972)*1912 – Henry Jonsson, Swedish runner (d. 2001)*1914 – Bertus Aafjes, Dutch poet and author (d. 1993)* 1914 – Howard K. Smith, American journalist and actor (d. 2002)*1915 – Tony Strobl, American comics artist and animator (d. 1991)*1916 – Albert Murray, American author and critic (d. 2013)*1918 – Mary Kay Ash, American businesswoman, founded Mary Kay Cosmetics (d. 2001)* 1918 – Julius Rosenberg, American spy (d. 1953)*1921 – Joseph Beuys, German sculptor and illustrator (d. 1986)* 1921 – Farley Mowat, Canadian environmentalist and author (d. 2014)* 1921 – Lily Renée, American comic-book artist (d. 2022)*1922 – Marco Denevi, Argentinian lawyer and author (d. 1998)* 1922 – Murray Gershenz, American actor and businessman (d. 2013)* 1922 – Bob Goldham, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 1991)* 1922 – Roy Salvadori, English racing driver and manager (d. 2012) *1923 – Tom Williams (Irish republican), Executed Irish Republican (d. 1942)*1924 – Maxine Cooper, American actress and photographer (d. 2009)* 1924 – Alexander Esenin-Volpin, Russian-American mathematician and poet (d. 2016)* 1924 – Tony Hancock, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1968)*1925 – Yogi Berra, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2015)*1926 – Paulette Poujol-Oriol, Haitian educator and writer (d. 2011)* 1926 – Viren J. Shah, Indian politician, 21st Governor of West Bengal (d. 2013)*1928 – Burt Bacharach, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (d. 2023)*1929 – Sam Nujoma, Namibian politician, first President of Namibia* 1929 – Dollard St. Laurent, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2015)*1930 – Jesús Franco, Spanish director and screenwriter (d. 2013)*1932 – Joel Joffe, Baron Joffe, South African-English lawyer and politician (d. 2017)*1933 – Andrei Voznesensky, Russian poet (d. 2010)*1935 – Felipe Alou, Dominican-American baseball player, coach, and manager* 1935 – Johnny Bucyk, Canadian ice hockey player*1936 – Guillermo Endara, Panamanian lawyer and politician, 32nd President of Panama (d. 2009)* 1936 – Tom Snyder, American journalist and talk show host (d. 2007)* 1936 – Frank Stella, American painter and sculptor*1937 – Beryl Burton, English cyclist (d. 1996)* 1937 – George Carlin, American comedian, actor, and author (d. 2008)* 1937 – Susan Hampshire, English actress * 1937 – Miriam Stoppard, English physician and author*1938 – Millie Perkins, American actress*1939 – Cyril Chantler, English pediatrician and academic* 1939 – Jalal Dabagh, Kurdish journalist and politician* 1939 – Miltiadis Evert, Greek minister and politician, 69th Mayor of Athens (d. 2011)* 1939 – Reg Gasnier, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2014)* 1939 – Ron Ziegler, American politician, White House Press Secretary (d. 2003)*1940 – Norman Whitfield, American songwriter and producer (d. 2008)*1941 – Ruud de Wolff, Dutch singer (d. 2000)*1942 – Ian Dury, English singer-songwriter (d. 2000)* 1942 – Billy Swan, American country singer-songwriter* 1942 – Dragoljub Velimirović, Serbian chess player and theoretician (d. 2014)*1944 – Chris Patten, English academic and politician, 28th Governor of Hong Kong*1945 – Alan Ball, Jr., English footballer and manager (d. 2007)* 1945 – Ian McLagan, English keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2014)* 1945 – Patrick Ricard, French businessman (d. 2012)*1946 – Daniel Libeskind, American architect, designed the Imperial War Museum North and Jewish Museum*1947 – Michael Ignatieff, Canadian journalist and politician*1948 – Lindsay Crouse, American actress* 1948 – Dave Heineman, American captain and politician, 39th Governor of Nebraska* 1948 – Richard Riehle, American actor* 1948 – Steve Winwood, English singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist*1949 – Ross Bleckner, American painter*1950 – Bruce Boxleitner, American actor and author* 1950 – Gabriel Byrne, Irish actor, director, and producer* 1950 – Helena Kennedy, Baroness Kennedy of The Shaws, Scottish lawyer, academic, and politician* 1950 – Billy Squier, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1951 – George Karl, American basketball player and coach*1955 – Kix Brooks, American country music singer-songwriter and musician*1956 – Bernie Federko, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager* 1956 – Sergio Marchi, Argentinean-Canadian urban planner and politician, tenth Canadian Minister of International Trade* 1956 – Greg Phillinganes, American keyboardist* 1956 – Asad Rauf, Pakistani cricketer and umpire*1957 – Ziya Onis, Turkish economist and academic* 1957 – Lou Whitaker, American baseball player*1958 – Kim Greist, American actress* 1958 – Dries van Noten, Belgian fashion designer*1959 – Ving Rhames, American actor*1960 – Lisa Martin, Australian runner*1961 – Thomas Dooley, German-American soccer player and manager* 1961 – Bruce McCulloch, Canadian actor and comedian*1962 – Emilio Estevez, American actor* 1962 – Brett Gurewitz, American guitarist and songwriter* 1962 – Gregory H. Johnson, English-born American astronaut*1963 – Panagiotis Fasoulas, Greek basketball player and politician* 1963 – Gavin Hood, South African actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1963 – Stefano Modena, Italian racing driver* 1963 – Vanessa A. Williams, American actress and producer*1964 – Pierre Morel, French director and cinematographer*1965 – Renée Simonsen, Danish model and writer* 1965 – Stacy Wilson, Canadian ice hockey player*1966 – Stephen Baldwin, American actor* 1966 – Bebel Gilberto, American-Brazilian singer-songwriter* 1966 – Deborah Kara Unger, Canadian actress*1967 – Mireille Bousquet-Mélou, French mathematician* 1967 – Bill Shorten, Australian politician*1968 – Tony Hawk, American skateboarder and actor*1969 – Suzanne Clément, Canadian actress* 1969 – Kim Fields, American actress*1970 – Mark Foster, English swimmer* 1970 – Jim Furyk, American golfer* 1970 – Samantha Mathis, American actress* 1970 – Mike Weir, Canadian golfer* 1970 – Raj Chandarlapaty, American educator and author*1971 – Doug Basham, American wrestler* 1971 – Jamie Luner, American actress*1972 – Christian Campbell, Canadian-American actor, writer and photographer* 1972 – Rhea Seehorn, American actress*1973 – Mackenzie Astin, American actor* 1973 – Lutz Pfannenstiel, German footballer and manager*1975 – Jonah Lomu, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2015)* 1975 – Ricky Ortiz, American professional wrestler and football player*1977 – Graeme Dott, Scottish snooker player and coach* 1977 – Maryam Mirzakhani, Iranian mathematician (d. 2017) * 1977 – Onur Saylak, Turkish actor, filmmaker and director* 1977 – Rachel Wilson, Canadian actress and voice actress* 1977 – Mareile Höppner, German television presenter*1978 – Malin Åkerman, Swedish-Canadian model, actress, and singer* 1978 – Jason Biggs, American actor and comedian* 1978 – Aya Ishiguro, Japanese singer and fashion designer*1979 – Adrian Serioux, Canadian soccer player* 1979 – Steve Smith Sr., American football player*1980 – Rishi Sunak, English politician*1981 – Rami Malek, American actor* 1981 – Kentaro Sato, Japanese-American composer and conductor *1982 – Donnie Nietes, Filipino boxer*1983 – Domhnall Gleeson, Irish actor* 1983 – Alina Kabaeva, Russian gymnast and politician* 1983 – Yujiro Kushida, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist* 1983 – Charilaos Pappas, Greek footballer* 1983 – Virginie Razzano, French tennis player* 1983 – Francisco Javier Torres, Mexican footballer*1984 – Clare Bowen, Australian actress and singer*1985 – Paolo Goltz, Argentinian footballer* 1985 – Andrew Howe, Italian long jumper and sprinter* 1985 – Jeroen Simaeys, Belgian footballer*1986 – Jonathan Orozco, Mexican footballer* 1986 – Emily VanCamp, Canadian actress*1987 – Lance Lynn, American baseball player* 1987 – Kieron Pollard, Trinidadian cricketer*1988 – Marcelo, Brazilian footballer*1989 – Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Greek Cypriot singer, musician, and actress*1990 – Florent Amodio, French figure skater* 1990 – Etika, American YouTuber and live streamer (d. 2019)*1992 – Volha Khudzenka, Belarusian kayaker*1995 – Tamara Korpatsch, German tennis player*1996 – Kostas Tsimikas, Greek footballer*1997 – Frenkie de Jong, Dutch footballer* 1997 – Morgan Lake, English athlete" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 805 – Æthelhard, archbishop of Canterbury* 940 – Eutychius, patriarch of Alexandria (b.", "877)*1003 – Sylvester II, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "946)*1012 – Sergius IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "970)*1090 – Liutold of Eppenstein, duke of Carinthia*1161 – Fergus of Galloway, Scottish nobleman *1182 – Valdemar I, king of Denmark (b.", "1131)*1331 – Engelbert of Admont, Benedictine abbot and scholar*1465 – Thomas Palaiologos, Despot of Morea (b.", "1409)*1490 – Joanna, Portuguese princess and regent (b.", "1452)*1529 – Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington, English noblewoman (b.", "1460)*1599 – Murad Mirza, Mughal prince (b.", "1570)===1601–1900===*1634 – George Chapman, English poet and playwright (b.", "1559)*1641 – Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1593)*1684 – Edme Mariotte, French physicist and priest (b.", "1620)*1699 – Lucas Achtschellinck, Flemish painter (b.", "1626)*1700 – John Dryden, English poet, playwright, and critic (b.", "1631)*1708 – Adolphus Frederick II, duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (b.", "1658)*1748 – Thomas Lowndes, English astronomer and academic (b.", "1692)*1759 – Lambert-Sigisbert Adam, French sculptor (b.", "1700)*1784 – Abraham Trembley, Swiss zoologist and academic (b.", "1710)*1792 – Charles Simon Favart, French playwright and composer (b.", "1710)*1796 – Johann Uz, German poet and author (b.", "1720)*1801 – Nicholas Repnin, Russian general and politician, Governor-General of Baltic provinces (b.", "1734)*1842 – Walenty Wańkowicz, Belarusian-Polish painter (b.", "1799)*1845 – János Batsányi, Hungarian poet and academic (b.", "1763)*1856 – Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, French mathematician, physicist, and astronomer (b.", "1786)*1859 – Sergey Aksakov, Russian author and academic (b.", "1791)*1860 – Charles Barry, English architect, designed Upper Brook Street Chapel and the Palace of Westminster (b.", "1795)*1864 – J. E. B. Stuart, American general (b.", "1833)*1867 – Friedrich Wilhelm Eduard Gerhard, German archaeologist and academic (b.", "1795)*1878 – Anselme Payen, French chemist and academic (b.", "1795)*1876 – Georgi Benkovski, Bulgarian activist (b.", "1843)*1884 – Bedřich Smetana, Czech composer and educator (b.", "1824)*1897 – Minna Canth, Finnish journalist, playwright, and activist (b.", "1844)*1900 – Göran Fredrik Göransson, Swedish merchant, ironmaster and industrialist (b.", "1819)===1901–present===*1907 – Joris-Karl Huysmans, French author and critic (b.", "1848)*1916 – James Connolly, Scottish-born Irish socialist and rebel leader (b.", "1868) *1925 – Amy Lowell, American poet and critic (b.", "1874)*1931 – Eugène Ysaÿe, Belgian violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1858)*1935 – Józef Piłsudski, Polish field marshal and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland (b.", "1867)*1944 – Max Brand, American journalist and author (b.", "1892)* 1944 – Arthur Quiller-Couch, English author, poet, and critic (b.", "1863)*1956 – Louis Calhern, American actor and singer (b.", "1895)*1957 – Alfonso de Portago, Spanish bobsledder and racing driver (b.", "1928)* 1957 – Erich von Stroheim, Austrian-American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1885)*1963 – Richard Girulatis, German footballer and manager (b.", "1878)* 1963 – Robert Kerr, Irish-Canadian sprinter and coach (b.", "1882)*1964 – Agnes Forbes Blackadder, Scottish medical doctor (b.", "1875)*1966 – Felix Steiner, Russian-German SS officer (b.", "1896)*1967 – John Masefield, English poet and author (b.", "1878)*1970 – Nelly Sachs, German poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1891)*1971 – Heinie Manush, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1901)*1973 – Frances Marion, American screenwriter, novelist and journalist (b.", "1888)* 1973 – Art Pollard, American race car driver (b.", "1927)*1974 – Wayne Maki, Canadian National Hockey League player (b.", "1944)*1980 – Lillian Roth, American actress (b.", "1910)*1981 – Francis Hughes, Provisional IRA hunger striker (b.", "1956) *1981 – Benjamin Sheares, Singaporean professor and politician, second President of Singapore (b.", "1907)*1985 – Jean Dubuffet, French painter and sculptor (b.", "1901)*1986 – Elisabeth Bergner, German actress (b.", "1897)*1992 – Nikos Gatsos, Greek poet and songwriter (b.", "1911)* 1992 – Robert Reed, American actor (b.", "1932)*1993 – Zeno Colò, Italian Olympic alpine skier (b.1920)*1994 – Erik Erikson, German-American psychologist and psychoanalyst (b.", "1902)* 1994 – John Smith, Scottish-English lawyer and politician, Labour Party leader, Leader of the Opposition (b.", "1938) *1995 – Ștefan Kovács, Romanian football player and coach (b.", "1920)*1999 – Saul Steinberg, Romanian-American illustrator (b.", "1914)*2000 – Adam Petty, American race car driver (b.", "1980)*2001 – Perry Como, American singer and television host (b.", "1912)* 2001 – Alexei Tupolev, Russian engineer, designed the Tupolev Tu-144 (b.", "1925)*2003 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, French-American diplomat (b.", "1933)*2005 – Ömer Kavur, Turkish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1944)* 2005 – Martin Lings, English author and scholar (b.", "1909)* 2005 – Kai Setälä, Finnish physician and professor (b.", "1913)* 2005 – Monica Zetterlund, Swedish actress (b.", "1937)*2006 – Hussein Maziq, Libyan politician, Prime Minister of Libya (b.", "1918)*2008 – Robert Rauschenberg, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1925)* 2008 – Irena Sendler, Polish nurse and humanitarian (b.", "1910)*2009 – Antonio Vega, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1957)*2012 – Jan Bens, Dutch footballer and coach (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Eddy Paape, Belgian illustrator (b.", "1920)*2013 – Gerd Langguth, German political scientist, author, and academic (b.", "1946)*2014 – Cornell Borchers, Lithuanian-German actress and singer (b.", "1925)* 2014 – Marco Cé, Italian cardinal (b.", "1925)* 2014 – H. R. Giger, Swiss painter, sculptor, and set designer (b.", "1940)* 2014 – Sarat Pujari, Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1934)* 2014 – Lorenzo Zambrano, Mexican businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1944)*2015 – Peter Gay, German-American historian, author, and academic (b.", "1923)*2016 – Mike Agostini, Trinidadian sprinter (b.", "1935)*2017 – Mauno Koivisto, Finnish banker and politician, ninth President of Finland (b.", "1923)*2018 – Dennis Nilsen, Scottish serial killer (b.", "1945)*2020 – Aimee Stephens, American funeral director and U.S. Supreme Court litigant (b.", "1960)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Blessed Imelda**Blessed Joan of Portugal**Crispoldus**Dominic de la Calzada**Epiphanius of Salamis**Gregory Dix (Church of England)**Modoald**Nereus, Achilleus, Domitilla, and Pancras**Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople (Eastern Church)**Philip of Agira*International ME/CFS and Fibromyalgia Awareness Day*International Nurses Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 12" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mariah Carey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mariah Carey''' (; born March 27, 1969) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and actress.", "Referred to as the \"Songbird Supreme\" by ''Guinness World Records'', she is regarded as one of the greatest singers in the history of music and is noted for her songwriting, five-octave vocal range, melismatic singing style and signature use of the whistle register.", "An influential figure in popular music, Carey is credited with influencing vocal styles, merging hip-hop with pop through her collaborations and popularizing remixes.", "She has also been dubbed the \"Queen of Christmas\" for the enduring popularity of her holiday music, particularly the 1994 song \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\", which is the best-selling holiday song by a female artist.Carey rose to fame in 1990 with her self-titled debut album under the guidance of Columbia Records executive Tommy Mottola, whom she later married in 1993.She is the only artist to date to have their first five singles reach number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, from \"Vision of Love\" to \"Emotions\".", "Carey gained worldwide success with her albums ''Music Box'' (1993) and ''Daydream'' (1995)―both of which rank among the best-selling albums and spawned singles such as \"Dreamlover\", \"Hero\", \"Without You\", \"Fantasy\", \"Always Be My Baby\" and \"One Sweet Day\".", "The lattermost of these topped the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 decade-end chart (1990s).", "In 1994, she released her Christmas album ''Merry Christmas'', which contained the single \"All I Want for Christmas is You\".", "A recurring chart-topper on the Hot 100, the song's popularity earned her the title \"Queen of Christmas\".", "After separating from Mottola, Carey adopted a new urban image and began incorporating hip-hop and R&B elements with the release of ''Butterfly'' (1997) and ''Rainbow'' (1999).", "By the end of the 1990s, ''Billboard'' ranked Carey as the most successful artist of the decade in the United States.", "She left Columbia Records in 2001 after eleven consecutive years of US number-one singles and signed a record deal with Virgin Records.Following a highly publicized breakdown and the failure of her film ''Glitter'' and its accompanying soundtrack, Virgin bought out Carey's contract, and she signed with Island Records the following year.", "After a brief, mildly successful period, Carey returned to the top of the charts with ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' (2005) which became one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century.", "Its second single, \"We Belong Together\", topped the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 decade-end chart (2000s).", "Her subsequent ventures included roles in the films ''Precious'' (2009), ''The Butler'' (2013), ''A Christmas Melody'' (2015), and ''The Lego Batman Movie'' (2017), being an ''American Idol'' judge, starring in the docu-series ''Mariah's World'', performing multiple concert residencies, and publishing the memoir ''The Meaning of Mariah Carey'' (2020).Carey is one of the best-selling music artists, with over 220 million records sold worldwide, and is an inductee of the Songwriters Hall of Fame, the National Recording Registry at the Library of Congress and the Long Island Music and Entertainment Hall of Fame.", "She was ranked as the second-greatest woman in music by VH1 in 2012 and the fifth-greatest singer by ''Rolling Stone'' in 2023.", "''Billboard'' named her the top-charting female solo artist, based on both album and song chart success.", "She holds the record for the most ''Billboard'' Hot 100 number-one singles by a solo artist (19), a female songwriter (18), and a female producer (15), spending a record 93 weeks atop the chart.", "Carey is the highest-certified female artist in the United States and 10th overall, with 75 million certified album units.", "Among her accolades are 5 Grammy Awards, 10 American Music Awards, 20 ''Billboard'' Music Awards and 12 ''Guinness World Records''." ], [ "Life and career", "=== Early life ===Carey was born on March 27, 1969, in Huntington, New York.", "Her name is derived from the song \"They Call the Wind Maria\", originally from the 1951 Broadway musical ''Paint Your Wagon.''", "She is the youngest of three children born to Patricia (née Hickey), a former opera singer and vocal coach of Irish descent, and Alfred Roy Carey, an aeronautical engineer of African-American and Afro-Venezuelan lineage.", "The last name \"Carey\" was adopted by her Venezuelan grandfather, Francisco Núñez, after he emigrated to New York.", "Patricia's family disowned her for marrying a black man.", "Racial tensions prevented the Carey family from integrating into their community.", "While they lived in Huntington, their neighbors poisoned the family dog and set fire to their car.", "After her parents' divorce, Carey had little contact with her father, and her mother worked several jobs to support the family.", "Carey spent much of her time at home alone and began singing at age three, often imitating her mother's take on Verdi's opera ''Rigoletto'' in Italian.", "Her older sister Alison moved in with their father while Mariah and her elder brother Morgan lived with their mother.During her years in elementary school, she excelled in the arts, such as music and literature.", "Carey began writing poetry and lyrics while attending Harborfields High School in Greenlawn, New York, where she graduated in 1987.Carey began vocal training under the tutelage of her mother.", "Though she was a classically trained opera singer, Patricia Carey never pressured her daughter to pursue a career in classical opera.", "Mariah Carey recalled that she had \"never been a pushy mom.", "She never said, 'Give it more of an operatic feel.'", "I respect opera like crazy, but it didn't influence me.\"", "In high school, Mariah Carey was often absent because of her work as a demo singer.", "This led to her classmates giving her the nickname Mirage.", "Working in the Long Island music scene gave her opportunities to work with musicians such as Gavin Christopher and Ben Margulies, with whom she co-wrote material for her demo tape.", "After moving to New York City, she worked part-time jobs to pay the rent and completed 500 hours of beauty school.", "Carey moved into a one-bedroom apartment in Manhattan with four female students as roommates.", "She landed a gig singing backup for freestyle singer Brenda K. Starr.=== Career ======= 1988–1992: Career beginnings, debut album and ''Emotions'' ====Carey exiting Shepherd's Bush Empire after promoting her single \"Vision of Love\" on ''Wogan'' in 1990In December 1988, Carey accompanied Starr to a music executive's party, where she handed her demo tape to the head of Columbia Records, Tommy Mottola.", "After listening to the tape during the ride home, he immediately requested the driver turn around.", "Carey had already left the event, and in what has been described as a modern-day Cinderella story, he spent two weeks looking for her.", "Another record label expressed interest and a bidding war ensued.", "Mottola signed Carey to Columbia and enlisted producers Ric Wake, Narada Michael Walden, and Rhett Lawrence for her first album.", "Columbia marketed Carey as the main female artist on their roster, competing with Arista's Whitney Houston and Madonna of Sire Records.", "On June 5, 1990, Carey made her first public appearance at the 1990 NBA Finals, singing \"America the Beautiful\".", "The highlight was the piercing whistle note toward the song's conclusion, sparking CBS Sports anchor Pat O'Brien to declare, \"The palace now has a queen.", "\"Columbia spent upwards of $1 million promoting Carey's debut studio album, ''Mariah Carey''.", "After a slow start, the album eventually topped the ''Billboard'' 200 for eleven consecutive weeks, after Carey's exposure at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards, where she won the award for Best New Artist, and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for her single \"Vision of Love\".", "The album's singles \"Vision of Love\", \"Love Takes Time\", \"Someday\", and \"I Don't Wanna Cry\" all topped the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100.", "''Mariah Carey'' was the best-selling album in the United States in 1991, and achieved worldwide sales of 15 million copies.The following year Carey co-wrote, co-produced and recorded her second studio effort, ''Emotions''.", "Described by Carey as an homage to Motown soul music, Carey employed the help of Walter Afanasieff, who only had a small role on her debut, as well as Robert Clivillés and David Cole, from the dance group C+C Music Factory.", "Carey's relationship with Margulies deteriorated over a songwriting royalties dispute.", "After he filed a lawsuit against Columbia's parent company, Sony, the songwriting duo parted ways.", "''Emotions'' was released on September 17, 1991.The title track, the album's lead single, became Carey's fifth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100, making her the first artist whose first five singles reached the chart's summit.", "Though critics praised the album's content and described it as a more mature effort, the album was criticized as calculated and lacking originality.", "While the album managed sales of eight million copies globally, ''Emotions'' failed to reach the commercial and critical heights of its predecessor.Carey did not embark on a world tour to promote the album.", "Although she attributed this to stage fright and the vocally challenging nature of her material, speculation grew that Carey was a \"studio worm\" and that she was incapable of producing the perfect pitch and five-octave vocal range for which she was known.", "In hopes of ending any speculation of her being a manufactured artist, Carey booked an appearance on ''MTV Unplugged''.", "The show presented artists \"unplugged\" or in a stripped setting and devoid of studio equipment.", "Days prior to the show's taping, Carey and Afanasieff chose to add a cover of the Jackson 5's 1970 song \"I'll Be There\" to the set-list.", "On March 16, 1992, Carey played and recorded an intimate seven-song show at Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens, New York.", "The acclaimed revue was aired more than three times as often as the average episode, and critics heralding it as a \"vocal Tour de force\".", "Carey's live version of \"I'll Be There\" became her sixth number-one single on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart.", "Sony capitalized on its success and released it as an EP.", "It earned a triple-Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and earned Gold and Platinum certifications in several European markets.==== 1993–1996: ''Music Box'', ''Merry Christmas'', and ''Daydream'' ====After ''Emotions'' failed to achieve the commercial heights of her debut album, Carey's subsequent release was to be marketed as adult contemporary and pop-friendly.", "''Music Box'' was produced by Carey and Afanasieff, and began a songwriting partnership that would extend until 1997's ''Butterfly''.", "The album was released on August 31, 1993, to mixed reviews from music critics.", "Carey's songwriting was derided as clichéd and her vocal performances were described as less emotive and lazier in their delivery.", "In his review of the album, AllMusic's Ron Wynn concluded: \"sometimes excessive spirit is preferable to an absence of passion.\"", "In promotion of the album, Carey embarked on her debut tour, a six-date concert series, the Music Box Tour.", "''Music Box''s first and second singles, \"Dreamlover\" and \"Hero\", became Carey's seventh and eighth chart-toppers in the United States, while her cover of Badfinger's \"Without You\" was a commercial breakthrough in Europe, becoming her first number-one single in Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom.", "''Music Box'' remains Carey's best-seller and one of the best-selling albums, with worldwide sales of over 28 million copies.In mid-1994, Carey recorded and released a duet with Luther Vandross; a cover of Lionel Richie and Diana Ross's \"Endless Love\".", "''Merry Christmas'', released on November 1, 1994, became the best-selling Christmas album, with global sales of over 15 million copies.", "The lead single, \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\", became a holiday standard and continues to surge in popularity each holiday season.", "By October 2017, it had become the 11th-bestselling single in modern music.", "In 2019, 25 years after the song's release, it finally peaked at number-one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 for the first time, and it continued to do so every December since, becoming the first song in history to hold the top position in more than two different chart years, as well as the longest-running holiday number-one song (twelve weeks).", "Additionally, it is the longest running number-one song on the ''Billboard'' Holiday 100, spending 44 cumulative weeks, of the chart's 49 total weeks since the list launched in 2011.Carey performing \"One Sweet Day\" with Boyz II Men at Madison Square Garden in October 1995Carey's fifth studio album, ''Daydream'', found her consolidating creative control over her career, leading to tensions with Columbia.", "The album featured a departure from her allegiance to pop and gravitated heavily towards R&B and hip hop.", "Critically, the album was described as Carey's best to date.", "''The New York Times'' named it one of 1995's best albums and concluded: \"the album brings R&B candy-making to a new peak of textural refinement ... Carey's songwriting has taken a leap forward and become more relaxed, sexier and less reliant on thudding clichés.\"", "The album's lead single, \"Fantasy\", became the first single by a female artist to debut at number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and the second single, \"One Sweet Day\", a collaboration with R&B group Boyz II Men, remained atop the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 for a record-breaking 16 consecutive weeks, becoming, at the time, the longest-running number-one song in the history of the charts.", "The third single, \"Always Be My Baby\", became Carey's eleventh chart-topper, tying her with Madonna and Whitney Houston for the most number-one singles among female artists at the time.", "''Daydream'' became Carey's biggest-selling album in the United States, and her second album to be certified Diamond by the RIAA, after ''Music Box''.", "The album continued Carey's dominance in Asian music markets and sold in excess of 2.2 million copies in Japan alone and over 20 million copies globally.", "''Daydream'' and its singles were nominated in six categories at the 38th Grammy Awards.", "Though considered a favorite to win the top awards of the evening, Carey was shut out, prompting her to comment \"What can you do?", "I will never be disappointed again.\"", "In early 1996, she embarked on her first international string of concerts, the Daydream World Tour.", "Its seven dates spanned three in Japan and four throughout Europe.", "''Forbes'' named Carey the top-earning female musician of 1996, collecting an estimated $32 million.During the recording of ''Daydream'', Carey also worked on the alternative rock album ''Someone's Ugly Daughter'' by the band Chick, contributing writing, production, vocals and art direction.", "As Columbia Records refused to release the album with her lead vocals, Carey's friend Clarissa Dane was brought in to become the face of Chick, and her vocals were layered on top of Carey's, masking her voice.", "Carey also directed the music video for the Chick song \"Malibu\".", "According to Carey, \"I was playing with the style of the breezy-grunge, punk-light white female singers who were popular at the time ...", "I totally looked forward to doing my alter-ego band sessions after ''Daydream'' each night.\"", "Her contributions were secret until the release of her 2020 memoir ''The Meaning of Mariah Carey.", "''==== 1997–2000: New image with ''Butterfly'', and ''Rainbow'' ====Carey's subsequent musical releases followed the trend that began with ''Daydream''.", "Her music began relying less on pop and adult contemporary-tinged balladry and instead incorporating heavy elements of hip-hop and R&B.", "On ''Butterfly'', Carey collaborated with a bevy of producers other than Afanasieff, such as Sean Combs, Q-Tip, Missy Elliott and Jean Claude Oliver and Samuel Barnes from Trackmasters.", "In mid-1997, after four years of marriage, Carey and Mottola separated.", "Carey described Mottola as increasingly controlling, and viewed her newfound independence as a new lease on life.", "In the booklet of her twelfth studio album, ''Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel'' (2009), Carey wrote that she considers ''Butterfly'' her ''magnum opus'' and a turning point in both her life and career.", "''Butterfly'' introduced a more subdued style of singing, with critics noting Carey's incorporation of breathy vocals.", "Some viewed her lack of propensity to use her upper range as a sign of maturity, while others questioned whether it forebode waning vocal prowess.", "The music video for the album's lead single, \"Honey\", her first since separating from Mottola, introduced a more overtly sexual image.", "''Butterfly'' became Carey's best-reviewed album, with attention placed on the album's exploration of more mature lyrical themes.", "In their review of the album, ''Rolling Stone'' wrote \"It's not as if Carey has totally dispensed with her old saccharine, Houston-style balladry ... but the predominant mood of 'Butterfly' is one of coolly erotic reverie.\"", "AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine described Carey's vocals as \"sultrier and more controlled than ever,\" and felt the album \"illustrates that Carey continues to improve and refine her music, which makes her a rarity among her '90s peers.'\"", "\"Honey\" and \"My All\", the album's fifth single, both topped the Hot 100, making Carey a female artist with the most number-one singles in the chart's history.", "Though a commercial success, ''Butterfly'' failed to reach the commercial heights of her previous albums, ''Music Box'' and ''Daydream''.After concluding her Butterfly World Tour, Carey participated in the VH1 Divas benefit concert on April 14, 1998, where she sang alongside Aretha Franklin, Celine Dion, Shania Twain, Gloria Estefan, and Carole King.", "Carey began conceptualizing a film project ''All That Glitters'', later re-titled to simply ''Glitter'' (2001), and wrote songs for other projects, such as ''Men in Black'' (1997) and ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'' (2000).", "After ''Glitter'' fell into developmental hell, Carey postponed the project, and began writing material for a new album.", "Sony Music executives insisted she prepare a greatest hits collection in time for the holiday season.", "The album, titled ''#1's'' (1998), featured a cover of Brenda K. Starr's \"I Still Believe\" and a duet with Whitney Houston, \"When You Believe\", which was included on the soundtrack for ''The Prince of Egypt'' (1998).", "''#1's'' became a phenomenon in Japan, selling over one million copies in its opening week, making Carey the only international artist to accomplish this feat.", "It sold over 3.25 million copies in Japan in its first three months, and holds the record as the best-selling album by a non-Asian artist.Carey being interviewed in Cannes in 2000With only one album left to fulfill her contract with Sony, and with a burning desire to separate herself professionally from the record label her ex-husband still headed, Carey completed the album in three months in mid-1999.Titled ''Rainbow'', the album found Carey exploring with producers whom she had not worked with before.", "''Rainbow'' became Carey's first album to not feature a collaboration with her longtime writing partner, Walter Afanasieff; instead she chose to work with David Foster and Diane Warren.", "\"Heartbreaker\" and \"Thank God I Found You\" both topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, while a collaboration with Irish boy band Westlife on the cover of Phil Collins' \"Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)\" became Carey's second number-one hit on the UK charts.", "''Rainbow'' was released on November 2, 1999, to the highest first-week sales of her career at the time; however, debuting at number two on the ''Billboard'' 200.Carey's tense relationship with Columbia grew increasingly fractious; she began posting messages on her website, sharing inside information with fans on the dispute, as well as instructing them to request \"Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)\" on radio stations.", "Ultimately, the song was only given a very limited and low-promotion release.", "Critical reception of ''Rainbow'' was generally positive, with the general consensus finding: \"what began on ''Butterfly'' as a departure ends up on ''Rainbow'' a progression – perhaps the first compelling proof of Carey's true colors as an artist.\"", "Though a commercial success, ''Rainbow'' became Carey's lowest selling album at that point in her career.", "On April 9, 2000, Carey participated in another VH1 Divas concert, in a tribute to Diana Ross.==== 2001–2004: Personal and professional setbacks, ''Glitter'' and ''Charmbracelet'' ====Carey received ''Billboard''s Artist of the Decade Award and the World Music Award for Best-Selling Pop Female Artist of the Millennium, and parted from Columbia Records.", "She signed an unprecedented $80 million five-album recording contract with Virgin Records (EMI Records) in April 2001.", "''Glitter'' was a musical departure, recreating a 1980s post-disco era to accompany the film, set in 1983.Carey was given full conceptual and creative control over the project.", "She said that Columbia had regarded her as a commodity, with her separation from Mottola exacerbating her relations with label executives.", "Carey's three-year relationship with Latin singer Luis Miguel ended.In July 2001, Carey suffered a physical and emotional breakdown.", "She began posting disturbing messages on her website, and behaved erratically in live promotional outings.", "On July 19, she made a surprise appearance on the MTV program ''Total Request Live'' (TRL).", "As the show's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break, Carey came out pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men's shirt, and began a striptease in which she revealed a tight ensemble.", "Days later, she posted irregular voice notes on her website: \"I'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don't feel that I should be doing music right now.", "What I'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video.", "All I really want is to just be me and that's what I should have done in the first place ...", "I don't say this much but guess what, I don't take care of myself.\"", "Following the quick removal of the messages, Carey's representative Cindi Berger commented that Carey had been \"obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly\" when she posted the letters.Hero\" during her Charmbracelet World Tour in September 2003On July 26, Carey was hospitalized due to exhaustion and a \"physical and emotional breakdown\".", "She was admitted to a hospital in Connecticut and remained under doctor's care for two weeks, followed by an extended absence from the public.", "Virgin Records and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of ''Glitter'' and its soundtrack.", "Critics panned ''Glitter'' and its soundtrack; both were unsuccessful commercially.", "The soundtrack became Carey's lowest-selling album to that point.", "The ''St.", "Louis Post-Dispatch'' dismissed it as \"an absolute mess that'll go down as an annoying blemish on her career.\"", "She attributed the poor performance to her state of mind, its postponement and the soundtrack having been released on September 11.Carey's record deal with Virgin Records was bought out for $28 million.", "She flew to Capri, Italy, for five months, where she wrote material for a new album.", "She described her time at Virgin \"a complete and total stress-fest ...", "I made a total snap decision which was based on money and I never make decisions based on money.", "I learned a big lesson from that.\"", "She signed a contract with Island Records, valued at more than $24 million, and launched the record label MonarC.", "Carey's father, Alfred Roy, with whom she had had little contact since childhood, died of cancer that year.", "In 2002, Carey was cast in the independent film ''WiseGirls'' alongside Mira Sorvino and Melora Walters, who co-starred as waitresses at a mobster-operated restaurant.", "It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival, and received negative reviews, though Carey's performance was praised; Roger Friedman of Fox News described her as \"a Thelma Ritter for the new millennium\", and wrote, \"Her line delivery is sharp and she manages to get the right laughs.", "\"In December 2002, Carey released her ninth studio album, ''Charmbracelet'', which she said marked \"a new lease on life\" for her.", "Sales of ''Charmbracelet'' were moderate and the quality of Carey's vocals came under criticism.", "Joan Anderson from ''The Boston Globe'' declared the album \"the worst of her career, and revealed a voice that is no longer capable of either gravity-defying gymnastics or soft coos\", while AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote, \"Mariah's voice is shot, sounding in tatters throughout the record.", "She can no longer coo or softly croon nor can she perform her trademark gravity-defying vocal runs.\"", "To support the album, Carey embarked on the Charmbracelet World Tour, spanning North America and East Asia over three months.", "The United States shows were booked in theaters.", "She described the show as \"much more intimate so you'll feel like you had an experience.", "You experience a night with me.\"", "While smaller venues were booked throughout the tour's stateside leg, Carey performed in stadiums in Asia and Europe, playing for a crowd of over 35,000 in Manila, 50,000 in Malaysia, and to over 70,000 people in China.", "In the United Kingdom, it was her first tour to feature shows outside London, booking arena stops in Glasgow, Birmingham and Manchester.", "The tour garnered generally positive reviews, with many praising the production and the quality of Carey's vocals.==== 2005–2007: Resurgence with ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' ====Carey, pictured with former Island Records head L.A. Reid, at the release party for ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' in 2005Carey's tenth studio album, ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' in 2005, was produced with the Neptunes, Kanye West and Carey's longtime collaborator, Jermaine Dupri.", "She described the album as \"very much like a party record ... the process of putting on makeup and getting ready to go out ...", "I wanted to make a record that was reflective of that.\"", "''The Emancipation of Mimi'' topped the charts in the United States, becoming Carey's fifth number-one album and first since ''Butterfly'' (1997), and was warmly accepted by critics.", "Caroline Sullivan of ''The Guardian'' defined it as \"cool, focused and urban ... some of the first Mariah Carey tunes in years which I wouldn't have to be paid to listen to again,\" while ''USA Today''s Elysa Gardner wrote, \"The songs truly reflect the renewed confidence of a songbird who has taken her shots and kept on flying.\"", "The album's second single, \"We Belong Together\", became a \"career re-defining\" song for Carey, after a relatively unsuccessful period and a point when many critics had considered her career over.Music critics heralded the song as her \"return to form,\" as well as the \"return of The Voice,\" while many felt it would revive \"faith\" in Carey's potential as a balladeer.", "\"We Belong Together\" broke several records in the United States and became Carey's sixteenth chart topper on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.After staying at number one for fourteen non-consecutive weeks, the song became the second-longest-running number one song in US chart history, behind Carey's 1996 collaboration with Boyz II Men, \"One Sweet Day\".", "''Billboard'' listed it as the \"song of the decade\" and the ninth most popular song of all time.", "The song broke several airplay records, and according to Nielsen BDS, and gathered both the largest one-day and one-week audiences in history.During the week of September 25, 2005, Carey set another record, becoming the first woman to occupy the first two spots atop the Hot 100, as \"We Belong Together\" remained at number one, and her next single, \"Shake It Off\", moved into the number two spot (Ashanti had topped the chart in 2002 while being a \"featured\" singer on the number two single).", "On the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 Year-end Chart of 2005, \"We Belong Together\" was declared the number one song, a first for Carey.", "''Billboard'' listed \"We Belong Together\" ninth on The ''Billboard'' Hot 100 All-Time Top Songs and was declared the most popular song of the 2000s decade by ''Billboard''.", "The album was re-released as ''The Ultra Platinum Edition'', from which \"Don't Forget About Us\" became her seventeenth number-one hit.", "''The Emancipation of Mimi'' earned ten Grammy Award nominations: eight in 2006 for the original release, the most received by Carey in a single year, and two in 2007 for the ''Ultra Platinum Edition''.", "Carey won Best Contemporary R&B Album and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song for \"We Belong Together\".", "''The Emancipation of Mimi'' was the best-selling album in the United States in 2005, with nearly five million units sold.", "It was the first album by a solo female artist to become the year's best-selling album since Alanis Morissette's ''Jagged Little Pill'' in 1996.At the end of 2005, the IFPI reported that ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' had sold more than 7.7 million copies globally, and was the second-best-selling album of the year after Coldplay's ''X&Y''.", "It has since sold 12 million copies worldwide.In support of the album, Carey embarked on her first headlining tour in three years, named The Adventures of Mimi after a \"Carey-centric fan's\" music diary.", "The tour spanned 40 dates, with 32 in the United States and Canada, two in Africa, and six in Japan.", "It received warm reception from music critics and concert goers, many of which celebrated the quality of Carey's vocals.==== 2008–2009: ''E=MC²'', ''Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel'', and ''Precious'' ====In early 2007, Carey began to work on her eleventh studio album, ''E=MC²''.", "Although the album was well received by most critics, some of them criticized it for being very similar to the formula used on ''The Emancipation of Mimi''.", "Two weeks before the album's release, \"Touch My Body\", the record's lead single, reached the top position on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, becoming Carey's eighteenth number one and making her the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history, pushing her past Elvis Presley into second place according to the magazine's revised methodology.", "Carey is second only to The Beatles, who have twenty number-one singles.", "Additionally, it gave Carey her 79th week atop the Hot 100, tying her with Presley as the artist with the most weeks at number one in the ''Billboard'' chart history.", "\"Carey at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival''E=MC²'' debuted at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200 with 463,000 copies sold, the biggest opening week sales of her career.", "In 2008, Carey also played an aspiring singer named Krystal in ''Tennessee'' and had a cameo appearance in Adam Sandler's film ''You Don't Mess with the Zohan'', playing herself.", "Since the album's release, Carey had planned to embark on an extensive tour in support of ''E=MC²''.", "However, the tour was suddenly cancelled in early December 2008.Carey later stated that she had been pregnant during that time period, and suffered a miscarriage, hence she cancelled the tour.", "On January 20, 2009, Carey performed \"Hero\" at the Neighborhood Inaugural Ball after Barack Obama was sworn as the first African-American president of the United States.", "On July 7, 2009, Carey—alongside Trey Lorenz—performed her version of The Jackson 5 song \"I'll Be There\" at the memorial service for Michael Jackson.In 2009, she appeared as a social worker in ''Precious'', the movie adaptation of the 1996 novel ''Push'' by Sapphire.", "The film garnered mostly positive reviews from critics, also for Carey's performance.", "''Variety'' described her acting as \"pitch-perfect.\"", "In January 2010, Carey won the Breakthrough Actress Performance Award for her role in ''Precious'' at the Palm Springs International Film Festival.On September 25, 2009, Carey's twelfth studio album, ''Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel'', was released.", "Reception for the album was mostly mixed; Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it \"her most interesting album in a decade,\" while Jon Caramanica from ''The New York Times'' criticized Carey's vocal performances, decrying her overuse of her softer vocal registers at the expense of her more powerful lower and upper registers.", "Commercially, the album debuted at number three on the ''Billboard'' 200, and became the lowest-selling studio album of her career.", "\"Obsessed\" served as the lead single, and debuted at number eleven in the US before peaked at number seven, and became Carey's 27th top-ten entry within the nation, tying her with Elton John and Janet Jackson for having the fifth most top-tens.", "Its follow-up single, a cover of Foreigner's \"I Want to Know What Love Is\", managed to break airplay records in Brazil.", "The song spent 27 weeks atop the Brasil Hot 100 Airplay, making it the longest running song in the chart's history.On December 31, 2009, Carey embarked on her seventh concert tour, Angels Advocate Tour, which visited the United States and Canada and ended on September 26, 2010.A planned remix album of ''Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel'', titled ''Angels Advocate'', was slated for a March 30, 2010, release but was eventually cancelled.==== 2010–2014: ''Merry Christmas II You'' and ''Me.", "I Am Mariah...", "The Elusive Chanteuse'' ====Following the cancellation of ''Angels Advocate'', it was announced that Carey would return to the studio to start work on her thirteenth studio album.", "It was later revealed that it would be her second Christmas album, and follow-up to ''Merry Christmas''.", "The release date for the album, titled ''Merry Christmas II You'', was November 2, 2010; the track list included six new songs as well as a remix of \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\".", "''Merry Christmas II You'' debuted at number four on the ''Billboard'' 200 with sales of 56,000 copies, and number one on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, making it only the second Christmas album to top this chart.", "In February 2011, she recorded a duet with Tony Bennett for his ''Duets II'' album, titled \"When Do The Bells Ring For Me?", "\", and re-recorded \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" with Justin Bieber as a duet for his Christmas album, ''Under the Mistletoe''.", "In November that year, Carey was included in the remix to the mixtape single \"Warning\" by Uncle Murda; the remix also features 50 Cent and Young Jeezy.", "Later that month, Carey released a duet with John Legend titled \"When Christmas Comes\", originally part of ''Merry Christmas II You''.Carey performing on ''Good Morning America'' in May 2013On March 1, 2012, Carey performed at New York City's Gotham Hall; her first time performing since her pregnancy.", "She also performed a three-song set at a special fundraiser for US President Barack Obama held in New York's Plaza Hotel.", "A new song titled \"Bring It On Home\", which Carey wrote for the event to show her support for Obama's re-election campaign, was also performed.", "In August 2012, she released a stand-alone single, \"Triumphant (Get 'Em)\", featuring rappers Rick Ross and Meek Mill.", "Carey joined the judging panel of the twelfth season of ''American Idol''.", "Throughout the show there were on-set disagreements between Carey and fellow judge Nicki Minaj.", "Three years later, Carey did not make an appearance for its original series finale.", "In 2013, Carey appeared in Lee Daniels' film ''The Butler'' and made guest voice-star as a redneck character on the adult animated series ''American Dad!", "''.In February 2013, Carey recorded and released a song called \"Almost Home\", for the soundtrack of the Walt Disney Studios film ''Oz the Great and Powerful''.", "The video was directed by photographer David LaChapelle.", "For her 14th album, Carey worked with producers including DJ Clue?, Randy Jackson, Q-Tip, R. Kelly, David Morales, Afanasieff, Dupri, The-Dream and Da Brat.", "Carey told ''Billboard'': \"It's about making sure I have tons of good music, because at the end of the day that's the most important thing...", "There are a lot more raw ballads than people might expect...there are also uptempo and signature-type songs that represent my different facets as an artist.\"", "The lead single, \"Beautiful\", featuring singer Miguel, was released on May 6, 2013, and peaked at number 15 on the Hot 100.Carey taped a performance of \"Beautiful\" along with a medley of her greatest hits on May 15, 2013; the taping aired on the ''American Idol'' finale the following day.", "The album, titled ''Me.", "I Am Mariah...", "The Elusive Chanteuse'', was released on May 27, 2014.In October 2014, Carey announced an annual residency show All I Want For Christmas Is You, A Night of Joy & Festivity.", "Originally performed at the Beacon Theatre in New York City, the residency began on December 15, 2014, and ended on December 15, 2019, after completing eight legs and fifty-six shows in various countries around the world.==== 2015–2017: #1 to Infinity residency, television and film projects ====On January 30, 2015, it was announced that Carey had left Universal Music Group's Def Jam Recordings to reunite with L.A. Reid and Sony Music via Epic Records.", "Carey also announced her new #1 to Infinity residency at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas the same month.", "To coincide with the residency, Carey released ''#1 to Infinity'', a greatest hits compilation album containing all of her eighteen ''Billboard'' Hot 100 number one singles at the time, along with a new recording, \"Infinity\", which was released as a single on April 27.In 2015 Carey had her directorial debut for the Hallmark Channel Christmas movie ''A Christmas Melody'', in which she also performed as one of the main characters.", "In December 2015, Carey announced The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour which spanned a total of 27-dates beginning in March 2016, marking Carey's first major tour of mainland Europe in 13 years.", "Four stops included shows in South Africa.", "The tour grossed $30.3 million.Carey attending Elton John's Academy Awards Party in February 2016On March 15, 2016, Carey announced that she was filming ''Mariah's World'', a docu-series for the E!", "network documenting her Sweet Sweet Fantasy tour and her wedding planning process.", "Carey told ''The New York Times'', \"I thought it would be a good opportunity to kind of, like, show my personality and who I am, even though I feel like my real fans have an idea of who I am... A lot of people have misperceptions about this and that.\"", "The series premiered on December 4, 2016.Carey guest starred on the musical drama ''Empire'', as a superstar singer named Kitty and sung the song \"Infamous\" featuring Jussie Smollett.", "On December 5, 2016, Carey participated in the ''VH1 Divas Holiday: Unsilent Night'' benefit concert, alongside Vanessa Williams, Chaka Khan, Patti LaBelle, and Teyana Taylor.", "On December 31, 2016, Carey's performance on ''Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve'' in Times Square received worldwide attention after technical difficulties caused Carey's in-ear monitors to malfunction, resulting in what ''The New York Times'' referred to as a \"performance train wreck.\"", "Carey cited her inability to hear the music without in-ear auditory feedback as the cause for the mishap.", "Carey's representatives and Dick Clark Productions placed blame on each other.On February 3, 2017, Carey released the single \"I Don't\" featuring YG.", "Later that month, she voiced the Mayor of Gotham City in the animated film ''The Lego Batman Movie''.", "In July 2017, Carey made a cameo in the comedy film ''Girls Trip'' and embarked on a tour with Lionel Richie, titled, All the Hits Tour.", "She was also featured in the official remix for French Montana's single \"Unforgettable\", alongside Swae Lee.", "In October 2017, she released a new soundtrack single, \"The Star\", for the movie of the same name.", "The song was nominated for the Best Original Song at the 75th Golden Globe Awards.", "Carey also developed an animated Christmas film, ''Mariah Carey's All I Want For Christmas Is You'', for which she recorded an original song called \"Lil' Snowman\".", "The film was released direct-to-video on November 14, 2017.On December 31, 2017, Carey returned to perform on ''Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve'' after the technical difficulties that hindered her previous performance, in what ''The New York Times'' described as a \"made-for-television act of pop culture redemption\".==== 2018–2019: ''Caution'' and ''Merry Christmas'' reissue ====In 2018, Carey signed a worldwide deal with Live Nation Entertainment.", "The first commitment out of the deal was her new Las Vegas residency, The Butterfly Returns, which was launched in July 2018 to critical acclaim.", "Its first 12 shows in 2018 grossed $3.6 million, with dates later extending into 2019 and 2020.Following the residency, Carey embarked on her Mariah Carey: Live in Concert tour in Asia and returned to Europe with her All I Want for Christmas Is You concert series.", "In September 2018, Carey announced plans to release her fifteenth studio album later in the year.", "The project was announced alongside the release of a new song titled \"GTFO\", which she performed on September 21, 2018, when she headlined the 2018 iHeartRadio Music Festival.", "The album's lead single, \"With You\", was released in October and performed for the first time at the American Music Awards of 2018.The single became Carey's highest-charting non-holiday song on the US Adult Contemporary chart since \"We Belong Together\" in 2005.It was followed by a second single, \"A No No\".", "The album, titled ''Caution'', was released on November 16, 2018, and received universal acclaim from critics; it debuted at number five on the ''Billboard'' 200.By December 2018, the album had been featured on numerous year-end lists by music critics and publications.Carey performing on her Caution World Tour in Amsterdam, June 2019In February 2019, Carey commenced the Caution World Tour in support of the album.", "Later in 2019, Carey engaged in a series of business and television ventures.", "On September 18, 2019, Carey released \"In the Mix\", the theme song for the ABC sitcom ''Mixed-ish''.", "On November 1, 2019, Carey re-released her holiday album ''Merry Christmas'' for its 25th anniversary.", "The album package included the original album and another disc which include live performances from Carey's 1994 concert at St. John the Divine Church, several tracks from ''Merry Christmas II You'', as well as other stand-alone singles such as \"Lil Snowman\" and \"The Star\".", "On December 5, 2019, it was announced that a mini-documentary titled ''Mariah Carey Is Christmas!", "'', charting the creation and subsequent cultural legacy of \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" was to be produced and broadcast on Amazon Music; it premiered later that month.", "Peaking at number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 for the first time the same year, the song ended up giving Carey her nineteenth chart-topper in the US, and it returned to its peak every holiday season since.==== 2020–present: ''The Rarities'' and ''The Meaning of Mariah Carey'' ====In January 2020, it was announced that Carey would be inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.", "Her memoir, ''The Meaning of Mariah Carey'' which was co-written with Michaela Angela Davis, was published in September of the same year.", "It recounts an \"improbable and inspiring journey of survival and resilience as she struggles through complex issues of race, identity, class, childhood, and family trauma during her meteoric rise to music superstardom\".", "The memoir became a number one ''New York Times'' Best Seller after its first week of release.", "Carey announced plans to celebrate the 30th anniversary of her debut album through the rest of 2020, in a promotional campaign billed \"#MC30\".", "The first release consisted of the live EP ''The Live Debut – 1990'' which was released on July 17, 2020.On October 2, 2020, Carey released a compilation album titled ''The Rarities'', which includes rare and unreleased songs that Carey recorded at various stages of her career.", "Its lead single, \"Save the Day\" featuring Lauryn Hill, was released on August 20, and its music video was released on September 13 as part of the airing of the US Open.", "Four days later, the album's second single—a cover of Irene Cara's \"Out Here on My Own\"—was released after being recorded by Carey in 2000.At the end of October, Carey was featured on Busta Rhymes' single \"Where I Belong\".Carey's 2020 Christmas special, ''Mariah Carey's Magical Christmas Special'', premiered on December 4, 2020, on Apple TV+ along with a soundtrack.", "A new version of Carey's 2010 song \"Oh Santa!", "\", featuring Ariana Grande and Jennifer Hudson, was released as a single the same day.", "Later that month, \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" topped the UK charts for the first time after spending a record 69 weeks in its top 40 prior to reaching the summit, becoming Carey's third number-one song in the country.", "In July 2021, Carey was featured on the track \"Somewhat Loved\" from Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis' debut studio album ''Jam & Lewis: Volume One''.", "On November 5, 2021, Carey released \"Fall in Love at Christmas\", which features Khalid and Kirk Franklin.", "The single was performed on her second Christmas special, ''Mariah's Christmas: The Magic Continues''.Carey performing at Scotiabank Arena in December 2022On January 12, 2022, Carey announced a children's picture book titled ''The Christmas Princess'', co-written with Michaela Angela Davis and illustrated by Fuuji Takashi; it was released in November that year.", "In March, Carey was featured alongside DJ Khaled on the remix of Latto's single \"Big Energy\", which interpolates Carey's 1995 single \"Fantasy\".", "In April, an online MasterClass course based on singing, in which Carey served as a vocal coach, was released.", "A re-recorded version of Carey's 1998 single, \"The Roof\", featuring Brandy Norwood, was made available exclusively to Masterclass subscribers.", "Later that month, ''Number 1's'' was released on vinyl as a Record Store Day exclusive and re-entered the top 20 of the Billboard 200.In June, Carey performed with Latto at the 2022 BET Awards.On September 16, 2022, an expanded version of ''Butterfly'' was released for the 25th anniversary of the album.", "In December 2022, Carey performed two pairs of shows at Scotiabank Arena in Toronto and Madison Square Garden in New York City.", "On December 20, 2022, a television special adapted from her shows in New York, titled ''Mariah Carey: Merry Christmas to All!", "'', aired on CBS and became the most watched program of its night, drawing in a total of 3.8 million viewers and a 0.4 demo rating.", "Carey also served as a co-producer of ''Some Like It Hot'' on Broadway, a musical based on the 1959 comedy film ''Some Like It Hot''.", "Carey's show premiered on December 11, 2022, at the Shubert Theatre in Manhattan, New York.", "It earned her a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Musical.In February 2023, the 2009 track \"It's a Wrap\" experienced a revival on TikTok, prompting Carey to release an EP for the song, which included a new sped-up version.", "On September 8, 2023, Carey released a deluxe version of ''Music Box'' in celebration of the album's thirtieth anniversary.", "A remix of \"Workin Hard\" by Terry Hunter, which featured on the deluxe album, was nominated for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical at the 66th Annual Grammy Awards.On November 19 2023, Carey was awarded the Billboard Music Award for Chart Achievement.", "Carey embarked on her 16-date concert tour, Merry Christmas One and All!, which concluded at Madison Square Garden on December 17, 2023.The tour grossed approximately $30 million and sold more than 200,000 tickets.", "On February 2, 2024, The Recording Academy announced that Carey would receive the Grammy Global Impact Award, a CEO Award which recognizes \"Black music creators whose dedication to the art form has greatly influenced the industry and whose legacy of service inspires countless individuals worldwide\".", "Later that month, Carey was nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "On February 16, 2024, Carey featured on the remix of Ariana Grande's single, \"Yes, And?", "\"." ], [ "Artistry", "=== Influences ===Carey has said that from childhood she has been influenced by Billie Holiday, Sarah Vaughan as well as R&B and soul musicians including Al Green, Stevie Wonder, Gladys Knight, Aretha Franklin, and George Michael.", "Her music contains strong influences of gospel music, and she credits the Clark Sisters, Shirley Caesar, and Edwin Hawkins as the most influential in her early years.", "When Carey incorporated hip hop into her sound, speculation arose that she was making an attempt to take advantage of the genre's popularity, but she told ''Newsweek'', \"People just don't understand.", "I grew up with this music.\"", "She has expressed appreciation for rappers such as the Sugarhill Gang, Eric B.", "& Rakim, the Wu-Tang Clan, The Notorious B.I.G.", "and Mobb Deep, with whom she collaborated on the single \"The Roof (Back in Time)\" (1998).", "Carey was heavily influenced by Minnie Riperton, and began experimenting with the whistle register due to her original practice of the range.During Carey's career, her vocal and musical style, along with her level of success, has been compared to Whitney Houston, whom she has also cited as an influence.", "Carey and her peers, according to Garry Mulholland, are \"the princesses of wails... virtuoso vocalists who blend chart-oriented pop with mature MOR torch song.\"", "Author and writer Lucy O'Brien attributed the comeback of Barbra Streisand's \"old-fashioned showgirl\" to Carey and Celine Dion, and described them and Houston as \"groomed, airbrushed and overblown to perfection.\"", "Carey's musical transition and use of more revealing clothing during the late 1990s were, in part, initiated to distance herself from this image, and she subsequently said that most of her early work was \"schmaltzy MOR.\"", "Some have noted that unlike Houston and Dion, Carey writes and produces her own music.=== Musical style ===Carey performing at the Walt Disney World Resort in 2010Love is the subject of the majority of Carey's lyrics, although she has written about themes such as loss, sex, race, abuse and spirituality.", "She has said that much of her work is partly autobiographical, but ''Time'' magazine's Christopher John Farley wrote: \"If only Mariah Carey's music had the drama of her life.", "Her songs are often sugary and artificial—NutraSweet soul.", "But her life has passion and conflict,\" applying it to the first stages of her career.", "He commented that as her albums progressed, so too her songwriting and music blossomed into more mature and meaningful material.", "Jim Faber of the ''New York Daily News'', made similar comments, \"For Carey, vocalizing is all about the performance, not the emotions that inspired it.", "Singing, to her, represents a physical challenge, not an emotional unburdening.\"", "While reviewing ''Music Box'', Stephen Holden from ''Rolling Stone'' commented that Carey sang with \"sustained passion,\" while Arion Berger of ''Entertainment Weekly'' wrote that during some vocal moments, Carey becomes \"too overwhelmed to put her passion into words.\"", "In 2001, ''The Village Voice'' wrote that \"Carey's Strawberry Shortcake soul still provides the template with which teen-pop cuties draw curlicues around those centerless Diane Warren|Diane Warren ballads.", "\"Following Carey's divorce with Tommy Mottola, Carey broke free of adult contemporary arrangements in favour of what Alex Macpherson of ''The Guardian'' described as \"a lovingly crafted, hip-hop-inflected quiet storm\".", "Carey often records her layered background vocals, which has been described as \"a swooning bank of a hundred Mariahs\".", "The singer claims that \"it's because I started out as a backup singer and doing sessions as a background vocalist learning from some of the greatest background vocalists, and also people like Luther Vandross.", "Growing up, I admired his texture in and of itself but also his use of background vocals\".", "David Foster stated that Carey \"thinks like a record producer and lays her vocals down like a virtuoso guitarist\".", "Carey's songwriting is noted for its \"eccentric verbosity\".", "Jeffrey Ingold of ''Vice'' argues that her lyrics are \"among the most verbose in pop music.", "\"Carey's output makes use of electronic instruments such as drum machines, keyboards and synthesizers.", "Many of her songs contain piano-driven melodies, as she was given piano lessons when she was six years old.", "Carey said that she cannot read sheet music and prefers to collaborate with a pianist when composing her material, but feels that it is easier to experiment with faster and less-conventional melodies and chord progressions using this technique.", "While Carey learned to play the piano at a young age, and incorporates several ranges of production and instrumentation into her music, she has maintained that her voice has always been her most important asset: \"My voice is my instrument; it always has been.", "\"Carey began commissioning remixes of her material early in her career and helped to spearhead the practice of recording entirely new vocals for remixes.", "Disc jockey David Morales has collaborated with Carey on several occasions, starting with \"Dreamlover\" (1993), which popularized the tradition of remixing R&B songs into house records, and which ''Slant'' magazine named one of the greatest dance songs.", "From \"Fantasy\" (1995) onward, Carey enlisted both hip-hop and house producers to re-structure her album compositions.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' included two remixes of \"Fantasy\" on a list of Carey's greatest recordings compiled in 2005: a National Dance Music Award-winning remix produced by Morales, and a Sean Combs production featuring rapper Ol' Dirty Bastard.", "The latter has been credited with popularizing the R&B/hip-hop collaboration trend that has continued into the 2000s, through artists such as Ashanti and Beyoncé.", "Combs said that Carey \"knows the importance of mixes, so you feel like you're with an artist who appreciates your work—an artist who wants to come up with something with you.", "\"In an article in ''The New York Times'', writer David Browne discusses how the once-ubiquitous melisma pop style was heavily popularized by singers such as Carey.", "Browne commented, \"beginning in 1990, melisma overtook pop in a way it hadn't before.", "Mariah Carey's debut hit from 1990, \"Vision of Love\", set the bar insanely high for notes stretched louder, longer and knottier than most pop fans had ever heard.\"", "Browne further added \"A subsequent generation of singers, including Ms. Aguilera, Jennifer Hudson and Beyoncé, built their careers around melisma.", "(Men like Brian McKnight and Tyrese also indulged in it, but women tended to dominate the form.", ")\"=== Voice and timbre ===Carey possesses a five-octave vocal range.", "Referred to as the \"Songbird Supreme\" by the ''Guinness World Records'' due to her ability to sing in the whistle register, she was ranked as the greatest singer of the past twenty years in a 2003 MTV2 online poll.", "Carey said of the result, \"What it really means is voice of the MTV generation.", "Of course, it's an enormous compliment, but I don't feel that way about myself.\"", "In 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' named her the fifth-greatest singer of all time and the \"architect of modern pop\".Regarding her type of voice, several critics have described her as a lyric coloratura soprano or just a soprano.", "Jon Pareles of ''The New York Times'' described Carey's lower register as a \"rich, husky alto\" that extends to \"dog-whistle high notes.\"", "Carey herself describes her voice as that of an alto singer.", "Sasha Frere-Jones of ''The New Yorker'' adds her timbre on \"Vision of Love\" possesses various colors, stating, \"Carey's sound changes with nearly every line, mutating from a steely tone to a vibrating growl and then to a humid, breathy coo.\"", "In an analysis of Carey's voice for ClassicFM, singer Catherine Bott claims that Carey's chest voice could go up \"higher in pitch than any classical singer that Botts had ever met.\"", "Her sense of pitch is admired and Jon Pareles adds \"she can linger over sensual turns, growl with playful confidence, syncopate like a scat singer... with startlingly exact pitch.\"", "Carey claims that she has had nodules on her vocal cords since childhood, due to which she can sing in a higher register than others.", "However, tiredness and sleep deprivation can affect her vocals due to the nodules, and Carey explained that she went through a lot of practice as a child to maintain a balance during singing.", "Carey is noted for her vocal improvisation skills.", "Carey stated in a 2021 interview with the ''Daily Express'' that with her voice, it's all about \"timing, vocal rest and sleep\".", "Towards the late 1990s, Carey began incorporating breathy vocals into her material.", "Tim Levell from BBC News described her vocals as \"sultry close-to-the-mic breathiness,\" while ''USA Today''s Elysa Gardner wrote \"it's impossible to deny the impact her vocal style, a florid blend of breathy riffing and resonant belting, has had on today's young pop and R&B stars.\"", "In an interview, Ron Givens of ''Entertainment Weekly'' described it this way, \"first, a rippling, soulful ooh comes rolling effortlessly from her throat: alto.", "Then, after a quick breath, she goes for the stratosphere, with a sound that nearly changes the barometric pressure in the room.", "In one brief swoop, she seems to squeal and roar at the same time.\"", "Winston Cook-Wilson wrote that \"In her vocal prime, she was able to access upper-echelon dog-whistle notes even her forebear Minnie Riperton couldn't muster.\"", "Her phrasing in the whistle register can be heard in the 1999 ''Rainbow'' track \"Bliss\" and the singer was praised for her perfect pitch and clear enunciation.Alex Macpherson of ''The Guardian'' noted that Carey's voice on ''Butterfly'' is \"an instrument of texture rather than volume, with pillows of lavishly layered vocals and nuanced phrasing magnifying the emotional intensity of the songs.\"", "Randy Jackson said that \"It's in the tone, that buttery tone that she has with her voice that is unbelievably amazing and unbelievably identifiable.", "\"=== Stage performances and videos ===Carey pressing her in-ear monitor, while hitting a whistle note during her Caution World Tour in 2019Despite being called a \"show stopper\" and \"the 1990s pop phenomenon\", Carey suffered from stage fright in her early years in the music industry.", "One of her earliest performances was at MTV Unplugged, which received positive reception as Carey silenced critics saying her vocals were studio-made.", "Carey's \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" rendition at the Super Bowl XXXVI was called \"stunning\" by ''Billboard''.", "She also performed \"America the Beautiful\" at the 1990 NBA Finals in which ''Rolling Stone'' writer, Brittany Spanos, stated the players were struck \"with awe by the incredible talent of a burgeoning young star\".", "The singer received the only standing ovation of the night at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards, after performing the medley of \"We Belong Together and \"Fly Like a Bird\".", "Although Carey's performance at ''Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve 2017'' was marred by technical issues, she returned to the stage a year later and, according to ''Time'', \"effectively redeemed herself\".Carey is known for being very static during her live performances; some reviewers credited her stage fright and lack of confidence as the reasoning, while others pointed out that her performances focus on her vocals and the quality of her songs.", "Her onstage hand gesticulations have usually been mimicked, as the singer has a tendency for \"using her hands to point, flutter and sweep through the air as she deftly crests each run\".", "When reviewing Carey's 2014 concert, Michael Lallo wrote that \"If you're Mariah, you ... stroke your hair a lot.", "When a high note is on the horizon, you brace yourself by touching your ear and adopting a pained expression, provoking the crowd into losing its collective mind.", "\"The music video for \"Fantasy\" was the first that Carey directed entirely on her own.", "Carey had been open about the fact that she had not been happy with some of her previous music videos, and has subsequently been noted for self-directing and co-producing her subsequent videography.", "The song \"Honey\" pushed Carey further towards hip hop and R&B than before.", "The music video gained further attention, as Carey, for the first time in her career, was provocatively dressed, giving viewers a \"taste of the freer Mariah.\"", "''Billboard'' ranked Carey 73rd on its list of \"The 100 Greatest Music Video Artists of All Time\" in 2020, stating that \"over three decades, Carey has gone from breezy girl next door, flaunting a denim collection as wide as her vocal range, to secret agent, runaway bride and even her own stalker in a collection of music videos that play like mini-dramas\".", "The music video for \"The Roof\" was ranked 18th on Slant Magazine's \"100 Greatest Music Videos.", "The music videos for \"Honey\" and \"Heartbreaker\" remain among the most expensive ever made, costing over $2 million.", "In 2021, Carey was honoured at the African American Film Critics Association with a Special Achievement Innovator Award for her \"visual storytelling in her music videos and specials\"." ], [ "Cultural status", "=== Public image ===Carey performing \"We Belong Together\" on ''Good Morning America'' in 2005Carey has been called a pop icon and has been labeled a \"diva\" for her stardom and persona.", "She said, \"I have had diva moments, and then people can't handle it.", "I guess it's a little intense, because I come from a true diva: My mother is an opera singer.", "And that's a real diva, you know—Juilliard diva.", "And I mean it as a compliment, or I wouldn't be the person I am without experiencing that.\"", "Carey's fanbase is known as the \"Lambily\", a portmanteau of \"lamb\" and \"family\".", "With over 10 million followers as of April 2013, Carey is one of the most popular musicians on Twitter.", "Her fans are credited with originating the internet term \"skinny legend\", used as a form of praise and endearment for their idol.", "In 2008, Carey was named one of ''Time''s 100 most influential artists and entertainers in the world.", "''NOW'' writer Kevin Hegge agreed that \"Carey's influence is indisputable\".Her style has often been described as \"eccentric\" and \"over the top\".", "Writer Noah Berlatsky noted that \"Carey has always reveled in uber-feminine, girly imagery\", with her album titles such as ''Butterfly'', ''Rainbow'', ''Glitter'' and ''Charmbracelet'' being prime examples.", "In her memoir, she stated, \"I refuse to acknowledge time.", "(...) Not living based on time became a way to hold on to myself, to keep close and keep alive that inner child of mine.", "It's why I gravitate toward enduring characters like Santa Claus, the Tooth Fairy and Tinker Bell.", "They remind me we can be timeless.\"", "Tom Breihan of ''Stereogum'' wrote in 2015 that \"decades from now, we will be looking back at Mariah Carey as one of the most gloriously batshit pop stars of all time.", "\"As the biggest pop star in music by the mid-1990s, Carey's \"first years as a pop star were extraordinarily fruitful but restrictive\".", "In the late 1990s, after separating from Mottola, Carey adopted a more provocative and less conservative image than had been previously seen and began wearing more revealing clothes.", "She has since been described as a sex symbol.", "The singer mentions Marilyn Monroe as one of her biggest idols and her \"beauty icon\", and she referenced Monroe in some of her music videos, such as \"I Still Believe\" or \"Don't Forget About Us\".", "Her album ''Butterfly'' has been credited for revamping Carey's image as a pop star where she began to embrace hip hop and R&B themes and fully come into her own self, resulting in butterflies becoming a metaphorical symbol of her impact and legacy upon pop and R&B music.", "In the early 2000s, Carey was a \"tabloid fixture\" and her public breakdown during the promotion of her 2001 film, ''Glitter'', became the \"stuff of tabloid legend\" according to Justin Curto, writer for ''Vulture''.", "Her return to prominence in 2005 with the album ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' is regarded as one of the greatest musical comebacks in history.", "After joining ''American Idol'' as a judge for the twelfth season, Carey became one of the highest paid American television stars ever.", "Emilia Petrarca of ''W'' stated that \"Carey is uber-cautious about cultivating her public image\" but that when it comes to style, she is \"more do than don't\".Several media outlets have called Carey the \"Queen of Shade\".", "When asked about American singer Jennifer Lopez in a German TV interview, Carey's response was, \"I don't know her\".", "The clip became a viral internet meme and has been brought up in many other interviews with both of the singers.", "After the release of \"Obsessed\", critics heavily compared its lyrics to Eminem who had negatively referenced her several times in songs, and suggested Carey alluded to him and his 'obsession' with her.", "\"Obsessed\" never mentions the rapper's name, although reviewers felt it to be very obvious.", "Additionally, Carey played a role that resembled the rapper in the song's accompanying music video.Due to her large gay fanbase, Carey is recognized as a gay icon and her song \"Hero\" is regarded as an anthem among the gay community as it touches upon themes of embracing individuality and overcoming self-doubt.", "According to Carey herself, a lot of her gay fans admitted to also be growing up listening to her song \"Outside\" and relating to the feeling of isolation and unfitting.", "Her diva persona has also given her much admiration from gay fans.", "Carey was honored by GLAAD in 2016 with the GLAAD Ally Award for which she expressed gratitude to her LGBT+ fans.", "In her speech she thanked the community, \"For the unconditional love ...", "I wish all of you love, peace, and harmony\".Fashion has also been a part of Carey's image.", "She was cited a fashion icon by ''Insider'' writer Susanna Heller who added that \"her decadent closet spans multiple rooms and is full of designer clothing, lingerie, shoes, and accessories\".", "''CR Fashion Book'' writer Shepherd also stated that while her \"sartorial aesthetic has shifted here and there ..., the music icon largely favors sexy, skin-baring, and often bedazzled looks.", "During her tours, she has frequently worn Jimmy Choo and Christian Louboutin high-end stiletto footwear, as well as leotards, corsets, and fishnet tights.", "Laura Antonia Jordan of ''Grazia'' called Carey fashion \"royalty\" and stated that in the 1990s, her go-to looks were \"super-tight silhouettes, cropped tops, thigh-grazing hemlines and dangerously high slits.\"", "Carey has also been credited for beginning the trend of wearing low-rise jeans in the early 2000s, after cutting off the waistband of the denim she wore for the music video of \"Heartbreaker\", which have since been described as \"iconic\".", "''Vogue'' writer Christian Allaire stated that in the latter half of her career, Carey has \"rarely hit without her evening gowns, often embellished with crystals, sequins, or feathers.", "\"=== Queen of Christmas ===Carey performing \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" at the 2013 National Christmas Tree Lighting event in Washington, D.C.\"All I Want for Christmas Is You\", as well as its parent album ''Merry Christmas'', have become such a ubiquitous part of wider popular culture that Carey's name became synonymous with the season, and she has since been dubbed the \"Queen of Christmas\".", "Both the song and album have been hailed as being \"one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon\" by publications such as ''The New Yorker''.", "Speaking to ''Vogue'' in 2015, Elvis Duran stated that the song's appeal was based on the fact that it was \"a modern song that could actually have been a hit back in the '40s\", praising its \"timeless, classic quality\".", "The success of the song, in particular, has led Carey to build what ''Billboard'' described as a \"growing holiday mini-empire\".Multiple media sources have referred to Carey as a modern holiday icon.", "The singer has often incorporated holiday-themed outfits during her Christmas shows and music videos.", "''Billboard'' noted that \"each year, her reign gets grander and more festive.", "(...) Over the years, Carey has rocked nearly every shade of red for the season's fashions, from plunging gowns and floor-length coats to ensembles inspired by Santa, Mrs. Claus and ''The Nutcracker'' toy soldiers.", "She's also a pro at pulling off winter white, whether she's wearing a snow-white dress covered in crystals or a fluffy hood tailor-made for keeping the December chill at bay.\"", "Due to the song's ongoing popularity, as well as social media memes that show retail workers' disdain for the song due to its frequent airplay at their jobs (which sometimes require the round-the-clock display of Christmas music), Carey has taken advantage of this by posting a video on her social media every year since 2019 around midnight Eastern time on November 1, announcing that \"it's time\" to play the song.Carey initially renounced the title, saying that \"to me, Mother Mary is the Queen of Christmas\".", "Despite this, in March 2021, she attempted to trademark the phrase \"Queen of Christmas\", which received backlash from singers Darlene Love and Elizabeth Chan.", "In November 2022, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board rejected Carey's request.=== Legacy ===Carey at Edwards Air Force Base during the making of the \"I Still Believe\" music video in December 1998|174x174pxCarey's enduring popularity as a musician has received extensive recognition, with Anne Branigin from ''The Root'' commenting: \"There's longevity, then there's Mariah Carey\".", "When reviewing her fifteenth studio album, ''Caution'', Eddino Hadi wrote, \"In the last three decades since she made her debut, many female pop stars have scaled the heights that Carey has reached but very, very few have matched her longevity\".", "She is the first artist to reach number-one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in the physical, digital and streaming eras.", "Carey's music has been recorded, performed or sampled by a variety of artists such as Aretha Franklin, Patti LaBelle, Dolly Parton, Luciano Pavarotti, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Shania Twain, Michael Ball, Ariana Grande, Bryson Tiller, Drake, Fifth Harmony, and Sigala.", "The 2019 film ''Always Be My Maybe'' was a play-on-words of Carey's 1996 single \"Always Be My Baby\", which was used as the movie's theme song.Carey has also been credited for her role in breaking down racial barriers in popular culture and facilitating public discourse surrounding multiracialism during the 1990s.", "Brittany Luse from ''Vulture'' wrote that Carey \"rose to fame as public conversations about multiracial identity were expanding in the early '90s', noting that the singer \"became something of an avatar for biracial identity, a validating presence for some and a source of both curiosity and discomfort for others\".", "Luse concluded that \"Carey's experience of fame could have happened only once; her stardom punched a hole in the sky.", "Her career matured as current conversations about mixed identity were still forming and while the passing narratives of the past, both brilliant and clumsy, had yet to fade from pop-cultural memory.", "There was a time when she might have been considered the most famous mixed person of Black and white parentage in America, but now the field's far more crowded\".", "In her book ''Tragic No More: Mixed-Race Women and the Nexus of Sex and Celebrity'', Caroline A. Streeter, an associate professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, also described Carey as one of the \"ideal figures through which to consider the post-Civil Rights era's apparent rehabilitation and transformation of the mulatto/a into a biracial subject of representation\".==== Vocal influence ====Carey's vocal style, as well as her singing ability, have significantly impacted popular and contemporary music.", "She has been considered one of the greatest vocalists.", "As music critic G. Brown from ''The Denver Post'' wrote, \"For better or worse, Mariah Carey's five-octave range and melismatic style have influenced a generation of pop singers.\"", "According to Stevie Wonder, \"When people talk about the great influential singers, they talk about Aretha, Whitney and Mariah.", "That's a testament to her talent.", "Her range is that amazing.\"", "Carey has inspired singers and songwriters all over the world.", "In a review of her ''Greatest Hits'' album, Devon Powers of ''PopMatters'' writes that \"She has influenced countless female vocalists after her.", "At 32, she is already a living legend—even if she never sings another note.\"", "Upon honoring her with the \"Icon Award\" at their awards ceremony in 2012, Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) described Carey's songwriting as having a \"unique and indelible influence on generations of music makers\".Multiple media sources referred to Carey as the \"Queen of Melisma\".", "According to ''Rolling Stone'', \"Her mastery of melisma, the fluttering strings of notes that decorate songs like \"Vision of Love\", inspired the entire ''American Idol'' vocal school, for better or worse, and virtually every other female R&B singer since the Nineties.\"", "Chart historian Tom Breihan chose \"Vision of Love\" as one of the chapters in his book ''The Number Ones: Twenty Chart-Topping Hits That Reveal the History of Pop Music'', stating that the song \"set the stage for a whole decade of showy, pyrotechnic '90s R&B vocals.", "Carey created an environment where her disciples could flourish, and she did it by constructing \"Vision Of Love\" as a showcase for her voice\".", "In 2008, Jody Rosen of ''Slate'' wrote of Carey's influence in modern music, calling her the most influential vocal stylist of the last two decades, the person who made rococo melismatic singing.", "Rosen further exemplified Carey's influence by drawing a parallel with ''American Idol'', which to her, \"often played out as a clash of melisma-mad Mariah wannabes.", "And, today, nearly 20 years after Carey's debut, major labels continue to bet the farm on young stars such as the winner of Britain's ''X Factor'' show, Leona Lewis, with her Generation Next gloss on Mariah's big voice and big hair.\"", "''New York'' magazine's editor Roger Deckker further commented that \"Whitney Houston may have introduced melisma (the vocally acrobatic style of lending a word an extra syllable or twenty) to the charts, but it was Mariah—with her jaw-dropping range—who made it into America's default sound.\"", "Deckker also added that \"Every time you turn on ''American Idol'', you are watching her children.\"", "As Professor Katherine L. Meizel said in her book, ''The Mediation of Identity Politics in American Idol'', \"Carey's influence is in the emulation of melisma or her singing amongst the wannabes, it's also her persona, her diva, her stardom which inspires them ... a pre-fame conic look.\"", "With her ability to do runs, scats, and incredible control using whistle register, Carey is credited with popularizing this technique in mainstream music, making her name synonymous with the term.==== Popularizing remixes ====The impact of Carey's artistry has helped popularize rappers as a featured act in pop music through her post-1995 songs.", "She has been called the \"Queen of Remixes\" by multiple media sources, with MTV writer, Princess Gabbara, noting that it is \"no secret that Carey goes to great lengths to deliver a spectacular remix, often re-recording vocals, penning new lyrics, shooting new music videos, and recording different versions to satisfy pop, R&B, hip-hop, and EDM audiences\".", "Speaking to ''Billboard'' in 2019 for a profile of Carey's career, David Morales, who first collaborated with Carey on the ''Def Club Mix'' of her 1993 single \"Dreamlover\", commented on Carey's revolutionary role in the popularization of remixes: \"Mariah opened up a whole other door, and not many people at that time were capable of that.", "When other big artists saw what I did with Mariah, they wanted that.", "She's how I got into the studio with Toni Braxton, Aretha Franklin, Seal and Donna Summer.", "\"Sasha Frere-Jones, editor of ''The New Yorker'' commented, \"It became standard for R&B/hip-hop stars like Missy Elliott and Beyoncé, to combine melodies with rapped verses.", "And young white pop stars—including Britney Spears, 'N Sync and Christina Aguilera—have spent much of the past ten years making pop music that is unmistakably R&B.\"", "Moreover, Jones concludes that \"Carey's idea of pairing a female songbird with the leading male MCs of hip-hop changed R&B and, eventually, all of pop.", "Although now anyone is free to use this idea, the success of ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' suggests that it still belongs to Carey.\"", "Judnick Mayard, writer of ''The Fader'', wrote that in regarding of R&B and hip hop collaboration, \"The champion of this movement is Mariah Carey.\"", "Mayard also said that \"To this day ODB and Mariah may still be the best and most random hip hop collaboration of all time\", citing that due to the record \"Fantasy\", \"R&B and Hip-Hop were the best of step siblings.\"", "Kelefa Sanneh of ''The New York Times'' wrote, \"In the mid-1990s Ms. Carey pioneered a subgenre that some people call the thug-love duet.", "Nowadays clean-cut pop stars are expected to collaborate with roughneck rappers, but when Ms. Carey teamed up with Ol' Dirty Bastard, of the Wu-Tang Clan, for the 1995 hit remix of 'Fantasy', it was a surprise, and a smash.\"" ], [ "Achievements", "Carey attending the 82nd Academy Awards where ''Precious'' (2009), in which she starred in as Ms. Weiss, a social worker, received six nominationsThroughout her career, Carey has earned numerous awards and honors.", "She has won six Grammy Awards (including a Grammy Global Impact Award), nineteen World Music Awards, ten American Music Awards, and twenty ''Billboard'' Music Awards.", "She is one of the best-selling recording artists in history, with more than 220 million records sold.", "She is also an inductee of the Songwriters Hall of Fame.", "As of March 2022, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) lists Carey as the best-selling female albums artist, with shipments of 72 million units in the US, and one of the best-selling digital singles artists.", "She is the second female singer to amass both diamond-certified albums and singles, with the albums ''Music Box'' and ''Daydream'', and the single \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\"—the only holiday song and the first female song from the 20th century to achieve that.", "With sales of over 28 million copies worldwide, ''Music Box'' and ''Daydream'' rank among the best-selling albums of all time.", "Carey was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2015, and a ''Billboard'' Icon Award in 2019.In 2023, she became one of the first 13 recipients of the BRIT Billion Award, for surpassing the milestone one billion streams in the United Kingdom.Carey has set and broken numerous Hot 100 records.", "She has topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 for 91 weeks, the most for any artist in US chart history.", "On that same chart, she has accumulated 19 number-one singles, the most for any solo artist (second behind the Beatles) and she is also the only artist to have a number-one song in each year of a decade (1990s decade).", "In 2020, Carey became the first artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 over four decades (1990s–2020s).", "Carey was the first woman to debut at number-one, with \"Fantasy\", the first act to debut at number-one multiple times, and she held the record for the most number-one debuts (three), until surpassed in 2020.Her single \"One Sweet Day\", with Boyz II Men, spent sixteen consecutive weeks at the top of ''Billboard''s Hot 100 chart in 1996, setting the record for the most weeks atop the Hot 100 chart until surpassed in 2019 by \"Old Town Road\".", "\"One Sweet Day\" and \"We Belong Together\" became the best performing songs of their respective decades (1990s and 2000s), making Carey the only act to accomplish the feat twice.", "She also holds the record for the most consecutive years topping the chart (eleven).", "\"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" alone broke multiple ''Billboard'' records.", "In 2021, the magazine ranked it as the greatest holiday song of all time.", "It is the longest-running number-one song on the ''Billboard'' Holiday 100 chart (57 cumulative weeks, of the chart's 62 total weeks) and the longest-running holiday number-one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart.", "It also holds the record for the longest span of a song's first and last week at the summit of the Hot 100, a record that's annually extended, and the only song to return to number-one in more than two separate chart runs.In 2008, ''Billboard'' listed \"We Belong Together\" ninth on The ''Billboard'' Hot 100 All-Time Top Songs and second on Top Billboard Hot 100 R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.", "On November 19, 2010, ''Billboard'' magazine ranked Carey at number four on their \"Top 50 R&B/Hip-Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years\" chart.", "In 2012, Carey was ranked second on VH1's list of the \"100 Greatest Women in Music\".", "''Billboard'' magazine ranked her at number five on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 All-Time Top Artists, making Carey the second most successful female artist in the history of the chart.", "The same publication ranked Carey at number four on their \"Top 125 Artists of All Time\" chart making her the top female act.", "In 2021, ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' and \"Fantasy\" were included on the new editions of ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's lists of \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\" and \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\", respectively.Carey's holiday album ''Merry Christmas'' has sold over 15 million copies worldwide, and is the best-selling Christmas album.", "The lead single, \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\", became the first holiday song to be certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America, and the only holiday ringtone to reach multi-platinum status in the US.", "With sales of over 14 million copies worldwide, it is one of the best-selling physical singles in music history and the best-selling holiday song by a female artist.", "It is also the highest-certified and the longest-charting song by a woman in the UK.", "In 2018, Carey became the first artist to replace herself at the number one spot on ''Billboard'''s Top R&B Albums chart, with ''Caution'' being replaced by ''Merry Christmas''.", "On November 24, 2019, the song won three ''Guinness World Records''.", "Additionally, it holds the record for the most Spotify streams in a single day (over 20 million plays on December 24, 2022).", "In 2021, the song earned one billion streams on Spotify, making it both Carey's first song and the first holiday song overall to do so.", "In 2023, the song was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry, due to its \"cultural, historical and aesthetic importance\" in the American soundscape.Carey experienced an enduring success in various Asian countries.", "She is the best-selling Western artist in Japan.", "''#1's'' was certified with a triple-Million award and holds the record as the best-selling international album in the country, while ''Music Box'', ''Daydream'', ''Butterfly'' and ''Merry Christmas'' all sold over 2 million copies in the country, with the latter one, being the fourth-best-selling international album.", "Her song \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" is the third-best-selling song by a non-Asian artist.", "In 2018, Sony Music Asia Pacific presented Carey with a certificate of achievement for 1.6 billion sales units in Asia-Pacific.", "Carey also holds the record for the longest-running number-one song on the Brasil Hot 100, with her 2009 cover of Foreigner's \"I Want to Know What Love Is\", which spent 27 weeks atop the Brazilian charts." ], [ "Other activities", "=== Business ventures ===Declining offers to appear in commercials in the United States during her early career, Carey was not involved in brand marketing initiatives until 2006, when she participated in endorsements for Intel Centrino personal computers and launched a jewelry and accessories line for teenagers, Glamorized, in American Claire's and Icing stores.", "During this period, as part of a partnership with Pepsi and Motorola, Carey recorded and promoted a series of exclusive ringtones, including \"Time of Your Life\".", "She signed a licensing deal with the cosmetics company Elizabeth Arden, and in 2007, she released her own fragrance, \"M\".", "The Elizabeth Arden deal has netted her $150 million.", "For the fragrance, Carey won a Basenotes Fragrance Award for Best Celebrity Women's Fragrance as well as being nominated in three other categories.", "She has released a series of fragrances with Elizabeth Arden, including Luscious Pink (2008) and Forever (2009).", "On November 29, 2010, she debuted a collection on HSN, which included jewelry, shoes and fragrances.", "In November 2011, Carey was announced as \"brand ambassador\" for Jenny Craig which included \"participation in a new company initiative... public service announcements and community and education programs.\"", "In 2018, Carey featured in an advertisement for Hostelworld with the tagline \"Even Divas are Believers\".On August 25, 2019, Carey signed a $12 million contract with the Walkers crisps brand as part of their Christmas campaign and starred in a commercial for the company.", "In conjunction with the 25th-anniversary release of ''Merry Christmas'' in 2019, she organized a gift guide with Amazon, and partnered for an exclusive Christmas ornament with Swarovski.", "In December 2020, Carey launched a partnership with Virtual Dining Concepts and restaurateur, Robert Earl, for a biscuit line titled ''Mariah's Cookies''.", "In 2021, Carey announced the launch of a new line of alcohol called ''Black Irish'', an homage to her Black, Venezuelan, and Irish heritage.", "That same year, Carey also partnered with McDonald's, promoting an entirely new limited time menu.", "In 2022, Carey recorded nine video lessons for MasterClass titled \"Mariah Carey Teaches the Voice as an Instrument\", as well as re-recording \"The Roof (Back in Time)\" alongside Brandy.=== Philanthropy and activism ===Hero\" during the Neighborhood Inaugural Ball for President ObamaCarey is a philanthropist who has been involved with several charitable organizations.", "She became associated with the Fresh Air Fund in the early 1990s, and is the co-founder of a camp located in Fishkill, New York, that enables inner-city youth to embrace the arts and introduces them to career opportunities.", "The camp was called Camp Mariah \"for her generous support and dedication to Fresh Air children,\" and she received a Congressional Horizon Award for her youth-related charity work.", "Carey has continued her direct involvement with Camp Mariah, and by 2019 the executive director of The Fresh Air Fund reported that \"...the kids who have gone to Camp Mariah have higher graduation rates out of high school and college.", "In 1999, Carey was presented with a Congressional Award for contributing \"to expanding opportunities for all Americans through their own personal contributions, and setting exceptional examples for young people through their own successes in life.", "In 2019, she was honoured by ''Variety'' Power of Women for her work with The Fresh Air Fund's Camp Mariah.Carey also donated royalties from her hits \"Hero\" and \"One Sweet Day\" to charities.", "She has worked with the Make-A-Wish Foundation, and in November 2006 she was awarded the Foundation's Wish Idol for her \"extraordinary generosity and her many wish granting achievements.\"", "Carey has volunteered for the Police Athletic League of New York City and contributed to the obstetrics department of New York Presbyterian Hospital Cornell Medical Center.", "A percentage of the sales of ''MTV Unplugged'' was donated to various other charities.", "In 2008, Carey was named Hunger Ambassador of the World Hunger Relief Movement.", "In February 2010, the song, \"100%\", which was originally written and recorded for the film, ''Precious'', was used as one of the theme songs for the 2010 Winter Olympics, with all money proceeds going to Team USA.", "In 2017, Carey was awarded with PETA's Angel for Animals Award for promoting animal adoption through her animated movie ''All I Want for Christmas Is You''.One of Carey's most high-profile benefit concert appearances was on VH1's 1998 ''Divas Live'' special, during which she performed alongside other female singers in support of the Save the Music Foundation.", "The concert was a ratings success, and Carey participated in the ''Divas 2000'' special and a 2016 holiday edition.", "She appeared at the ''America: A Tribute to Heroes'' nationally televised fundraiser in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks and performed before peacekeeping troops in Kosovo.", "Carey hosted the CBS television special ''At Home for the Holidays'', which documented real-life stories of adopted children and foster families.", "In 2005, Carey performed for Live 8 in London and at the Hurricane Katrina relief telethon \"Shelter from the Storm\".", "In August 2008, Carey and other singers recorded the charity single, \"Just Stand Up\" produced by Babyface and L. A. Reid, to support Stand Up to Cancer.", "During the COVID-19 pandemic, Carey participated in the iHeart Living Room Concert for America and ''Rise Up New York!''", "telethons to raise money for those affected by COVID-19.In response to the murder of George Floyd, Carey took to social media and sang a snippet of her 1990 song \"There's Got to Be a Way\" while encouraging fans to demand justice.In 2008, Carey performed in a New Year's Eve concert for the family of Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi.", "She later said she felt \"horrible and embarrassed\" to have taken part in the concert.", "To make amends, in March 2011, Carey's representative Cindi Berger stated that royalties for the song \"Save the Day\", written for her fourteenth studio album, would be donated to charities that create awareness for human rights.", "Berger also said that Carey \"has and continues to donate her time, money and countless hours of personal service to many organizations both here and abroad.\"", "\"Save the Day\" remained unreleased until 2020.In 2013, human rights activists criticized Carey for performing in a concert for Angola's \"father-daughter kleptocracy\" and accused her of accepting \"dictator cash\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Carey began dating Tommy Mottola while recording ''Mariah Carey'', and they were married in New York City on June 5, 1993, during a half-million dollar ceremony at Saint Thomas Church.", "The newlyweds moved into a custom-built mansion referred to by Carey as \"Sing Sing\" located on a 51-acre estate in Bedford, New York, alluding to her feeling imprisoned there.", "After the release of ''Daydream'' and the success that followed, Carey began focusing on her personal life, which was a constant struggle at the time.", "Their relationship began to deteriorate due to their growing creative differences in terms of her music, as well as Mottola's controlling nature.", "They announced their separation on May 30, 1997, and their divorce was finalized by the time Mottola remarried on December 2, 2000.In 1998, their home together was sold for $20.5 million to Nelson Peltz and burned down in 1999.Carey with her children in 2019Carey was in a relationship with baseball shortstop Derek Jeter from 1997 to 1998, and with singer Luis Miguel from 1998 to 2001.She met actor and comedian Nick Cannon while they shot the music video for her song \"Bye Bye\" on an island off the coast of Antigua.", "They were married on April 30, 2008, in the Bahamas.", "In the same year, Carey suffered a miscarriage.", "At 35 weeks into her next pregnancy, she gave birth to their fraternal twins, Moroccan and Monroe, on April 30, 2011, via Caesarean section.", "In August 2014, Cannon confirmed he and Carey had separated.", "He filed for divorce on December 12, 2014, which was finalized in 2016.In 2015, Carey began dating Australian billionaire James Packer and, on January 21, 2016, she announced they were engaged.", "By October, however, they had called off the engagement.", "In October 2016, she began dating American choreographer Bryan Tanaka.", "On December 26, 2023, Tanaka confirmed that he and Carey had parted ways after seven years of dating.Carey is an active Episcopalian.", "She stated in 2006: \"I do believe that I have been born again in a lot of ways.", "I think what I've changed are my priorities and my relationships with God.", "I feel the difference when I don't have my private moments to pray...", "I'm a fighter, but I learned that I'm not in charge.", "Whatever God wants to happen is what's going to happen.", "I feel like I've had endless second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth chances.", "It's by the grace of God I'm still here.\"", "In April 2018, Carey opened up about taking therapy sessions and medication for her struggle with bipolar II disorder.", "She was diagnosed in 2001 and initially kept the diagnosis private." ], [ "Discography", "* ''Mariah Carey'' (1990)* ''Emotions'' (1991)* ''Music Box'' (1993)* ''Merry Christmas'' (1994)* ''Daydream'' (1995)* ''Butterfly'' (1997)* ''Rainbow'' (1999)* ''Glitter'' (2001)* ''Charmbracelet'' (2002)* ''The Emancipation of Mimi'' (2005)* ''E=MC²'' (2008)* ''Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel'' (2009)* ''Merry Christmas II You'' (2010)* ''Me.", "I Am Mariah...", "The Elusive Chanteuse'' (2014)* ''Caution'' (2018)" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''The Bachelor'' (1999)* ''Glitter'' (2001)* ''WiseGirls'' (2002)* ''Death of a Dynasty'' (2003)* ''State Property 2'' (2005)* ''Tennessee'' (2008)* ''You Don't Mess with the Zohan'' (2008)* ''Precious'' (2009)* ''The Butler'' (2013)* ''A Christmas Melody'' (2015)* ''Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping'' (2016)* ''The Keys of Christmas'' (2016)* ''The Lego Batman Movie'' (2017)* ''Girls Trip'' (2017)* ''The Star'' (2017)* ''All I Want for Christmas Is You'' (2017)* ''Mariah Carey's Magical Christmas Special'' (2020)* ''Mariah's Christmas: The Magic Continues'' (2021)" ], [ "Tours and residencies", "''' Headlining tours '''* Music Box Tour (1993)* Daydream World Tour (1996)* Butterfly World Tour (1998)* Rainbow World Tour (2000)* Charmbracelet World Tour (2003–2004)* The Adventures of Mimi (2006)* Angels Advocate Tour (2009–2010)* Australian Tour 2013 (2013)* The Elusive Chanteuse Show (2014)* The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour (2016)* Mariah Carey: Live in Concert (2018)* Caution World Tour (2019)* Merry Christmas to All!", "Tour (2022)* Merry Christmas One and All!", "(2023)''' Co-headlining tours '''* All the Hits Tour (with Lionel Richie) (2017)''' Residencies '''* Live at the Pearl (2009)* All I Want for Christmas Is You: A Night of Joy and Festivity (2014–2019)* #1 to Infinity (2015–2017)* The Butterfly Returns (2018–2020)* The Celebration of Mimi (2024)" ], [ "Written works", "* * *" ], [ "See also", "* List of best-selling singles* List of best-selling albums* List of best-selling music artists in the United States* List of ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones* List of artists who reached number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100* List of artists who reached number one on the US dance chart* Artists with the most number-ones on the US dance chart* ''Forbes'' list of highest-earning musicians* List of largest music deals" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * === Chart references ===* ''Fred Bronson's Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition'' ()* ''Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Nineties'' ()* Additional information concerning Carey's chart history can be retrieved and verified in ''Billboard''s online archive services and print editions of the magazine." ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mervyn Peake" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mervyn Laurence Peake''' (9 July 1911 – 17 November 1968) was an English writer, artist, poet, and illustrator.", "He is best known for what are usually referred to as the ''Gormenghast'' books.", "The four works were part of what Peake conceived as a lengthy cycle, the completion of which was prevented by his death.", "They are sometimes compared to the work of his older contemporary J. R. R. Tolkien, but Peake's surreal fiction was influenced by his early love for Charles Dickens and Robert Louis Stevenson rather than Tolkien's studies of mythology and philology.Peake also wrote poetry and literary nonsense in verse form, short stories for adults and children (''Letters from a Lost Uncle'', 1948), stage and radio plays, and ''Mr Pye'' (1953), a relatively tightly structured novel in which God implicitly mocks the evangelical pretensions and cosy world-view of the eponymous hero.Peake first made his reputation as a painter and illustrator during the 1930s and 1940s, when he lived in London, and he was commissioned to produce portraits of well-known people.", "For a short time at the end of World War II he was commissioned by various newspapers to depict war scenes.", "A collection of his drawings is still in the possession of his family.", "Although he gained little popular success in his lifetime, his work was highly respected by his peers, and his friends included Dylan Thomas and Graham Greene.", "His works are now included in the collections of the National Portrait Gallery, the Imperial War Museum and The National Archives.In 2008, ''The Times'' named Peake among their list of \"The 50 greatest British writers since 1945\"." ], [ "Early life", "Mervyn Peake was born of British parents in Kuling located on top of Mount Lu in Jiujiang in 1911, only three months before the revolution and the founding of the Republic of China.", "His father, Ernest Cromwell Peake, was a medical missionary doctor with the London Missionary Society of the Congregationalist tradition, and his mother, Amanda Elizabeth Powell, had come to China as a missionary assistant.", "In July 1903 at Kuling (from the English word \"cooling\"), a summer European missionary resort in Mount Lu about the Yangtze River in Jiujiang, Peake met his soon to be wife Amanda Elizabeth Powell who had been in China since 1901.They got married in Hong Kong in December of that same year.The Peakes were given leave to visit England just before World War I in 1914 and returned to China in 1916.Mervyn Peake attended Tientsin Grammar School until the family left for England in December 1922 via the Trans-Siberian Railway.", "He would later write a novella about this time, titled ''The White Chief of the Umzimbooboo Kaffirs''.", "Peake never returned to China but it has been noted that Chinese influences can be detected in his works, not least in the castle of Gormenghast itself, which in some respects echoes his birthplace Kuling, the ancient walled city of Beijing, as well as the enclosed compound where he grew up in Tianjin.", "It is also likely that his early exposure to the contrasts between the lives of the Europeans and of the Chinese, and between the poor and the wealthy in China, also exerted an influence on the Gormenghast books.His education continued at Eltham College, Mottingham (1923–29), where his talents were encouraged by his English teacher, Eric Drake.", "Peake completed his formal education at Croydon School of Art in the autumn of 1929, and then from December 1929 to 1933 at the Royal Academy Schools, where he first painted in oils.", "By this time he had written his first long poem, ''A Touch o' the Ash''.", "In 1931, he had a painting accepted for display by the Royal Academy and exhibited his work with the so-called \"Soho Group\"." ], [ "Career", "His early career in the 1930s was as a painter in London, although he lived on the Channel Island of Sark for a time.", "He first moved to Sark in 1932 where his former teacher Eric Drake was setting up an artists' colony.", "In 1934, Peake exhibited with the Sark artists both in the Sark Gallery built by Drake and at the Cooling Galleries in London, and in 1935 he exhibited at the Royal Academy and at the Leger Galleries in London.In 1936, he returned to London and was commissioned to design the sets and costumes for ''The Insect Play'', and his work was acclaimed in ''The Sunday Times''.", "He also began teaching life drawing at Westminster School of Art where he met the painter Maeve Gilmore, whom he married in 1937.They had three children: Sebastian (1940–2012), Fabian (born 1942), and Clare (born 1949).Peake had a very successful exhibition of paintings at the Calmann Gallery in London in 1938 and his first book, the self-illustrated children's pirate romance ''Captain Slaughterboard Drops Anchor'' (based on a story he had written around 1936), was first published in 1939 by ''Country Life''.", "In December 1939, he was commissioned by Chatto & Windus to illustrate a children's book, ''Ride a Cock Horse and Other Nursery Rhymes'', published for the Christmas market in 1940.===Enlistment===''Glass-blowers \"Gathering\" from the Furnace'' (1943) (Art.IWM ART LD 2851)At the outbreak of World War II, he applied to become a war artist, for he was keen to put his skills at the service of his country.", "He imagined ''An Exhibition by the Artist, Adolf Hitler'', in which horrific images of war with ironic titles were offered as \"artworks\" by the Nazi leader.", "Although the drawings were bought by the British Ministry of Information, Peake's application was turned down and he was conscripted into the Army, where he served first with the Royal Artillery, then with the Royal Engineers.", "He began writing ''Titus Groan'' at this time.In April 1942, after his requests for commissions as a war artist – or even leave to depict war damage in London – had been consistently refused, he suffered a nervous breakdown and was sent to Southport Hospital.", "That autumn he was taken on as a graphic artist by the Ministry of Information for a period of six months to work on propaganda illustrations.", "The next spring he was invalided out of the Army.", "In 1943 he was commissioned by the War Artists' Advisory Committee, WAAC, to paint glassblowers at the Chance Brothers factory in Smethwick where cathode ray tubes for early radar sets were being produced.", "Peake was next given a full-time, three-month WAAC contract to depict various factory subjects and was also asked to submit a large painting showing RAF pilots being debriefed.", "Some of these paintings are on permanent display in Manchester Art Gallery whilst other examples are in the Imperial War Museum collection.===Illustration and writing===The five years between 1943 and 1948 were some of the most productive of his career.", "He finished ''Titus Groan'' and ''Gormenghast'' and completed some of his most acclaimed illustrations for books by other authors, including Lewis Carroll's ''The Hunting of the Snark'' (for which he was reportedly paid only £5) and ''Alice in Wonderland'', Samuel Taylor Coleridge's ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'', the Brothers Grimm's ''Household Tales'', ''All This and Bevin Too'' by Quentin Crisp and Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'', as well as producing many original poems, drawings, and paintings.Peake designed the logo for Pan Books.", "The publishers offered him either a flat fee of £10 or a royalty of one farthing per book.", "On the advice of Graham Greene, who told him that paperback books were a passing fad that would not last, Peake opted for the £10.A book of nonsense poems, ''Rhymes Without Reason'', was published in 1944 and was described by John Betjeman as \"outstanding\".", "Shortly after the war ended in 1945, Edgar Ainsworth, the art editor of ''Picture Post'', commissioned Peake to visit France and Germany for the magazine.", "With writer Tom Pocock, Peake was among the first British civilians to witness the horrors of the Nazi concentration camp at Belsen, where the remaining prisoners, too sick to be moved, were dying before his very eyes.", "He made several drawings, but not surprisingly he found the experience profoundly harrowing, and expressed in deeply felt poems the ambiguity of turning their suffering into art.In 1946, the family moved to Sark, where Peake continued to write and illustrate, and Maeve painted.", "''Gormenghast'' was published in 1950, and the family moved back to England, settling in Smarden, Kent.", "Peake taught part-time at the Central School of Art, began his comic novel ''Mr Pye'', and renewed his interest in theatre.", "His father died that year and left his house in Hillside Gardens in Wallington, Surrey to Peake.", "''Mr Pye'' was published in 1953, and he later adapted it as a radio play.", "The BBC broadcast other plays of his in 1954 and 1956." ], [ "Later life", "In 1956, Mervyn and Maeve visited Spain, financed by a friend who hoped that Peake's health, which was already declining, would be improved by the holiday.", "That year his novella ''Boy in Darkness'' was published beside stories by William Golding and John Wyndham in a volume called ''Sometime, Never''.", "On 18 December the BBC broadcast his radio play ''The Eye of the Beholder'' (later revised as ''The Voice of One''), in which an avant-garde artist is commissioned to paint a church mural.", "Peake placed much hope in his play ''The Wit to Woo'', which was finally staged in London's West End in 1957, but it was a critical and commercial failure.", "This affected him greatly – his health degenerated rapidly and he was again admitted to hospital with a nervous breakdown.During this period he was published primarily in New Worlds by Michael Moorcock a consistent supporter since the mid-1950s.===Declining health===He was showing unmistakable early symptoms of dementia, for which he was given electroconvulsive therapy, to little avail.", "Over the next few years he gradually lost the ability to draw steadily and quickly, although he still managed to produce some drawings with the help of his wife.", "Among his last completed works were the illustrations for Balzac's ''Droll Stories'' (1961) and for his own poem ''The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb'' (1962), which he had written some 15 years earlier.", "''Titus Alone'' was published in 1959 and was revised in 1970 by Langdon Jones, an editor of ''New Worlds'', to remove apparent inconsistencies introduced by the publisher's careless editing.", "Jones, also a composer, set ''The Rhyme of the Fying Bomb'' to music.", "A 1995 edition of all three completed Gormenghast novels includes a very short fragment of the beginning of what would have been the fourth Gormenghast novel, ''Titus Awakes'', as well as a listing of events and themes he wanted to address in that and later Gormenghast novels." ], [ "Death", "Throughout the 1960s, Peake's health declined into physical and mental incapacitation, and he died on 17 November 1968 at a care home run by his brother-in-law, at Burcot, near Oxford.", "He was buried in the churchyard of St Mary's in the village of Burpham, West Sussex.A 2003 study published in ''JAMA Neurology'' assessed that Peake's death was the result of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB).His work, especially the ''Gormenghast'' series, became much better known and more widely appreciated after his death.", "They have since been translated into more than two dozen languages." ], [ "Publications", "Six volumes of Peake's verse were published during his lifetime; ''Shapes & Sounds'' (1941), ''Rhymes without Reason'' (1944), ''The Glassblowers'' (1950), ''The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb'' (1962), ''Poems & Drawings'' (1965), and ''A Reverie of Bone'' (1967).", "After his death came ''Selected Poems'' (1972), followed by ''Peake's Progress'' in 1979 – though the Penguin edition of 1982, with many corrections, including a whole stanza inadvertently omitted from the hardback edition.", "''The Collected Poems of Mervyn Peake'' was published by Carcanet Press in June 2008.Other collections include ''The Drawings of Mervyn Peake'' (1974), ''Writings and Drawings'' (1974), and ''Mervyn Peake: the man and his art'' (2006).", "A limited edition of the collected works, issued to celebrate Peake's centenary year, was published by Queen Anne Press." ], [ "Archive", "In 2010 an archive consisting of 28 containers of material, which included correspondence between Peake and Laurie Lee, Walter de la Mare and C. S. Lewis, plus 39 Gormenghast notebooks and original drawings for both ''Alice Through the Looking Glass'' and ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'', was acquired by the British Library.", "Access to the Archive is available through the British Library website.", "In July 2020, the British Library acquired from the Peake Estate a visual archive consisting of 300 of Peake's original illustrations for children's stories, ''Gormenghast'', and other works including ''Treasure Island''." ], [ "Commemoration", "Peake's three children presented on BBC Radio Four in 2018 a half-hour memoir of their father's life, emphasizing the importance of the island of Sark.The first blue plaque on Sark was unveiled in Peake's honour at the Gallery Stores in the Avenue on 30 August 2019." ], [ "Dramatic adaptations of Peake's work", "In 1983, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast eight hour-long episodes for radio dramatising the complete Gormenghast Trilogy.", "This was the first to include the third book ''Titus Alone''.In 1984, BBC Radio 4 broadcast two 90-minute plays based on ''Titus Groan'' and ''Gormenghast'', adapted by Brian Sibley and starring Sting as Steerpike and Freddie Jones as the Artist (narrator).", "A slightly abridged compilation of the two, running to 160 minutes, and entitled ''Titus Groan of Gormenghast'', was broadcast on Christmas Day, 1992.BBC 7 repeated the original versions on 21 and 28 September 2003.In 1986, ''Mr Pye'' was adapted as a four-part Channel 4 miniseries starring Derek Jacobi.In 2000, the BBC and WGBH Boston co-produced a lavish miniseries, titled ''Gormenghast'', based on the first two books of the series.", "It starred Jonathan Rhys-Meyers as Steerpike, Neve McIntosh as Fuchsia, June Brown as Nannie Slagg, Ian Richardson as Lord Groan, Christopher Lee as Flay, Richard Griffiths as Swelter, Warren Mitchell as Barquentine, Celia Imrie as Countess Gertrude, Lynsey Baxter and Zoë Wanamaker as the twins Cora and Clarice, and John Sessions as Dr Prunesquallor.", "The supporting cast included Olga Sosnovska, Stephen Fry and Eric Sykes, and the series is also notable as the last screen performance by comedy legend Spike Milligan (as the Headmaster).A 30-minute TV short film entitled ''A Boy in Darkness'' (also made in 2000 and adapted from Peake's novella) was the first production from the BBC Drama Lab.", "It was set in a \"virtual\" computer-generated world created by young computer game designers, and starred Jack Ryder (from ''EastEnders'') as Titus, with Terry Jones (''Monty Python's Flying Circus'') narrating.Irmin Schmidt, founder of seminal German Krautrock group Can, wrote an opera called ''Gormenghast'', based on the novels; it was first performed in Wuppertal, Germany, in November 1998.A number of early songs by New Zealand rock group Split Enz were inspired by Peake's work.", "The song \"The Drowning Man\", by British band The Cure, is inspired by events in ''Gormenghast'', and the song \"Lady Fuchsia\" by another British band, Strawbs, is also based on events in the novels.Peake's play ''The Cave'', which dates from the mid-1950s, was given a first public reading at the Blue Elephant Theatre in Camberwell (London) in 2009, and had its world premiere in the same theatre, directed by Aaron Paterson, on 19 October 2010.In 2011 Brian Sibley adapted the story again, this time as six one-hour episodes broadcast on BBC Radio 4 as the Classic Serial starting on 10 July 2011.The serial was titled ''The History of Titus Groan'' and adapted all three novels written by Mervyn Peake and the recently discovered concluding volume, ''Titus Awakes'', completed by his widow, Maeve Gilmore.", "It starred Luke Treadaway as Titus, David Warner as the Artist and Carl Prekopp as Steerpike.", "It also starred Paul Rhys, Miranda Richardson, James Fleet, Tamsin Greig, Fenella Woolgar, Adrian Scarborough and Mark Benton among others.Sting owned the film rights to the ''Gormenghast'' novels for a brief period in the 1980s, during which he discussed the possibility of adapting the novels into a series of concept albums, but he abandoned the idea after declaring the Radio 4 audio drama as ideal.", "As of 2015, author Neil Gaiman was in talks to adapt the novels for the big screen." ], [ "Bibliography", "'''''Gormenghast'''''# ''Titus Groan'' (1946)# ''Gormenghast'' (1950)# ''Boy in Darkness'' (corrupt text 1956, corrected text 2007)# ''Titus Alone'' (1959)# ''Titus Awakes'' (2011, completed by Maeve Gilmore)''Boy in Darkness and other stories'' (2007, the correct text and five other pieces)'''Other works'''* ''The White Chief of the Unzimbooboo Kaffirs'' (1921)* ''Captain Slaughterboard Drops Anchor'' (1939)* ''Shapes and Sounds'' (1941)* ''Rhymes without Reason'' (1944)* ''The Craft of the Lead Pencil'' (1946)* ''Letters from a Lost Uncle (from Polar Regions)'' (1948)* ''Drawings by Mervyn Peake'' (1949)* ''The Glassblowers'' (1950)* ''Mr Pye'' (1953)* ''Figures of Speech'' (1954)* ''The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb'' (1962)* ''Poems and Drawings'' (1965)* ''A Reverie of Bone and other Poems'' (1967)* ''Selected Poems'' (1972)* ''A Book of Nonsense'' (1972)* ''The Drawings of Mervyn Peake'' (1974)* ''Mervyn Peake: Writings and Drawings'' (1974)* ''Twelve Poems'' (1975)* ''Peake's Progress'' (1978)* ''Ten Poems'' (1993)* ''Eleven Poems'' (1995)* ''The Cave'' (1996)* ''Collected Poems'' (2008)===Illustrated books===* ''Captain Slaughterboard Drops Anchor'' (by himself) (Country Life, 1939)* ''Ride a Cock Horse and Other Nursery Rhymes'' (Chatto & Windus, 1940)* ''The Adventures of The Young Soldier in Search of The Better World'' (by C. E. M. Joad) (Faber and Faber Ltd, 1943) * ''The Book of Lyonne'' (by Burgess Drake) (The Falcon Press, 1952)* ''Hunting of the Snark'' (by Lewis Carroll)* ''Alice in Wonderland'' (by Lewis Carroll)* ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'' (by Samuel Taylor Coleridge)* ''Household Tales'' (by the Brothers Grimm)* ''All This and Bevin Too'' (by Quentin Crisp)* ''Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'' (by Robert Louis Stevenson)* ''Treasure Island'' (by Robert Louis Stevenson)* ''Droll Stories'' (by Balzac) (Folio Society, 1961)* ''The Rhyme of the Flying Bomb'' (by himself) (1962)* ''Titus Groan'', ''Gormenghast'', and ''Titus Alone'' (by himself; several editions include an abundance of illustrations, on plates in the center and/or distributed through the text)* ''The Swiss Family Robinson'' (by Johann David Wyss)* ''The Sunday Books'' (with Michael Moorcock) (Duckworth, 2008, from the French)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Clements, Warren (ed.", "), ''Peake Performance: The Magnificent Drawings of Mervyne Peake''.", "Toronto: Nestlings Press, 2020.", "* * * * * * * * * * Winnington, G. Peter (ed.)", "(2006), ''Mervyn Peake: the man and his art'' (London: Peter Owen)* Winnington, G. Peter (2000), ''Vast Alchemies: the life and work of Mervyn Peake''.", "Revised and enlarged in 2009 as ''Mervyn Peake's Vast Alchemies'' (London: Peter Owen)* Winnington, G. Peter (2006), ''The Voice of the Heart: the working of Mervyn Peake's imagination'' (Liverpool University Press / Chicago University Press)* Winnington, G. Peter.", "\"Mervyn Peake's Lonely World\".", "''Wormwood'' No 3 (Autumn 2004), 1–21.", "* * Peake, Mervyn (ca.1950), \"Notes towards a Projected Autobiography\", printed in Maeve Gilmore (ed.", "), ''Peake's Progress: Selected Writings and Drawings of Mervyn Peake'' (London: Allen Lane, 1978)* \" Peake in Print\" is a full primary and secondary bibliography." ], [ "External links", "* Mervyn Peake  – the official site* * * Gormenghast – the official Gormenghast site* * * the Peake entry in the Literary Encyclopedia* * Gormenghast Castle* Self-portrait from the National Portrait Gallery collection* Peake Studies – the periodical dedicated to Peake's life and work, with a complete Peake bibliography" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Martial arts" ], [ "Introduction", "United States Marine practicing martial arts, 2008'''Martial arts''' are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defence; military and law enforcement applications; competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; and the preservation of a nation's intangible cultural heritage." ], [ "Etymology", "\"Martial arts\" is a direct English translation of the Sino-Japanese word (, ).", "Literally, it refers to \"武 martial\" and \"艺 arts\".It was first used in the Japanese-English dictionary \"Takenobu Japanese-English Dictionary (Collection of the National Diet Library of Japan)\" published by a Japanese in 1918, and then spread to the general public in the West.", "This is why the term \"martial arts\" is now often associated with oriental martial arts that are strongly associated with orientalism, rather than simply referring to combat systems.According to Paul Bowman, the term ''martial arts'' was popularized by mainstream popular culture during the 1960s to 1970s, notably by Hong Kong martial arts films (most famously those of Bruce Lee) during the so-called \"chopsocky\" wave of the early 1970s.According to John Clements, the term ''martial arts'' itself is derived from an older Latin term meaning \"arts of Mars\", the Roman god of war, and was used to refer to the combat systems of Europe (European martial arts) as early as the 1550s.", "in contrast to the Japanese term Budo, (武道), The character Bu 武 the Chinese Han character, meaning to stopping the blades or oppose Violence, and Do 道 meaning path, translated as the path or way against violence, Denoting traditional training in Japan for the exponent was to transcend doing harm to another by redirecting the personal ego towards more positive virtuous endeavours.The term '''martial science''', or '''martial sciences''', was commonly used to refer to the fighting arts of East Asia (Asian martial arts) up until the 1970s, while the term ''Chinese boxing'' was also used to refer to Chinese martial arts up until then.Some authors have argued that '''fighting arts''' or '''fighting systems''' would be more appropriate terms on the basis that many martial arts were never \"martial\" in the sense of being used or created by professional warriors." ], [ "Variation and scope", "Martial arts may be categorized using a variety of criteria, including:* Traditional/historical arts vs. contemporary styles: e.g., folk wrestling compared to modern hybrid martial arts.", "* Techniques taught: armed vs. unarmed, and within these categories** armed: by type of weapon (swordsmanship, stick fighting etc.", ")** unarmed: by type of combat (grappling, striking, stand-up fighting, ground fighting)* By application or intent: self-defense, combat sport, choreography or demonstration of forms, physical fitness, meditation, etc.", "* Within Chinese tradition: \"external\" vs. \"internal\" styles===By technical focus=======Unarmed====Unarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into those focusing on strikes, those focusing on grappling, and those that cover both fields, often described as hybrid martial arts.Strikes: punching and kicking techniques displayed at the Banteay Srei (967 A.D.) in Cambodia.", "'''Strikes'''* '''Punching''': Boxing, Wing Chun* '''Kicking''': Kickboxing, Taekwondo, Capoeira, Savate, Karate, Kung Fu, Taekyyon* '''Elbow Strike''': Kung Fu, Karate, Muay Thai* '''Knee Strike''': Lethwei, Muay Thai, Bokator, Kung Fu* Others using strikes: Lethwei, Muay Thai, Kung Fu, Pencak Silat, Taijiquan, VovinamGrappling: bas-relief of grappling techniques at Prambanan (9th century) in Indonesia.", "'''Grappling'''* '''Throwing''': Hapkido, Judo, Sumo, Wrestling, Aikido, Shuai Jiao, Taijiquan* '''Joint lock'''/'''Chokeholds'''/'''Submission holds''': Jujutsu, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Catch wrestling, Judo, Chin-na, Taijiquan* '''Pinning Techniques''': Judo, Wrestling, Aikido* '''Trapping'''/'''Clinch fighting''': Wing Chun, Filipino Martial Arts, Jeet Kune Do, Muay Thai, wrestling, Judo====Armed====The traditional martial arts that cover armed combat often encompass a wide spectrum of melee weapons, including bladed weapons and polearms.", "Such traditions include eskrima, silat, kalaripayat, kobudo, and historical European martial arts, especially those of the Italian Renaissance.", "Many Chinese martial arts also feature weapons as part of their curriculum.Sometimes, training with one specific weapon may be considered a style in its own right, especially in the case of Japanese martial arts, with disciplines such as kenjutsu and kendo (sword), bojutsu (staff), and kyūdō (archery).", "Similarly, modern martial arts and sports include modern fencing, stick-fighting systems like canne de combat, modern competitive archery and practical shooting.===By application or intent=======Combat-oriented========Health-oriented====Many martial arts, especially those from East Asia, are taught from the foundations of traditional medical theory for the prevention of disease and illness and a long life.", "This is particularly prevalent in traditional Asian martial arts which may teach bone-setting, herbalism, food therapy, Shiatsu, Daoyin and other aspects of traditional medicine including acupressure.====Spirituality-oriented====Martial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality.", "Numerous systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns.Japanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are often strongly influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy.", "Concepts like \"empty mind\" and \"beginner's mind\" are recurrent.", "Aikido practitioners for instance, can have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy called Ki and peace fostering, as idealised by the art's founder Morihei Ueshiba.", "Traditional Korean martial arts place emphasis on the development of the practitioner's spiritual and philosophical development.", "A common theme in most Korean styles, such as Taekkyon, taekwondo, and Hapkido is the value of \"inner peace\" in a practitioner, which is stressed to be only achievable through individual meditation and training.", "The Koreans believe that the use of physical force is only justifiable for self defense.Systema draws upon breathing and relaxation techniques, as well as elements of Russian Orthodox thought, to foster self-conscience and calmness, and to benefit the practitioner in different levels: the physical, the psychological and the spiritual.Some martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings for various reasons, such as for evoking ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off skill in a more stylized manner, with capoeira being the most prominent example.", "Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms (see also war dance).", "'''Pahlevani and zourkhaneh rituals''' is the name of a Persian Martial arts inscribed by UNESCO for '''varzesh-e pahlavāni''' (, \"heroic sport\") or '''varzesh-e bāstāni''' (; ''varzeš-e bāstānī'', \"ancient sport\"), a traditional system of athletics originally used to train warriors in Iran (Persia), and first appearing under this name and form in the Safavid era, with similarities to systems in adjacent lands under other names." ], [ "History", "===Historical martial arts===Detail of the wrestling fresco in tomb 15 at Beni HasanThe martial art of boxing was practiced in ancient Thera (1600–1500 BC).Human warfare dates back to the Epipalaeolithic to early Neolithic era.", "The oldest works of art depicting scenes of battle are cave paintings from eastern Spain (Spanish Levante) dated between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE that show organized groups fighting with bows and arrows.", "Similar evidence of warfare has been found in Epipalaeolithic to early Neolithic era mass burials, excavated in Germany and at Jebel Sahaba in Northern Sudan.Wrestling is the oldest combat sport, with origins in hand-to-hand combat.", "Belt wrestling was depicted in works of art from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt , and later in the Sumerian ''Epic of Gilgamesh''.", "The earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) from the 3rd millennium BC.A Chinese martial artist preparing to throw his opponent off the lei tai during a Jiaoli contest in the Qin Dynasty.The foundation of modern East Asian martial arts and South Asian martial arts is likely facilitated by cultural exchanges of early Chinese and Indian martial arts.", "During the Warring States period of Chinese history (480–221 BC) extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in ''The Art of War'' ().", "Legendary accounts link the origin of Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from ancient India during the early 5th century CE, with the figure of Bodhidharma, to China.", "Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Sangam literature of about the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century AD.", "The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to KalaripayattuIn Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to Ancient Greece.", "Boxing (''pygme'', ''pyx''), wrestling (''pale'') and pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games.", "The Romans produced gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.Elbow strike and weapons techniques.", "Bas-relief at Angkor Wat (12th century) in Cambodia.", "A number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages.", "This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed swordfighting and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat.", "Amongst these are transcriptions of Johannes Liechtenauer's mnemonic poem on the longsword dating back to the late fourteenth century.", "Likewise, Asian martial arts became well-documented during the medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana, and Korean martial arts from the Joseon era and texts such as Muyejebo (1598).Japanese swordsman as depicted in the Boxer Codex ()European swordsmanship always had a sportive component, but the duel was always a possibility until World War I.", "Modern sport fencing began developing during the 19th century as the French and Italian military academies began codifying instruction.", "The Olympic games led to standard international rules, with the Féderation Internationale d'Escrime founded in 1913.Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughton's rules in the 18th century, and reaches its present form with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867.===Folk styles===Drawing of Indian wrestlers carrying vajra-mushti (1792 A.D.)Certain traditional combat sports and fighting styles exist all over the world, rooted in local culture and folklore.", "The most common of these are styles of folk wrestling, some of which have been practiced since antiquity and are found in the most remote areas.", "Other examples include forms of stick fighting and boxing.", "While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not \"historical\" in the sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era.", "They are rather contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk styles; thus, the traditional Thai art of muay boran developed into the modern national sport of muay Thai, which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to modern hybrid styles like kickboxing and mixed martial arts.", "Singlestick, an English martial art can be seen often used in morris dancing.", "Many European dances share elements of martial arts with examples including Ukrainian Hopak, Polish Zbójnicki (use of ciupaga), the Czech dance odzemek, and the Norwegian Halling.Boxing in England, 1811 ===Modern history=======Late 19th to early 20th century====The mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports developed out of earlier traditional fighting systems.", "In Europe, this concerns the developments of boxing, wrestling and fencing as sports.", "In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern forms of judo, jujutsu, karate, and kendo (among others) based on revivals of old schools of Edo period martial arts which had been suppressed during the Meiji Restoration In 1882, Kano Jigoro established the Kodokan School of judo which began the sport of judo.", "Kano Jigoro had gathered the old knowledge of jujutsu before establishing his school of judo.Modern muay Thai rules date to the 1920s.", "In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in the Nanjing decade (1930s) following the foundation of the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 under the Kuomintang government.Western interest in Asian martial arts arises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan.", "Relatively few Westerners actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance.", "Edward William Barton-Wright, a railway engineer who had studied jujutsu while working in Japan between 1894 and 1897, was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe.", "He also founded an eclectic style named Bartitsu which combined jujutsu, judo, wrestling, boxing, savate and stick fighting.Fencing and Greco-Roman wrestling was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics.", "FILA Wrestling World Championships and Boxing at the Summer Olympics were introduced in 1904.The tradition of awarding championship belts in wrestling and boxing can be traced to the Lonsdale Belt, introduced in 1909.Boxing in 1943====20th century (1914 to 1989)====Bruce Lee (right) and his teacher (left)Karate in Naha before the war; (before 1946)The International Boxing Association was established in 1920.World Fencing Championships have been held since 1921.As Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China, Japan and South Korea during World War II and the Korean War and were exposed to local fighting styles.", "Jujutsu, judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the 1950s–1960s.", "Due in part to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies, most modern American martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced.", "The term kickboxing (キックボクシング) was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of muay Thai and karate that he created in the 1950s.", "American kickboxing was developed in the 1970s, as a combination of boxing and karate.", "Taekwondo was developed in the context of the Korean War in the 1950s.The later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest in Chinese martial arts, influenced by martial artist Bruce Lee.", "Bruce Lee is credited as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners.", "World Judo Championships have been held since 1956, Judo at the Summer Olympics was introduced in 1964.Karate World Championships were introduced in 1970.The \"kung fu wave\" of Hong Kong action cinema in the 1970s, especially Bruce Lee films, popularized martial arts in global popular culture.", "A number of mainstream films produced during the 1980s also contributed significantly to the perception of martial arts in Western popular culture.", "These include ''The Karate Kid'' (1984) and ''Bloodsport'' (1988).", "This era produced some Hollywood action stars with martial arts background, such as Jean-Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris.Also during the 20th century, a number of martial arts were adapted for self-defense purposes for military hand-to-hand combat.", "World War II combatives, KAPAP (1930s) and Krav Maga (1950s) in Israel, Systema in Soviet-era Russia, and Sanshou in the People's Republic of China are examples of such systems.", "The US military de-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during the Cold War period, but revived it with the introduction of LINE in 1989.====1990 to present====In 1993, the first Pancrase event was held in Japan.", "The K-1 rules of kickboxing were introduced, based on 1980s Seidokaikan karate.During the 1990s, Brazilian jiu-jitsu became popular and proved to be effective in mixed martial arts (MMA) competitions such as the UFC and PRIDE.Mixed martial arts championship in Russia in 2021Jackie Chan and Bruce Lee were prominent martial artists who became major movie figures.", "Their popularity and media presence has been at the forefront for promoting Chinese martial arts in the Western world since the late 20th and early 21st centuries.With the continual discovery of more medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice of Historical European Martial Arts and other Western Martial Arts have been growing in popularity across the United States and Europe.On 29 November 2011, UNESCO inscribed Taekkyon onto its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity List.=== Revival ===Many styles of Indian martial arts were banned by the colonial authorities during the period of British rule in India, which led to a decline in their popularity.", "Some, such as Kalaripayattu, were able to resist this decline by practicing in secret.", "Other Indian martial art, such as Silambam, while not widely practiced in India, continue to be practiced in other countries in the Indian cultural sphere such as Indonesia and Malaysia.", "Many other Indian martial arts such as Mardhani Khel and Paika Akhada survived by practitioners practicing the art in secret, or by telling the colonial authorities that it was a form of dance.", "While many regional Indian martial arts forms are fading into obscurity, martial arts such as Gatka and Kalaripayattu are experiencing a gradual resurgence." ], [ "Testing and competition", "Testing or evaluation is important to martial artists of many disciplines who wish to determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts.", "Students often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title.", "The type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring.Steven Ho executing a Jump Spin Hook KickVarious forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments.", "Some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions.", "Rules for sparring vary between art and organization but can generally be divided into ''light-contact'', ''medium-contact'', and ''full-contact'' variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.===Light- and medium-contact===These types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the case of light sparring this is usually to 'touch' contact, e.g.", "a punch should be 'pulled' as soon as or before contact is made.", "In medium-contact (sometimes referred to as semi-contact) the punch would not be 'pulled' but not hit with full force.", "As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim of these types of sparring is not to knock out an opponent; a point system is used in competitions.A referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while judges mark down scores, as in boxing.", "Particular targets may be prohibited, certain techniques may be forbidden (such as headbutting or groin hits), and fighters may be required to wear protective equipment on their head, hands, chest, groin, shins or feet.", "Some grappling arts, such as aikido, use a similar method of compliant training that is equivalent to light or medium contact.In some styles (such as fencing and some styles of taekwondo sparring), competitors score points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as judged by the referee, whereupon the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match.", "Alternatively, sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges.", "Some critics of point sparring feel that this method of training teaches habits that result in lower combat effectiveness.", "Lighter-contact sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other situations when heavy contact would be inappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact sparring is often used as training for full contact.===Full-contact===Full-contact sparring or competition, where strikes or techniques are not pulled but used with full force as the name implies, has a number of tactical differences from light and medium-contact sparring.", "It is considered by some to be requisite in learning realistic unarmed combat.In full-contact sparring, the aim of a competitive match is to knock out the opponent or to force the opponent to submit.Where scoring takes place it may be a subsidiary measure, only used if no clear winner has been established by other means; in some competitions, such as the UFC 1, there was no scoring, though most now use some form of judging as a backup.", "Due to these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, but rule sets may still mandate the use of protective equipment, or limit the techniques allowed.Nearly all mixed martial arts organizations such as UFC, Pancrase, Shooto use a form of full-contact rules as do professional boxing organizations and K-1.Kyokushin karate requires advanced practitioners to engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact sparring allowing kicks, knees and punching although punching to the head is disallowed while wearing only a karate ''gi'', mouthguard, groin guard for males, or chest guard worn under the karate ''gi'' for females.", "Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo matches do not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that full force is applied in the permitted grappling and submission techniques.", "Competitions held by World Taekwondo requires the use of Headgear and padded vest, but are full contact in the sense that full force is applied to strikes to the head and body, and win by knockout is possible.===Martial sport===Several martial arts, such as judo, are Olympic sports.|leftKarate Fighting championshipMartial arts have crossed over into sports when forms of sparring become competitive, becoming a sport in its own right that is dissociated from the original combative origin, such as with western fencing.", "The Summer Olympic Games includes judo, taekwondo, western archery, boxing, javelin, wrestling and fencing as events, while Chinese wushu recently failed in its bid to be included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world.", "Practitioners in some arts such as kickboxing and Brazilian jiu-jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in other arts such as aikido generally spurn such competitions.", "Some schools believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good sportsmanship.", "Others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have diminished the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character.The question of \"which is the best martial art\" has led to inter style competitions fought with very few rules allowing a variety of fighting styles to enter with few limitations.", "This was the origin of the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament (later renamed UFC 1: The Beginning) in the USA inspired by the Brazilian Vale tudo tradition and along with other minimal rule competitions, most notably those from Japan such as Shooto and Pancrase, have evolved into the combat sport of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA).Some martial artists compete in non-sparring competitions such as breaking or choreographed routines of techniques such as poomse, kata and aka, or modern variations of the martial arts which include dance-influenced competitions such as tricking.", "Martial traditions have been influenced by governments to become more sport-like for political purposes; the central impetus for the attempt by the People's Republic of China in transforming Chinese martial arts into the committee-regulated sport of wushu was suppressing what they saw as the potentially subversive aspects of martial training, especially under the traditional system of family lineages." ], [ "Health and fitness benefits", "Martial arts training aims to result in several benefits to trainees, such as their physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health.Through systematic practice in the martial arts a person's physical fitness may be boosted (strength, stamina, speed, flexibility, movement coordination, etc.)", "as the whole body is exercised and the entire muscular system is activated.", "Beyond contributing to physical fitness, martial arts training also has benefits for mental health, contributing to self-esteem, self-control, emotional and spiritual well-being.", "For this reason, a number of martial arts schools have focused purely on therapeutic aspects, de-emphasizing the historical aspect of self-defense or combat completely.According to Bruce Lee, martial arts also have the nature of an art, since there is emotional communication and complete emotional expression." ], [ "Self-defense, military and law enforcement applications", "U.S. Army combatives instructor demonstrates a chokehold.Some traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training.", "Perhaps the most recent example of this is point shooting which relies on muscle memory to more effectively use a firearm in a variety of awkward situations, much the way an iaidoka would master movements with their sword.Demonstration of a Ju-Jitsu defense against a knife attack.", "Berlin 1924During the World War II era William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes were recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) to teach their martial art of Defendu (itself drawing on Western boxing and Jujutsu) and pistol shooting to UK, US, and Canadian special forces.", "The book ''Kill or Get Killed'', written by Colonel Rex Applegate, was based on the Defendu taught by Sykes and Fairbairn.", "Both Fairbairn's ''Get Tough'' and Appelgate's ''Kill or Get Killed'' became classic works on hand-to-hand combat.Traditional hand-to-hand, knife, and spear techniques continue to see use in the composite systems developed for today's wars.", "Examples of this include European Unifight, the US Army's Combatives system developed by Matt Larsen, the Israeli army's KAPAP and Krav Maga, and the US Marine Corps's ''Marine Corps Martial Arts Program'' (MCMAP).", "Unarmed dagger defenses identical to those found in the manual of Fiore dei Liberi and the Codex Wallerstein were integrated into the U.S. Army's training manuals in 1942and continue to influence today's systems along with other traditional systems such as eskrima and silat.The rifle-mounted bayonet which has its origin in the spear, has seen use by the United States Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the British Army as recently as the Iraq War.Many martial arts are also seen and used in Law Enforcement hand-to-hand training.", "For example, the Tokyo Riot Police's use of aikido." ], [ "Martial arts industry", "Martial arts since the 1970s has become a significant industry, a subset of the wider sport industry (including cinema and sports television).Hundreds of millions of people worldwide practice some form of martial art.Web Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide.The South Korean government in 2009 published an estimate that taekwondo is practiced by 70 million people in 190 countries.The wholesale value of martial arts related sporting equipment shipped in the United States was estimated at US$314 million in 2007; participation in the same year was estimated at 6.9 million (ages 6 or older, 2% of US population).", "R. A.", "Court, CEO of Martial Arts Channel, stated the total revenue of the US martial arts industry at US$40 billion and the number of US practitioners at 30 million in 2003.===Equipment===Martial arts equipment can include that which is used for conditioning, protection and weapons.", "Specialized conditioning equipment can include breaking boards, dummy partners such as the wooden dummy, and targets such as punching bags and the makiwara.", "Protective equipment for sparring and competition includes boxing gloves, headgear and mouthguards.===Martial arts fraud===Asian martial arts experienced a surge of popularity in the West during the 1970s, and the rising demand resulted in numerous low quality or fraudulent schools.", "Fueled by fictional depictions in martial arts movies, this led to the ninja craze of the 1980s in the United States.", "There were also numerous fraudulent ads for martial arts training programs, inserted into comic books circa the 1960s and 1970s, which were read primarily by adolescent boys.In the seventies, lower ranks (kyu) began to be given colorful belts to show progress.", "This proved to be commercially viable and colored-belt systems were adopted in many martial arts degree mills (also known as ''McDojos'' and ''belt factories'') as a means to generate additional cash.", "This was covered in the ''Penn & Teller: Bullshit!''", "episode \"Martial Arts\" (June 2010)." ], [ "See also", "* Martial arts timeline* History of martial arts* List of martial arts" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finitary relation" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''finitary relation''' over a sequence of sets is a subset of the Cartesian product ; that is, it is a set of ''n''-tuples , each being a sequence of elements ''x''''i'' in the corresponding ''X''''i''.", "Typically, the relation describes a possible connection between the elements of an ''n''-tuple.", "For example, the relation \"''x'' is divisible by ''y'' and ''z''\" consists of the set of 3-tuples such that when substituted to ''x'', ''y'' and ''z'', respectively, make the sentence true.The non-negative integer ''n'' that gives the number of \"places\" in the relation is called the ''arity'', ''adicity'' or ''degree'' of the relation.", "A relation with ''n'' \"places\" is variously called an '''''n''-ary relation''', an '''''n''-adic relation''' or a '''relation of degree ''n'''''.", "Relations with a finite number of places are called ''finitary relations'' (or simply ''relations'' if the context is clear).", "It is also possible to generalize the concept to ''infinitary relations'' with infinite sequences." ], [ "Definitions", "; Definition : ''R'' is an ''n''-ary '''relation''' on sets is given by a subset of the Cartesian product .Since the definition is predicated on the underlying sets , ''R'' may be more formally defined as the ()-tuple , where ''G'', called the ''graph'' of ''R'', is a subset of the Cartesian product .As is often done in mathematics, the same symbol is used to refer to the mathematical object and an underlying set, so the statement is often used used to mean is read \"''x''1, ..., ''x''''n'' are ''R''-related\" and are denoted using prefix notation by and using postfix notation by .", "In the case where ''R'' is a binary relation, those statements are also denoted using infix notation by .The following considerations apply:* The set ''X''''i'' is called the th ''domain'' of ''R''.", "In the case where ''R'' is a binary relation, ''X''1 is also called simply the ''domain'' or ''set of departure'' of ''R'', and ''X''2 is also called the ''codomain'' or ''set of destination'' of ''R''.", "* When the elements of ''X''''i'' are relations, ''X''''i'' is called a ''nonsimple domain'' of ''R''.", "* The set of such that for at least one is called the ''i''th ''domain of definition'' or ''active domain'' of ''R''.", "In the case where ''R'' is a binary relation, its first domain of definition is also called simply the ''domain of definition'' or ''active domain'' of ''R'', and its second domain of definition is also called the ''codomain of definition'' or ''active codomain'' of ''R''.", "* When the th domain of definition of ''R'' is equal to ''X''''i'', ''R'' is said to be ''total'' on its ''i''th domain (or on ''X''''i'', when this is not ambiguous).", "In the case where ''R'' is a binary relation, when ''R'' is total on ''X''1, it is also said to be ''left-total'' or ''serial'', and when ''R'' is total on ''X''2, it is also said to be ''right-total'' or ''surjective''.", "* When , where , , , and is a partition of , ''R'' is said to be ''unique'' on , and is called ''a primary key'' of ''R''.", "In the case where ''R'' is a binary relation, when ''R'' is unique on , it is also said to be ''left-unique'' or ''injective'', and when ''R'' is unique on , it is also said to be ''univalent'' or ''right-unique''.", "* When all ''X''''i'' are the same set ''X'', it is simpler to refer to ''R'' as an ''n''-ary relation over ''X'', called a ''homogeneous relation''.", "Without this restriction, ''R'' is called a ''heterogeneous relation''.", "* When any of ''X''''i'' is empty, the defining Cartesian product is empty, and the only relation over such a sequence of domains is the empty relation .Let a Boolean domain ''B'' be a two-element set, say, , whose elements can be interpreted as logical values, typically and .", "The characteristic function of ''R'', denoted by ''χ''''R'', is the Boolean-valued function , defined by if and otherwise.In applied mathematics, computer science and statistics, it is common to refer to a Boolean-valued function as an ''n''-ary ''predicate''.", "From the more abstract viewpoint of formal logic and model theory, the relation ''R'' constitutes a ''logical model'' or a ''relational structure'', that serves as one of many possible interpretations of some ''n''-ary predicate symbol.Because relations arise in many scientific disciplines, as well as in many branches of mathematics and logic, there is considerable variation in terminology.", "Aside from the set-theoretic extension of a relational concept or term, the term \"relation\" can also be used to refer to the corresponding logical entity, either the logical comprehension, which is the totality of intensions or abstract properties shared by all elements in the relation, or else the symbols denoting these elements and intensions.", "Further, some writers of the latter persuasion introduce terms with more concrete connotations (such as \"relational structure\" for the set-theoretic extension of a given relational concept)." ], [ "Specific values of ''n''", "=== Nullary ===Nullary (0-ary) relations count only two members: the empty nullary relation, which never holds, and the universal nullary relation, which always holds.", "This is because there is only one 0-tuple, the empty tuple (), and there are exactly two subsets of the (singleton) set of all 0-tuples.", "They are sometimes useful for constructing the base case of an induction argument.=== Unary ===Unary (1-ary) relations can be viewed as a collection of members (such as the collection of Nobel laureates) having some property (such as that of having been awarded the Nobel prize).Every nullary function is a unary relation.=== Binary ===Binary (2-ary) relations are the most commonly studied form of finitary relations.", "Homogeneous binary relations (where ) include* Equality and inequality, denoted by signs such as = and < in statements such as \"\", or * Divisibility, denoted by the sign | in statements such as \"\".Heterogeneous binary relations include* Set membership, denoted by the sign ∈ in statements such as \"\".=== Ternary ===Ternary (3-ary) relations include, for example, the binary functions, which relate two inputs and the output.", "All three of the domains of a homogeneous ternary relation are the same set." ], [ "Example", "Consider the ternary relation ''R'' \"''x'' thinks that ''y'' likes ''z''\" over the set of people , defined by:: .", "''R'' can be represented equivalently by the following table:+ Relation ''R'' \"''x'' thinks that ''y'' likes ''z''\" ''x'' ''y'' ''z'' Alice Bob Denise Charles Alice Bob Charles Charles Alice Denise Denise DeniseHere, each row represents a triple of ''R'', that is it makes a statement of the form \"''x'' thinks that ''y'' likes ''z''\".", "For instance, the first row states that \"Alice thinks that Bob likes Denise\".", "All rows are distinct.", "The ordering of rows is insignificant but the ordering of columns is significant.The above table is also a simple example of a relational database, a field with theory rooted in relational algebra and applications in data management.", "Computer scientists, logicians, and mathematicians, however, tend to have different conceptions what a general relation is, and what it is consisted of.", "For example, databases are designed to deal with empirical data, which is by definition finite, whereas in mathematics, relations with infinite arity (i.e., infinitary relation) are also considered." ], [ "History", "The logician Augustus De Morgan, in work published around 1860, was the first to articulate the notion of relation in anything like its present sense.", "He also stated the first formal results in the theory of relations (on De Morgan and relations, see Merrill 1990).Charles Peirce, Gottlob Frege, Georg Cantor, Richard Dedekind and others advanced the theory of relations.", "Many of their ideas, especially on relations called orders, were summarized in ''The Principles of Mathematics'' (1903) where Bertrand Russell made free use of these results.In 1970, Edgar Codd proposed a relational model for databases, thus anticipating the development of data base management systems." ], [ "See also", "* Incidence structure* Hypergraph* Logic of relatives* Logical matrix* Partial order* Predicate (mathematical logic)* Projection (set theory)* Reflexive relation* Relation algebra* Relational algebra* Relational model* Relations (philosophy)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * Lewis, C.I.", "(1918) A Survey of Symbolic Logic, Chapter 3: Applications of the Boole–Schröder Algebra, via Internet Archive* * * * * Peirce, C.S.", "(1870), \"Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives, Resulting from an Amplification of the Conceptions of Boole's Calculus of Logic\", ''Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences'' 9, 317–78, 1870.Reprinted, ''Collected Papers'' CP 3.45–149, ''Chronological Edition'' CE 2, 359–429.", "* Peirce, C.S.", "(1984) ''Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 2, 1867–1871''.", "Peirce Edition Project, eds.", "Indiana University Press.", "* * * 2nd edition, J. Corcoran, ed.", "Indianapolis IN: Hackett Publishing.", "* Ulam, S.M.", "and Bednarek, A.R.", "(1990), \"On the Theory of Relational Structures and Schemata for Parallel Computation\", pp.", "477–508 in A.R.", "Bednarek and Françoise Ulam (eds.", "), ''Analogies Between Analogies: The Mathematical Reports of S.M.", "Ulam and His Los Alamos Collaborators'', University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mokele-mbembe" ], [ "Introduction", "Drawing of Mokele-mbembe reflecting its supposed resemblance with the extinct sauropodsThe '''mokele-mbembe''' (also written as \"'''mokèlé-mbèmbé'''\"), Lingala for \"one who stops the flow of rivers\", is a mythical water-dwelling entity that supposedly lives in the Congo River Basin, sometimes described as a living creature, sometimes as a spirit.", "Descriptions vary widely among those who claim to have seen the creature, but it is often described as a large quadrupedal herbivore with smooth skin, a long neck and a single tooth or horn.In the early to mid 20th century, the entity would become a point of focus among adherents of cryptozoology and young Earth creationism, resulting in numerous expeditions led by cryptozoologists and/or funded by young Earth creationists and other groups with the objective to find evidence that invalidates or contradicts the scientific consensus regarding evolution.", "Paleontologist Donald Prothero remarks that \"the quest for Mokele-Mbembe ... is part of the effort by creationists to overthrow the theory of evolution and teaching of science by any means possible\".", "Additionally, Prothero observes that \"The only people looking for mokele-mbembe are creationist ministers, not wildlife biologists.", "\"Most mainstream experts believe that mokele-mbembe, as reported by Congolese natives, was probably inspired by the black rhinoceros, which once thrived in the region.", "Historian Edward Guimont has argued that the mokele-mbembe myth grows out of earlier pseudohistorical claims about Great Zimbabwe, and in turn influenced the later reptilian conspiracy theory." ], [ "History", "===20th century===The first report of the mokele-mbembe comes from German Captain , as described by Willy Ley in the book ''The Lungfish and the Unicorn'' (1941).", "Von Stein was ordered to conduct a survey of German colonies in what is now Cameroon in 1913.He heard stories of an enormous reptile called \"Mokele-mbembe\" alleged to live in the jungles, and included a description in his official report.", "According to Ley, \"von Stein worded his report with utmost caution,\" knowing it might be seen as unbelievable.", "Nonetheless, von Stein thought the tales were credible: trusted native guides had related the tales to him, and the stories were related to him by independent sources, yet featured many of the same details.", "Though von Stein's report was never formally published, Ley quoted von Stein as writing:The animal is said to be of a brownish-gray color with a smooth skin, its size is approximately that of an elephant; at least that of a hippopotamus.", "It is said to have a long and very flexible neck and only one tooth but a very long one; ''some say it is a horn''.", "A few spoke about a long, muscular tail like that of an alligator.", "Canoes coming near it are said to be doomed; the animal is said to attack the vessels at once and to kill the crews but without eating the bodies.", "The creature is said to live in the caves that have been washed out by the river in the clay of its shores at sharp bends.", "It is said to climb the shores even at daytime in search of food; its diet is said to be entirely vegetable.", "This feature disagrees with a possible explanation as a myth.", "The preferred plant was shown to me, it is a kind of liana with large white blossoms, with a milky sap and apple-like fruits.", "At the Ssombo River I was shown a path said to have been made by this animal in order to get at its food.", "The path was fresh and there were plants of the described type nearby.", "But since there were too many tracks of elephants, hippos, and other large mammals it was impossible to make out a particular spoor with any amount of certainty.However, according to Brian Dunning, in a 1929 German book by science author Wilhelm Bölsche called ''Dragons: Legend and Science'', Bölsche wrote that von Stein clearly believed that the creature described was not an actual animal, but instead was nothing more than local folklore.", "According to German adventurer Lt. Paul Gratz's account from 1911:The crocodile is found only in very isolated specimens in Lake Bangweulu, except in the mouths of the large rivers at the north.", "In the swamp lives the ''nsanga'', much feared by the natives, a degenerate saurian which one might well confuse with the crocodile were it not that its skin has no scales and its toes are armed with claws.", "I did not succeed in shooting a ''nsanga'', but on the island of Mbawala I came by some strips of its skin.Tales of entities like mokele-mbembe, living saurians or large scientifically unidentified creatures walking around the African rain forest, are not rare; there have been multiple tales of large, smooth-skinned quadrupeds with long necks that fed on large prey still living in central Africa.", "It was only after the description of the mokele-mbembe surfaced that the rest of the world started interpreting those legends as possessing a dinosaur-like body structure.", "A notable example would be the emela-ntouka, an elephant-sized creature that shares a lot of similarities with the mokele-mbembe.", "It is described as having smooth skin, a strong and muscular tail, and a \"horn\" or \"tooth\".", "Another similar creature, the ''jago-nini'', was described by Alfred Aloysius Smith, who had worked for a British trading company in what is now Gabon in the late 1800s, who briefly mentions it in his 1927 memoir.Outdated 1897 restoration of a submerged ''Brontosaurus'' by Charles R. Knight; depictions like this may have influenced the mythReports of entities described to be dinosaur-like in Africa caused a minor sensation in the mass media, and newspapers in Europe and North America carried many articles on the subject in the early 1910s; some took the reports at face value, while others were more skeptical.", "It is notable that Western Europe and the Americas were going through a pop cultural interest in dinosaurs, of which the Brontosaurus was one of the most popular.", "This cultural trend could have contributed to both the reports as well as the tendency for newspapers to claim the reported beast was a sauropod.Several expeditions, of varying scientific credibility, were undertaken in the 20th Century to search for mokele-mbembe or interview claimed eyewitnesses.", "In 1980 and again in 1981, explorer Henry Powell and biologist Roy Mackal visited the Congo region and interviewed native residents.", "They did not find any direct physical evidence, but nonetheless argued consistent statements from claimed eyewitnesses tended to support the creature's existence.", "Mackal published a book in 1987 detailing his expeditions.", "Mackal admitted his investigation was \"tinged with some romanticism\", but also insisted he had serious scientific intent.", "Prothero argues the Powell-Mackall expedition almost single-handedly popularized the modern concept of mokele-mbembe to Westerners, yet was seriously flawed.", "Mackal's training was in virology, which arguably did not qualify him to search for a large, exotic creature; and Mackal seemed to uncritically accept eyewitness statements without considering the possibility people might lie or exaggerate for financial gain, for attention, or to impress an American visitor.", "Furthermore, Mackal was dismissive of Africans who \"denied knowledge of mokele-mbeme\" or who asserted the creature did not exist.", "Zoologist Marcellin Agnagna said he took a film of mokele-mbeme in 1983 but the footage did not develop properly.", "Prospero describes the story as \"suspicious\", noting critical details of Agnagna's account have changed and none of it was supported by other witnesses.", "Scottish explorer William \"Billy\" Gibbons led two expeditions in 1985 and 1992, though Prothero question his motives as a creationist and describes Gibbons as not following even basic scientific principles.", "Journalist Rory Nugent's book ''Drums Along The Congo: On The Trail Of Mokele-Mbembe, the Last Living Dinosaur'' was published in 1993 by Houghton Mifflin.", "Nugent's book included a photograph he claimed was possibly mokele-mbembe, but which Prothero argues was more likely a floating log.===21st century===In 2001, BBC broadcast in the TV series ''Congo'' a collective interview with a group of Biaka pygmies, who identified the mokele-mbembe as a rhinoceros while looking at an illustrated manual of wildlife.", "Neither species of African rhinoceros is common in the Congo Basin, and the mokele-mbembe may be a mixture of mythology and folk memory from a time when rhinoceroses were found in the area.In 2016, a travel documentary crew from South Africa made a documentary about searching for mokele-mbembe, which they later sold to Discovery Africa.", "The team spent roughly four weeks in the Likuoala swamp region visiting various Aka (pygmy) villages, collecting stories of the creature's existence.", "They pointed out the difficulty of differentiating between a mokele-mbembe's metaphysical and physical existence.", "While they interviewed people who believed in its presence, others stated it died at least a decade ago.In 2018, Lensgreve of Knuthenborg, Adam Christoffer Knuth, along with a film crew from Danish Radio and a DNA scientist, traveled to Lake Tele in Congo, in search of the mokele-mbembe.", "They did not find the cryptid; however, they found a new species of green algae." ], [ "Possible explanation", "The lack of physical evidence and the conflicting witnesses have made the existence of the entity doubted by the large majority of scientists and historians.", "The most reasonable and agreed upon explanation is that the mokele-mbembe is a legend based on the black rhinoceros, a species once common to central Africa, where the stories of the mokele-mbembe originated.", "According to skeptic Ben Radford, the origin of the creature can be traced back to a 1909 book by zoologist Carl Hagenbeck called ''Beasts and Men''.", "Based on recently discovered dinosaur bones, Hagenbeck speculated that sauropods may still live in Africa.", "Although he offered no evidence other than legends, the claims were circulated by the press, including ''The Washington Post''.", "Loxton and Prothero claimed it \"launched what would become the modern cryptozoological legend of mokele-mbembe\".", "They concluded that the reports of the monster were not result of hard evidence or genuine first-hand accounts of native encounters with the creature, but rather a \"distillation of many creatively varied stories from widely separated regions.", "The absence of evidence supporting the creature's existence, despite several centuries of Western contact with the region, numerous expeditions in search of the animal, and periodic aerial and satellite surveillance, all of which have detected elephants and other large animals - but no sauropods - all argue against the existence of mokele-mbembe." ], [ "In popular culture", "* A rather disadvantageous line of the chess opening Alekhine's Defence is named after the creature: the \"mokele'''-'''mbembe variation\".", "* The mokele-mbembe was featured in ''The Secret Files of the Spy Dogs'' episode \"Earnest.\"", "It is among the creatures that have been caught by Earnest Anyway.", "* In the 1985 film ''Baby: Secret of the Lost Legend'', rumors of a sighting of mokele-mbembe lead the main characters to a family of live sauropods.", "* In 1989 The Punisher/Wolverine ''African Saga'' (''On the Track of Unknown Animals''/''Endangered Species'', ''The Punisher War Journal'' #6-#7) by Carl Potts and Jim Lee, mentioned superheroes stops band of poachers who tried to hunt mokele-mbembe.", "* In the 1994 video game Uncharted Waters: New Horizons, the mokele-mbembe can be discovered in the Congo River.", "* In the 2010 video game Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, Mokele-mbembe is one of the cryptids said to be dinosaurs that the character Chico tells Big Boss about.", "* In May 2013 the Norwegian experimental music outfit Sturle Dagsland released a song entitled \"mokele-mbembe\".", "* The Roland Smith novel ''Cryptid Hunters'' revolves around a search for the mokele-mbembe and successful recovery of two of its eggs (the only known adult specimens having died beforehand) from the jungles of the Congo.", "* Mokele-mbembe is one of six cryptids sought by comedian and journalist Dom Joly in his travel book ''Scary Monsters and Super Creeps''.", "* Korean American artist David Choe claimed on an episode of ''The Joe Rogan Experience'' that as a young man he travelled to the Congo in search of Mokele-mbembe after reading about it in a magazine while he was living in Israel.", "* In the World of Darkness universe by White Wolf Publishing, the Mokole are a breed of were-reptiles who serve as the \"memory\" of Gaia.", "* The 2019 film ''Godzilla: King of the Monsters'' mentions a Titan dubbed Mokele-mbembe, though it is not seen in the film.", "But the creature's figure was seen in its misty and foggy containment in Outpost 75 Jebel Barkal, Sudan while it arises and escapes after being awoken by King Ghidorah alongside the other 17 titans.", "The creature is featured more prominently in the film's novelization.", "* In the SCP Foundation, mokele-mbembe is what a village of Mbochi people call a specimen of SCP-1265, specifically a ''Camarasaurus''.", "They also mention Mbielu-Mbielu-Mbielu also being a part of SCP-1265, with it being a ''Kentrosaurus''.", "* In the book Mortal Engines, Captain Khora's airship is named Mokele Mbembe.", "* In the second season of the Goblin Slayer anime, the adventurers encounter a large creature referred to as \"Mokele Mubenbe\", a huge sauropod-like creature with purple crystals protruding from its hide." ], [ "See also", "* Mušḫuššu* Cryptid* Human–dinosaur coexistence* Living dinosaur* Loch Ness Monster* Lariosauro* Nahuelito" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography & further reading", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Intuitionism" ], [ "Introduction", "In the philosophy of mathematics, '''intuitionism''', or '''neointuitionism''' (opposed to preintuitionism), is an approach where mathematics is considered to be purely the result of the constructive mental activity of humans rather than the discovery of fundamental principles claimed to exist in an objective reality.", "That is, logic and mathematics are not considered analytic activities wherein deep properties of objective reality are revealed and applied, but are instead considered the application of internally consistent methods used to realize more complex mental constructs, regardless of their possible independent existence in an objective reality." ], [ "Truth and proof", "The fundamental distinguishing characteristic of intuitionism is its interpretation of what it means for a mathematical statement to be true.", "In Brouwer's original intuitionism, the truth of a mathematical statement is a subjective claim: a mathematical statement corresponds to a mental construction, and a mathematician can assert the truth of a statement only by verifying the validity of that construction by intuition.", "The vagueness of the intuitionistic notion of truth often leads to misinterpretations about its meaning.", "Kleene formally defined intuitionistic truth from a realist position, yet Brouwer would likely reject this formalization as meaningless, given his rejection of the realist/Platonist position.", "Intuitionistic truth therefore remains somewhat ill-defined.", "However, because the intuitionistic notion of truth is more restrictive than that of classical mathematics, the intuitionist must reject some assumptions of classical logic to ensure that everything they prove is in fact intuitionistically true.", "This gives rise to intuitionistic logic.To an intuitionist, the claim that an object with certain properties exists is a claim that an object with those properties can be constructed.", "Any mathematical object is considered to be a product of a construction of a mind, and therefore, the existence of an object is equivalent to the possibility of its construction.", "This contrasts with the classical approach, which states that the existence of an entity can be proved by refuting its non-existence.", "For the intuitionist, this is not valid; the refutation of the non-existence does not mean that it is possible to find a construction for the putative object, as is required in order to assert its existence.", "As such, intuitionism is a variety of mathematical constructivism; but it is not the only kind.The interpretation of negation is different in intuitionist logic than in classical logic.", "In classical logic, the negation of a statement asserts that the statement is ''false''; to an intuitionist, it means the statement is ''refutable''.", "There is thus an asymmetry between a positive and negative statement in intuitionism.", "If a statement ''P'' is provable, then ''P'' certainly cannot be refutable.", "But even if it can be shown that ''P'' cannot be refuted, this does not constitute a proof of ''P''.", "Thus ''P'' is a stronger statement than ''not-not-P''.Similarly, to assert that ''A'' or ''B'' holds, to an intuitionist, is to claim that either ''A'' or ''B'' can be ''proved''.", "In particular, the law of excluded middle, \"''A'' or not ''A''\", is not accepted as a valid principle.", "For example, if ''A'' is some mathematical statement that an intuitionist has not yet proved or disproved, then that intuitionist will not assert the truth of \"''A'' or not ''A''\".", "However, the intuitionist will accept that \"''A'' and not ''A''\" cannot be true.", "Thus the connectives \"and\" and \"or\" of intuitionistic logic do not satisfy de Morgan's laws as they do in classical logic.Intuitionistic logic substitutes constructability for abstract truth and is associated with a transition from the proof of model theory to abstract truth in modern mathematics.", "The logical calculus preserves justification, rather than truth, across transformations yielding derived propositions.", "It has been taken as giving philosophical support to several schools of philosophy, most notably the Anti-realism of Michael Dummett.", "Thus, contrary to the first impression its name might convey, and as realized in specific approaches and disciplines (e.g.", "Fuzzy Sets and Systems), intuitionist mathematics is more rigorous than conventionally founded mathematics, where, ironically, the foundational elements which Intuitionism attempts to construct/refute/refound are taken as intuitively given." ], [ "Infinity", "Among the different formulations of intuitionism, there are several different positions on the meaning and reality of infinity.The term potential infinity refers to a mathematical procedure in which there is an unending series of steps.", "After each step has been completed, there is always another step to be performed.", "For example, consider the process of counting: The term actual infinity refers to a completed mathematical object which contains an infinite number of elements.", "An example is the set of natural numbers, In Cantor's formulation of set theory, there are many different infinite sets, some of which are larger than others.", "For example, the set of all real numbers is larger than , because any procedure that you attempt to use to put the natural numbers into one-to-one correspondence with the real numbers will always fail: there will always be an infinite number of real numbers \"left over\".", "Any infinite set that can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers is said to be \"countable\" or \"denumerable\".", "Infinite sets larger than this are said to be \"uncountable\".Cantor's set theory led to the axiomatic system of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZFC), now the most common foundation of modern mathematics.", "Intuitionism was created, in part, as a reaction to Cantor's set theory.Modern constructive set theory includes the axiom of infinity from ZFC (or a revised version of this axiom) and the set of natural numbers.", "Most modern constructive mathematicians accept the reality of countably infinite sets (however, see Alexander Esenin-Volpin for a counter-example).Brouwer rejected the concept of actual infinity, but admitted the idea of potential infinity." ], [ "History", "Intuitionism's history can be traced to two controversies in nineteenth century mathematics.The first of these was the invention of transfinite arithmetic by Georg Cantor and its subsequent rejection by a number of prominent mathematicians including most famously his teacher Leopold Kronecker—a confirmed finitist.The second of these was Gottlob Frege's effort to reduce all of mathematics to a logical formulation via set theory and its derailing by a youthful Bertrand Russell, the discoverer of Russell's paradox.", "Frege had planned a three volume definitive work, but just as the second volume was going to press, Russell sent Frege a letter outlining his paradox, which demonstrated that one of Frege's rules of self-reference was self-contradictory.", "In an appendix to the second volume, Frege acknowledged that one of the axioms of his system did in fact lead to Russell's paradox.Frege, the story goes, plunged into depression and did not publish the third volume of his work as he had planned.", "For more see Davis (2000) Chapters 3 and 4: Frege: ''From Breakthrough to Despair'' and Cantor: ''Detour through Infinity.''", "See van Heijenoort for the original works and van Heijenoort's commentary.These controversies are strongly linked as the logical methods used by Cantor in proving his results in transfinite arithmetic are essentially the same as those used by Russell in constructing his paradox.", "Hence how one chooses to resolve Russell's paradox has direct implications on the status accorded to Cantor's transfinite arithmetic.In the early twentieth century L. E. J. Brouwer represented the ''intuitionist'' position and David Hilbert the formalist position—see van Heijenoort.", "Kurt Gödel offered opinions referred to as ''Platonist'' (see various sources re Gödel).", "Alan Turing considers:\"non-constructive systems of logic with which not all the steps in a proof are mechanical, some being intuitive\".. Later, Stephen Cole Kleene brought forth a more rational consideration of intuitionism in his ''Introduction to metamathematics'' (1952).Nicolas Gisin is adopting intuitionist mathematics to reinterpret quantum indeterminacy, information theory and the physics of time." ], [ "Contributors", "* Henri Poincaré (preintuitionism/conventionalism)* L. E. J. Brouwer* Michael Dummett* Arend Heyting* Stephen Kleene" ], [ "Branches of intuitionistic mathematics", "* Intuitionistic logic* Intuitionistic arithmetic* Intuitionistic type theory* Intuitionistic set theory* Intuitionistic analysis" ], [ "See also", "* Anti-realism* BHK interpretation* Brouwer–Hilbert controversy* Computability logic* Constructive logic* Curry–Howard isomorphism* Foundations of mathematics* Fuzzy logic* Game semantics* Intuition (knowledge)* Model theory* Topos theory* Ultraintuitionism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*\"Analysis.\"", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "2006.Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD 15 June 2006, \"Constructive analysis\" (Ian Stewart, author)*W. S. Anglin, '' Mathematics: A Concise history and Philosophy'', Springer-Verlag, New York, 1994.:In ''Chapter 39 Foundations'', with respect to the 20th century Anglin gives very precise, short descriptions of Platonism (with respect to Godel), Formalism (with respect to Hilbert), and Intuitionism (with respect to Brouwer).", "*Martin Davis (ed.)", "(1965), ''The Undecidable'', Raven Press, Hewlett, NY.", "Compilation of original papers by Gödel, Church, Kleene, Turing, Rosser, and Post.", "Republished as * *John W. Dawson Jr., ''Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel'', A. K. Peters, Wellesley, MA, 1997.:Less readable than Goldstein but, in ''Chapter III Excursis'', Dawson gives an excellent \"A Capsule History of the Development of Logic to 1928\".", "*Rebecca Goldstein, ''Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Godel'', Atlas Books, W.W. Norton, New York, 2005.:In ''Chapter II Hilbert and the Formalists'' Goldstein gives further historical context.", "As a Platonist Gödel was reticent in the presence of the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle.", "Goldstein discusses Wittgenstein's impact and the impact of the formalists.", "Goldstein notes that the intuitionists were even more opposed to Platonism than Formalism.", "* Jacques Hartong and Georges Reeb, ''Intuitionnisme 84'' (first published in ''La Mathématique Non-standard'', éditions du C.N.R.S.", "): A reevaluation of intuitionism, from the point of view (among others) of constructive mathematics and non-standard analysis.", "**** van Heijenoort, J., ''From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967.Reprinted with corrections, 1977.The following papers appear in van Heijenoort::* L.E.J.", "Brouwer, 1923, ''On the significance of the principle of excluded middle in mathematics, especially in function theory'' reprinted with commentary, p. 334, van Heijenoort:* Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov, 1925, ''On the principle of excluded middle'', reprinted with commentary, p. 414, van Heijenoort:* L.E.J.", "Brouwer, 1927, ''On the domains of definitions of functions'', reprinted with commentary, p. 446, van Heijenoort::Although not directly germane, in his (1923) Brouwer uses certain words defined in this paper.", ":* L.E.J.", "Brouwer, 1927(2), ''Intuitionistic reflections on formalism'', reprinted with commentary, p. 490, van Heijenoort:* Jacques Herbrand, (1931b), \"On the consistency of arithmetic\", reprinted with commentary, p. 618ff, van Heijenoort:: From van Heijenoort's commentary it is unclear whether or not Herbrand was a true \"intuitionist\"; Gödel (1963) asserted that indeed \"...Herbrand was an intuitionist\".", "But van Heijenoort says Herbrand's conception was \"on the whole much closer to that of Hilbert's word 'finitary' ('finit') that to \"intuitionistic\" as applied to Brouwer's doctrine\".", "* * Arend Heyting: * :In Chapter III ''A Critique of Mathematic Reasoning, §11.The paradoxes'', Kleene discusses Intuitionism and Formalism in depth.", "Throughout the rest of the book he treats, and compares, both Formalist (classical) and Intuitionist logics with an emphasis on the former.", "* Stephen Cole Kleene and Richard Eugene Vesley, ''The Foundations of Intuitionistic Mathematics'', North-Holland Publishing Co. Amsterdam, 1965.The lead sentence tells it all \"The constructive tendency in mathematics...\".", "A text for specialists, but written in Kleene's wonderfully-clear style.", "** A.", "A. Markov (1954) ''Theory of algorithms''.", "Translated by Jacques J. Schorr-Kon and PST staff Imprint Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954 i.e.", "Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1961; available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept.", "of Commerce, Washington Description 444 p. 28 cm.", "Added t.p.", "in Russian Translation of Works of the Mathematical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, v. 42.Original title: Teoriya algorifmov.", "QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library.", "U.S. Dept.", "of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS 60–51085.A secondary reference for specialists: Markov opined that \"The entire significance for mathematics of rendering more precise the concept of algorithm emerges, however, in connection with the problem of ''a constructive foundation for mathematics''....p. 3, italics added.", "Markov believed that further applications of his work \"merit a special book, which the author hopes to write in the future\" (p. 3).", "Sadly, said work apparently never appeared.", "* Hilary Putnam and Paul Benacerraf, ''Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings'', Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964.2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.: Part I.", "''The foundation of mathematics'', ''Symposium on the foundations of mathematics'':* Rudolf Carnap, ''The logicist foundations of mathematics'', p. 41:* Arend Heyting, ''The intuitionist foundations of mathematics'', p. 52:* Johann von Neumann, ''The formalist foundations of mathematics'', p. 61:* Arend Heyting, ''Disputation'', p. 66:* L. E. J. Brouwer, ''Intuitionnism and formalism'', p. 77:* L. E. J. Brouwer, ''Consciousness, philosophy, and mathematics'', p. 90* Constance Reid, ''Hilbert'', Copernicus – Springer-Verlag, 1st edition 1970, 2nd edition 1996.: Definitive biography of Hilbert places his \"Program\" in historical context together with the subsequent fighting, sometimes rancorous, between the Intuitionists and the Formalists.", "* Paul Rosenbloom, ''The Elements of Mathematical Logic'', Dover Publications Inc, Mineola, New York, 1950.: In a style more of Principia Mathematica – many symbols, some antique, some from German script.", "Very good discussions of intuitionism in the following locations: pages 51–58 in Section 4 Many Valued Logics, Modal Logics, Intuitionism; pages 69–73 Chapter III The Logic of Propostional Functions Section 1 Informal Introduction; and p. 146-151 Section 7 the Axiom of Choice.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 6" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1527 – Spanish and German troops sack Rome; many scholars consider this the end of the Renaissance.", "*1536 – The Siege of Cuzco commences, in which Incan forces attempt to retake the city of Cuzco from the Spanish.", "*1541 – King Henry VIII orders English-language Bibles be placed in every church.", "In 1539 the Great Bible would be provided for this purpose.", "*1542 – Francis Xavier reaches Old Goa, the capital of Portuguese India at the time.", "*1594 – The Dutch city of Coevorden held by the Spanish, falls to a Dutch and English force.===1601–1900===*1659 – English Restoration: A faction of the British Army removes Richard Cromwell as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth and reinstalls the Rump Parliament.", "*1682 – Louis XIV of France moves his court to the Palace of Versailles.", "*1757 – Battle of Prague: A Prussian army fights an Austrian army in Prague during the Seven Years' War.", "* 1757 – The end of Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War, and the end of Burmese Civil War (1740–1757).", "* 1757 – English poet Christopher Smart is admitted into St Luke's Hospital for Lunatics in London, beginning his six-year confinement to mental asylums.", "*1782 – Construction begins on the Grand Palace, the royal residence of the King of Siam in Bangkok, at the command of King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke.", "*1801 – Captain Thomas Cochrane in the 14-gun captures the 32-gun Spanish frigate ''El Gamo''.", "*1835 – James Gordon Bennett, Sr. publishes the first issue of the ''New York Herald''.", "*1840 – The Penny Black postage stamp becomes valid for use in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "*1857 – The East India Company disbands the 34th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry whose sepoy Mangal Pandey had earlier revolted against the British in the lead up to the War of Indian Independence.", "*1861 – American Civil War: Arkansas secedes from the Union.", "*1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Chancellorsville ends with the defeat of the Army of the Potomac by the Army of Northern Virginia.", "*1877 – Chief Crazy Horse of the Oglala Lakota surrenders to United States troops in Nebraska.", "*1882 – Thomas Henry Burke and Lord Frederick Cavendish are stabbed to death by Fenian assassins in Phoenix Park, Dublin.", "* 1882 – The United States Congress passes the Chinese Exclusion Act.", "*1889 – The Eiffel Tower is officially opened to the public at the Universal Exposition in Paris.===1901–present===*1901 – The first issue of ''Gorkhapatra,'' the oldest still running state-owned Nepali newspaper was published.", "*1906 – The Russian Constitution of 1906 is adopted (on April 23 by the Julian calendar).", "*1910 – George V becomes King of Great Britain, Ireland, and many overseas territories, on the death of his father, Edward VII.", "*1915 – Babe Ruth, then a pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, hits his first major league home run.", "* 1915 – Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition: The SY ''Aurora'' broke loose from its anchorage during a gale, beginning a 312-day ordeal.", "*1916 – Twenty-one Lebanese nationalists are executed in Martyrs' Square, Beirut by Djemal Pasha.", "* 1916 – Vietnamese Emperor Duy Tân is captured while calling upon the people to rise up against the French, and is later deposed and exiled to Réunion island.", "*1933 – The Deutsche Studentenschaft attacked Magnus Hirschfeld's Institut für Sexualwissenschaft, later burning many of its books.", "*1935 – New Deal: Under the authority of the newly-enacted Federal Emergency Relief Administration, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issues Executive Order 7034 to create the Works Progress Administration.", "*1937 – Hindenburg disaster: The German zeppelin ''Hindenburg'' catches fire and is destroyed within a minute while attempting to dock at Lakehurst, New Jersey.", "Thirty-six people are killed.", "*1940 – John Steinbeck is awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his novel ''The Grapes of Wrath''.", "*1941 – At California's March Field, Bob Hope performs his first USO show.", "* 1941 – The first flight of the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt.", "*1942 – World War II: On Corregidor, the last American forces in the Philippines surrender to the Japanese.", "*1945 – World War II: Axis Sally delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops.", "* 1945 – World War II: The Prague Offensive, the last major battle of the Eastern Front, begins.", "*1949 – EDSAC, the first practical electronic digital stored-program computer, runs its first operation.", "*1954 – Roger Bannister becomes the first person to run the mile in under four minutes.", "*1960 – More than 20 million viewers watch the first televised royal wedding when Princess Margaret marries Antony Armstrong-Jones at Westminster Abbey.", "*1966 – Myra Hindley and Ian Brady are sentenced to life imprisonment for the Moors murders in England.", "*1972 – Deniz Gezmiş, Yusuf Aslan and Hüseyin İnan are executed in Ankara after being convicted of attempting to overthrow the Constitutional order.", "*1975 – During a lull in fighting, 100,000 Armenians gather in Beirut for the 60th anniversary commemorations of the Armenian genocide.", "*1976 – The 6.5 Friuli earthquake affected Northern Italy with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (''Extreme''), leaving 900–978 dead and 1,700–2,400 injured.", "*1983 – The ''Hitler Diaries'' are revealed as a hoax after being examined by new experts.", "*1984 – One hundred and three Korean Martyrs are canonized by Pope John Paul II in Seoul.", "*1988 – All thirty-six passengers and crew were killed when Widerøe Flight 710 crashed into Mt.", "Torghatten in Brønnøy.", "*1994 – Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and French President François Mitterrand officiate at the opening of the Channel Tunnel.", "*1996 – The body of former CIA director William Colby is found washed up on a riverbank in southern Maryland, eight days after he disappeared.", "*1997 – The Bank of England is given independence from political control, the most significant change in the bank's 300-year history.", "*1998 – Kerry Wood strikes out 20 Houston Astros to tie the major league record held by Roger Clemens.", "He threw a one-hitter and did not walk a batter in his fifth career start.", "*1998 – Steve Jobs of Apple Inc. unveils the first iMac.", "*1999 – The first elections to the devolved Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly are held.", "*2001 – During a trip to Syria, Pope John Paul II becomes the first pope to enter a mosque.", "*2002 – Dutch politician Pim Fortuyn is assassinated following a radio-interview at the Mediapark in Hilversum.", "* 2002 – Founding of SpaceX.", "*2010 – In just 36 minutes, the Dow-Jones average plunged nearly 1,000 points in what is known as the 2010 Flash Crash.", "*2013 – Three women, kidnapped and missing for more than a decade, are found alive in Cleveland, Ohio, in the United States.", "*2023 – The coronation of Charles III and Camilla as King and Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms is held in Westminster Abbey, London.", "* 2023 – Eight people are killed and seven injured in a mass shooting in Allen, Texas.", "The perpetrator is killed by a police officer." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 973 – Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1024)*1464 – Sophia Jagiellon, Margravine of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Polish princess (d. 1512)*1493 – Girolamo Seripando, Italian theologian and cardinal (d. 1563)*1501 – Marcellus II, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1555)*1574 – Innocent X, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1655)*1580 – Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, French noble (d. 1637)===1601–1900===*1635 – Johann Joachim Becher, German physician and alchemist (d. 1682)*1668 – Alain-René Lesage, French author and playwright (d. 1747)*1680 – Jean-Baptiste Stuck, Italian-French cellist and composer (d. 1755)*1713 – Charles Batteux, French philosopher and academic (d. 1780)*1714 – Anton Raaff, German tenor (d. 1797)*1742 – Jean Senebier, Swiss pastor and physiologist (d. 1809)*1758 – André Masséna, French general (d. 1817)* 1758 – Maximilien Robespierre, French politician (d. 1794)*1769 – Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1824)* 1769 – Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette, French mathematician and academic (d. 1834)*1781 – Karl Christian Friedrich Krause, German philosopher and author (d. 1832)*1797 – Joseph Brackett, American religious leader and composer (d. 1882)*1800 – Roman Sanguszko, Polish general (d. 1881)*1827 – Hermann Raster, German-American journalist and politician (d. 1891)*1836 – Max Eyth, German engineer and author (d. 1906)*1843 – Grove Karl Gilbert, American geologist and academic (d. 1918)*1848 – Henry Edward Armstrong, English chemist and academic (d. 1937)*1851 – Aristide Bruant, French singer and actor (d. 1925)*1856 – Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1939)* 1856 – Robert Peary, American admiral and explorer (d. 1920)*1861 – Motilal Nehru, Indian lawyer and politician, President of the Indian National Congress (d. 1931)*1868 – Gaston Leroux, French journalist and author (d. 1927)*1869 – Junnosuke Inoue, Japanese businessman and central banker, 8th and 11th Governor of the Bank of Japan (d. 1932)*1870 – Walter Rutherford, Scottish golfer (d. 1936)*1871 – Victor Grignard, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1935)* 1871 – Christian Morgenstern, German author and poet (d. 1914)*1872 – Willem de Sitter, Dutch mathematician, physicist, and astronomer (d. 1934)* 1872 – Djemal Pasha, Ottoman general (d. 1922)*1879 – Bedřich Hrozný, Czech orientalist and linguist (d. 1952)* 1879 – Hendrik van Heuckelum, Dutch footballer (d. 1929)*1880 – Winifred Brunton, English-South African painter and illustrator (d. 1959)* 1880 – Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, German-Swiss painter (d. 1938)*1883 – Alberto Collo, Italian actor (d. 1955) *1895 – Júlio César de Mello e Souza, Brazilian mathematician and author (d. 1974)* 1895 – Fidél Pálffy, Hungarian soldier and politician, Hungarian Minister of Agriculture (d. 1946)* 1895 – Rudolph Valentino, Italian actor (d. 1926)*1896 – Rolf Maximilian Sievert, Swedish physicist and academic (d. 1966)*1897 – Paul Alverdes, German author and poet (d. 1979)*1898 – Konrad Henlein, Czech soldier and politician (d. 1945)===1901–present===*1902 – Harry Golden, Ukrainian-American journalist and author (d. 1981)* 1902 – Max Ophüls, German-American director and screenwriter (d. 1957)*1903 – Toots Shor, American businessman, founded Toots Shor's Restaurant (d. 1977)*1904 – Moshé Feldenkrais, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (d. 1984)* 1904 – Catherine Lacey, English actress (d. 1979)* 1904 – Harry Martinson, Swedish novelist, essayist, and poet Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)*1905 – Philip N. Krasne, American lawyer and producer (d. 1999)*1906 – André Weil, French mathematician and academic (d. 1998)*1907 – Peter Barnes, Executed Irish Republican (d. 1940) * 1907 – Weeb Ewbank, American football player and coach (d. 1998)*1911 – Guy des Cars, French journalist and author (d. 1993)*1913 – Carmen Cavallaro, American pianist (d. 1989)* 1913 – Stewart Granger, English-American actor (d. 1993)*1915 – Orson Welles, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1985)* 1915 – Theodore H. White, American historian, journalist, and author (d. 1986)*1916 – Robert H. Dicke, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1997)*1917 – Kal Mann, American songwriter (d. 2001)*1918 – Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, emir of Abu Dhabi and first president of the United Arab Emirates (d. 2004)*1919 – André Guelfi, French race car driver (d. 2016)*1920 – Kamisese Mara, Fijian politician, 1st Prime Minister of Fiji (d. 2004)* 1920 – Marguerite Piazza, American soprano and actress (d. 2012)*1921 – Erich Fried, Austrian-German author, poet, and translator (d. 1988)*1922 – Camille Laurin, Canadian psychiatrist and politician, 7th Deputy Premier of Quebec (d. 1999)*1923 – Harry Watson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2002)*1924 – Nestor Basterretxea, Spanish painter and sculptor (d. 2014)* 1924 – Patricia Helen Kennedy, American socialite, activist, and author (d. 2006)* 1924 – Denny Wright, English guitarist, composer, and producer (d. 1992)*1926 – Gilles Grégoire, Canadian politician, co-founded the Parti Québécois (d. 2006)*1929 – Rosemary Cramp, English archaeologist and academic (d. 2023)* 1929 – Paul Lauterbur, American chemist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2007)* 1929 – John Taylor, English bishop and theologian (d. 2016)*1931 – Willie Mays, American baseball player and coach* 1931 – Louis Gambaccini, American government official (d. 2018)*1932 – Ahmet Haxhiu, Kosovan activist (d. 1994)* 1932 – Alexander Thynn, 7th Marquess of Bath, English lieutenant and politician (d. 2020)*1934 – Richard Shelby, American lawyer and politician*1937 – Rubin Carter, American-Canadian boxer (d. 2014)*1938 – Jean Garon, Canadian economist, lawyer, and politician (d. 2014)*1939 – Eddie C. Campbell, American singer and guitarist (d. 2018)* 1939 – Chet Allen, American child actor (d. 1984)*1942 – Ariel Dorfman, Argentinian author, playwright, and academic*1943 – Andreas Baader, German terrorist, co-founded the Red Army Faction (d. 1977)* 1943 – Milton William Cooper, American conspiracy theorist and author (d. 2001)* 1943 – Wolfgang Reinhardt, German pole vaulter (d. 2011)* 1943 – James Turrell, American sculptor and illustrator*1944 – Anton Furst, English-American production designer and art director (d. 1991)* 1944 – Masanori Murakami, Japanese baseball player and coach *1945 – Jimmie Dale Gilmore, American country singer-songwriter, guitarist, actor, and producer* 1945 – Bob Seger, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1947 – Alan Dale, New Zealand actor* 1947 – Martha Nussbaum, American philosopher and author* 1947 – Ljubomir Vračarević, Serbian martial artist, founded Real Aikido (d. 2013)*1948 – Frankie Librán, Puerto Rican-American baseball player (d. 2013)*1950 – Jeffery Deaver, American journalist and author*1951 – Samuel Doe, Liberian sergeant and politician, 21st President of Liberia (d. 1990)*1952 – Chiaki Mukai, Japanese physician and astronaut* 1952 – Gerrit Zalm, Dutch economist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands*1953 – Alexander Akimov, Ukrainian Chernobyl worker (d. 1986) * 1953 – Tony Blair, British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom* 1953 – Michelle Courchesne, Canadian urban planner and politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec* 1953 – Ülle Rajasalu, Estonian politician* 1953 – Graeme Souness, Scottish international footballer and manager*1954 – Tom Abernethy, American basketball player* 1954 – Dora Bakoyannis, Greek politician, 120th Greek Minister for Foreign Affairs* 1954 – Angela Hernández Nuñez, Dominican author and poet* 1954 – Ain Lutsepp, Estonian actor and politician *1955 – Nicholas Alexander, 7th Earl of Caledon, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Armagh* 1955 – Tom Bergeron, American television host* 1955 – John Hutton, Baron Hutton of Furness, English academic and politician, Secretary of State for Defence*1956 – Lakis Lazopoulos, Greek actor and screenwriter* 1956 – Cindy Lovell, American educator and writer* 1956 – Roland Wieser, German race walker and coach*1958 – Randall Stout, American architect, designed the Taubman Museum of Art (d. 2014)*1959 – Andreas Busse, German runner* 1959 – Charles Hendry, English politician*1960 – Lyudmila Andonova, Bulgarian high jumper* 1960 – Keith Dowding, English political scientist, philosopher, and academic* 1960 – Roma Downey, Irish-American actress and producer* 1960 – John Flansburgh, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1960 – Aleksei Lotman, Estonian biologist and politician* 1960 – Anne Parillaud, French actress*1961 – Oleksandr Apaychev, Ukrainian decathlete and coach* 1961 – George Clooney, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1961 – Tom Hunter, Scottish businessman and philanthropist* 1961 – Gina Riley, Australian actress, producer, and screenwriter* 1961 – Frans Timmermans, Dutch politician and diplomat, First Vice President of the European Commission*1962 – Tom Brake, English politician* 1962 – Brad Izzard, Australian rugby league player*1963 – Alessandra Ferri, Italian ballerina*1965 – Leslie Hope, Canadian actress, director, producer, and screenwriter*1968 – Worku Bikila, Ethiopian runner* 1968 – Lætitia Sadier, French singer and keyboard player *1969 – Jim Magilton, Northern Irish footballer and manager*1970 – Roland Kun, Nauruan politician* 1970 – Kavan Smith, Canadian actor*1971 – Chris Shiflett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1972 – Martin Brodeur, Canadian ice hockey player* 1972 – Naoko Takahashi, Japanese runner*1974 – Bernard Barmasai, Kenyan runner* 1974 – Daniela Bártová, Czech pole vaulter and gymnast*1975 – Alan Richardson, English cricketer and coach*1976 – Dean Chandler, English footballer* 1976 – Iván de la Peña, Spanish footballer *1977 – Christophe Brandt, Belgian cyclist* 1977 – Marc Chouinard, Canadian ice hockey player* 1977 – Mark Eaton, American ice hockey player and coach* 1977 – Chantelle Newbery, Australian diver*1978 – John Abraham, American football player* 1978 – Tony Estanguet, French slalom canoeist* 1978 – Fredrick Federley, Swedish journalist and politician* 1978 – Alexandr Fedorov, Russian bodybuilder*1979 – Gerd Kanter, Estonian discus thrower* 1979 – Jan Erik Mikalsen, Norwegian composer* 1979 – Jon Montgomery, Canadian skeleton racer and television host*1980 – Brooke Bennett, American swimmer* 1980 – Dimitris Diamantidis, Greek professional basketball player* 1980 – Ricardo Oliveira, Brazilian footballer* 1980 – Matthew Whiley, English cricketer *1982 – Jason Witten, American football player*1983 – Dani Alves, Brazilian footballer* 1983 – Ingrid Jonach, Australian author* 1983 – Doron Perkins, American basketball player* 1983 – Gabourey Sidibe, American actress* 1983 – Trinley Thaye Dorje, Tibetan religious leader, the 17th Karmapa Lama* 1983 – Fredrik Sjöström, Swedish ice hockey player*1984 – Anton Babchuk, Ukrainian ice hockey player* 1984 – Juan Pablo Carrizo, Argentinian footballer*1985 – Chris Paul, American basketball player*1986 – Goran Dragic, Slovenian basketball player*1987 – Dries Mertens, Belgian footballer * 1987 – Meek Mill, American rapper* 1987 – Adrienne Warren, American actress*1988 – Ryan Anderson, American basketball player* 1988 – Dakota Kai, New Zealand professional wrestler*1989 – Dominika Cibulková, Slovak tennis player* 1989 – Cameron Heyward, American football player* 1989 – Jesse Hughes, Canadian DJ and producer*1990 – José Altuve, Venezuelan baseball player*1992 – Brendan Gallagher, Canadian ice hockey player* 1992 – Baekhyun, South Korean musician and actor* 1992 – Jonas Valančiūnas, Lithuanian professional basketball player*1993 – Gustavo Gómez, Paraguayan footballer* 1993 – Naomi Scott, English actress*1994 – Mateo Kovačić, Austrian-Croatian footballer*1997 – Duncan Scott, Scottish swimmer*2004 – Oakley Cannonier, English footballer*2006 – Aryan Simhadri, American actor*2019 – Prince Archie of Sussex" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 698 – Eadberht, bishop of Lindisfarne* 850 – Ninmyō, Japanese emperor (b.", "808)* 932 – Qian Liu, Chinese warlord and king (b.", "852)* 988 – Dirk II, count of Frisia and Holland*1002 – Ealdwulf, Archbishop of York, Abbot of Peterborough and Bishop of Worcester *1187 – Ruben III, Prince of Armenia (b.", "1145)*1236 – Roger of Wendover, Benedictine monk and chronicler*1471 – Edmund Beaufort, English commander (b.", "1438)*1471 – Thomas Tresham, Speaker of the House of Commons*1475 – Dieric Bouts, Flemish painter (b.", "1415)*1483 – Queen Jeonghui, Korean regent (b.", "1418)*1502 – James Tyrrell, English knight (b.", "1450)*1527 – Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, Count of Montpensier and Dauphin of Auvergne (b.1490)*1540 – Juan Luís Vives, Spanish scholar (b.", "1492)*1596 – Giaches de Wert, Flemish-Italian composer (b.", "1535)===1601–1900===*1631 – Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington, English historian and politician, founded the Cotton library (b.", "1570)*1638 – Cornelius Jansen, Dutch-French bishop and theologian (b.", "1585)*1708 – François de Laval, French-Canadian bishop (b.", "1623)*1757 – Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1683)* 1757 – Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin, Prussian field marshal (b.", "1684)*1782 – Christine Kirch, German astronomer and academic (b.", "1696)*1840 – Francisco de Paula Santander, Colombian general and politician, 4th President of the Republic of the New Granada (b.", "1792)*1859 – Alexander von Humboldt, German geographer and explorer (b.", "1769)*1862 – Henry David Thoreau, American essayist, poet, and philosopher (b.", "1817)*1867 – Socrates Nelson, American businessman and politician (b.", "1814)*1877 – Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Swedish-Finnish poet and hymn-writer (b.", "1804)*1882 – Thomas Henry Burke, Irish civil servant (b.", "1829)* 1882 – Lord Frederick Cavendish, British politician, Chief Secretary for Ireland (b.", "1836)*1888 – Abraham Joseph Ash, American rabbi (b. c. 1813)===1901–present===*1905 – Robert Herbert, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Queensland (b.", "1831)*1907 – Emanuele Luigi Galizia, Maltese architect and civil engineer (b.", "1830)*1910 – Edward VII of the United Kingdom (b.", "1841)*1919 – L. Frank Baum, American novelist (b.", "1856)*1939 – Konstantin Somov, Russian-French painter and illustrator (b.", "1869)*1949 – Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgian-French poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1862)*1951 – Élie Cartan, French mathematician and physicist (b.", "1869)*1952 – Maria Montessori, Italian-Dutch physician and educator (b.", "1870)*1959 – Maria Dulęba, Polish actress (b.", "1881)* 1959 – Ragnar Nurkse, Estonian-American economist and academic (b.", "1907)*1961 – Lucian Blaga, Romanian poet, playwright, and philosopher (b.", "1895)*1963 – Theodore von Kármán, Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, and engineer (b.", "1881)* 1963 – Ted Weems, American violinist, trombonist, and bandleader (b.", "1901)* 1963 – Monty Woolley, American raconteur, actor, and director (b.", "1888)*1967 – Zhou Zuoren, Chinese author and translator (b.", "1885)*1970 – Alexander Rodzyanko, Russian general (b.", "1879)*1973 – Ernest MacMillan, Canadian conductor and composer (b.", "1893)*1975 – József Mindszenty, Hungarian cardinal (b.", "1892)*1980 – María Luisa Bombal, Chilean writer (b.", "1910)*1983 – Ezra Jack Keats, American author and illustrator (b.", "1916)* 1983 – Kai Winding, Danish-American trombonist and composer (b.", "1922)*1984 – Mary Cain, American journalist and politician (b.", "1904)* 1984 – Bonner Pink, English politician (b.", "1912)*1987 – William J. Casey, American politician, 13th Director of Central Intelligence (b.", "1913)*1989 – Earl Blaik, American football player and coach (b.", "1897)*1990 – Charles Farrell, American actor (b.", "1900)*1991 – Wilfrid Hyde-White, English actor (b.", "1903)*1992 – Marlene Dietrich, German-American actress and singer (b.", "1901)*1993 – Ann Todd, English actress and producer (b.", "1909)*1995 – Noel Brotherston, Northern Irish footballer (b.", "1956)*2000 – Gordon McClymont, Australian ecologist and academic (b.", "1920)*2002 – Murray Adaskin, Canadian violinist, composer, conductor, and educator (b.", "1906)* 2002 – Otis Blackwell, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1932)* 2002 – Pim Fortuyn, Dutch sociologist, academic, and politician (b.", "1948)* 2002 – Bjørn Johansen, Norwegian saxophonist (b.", "1940)*2003 – Art Houtteman, American baseball player and journalist (b.", "1927)*2004 – Virginia Capers, American actress and singer (b.", "1925)* 2004 – Philip Kapleau, American monk and educator (b.", "1912)* 2004 – Barney Kessel, American guitarist and composer (b.", "1923)*2006 – Grant McLennan, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1958)* 2006 – Lorne Saxberg, Canadian journalist (b.", "1958)*2007 – Enéas Carneiro, Brazilian physician and politician (b.", "1938)* 2007 – Curtis Harrington, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1926)*2009 – Kevin Grubb, American race car driver (b.", "1978)*2010 – Robin Roberts, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (b.", "1926)*2012 – James R. Browning, American lieutenant, lawyer, and judge (b.", "1918)* 2012 – James Isaac, American director and producer (b.", "1960)* 2012 – Jean Laplanche, French psychoanalyst and author (b.", "1924)*2013 – Giulio Andreotti, Italian journalist and politician, 41st Prime Minister of Italy (b.", "1919)* 2013 – Severo Aparicio Quispe, Peruvian bishop (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Michelangelo Spensieri, Italian-Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1949)*2014 – Wil Albeda, Dutch economist and politician, Dutch Minister of Social Affairs (b.", "1925)* 2014 – William H. Dana, American pilot, engineer, and astronaut (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Jimmy Ellis, American boxer (b.", "1940)* 2014 – Billy Harrell, American baseball player and scout (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Antony Hopkins, English pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Maria Lassnig, Austrian painter and academic (b.", "1919)* 2014 – Farley Mowat, Canadian environmentalist and author (b.", "1921)*2015 – Novera Ahmed, Bangladeshi sculptor (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Denise McCluggage, American race car driver and journalist (b.", "1927)* 2015 – Jim Wright, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 56th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b.", "1922)*2016 – Patrick Ekeng, Cameroonian footballer (b.", "1990)* 2016 – Reg Grundy, Australian businessman (b.", "1923)*2021 – Kentaro Miura, Japanese manga artist (b.", "1966)*2022 – George Pérez, American comic book artist and writer (b.", "1954)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Dominic Savio**Evodius of Antioch (Roman Catholic Church)**François de Laval**Gerard of Lunel**Lucius of Cyrene**Petronax of Monte Cassino**St George's Day related observances (Eastern Orthodox Church):***Day of Bravery, also known as ''Gergyovden'' (Bulgaria)***Đurđevdan (Gorani, Roma)***Police Day (Georgia)***Yuri's Day in the Spring (Russian Orthodox Church)**St John before the Latin Gate**May 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Earliest day on which Military Spouse Day can fall, while May 12 is the latest; celebrated on Friday before Mother's Day (United States)*International No Diet Day*Martyrs' Day (Gabon)*Martyrs' Day (Lebanon and Syria)*National Azulejo Day (Portugal)*Teachers' Day (Jamaica)*The first day of Hıdırellez (Turkey)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 6" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 2" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 537 – Siege of Rome: The Ostrogoth army under king Vitiges begins the siege of the capital.", "Belisarius conducts a delaying action outside the Flaminian Gate; he and a detachment of his ''bucellarii'' are almost cut off.", "* 986 – Louis V becomes the last Carolingian king of West Francia after the death of his father, Lothaire.", "*1331 – Fall of Nicaea to the Ottoman Turks after a siege.", "*1444 – Skanderbeg organizes a group of Albanian nobles to form the League of Lezhë.", "*1458 – George of Poděbrady is chosen as the king of Bohemia.", "*1476 – Burgundian Wars: The Old Swiss Confederacy hands Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, a major defeat in the Battle of Grandson in Canton of Neuchâtel.", "*1484 – The College of Arms is formally incorporated by Royal Charter signed by King Richard III of England.", "*1498 – Vasco da Gama's fleet visits the Island of Mozambique.===1601–1900===*1657 – The Great Fire of Meireki begins in Edo (now Tokyo), Japan, causing more than 100,000 deaths before it exhausts itself three days later.", "*1776 – American Revolutionary War: Patriot militia units attempt to prevent capture of supply ships in and around the Savannah River by a small fleet of the Royal Navy in the Battle of the Rice Boats.", "*1791 – Claude Chappe demonstrates the first semaphore line near Paris.", "*1797 – The Bank of England issues the first one-pound and two-pound banknotes.", "*1807 – The U.S. Congress passes the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, disallowing the importation of new slaves into the country.", "*1811 – Argentine War of Independence: A royalist fleet defeats a small flotilla of revolutionary ships in the Battle of San Nicolás on the River Plate.", "*1815 – Signing of the Kandyan Convention treaty by British invaders and the leaders of the Kingdom of Kandy.", "*1836 – Texas Revolution: The Declaration of independence of the Republic of Texas from Mexico is adopted.", "*1855 – Alexander II becomes Tsar of Russia.", "*1859 – The two-day Great Slave Auction, the largest such auction in United States history, begins.", "*1865 – East Cape War: The Völkner Incident in New Zealand.", "*1867 – The U.S. Congress passes the first Reconstruction Act.", "*1877 – Just two days before inauguration, the U.S. Congress declares Rutherford B. Hayes the winner of the 1876 U.S. presidential election even though Samuel J. Tilden had won the popular vote.", "*1882 – Queen Victoria narrowly escapes an assassination attempt by Roderick Maclean in Windsor.===1901–present===*1901 – United States Steel Corporation is founded as a result of a merger between Carnegie Steel Company and Federal Steel Company which became the first corporation in the world with a market capital over $1 billion.", "* 1901 – The U.S. Congress passes the Platt Amendment limiting the autonomy of Cuba, as a condition of the withdrawal of American troops.", "*1903 – In New York City the Martha Washington Hotel opens, becoming the first hotel exclusively for women.", "*1917 – The enactment of the Jones–Shafroth Act grants Puerto Ricans United States citizenship.", "*1919 – The first Communist International meets in Moscow.", "*1932 – Finnish president P. E. Svinhufvud gives a radio speech, which four days later finally ends the Mäntsälä Rebellion and the far-right Lapua Movement that started it.", "*1937 – The Steel Workers Organizing Committee signs a collective bargaining agreement with U.S. Steel, leading to unionization of the United States steel industry.", "*1939 – Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli is elected Pope and takes the name Pius XII.", "*1941 – World War II: First German military units enter Bulgaria after it joins the Axis Pact.", "*1943 – World War II: During the Battle of the Bismarck Sea Allied aircraft defeated a Japanese attempt to ship troops to New Guinea.", "*1949 – Captain James Gallagher lands his B-50 Superfortress ''Lucky Lady II'' in Fort Worth, Texas, after completing the first non-stop around-the-world airplane flight in 94 hours and one minute.", "*1955 – Norodom Sihanouk, king of Cambodia, abdicates the throne in favor of his father, Norodom Suramarit.", "*1962 – In Burma, the army led by General Ne Win seizes power in a ''coup d'état''.", "* 1962 – Wilt Chamberlain sets the single-game scoring record in the National Basketball Association by scoring 100 points.", "*1965 – The US and Republic of Vietnam Air Force begin Operation Rolling Thunder, a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam.", "*1968 – Baggeridge Colliery closes marking the end of over 300 years of coal mining in the Black Country.", "*1969 – In Toulouse, France, the first test flight of the Anglo-French Concorde is conducted.", "*1970 – Rhodesia declares itself a republic, breaking its last links with the British crown.", "*1972 – The Pioneer 10 space probe is launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida with a mission to explore the outer planets.", "*1977 – Libya becomes the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya as the General People's Congress adopted the \"Declaration on the Establishment of the Authority of the People\".", "*1978 – Czech Vladimír Remek becomes the first non-Russian or non-American to go into space, when he is launched aboard Soyuz 28.", "* 1978 – The late iconic actor Charlie Chaplin's coffin is stolen from his grave in Switzerland.", "*1983 – Compact discs and players are released for the first time in the United States and other markets.", "They had previously been available only in Japan.", "*1989 – Twelve European Community nations agree to ban the production of all chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by the end of the century.", "*1990 – Nelson Mandela is elected deputy president of the African National Congress.", "*1991 – Establishment of Kuwait Democratic Forum, center-left political organization in Kuwait.", "*1991 – Battle at Rumaila oil field brings an end to the 1991 Gulf War.", "*1992 – Start of the war in Transnistria.", "* 1992 – Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, San Marino, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, all of which (except San Marino) were former Soviet republics, join the United Nations.", "*1995 – Researchers at Fermilab announce the discovery of the top quark.", "*1998 – Data sent from the Galileo spacecraft indicates that Jupiter's moon Europa has a liquid ocean under a thick crust of ice.", "*2002 – U.S. invasion of Afghanistan: Operation Anaconda begins, (ending on March 19 after killing 500 Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters, with 11 Western troop fatalities).", "*2004 – War in Iraq: Al-Qaeda carries out the Ashoura Massacre in Iraq, killing 170 and wounding over 500.", "*2012 – A tornado outbreak occurs over a large section of the Southern United States and into the Ohio Valley region, resulting in 40 tornado-related fatalities.", "*2017 – The elements Moscovium, Tennessine, and Oganesson are officially added to the periodic table at a conference in Moscow, Russia.", "*2022 – Russian forces capture the city of Kherson during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which subsequently began the start of the Russian occupation and military-civilian administration in Kherson.", "Kherson is the only regional capital in Ukraine that Russia captured." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 480 – Benedict of Nursia, Italian Christian saint (d. 543 or 547)*1316 – Robert II of Scotland (d. 1390)*1409 – Jean II, Duke of Alençon (d. 1476)*1432 – Countess Palatine Margaret of Mosbach, countess consort of Hanau (d. 1457)*1453 – Johannes Engel, German doctor, astronomer and astrologer (d. 1512)*1459 – Pope Adrian VI (d. 1523)*1481 – Franz von Sickingen, German knight (d. 1523)*1545 – Thomas Bodley, English diplomat and scholar, founded the Bodleian Library (d. 1613)*1577 – George Sandys, English traveller, colonist and poet (d. 1644)===1601–1900===*1628 – Cornelis Speelman, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1684)*1651 – Carlo Gimach, Maltese architect, engineer and poet (d. 1730)*1705 – William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, Scottish lawyer, judge, and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1793)*1740 – Nicholas Pocock, English naval painter (d.1821)*1760 – Camille Desmoulins, French journalist and politician (d. 1794)*1769 – DeWitt Clinton, American lawyer and politician, 6th Governor of New York (d. 1828)*1770 – Louis-Gabriel Suchet, French general (d. 1826)*1779 – Joel Roberts Poinsett, American physician and politician, 15th United States Secretary of War (d. 1851)*1793 – Sam Houston, American soldier and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Texas (d. 1863)*1800 – Yevgeny Baratynsky, Russian-Italian poet and philosopher (d. 1844)*1810 – Pope Leo XIII (d. 1903)*1816 – Alexander Bullock, American lawyer and politician, 26th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1882)*1817 – János Arany, Hungarian journalist and poet (d. 1882)*1820 – Multatuli, Dutch writer (d. 1887)*1824 – Bedřich Smetana, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1884)*1829 – Carl Schurz, German-American general, lawyer, and politician, 13th United States Secretary of the Interior (d. 1906)*1836 – Henry Billings Brown, American lawyer and judge (d. 1913)*1842 – Carl Jacobsen, Danish brewer, art collector, and philanthropist (d. 1914)*1846 – Marie Roze, French soprano (d. 1926)*1849 – Robert Means Thompson, American commander, lawyer, and businessman (d. 1930)*1859 – Sholem Aleichem, Ukrainian-American author and playwright (d. 1916)*1860 – Susanna M. Salter, American activist and politician (d. 1961)*1862 – John Jay Chapman, American lawyer, author, and poet (d. 1933)*1869 – Julien Félix, French military officer and aviator (d. 1914) *1876 – James A. Gilmore, American businessman and baseball executive (d. 1947)* 1876 – Pope Pius XII (d. 1958)*1886 – Willis H. O'Brien, American animator and director (d. 1962)* 1886 – Kurt Grelling, German logician and philosopher (d. 1942)*1900 – Kurt Weill, German-American pianist and composer (d. 1950)===1901–present===*1901 – Grete Hermann, German mathematician and philosopher (d. 1984)*1902 – Moe Berg, American baseball player and spy (d. 1972)* 1902 – Edward Condon, American physicist and academic (d. 1974)*1904 – Dr. Seuss, American children's book writer, poet, and illustrator (d. 1991)*1905 – Marc Blitzstein, American composer and songwriter (d. 1964)* 1905 – Geoffrey Grigson, English poet and critic (d. 1985)*1908 – Walter Bruch, German engineer (d. 1990)*1909 – Mel Ott, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster (d. 1958)*1912 – Henry Katzman, American pianist, composer, and painter (d. 2001)*1913 – Godfried Bomans, Dutch television host and author (d. 1971)*1913 – Zakaria bin Muhammad Amin, Indonesian ulama, politician, and writer (d. 2006)* 1913 – Mort Cooper, American baseball player (d. 1958)*1914 – Martin Ritt, American actor and film director (d. 1990)*1915 – John Burton, Australian public servant and diplomat, Australian High Commissioner to Ceylon (d. 2010)*1917 – Desi Arnaz, Cuban-American actor, singer, and producer (d. 1986)* 1917 – David Goodis, American author and screenwriter (d. 1967)* 1917 – Jim Konstanty, American baseball player and coach (d. 1976)*1919 – Jennifer Jones, American actress (d. 2009)* 1919 – Eddie Lawrence, American actor, singer, and playwright (d. 2014)* 1919 – Tamara Toumanova, Russian-American ballerina and actress (d. 1996)*1921 – Kazimierz Górski, Polish footballer and coach (d. 2006)* 1921 – Ernst Haas, Austrian-American photographer and journalist (d. 1986)*1922 – Eddie \"Lockjaw\" Davis, American saxophonist (d. 1986)* 1922 – Bill Quackenbush, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 1999)* 1922 – Frances Spence, American computer programmer (d. 2012)*1923 – Basil Hume, English cardinal (d. 1999)* 1923 – Robert H. Michel, American soldier and politician (d. 2017)* 1923 – Dave Strack, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014)*1924 – Cal Abrams, American baseball player (d. 1997)* 1924 – Renos Apostolidis, Greek philologist, author, and critic (d. 2004)*1926 – Bernard Agré, Ivorian cardinal (d. 2014)* 1926 – Murray Rothbard, American economist and historian (d. 1995)*1927 – Roger Walkowiak, French cyclist and economist (d. 2017)*1930 – John Cullum, American actor and singer* 1930 – Emma Penella, Spanish actress (d. 2007)* 1930 – Tom Wolfe, American journalist and author (d. 2018)*1931 – Mikhail Gorbachev, Russian lawyer and politician, the 8th and final leader of the Soviet Union, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2022)*1932 – Gun Hägglund, Swedish journalist and translator (d. 2011)*1933 – Leo Dillon, American illustrator (d. 2012)*1934 – Dottie Rambo, American singer-songwriter (d. 2008)*1935 – Gene Stallings, American football player and coach*1936 – Haroon Ahmed, Pakistani-English engineer and academic* 1936 – John Tusa, Czech-English journalist and academic*1937 – Abdelaziz Bouteflika, Algerian soldier and politician, 5th President of Algeria (d. 2021)*1938 – Ricardo Lagos, Chilean economist, lawyer, and politician, 33rd President of Chile* 1938 – Lawrence Payton, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1997)* 1938 – Clark Gesner, American author and composer (d. 2002)*1939 – Jan Howard Finder, American author and academic (d. 2013)*1940 – Billy McNeill, Scottish footballer (d. 2019)*1941 – John Cornell, Australian actor, director, and producer* 1941 – David Satcher, American admiral and physician, 16th Surgeon General of the United States*1942 – John Irving, American novelist and screenwriter* 1942 – Claude Larose, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1942 – Mir-Hossein Mousavi, Iranian architect and politician, 79th Prime Minister of Iran* 1942 – Lou Reed, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (d. 2013)* 1942 – Derek Woodley, English footballer (d. 2002)*1943 – George Layton, English actor, director, and screenwriter* 1943 – Peter Straub, American author and poet (d. 2022)* 1943 – Robert Williams, American painter and cartoonist*1945 – Derek Watkins, English trumpet player and composer (d. 2013)*1947 – John Dawkins, Australian politician * 1947 – Nelson Ned, Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 2014)* 1947 – Harry Redknapp, English footballer and manager*1948 – Larry Carlton, American guitarist and songwriter* 1948 – Rory Gallagher, Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1995)* 1948 – Jeff Kennett, Australian journalist and politician, 43rd Premier of Victoria* 1948 – Carmen Lawrence, Australian politician, 25th Premier of Western Australia*1950 – Karen Carpenter, American singer (d. 1983)*1952 – Mark Evanier, American author and screenwriter* 1952 – Laraine Newman, American actress and comedian*1953 – Russ Feingold, American lawyer and politician*1954 – Ed Johnstone, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1955 – Dale Bozzio, American pop-rock singer-songwriter* 1955 – Jay Osmond, American singer, drummer, actor, and TV/film producer* 1955 – Ken Salazar, American lawyer and politician, 50th United States Secretary of the Interior* 1955 – Steve Small, Australian cricketer*1956 – John Cowsill, American musician, songwriter, and producer * 1956 – Mark Evans, Australian rock bass player*1957 – Hossein Dehghan, Iranian general and politician, Iranian Minister of Defense* 1957 – Dito Tsintsadze, Georgian film director and screenwriter* 1957 – Mark Dean, American inventor and computer engineer*1958 – Kevin Curren, South African-American tennis player* 1958 – Ian Woosnam, English-Welsh golfer*1959 – Larry Stewart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1961 – Simone Young, Australian conductor, director, and composer*1962 – Jon Bon Jovi, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor * 1962 – Paul Farrelly, English journalist and politician* 1962 – Tom Nordlie, Norwegian footballer and coach* 1962 – Brendan O'Connor, Australian politician, Australian Minister for Employment* 1962 – Raimo Summanen, Finnish ice hockey player and coach* 1962 – Gabriele Tarquini, Italian race car driver*1963 – Alvin Youngblood Hart, American singer and guitarist* 1963 – Anthony Albanese, Australian politician, 31st Prime Minister of Australia*1964 – Laird Hamilton, American surfer and actor* 1964 – Mike Von Erich, American wrestler (d. 1987)*1965 – Ron Gant, American baseball player and journalist* 1965 – Lembit Öpik, Northern Irish politician*1966 – Ann Leckie, American author * 1966 – Simon Reevell, English lawyer and politician*1968 – Daniel Craig, English actor and producer*1970 – James Purnell, English politician, Secretary of State for Work and Pensions* 1970 – Ciriaco Sforza, Swiss footballer and manager* 1970 – Wibi Soerjadi, Dutch pianist and composer*1971 – Dave Gorman, English comedian, author and television presenter* 1971 – Method Man, American rapper, record producer and actor *1972 – Mauricio Pochettino, Argentinian footballer and manager*1973 – Dejan Bodiroga, Serbian basketball player* 1973 – Trevor Sinclair, English footballer and manager*1974 – Hayley Lewis, Australian swimmer and television host*1975 – Daryl Gibson, New Zealand rugby player*1977 – Dominique Canty, American basketball player and coach* 1977 – Chris Martin, English singer-songwriter (Coldplay)* 1977 – Stephen Parry, English swimmer and sportscaster* 1977 – Andrew Strauss, South African-English cricketer*1978 – Jim Chalmers, Australian politician * 1978 – Gabby Eigenmann, Filipino actor and singer* 1978 – Lee Hodges, English footballer and manager* 1978 – Sebastian Janikowski, Polish gridiron football player* 1978 – Tomáš Kaberle, Czech ice hockey player*1979 – Damien Duff, Irish international footballer* 1979 – Jim Troughton, English cricketer* 1979 – Nicky Weaver, English footballer*1980 – Chris Barker, English footballer and manager (d. 2020)* 1980 – Rebel Wilson, Australian actress and screenwriter*1981 – Lance Cade, American wrestler (d. 2010)* 1981 – Bryce Dallas Howard, American actress *1982 – Kevin Kurányi, German footballer* 1982 – Henrik Lundqvist, Swedish ice hockey player* 1982 – Ben Roethlisberger, American football player* 1982 – Corey Webster, American football player*1983 – Deuce, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1983 – Lisandro López, Argentinian footballer* 1983 – Jay McClement, Canadian ice hockey player* 1983 – Glen Perkins, American baseball player* 1983 – Ryan Shannon, American ice hockey player*1985 – Reggie Bush, American football player* 1985 – Suso Santana, Spanish footballer*1986 – Jonathan D'Aversa, Canadian ice hockey player*1987 – Jonas Jerebko, Swedish basketball player*1988 – Édgar Andrade, Mexican footballer* 1988 – James Arthur, English singer-songwriter* 1988 – Laura Kaeppeler, Miss America 2012* 1988 – Matthew Mitcham, Australian diver* 1988 – Chris Rainey, American football player* 1988 – Geert Arend Roorda, Dutch footballer*1989 – Alemão, Brazilian footballer* 1989 – Toby Alderweireld, Belgian international footballer* 1989 – Nathalie Emmanuel, English actress* 1989 – Marcel Hirscher, Austrian skier* 1989 – André Bernardes Santos, Portuguese footballer* 1989 – Shane Vereen, American football player* 1989 – Chris Woakes, English cricketer*1990 – Rauno Alliku, Estonian footballer* 1990 – Malcolm Butler, American football player* 1990 – Luke Combs, American singer-songwriter* 1990 – Josh McGuire, Australian rugby league player* 1990 – Tiger Shroff, Indian actor*1991 – Nick Franklin, American baseball player*1992 – Jack Stockwell, Australian rugby league player*1992 - Charlie Coyle, American professional ice hockey player *1995 – Ange-Freddy Plumain, French footballer*1997 – Becky G, American singer and actress*1998 – Tua Tagovailoa, American football player*2010 – Hailey Dawson, American with a 3D-printed robotic hand*2016 – Prince Oscar, duke of Skåne and prince of Sweden" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 274 – Mani, Persian prophet and founder of Manichaeism (b.", "216)* 672 – Chad of Mercia, English bishop and saint (b.", "634)* 986 – Lothair, king of West Francia (b.941)* 968 – William, archbishop of Mainz (b.", "929)*1009 – Mokjong, king of Goryeo (b.", "980)*1127 – Charles the Good, Count of Flanders (b.", "1084)*1316 – Marjorie Bruce, Scottish daughter of Robert the Bruce (b.", "1296)*1333 – Wladyslaw I, king of Poland (b.", "1261)*1589 – Alessandro Farnese, Italian cardinal and diplomat (b.", "1520)===1601–1900===*1619 – Anne of Denmark, queen of Scotland (b.", "1574)*1729 – Francesco Bianchini, Italian astronomer and philosopher (b.", "1662)*1755 – Louis de Rouvroy, French duke and diplomat (b.", "1675)*1791 – John Wesley, English cleric and theologian (b.", "1703)*1793 – Carl Gustaf Pilo, Swedish-Danish painter and academic (b.", "1711)*1797 – Horace Walpole, English historian and politician (b.", "1717)*1829 – Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez, Mexican revolutionary (b. ca.", "1773)*1830 – Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring, German physician, anatomist, and anthropologist (b.", "1755)*1835 – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1768)*1840 – Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers, German physician and astronomer (b.", "1758)*1855 – Nicholas I, Russian emperor (b.", "1796)*1864 – Ulric Dahlgren, American colonel (b.", "1842)*1865 – Carl Sylvius Völkner, German-New Zealand priest and missionary (b.", "1819)*1880 – John Benjamin Macneill, Irish engineer (b.", "1790)*1895 – Berthe Morisot, French painter (b.", "1841)* 1895 – Isma'il Pasha, Egyptian politician (b.", "1830)*1896 – Jubal Early, American general (b.", "1816)===1901–present===*1921 – Champ Clark, American lawyer and politician, 41st Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b.", "1850)*1930 – D. H. Lawrence, English novelist, poet, playwright, and critic (b.", "1885)*1938 – Ben Harney, American pianist and composer (b.", "1871)*1939 – Howard Carter, English archaeologist and historian (b.", "1874)*1943 – Gisela Januszewska, Austrian physician (b.1867)*1944 – Ida Maclean, British biochemist, the first woman admitted to the London Chemical Society (b.", "1877)*1945 – Emily Carr, Canadian painter and author (b.", "1871)*1946 – Fidél Pálffy, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Agriculture (b.", "1895)* 1946 – George E. Stewart, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1872)*1947 – Frans Johan Louwrens Ghijsels, Dutch architect and urban planner (b.", "1882)*1949 – Sarojini Naidu, Indian poet and activist (b.", "1879)*1953 – James Lightbody, American runner (b.", "1882)*1957 – Selim Sırrı Tarcan, Turkish educator and politician (b.", "1874)*1958 – Fred Merkle, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1888)*1962 – Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin, Belgian mathematician and academic (b.", "1866)*1967 – José Martínez Ruiz, Spanish author and critic (b.", "1873)*1972 – Léo-Ernest Ouimet, Canadian director and producer (b.", "1877)*1977 – Eugénie Brazier, French chef (b.", "1895)*1979 – Christy Ring, Irish hurler (b.", "1920)*1982 – Philip K. Dick, American philosopher and author (b.", "1928)*1987 – Randolph Scott, American actor and director (b.", "1898)* 1987 – Lolo Soetoro, Indonesian geographer and academic (b.", "1935)*1991 – Serge Gainsbourg, French singer-songwriter, actor, and director (b.", "1928)*1992 – Sandy Dennis, American actress (b.", "1937)*1994 – Anita Morris, American actress, singer, and dancer (b.", "1943)*1999 – Dusty Springfield, English singer (b.", "1939)*2000 – Sandra Schmirler, Canadian curler (b.", "1963)*2003 – Hank Ballard, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1927)* 2003 – Malcolm Williamson, Australian pianist and composer (b.", "1931)*2004 – Cormac McAnallen, Irish footballer (b.", "1980)* 2004 – Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (b.", "1916)* 2004 – Marge Schott, American businesswoman (b.", "1928)*2005 – Martin Denny, American pianist and composer (b.", "1911)*2007 – Thomas S. Kleppe, American soldier and politician, 41st United States Secretary of the Interior (b.", "1919)* 2007 – Clem Labine, American baseball player (b.", "1926)* 2007 – Ivan Safronov, Russian colonel and journalist (b.", "1956)* 2007 – Henri Troyat, Russian-French historian and author (b.", "1911)*2008 – Jeff Healey, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1966)*2009 – João Bernardo Vieira, Bissau-Guinean politician, President of Guinea-Bissau (b.", "1939)*2010 – Winston Churchill, English journalist and politician (b.", "1940)*2012 – Lawrence Anthony, South African environmentalist, explorer, and author (b.", "1950)* 2012 – Van T. Barfoot, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1919)* 2012 – Norman St John-Stevas, English academic and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b.", "1929)* 2012 – James Q. Wilson, American political scientist and academic (b.", "1931)*2013 – Peter Harvey, Australian journalist (b.", "1944)* 2013 – Giorgos Kolokithas, Greek basketball player (b.", "1945)* 2013 – Shabnam Shakeel, Pakistani poet and author (b.", "1942)*2014 – Ryhor Baradulin, Belarusian poet and translator (b.", "1935)*2015 – Dean Hess, American minister and colonel (b.", "1917)* 2015 – Dave Mackay, Scottish-English footballer and manager (b.", "1934)* 2015 – Mal Peet, English author and illustrator (b.", "1947)*2016 – Benoît Lacroix, Canadian priest, historian, and philosopher (b.", "1915)* 2016 – Aubrey McClendon, American businessman (b.", "1959)*2018 – Billy Herrington, American actor (b.", "1969)* 2018 – Lin Hu, Chinese lieutenant general (b.", "1927)*2019 – Mike Oliver, British sociologist, disability rights activist (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Air Force Day (Sri Lanka)*Baloch Culture Day (Balochistan)*Christian feast day:**Agnes of Bohemia**Angela of the Cross**Blessed Charles the Good, Count of Flanders**Chad of Mercia (Catholic Church, Anglican Communion, Eastern Orthodox Church)**John Maron **March 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Feast of 'Alá (Loftiness), First day of the 19th month of the Baháʼí calendar (Baháʼí Faith) and first day of the Baháʼí Nineteen Day Fast*Jamahiriya Day (Libya)*National Read Across America Day (United States)*Peasants' Day (Myanmar)*Texas Independence Day*Adwa Victory Day (Ethiopia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 2" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mishnah" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mishnah''' or the '''Mishna''' (; , \"study by repetition\", from the verb ''shanah'' , or \"to study and review\", also \"secondary\") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah.", "It is also the first major work of rabbinic literature.", "The Mishnah was redacted by Judah ha-Nasi probably in Beit Shearim or Sepphoris between the ending of the second century and the beginning of the 3rd century CE in a time when, according to the Talmud, the persecution of Jews and the passage of time raised the possibility that the details of the oral traditions of the Pharisees from the Second Temple period (516 BCE – 70 CE) would be forgotten.Most of the Mishnah is written in Mishnaic Hebrew, but some parts are in Palestinian Western Aramaic." ], [ "Six orders", "The term \"''Mishnah''\" originally referred to a method of teaching by presenting topics in a systematic order, as contrasted with '''', which followed the order of the Bible.", "As a written compilation, the order of the Mishnah is by subject matter and includes a much broader selection of halakhic subjects and discusses individual subjects more thoroughly than the ''Midrash''.The Mishnah consists of six orders ('''', singular '''' ), each containing 7–12 tractates ('''', singular '''' ; lit.", "\"web\"), 63 in total.", "Each '''' is divided into chapters ('''', singular '''') and then paragraphs ('''', singular '''').", "In this last context, the word ''mishnah'' means a single paragraph of the work, i.e.", "the smallest unit of structure, leading to the use of the plural, \"''Mishnayot''\", for the whole work.Because of the division into six orders, the Mishnah is sometimes called '''''Shas''''' (an acronym for ''Shisha Sedarim'' – the \"six orders\"), although that term is more often used for the Talmud as a whole.The six orders are:* ''Zeraim'' (\"Seeds\"), dealing with prayer and blessings, tithes and agricultural laws (11 tractates)* ''Moed'' (\"Festival\"), pertaining to the laws of the Sabbath and the Festivals (12 tractates)* ''Nashim'' (\"Women\"), concerning marriage and divorce, some forms of oaths and the laws of the nazirite (7 tractates)* ''Nezikin'' (\"Damages\"), dealing with civil and criminal law, the functioning of the courts and oaths (10 tractates)* ''Kodashim'' (\"Holy things\"), regarding sacrificial rites, the Temple, and the dietary laws (11 tractates) and* ''Tohorot'' (\"Purities\"), pertaining to the laws of purity and impurity, including the impurity of the dead, food purity, and bodily purity (12 tractates).The acronym \"Z'MaN NaKaT\" is a popular mnemonic for these orders.", "In each order (with the exception of Zeraim), tractates are arranged from biggest (in number of chapters) to smallest.The Babylonian Talmud ( Hagiga 14a) states that there were either six hundred or seven hundred orders of the Mishnah.", "The Mishnah was divided into six thematic sections by its author, Judah HaNasi.", "There is also a tradition that Ezra the scribe dictated from memory not only the 24 books of the Tanakh but 60 esoteric books.", "It is not known whether this is a reference to the Mishnah, but there is a case for saying that the Mishnah does consist of 60 tractates.", "(The current total is 63, but Makkot was originally part of Sanhedrin, and Bava Kamma (literally: \"First Portal\"), Bava Metzia (\"Middle Portal\") and Bava Batra (\"Final Portal\") are often regarded as subdivisions of one enormous tractate, titled simply Nezikin.", ")===Omissions===A number of important laws are not elaborated upon in the Mishnah.", "These include the laws of tzitzit, tefillin (phylacteries), mezuzot, the holiday of Hanukkah, and the laws of conversion to Judaism.", "These were later discussed in the minor tractates.Nissim ben Jacob's ''Hakdamah Le'mafteach Hatalmud'' argued that it was unnecessary for \"Judah the Prince\" to discuss them as many of these laws were so well known.", "Margolies suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the Bar Kokhba revolt, Judah could not have included discussion of Hanukkah, which commemorates the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid Empire (the Romans would not have tolerated this overt nationalism).", "Similarly, there were then several decrees in place aimed at suppressing outward signs of national identity, including decrees against wearing tefillin and tzitzit; as conversion to Judaism was against Roman law, Judah would not have discussed this.David Zvi Hoffmann suggests that there existed ancient texts analogous to the present-day ''Shulchan Aruch'' that discussed the basic laws of day to day living and it was therefore not necessary to focus on these laws in the Mishnah.===Mishnah, Gemara, and Talmud===Rabbinic commentary, debate and analysis on the Mishnah from the next four centuries, done in the Land of Israel and in Babylonia, were eventually redacted and compiled as well.", "In themselves they are known as ''Gemara''.", "The books which set out the Mishnah in its original structure, together with the associated ''Gemara'', are known as Talmuds.", "Two Talmuds were compiled, the Babylonian Talmud (to which the term \"Talmud\" normally refers) and the Jerusalem Talmud.", "Unlike the Hebrew Mishnah, the ''Gemara'' is written primarily in Aramaic." ], [ "Content and purpose", "Mishna study, Pinsk 1924The Mishnah teaches the oral traditions by example, presenting actual cases being brought to judgment, usually along with (i) the ''debate'' on the matter, and (ii) the judgment that was given by a notable rabbi based on halakha, mitzvot, and spirit of the teaching (\"Torah\") that guided his decision.In this way, the Mishnah brings to everyday reality the practice of the 613 Commandments presented in the Torah and aims to cover all aspects of human living, serve as an example for future judgments, and, most important, demonstrate pragmatic exercise of the Biblical laws, which was much needed since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.", "The Mishnah is thus a collection of existing traditions rather than new law.The term \"Mishnah\" is related to the verb \"to teach, repeat\", and to adjectives meaning \"second\".", "It is thus named for being both the one written authority (codex) secondary (only) to the Tanakh as a basis for the passing of judgment, a source and a tool for creating laws, and the first of many books to complement the Tanakh in certain aspects.===Oral law===Before the publication of the Mishnah, Jewish scholarship and judgement were predominantly oral, as according to the Talmud, it was not permitted to write them down.", "The earliest recorded oral law may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Torah.", "Rabbis expounded on and debated the Tanakh without the benefit of written works (other than the Biblical books themselves), though some may have made private notes () for example of court decisions.", "The oral traditions were far from monolithic, and varied among various schools, the most famous of which were the House of Shammai and the House of Hillel.After the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 CE, with the end of the Second Temple Jewish center in Jerusalem, Jewish social and legal norms were in upheaval.", "The Rabbis were faced with the new reality of Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without autonomy.", "It is during this period that Rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing.", "The possibility was felt that the details of the oral traditions of the Pharisees from the Second Temple period (530s BCE / 3230s AM – 70 CE/ 3830 AM) would be forgotten, so the justification was found to have these oral laws transcribed.Over time, different traditions of the Oral Law came into being, raising problems of interpretation.", "According to the ''Mevo Hatalmud'', many rulings were given in a specific context but would be taken out of it, or a ruling was revisited, but the second ruling would not become popularly known.", "To correct this, Judah the Prince took up the redaction of the Mishnah.", "If a point was of no conflict, he kept its language; where there was conflict, he reordered the opinions and ruled, and he clarified where context was not given.", "The idea was not to use his discretion, but rather to examine the tradition as far back as he could, and only supplement as required.===The Mishnah and the Hebrew Bible===According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah () was given to Moses with the Torah at Mount Sinai or Mount Horeb as an exposition to the latter.", "The accumulated traditions of the Oral Law, expounded by scholars in each generation from Moses onward, is considered as the necessary basis for the interpretation, and often for the reading, of the Written Law.", "Jews sometimes refer to this as the Masorah (Hebrew: ), roughly translated as tradition, though that word is often used in a narrower sense to mean traditions concerning the editing and reading of the Biblical text (see Masoretic Text).", "The resulting Jewish law and custom is called halakha.While most discussions in the Mishnah concern the correct way to carry out laws recorded in the Torah, it usually presents its conclusions without explicitly linking them to any scriptural passage, though scriptural quotations do occur.", "For this reason it is arranged in order of topics rather than in the form of a Biblical commentary.", "(In a very few cases, there is no scriptural source at all and the law is described as ''Halakha leMoshe miSinai'', \"law to Moses from Sinai\".)", "The ''Midrash halakha'', by contrast, while presenting similar laws, does so in the form of a Biblical commentary and explicitly links its conclusions to details in the Biblical text.", "These Midrashim often predate the Mishnah.The Mishnah also quotes the Torah for principles not associated with law, but just as practical advice, even at times for humor or as guidance for understanding historical debates.===Rejection===Some Jews do not accept the codification of the oral law at all.", "Karaite Judaism, for example, recognises only the Tanakh as authoritative in ''Halakha'' (Jewish religious law) and theology.", "It rejects the codification of the Oral Torah in the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent works of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism which maintain that the Talmud is an authoritative interpretation of the Torah.", "Karaites maintain that all of the divine commandments handed down to Moses by God were recorded in the written Torah without additional Oral Law or explanation.", "As a result, Karaite Jews do not accept as binding the written collections of the oral tradition in the Midrash or Talmud.", "The Karaites comprised a significant portion of the world Jewish population in the 10th and 11th centuries CE, and remain extant, although they currently number in the thousands." ], [ "Authorship", "The rabbis who contributed to the Mishnah are known as the ''Tannaim'', of whom approximately 120 are known.", "The period during which the Mishnah was assembled spanned about 130 years, or five generations, in the first and second centuries CE.", "Judah ha-Nasi is credited with the final redaction and publication of the Mishnah, although there have been a few additions since his time: those passages that cite him or his grandson (Judah II), and the end of tractate Sotah (which refers to the period after Judah's death).", "In addition to redacting the Mishnah, Judah and his court also ruled on which opinions should be followed, although the rulings do not always appear in the text.Most of the Mishnah is related without attribution ('''').", "This usually indicates that many sages taught so, or that Judah the Prince ruled so.", "The halakhic ruling usually follows that view.", "Sometimes, however, it appears to be the opinion of a single sage, and the view of the sages collectively (, ''hachamim'') is given separately.As Judah the Prince went through the tractates, the Mishnah was set forth, but throughout his life some parts were updated as new information came to light.", "Because of the proliferation of earlier versions, it was deemed too hard to retract anything already released, and therefore a second version of certain laws were released.", "The Talmud refers to these differing versions as '''' (\"First Mishnah\") and '''' (\"Last Mishnah\").", "David Zvi Hoffmann suggests that ''Mishnah Rishonah'' actually refers to texts from earlier Sages upon which Rebbi based his Mishnah.The Talmud records a tradition that unattributed statements of the law represent the views of Rabbi Meir (Sanhedrin 86a), which supports the theory (recorded by Sherira Gaon in his famous ''Iggeret'') that he was the author of an earlier collection.", "For this reason, the few passages that actually say \"this is the view of Rabbi Meir\" represent cases where the author intended to present Rabbi Meir's view as a \"minority opinion\" not representing the accepted law.There are also references to the \"Mishnah of Rabbi Akiva\", suggesting a still earlier collection; on the other hand, these references may simply mean his teachings in general.", "Another possibility is that Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Meir established the divisions and order of subjects in the Mishnah, making them the authors of a school curriculum rather than of a book.Authorities are divided on whether Rabbi Judah the Prince recorded the Mishnah in writing or established it as an oral text for memorisation.", "The most important early account of its composition, the ''Iggeret Rav Sherira Gaon'' (Epistle of Rabbi Sherira Gaon) is ambiguous on the point, although the Spanish recension leans to the theory that the Mishnah was written.", "However, the Talmud records that, in every study session, there was a person called the ''tanna'' appointed to recite the Mishnah passage under discussion.", "This may indicate that, even if the Mishnah was reduced to writing, it was not available on general distribution." ], [ "Mishnah studies", "===Textual variants===Very roughly, there are two traditions of Mishnah text.", "One is found in manuscripts and printed editions of the Mishnah on its own, or as part of the Jerusalem Talmud.", "The other is found in manuscripts and editions of the Babylonian Talmud; though there is sometimes a difference between the text of a whole paragraph printed at the beginning of a discussion (which may be edited to conform with the text of the Mishnah-only editions) and the line-by-line citations in the course of the discussion.Robert Brody, in his ''Mishna and Tosefta Studies'' (Jerusalem 2014), warns against over-simplifying the picture by assuming that the Mishnah-only tradition is always the more authentic, or that it represents a \"Palestinian\" as against a \"Babylonian\" tradition.", "Manuscripts from the Cairo Geniza, or citations in other works, may support either type of reading or other readings altogether.===Manuscripts===Complete mss.", "'''bolded'''.", "Usual name Formal designation Place written Period written Description '''Kaufmann''' Hungarian Academy of Sciences Library Kaufmann ms. A50 Prob.", "Palestine 10th, possibly 11th C. It is considered the best manuscript and forms the base text of all critical editions.", "Vocalization is by a different, later hand.", "'''Parma''' Biblioteca Palatina ms. Parm.", "3173 Palestine or Southern Italy, which in any case it reached soon after being written down Script shows strong similarities to ''Codex Hebr.", "Vaticanus 31'', securely dated to 1073 The Parma ms. is close to the Kaufmann ms. palaeographically but not textually.", "Text is closest to the Mishnah quotations given in the Leiden Palestinian Talmud.", "'''Cambridge / Lowe''' Cambridge University Library ms. Add.", "470 (II) Sepharadic 14–15th C. A very careless copy, it is nonetheless useful where the Kaufmann text is corrupt.", "Parma B North Africa 12–13th C. ''Toharot'' only.", "Unlike all of the above mss., the vocalization and consonant text are probably by the same hand, which makes it the oldest vocalization of part of the Mishnah known.", "Yemenite ms. National Library of Israel quarto 1336 Yemen 17–18th C. ''Nezikin'' to ''Toharot''.", "The consonant text is dependent on early printed editions.", "The value of this ms. lies exclusively in the vocalization.The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud, Volume 3 The Literature of the Sages: First Part: Oral Tora, Halakha, Mishna, Tosefta, Talmud, External Tractates.", "''Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum'', Ed.", "Shmuel Safrai, Brill, 1987, ===Printed editions===The first printed edition of the Mishnah was published in Naples.", "There have been many subsequent editions, including the late 19th century Vilna edition, which is the basis of the editions now used by the religious public.Vocalized editions were published in Italy, culminating in the edition of David ben Solomon Altaras, publ.", "Venice 1737.The Altaras edition was republished in Mantua in 1777, in Pisa in 1797 and 1810 and in Livorno in many editions from 1823 until 1936: reprints of the vocalized Livorno editions were published in Israel in 1913, 1962, 1968 and 1976.These editions show some textual variants by bracketing doubtful words and passages, though they do not attempt detailed textual criticism.", "The Livorno editions are the basis of the Sephardic tradition for recitation.As well as being printed on its own, the Mishnah is included in all editions of the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds.", "Each paragraph is printed on its own, and followed by the relevant Gemara discussion.", "However, that discussion itself often cites the Mishnah line by line.", "While the text printed in paragraph form has generally been standardized to follow the Vilna edition, the text cited line by line in the Gemara often preserves important variants, which sometimes reflect the readings of older manuscripts.The nearest approach to a critical edition is that of Hanoch Albeck.", "There is also an edition by Yosef Qafiḥ of the Mishnah together with the commentary of Maimonides, which compares the base text used by Maimonides with the Napoli and Vilna editions and other sources.===Oral traditions and pronunciation===The Mishnah was and still is traditionally studied through recitation (out loud).", "Jewish communities around the world preserved local melodies for chanting the Mishnah, and distinctive ways of pronouncing its words.Many medieval manuscripts of the Mishnah are vowelized, and some of these, especially some fragments found in the Genizah, are partially annotated with Tiberian cantillation marks.Today, many communities have a special tune for the Mishnaic passage \"Bammeh madliqin\" in the Friday night service; there may also be tunes for Mishnaic passages in other parts of the liturgy, such as the passages in the daily prayers relating to sacrifices and incense and the paragraphs recited at the end of the Musaf service on Shabbat.", "Otherwise, there is often a customary intonation used in the study of Mishnah or Talmud, somewhat similar to an Arabic mawwal, but this is not reduced to a precise system like that for the Biblical books.", "(In some traditions this intonation is the same as or similar to that used for the Passover Haggadah.)", "Recordings have been made for Israeli national archives, and Frank Alvarez-Pereyre has published a book-length study of the Syrian tradition of Mishnah reading on the basis of these recordings.Most vowelized editions of the Mishnah today reflect standard Ashkenazic vowelization, and often contain mistakes.", "The Albeck edition of the Mishnah was vocalized by Hanoch Yelon, who made careful eclectic use of both medieval manuscripts and current oral traditions of pronunciation from Jewish communities all over the world.", "The Albeck edition includes an introduction by Yelon detailing his eclectic method.Two institutes at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem have collected major oral archives which hold extensive recordings of Jews chanting the Mishnah using a variety of melodies and many different kinds of pronunciation.", "These institutes are the Jewish Oral Traditions Research Center and the National Voice Archives (the ''Phonoteca'' at the Jewish National and University Library).", "See below for external links.===As a historical source===Both the Mishnah and Talmud contain little serious biographical studies of the people discussed therein, and the same tractate will conflate the points of view of many different people.", "Yet, sketchy biographies of the Mishnaic sages can often be constructed with historical detail from Talmudic and Midrashic sources.According to the Encyclopaedia Judaica (Second Edition), it is accepted that Judah the Prince added, deleted, and rewrote his source material during the process of redacting the Mishnah.", "Modern authors who have provided examples of these changes include J.N.", "Epstein and S. Friedman.Following Judah the Prince's redaction there remained a number of different versions of the Mishnah in circulation.", "The Mishnah used in the Babylonian rabbinic community differing markedly from that used in the Palestinian one.", "Indeed within these rabbinic communities themselves there are indications of different versions being used for study.", "These differences are shown in divergent citations of individual Mishnah passages in the Talmud Yerushalmi and the Talmud Bavli, and in variances of medieval manuscripts and early editions of the Mishnah.", "The best known examples of these differences is found in J.N.Epstein's Introduction to the Text of the Mishnah (1948).Epstein has also concluded that the period of the Amoraim was one of further deliberate changes to the text of the Mishnah, which he views as attempts to return the text to what was regarded as its original form.", "These lessened over time, as the text of the Mishnah became more and more regarded as authoritative.Many modern historical scholars have focused on the timing and the formation of the Mishnah.", "A vital question is whether it is composed of sources which date from its editor's lifetime, and to what extent is it composed of earlier, or later sources.", "Are Mishnaic disputes distinguishable along theological or communal lines, and in what ways do different sections derive from different schools of thought within early Judaism?", "Can these early sources be identified, and if so, how?", "In response to these questions, modern scholars have adopted a number of different approaches.", "* Some scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the Mishnah (and later, in the Talmud.)", "Lacking outside confirming texts, they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws, and that we can say little for certain about their authorship.", "In this view, the questions above are impossible to answer.", "See, for example, the works of Louis Jacobs, Baruch M. Bokser, Shaye J. D. Cohen, Steven D.", "Fraade.", "* Some scholars hold that the Mishnah and Talmud have been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it contains sources which we can identify and describe with some level of reliability.", "In this view, sources can be identified to some extent because each era of history and each distinct geographical region has its own unique feature, which one can trace and analyze.", "Thus, the questions above may be analyzed.", "See, for example, the works of Goodblatt, Lee Levine, David C. Kraemer and Robert Goldenberg.", "* Some scholars hold that many or most of the statements and events described in the Mishnah and Talmud usually occurred more or less as described, and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study.", "In this view, historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliable historical text.", "See, for example, the works of Saul Lieberman, David Weiss Halivni, Avraham Goldberg and Dov Zlotnick.==Commentaries==Rambam's Mishnah Commentary in Judeo-Arabic''Bartenura'' Mishna commentaryTitle page of the Mishna with the ''Tosefet Yom Tov''''Gemara'' students using the ''Mishnah Sdura'' to note their summary of each ''sugya'' alongside its MishnahThe main work discussing the Mishnah is the Talmud, as outlined.However, the Talmud is not usually viewed as a commentary on the Mishnah ''per se'', because:the Talmud also has many other goals; its analysis — \"''Gemara''\" — often entails long, tangential discussions; and neither version of the Talmud covers the entire Mishnah (each covers about 50–70% of the text).", "As a result, numerous commentaries-proper on the Mishna have been written, typically intended to allow for the study of the work without requiring direct reference to (and facility for) the ''Gemara''.Mishnah study, independent of the Talmud, was a marginal phenomenon before the late 15th century.", "The few commentaries that had been published tended to be limited to the tractates not covered by the Talmud, while Maimonides' commentary was written in Judeo-Arabic and thus inaccessible to many Jewish communities.", "Dedicated Mishnah study grew vastly in popularity beginning in the late 16th century, due to the kabbalistic emphasis on Mishnah study and as a reaction against the methods of pilpul; it was aided by the spread of Bertinoro's accessible Hebrew Mishnah commentary around this time.===List of commentaries===Commentaries by Rishonim:* In 1168, Maimonides (Rambam) published ''Kitab as-Siraj'' (The Book of the Lantern, ) a comprehensive commentary on the Mishnah.", "It was written in Arabic using Hebrew letters (what is termed Judeo-Arabic) and was one of the first commentaries of its kind.", "In it, Rambam condensed the associated Talmudical debates, and offered his conclusions in a number of undecided issues.", "Of particular significance are the various introductory sections – as well as the introduction to the work itself – these are widely quoted in other works on the Mishnah, and on the Oral law in general.", "Perhaps the most famous is his introduction to the tenth chapter of tractate Sanhedrin where he enumerates the thirteen fundamental beliefs of Judaism.", "* Rabbi Samson of Sens (\"the Rash\") was, apart from Maimonides, one of the few rabbis of the early medieval era to compose a Mishnah commentary on some tractates.", "It is printed in many editions of the Mishnah.", "It is interwoven with his commentary on major parts of the Tosefta.", "* Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh)'s commentary on some tractates* Menachem Meiri's commentary on most of the Mishnah, ''Beit HaBechirah'', providing a digest of the Talmudic-discussion and Rishonim there* An 11th-century CE commentary of the Mishnah, composed by Rabbi Nathan ben Abraham, President of the Academy in ''Eretz Israel''.", "This relatively unknown commentary was first printed in Israel in 1955.", "* A 12th-century Italian commentary of the Mishnah, made by Rabbi Isaac ben Melchizedek (only ''Seder Zera'im'' is known to have survived)Prominent commentaries by early Acharonim:* Rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham of Bertinoro (15th century) wrote one of the most popular Mishnah commentaries.", "He draws on Maimonides' work but also offers Talmudical material (in effect a summary of the Talmudic discussion) largely following the commentary of Rashi.", "In addition to its role as a Mishnah commentary, this work is often used by students of Talmud as a review-text and is often referred to as \"the ''Bartenura''\" or \"the ''Ra'V''\".", "* Yomtov Lipman Heller wrote a commentary called ''Tosefet Yom Tov.''", "In the introduction Heller says that his aim is to add a supplement (''tosefet'') to Bertinoro's commentary in the style of the Tosafot.", "The glosses are sometimes quite detailed and analytic.", "In many compact Mishnah printings, a condensed version of his commentary, titled ''Ikar Tosefot Yom Tov'', is featured.Other commentaries by early Acharonim:* ''Melechet Shlomo'' (Solomon Adeni; early 17th century)* ''Kav veNaki'' (Amsterdam 1697) by R. Elisha en Avraham, a brief commentary on the entire Mishnah drawing from \"the ''Bartenura''\", reprinted 20 times since its publication * ''Hon Ashir'' by Immanuel Hai Ricchi (Amsterdam 1731)* The Vilna Gaon (''Shenot Eliyahu'' on parts of the Mishnah, and glosses ''Eliyaho Rabba'', ''Chidushei HaGra'', ''Meoros HaGra'')19th century:* A (the) prominent commentary here is ''Tiferet Yisrael'' by Rabbi Israel Lipschitz.", "It is subdivided into two parts, one more general and the other more analytical, titled ''Yachin'' and ''Boaz'' respectively (after two large pillars in the Temple in Jerusalem).", "Although Rabbi Lipschutz has faced some controversy in certain Hasidic circles, he was greatly respected by such sages as Rabbi Akiva Eiger, whom he frequently cites, and is widely accepted in the Yeshiva world.", "The ''Tiferet Yaakov'' is an important gloss on the ''Tiferet Yisrael''.", "*Others from this time include:** Rabbi Akiva Eiger (glosses, rather than a commentary)** ''Mishnah Rishonah'' on ''Zeraim'' and the ''Mishnah Acharonah'' on ''Tohorot'' (Rav Efrayim Yitzchok from Premishla)** ''Sidrei Tohorot'' on ''Kelim'' and ''Oholot'' (the commentary on the rest of ''Tohorot'' and on ''Eduyot'' is lost) by Gershon Henoch Leiner, the Radziner Rebbe** ''Gulot Iliyot'' on ''Mikvaot'', by Rav Dov Ber Lifshitz ** ''Ahavat Eitan'' by Rav Avrohom Abba Krenitz (the great grandfather of Rav Malkiel Kotler)** ''Chazon Ish'' on ''Zeraim'' and ''Tohorot''20th century:* Hayim Nahman Bialik's commentary to Seder Zeraim with vocalization (partially available here) in 1930 was one of the first attempts to create a modern commentary on Mishnah.", "His decision to use the Vilna text (as opposed to a modern scholarly edition), and to write an introduction to every tractate describing its content and the relevant biblical material, influenced Hanoch Albeck, whose project was considered a continuation and expansion of Bialik's.", "* Hanoch Albeck's edition (1952–59) (vocalized by Hanoch Yelon), includes Albeck's extensive commentary on each Mishnah, as well as introductions to each tractate (Masekhet) and order (Seder).", "This commentary tends to focus on the meaning of the mishnayot themselves, with less reliance on the Gemara's interpretation and is, therefore, considered valuable as a tool for the study of Mishnah as an independent work.", "Especially important are the scholarly notes in the back of the commentary.", "* Symcha Petrushka's commentary was written in Yiddish in 1945 (published in Montreal).", "Its vocalization is supposed to be of high quality.", "* The commentary by Rabbi Pinhas Kehati, which uses the Albeck text of the Mishnah, is written in Modern Israeli Hebrew and based on classical and contemporary works, has become popular in the late 20th century.", "The commentary is designed to make the Mishnah accessible to a wide readership.", "Each tractate is introduced with an overview of its contents, including historical and legal background material, and each Mishnah is prefaced by a thematic introduction.", "The current version of this edition is printed with the Bartenura commentary as well as Kehati's.", "* The encyclopedic editions put out by ''Mishnat Rav Aharon'' (''Beis Medrosho Govoah'', Lakewood) on ''Peah'', ''Sheviit'', ''Challah'', and ''Yadayim''.", "* Rabbi Yehuda Leib Ginsburg wrote a commentary on ethical issues, ''Musar HaMishnah''.", "The commentary appears for the entire text except for Tohorot and Kodashim.", "* Shmuel Safrai, Chana Safrai and Ze'ev Safrai have half completed a 45 volume socio-historic commentary \"Mishnat Eretz Yisrael\".", "* ''Mishnah Sdura'', a format specially designed so as to facilitate recital and memorization, published by Rabbi E. Dordek in 1992.The layout is such that an entire chapter and its structure is readily visible, with each Mishnah, in turn, displayed in its component parts using line breaks (click on above image to view); includes tables summarizing each tractate, and the ''Kav veNaki'' commentary.", "*ArtScroll's \"Elucidated Mishnah\", a phrase-by-phrase translation and elucidation based on the Bertinoro - following the format of the Schottenstein Edition Talmud.", "Its \"Yad Avraham\" commentary comprises supplementary explanations and notes, drawing on the Gemara and the other Mishnah commentaries and cross referencing the ''Shulchan Aruch'' as applicable.", "The work also includes a general introduction to each tractate.", "The Modern Hebrew (''Ryzman'') edition includes all these features." ], [ "Cultural references", "A notable literary work on the composition of the Mishnah is Milton Steinberg's novel ''As a Driven Leaf''." ], [ "See also", "* Baraita* Jewish commentaries on the Bible* List of tractates, chapters, mishnahs and pages in the Talmud* Mishnah Yomisdaily cycle of Mishna studying* Mishneh Torah* Tosefta" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===English translations===* Shaye J. D. Cohen, Robert Goldenberg, Hayim Lapin (eds.", "), ''The Oxford Annotated Mishnah: A New Translation of the Mishnah With Introductions and Notes'', New York, Oxford University Press, 2022.", "* Philip Blackman.", "''Mishnayoth''.", "The Judaica Press, Ltd., reprinted 2000 ().", "Online PDF at HebrewBooks: Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodashim, Tehorot.", "* Herbert Danby.", "''The Mishnah''.", "Oxford, 1933 ().", "* Jacob Neusner.", "''The Mishnah: A New Translation''.", "New Haven, reprint 1991 ().", "* Isidore Epstein (ed.).", "Soncino Talmud.", "London, 1935-1952.Includes Mishnah-translations for those tractates without Gemara.", "* Various editors.", "''The Mishnah, a new translation with commentary Yad Avraham''.", "New York: Mesorah Publications, since the 1990s.", "(ArtScroll mentioned above)* Yoseph Milstein, ''et al''.", "''The Mishnah, a new integrated translation and commentary based on Rabbeinu Ovadiah M'Bartenurah'', Machon Yisrael Trust, available online at eMishnah.com (archived).", "*Various editors.", "Sefaria full text of the Mishnah with various open-source English translations.===Historical study===* Shalom Carmy (Ed.)", "''Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations'' Jason Aronson, Inc.* Shaye J.D.", "Cohen, \"Patriarchs and Scholarchs\", Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 48 (1981), pp.", "57–87* Steven D. Fraade, \"The Early Rabbinic Sage,\" in ''The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East'', ed.", "John G. Gammie and Leo G. Perdue (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1990), pp.", "417–23* Robert Goldenberg ''The Sabbath-Law of Rabbi Meir'' (Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1978)* John W McGinley '' 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly'' * Jacob Neusner ''Making the Classics in Judaism'' (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), pp.", "1–13 and 19–44* Jacob Neusner ''Judaism: The Evidence of the Mishnah'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 14–22.", "* Gary Porton, ''The Traditions of Rabbi Ishmael'' (Leiden: E.J.", "Brill, 1982), vol.", "4, pp.", "212–25* Dov Zlotnick, ''The Iron Pillar Mishnah'' (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1988), pp.", "8–9* Reuvain Margolies, ''Yesod Ha-Mishnah V'Arichatah'' (Heb.", ")* David Tzvi Hoffman, ''Mishnah Rishonah U'flugta D'tanna'e'' (Heb)* Hanokh Yalon, ''Mavo le-nikud ha-Mishnah'' Introduction to the vocalization of the Mishnah (Jerusalem 1964) (Heb)* Robert Brody, ''Mishna and Tosefta Studies'' (Jerusalem 2014)===Recitation===* Frank Alvarez-Pereyre, ''La Transmission Orale de la Mishna.", "Une methode d'analyse appliquee a la tradition d'Alep'': Jerusalem 1990" ], [ "External links", "===Wikimedia projects===* * * * Wikisource's '''Open Mishna Project''' is developing Mishnah texts, commentaries, and translations.", "The project is currently available in four languages: Hebrew (the largest collection), English, French and Portuguese.===Digitised manuscripts===* Complete Mishnah manuscript (15th century CE), Cambridge Digital Library===Other electronic texts===* Mishnah.org Learn the entire Mishnah online in Hebrew with English translation, and create Smart Mishnah Charts for Shloshim and Yahrzeit learning.", "* Learn Mishna in Someone's Memory – Create a Shloshim Mishnah list online.", "* Mechon Mamre (Hebrew) – Hebrew text of the Mishnah according to Maimonides' version (based on the manuscript of his Mishnah commentary in his own handwriting).", "* The Structured Mishnah – Hebrew text according to the Albeck edition (without vowels) with special formatting.", "* Online Treasury of Talmudic Manuscripts, Jewish National and University Library in Hebrew.", "* Codex Kaufmann of the Mishnah – High resolution images of this important textual witness.", "* eMishnah – English Translation & Commentary.", "* Mishnah (Hebrew & English) – English text as translated in The William Davidson edition of the Koren Noé Talmud, with commentary by Rabbi Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz.===Mishnah study and the daily Mishnah===* * – One Mishnah per day.", "(Note: this study-cycle follows a different schedule than the regular one; contains extensive archives in English).", "* Mishnah Yomit – MishnahYomit.com hosts a weekly publication complementing the learning of people studying the regular program.", "It include articles, review questions and learning aids.", "* – A program of two Mishnayot per day.", "Currently inactive, but archives contain the complete text of Kehati in English for Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, and about half of Kodashim.", "* – Custom learning and review programs for Mishnah.", "* MishnaSdura – Popular edition of Hebrew text (with vowels), used in many schools, formatted to encourage review and aid memory.", "Tables summarizing content.", "Mishna songs and recordings.", "Wiki article in Hebrew Mishna Sdura* Perek HaYomi (Hebrew) – Host to Shiurim, and learning and review according to the Perek HaYomi in Mishna instituted by the Maharal.", "* 2 Mishnas A Day – A program of learning two mishnayos every day.", "Site include Hebrew and English together with a link for audio for each day.===Audio lectures===* Rav Avraham Kosman – Slabodka on the Mishnah and Talmud in English – Produced in Israel* Mishna Audio – given by Rabbi Chaim Brown in English* Rav Grossman on the Mishna in English produced in Los Angeles* Download all 6 tractates of Mishnah for Free on TorahDownloads.com* The \"Master Torah\" Mishnah Ba'al Peh Program by Rabbi Meir Pogrow===Oral traditions and pronunciation===* The National Sound Archives at the Hebrew University (catalogue not currently online).", "* Tradition and Relevance – Recordings of Seder Zera'im in Syrian tradition" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marathon (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''marathon''' is a foot race for humans for a distance of .", "'''Marathon''' also may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===Australia===* Marathon, Queensland===Canada===* Marathon, Ontario===Greece===* Marathon, Greece, after which the distance race was named**Battle of Marathon**Lake Marathon, 8 km west of the town**Marathon Dam, forming the lake===United States===* Marathon, Florida* Marathon, Iowa* Marathon Township, Michigan* Marathon, New York* Marathon (village), New York* Marathon, Ohio* Marathon, Texas* Marathon, Wisconsin, town* Marathon County, Wisconsin* Marathon City, Wisconsin" ], [ "Sports", "* Mini marathon* Half marathon* Ultramarathon* Marathon dancing* Marathon swimming* Ski marathon* Ice skating marathon* Club Deportivo Marathón, a Honduran soccer club* The Marathon (horse race), a horse race in the United States" ], [ "Businesses", "* Marathon Enterprises, Inc., maker of Sabrett hot dogs* Marathon Motor Works, producers of the Marathon automobile** Marathon (automobile), vehicles manufactured by Marathon 1911–1914* Marathon Oil, a US-based oil and natural gas exploration and production company* Marathon Petroleum, a US-based oil refining, marketing, and pipeline transport company.", "* Marathon Sports, an Ecuadorian-based athletic company that distributes athletic equipment to sports teams* Automobiles Marathon, a French manufacturer of Panhard powered light sports cars in the 1950s* Marathon Automated Test Systems, a system for automated testing of printed circuit boards from Computer Automation" ], [ "Candy", "* Marathon candy bar, a Mars' rival to Curly Wurly in the US from 1973 to 1982* Snickers candy bar, marketed under the name \"Marathon\" in the United Kingdom and Ireland until 1990" ], [ "Entertainment", "=== Film and television ===* Marathon Production, a TV program production and distribution company* ''The Marathon'' (film), a 1919 film starring Harold Lloyd* ''Maratón'' (film), a 1968 Czechoslovak war film directed by Ivo Novák* ''Marathon'' (1980 film), a film starring Dick Gautier.", "* ''Marathon'' (1988 film), a sport-drama film directed by Terence Young* ''Marathon'' (1992 film), a Spanish film about the Barcelona Olympics directed by Carlos Saura* ''Marathon'' (2005 film), a South Korean film about an autistic marathon runner* Marathon (media), the sequential broadcast of a number of related media programs* Marathon Media a French production company and animation studio in Paris* Movie marathon, viewing of multiple consecutive movies* \"Marathon\" (''Law & Order''), an episode of ''Law & Order''* \"Marathon\" (''The Flash''), an episode of ''The Flash''===Video games===* ''Marathon Trilogy'', a video game series for the Macintosh developed and produced by Bungie in the mid-1990s** ''Marathon'' (video game), the first in the trilogy (1994)** ''Marathon 2: Durandal'', the second in the trilogy (1995)** ''Marathon Infinity'', the third in the trilogy (1996)=== Music ===* Dance Marathon, a type of multi-day charity event, popular in the US in the 1920s and 1930s* Maratone Studios, a music production company based in Sweden* Sgt.", "Peppercorn's Marathon, an annual live concert of all of the music of The Beatles* The Vibrations, an R&B group whose alter ego was \"The Marathons\"==== Albums ====* ''The Marathon'' (mixtape), by American rapper Nispey Hussle* ''Marathon'' (Saga album)* ''Marathon'' (Santana album), by Carlos Santana* ''Maraton'' (album), by Swedish singer Alina Devecerski==== Songs ====* \"Marathon\" (Rush song), from the album ''Power Windows''* \"Marathon\", by Tennis from the album ''Cape Dory''* \"Marathon\", by Kayo Dot from the album ''Choirs of the Eye''* \"Marathon\", by Dilated Peoples from the album ''Neighborhood Watch''* \"Marathon\", a song by Helene Fischer on the 2013 album ''Farbenspiel''" ], [ "Vehicles", "* Checker Marathon, an automobile model from Checker Motors Company * Aircraft:** Handley Page Marathon, British four-engined light transport ** Heldeberg Marathon, American design for powered parachute ** Mirage Marathon, American home-built aircraft design" ], [ "Other uses", "* A typeface created by Rudolf Koch* A container orchestration system that is part of Apache Mesos" ], [ "See also", "*Maraton (disambiguation)*Marathon Man (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monotheism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Monotheism''' is the belief that God is the only deity, and that the world is a separate reality in which God intervenes, often through supernatural means.", "A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, in which the one God is a singular existence, and both inclusive and pluriform monotheism, in which multiple gods or godly forms are recognized, but each are postulated as extensions of the same God.Monotheism is distinguished from henotheism, a religious system in which the believer worships one god without denying that others may worship different gods with equal validity, and monolatrism, the recognition of the existence of many gods but with the consistent worship of only one deity.", "The term ''monolatry'' was perhaps first used by Julius Wellhausen.Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Bábism, the Baháʼí Faith, Christianity, Deism, Druzism, Eckankar, Sikhism, some sects of Hinduism (such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism), Islam, Judaism, Samaritanism, Mandaeism, Rastafari, Seicho-no-Ie, Tenrikyo, Yazidism, and Atenism.", "Elements of monotheistic thought are found in early religions such as Zoroastrianism, ancient Chinese religion, Tengrism, and Yahwism." ], [ "Etymology and usage", "The word ''monotheism'' comes from the Greek (''monos'') meaning \"single\" and (''theos'') meaning \"god\".", "The English term was first used by Henry More (1614–1687).Monotheism is a complex and nuanced concept.", "The biblical authors had various ways of understanding God and the divine, shaped by their historical and cultural contexts.", "The notion of monotheism that is used today was developed much later, influenced by the Enlightenment and Christian views.", "Many definitions of monotheism are too modern, western, and Christian-centered to account for the diversity and complexity of the ancient sources, which include not only the biblical texts, but also other writings, inscriptions, and material remains that help reconstruct the ancient beliefs and practices of the people of Judah and Israel.The term \"monotheism\" is often contrasted with \"polytheism,\" but many scholars prefer other terms such as monolatry, henotheism, or one-god discourse." ], [ "History", "Quasi-monotheistic claims of the existence of a universal deity date to the Late Bronze Age, with Akhenaten's ''Great Hymn to the Aten'' from the 14th century BCE.In the Iron-Age South Asian Vedic period, a possible inclination towards monotheism emerged.", "The Rigveda exhibits notions of monism of the Brahman, particularly in the comparatively late tenth book, which is dated to the early Iron Age, e.g.", "in the Nasadiya Sukta.", "Later, ancient Hindu theology was monist, but was not strictly monotheistic in worship because it still maintained the existence of many gods, who were envisioned as aspects of one supreme God, Brahman.In China, the orthodox faith system held by most dynasties since at least the Shang Dynasty (1766 BCE) until the modern period centered on the worship of ''Shangdi'' (literally \"Above Sovereign\", generally translated as \"God\") or Heaven as an omnipotent force.", "However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshipped along with ''Shangdi''.", "Still, later variants such as Mohism (470 BCE–c.391 BCE) approached true monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of ''Shangdi'', akin to the angels in Abrahamic religions which in turn counts as only one god.Since the sixth century BCE, Zoroastrians have believed in the supremacy of one God above all: Ahura Mazda as the \"Maker of All\" and the first being before all others.", "While this is true, Zoroastrianism is not considered monotheistic as it has a dualistic cosmology, with a pantheon of lesser \"gods\" or Yazats, such as Mithra, who are worshipped as lesser divinities alongside Ahura Mazda.", "Along with this, Ahura Mazda is not fully omnipotent engaged in a constant struggle with Angra Mainyu, the force of evil, although good will ultimately overcome evil.Post-exilic Judaism, after the late 6th century BCE, was the first religion to conceive the notion of a personal monotheistic God within a monist context.", "The concept of ethical monotheism, which holds that morality stems from God alone and that its laws are unchanging, first occurred in Judaism, but is now a core tenet of most modern monotheistic religions, including Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, and Baháʼí Faith.Also from the 6th century BCE, Thales (followed by other Monists, such as Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Parmenides) proposed that nature can be explained by reference to a single unitary principle that pervades everything.", "Numerous ancient Greek philosophers, including Xenophanes of Colophon and Antisthenes, believed in a similar polytheistic monism that bore some similarities to monotheism.", "The first known reference to a unitary God is Plato's Demiurge (divine Craftsman), followed by Aristotle's unmoved mover, both of which would profoundly influence Jewish and Christian theology.According to Jewish, Christian and Islamic tradition, monotheism was the original religion of humanity; this original religion is sometimes referred to as \"the Adamic religion\", or, in the terms of Andrew Lang, the \"Urreligion\".", "Scholars of religion largely abandoned that view in the 19th century in favour of an evolutionary progression from animism via polytheism to monotheism, but by 1974, this theory was less widely held, and a modified view similar to Lang's became more prominent.Austrian anthropologist Wilhelm Schmidt had postulated an ''Urmonotheismus'', \"original\" or \"primitive monotheism\" in the 1910s.", "It was objected that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam had grown up in opposition to polytheism as had Greek philosophical monotheism.", "More recently, Karen Armstrong and other authors have returned to the idea of an evolutionary progression beginning with animism, which developed into polytheism, which developed into henotheism, which developed into monolatry, which developed into true monotheism." ], [ "Regions", "===Africa=======Indigenous African religion====The Tikar people of Cameroon have a traditional spirituality that emphasizes the worship of a single god, Nyuy.The Himba people of Namibia practice a form of monotheistic panentheism, and worship the god Mukuru.", "The deceased ancestors of the Himba and Herero are subservient to him, acting as intermediaries.The Igbo people practice a form of monotheism called Odinani.", "Odinani has monotheistic and panentheistic attributes, having a single God as the source of all things.", "Although a pantheon of spirits exists, these are lesser spirits prevalent in Odinani expressly serving as elements of Chineke (or Chukwu), the supreme being or high god.Waaq is the name of a singular God in the traditional religion of many Cushitic people in the Horn of Africa, denoting an early monotheistic religion.", "However this religion was mostly replaced with the Abrahamic religions.", "Some (approximately 3%) of Oromo still follow this traditional monotheistic religion called Waaqeffanna in Oromo.====Ancient Egypt=========Atenism=====Pharaoh Akhenaten and his family adoring the AtenAmenhotep IV initially introduced Atenism in Year 5 of his reign (1348/1346 BCE) during the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom.", "He raised Aten, once a relatively obscure Egyptian solar deity representing the disk of the sun, to the status of Supreme God in the Egyptian pantheon.", "To emphasise the change, Aten's name was written in the cartouche form normally reserved for Pharaohs, an innovation of Atenism.", "This religious reformation appears to coincide with the proclamation of a Sed festival, a sort of royal jubilee intended to reinforce the Pharaoh's divine powers of kingship.", "Traditionally held in the thirtieth year of the Pharaoh's reign, this possibly was a festival in honour of Amenhotep III, who some Egyptologists think had a coregency with his son Amenhotep IV of two to twelve years.Year 5 is believed to mark the beginning of Amenhotep IV's construction of a new capital, Akhetaten (''Horizon of the Aten''), at the site known today as Amarna.", "Evidence of this appears on three of the boundary stelae used to mark the boundaries of this new capital.", "At this time, Amenhotep IV officially changed his name to Akhenaten (''Agreeable to Aten'') as evidence of his new worship.", "The date given for the event has been estimated to fall around January 2 of that year.", "In Year 7 of his reign (1346/1344 BCE), the capital was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten (near modern Amarna), though construction of the city seems to have continued for two more years.", "In shifting his court from the traditional ceremonial centres Akhenaten was signalling a dramatic transformation in the focus of religious and political power.The move separated the Pharaoh and his court from the influence of the priesthood and from the traditional centres of worship, but his decree had deeper religious significance too—taken in conjunction with his name change, it is possible that the move to Amarna was also meant as a signal of Akhenaten's symbolic death and rebirth.", "It may also have coincided with the death of his father and the end of the coregency.", "In addition to constructing a new capital in honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak and one at Thebes, close to the old temple of Amun.In Year 9 (1344/1342 BCE), Akhenaten declared a more radical version of his new religion, declaring Aten not merely the supreme god of the Egyptian pantheon, but the only God of Egypt, with himself as the sole intermediary between the Aten and the Egyptian people.", "Key features of Atenism included a ban on idols and other images of the Aten, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten.", "Akhenaten made it however clear that the image of the Aten only represented the god, but that the god transcended creation and so could not be fully understood or represented.", "Aten was addressed by Akhenaten in prayers, such as the ''Great Hymn to the Aten'': \"O Sole God beside whom there is none\".The details of Atenist theology are still unclear.", "The exclusion of all but one god and the prohibition of idols was a radical departure from Egyptian tradition, but scholars see Akhenaten as a practitioner of monolatry rather than monotheism, as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshiping any but Aten.", "Akhenaten associated Aten with Ra and put forward the eminence of Aten as the renewal of the kingship of Ra.Under Akhenaten's successors, Egypt reverted to its traditional religion, and Akhenaten himself came to be reviled as a heretic.===== Other monotheistic traditions =====Some Egyptian ethical text authors believed in only a single god ruling over the universe.===Americas=======Native American religion====Native American religions may be monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, or some combination thereof.", "Cherokee religion, for example, is monotheist as well as pantheist.The Great Spirit, called ''Wakan Tanka'' among the Sioux, and ''Gitche Manitou'' in Algonquian, is a conception of universal spiritual force, or supreme being prevalent among some Native American and First Nation cultures.", "According to Lakota activist Russell Means a better translation of ''Wakan Tanka'' is the Great Mystery.Some researchers have interpreted Aztec philosophy as fundamentally monotheistic or panentheistic.", "While the populace at large believed in a polytheistic pantheon, Aztec priests and nobles might have come to an interpretation of Teotl as a single universal force with many facets.", "There has been criticism to this idea, however, most notably that many assertions of this supposed monotheism might actually come from post-Conquistador bias, imposing an Antiquity pagan model onto the Aztec.===Eastern Asia=======Chinese religion====Shang Dynasty bronze script character for ''tian'' (天), which translates to Heaven and skyThe orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China since at least the Shang Dynasty (1766 BCE) until the modern period centered on the worship of ''Shangdi'' (literally \"Above Sovereign\", generally translated as \"High-god\") or Heaven as a supreme being, standing above other gods.", "This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity.", "It has some features of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, a noncorporeal force with a personality transcending the world.", "However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with ''Shangdi''.", "Still, later variants such as Mohism (470 BCE–c.391 BCE) approached true monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of ''Shangdi.''", "In Mozi's ''Will of Heaven'' (天志), he writes:Worship of ''Shangdi'' and Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers.", "The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to ''Shangdi'', usually by slaughtering a completely healthy bull as sacrifice.", "Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology used by early Christians in China.", "Despite the rising of non-theistic and pantheistic spirituality contributed by Taoism and Buddhism, Shangdi was still praised up until the end of the Qing Dynasty as the last ruler of the Qing declared himself son of heaven.In the 19th century in the Guangdong region, monotheist influences led to the Taiping Rebellion.====Tengrism====Tengrism or Tangrism (sometimes stylized as Tengriism), occasionally referred to as Tengrianism, is a modern term for a Central Asian religion characterized by features of shamanism, animism, totemism, both polytheism and monotheism, and ancestor worship.", "Historically, it was the prevailing religion of the Bulgars, Turks, Mongols, and Hungarians, as well as the Xiongnu and the Huns.", "It was the state religion of the six ancient Turkic states: Avar Khaganate, Old Great Bulgaria, First Bulgarian Empire, Göktürks Khaganate, Eastern Tourkia and Western Turkic Khaganate.", "In ''Irk Bitig'', Tengri is mentioned as ''Türük Tängrisi'' (God of Turks).", "The term is perceived among Turkic peoples as a ''national'' religion.In Chinese and Turco-Mongol traditions, the Supreme God is commonly referred to as the ruler of Heaven, or the Sky Lord granted with omnipotent powers, but it has largely diminished in those regions due to ancestor worship, Taoism's pantheistic views and Buddhism's rejection of a creator God.", "On some occasions in the mythology, the Sky Lord as identified as a male has been associated to mate with an Earth Mother, while some traditions kept the omnipotence of the Sky Lord unshared.===Europe=======Ancient proto-Indo-European religion====The head deity of the Proto-Indo-European religion was the god *''Dyḗus Pḥatḗr ''.", "A number of words derived from the name of this prominent deity are used in various Indo-European languages to denote a monotheistic God.", "Nonetheless, in spite of this, Proto-Indo-European religion itself was not monotheistic.In Eastern Europe, the ancient traditions of the Slavic religion contained elements of monotheism.", "In the sixth century AD, the Byzantine chronicler Procopius recorded that the Slavs \"acknowledge that one god, creator of lightning, is the only lord of all: to him do they sacrifice an ox and all sacrificial animals.\"", "The deity to whom Procopius is referring is the storm god Perún, whose name is derived from *''Perkwunos'', the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning.", "The ancient Slavs syncretized him with the Germanic god Thor and the Biblical prophet Elijah.====Ancient Greek religion=========Classical Greece=====Fictionalized portrait of Xenophanes from a 17th-century engravingThe surviving fragments of the poems of the classical Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon suggest that he held views very similar to those of modern monotheists.", "His poems harshly criticize the traditional notion of anthropomorphic gods, commenting that \"...if cattle and horses and lions had hands or could paint with their hands and create works such as men do,... they also would depict the gods' shapes and make their bodies of such a sort as the form they themselves have.\"", "Instead, Xenophanes declares that there is \"...one god, greatest among gods and humans, like mortals neither in form nor in thought.\"", "Xenophanes's theology appears to have been monist, but not truly monotheistic in the strictest sense.", "Although some later philosophers, such as Antisthenes, believed in doctrines similar to those expounded by Xenophanes, his ideas do not appear to have become widely popular.Although Plato himself was a polytheist, in his writings, he often presents Socrates as speaking of \"the god\" in the singular form.", "He does, however, often speak of the gods in the plural form as well.", "The Euthyphro dilemma, for example, is formulated as \"Is that which is holy loved by the gods because it is holy, or is it holy because it is loved by the gods?", "\"=====Hellenistic religion=====The development of pure (philosophical) monotheism is a product of the Late Antiquity.", "During the 2nd to 3rd centuries, early Christianity was just one of several competing religious movements advocating monotheism.", "\"The One\" () is a concept that is prominent in the writings of the Neoplatonists, especially those of the philosopher Plotinus.", "In the writings of Plotinus, \"The One\" is described as an inconceivable, transcendent, all-embodying, permanent, eternal, causative entity that permeates throughout all of existence.Temple of Apollo at Delphi, GreeceA number of oracles of Apollo from Didyma and Clarus, the so-called \"theological oracles\", dated to the 2nd and 3rd century CE, proclaim that there is only one highest god, of whom the gods of polytheistic religions are mere manifestations or servants.", "4th century CE Cyprus had, besides Christianity, an apparently monotheistic cult of Dionysus.The Hypsistarians were a religious group who believed in a most high god, according to Greek documents.", "Later revisions of this Hellenic religion were adjusted towards monotheism as it gained consideration among a wider populace.", "The worship of Zeus as the head-god signaled a trend in the direction of monotheism, with less honour paid to the fragmented powers of the lesser gods.===Western Asia=======Abrahamic religions=========Judaism=====Paleo-Hebrew (10th century BCE to 135 CE), old Aramaic (10th century BCE to 4th century CE), and square Hebrew (3rd century BCE to present) scriptsJudaism is traditionally considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world, although in the 8th century BCE the Israelites were polytheistic, with their worship including the gods El, Baal, Asherah, and Astarte.", "Yahweh was originally the national god of the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah.", "During the 8th century BCE, the worship of Yahweh in Israel was in competition with many other cults, described by the Yahwist faction collectively as Baals.", "The oldest books of the Hebrew Bible reflect this competition, as in the books of Hosea and Nahum, whose authors lament the \"apostasy\" of the people of Israel, threatening them with the wrath of God if they do not give up their polytheistic cults.As time progressed, the henotheistic cult of Yahweh grew increasingly militant in its opposition to the worship of other gods.", "Later, the reforms of King Josiah imposed a form of strict monolatrism.", "After the fall of Judah and the beginning of the Babylonian captivity, a small circle of priests and scribes gathered around the exiled royal court, where they first developed the concept of Yahweh as the sole God of the world.Second Temple Judaism and later Rabbinic Judaism became strictly monotheistic.", "The Babylonian Talmud references other, \"foreign gods\" as non-existent entities to whom humans mistakenly ascribe reality and power.", "One of the best-known statements of Rabbinic Judaism on monotheism is the Second of Maimonides' 13 Principles of faith:Some in Judaism and Islam reject the Christian idea of monotheism.", "Modern Judaism uses the term ''shituf'' to refer to the worship of God in a manner which Judaism deems to be neither purely monotheistic (though still permissible for non-Jews) nor polytheistic (which would be prohibited).=====Christianity=====The Trinity is the Christian belief that God is one God in essence but three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit.Among early Christians, there was considerable debate over the nature of the Godhead, with some denying the incarnation but not the deity of Jesus (Docetism) and others later calling for an Arian conception of God.", "Despite at least one earlier local synod rejecting the claim of Arius, this Christological issue was to be one of the items addressed at the First Council of Nicaea.The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea (in present-day Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first ecumenical council of bishops of the Roman Empire, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed.", "With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent general ecumenical councils of bishops (synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy— the intent being to define a common creed for the Church and address heretical ideas.One purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements in Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father or merely of similar substance.", "All but two bishops took the first position; while Arius' argument failed.God in ''The Creation of Adam'', fresco by Michelangelo (c. 1508–1512)Christian orthodox traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and most Protestants) follow this decision, which was reaffirmed in 381 at the First Council of Constantinople and reached its full development through the work of the Cappadocian Fathers.", "They consider God to be a triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising three \"persons\", God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.", "These three are described as being \"of the same substance\" ().Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the Nicene Creed (and others), which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity, begins: \"I believe in one God\".", "From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed, 325 CE, various Christian figures advocated the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith.", "According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded \"that God must exist as both a unity and trinity\", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.Most modern Christians believe the Godhead is triune, meaning that the three persons of the Trinity are in one union in which each person is also wholly God.", "They also hold to the doctrine of a man-god Christ Jesus as God incarnate.", "These Christians also do not believe that one of the three divine figures is God alone and the other two are not but that all three are mysteriously God and one.", "Other Christian religions, including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism and others, do not share those views on the Trinity.Some Christian faiths, such as Mormonism, argue that the Godhead is in fact three separate individuals which include God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost.", "Each individual having a distinct purpose in the grand existence of human kind.", "Furthermore, Mormons believe that before the Council of Nicaea, the predominant belief among many early Christians was that the Godhead was three separate individuals.", "In support of this view, they cite early Christian examples of belief in subordinationism.Unitarianism is a theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism.Some in Judaism and some in Islam do not consider Trinitarian Christianity to be a pure form of monotheism due to the pluriform monotheistic Christian doctrine of the Trinity, classifying it as ''shituf'' in Judaism and as ''shirk'' in Islam.", "Trinitarian Christians, on the other hand, argue that the doctrine of the Trinity is a valid expression of monotheism, citing that the Trinity does not consist of three separate deities, but rather the three persons, who exist consubstantially (as one substance) within a single Godhead.=====Islam=====Arabic calligraphy reading \"Allah, may his glory be glorified\"In Islam, God (Allāh) is all-powerful and all-knowing, the Creator, Sustainer, Ordainer and Judge of the universe.", "God in Islam is strictly singular (''tawhid'') unique (''wahid'') and inherently One (''ahad''), all-merciful and omnipotent.", "Allāh exists on the ''Al-'Arsh'' , but the Quran states that \"No vision can encompass Him, but He encompasses all vision.", "For He is the Most Subtle, All-Aware.\"", "() Allāh is the only God and the same God worshiped in Christianity and Judaism(Q).Islam emerged in the 7th century CE in the context of both Christianity and Judaism, with some thematic elements similar to Gnosticism.", "Islamic belief states that Muhammad did not bring a new religion from God, but rather the same religion as practiced by Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and all the other prophets of God.", "The assertion of Islam is that the message of God had been corrupted, distorted or lost over time, and the Quran was sent to Muhammad in order to correct the lost message of the Tawrat (Torah), Injil (Gospel) and Zabur.The Quran asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique and indivisible being who is independent of the creation.", "The Quran rejects binary modes of thinking such as the idea of a duality of God by arguing that both good and evil generate from God's creative act.", "God is a universal god rather than a local, tribal or parochial one; an absolute who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil.", "Ash'ari theology, which dominated Sunni Islam from the tenth to the nineteenth century, insists on ultimate divine transcendence and holds that divine unity is not accessible to human reason.", "Ash'arism teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, and on such paradoxes as God's creation of evil, revelation had to accept ''bila kayfa'' (without asking how).", "''Tawhid'' constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of faith, \"There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God.", "To attribute divinity to a created entity is the only unpardonable sin mentioned in the Quran.", "The entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of ''tawhid''.Medieval Islamic philosopher Al-Ghazali offered a proof of monotheism from omnipotence, asserting there can only be one omnipotent being.", "For if there were two omnipotent beings, the first would either have power over the second (meaning the second is not omnipotent) or not (meaning the first is not omnipotent); thus implying that there could only be one omnipotent being.As they traditionally profess a concept of monotheism with a singular entity as God, Judaism and Islam reject the Christian idea of monotheism.", "Judaism uses the term Shituf to refer to non-monotheistic ways of worshiping God.", "Although Muslims venerate Jesus (Isa in Arabic) as a prophet, they do not accept the doctrine that he was a begotten son of God.=====Mandaeism=====Mandaean pendantMandaeism or Mandaeanism ( ''''), sometimes also known as Sabianism, is a monotheistic, Gnostic, and ethnic religion.", "Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets, with Adam being the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.", "The Mandaeans believe in one God commonly named Hayyi Rabbi meaning 'The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God'.", "The Mandaeans speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic.", "The name 'Mandaean' comes from the Aramaic ''manda'' meaning \"knowledge\", as does Greek ''gnosis''.", "The term 'Sabianism' is derived from the Sabians (, ), a mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the Quran alongside the Jews, the Christians and the Zoroastrians as a 'people of the book', and whose name was historically claimed by the Mandaeans as well as by several other religious groups in order to gain the legal protection () offered by Islamic law.", "Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.=====Baháʼí Faith=====Baháʼí House of Worship, Langenhain, GermanyGod in the Baháʼí Faith is taught to be the Imperishable, uncreated Being Who is the source of existence, too great for humans to fully comprehend.", "Human primitive understanding of God is achieved through his revelations via his divine intermediary Manifestations.", "In the Baháʼí faith, such Christian doctrines as the Trinity are seen as compromising the Baháʼí view that God is single and has no equal,and the very existence of the Baháʼí Faith is a challenge to the Islamic doctrine of the finality of Muhammad's revelation.God in the Baháʼí Faith communicates to humanity through divine intermediaries, known as Manifestations of God.", "These Manifestations establish religion in the world.", "It is through these divine intermediaries that humans can approach God, and through them God brings divine revelation and law.The Oneness of God is one of the core teachings of the Baháʼí Faith.", "The obligatory prayers in the Baháʼí Faith involve explicit monotheistic testimony.", "God is the imperishable, uncreated being who is the source of all existence.", "He is described as \"a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal, omniscient, omnipresent and almighty\".", "Although transcendent and inaccessible directly, his image is reflected in his creation.", "The purpose of creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator.", "God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through intermediaries, known as Manifestations of God, who are the prophets and messengers that have founded religions from prehistoric times up to the present day.=====Rastafari=====Rastafari, sometimes termed Rastafarianism, is classified as both a new religious movement and social movement.", "It developed in Jamaica during the 1930s.", "It lacks any centralised authority and there is much heterogeneity among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.Rastafari refer to their beliefs, which are based on a specific interpretation of the Bible, as \"Rastalogy\".", "Central is a monotheistic belief in a single God—referred to as Jah—who partially resides within each individual.", "The former emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, is given central importance.", "Many Rastas regard him as an incarnation of Jah on Earth and as the Second Coming of Christ.", "Others regard him as a human prophet who fully recognised the inner divinity within every individual.====Zoroastrianism====Faravahar (or Ferohar) is one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit).Zoroastrianism combines cosmogonic dualism and eschatological monotheism which makes it unique among the religions of the world.", "It is contested whether they are monotheistic, due to the presence of Ahura Mainyu, and the existence of worshipped lesser divinities such as Aharaniyita.By some Zoroastrianism is considered a monotheistic religion, but this is contested as both true and false by both scholars, and Zoroastrians themselves.", "Although Zoroastrianism is often regarded as dualistic, duotheistic or bitheistic, for its belief in the hypostasis of the ultimately good Ahura Mazda ''(Wise Lord)'' and the ultimately evil Angra Mainyu ''(destructive spirit)''.", "Zoroastrianism was once one of the largest religions on Earth, as the official religion of the Persian Empire.", "By some scholars, the Zoroastrians (\"Parsis\" or \"Zartoshtis\") are sometimes credited with being some of the first monotheists and having had influence on other world religions.", "Gathered statistics estimates the number of adherents at between 100,000 and 200,000, with adherents living in many regions, including South Asia.====Yazidism====God in Yazidism created the world and entrusted it into the care of seven Holy Beings, known as Angels.", "The Yazidis believe in a divine Triad.", "The original, hidden God of the Yazidis is considered to be remote and inactive in relation to his creation, except to contain and bind it together within his essence.", "His first emanation is the Angel Melek Taûs (), who functions as the ruler of the world and leader of the other Angels.", "The second hypostasis of the divine Triad is the Sheikh 'Adī ibn Musafir.", "The third is Sultan Ezid.", "These are the three hypostases of the one God.", "The identity of these three is sometimes blurred, with Sheikh 'Adī considered to be a manifestation of Tawûsê Melek and vice versa; the same also applies to Sultan Ezid.", "Yazidis are called '''' (\"the nation of Tawûsê Melek\").God is referred to by Yazidis as '''', , '''', and '''' ('King'), and, less commonly, '''' and ''''.", "According to some Yazidi hymns (known as ''Qewls''), God has 1,001 names, or 3,003 names according to other Qewls.===Oceania=======Aboriginal Australian religion====Aboriginal Australians are typically described as polytheistic in nature.", "Although some researchers shy from referring to Dreamtime figures as \"gods\" or \"deities\", they are broadly described as such for the sake of simplicity.In Southeastern Australian cultures, the sky father Baiame is perceived as the creator of the universe (though this role is sometimes taken by other gods like Yhi or Bunjil) and at least among the Gamilaraay traditionally revered above other mythical figures.", "Equation between him and the Christian god is common among both missionaries and modern Christian Aboriginals.The Yolngu had extensive contact with the Makassans and adopted religious practises inspired by those of Islam.", "The god Walitha'walitha is based on Allah (specifically, with the ''wa-Ta'ala'' suffix), but while this deity had a role in funerary practises it is unclear if it was \"Allah-like\" in terms of functions.====Andaman Islands====The religion of the Andamanese peoples has at times been described as \"animistic monotheism\", believing foremost in a single deity, Pūluga, who created the universe.", "However, Pūluga is not worshipped, and anthropomorphic personifications of natural phenomena are also known.===South Asia=======Hinduism====Krishna displaying his ''Vishvarupa'' (universal form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of KurukshetraAs an old religion, Hinduism inherits religious concepts spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed.Hindu views are broad and range from monism, through pantheism and panentheism (alternatively called monistic theism by some scholars) to monotheism and even atheism.", "Hinduism cannot be said to be purely polytheistic.", "Hindu religious leaders have repeatedly stressed that while God's forms are many and the ways to communicate with him are many, God is one.", "The ''puja'' of the ''murti'' is a way to communicate with the abstract one god (''Brahman'') which creates, sustains and dissolves creation.Rig Veda 1.164.46,:'''':'''':\"They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garuda.", ":To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.\"", "(trans.", "Griffith)Traditions of Gaudiya Vaishnavas, the Nimbarka Sampradaya and followers of Swaminarayan and Vallabha consider Krishna to be the source of all avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself, or to be the same as Narayana.", "As such, he is therefore regarded as ''Svayam Bhagavan''.When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagavan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the Vallabha Sampradaya, and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself.", "This belief is drawn primarily \"from the famous statement of the Bhagavatam\" (1.3.28).", "A viewpoint differing from this theological concept is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatar'' of Narayana or Vishnu.", "It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of the God of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism.The Rig Veda discusses monotheistic thought, as do the Atharva Veda and Yajur Veda:\"Devas are always looking to the supreme abode of Vishnu\" (''tad viṣṇoḥ paramaṁ padaṁ sadā paśyanti sṻrayaḥ'' Rig Veda 1.22.20)\"The One Truth, sages know by many names\" (Rig Veda 1.164.46)\"When at first the unborn sprung into being, He won His own dominion beyond which nothing higher has been in existence\" (Atharva Veda 10.7.31)\"There is none to compare with Him.", "There is no parallel to Him, whose glory, verily, is great.\"", "(Yajur Veda 32.3)The number of auspicious qualities of God are countless, with the following six qualities (''bhaga'') being the most important:* ''Jñāna'' (omniscience), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously* ''Aishvarya'' (sovereignty, derived from the word Ishvara), which consists in unchallenged rule over all* ''Shakti'' (energy), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible* ''Bala'' (strength), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue* ''Vīrya'' (vigor), which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations* ''Tejas'' (splendor), which expresses His self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by His spiritual effulgenceIn the Shaivite tradition, the ''Shri Rudram'' (Sanskrit श्रि रुद्रम्), to which the Chamakam (चमकम्) is added by scriptural tradition, is a Hindu ''stotra'' dedicated to Rudra (an epithet of Shiva), taken from the Yajurveda (TS 4.5, 4.7).", "Shri Rudram is also known as ''Sri Rudraprasna'', '''', and ''Rudradhyaya''.", "The text is important in Vedanta where Shiva is equated to the Universal supreme God.", "The hymn is an early example of enumerating the names of a deity, a tradition developed extensively in the sahasranama literature of Hinduism.The Nyaya school of Hinduism has made several arguments regarding a monotheistic view.", "The Naiyanikas have given an argument that such a god can only be one.", "In the ''Nyaya Kusumanjali'', this is discussed against the proposition of the ''Mimamsa'' school that let us assume there were many demigods (''devas'') and sages (''rishis'') in the beginning, who wrote the Vedas and created the world.", "Nyaya says that:In other words, Nyaya says that the polytheist would have to give elaborate proofs for the existence and origin of his several celestial spirits, none of which would be logical, and that it is more logical to assume one eternal, omniscient god.Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism.", "The famous Hindu revitalist leader Ram Swarup, for example, points to the Vedas as being specifically polytheistic, and states that, \"only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness.", "\"Sita Ram Goel, another 20th-century Hindu historian, wrote:====Sikhism====A Sikh temple, known as ''Nanaksar Gurudwara'', in Alberta, CanadaIk Onkār, a Sikh symbol representing \"the One Supreme Reality\"Sikhi is a monotheistic and a revealed religion.", "God in Sikhism is called Akal Purakh (which means \"The Immortal Being\") or ''Vāhigurū'' (Wondrous Enlightener).", "However, other names like Rama, Brahman, Khuda, Allah, etc.", "are also used to refer to the same God, who is shapeless, timeless, and sightless: ''niraṅkār'', ''akaal'', and ''alakh''.", "Sikhi presents a unique perspective where God is present (''sarav viāpak'') in all of its creation and does not exist outside of its creation.", "God must be seen from \"the inward eye\", or the \"heart\".", "Sikhs follow the Aad Guru Granth Sahib and are instructed to meditate on the Naam (Name of God - ''Vāhigurū'') to progress towards enlightenment, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.Sikhism is a monotheistic faith that arose in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent during the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Sikhs believe in one, timeless, omnipresent, supreme creator.", "The opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, known as the Mul Mantra, signifies this:::Transliteration: ikk ōankār sat(i)-nām(u) karatā purakh(u) nirabha'u niravair(u) akāla mūrat(i) ajūnī saibhan(g) gur(a) prasād(i).", ":One Universal creator God, The supreme Unchangeable Truth, The Creator of the Universe, Beyond Fear, Beyond Hatred, Beyond Death, Beyond Birth, Self-Existent, by Guru's Grace.The word \"ੴ\" (\"Ik ōaṅkār\") has two components.", "The first is ੧, the digit \"1\" in Gurmukhi signifying the singularity of the creator.", "Together the word means: \"One Universal creator God\".It is often said that the 1430 pages of the Guru Granth Sahib are all expansions on the Mul Mantra.", "Although the Sikhs have many names for God, some derived from Islam and Hinduism, they all refer to the same Supreme Being.The Sikh holy scriptures refer to the One God who pervades the whole of space and is the creator of all beings in the universe.", "The following quotation from the Guru Granth Sahib highlights this point:However, there is a strong case for arguing that the Guru Granth Sahib teaches monism due to its non-dualistic tendencies:Sikhs believe that God has been given many names, but they all refer to the One God, VāhiGurū.", "Sikh holy scripture (Guru Granth Sahib) speaks to all faiths and Sikhs believe that members of other religions such as Islam, Hinduism and Christianity all worship the same God, and the names Allah, Rahim, Karim, Hari, Raam and Paarbrahm are, therefore, frequently mentioned in the Sikh holy scripture (Guru Granth Sahib) .", "God in Sikhism is most commonly referred to as Akal Purakh (which means \"The Immortal Being\") or Waheguru, the Wondrous Enlightener." ], [ "Criticism", "Critics have described monotheism as a cause of ignorance, oppression, and violence.David Hume (1711–1776) said that monotheism is less pluralistic and thus less tolerant than polytheism, because monotheism stipulates that people pigeonhole their beliefs into one tenet.", "In the same vein, Auguste Comte said that \"Monotheism is irreconcilable with the existence in our nature of the instincts of benevolence\" because it compels followers to devote themselves to a single Creator.", "Mark S. Smith, an American biblical scholar and ancient historian, wrote that monotheism has been a \"totalizing discourse\", often co-opting all aspects of a social belief system, resulting in the exclusion of \"others\".", "Jacob Neusner suggests that \"the logic of monotheism ... yields little basis for tolerating other religions\".Ancient monotheism is described as the instigator of violence in its early days because it inspired the Israelites to wage war upon the Canaanites who believed in multiple gods.", "Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan regarded monotheism as a cause of violence, saying: \"The intolerance of narrow monotheism is written in letters of blood across the history of man from the time when first the tribes of Israel burst into the land of Canaan.", "The worshippers of the one jealous God are egged on to aggressive wars against people of alien beliefs and cultures.", "They invoke divine sanction for the cruelties inflicted on the conquered.", "The spirit of old Israel is inherited by Christianity and Islam, and it might not be unreasonable to suggest that it would have been better for Western civilization if Greece had moulded it on this question rather than Palestine.\"" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*** William G. Dever, ''Who Were the Early Israelites?", "'', Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2003.", "* William G. Dever, ''Did God Have a Wife?", ": Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel'', Eerdmans, 2005, .", "* Jonthan Kirsch, ''God Against The Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism.''", "Penguin Books.", "2005.", "* Hans Köchler.", "''The Concept of Monotheism in Islam and Christianity''.", "Vienna: Braumüller, 1982.", "( Google Books ).", "** *** * Silberman, Neil A. et al.", "; ''The Bible Unearthed'', New York: Simon & Schuster 2001.", "******* Keith Whitelam, ''The Invention of Ancient Israel'', Routledge, New York 1997." ], [ "External links", "* * * About.com \"What is Monolatry?\"", "(Contains useful comparisons with henoteism etc.", ")* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Christian Monotheism (biblical unitarians)* World Union of Deists" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 9" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 328 – Athanasius is elected Patriarch of Alexandria.", "*1009 – Lombard Revolt: Lombard forces led by Melus revolt in Bari against the Byzantine Catepanate of Italy.", "*1386 – England and Portugal formally ratify their alliance with the signing of the Treaty of Windsor, making it the oldest diplomatic alliance in the world which is still in force.", "*1450 – 'Abd al-Latif (Timurid monarch) is assassinated.", "*1540 – Hernando de Alarcón sets sail on an expedition to the Gulf of California.===1601–1900===*1662 – The figure who later became Mr. Punch makes his first recorded appearance in England.", "*1671 – Thomas Blood, disguised as a clergyman, attempts to steal England's Crown Jewels from the Tower of London.", "*1726 – Five men arrested during a raid on Mother Clap's molly house in London are executed at Tyburn.", "*1864 – Second Schleswig War: The Danish navy defeats the Austrian and Prussian fleets in the Battle of Heligoland.", "*1865 – American Civil War: Nathan Bedford Forrest surrenders his forces at Gainesville, Alabama.", "* 1865 – American Civil War: President Andrew Johnson issues a proclamation ending belligerent rights of the rebels and enjoining foreign nations to intern or expel Confederate ships.", "*1873 – ''Der Krach'': The Vienna stock exchange crash heralds the Long Depression.", "*1877 – Mihail Kogălniceanu reads, in the Chamber of Deputies, the Declaration of Independence of Romania.", "The date will become recognised as the Independence Day of Romania.===1901–present===*1901 – Australia opens its first national parliament in Melbourne.", "*1915 – World War I: Second Battle of Artois between German and French forces.", "*1918 – World War I: Germany repels Britain's second attempt to blockade the port of Ostend, Belgium.", "*1920 – Polish–Soviet War: The Polish army under General Edward Rydz-Śmigły celebrates its capture of Kiev with a victory parade on Khreshchatyk.", "*1926 – Admiral Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett claim to have flown over the North Pole (later discovery of Byrd's diary appears to cast some doubt on the claim.", ")*1927 – The Old Parliament House, Canberra, Australia, officially opens.", "*1936 – Italy formally annexes Ethiopia after taking the capital Addis Ababa on May 5.", "*1941 – World War II: The German submarine ''U-110'' is captured by the Royal Navy.", "On board is the latest Enigma machine which Allied cryptographers later use to break coded German messages.", "*1942 – The Holocaust in Ukraine: The SS executes 588 Jewish residents of the Podolian town of Zinkiv (Khmelnytska oblast.", "The Zoludek Ghetto (in Belarus) is destroyed and all its inhabitants executed or deported.", "*1946 – King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy abdicates and is succeeded by Umberto II.", "*1948 – Czechoslovakia's Ninth-of-May Constitution comes into effect.", "*1950 – Robert Schuman presents the \"Schuman Declaration\", considered by some to be the beginning of the creation of what is now the European Union.", "*1955 – Cold War: West Germany joins NATO.", "*1960 – The Food and Drug Administration announces it will approve birth control as an additional indication for Searle's Enovid, making Enovid the world's first approved oral contraceptive pill.", "*1969 – Carlos Lamarca leads the first urban guerrilla action against the military dictatorship of Brazil in São Paulo, by robbing two banks.", "*1974 – Watergate scandal: The United States House Committee on the Judiciary opens formal and public impeachment hearings against President Richard Nixon.", "*1979 – Iranian Jewish businessman Habib Elghanian is executed by firing squad in Tehran, prompting the mass exodus of the once 100,000-strong Jewish community of Iran.", "*1980 – In Florida, United States, Liberian freighter collides with the Sunshine Skyway Bridge over Tampa Bay, making a 1,400-ft. section of the southbound span collapse.", "Thirty-five people in six cars and a Greyhound bus fall 150 ft. into the water and die.", "* 1980 – In Norco, California, United States, five masked gunmen hold up a Security Pacific bank, leading to a violent shoot-out and one of the largest pursuits in California history.", "Two of the gunmen and one police officer are killed and thirty-three police and civilian vehicles are destroyed in the chase.", "*1987 – LOT Flight 5055 ''Tadeusz Kościuszko'' crashes after takeoff in Warsaw, Poland, killing all 183 people on board.", "*1988 – New Parliament House, Canberra officially opens.", "*1992 – Armenian forces capture Shusha, marking a major turning point in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.", "*1992 – Westray Mine disaster kills 26 workers in Nova Scotia, Canada.", "*2001 – In Ghana, 129 football fans die in what became known as the Accra Sports Stadium disaster.", "The deaths are caused by a stampede (caused by the firing of tear gas by police personnel at the stadium) that followed a controversial decision by the referee.", "*2002 – The 38-day stand-off in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem comes to an end when the Palestinians inside agree to have 13 suspected terrorists among them deported to several different countries.", "*2018 – The historic defeat for Barisan Nasional, the governing coalition of Malaysia since the country's independence in 1957 in 2018 Malaysian general election.", "*2020 – The COVID-19 recession causes the U.S. unemployment rate to hit 14.9 percent, its worst rate since the Great Depression.", "*2022 – Russo-Ukrainian War: United States President Joe Biden signs the 2022 Lend-Lease Act into law, a rebooted World War II-era policy expediting American equipment to Ukraine and other Eastern European countries." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1147 – Minamoto no Yoritomo, Japanese shōgun (d. 1199)*1151 – al-Adid, last Fatimid caliph (d. 1171)*1540 – Maharana Pratap, Indian ruler (d. 1597)*1555 – Jerónima de la Asunción, Spanish Catholic nun and founder of the first monastery in Manila (d. 1630)*1594 – Louis Henry, Prince of Nassau-Dillenburg, military leader in the Thirty Years' War (d. 1662)===1601–1900===*1617 – Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Eschwege (d. 1655)*1740 – Giovanni Paisiello, Italian composer and educator (probable; d. 1816)*1746 – Gaspard Monge, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1818)*1763 – János Batsányi, Hungarian-Austrian poet and author (d. 1845)*1800 – John Brown, American activist (d. 1859)*1801 – Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, English politician, founded the town of Fleetwood (d. 1866)*1814 – John Brougham, Irish-American actor and playwright (d. 1880)*1823 – Frederick Weld, English-New Zealand politician, 6th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1891)*1824 – Jacob ben Moses Bachrach, Polish apologist and author (d. 1896)*1825 – James Collinson, Victorian painter (d. 1881) *1836 – Ferdinand Monoyer, French ophthalmologist, invented the Monoyer chart (d. 1912)*1837 – Adam Opel, German engineer, founded the Opel Company (d. 1895)*1845 – Gustaf de Laval, Swedish engineer and businessman (d. 1913)*1850 – Edward Weston, English-American chemist (d. 1936)*1855 – Julius Röntgen, German-Dutch composer (d. 1932)*1860 – J. M. Barrie, Scottish novelist and playwright (d. 1937)*1866 – Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Indian economist and politician (d. 1915)*1870 – Harry Vardon, British golfer (d. 1937)*1873 – Anton Cermak, Czech-American captain and politician, 44th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1933)*1874 – Howard Carter, English archaeologist and historian (d. 1939)*1882 – George Barker, American painter (d. 1965)* 1882 – Henry J. Kaiser, American shipbuilder and businessman, founded Kaiser Shipyards (d. 1967)*1883 – José Ortega y Gasset, Spanish philosopher, author, and critic (d. 1955)*1884 – Valdemar Psilander, Danish actor (d. 1917)*1885 – Gianni Vella, Maltese artist (d. 1977)*1888 – Francesco Baracca, Italian fighter pilot (d. 1918)* 1888 – Rolf de Maré, Swedish art collector (d. 1964)*1892 – Zita of Bourbon-Parma, last Empress of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (d. 1989)*1893 – William Moulton Marston, American psychologist and author (d. 1947)*1894 – Benjamin Graham, British-American economist, professor, and investor (d. 1976)*1895 – Richard Barthelmess, American actor (d. 1963)* 1895 – Lucian Blaga, Romanian poet, playwright, and philosopher (d. 1961)* 1895 – Frank Foss, American pole vaulter (d. 1989)*1896 – Richard Day, Canadian-American art director and set decorator (d. 1972)*1900 – Maria Malicka, Polish stage and film actress (d. 1992)===1901–present===*1904 – Conrad Bernier, Canadian-American organist, composer, and educator (d. 1988)*1905 – Lilí Álvarez, Spanish tennis player, author, and feminist (d. 1998)*1906 – Eleanor Estes, American librarian, author, and illustrator (d. 1988)*1907 – Jackie Grant, Trinidadian cricketer (d. 1978)* 1907 – Kathryn Kuhlman, American evangelist and author (d. 1976)* 1907 – Baldur von Schirach, German politician (d. 1974)*1909 – Don Messer, Canadian violinist (d. 1973)* 1909 – Gordon Bunshaft, American architect, designed the Solow Building (d. 1990)*1911 – Harry Simeone, American music arranger, conductor, and composer (d. 2005)*1912 – Pedro Armendáriz, Mexican-American actor (d. 1963)* 1912 – Per Imerslund, Norwegian-German soldier and author (d. 1943)* 1912 – Géza Ottlik, Hungarian mathematician and theorist (d. 1990)*1914 – Patricia Swift Blalock, American librarian (d.2011)* 1914 – Denham Fouts, American prostitute (d. 1948)* 1914 – Thanat Khoman, Thai politician and diplomat (d. 2016)* 1914 – Carlo Maria Giulini, Italian conductor and director (d. 2005)* 1914 – Hank Snow, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1999)*1916 – William Pène du Bois, American author and illustrator (d. 1993)*1917 – Fay Kanin, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2013)*1918 – Moisis Michail Bourlas, Greek soldier and educator (d. 2011)* 1918 – Orville Freeman, American soldier and politician, 16th United States Secretary of Agriculture (d. 2003)* 1918 – Mike Wallace, American journalist, media personality and one-time game show host (d. 2012)*1919 – Clifford Chadderton, Canadian soldier and journalist (d. 2013)*1920 – William Tenn, English-American author and academic (d. 2010)* 1920 – Richard Adams, English novelist (d. 2016)*1921 – Daniel Berrigan, American priest, poet, and activist (d. 2016)* 1921 – Sophie Scholl, German activist (d. 1943)* 1921 – Mona Van Duyn, American poet and academic (d. 2004)*1923 – Johnny Grant, American radio host and producer (d. 2008)*1924 – Bulat Okudzhava, Russian singer, poet, and author (d. 1997)*1926 – John Middleton Murry, Jr., English soldier, pilot, and author (d. 2002)*1927 – Manfred Eigen, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)*1928 – Ralph Goings, American painter (d. 2016)* 1928 – Pancho Gonzales, American tennis player (d. 1995)* 1928 – Barbara Ann Scott, Canadian figure skater (d. 2012)*1930 – Joan Sims, English actress (d. 2001)* 1930 – Kalifa Tillisi, Libyan historian and linguist (d. 2010)*1931 – Vance D. Brand, American pilot, engineer, and astronaut*1932 – Conrad Hunte, Barbadian cricketer (d. 1999)* 1932 – Geraldine McEwan, English actress (d. 2015)*1934 – Alan Bennett, English screenwriter, playwright, and novelist*1935 – Nokie Edwards, American guitarist (d. 2018)* 1935 – Roger Hargreaves, English author and illustrator (d. 1988)*1936 – Terry Downes, British boxer and former world middle-weight champion (d. 2017)* 1936 – Albert Finney, English actor (d. 2019)* 1936 – Glenda Jackson, English actress and politician (d. 2023) *1937 – Sonny Curtis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1937 – Rafael Moneo, Spanish architect, designed the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels and Valladolid Science Museum* 1937 – Dave Prater, American singer (d. 1988)*1938 – Carroll Cole, American serial killer (d. 1985)* 1938 – Charles Simić, Serbian-American poet and editor (d. 2023)*1939 – Ralph Boston, American long jumper (d. 2023)* 1939 – Ion Țiriac, Romanian tennis player and manager* 1939 – Ken Warby, Australian motorboat racer (d. 2023)* 1939 – Giorgio Zancanaro, Italian baritone* 1939 – John Ogbu, Nigerian-American anthropologist and professor (d. 2003)*1940 – James L. Brooks, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1941 – Dorothy Hyman, English sprinter* 1941 – Danny Rapp, American musician (d. 1983)*1942 – John Ashcroft, American lawyer and politician, 79th United States Attorney General* 1942 – Tommy Roe, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1943 – Vince Cable, English economist and politician, former Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills* 1943 – Anders Isaksson, Swedish historian and journalist (d. 2009)* 1943 – Colin Pillinger, English astronomer, chemist, and academic (d. 2014)*1944 – Richie Furay, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1945 – Gamal El-Ghitani, Egyptian journalist and author (d. 2015)* 1945 – Jupp Heynckes, German footballer and manager* 1945 – Steve Katz, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer *1946 – Candice Bergen, American actress and producer* 1946 – Ayşe Nur Zarakolu, Turkish author and activist (d. 2002)*1947 – Yukiya Amano, Japanese diplomat (d. 2019)*1948 – Hans Georg Bock, German mathematician, computer scientist, and academic* 1948 – John Mahaffey, American golfer* 1948 – Steven W. Mosher, American social scientist and author* 1948 – Calvin Murphy, American basketball player and radio host*1949 – Billy Joel, American singer-songwriter and pianist * 1949 – Richard S. Williamson, American lawyer and diplomat, 17th Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs (d. 2013)*1951 – Alley Mills, American actress*1951 – Joy Harjo, American poet, musician, playwright and author, 23rd United States Poet Laureate*1953 – Bruno Brokken, Belgian high jumper*1955 – Meles Zenawi, Prime Minister of Ethiopia (d. 2012) * 1955 – Anne Sofie von Otter, Swedish soprano and actress*1956 – Wendy Crewson, Canadian actress and producer* 1956 – Jana Wendt, Australian television host*1958 – Graham Smith, Canadian swimmer*1959 – Andrew Jones, New Zealand cricketer*1960 – Tony Gwynn, American baseball player and coach (d. 2014)*1961 – Sean Altman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1961 – John Corbett, American actor *1962 – Dave Gahan, English singer-songwriter * 1962 – Paul Heaton, English singer-songwriter *1963 – Joe Cirella, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1965 – Ken Nomura, Japanese race car driver and sportscaster* 1965 – Steve Yzerman, Canadian ice hockey player and manager*1966 – Mark Tinordi, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1968 – Masahiko Harada, Japanese ski jumper* 1968 – Graham Harman, American philosopher and academic* 1968 – Ruth Kelly, British economist and politician, Secretary of State for Transport* 1968 – Marie-José Pérec, French sprinter* 1968 – Neil Ruddock, English international footballer and television personality*1970 – Doug Christie, American basketball player* 1970 – Hao Haidong, Chinese footballer* 1970 – Ghostface Killah, American rapper and actor *1971 – Jason Lee, English footballer and manager* 1971 – Dan Chiasson, American poet and critic *1972 – Megumi Odaka, Japanese actress and singer*1973 – Tegla Loroupe, Kenyan runner* 1973 – Leonard Myles-Mills, Ghanaian sprinter*1975 – Tamia, Canadian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress* 1975 – Brian Deegan, American motocross rider*1977 – Averno, Mexican wrestler* 1977 – Marek Jankulovski, Czech footballer * 1977 – Svein Tuft, Canadian cyclist*1978 – Leandro Cufré, Argentinian footballer* 1978 – Aaron Harang, American baseball player*1979 – Pierre Bouvier, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1979 – Rosario Dawson, American actress* 1979 – Andrew W.K., American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, motivational speaker, and music producer*1980 – Grant Hackett, Australian swimmer* 1980 – Angela Nikodinov, American figure skater* 1980 – Tony Schmidt, German race car driver* 1980 – Jo Hyun-jae, South Korean actor*1981 – Bill Murphy, American baseball player* 1981 – Evangelos Tsiolis, Greek footballer*1983 – Giacomo Brichetto, Italian footballer* 1983 – Alan Campbell, British sculler* 1983 – Christos Marangos, Cypriot footballer* 1983 – Ryuhei Matsuda, Japanese actor* 1983 – Gilles Müller, Luxembourgian tennis player* 1983 – Tyler Lumsden, American baseball player* 1983 – Leandro Rinaudo, Italian footballer*1984 – Prince Fielder, American baseball player* 1984 – Chase Headley, American baseball player*1985 – Jake Long, American football player* 1985 – Henrique Andrade Silva, Brazilian footballer*1987 – Scott Bolton, Australian rugby league player* 1987 – Kevin Gameiro, French footballer*1988 – J. R. Fitzpatrick, Canadian racing driver*1989 – Ellen White, English footballer*1989 – Daniel Rosenfeld, German musician*1991 – Majlinda Kelmendi, Kosovar judoka*1992 – Dan Burn, English footballer*1995 – Tommy Edman, American baseball player*1996 – Grace Reid, Scottish diver*2000 – Trey Lance, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 480 – Julius Nepos, Western Roman Emperor* 729 – Osric, king of Northumbria* 893 – Shi Pu, warlord of the Tang Dynasty* 909 – Adalgar, archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen* 934 – Wang Sitong, Chinese general and governor (b.", "892)*1280 – Magnus VI of Norway*1315 – Hugh V, Duke of Burgundy (b.", "1282)*1329 – John Drokensford, Bishop of Bath and Wells*1443 – Niccolò Albergati, Italian Cardinal and diplomat (b.", "1373)*1446 – Mary of Enghien (b.", "1368)*1590 – Charles de Bourbon French cardinal and pretender to the throne (b.", "1523)===1601–1900===*1657 – William Bradford, English-American politician, 2nd Governor of Plymouth Colony (b.", "1590)*1707 – Dieterich Buxtehude, German-Danish organist and composer (b.", "1637)*1736 – Diogo de Mendonça Corte-Real, Portuguese judge and politician (b.", "1658)*1745 – Tomaso Antonio Vitali, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1663)*1747 – John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair, Scottish field marshal and diplomat, British Ambassador to France (b.", "1673)*1760 – Nicolaus Zinzendorf, German bishop and saint (b.", "1700)*1789 – Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, French general and engineer (b.", "1715)*1790 – William Clingan, American politician (b.", "1721)*1791 – Francis Hopkinson, American judge and politician (b.", "1737)*1805 – Friedrich Schiller, German poet, playwright, and historian (b.", "1759)*1850 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French chemist and physicist (b.", "1778)* 1850 – Garlieb Merkel, Estonian author and activist (b.", "1769)*1861 – Ernst von Lasaulx, German philologist and politician (b.", "1805)*1864 – John Sedgwick, American general and educator (b.", "1813)*1889 – William S. Harney, American general (b.", "1800)===1901–present===*1906 – Oscar von Gebhardt, German theologian and academic (b.", "1844)*1911 – Thomas Wentworth Higginson, American abolitionist (b.", "1823)*1914 – C. W. Post, American businessman, founded Post Foods (b.", "1854)*1915 – François Faber, Luxembourgian-French cyclist and soldier (b.", "1887)*1915 – Anthony Wilding, New Zealand tennis player and cricketer (b.", "1883)*1918 – George Coșbuc, Romanian journalist and poet (b.", "1866)*1931 – Albert Abraham Michelson, German-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1852)*1933 – John Arthur Jarvis, English swimmer (b.", "1872)*1935 – Ernst Bresslau, German zoologist (b.", "1877)*1938 – Thomas B. Thrige, Danish businessman (b.", "1866)*1942 – Józef Cebula, Polish priest and saint (b.", "1902)*1944 – Han Yong-un, Korean poet and social reformer (b.", "1879)*1949 – Louis II, Prince of Monaco (b.", "1870)*1950 – Esteban Terradas i Illa, Spanish mathematician and engineer (b.", "1883)*1957 – Ernest de Silva, Sri Lankan banker and businessman (b.", "1887)* 1957 – Ezio Pinza, Italian actor and singer (b.", "1892)*1959 – Bhaurao Patil, Indian activist and educator (b.", "1887)*1965 – Leopold Figl, Austrian engineer and politician, 18th Chancellor of Austria (b.", "1902)*1968 – Mercedes de Acosta, American author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1893)* 1968 – Harold Gray, American cartoonist, created ''Little Orphan Annie'' (b.", "1894)* 1968 – Marion Lorne, American actress (b.", "1883)* 1968 – Finlay Currie, British actor (b.", "1878)*1970 – Walter Reuther, American union leader (b.", "1907)*1976 – Jens Bjørneboe, Norwegian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1920)* 1976 – Ulrike Meinhof, German militant, co-founded the Red Army Faction (b.", "1934)*1977 – James Jones, American novelist (b.", "1921)*1978 – Giuseppe Impastato, Italian journalist and activist (b.", "1948)* 1978 – Aldo Moro, Italian lawyer and politician, 38th Prime Minister of Italy (b.", "1916)*1979 – Cyrus S. Eaton, Canadian-American banker, businessman, and philanthropist (b.", "1883)* 1979 – Eddie Jefferson, American singer and lyricist (b.", "1918)*1980 – Kate Molale, South African activist (b.", "1928)*1981 – Nelson Algren, American novelist and short story writer (b.", "1909)*1983 – Henry Bachtold, Australian soldier and railway engineer (b.", "1891)*1985 – Edmond O'Brien, American actor and director (b.", "1915)*1986 – Tenzing Norgay, Nepalese mountaineer (b.", "1914)*1987 – Obafemi Awolowo, Nigerian lawyer and politician (b.", "1909)*1989 – Keith Whitley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1954)*1993 – Penelope Gilliatt, English novelist, short story writer, and critic (b.", "1932)*1994 – Elias Motsoaledi, South African activist (b.", "1924)*1997 – Rawya Ateya, Egyptian captain and politician (b.", "1926)* 1997 – Marco Ferreri, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1928)*1998 – Alice Faye, American actress and singer (b.", "1915)* 1998 – Talat Mahmood, Indian singer and actor (b.", "1924)*2003 – Russell B.", "Long, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1918)*2004 – Akhmad Kadyrov, Chechen cleric and politician, 1st President of the Chechen Republic (b.", "1951)* 2004 – Alan King, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1927)* 2004 – Brenda Fassie, South African singer (b.", "1964)*2007 – Dwight Wilson, Canadian soldier (b.", "1901)*2008 – Jack Gibson, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (b.", "1929)* 2008 – Baptiste Manzini, American football player (b.", "1920)* 2008 – Nuala O'Faolain, Irish journalist and producer (b.", "1942)* 2008 – Pascal Sevran, French singer, television host, and author (b.", "1945)*2009 – Chuck Daly, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1930)*2010 – Lena Horne, American singer, actress, and activist (b.", "1917)* 2010 – Otakar Motejl, Czech lawyer and politician (b.", "1932)*2011 – Wouter Weylandt, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1984)*2012 – Bertram Cohler, American psychologist, psychoanalyst, and academic (b.", "1938)* 2012 – Geoffrey Henry, Cook Islander lawyer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of the Cook Islands (b.", "1940)* 2012 – Vidal Sassoon, English-American hairdresser and businessman (b.", "1928)*2013 – Ramón Blanco Rodríguez, Spanish footballer and manager (b.", "1952)* 2013 – George M. Leader, American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (b.", "1918)* 2013 – Humberto Lugo Gil, Mexican lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of Hidalgo (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Ottavio Missoni, Italian hurdler and fashion designer, founded Missoni (b.", "1921)*2014 – Giacomo Bini, Italian priest and missionary (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Harlan Mathews, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Nedurumalli Janardhana Reddy, Indian politician, 12th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (b.", "1935)* 2014 – Mary Stewart, British author and poet (b.", "1916)*2015 – Edward W. Estlow, American football player and journalist (b.", "1920)* 2015 – Kenan Evren, Turkish general and politician, 7th President of Turkey (b.", "1917)* 2015 – Elizabeth Wilson, American actress (b.", "1921)*2017 – Robert Miles, a Swiss-born Italian record producer, composer, musician and DJ (b.", "1969)*2018 – Per Kirkeby, Danish painter, poet, film maker and sculptor (b.", "1938)*2019 – Freddie Starr, English comedian, impressionist, singer and actor (1943) *2020 – Little Richard, American singer, songwriter, and pianist (b.", "1932)*2022 – John Leo, American a writer and journalist (b.", "1935)* 2022 – Rieko Kodama, Japanese game developer (b.", "1963)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Beatus of Lungern**Beatus of Vendome**Christopher (Eastern Orthodox Church)**George Preca**Gerontius of Cervia**Gregory of Nazianzen (The Episcopal Church (US) and traditional Roman Catholic calendar)**Nicolaus Zinzendorf (Lutheran)**Pachomius the Great**Tudy of Landevennec**May 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Commemoration of the end of the German occupation of the Channel Islands related observances:**Liberation Day, commemorating the end of the German occupation of the Channel Islands during World War II.", "(Guernsey and Jersey)**National Day (Alderney)*Europe Day, commemorating the Schuman Declaration.", "(European Union, Kosovo, Moldova, Ukraine)*Victory Day observances, celebration of the Soviet Union victory over Nazi Germany (Soviet Union, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Serbia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan)**Victory and Peace Day, marks the capture of Shusha (1992) in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, and the end of World War II.", "(Armenia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 9" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Muay Thai" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Muay Thai''' (, , ), sometimes referred to as '''Thai boxing''', is a combat sport that uses stand-up striking, sweeps, and various clinching techniques.", "This discipline is known as the \"Art of eight limbs\", as it is characterised by the combined use of fists, elbows, knees and shins.", "Muay Thai became widespread internationally in the late 20th to 21st century, when Westernised practitioners from Thailand began competing in kickboxing and mixed-rules matches as well as matches under Muay Thai rules around the world.", "The professional league is governed by The Professional Boxing Association of Thailand (P.A.T.", "), sanctioned by The Sports Authority of Thailand (S.A.T.", ").Muay Thai is related to other martial art styles such as Muay Chaiya, Muay Boran, Muay Lao, Lethwei, Benjang and Tomoi.", "A practitioner of Muay Thai is known as a ''Nak Muay''.", "Western practitioners in Thailand are sometimes called ''Nak Muay Farang'', meaning \"foreign boxer\"." ], [ "History", "Local school children in Thailand demonstrate Muay Thai.The origin of Muay Thai is subject to scholarly debates.", "Some believe that Muay Thai ultimately originated from the Khmer pre-Angkorean martial art Bokator, while others maintain it originated in Thailand.", "Muay Thai is believed to have been developed by the Siamese army as a form of self-defence and it can be traced at least to the 16th century as a peace-time martial art practised by the soldiers of King Naresuan.", "An exhibition of Muay Thai was observed and reported by Simon de la Loubère, a French diplomat who was sent by King Louis XIV to the Kingdom of Siam in 1687, in his famous work and the Ayutthaya Kingdom Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767).", "Muay Boran and therefore Muay Thai, was originally called by more generic names such as ''Toi Muay'' or simply ''Muay''.", "As well as being a practical fighting technique for use in actual warfare, Muay became a sport in which the opponents fought in front of spectators who went to watch for entertainment.", "These Muay contests gradually became an integral part of local festivals and celebrations, especially those held at temples.", "Eventually, the previously bare-fisted fighters started wearing lengths of hemp rope around their hands and forearms.", "This type of match was called ''Muay Khat Chueak'' (มวยคาดเชือก).===19th century===Muay Boran during the reign of King ChulalongkornThe ascension of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) to the throne in 1868 ushered in a golden age not only for Muay but for the whole country of Thailand.", "Muay progressed greatly during the reign of Rama V as a direct result of the king's personal interest in the sport.", "The country was at peace and Muay functioned as a means of physical exercise, self-defense, attacking, recreation and personal advancement.===The modern era===1909–1910: King Chulalongkorn formalized ''Muay Boran'' (\"Ancient Boxing\") by awarding (in 1910) three ''Muen'' to victors at the funeral fights for his son (in 1909).", "The region style: Lopburi, Korat and Chaiya.1913: British boxing was introduced into the curriculum of the Suan Kulap College.", "The first descriptive use of the term \"Muay Thai\".1919: British boxing and Muay Thai were taught as one sport in the curriculum of the Suan Kulap College.", "Judo was also offered.1921: First permanent ring in Siam at Suan Kulap College.", "Used for both muay and British boxing.1923: Suan Sanuk Stadium.", "First international style three-rope ring with red and blue padded corners, near Lumpinee Park.", "Muay and British boxing.King Rama VII (r. 1925–1935) pushed for codified rules for Muay and they were put into place.", "Thailand's first boxing ring was built in 1921 at Suan Kulap.", "Referees were introduced and rounds were now timed by kick.", "Fighters at the Lumpinee Boxing Stadium began wearing modern gloves, as well as hard groin protectors, during training and in boxing matches against foreigners.", "Traditional rope-binding (''Khat Chueak'') made the hands a hardened, dangerous striking tool.", "The use of knots in the rope over the knuckles made the strikes more abrasive and damaging for the opponent while protecting the hands of the fighter.", "This rope-binding was still used in fights between Thais but after a death in the ring, it was decided that fighters should wear gloves and cotton coverlets over the feet and ankles.", "It was also around this time that the term \"Muay Thai\" became commonly used, while the older form of the style came to be known as \"Muay Boran\", which is now performed primarily as an exhibition art form.A Muay Boran demonstration, Lumpinee Boxing Stadium, BangkokMuay Thai was at the height of its popularity in the 1980s and 1990s.", "Top fighters commanded purses of up to 200,000 Baht and the stadia where gambling was legal drew big gates and big advertising revenues.", "In 2016, a payout to a superstar fighter was about 100,000 Baht per fight, but can range as high as 540,000 Baht for a bout.In 1993, the International Federation of Muay Thai Amateur, or IFMA was inaugurated.", "It became the governing body of amateur Muay Thai consisting of 128 member countries worldwide and is recognised by the Olympic Council of Asia.In 1995, the World Muaythai Council, the oldest and largest professional sanctioning organisations of muay Thai, was established by the Thai government and sanctioned by the Sports Authority of Thailand.In 1995, the World Muay Thai Federation was founded by the merger of two existing organisations, and established in Bangkok, becoming the federation governing international Muay Thai.", "In August 2012, it had over 70 member countries.", "Its president is elected at the World Muay Thai Congress.In 2006, Muay Thai was included in SportAccord with IFMA.", "One of the requirements of SportAccord was that no sport can have a name of a country in its name.", "As a result, an amendment was made in the IFMA constitution to change the name of the sport from \"Muay Thai\" to \"Muaythai\" – written as one word in accordance with Olympic requirements.Thai Fight in 2012In 2014, Muay Thai was included in the International World Games Association (IWGA) and was represented in the official programme of The World Games 2017 in Wrocław, Poland.In January 2015, Muay Thai was granted the patronage of the International University Sports Federation (FISU) and, from 16 to 23 March 2015, the first University World Muaythai Cup was held in Bangkok.In 2020, there are more than 3,800 Thai boxing gyms overseas.===Rules===According to IFMA rules, Muay Thai is a full contact martial art that uses the fists, elbows, knees and feet to strike an opponent.", "For a strike to count as a point score, it has to connect without being blocked by your opponent.", "Strikes do not score if they connect with your opponent's glove, forearm, shin or foot.", "Strikes to the groin were allowed in Muay Thai boxing until the late 1980s, and are still permitted in Thailand itself, and in club or competition events that abide to the traditional rules.", "While competitors do wear groin protection, such as cups, the rules for club level sparring and competition events may vary regarding the protective gear that may or may not be worn.", "Mixed-sex fights are not practiced at international level, but do occur in club and inter-club sparring and competition events.", "If the fight goes the distance and both fighters finish with the same score, then the winner is determined by which fighter landed the most full contact blows.=== Olympics ===Timeline of International Federation of Muaythai Associations (IFMA) from founding to International Olympic Committee (IOC) recognition:* 1992 – National Federation of Muaythai Associations founded.", "* 1995 – International Amateur Muay Thai Federation (IAMTF) founded.", "* 2012 – Official request for International Olympic Committee (IOC) recognition launched.", "* 2016 – First endorsement received.", "* 2017 – Muaythai is included in the World Games.", "* 2021 – On June 10, the IOC Board of Directors agreed on the full endorsement of IFMA at the 138th IOC General Assembly in Tokyo.", "* 2021 – On July 20, the IOC General Assembly granted full recognition to the International Federation of Muaythai Associations (IFMA) and Muaythai.", "* 2023 – On January 11, USA MuayThai has been officially approved by The United States Olympic and Paralympic Committee (USOPC) and was recognized by the organization’s committee as the newest member with a chance to build on the 2028 Olympic in the United States.", "* 2023 – The European Olympic Committees (EOC) had officially announced the inclusion of Muay Thai, or Thai-style boxing, at the 2023 European Games to be held in Krakow, Poland." ], [ "Traditional wear", "Fighters wearing ''mongkhon'' and ''pra jiad''The ''mongkhon'', or ''mongkol'' (headband), and ''pra jiad'' (armbands) are often worn into the ring before the match begins.", "They originated when Siam was in a constant state of war.", "Young men would tear off pieces of a loved one's clothing (often a mother's ''sarong'') and wear it in battle for good luck as well as to ward off harmful spirits.", "In modern times, the ''mongkol'' (lit.", "\"holy spirit\", \"luck\", \"protection\") is worn as a tribute to the fighter's gym.", "The ''mongkol'' is traditionally presented by a trainer to the fighter when he judges that the fighter is ready to represent the gym in the ring.", "Often, after the fighter has finished the ''wai kru'', the trainer will take the ''mongkol'' off his head and place it in his corner of the ring for luck.", "They were also used for protection.", "Whether the fighter is a Buddhist or not, it is common for them to bring the ''mongkol'' to a Buddhist monk who blesses it for good luck prior to stepping into the ring." ], [ "Techniques", "Formal Muay Thai techniques are divided into two groups: ''mae mai'' (แม่ไม้), or \"major techniques\", and ''luk mai'' (ลูกไม้), or \"minor techniques\".", "Muay Thai is often a fighting art of attrition, where opponents exchange blows with one another.", "This is certainly the case with traditional stylists in Thailand, but is a less popular form of fighting in the contemporary world fighting circuit where the Thai style of exchanging blow for blow is no longer favorable.", "Almost all techniques in Muay Thai use the entire body movement, rotating the hip with each kick, punch, elbow and block.===Punching (''Chok'')===Muay Thai match, BangkokEnglish Thai Romanization IPA '''Jab''' หมัดหน้า/หมัดแย็บ ''Mat na''/''Mat yaep'' '''Cross/Straight''' หมัดตรง ''Mat trong'' '''Hook/Swing''' หมัดเหวี่ยงสั้น ''Mat tawad/mat wiang san'' '''Overhand/Haymaker''' หมัดเหวี่ยงยาว ''Mat khork/mat wiang yao'' '''Backfist/Spinning Backfist''' หมัดเหวี่ยงกลับ ''Mat wiang klap/Mat clap lang/Kwang jag narai'' '''Uppercut''' หมัดเสย/หมัดสอยดาว ''Mat soei''/''Mat ngat'' , '''Superman punch/Cobra punch''' กระโดดชก ''Kradot chok'' The punch techniques in Muay Thai were originally quite limited, being crosses and a long (or lazy) circular strike made with a straight (but not locked) arm and landing with the heel of the palm.", "Cross-fertilisation with Western boxing and Western martial arts mean the full range of western boxing punches are now used: lead jab, straight/cross, hook, uppercut, shovel and corkscrew punches and overhands, as well as hammer fists and back fists.As a tactic, body punching is used less in Muay Thai than most other striking combat sports to avoid exposing the attacker's head to counter strikes from knees or elbows.", "To utilize the range of targeting points, in keeping with the centre line theory, the fighter can use either the Western or Thai stance which allows for either long range or short range attacks to be undertaken effectively without compromising guard.===Elbow (''Sok'')===Elbow (''Sok'') trainingThe elbow can be used in several ways as a striking weapon: horizontal, diagonal-upwards, diagonal-downwards, uppercut, downward, backward-spinning, and flying.", "From the side, it can be used as either a finishing move or as a way to cut the opponent's eyebrow so that blood might block his vision.", "The diagonal elbows are faster than the other forms but are less powerful.", "The elbow strike is considered the most dangerous form of attack in the sport.English Thai Romanization IPA '''Elbow slash''' ศอกตี (ศอกสับ) ''Sok ti'' '''Horizontal elbow''' ศอกตัด ''Sok tat'' '''Uppercut elbow''' ศอกงัด ''Sok ngat'' '''Forward elbow thrust''' ศอกพุ่ง ''Sok phung'' '''Reverse horizontal elbow''' ศอกเหวี่ยงกลับ (ศอกกระทุ้ง) ''Sok wiang klap'' '''Spinning elbow''' ศอกกลับ ''Sok klap'' '''Double elbow chop''' ศอกกลับคู่ ''Sok klap khu'' '''Mid-air elbow strike/Jump elbow chop''' กระโดดศอก ''Kradot sok'' Horizontal Elbow (''Sok tat'')There is a distinct difference between a single elbow and a follow-up elbow.", "The single elbow is a move independent from any other, whereas a follow-up elbow is the second strike from the same arm, being a hook or straight punch first with an elbow follow-up.", "Such elbows, and most other elbow strikes, are used when the distance between fighters becomes too small and there is too little space to throw a hook at the opponent's head.Elbows can be used to great effect as blocks or defences against, for example, spring knees, side body knees, body kicks or punches.", "When well connected, an elbow strike can cause serious damage to the opponent, including cuts or even a knockout.===Kicking (''Te'')===English Thai Romanization IPA '''Straight kick''' เตะตรง ''Te trong'' '''Roundhouse kick''' เตะตัด ''Te tat'' '''Diagonal kick''' เตะเฉียง ''Te chiang'' '''Half-shin, half-knee kick''' เตะครึ่งแข้งครึ่งเข่า ''Te khrueng khaeng khrueng khao'' '''Reverse roundhouse kick''' เตะกลับหลัง ''Te klap lang/Jorakhe faad hang'' '''Down roundhouse kick''' เตะกด ''Te kot'' '''Axe heel kick''' เตะเข่า ''Te khao'' '''Jump kick''' กระโดดเตะ ''Kradot te'' '''Step-up kick''' เขยิบเตะ ''Khayoep te/yiep te'' Kicking (''Te'')The two most common kicks in Muay Thai are known as the ''thip'' (literally \"foot jab\") and the ''te chiang'' (kicking upwards in the shape of a triangle cutting under the arm and ribs), or roundhouse kick.", "The Thai roundhouse kick uses a rotational movement of the entire body and has been widely adopted by practitioners of other combat sports.", "It is done from a circular stance with the back leg just a little ways back (roughly shoulder width apart) in comparison to instinctive upper body fighting (boxing) where the legs must create a wider base.", "The roundhouse kick draws its power almost entirely from the rotational movement of the hips, counter-rotation of the shoulders and arms are also often used to add torque to the lower body and increase the power of the kick as well.If a roundhouse kick is attempted by the opponent, the Thai boxer will normally check the kick, that is, he will block the kick with the outside of his lower leg.", "Thai boxers are trained to always connect with the shin.", "The foot contains many fine bones and is much weaker.", "A fighter may end up hurting himself if he tries to strike with his foot or instep.", "Shins are trained by repeatedly striking firm objects, such as pads or heavy bags.===Knee (''Ti Khao'')===Knee (''Ti Khao'') trainingEnglish Thai Romanization IPA '''Straight knee strike''' เข่าตรง ''Khao trong'' '''Diagonal knee strike''' เข่าเฉียง ''Khao chiang'' '''Curving knee strike''' เข่าโค้ง ''Khao khong'' '''Horizontal knee strike''' เข่าตัด ''Khao tat'' '''Knee slap''' เข่าตบ ''Khao ti/khao top'' '''Knee bomb''' เข่ายาว ''Khao yao'' '''Flying knee''' เข่าลอย ''Khao loi'' '''Step-up knee strike''' เข่าเหยียบ ''Khao yiap'' *''Khao dot'' (Jumping knee strike) – the boxer jumps up on one leg and strikes with that leg's knee.", "*''Khao loi'' (Flying knee strike) – the boxer takes a step(s), jumps forward and off one leg and strikes with that leg's knee.", "*''Khao thon'' (Straight knee strike) – the boxer simply thrusts it forward but not upwards, unless he is holding an opponent's head down in a clinch and intend to knee upwards into the face.", "According to one written source, this technique is somewhat more recent than ''khao dot'' or ''khao loi''.", "Supposedly, when the Thai boxers fought with rope-bound hands rather than the modern boxing gloves, this particular technique was subject to potentially vicious cutting, slicing and sawing by an alert opponent who would block it or deflect it with the sharp \"rope-glove\" edges which are sometimes dipped in water to make the rope much stronger.", "This explanation also holds true for some of the following knee strikes below as well.===Foot-thrust (''Teep'')=== One fighter executes a Muay Thai foot-thrust (''Thip'') kick against her opponent in a women's amateur muay Thai match.The foot-thrust, or literally, \"foot jab\", is one of the techniques in Muay Thai.", "It is mainly used as a defensive technique to control distance or block attacks.", "Foot-thrusts should be thrown quickly but with enough force to knock an opponent off balance.English Thai Romanization IPA '''Straight foot-thrust''' ถีบตรง ''Thip trong'' '''Sideways foot-thrust''' ถีบข้าง ''Thip khang'' '''Reverse foot-thrust''' ถีบกลับหลัง ''Thip klap lang'' '''Slapping foot-thrust''' ถีบตบ ''Thip top'' '''Jumping foot-thrust''' กระโดดถีบ ''Kradot thip'' ===Clinch and neck wrestling (''Chap kho'')===Ram Muay, rituals before the matchIn Western boxing, the two fighters are separated when they clinch; in muay Thai, however, they are not.", "It is often in the clinch that knee and elbow techniques are used.", "To strike and bind the opponent for both offensive and defensive purposes, small amounts of stand-up grappling are used in the clinch.", "The front clinch should be performed with the palm of one hand on the back of the other.", "There are three reasons why the fingers must not be intertwined.", "1) In the ring fighters are wearing boxing gloves and cannot intertwine their fingers.", "2) The Thai front clinch involves pressing the head of the opponent downwards, which is easier if the hands are locked behind the back of the head instead of behind the neck.", "Furthermore, the arms should be putting as much pressure on the neck as possible.", "3) A fighter may incur an injury to one or more fingers if they are intertwined, and it becomes more difficult to release the grip in order to quickly elbow the opponent's head.A correct clinch also involves the fighter's forearms pressing against the opponent's collar bone while the hands are around the opponent's head rather than the opponent's neck.", "The general way to get out of a clinch is to push the opponent's head backward or elbow them, as the clinch requires both participants to be very close to one another.", "Additionally, the non-dominant clincher can try to \"swim\" their arm underneath and inside the opponent's clinch, establishing the previously non-dominant clincher as the dominant clincher.Muay Thai has several other variants of the clinch or ''chap kho'' , including:*Arm clinch: One or both hands controls the inside of the defender's arm(s) and where the second hand if free is in the front clinch position.", "This clinch is used to briefly control the opponent before applying a knee strike or throw.", "*Side clinch: One arm passes around the front of the defender with the attacker's shoulder pressed into the defender's arm pit and the other arm passing round the back which allows the attacker to apply knee strikes to the defender's back or to throw the defender readily.", "*Low clinch: Both controlling arms pass under the defender's arms, which is generally used by the shorter of two opponents.", "*Swan-neck: One hand around the rear of the neck is used to briefly clinch an opponent before a strike.===Defence against attacks===Praying before the matchDefences in muay Thai are categorised in six groups:*Blocking – defender's hard blocks to stop a strike in its path so preventing it reaching its target (e.g.", "the shin block described in more detail below)* Parry/block – '''Parrying''' or '''blocking''' uses the kickboxer's hands as defensive tools to deflect incoming attacks.", "As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer delivers a sharp, lateral, open-handed blow to the opponent's wrist or forearm, redirecting the punch.", "*Avoidance – moving a body part out of the way or range of a strike so the defender remains in range for a counter-strike.", "For example, the defender moves their front leg backward to avoid the attacker's low kick, then immediately counters with a roundhouse kick.", "Or the defender might lay their head back from the attacker's high roundhouse kick then counter-attack with a side kick.", "*Evasion – moving the body out of the way or range of a strike so the defender has to move close again to counter-attack, e.g.", "defender jumping laterally or back from attacker's kicks*Disruption – Pre-empting an attack e.g.", "with defender using disruptive techniques like jab, foot-thrust or low roundhouse kick, generally called a \"leg kick\" (to the outside or inside of the attacker's front leg, just above the knee) as the attacker attempts to close distance*Anticipation – Defender catching a strike (e.g., catching a roundhouse kick to the body) or countering it before it lands (e.g., defender's low kick to the supporting leg below as the attacker initiates a high roundhouse kick).====Defences in practice====Defensively, the concept of \"wall of defence\" is used, in which shoulders, arms and legs are used to hinder the attacker from successfully executing techniques.", "Blocking is a critical element in muay Thai and compounds the level of conditioning a successful practitioner must possess.", "Low and mid body roundhouse kicks are normally blocked with the upper portion of a raised shin (this block is known as a \"check\").", "High body strikes are blocked ideally with the forearms and shoulder together, or if enough time is allowed for a parry, the glove (elusively), elbow, or shin will be used.", "Midsection roundhouse kicks can also be caught/trapped, allowing for a sweep or counter-attack to the remaining leg of the opponent.", "Punches are blocked with an ordinary boxing guard and techniques similar, if not identical, to basic boxing technique.", "A common means of blocking a punch is using the hand on the same side as the oncoming punch.", "For example, if an orthodox fighter throws a jab (being the left hand), the defender will make a slight tap to redirect the punch's angle with the right hand.", "The deflection is always as small and precise as possible to avoid unnecessary energy expenditure and return the hand to the guard as quickly as possible.", "Hooks are often blocked with a motion sometimes described as \"combing the hair\", that is, raising the elbow forward and effectively shielding the head with the forearm, flexed biceps and shoulder.", "More advanced muay Thai blocks are usually in the form of counter-strikes, using the opponent's weight (as they strike) to amplify the damage that the countering opponent can deliver.", "This requires impeccable timing and thus can generally only be learned by many repetitions." ], [ "Child boxers", "In Thailand, children often start practicing Muay Thai and perform in the ring from the age of 5.In 2016, 9,998 children under the age of 15 were registered with Board of Boxing under the Sport Authority of Thailand, according to the Child Safety Promotion and Injury Prevention Research Centre (CSIP).", "Some estimates put the number of child boxers nationwide at between 200,000 and 300,000, some as young as four years old.The Advanced Diagnostic Imaging Centre (AIMC) at Ramathibodi Hospital studied 300 child boxers aged under 15 with two to more than five years of experience, as well as 200 children who do not box.", "The findings show that child boxers not only sustain brain injuries, they also have a lower IQ, about 10 points lower than average levels.", "Moreover, IQ levels correlate with the length of their training.", "Beyond brain damage, the death of young fighters in the ring sometimes occurs.Child boxerAdisak Plitapolkarnpim, director of CSIP, was indirectly quoted (in 2016) as having said that muay Thai practitioners \"younger than 15 years old are being urged to avoid 'head contact' to reduce the risk of brain injuries, while children aged under nine should be banned from the combat fight\"; furthermore, the Boxing Act's minimum age to compete professionally was largely being flouted; furthermore, quoted indirectly, \"Boxers aged between 13 and 15\" should still be permitted to compete, but \"with light contact to the head and face\".", "He said that \"spectators and a change in the boxing rules can play a vital role in preventing child boxers from suffering brain injuries, abnormality in brain structure, Parkinson's disease and early-onset Alzheimer's later in life...Children aged between nine and 15 can take part in Thai boxing, but direct head contact must not be allowed\".", "Referring to ''Findings of 2014 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour'' as published by the US Department of Labor's Bureau of International Labor Affairs, he said, \"We know Muay Thai paid fighters have been exploited in the past like child labourers and the matter still remains a serious concern.", "\"At the 13th World Conference on Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion in 2018, it was revealed that up to three percent of the upcoming generation will grow up with learning disabilities unless an amendment is ratified that bans children under 12 from participating in boxing matches.", "International pediatricians have called on lawmakers in Thailand to help." ], [ "Injuries", "Muay Thai is a combat sport that utilises eight different parts of the body (fists, elbows, knees and shins) so injuries are quite common in all levels of muay Thai.", "An injury is considered reportable if it requires the athlete to rest for more than one day.", "Many injuries in the sport go unreported as the fighters may not notice the injuries at first, refuse to admit that they need treatment, have a heightened pain threshold, fear that their instructor will perceive the injury negatively, or have confusion as to what is an injury.", "Similar to most sports, injury rates tend to be higher in beginners than amateurs and professionals.", "Soft tissue injuries are the most common form of injury in muay Thai, comprising between 80 and 90% of all injuries.", "These injuries are caused by repeated trauma to soft parts of the body.", "During matches there is little to no padding, leaving soft tissue vulnerable to strikes.", "The second most common injuries among beginners and amateurs are sprains and strains.", "It appears that these injuries can be easily avoided or reduced.", "Many participants of a study admitted to inadequate warm up before the event of the injury.", "The third most common injuries are fractures.", "Fractures are more commonly seen with amateur and professional fighters, because they are allowed full contact, while beginners are not.", "The most common sites for fractures are the nose, carpal bones, metacarpals, digits and ribs.", "The distribution of injuries differs significantly for beginners, amateurs and professionals, because as a fighter progresses through the different levels, the forces involved grow progressively higher, less padding and protective equipment is used, and athletes are likely to train harder, resulting in more serious injuries among experienced fighters." ], [ "Gambling", "Thai boxer during a fight on Koh SamuiAccording to a ''Bangkok Post'' columnist, \"...Thai professional boxing is all about gambling and big money.", "Gambling on muay Thai boxing is estimated to worth about 40 billion baht a year....all the talk about the promotion of Thai martial arts is just baloney.\"", "Rob Cox, the manager of a boxing camp just east of Bangkok claims that \"Without the gamblers, the sport would pretty much be dead.", "They're killing it off, but they're also keeping it alive\".The practice of fixing fights is not unknown.", "Boxers can earn from 60,000 to 150,000 baht for purposefully losing a fight.", "A fighter, later arrested, who threw a fight at Rajadamnern Stadium in December 2019, is an example.", "An infamous alleged case of match-fixing was the bout on 12 October 2014 in Pattaya between top Thai boxer Buakaw Banchamek and his challenger, Enriko Kehl, at the K-1 World Max Final event." ], [ "Folklore", "An urban legend started being told by Thai people in 1767 around the time of the fall of the ancient Siamese capital of Ayutthaya, when the invading Burmese troops rounded up thousands of Siamese citizens.", "They then organised a seven-day, seven-night religious festival in honour of Buddha's relics.", "The festivities included many forms of entertainment, such as costume plays, comedies and sword fighting matches.", "According to the folklore story, at one point, King Mangra wanted to see how Thai fighters would compare to his fighters.", "Nai Khanomtom was selected to fight against the King's chosen champion and the boxing ring was set up in front of the throne.", "When the fight began, Nai Khanomtom charged out, using punches, kicks, elbows and knees to pummel his opponent until he collapsed.", "The King supposedly asked if Nai Khanomtom would fight nine other Burmese champions to prove himself.", "He agreed and fought one after the other with no rest periods.", "His last opponent was a great kickboxing teacher from Rakhine State whom Nai Khanomtom defeated with kicks.Every year on March 17, Thailand celebrates ''Nai Khanom Tom'' day.King Mangra was so impressed that he allegedly remarked, \"Every part of the Siamese is blessed with venom.", "Even with his bare hands, he can fell nine or ten opponents.", "But his Lord was incompetent and lost the country to the enemy.", "If he had been any good, there was no way the City of Ayutthaya would ever have fallen.", "\"To commemorate the story of Nai Khanom Tom, the Muay Thai Festival and Wai Khru Muay Thai Ceremony are staged annually every year on March 17." ], [ "Conditioning", "Like most full contact fighting sports, muay Thai has a heavy focus on body conditioning.", "This can create a steep learning curve for newcomers to muay Thai but allows for rapid increases in fitness and stamina provided one avoids overtraining.", "Training regimens include many staples of combat sport conditioning such as running, shadowboxing, rope jumping, body weight resistance exercises, medicine ball exercises, abdominal exercises and, in some cases, weight training.", "Thai boxers rely heavily on kicks utilising the shin bone.", "As such, practitioners will repeatedly hit a dense heavy bag with their shins, conditioning it, hardening the bone through a process called cortical remodelling.", "Striking a sand-filled bag will have the same effect.A fighter punching a heavy bag at a training camp in ThailandTraining specific to a Thai fighter includes training with coaches on Thai pads, focus mitts, heavy bag, and sparring.", "Daily training includes many rounds (3–5 minute periods broken up by a short rest, often 1–2 minutes) of these various methods of practice.", "Thai pad training is a cornerstone of muay Thai conditioning that involves practicing punches, kicks, knees, and elbow strikes with a trainer wearing thick pads covering the forearms and hands.", "These special pads (often referred to as Thai pads) are used to absorb the impact of the fighter's strikes and allow the fighter to react to the attacks of the pad holder in a live situation.", "The trainer will often also wear a belly pad around the abdominal area so that the fighter can attack with straight kicks or knees to the body at any time during the round.Focus mitts are specific to training a fighter's hand speed, punch combinations, timing, punching power, defence and counter-punching and may also be used to practice elbow strikes.", "Heavy bag training is a conditioning and power exercise that reinforces the techniques practiced on the pads.", "Sparring is a means to test technique, skills, range, strategy and timing against a partner.", "Sparring is often a light to medium contact exercise because competitive fighters on a full schedule are not advised to risk injury by sparring hard.", "Specific tactics and strategies can be trained with sparring including in close fighting, clinching and kneeing only, cutting off the ring, or using reach and distance to keep an aggressive fighter away.Due to the rigorous training regimen (some Thai boxers fight almost every other week), professional boxers in Thailand have relatively short careers in the ring.", "Many retire from competition to begin instructing the next generation of Thai fighters.", "Most professional Thai boxers come from lower economic backgrounds, and the purse (after other parties have their cut) is sought as a means of support for the fighters and their families.", "Very few higher economic strata Thais join the professional muay Thai ranks; they usually either do not practice the sport or practice it only as amateur boxers." ], [ "Famous practitioners" ], [ "In popular culture" ], [ "See also", "*Muay Boran*Muay Chaiya*Muay Lerdrit*Wai khru ram muay*Pra Jiad*Mongkhon*Krabi–krabong" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** ''Muay Thai The Essential Guide To The Art of Thai Boxing''.", "Tony Moore.", "New Holland.", ".", "******Wei, Lindsey (2020) ''Path of the Spiritual Warrior: Life and Teachings of Muay Thai Fighter Pedro Solana''.", "Auckland: Purple Cloud Press," ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mao Zedong" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mao Zedong''' (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese politician, Marxist theorist, military strategist, poet, and revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC).", "He led the country from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976, while also serving as the chairman of the Chinese Communist Party during that time.", "His theories, military strategies and policies are known as Maoism.Mao was the son of a prosperous peasant in Shaoshan, Hunan.", "He supported Chinese nationalism and had an anti-imperialist outlook early in his life, and was particularly influenced by the events of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 and May Fourth Movement of 1919.He later adopted Marxism–Leninism while working at Peking University as a librarian and became a founding member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), leading the Autumn Harvest Uprising in 1927.During the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the CCP, Mao helped to found the Chinese Red Army, led the Jiangxi Soviet's radical land reform policies, and ultimately became head of the CCP during the Long March.", "Although the CCP temporarily allied with the KMT under the Second United Front during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), China's civil war resumed after Japan's surrender, and Mao's forces defeated the Nationalist government, which withdrew to Taiwan in 1949.On 1 October 1949, Mao proclaimed the foundation of the PRC, a Marxist–Leninist single-party state controlled by the CCP.", "In the following years he solidified his control through the land reform campaign against landlords, the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, the \"Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns\", and through a truce in the Korean War, which altogether resulted in the deaths of several million Chinese.", "From 1953 to 1958, Mao played an important role in enforcing command economy in China, constructing the first Constitution of the PRC, launching an industrialisation program, and initiating military projects such as the \"Two Bombs, One Satellite\" project and Project 523.His foreign policies during this time were dominated by the Sino-Soviet split which drove a wedge between China and the Soviet Union.", "In 1955, Mao launched the Sufan movement, and in 1957 he launched the Anti-Rightist Campaign, in which at least 550,000 people, mostly intellectuals and dissidents, were persecuted.", "In 1958, he launched the Great Leap Forward that aimed to rapidly transform China's economy from agrarian to industrial, which led to the Great Chinese Famine and the deaths of 15–55 million people between 1958 and 1962.In 1963, Mao launched the Socialist Education Movement, and in 1966 he initiated the Cultural Revolution, a program to remove \"counter-revolutionary\" elements in Chinese society which lasted 10 years and was marked by violent class struggle, widespread destruction of cultural artifacts, and an unprecedented elevation of Mao's cult of personality.", "Tens of millions of people were persecuted during the Revolution, while the estimated number of deaths ranges from hundreds of thousands to millions.", "After years of ill health, Mao suffered a series of heart attacks in 1976 and died at the age of 82.During the Mao era, China's population grew from around 550 million to over 900 million while the government did not strictly enforce its family planning policy.", "During his leadership tenure, China was heavily involved with other Asian communist conflicts such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Cambodian Civil War.Mao is considered one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.", "Mao has been credited with transforming China from a semi-colony to a leading world power, with advanced literacy, women's rights, basic healthcare, primary education and improved life expectancy.", "Mao's policies were responsible for vast numbers of deaths, with estimates ranging from 40 to 80 million victims due to starvation, persecution, prison labour, and mass executions, and his government was described as totalitarian.", "He became an ideological figurehead and a prominent influence over the international communist movement, being endowed with remembrance, admiration and cult of personality both during and after his life." ], [ "English romanisation of name", "During Mao's lifetime, the English-language media universally rendered his name as Mao Tse-tung, using the Wade–Giles system of transliteration for Standard Chinese though with the circumflex accent in the syllable ''Tsê'' dropped.", "Due to its recognizability, the spelling was used widely, even by the PRC's foreign ministry after Hanyu Pinyin became the PRC's official romanisation system for Mandarin Chinese in 1958; the well-known booklet of Mao's political statements, ''The Little Red Book'', was officially entitled ''Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung'' in English translations.", "While the pinyin-derived spelling ''Mao Zedong'' is increasingly common, the Wade–Giles-derived spelling ''Mao Tse-tung'' continues to be used in modern publications to some extent." ], [ "Early life", "=== Youth and the Xinhai Revolution: 1893–1911 ===Mao Zedong Mao Zedong was born on 26 December 1893, near Shaoshan village in Hunan.", "His father, Mao Yichang, was a formerly impoverished peasant who had become one of the wealthiest farmers in Shaoshan.", "Growing up in rural Hunan, Mao described his father as a stern disciplinarian, who would beat him and his three siblings, the boys Zemin and Zetan, as well as an adopted girl, Zejian.", "Mao's mother, Wen Qimei, was a devout Buddhist who tried to temper her husband's strict attitude.", "Mao too became a Buddhist, but abandoned this faith in his mid-teenage years.", "At age 8, Mao was sent to Shaoshan Primary School.", "Learning the value systems of Confucianism, he later admitted that he did not enjoy the classical Chinese texts preaching Confucian morals, instead favouring classic novels like ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Water Margin''.", "At age 13, Mao finished primary education, and his father united him in an arranged marriage to the 17-year-old Luo Yixiu, thereby uniting their land-owning families.", "Mao refused to recognise her as his wife, becoming a fierce critic of arranged marriage and temporarily moving away.", "Luo was locally disgraced and died in 1910 at 21 years old.Mao Zedong's childhood home in Shaoshan, in 2010, by which time it had become a tourist destinationWhile working on his father's farm, Mao read voraciously and developed a \"political consciousness\" from Zheng Guanying's booklet which lamented the deterioration of Chinese power and argued for the adoption of representative democracy.", "Mao also read translations of works by Western authors including Adam Smith, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Charles Darwin, and Thomas Huxley.", "Interested in history, Mao was inspired by the military prowess and nationalistic fervour of George Washington and Napoleon Bonaparte.", "His political views were shaped by Gelaohui-led protests which erupted following a famine in Changsha, the capital of Hunan; Mao supported the protesters' demands, but the armed forces suppressed the dissenters and executed their leaders.", "The famine spread to Shaoshan, where starving peasants seized his father's grain.", "He disapproved of their actions as morally wrong, but claimed sympathy for their situation.", "At age 16, Mao moved to a higher primary school in nearby Dongshan, where he was bullied for his peasant background.In 1911, Mao began middle school in Changsha.", "Revolutionary sentiment was strong in the city, where there was widespread animosity towards Emperor Puyi's absolute monarchy and many were advocating republicanism.", "The republicans' figurehead was Sun Yat-sen, an American-educated Christian who led the Tongmenghui society.", "In Changsha, Mao was influenced by Sun's newspaper, ''The People's Independence'' (''Minli bao''), and called for Sun to become president in a school essay.", "As a symbol of rebellion against the Manchu monarch, Mao and a friend cut off their queue pigtails, a sign of subservience to the emperor.Inspired by Sun's republicanism, the army rose up across southern China, sparking the Xinhai Revolution.", "Changsha's governor fled, leaving the city in republican control.", "Supporting the revolution, Mao joined the rebel army as a private soldier, but was not involved in fighting or combat.", "The northern provinces remained loyal to the emperor, and hoping to avoid a civil war, Sun—proclaimed \"provisional president\" by his supporters—compromised with the monarchist general Yuan Shikai.", "The monarchy was abolished, creating the Republic of China, but the monarchist Yuan became president.", "The revolution over, Mao resigned from the army in 1912, after six months as a soldier.", "Around this time, Mao discovered socialism from a newspaper article; proceeding to read pamphlets by Jiang Kanghu, the student founder of the Chinese Socialist Party, Mao remained interested yet unconvinced by the idea.=== Fourth Normal School of Changsha: 1912–1919 ===Over the next few years, Mao Zedong enrolled and dropped out of a police academy, a soap-production school, a law school, an economics school, and the government-run Changsha Middle School.", "Studying independently, he spent much time in Changsha's library, reading core works of classical liberalism such as Adam Smith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' and Montesquieu's ''The Spirit of the Laws'', as well as the works of western scientists and philosophers such as Darwin, Mill, Rousseau, and Spencer.", "Viewing himself as an intellectual, years later he admitted that at this time he thought himself better than working people.", "He was inspired by Friedrich Paulsen, a neo-Kantian philosopher and educator whose emphasis on the achievement of a carefully defined goal as the highest value led Mao to believe that strong individuals were not bound by moral codes but should strive for a great goal.", "His father saw no use in his son's intellectual pursuits, cut off his allowance and forced him to move into a hostel for the destitute.Mao in 1913Mao wanted to become a teacher and enrolled at the Fourth Normal School of Changsha, which soon merged with the First Normal School of Hunan, widely seen as the best in Hunan.", "Befriending Mao, professor Yang Changji urged him to read a radical newspaper, ''New Youth'' (''Xin qingnian''), the creation of his friend Chen Duxiu, a dean at Peking University.", "Although he was a supporter of Chinese nationalism, Chen argued that China must look to the west to cleanse itself of superstition and autocracy.", "In his first school year, Mao befriended an older student, Xiao Zisheng; together they went on a walking tour of Hunan, begging and writing literary couplets to obtain food.A popular student, in 1915 Mao was elected secretary of the Students Society.", "He organised the Association for Student Self-Government and led protests against school rules.", "Mao published his first article in ''New Youth'' in April 1917, instructing readers to increase their physical strength to serve the revolution.", "He joined the Society for the Study of Wang Fuzhi (''Chuan-shan Hsüeh-she''), a revolutionary group founded by Changsha literati who wished to emulate the philosopher Wang Fuzhi.", "In spring 1917, he was elected to command the students' volunteer army, set up to defend the school from marauding soldiers.", "Increasingly interested in the techniques of war, he took a keen interest in World War I, and also began to develop a sense of solidarity with workers.", "Mao undertook feats of physical endurance with Xiao Zisheng and Cai Hesen, and with other young revolutionaries they formed the Renovation of the People Study Society in April 1918 to debate Chen Duxiu's ideas.", "Desiring personal and societal transformation, the Society gained 70–80 members, many of whom would later join the Communist Party.", "Mao graduated in June 1919, ranked third in the year." ], [ "Early revolutionary activity", "=== Beijing, anarchism, and Marxism: 1917–1919 ===Mao Zedong in 1924Mao moved to Beijing, where his mentor Yang Changji had taken a job at Peking University.", "Yang thought Mao exceptionally \"intelligent and handsome\", securing him a job as assistant to the university librarian Li Dazhao, who would become an early Chinese Communist.", "Li authored a series of ''New Youth'' articles on the October Revolution in Russia, during which the Communist Bolshevik Party under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin had seized power.", "Lenin was an advocate of the socio-political theory of Marxism, first developed by the German sociologists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and Li's articles added Marxism to the doctrines in Chinese revolutionary movement.Becoming \"more and more radical\", Mao was initially influenced by Peter Kropotkin's anarchism, which was the most prominent radical doctrine of the day.", "Chinese anarchists, such as Cai Yuanpei, Chancellor of Peking University, called for complete social revolution in social relations, family structure, and women's equality, rather than the simple change in the form of government called for by earlier revolutionaries.", "He joined Li's Study Group and \"developed rapidly toward Marxism\" during the winter of 1919.Paid a low wage, Mao lived in a cramped room with seven other Hunanese students, but believed that Beijing's beauty offered \"vivid and living compensation\".", "A number of his friends took advantage of the anarchist-organised ''Mouvement Travail-Études'' to study in France, but Mao declined, perhaps because of an inability to learn languages.", "Mao raised funds for the movement, however.At the university, Mao was snubbed by other students due to his rural Hunanese accent and lowly position.", "He joined the university's Philosophy and Journalism Societies and attended lectures and seminars by the likes of Chen Duxiu, Hu Shih, and Qian Xuantong.", "Mao's time in Beijing ended in the spring of 1919, when he travelled to Shanghai with friends who were preparing to leave for France.", "He did not return to Shaoshan, where his mother was terminally ill. She died in October 1919 and her husband died in January 1920.=== New Culture and political protests: 1919–1920 ===Mao Zedong in 1919On 4 May 1919, students in Beijing gathered at Tiananmen to protest the Chinese government's weak resistance to Japanese expansion in China.", "Patriots were outraged at the influence given to Japan in the Twenty-One Demands in 1915, the complicity of Duan Qirui's Beiyang government, and the betrayal of China in the Treaty of Versailles, wherein Japan was allowed to receive territories in Shandong which had been surrendered by Germany.", "These demonstrations ignited the nationwide May Fourth Movement and fuelled the New Culture Movement which blamed China's diplomatic defeats on social and cultural backwardness.In Changsha, Mao had begun teaching history at the Xiuye Primary School and organising protests against the pro-Duan Governor of Hunan Province, Zhang Jingyao, popularly known as \"Zhang the Venomous\" due to his corrupt and violent rule.", "In late May, Mao co-founded the Hunanese Student Association with He Shuheng and Deng Zhongxia, organising a student strike for June and in July 1919 began production of a weekly radical magazine, ''Xiang River Review''.", "Using vernacular language that would be understandable to the majority of China's populace, he advocated the need for a \"Great Union of the Popular Masses\", and strengthened trade unions able to wage non-violent revolution.", "His ideas were not Marxist, but heavily influenced by Kropotkin's concept of mutual aid.Students in Beijing rallying during the May Fourth MovementZhang banned the Student Association, but Mao continued publishing after assuming editorship of the liberal magazine ''New Hunan'' (''Xin Hunan'') and authored articles in popular local newspaper ''Ta Kung Pao''.", "Several of these advocated feminist views, calling for the liberation of women in Chinese society; Mao was influenced by his forced arranged-marriage.", "In fall 1919, Mao organized a seminar in Changsha studying economic and political issues, as well as ways to unite the people, the feasibility of socialism, and issues regarding Confucianism.", "During this period, Mao involved himself in political work with manual laborers, setting up night schools and trade unions.", "In December 1919, Mao helped organise a general strike in Hunan, securing some concessions, but Mao and other student leaders felt threatened by Zhang, and Mao returned to Beijing, visiting the terminally ill Yang Changji.", "Mao found that his articles had achieved a level of fame among the revolutionary movement, and set about soliciting support in overthrowing Zhang.", "Coming across newly translated Marxist literature by Thomas Kirkup, Karl Kautsky, and Marx and Engels—notably ''The Communist Manifesto''—he came under their increasing influence, but was still eclectic in his views.Mao visited Tianjin, Jinan, and Qufu, before moving to Shanghai, where he worked as a laundryman and met Chen Duxiu, noting that Chen's adoption of Marxism \"deeply impressed me at what was probably a critical period in my life\".", "In Shanghai, Mao met an old teacher of his, Yi Peiji, a revolutionary and member of the Kuomintang (KMT), or Chinese Nationalist Party, which was gaining increasing support and influence.", "Yi introduced Mao to General Tan Yankai, a senior KMT member who held the loyalty of troops stationed along the Hunanese border with Guangdong.", "Tan was plotting to overthrow Zhang, and Mao aided him by organising the Changsha students.", "In June 1920, Tan led his troops into Changsha, and Zhang fled.", "In the subsequent reorganisation of the provincial administration, Mao was appointed headmaster of the junior section of the First Normal School.", "Now receiving a large income, he married Yang Kaihui, daughter of Yang Changji, in the winter of 1920.=== Founding the Chinese Communist Party: 1921–1922 ===Location of the first Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in July 1921, in Xintiandi, former French Concession, ShanghaiThe Chinese Communist Party was founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in the Shanghai French Concession in 1921 as a study society and informal network.", "Mao set up a Changsha branch, also establishing a branch of the Socialist Youth Corps and a Cultural Book Society which opened a bookstore to propagate revolutionary literature throughout Hunan.", "He was involved in the movement for Hunan autonomy, in the hope that a Hunanese constitution would increase civil liberties and make his revolutionary activity easier.", "When the movement was successful in establishing provincial autonomy under a new warlord, Mao forgot his involvement.", "By 1921, small Marxist groups existed in Shanghai, Beijing, Changsha, Wuhan, Guangzhou, and Jinan; it was decided to hold a central meeting, which began in Shanghai on 23 July 1921.The first session of the National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party was attended by 13 delegates, Mao included.", "After the authorities sent a police spy to the congress, the delegates moved to a boat on South Lake near Jiaxing, in Zhejiang, to escape detection.", "Although Soviet and Comintern delegates attended, the first congress ignored Lenin's advice to accept a temporary alliance between the Communists and the \"bourgeois democrats\" who also advocated national revolution; instead they stuck to the orthodox Marxist belief that only the urban proletariat could lead a socialist revolution.Mao was party secretary for Hunan stationed in Changsha, and to build the party there he followed a variety of tactics.", "In August 1921, he founded the Self-Study University, through which readers could gain access to revolutionary literature, housed in the premises of the Society for the Study of Wang Fuzhi, a Qing dynasty Hunanese philosopher who had resisted the Manchus.", "He joined the YMCA Mass Education Movement to fight illiteracy, though he edited the textbooks to include radical sentiments.", "He continued organising workers to strike against the administration of Hunan Governor Zhao Hengti.", "Yet labour issues remained central.", "The successful and famous (contrary to later Party historians) depended on both \"proletarian\" and \"bourgeois\" strategies.", "Liu Shaoqi and Li Lisan and Mao not only mobilised the miners, but formed schools and cooperatives and engaged local intellectuals, gentry, military officers, merchants, Red Gang dragon heads and even church clergy.", "Mao's labour organizing work in the Anyuan mines also involved his wife Yang Kaihui, who worked for women's rights, including literacy and educational issues, in the nearby peasant communities.", "Although Mao and Yang were not the originators of this political organizing method of combining labor organizing among male workers with a focus on women's rights issues in their communities, they were among the most effective at using this method.", "Mao's political organizing success in the Anyuan mines resulted in Chen Duxiu inviting him to become a member of the Communist Party's Central Committee.Mao claimed that he missed the July 1922 Second Congress of the Communist Party in Shanghai because he lost the address.", "Adopting Lenin's advice, the delegates agreed to an alliance with the \"bourgeois democrats\" of the KMT for the good of the \"national revolution\".", "Communist Party members joined the KMT, hoping to push its politics leftward.Mao enthusiastically agreed with this decision, arguing for an alliance across China's socio-economic classes, and eventually rose to become propaganda chief of the KMT.", "Mao was a vocal anti-imperialist and in his writings he lambasted the governments of Japan, the UK and US, describing the latter as \"the most murderous of hangmen\".=== Collaboration with the Kuomintang: 1922–1927 ===Mao giving a speech (no audio)At the Third Congress of the Communist Party in Shanghai in June 1923, the delegates reaffirmed their commitment to working with the KMT.", "Supporting this position, Mao was elected to the Party Committee, taking up residence in Shanghai.", "At the First KMT Congress, held in Guangzhou in early 1924, Mao was elected an alternate member of the KMT Central Executive Committee, and put forward four resolutions to decentralise power to urban and rural bureaus.", "His enthusiastic support for the KMT earned him the suspicion of Li Li-san, his Hunan comrade.In late 1924, Mao returned to Shaoshan, perhaps to recuperate from an illness.", "He found that the peasantry were increasingly restless and some had seized land from wealthy landowners to found communes.", "This convinced him of the revolutionary potential of the peasantry, an idea advocated by the KMT leftists but not the Communists.", "Mao and many of his colleagues also proposed the end of cooperation with the KMT, which was rejected by the Comintern representative Mikhail Borodin.", "In the winter of 1925, Mao fled to Guangzhou after his revolutionary activities attracted the attention of Zhao's regional authorities.", "There, he ran the 6th term of the KMT's Peasant Movement Training Institute from May to September 1926.The Peasant Movement Training Institute under Mao trained cadre and prepared them for militant activity, taking them through military training exercises and getting them to study basic left-wing texts.Mao in Guangzhou in 1925When party leader Sun Yat-sen died in May 1925, he was succeeded by Chiang Kai-shek, who moved to marginalise the left-KMT and the Communists.", "Mao nevertheless supported Chiang's National Revolutionary Army, who embarked on the Northern Expedition attack in 1926 on warlords.", "In the wake of this expedition, peasants rose up, appropriating the land of the wealthy landowners, who were in many cases killed.", "Such uprisings angered senior KMT figures, who were themselves landowners, emphasising the growing class and ideological divide within the revolutionary movement.Third Plenum of the KMT Central Executive Committee in March 1927.Mao is third from the right in the second row.In March 1927, Mao appeared at the Third Plenum of the KMT Central Executive Committee in Wuhan, which sought to strip General Chiang of his power by appointing Wang Jingwei leader.", "There, Mao played an active role in the discussions regarding the peasant issue, defending a set of \"Regulations for the Repression of Local Bullies and Bad Gentry\", which advocated the death penalty or life imprisonment for anyone found guilty of counter-revolutionary activity, arguing that in a revolutionary situation, \"peaceful methods cannot suffice\".", "In April 1927, Mao was appointed to the KMT's five-member Central Land Committee, urging peasants to refuse to pay rent.", "Mao led another group to put together a \"Draft Resolution on the Land Question\", which called for the confiscation of land belonging to \"local bullies and bad gentry, corrupt officials, militarists and all counter-revolutionary elements in the villages\".", "Proceeding to carry out a \"Land Survey\", he stated that anyone owning over 30 ''mou'' (four and a half acres), constituting 13% of the population, were uniformly counter-revolutionary.", "He accepted that there was great variation in revolutionary enthusiasm across the country, and that a flexible policy of land redistribution was necessary.", "Presenting his conclusions at the Enlarged Land Committee meeting, many expressed reservations, some believing that it went too far, and others not far enough.", "Ultimately, his suggestions were only partially implemented." ], [ "Civil War", "=== Nanchang and Autumn Harvest Uprisings: 1927 ===Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red ArmyFresh from the success of the Northern Expedition against the warlords, Chiang turned on the Communists, who by now numbered in the tens of thousands across China.", "Chiang ignored the orders of the Wuhan-based left KMT government and marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by Communist militias.", "As the Communists awaited Chiang's arrival, he loosed the White Terror, massacring with the aid of the Green Gang.", "In Beijing, 19 leading Communists were killed by Zhang Zuolin.", "That May, tens of thousands of Communists and those suspected of being communists were killed, and the CCP lost approximately of its members.The CCP continued supporting the Wuhan KMT government, a position Mao initially supported, but by the time of the CCP's Fifth Congress he had changed his mind, deciding to stake all hope on the peasant militia.", "The question was rendered moot when the Wuhan government expelled all Communists from the KMT on 15 July.", "The CCP founded the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army of China, better known as the \"Red Army\", to battle Chiang.", "A battalion led by General Zhu De was ordered to take the city of Nanchang on 1 August 1927, in what became known as the Nanchang Uprising.", "They were initially successful, but were forced into retreat after five days, marching south to Shantou, and from there they were driven into the wilderness of Fujian.", "Mao was appointed commander-in-chief of the Red Army and led four regiments against Changsha in the Autumn Harvest Uprising, in the hope of sparking peasant uprisings across Hunan.", "On the eve of the attack, Mao composed a poem—the earliest of his to survive—titled \"Changsha\".", "His plan was to attack the KMT-held city from three directions on 9 September, but the Fourth Regiment deserted to the KMT cause, attacking the Third Regiment.", "Mao's army made it to Changsha, but could not take it; by 15 September, he accepted defeat and with 1000 survivors marched east to the Jinggang Mountains of Jiangxi.=== Base in Jinggangshan: 1927–1928 ===Mao in 1927The CCP Central Committee, hiding in Shanghai, expelled Mao from their ranks and from the Hunan Provincial Committee, as punishment for his \"military opportunism\", for his focus on rural activity, and for being too lenient with \"bad gentry\".", "The more orthodox Communists especially regarded the peasants as backward and ridiculed Mao's idea of mobilizing them.", "They nevertheless adopted three policies he had long championed: the immediate formation of workers' councils, the confiscation of all land without exemption, and the rejection of the KMT.", "Mao's response was to ignore them.", "He established a base in Jinggangshan City, an area of the Jinggang Mountains, where he united five villages as a self-governing state, and supported the confiscation of land from rich landlords, who were \"re-educated\" and sometimes executed.", "He ensured that no massacres took place in the region, and pursued a more lenient approach than that advocated by the Central Committee.", "In addition to land redistribution, Mao promoted literacy and non-hierarchical organizational relationships in Jinggangshan, transforming the area's social and economic life and attracted many local supporters.Mao proclaimed that \"Even the lame, the deaf and the blind could all come in useful for the revolutionary struggle\", he boosted the army's numbers, incorporating two groups of bandits into his army, building a force of around troops.", "He laid down rules for his soldiers: prompt obedience to orders, all confiscations were to be turned over to the government, and nothing was to be confiscated from poorer peasants.", "In doing so, he moulded his men into a disciplined, efficient fighting force.Chinese Communist revolutionaries in the 1920sIn spring 1928, the Central Committee ordered Mao's troops to southern Hunan, hoping to spark peasant uprisings.", "Mao was skeptical, but complied.", "They reached Hunan, where they were attacked by the KMT and fled after heavy losses.", "Meanwhile, KMT troops had invaded Jinggangshan, leaving them without a base.", "Wandering the countryside, Mao's forces came across a CCP regiment led by General Zhu De and Lin Biao; they united, and attempted to retake Jinggangshan.", "They were initially successful, but the KMT counter-attacked, and pushed the CCP back; over the next few weeks, they fought an entrenched guerrilla war in the mountains.", "The Central Committee again ordered Mao to march to south Hunan, but he refused, and remained at his base.", "Contrastingly, Zhu complied, and led his armies away.", "Mao's troops fended the KMT off for 25 days while he left the camp at night to find reinforcements.", "He reunited with the decimated Zhu's army, and together they returned to Jinggangshan and retook the base.", "There they were joined by a defecting KMT regiment and Peng Dehuai's Fifth Red Army.", "In the mountainous area they were unable to grow enough crops to feed everyone, leading to food shortages throughout the winter.In 1928, Mao met and married He Zizhen, an 18-year-old revolutionary who would bear him six children.=== Jiangxi Soviet Republic of China: 1929–1934 ===Mao in Yan'an (1930s)In January 1929, Mao and Zhu evacuated the base with 2,000 men and a further 800 provided by Peng, and took their armies south, to the area around Tonggu and Xinfeng in Jiangxi.", "The evacuation led to a drop in morale, and many troops became disobedient and began thieving; this worried Li Lisan and the Central Committee, who saw Mao's army as ''lumpenproletariat'', that were unable to share in proletariat class consciousness.", "In keeping with orthodox Marxist thought, Li believed that only the urban proletariat could lead a successful revolution, and saw little need for Mao's peasant guerrillas; he ordered Mao to disband his army into units to be sent out to spread the revolutionary message.", "Mao replied that while he concurred with Li's theoretical position, he would not disband his army nor abandon his base.", "Both Li and Mao saw the Chinese revolution as the key to world revolution, believing that a CCP victory would spark the overthrow of global imperialism and capitalism.", "In this, they disagreed with the official line of the Soviet government and Comintern.", "Officials in Moscow desired greater control over the CCP and removed Li from power by calling him to Russia for an inquest into his errors.", "They replaced him with Soviet-educated Chinese Communists, known as the \"28 Bolsheviks\", two of whom, Bo Gu and Zhang Wentian, took control of the Central Committee.", "Mao disagreed with the new leadership, believing they grasped little of the Chinese situation, and he soon emerged as their key rival.Military parade at the founding of a Chinese Soviet Republic in 1931In February 1930, Mao created the Southwest Jiangxi Provincial Soviet Government in the region under his control.", "In November, he suffered emotional trauma after his second wife Yang Kaihui and sister were captured and beheaded by KMT general He Jian.", "Facing internal problems, members of the Jiangxi Soviet accused him of being too moderate, and hence anti-revolutionary.", "In December, they tried to overthrow Mao, resulting in the Futian incident, during which Mao's loyalists tortured many and executed between 2000 and 3000 dissenters.", "The CCP Central Committee moved to Jiangxi which it saw as a secure area.", "In November, it proclaimed Jiangxi to be the Soviet Republic of China, an independent Communist-governed state.", "Although he was proclaimed Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, Mao's power was diminished, as his control of the Red Army was allocated to Zhou Enlai.", "Meanwhile, Mao recovered from tuberculosis.The KMT armies adopted a policy of encirclement and annihilation of the Red armies.", "Outnumbered, Mao responded with guerrilla tactics influenced by the works of ancient military strategists like Sun Tzu, but Zhou and the new leadership followed a policy of open confrontation and conventional warfare.", "In doing so, the Red Army successfully defeated the first and second encirclements.", "Angered at his armies' failure, Chiang Kai-shek personally arrived to lead the operation.", "He too faced setbacks and retreated to deal with the further Japanese incursions into China.", "As a result of the KMT's change of focus to the defence of China against Japanese expansionism, the Red Army was able to expand its area of control, eventually encompassing a population of 3 million.", "Mao proceeded with his land reform program.", "In November 1931 he announced the start of a \"land verification project\" which was expanded in June 1933.He also orchestrated education programs and implemented measures to increase female political participation.", "Chiang viewed the Communists as a greater threat than the Japanese and returned to Jiangxi, where he initiated the fifth encirclement campaign, which involved the construction of a concrete and barbed wire \"wall of fire\" around the state, which was accompanied by aerial bombardment, to which Zhou's tactics proved ineffective.", "Trapped inside, morale among the Red Army dropped as food and medicine became scarce.", "The leadership decided to evacuate.=== Long March: 1934–1935 ===An overview map of the Long MarchTriumvirate of Zhou Enlai, Mao Zedong, and Zhu De during the Long March.On 14 October 1934, the Red Army broke through the KMT line on the Jiangxi Soviet's south-west corner at Xinfeng with soldiers and party cadres and embarked on the \"Long March\".", "In order to make the escape, many of the wounded and the ill, as well as women and children, were left behind, defended by a group of guerrilla fighters whom the KMT massacred.", "The who escaped headed to southern Hunan, first crossing the Xiang River after heavy fighting, and then the Wu River, in Guizhou where they took Zunyi in January 1935.Temporarily resting in the city, they held a conference; here, Mao was elected to a position of leadership, becoming Chairman of the Politburo, and ''de facto'' leader of both Party and Red Army, in part because his candidacy was supported by Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin.", "Insisting that they operate as a guerrilla force, he laid out a destination: the Shenshi Soviet in Shaanxi, Northern China, from where the Communists could focus on fighting the Japanese.", "Mao believed that in focusing on the anti-imperialist struggle, the Communists would earn the trust of the Chinese people, who in turn would renounce the KMT.From Zunyi, Mao led his troops to Loushan Pass, where they faced armed opposition but successfully crossed the river.", "Chiang flew into the area to lead his armies against Mao, but the Communists outmanoeuvred him and crossed the Jinsha River.", "Faced with the more difficult task of crossing the Tatu River, they managed it by fighting a battle over the Luding Bridge in May, taking Luding.", "In Moukung, Western Sichuan, they encountered the -strong CCP Fourth Front Army of Zhang Guotao (who had marched from the mountain ranges around Ma'anshan), and together proceeded to Maoerhkai and then Gansu.", "Zhang and Mao disagreed over what to do; the latter wished to proceed to Shaanxi, while Zhang wanted to retreat west to Tibet or Sikkim, far from the KMT threat.", "It was agreed that they would go their separate ways, with Zhu De joining Zhang.", "Mao's forces proceeded north, through hundreds of kilometres of grasslands, an area of quagmire where they were attacked by Manchu tribesman and where many soldiers succumbed to famine and disease.", "Finally reaching Shaanxi, they fought off both the KMT and an Islamic cavalry militia before crossing the Min Mountains and Mount Liupan and reaching the Shenshi Soviet; only 7,000–8,000 had survived.", "The Long March cemented Mao's status as the dominant figure in the party.", "In November 1935, he was named chairman of the Military Commission.", "From this point onward, Mao was the Communist Party's undisputed leader, even though he would not become party chairman until 1943.=== Alliance with the Kuomintang: 1935–1940 ===Zhang Guotao (left) and Mao in Yan'an, 1937Mao's troops arrived at the Yan'an Soviet during October 1935 and settled in Bao'an, until spring 1936.While there, they developed links with local communities, redistributed and farmed the land, offered medical treatment, and began literacy programs.", "Mao now commanded soldiers, boosted by the arrival of He Long's men from Hunan and the armies of Zhu De and Zhang Guotao returned from Tibet.", "In February 1936, they established the North West Anti-Japanese Red Army University in Yan'an, through which they trained increasing numbers of new recruits.", "In January 1937, they began the \"anti-Japanese expedition\", that sent groups of guerrilla fighters into Japanese-controlled territory to undertake sporadic attacks.", "In May 1937, a Communist Conference was held in Yan'an to discuss the situation.", "Western reporters also arrived in the \"Border Region\" (as the Soviet had been renamed); most notable were Edgar Snow, who used his experiences as a basis for ''Red Star Over China'', and Agnes Smedley, whose accounts brought international attention to Mao's cause.In an effort to defeat the Japanese, Mao (left) agreed to collaborate with Chiang (right).Mao in 1938, writing ''On Protracted War''On the Long March, Mao's wife He Zizhen had been injured by a shrapnel wound to the head.", "She travelled to Moscow for medical treatment; Mao proceeded to divorce her and marry an actress, Jiang Qing.", "He Zizhen was reportedly \"dispatched to a mental asylum in Moscow to make room\" for Qing.", "Mao moved into a cave-house and spent much of his time reading, tending his garden and theorising.", "He came to believe that the Red Army alone was unable to defeat the Japanese, and that a Communist-led \"government of national defence\" should be formed with the KMT and other \"bourgeois nationalist\" elements to achieve this goal.", "Although despising Chiang Kai-shek as a \"traitor to the nation\", on 5 May, he telegrammed the Military Council of the Nanjing National Government proposing a military alliance, a course of action advocated by Stalin.", "Although Chiang intended to ignore Mao's message and continue the civil war, he was arrested by one of his own generals, Zhang Xueliang, in Xi'an, leading to the Xi'an Incident; Zhang forced Chiang to discuss the issue with the Communists, resulting in the formation of a United Front with concessions on both sides on 25 December 1937.The Japanese had taken both Shanghai and Nanjing—resulting in the Nanjing Massacre, an atrocity Mao never spoke of all his life—and was pushing the Kuomintang government inland to Chongqing.", "The Japanese's brutality led to increasing numbers of Chinese joining the fight, and the Red Army grew from to .", "In August 1938, the Red Army formed the New Fourth Army and the Eighth Route Army, which were nominally under the command of Chiang's National Revolutionary Army.", "In August 1940, the Red Army initiated the Hundred Regiments Offensive, in which troops attacked the Japanese simultaneously in five provinces.", "It was a military success that resulted in the death of Japanese, the disruption of railways and the loss of a coal mine.", "From his base in Yan'an, Mao authored several texts for his troops, including ''Philosophy of Revolution'', which offered an introduction to the Marxist theory of knowledge; ''Protracted Warfare'', which dealt with guerrilla and mobile military tactics; and ''On New Democracy'', which laid forward ideas for China's future.Mao with Kang Sheng in Yan'an, 1945=== Resuming civil war: 1940–1949 ===In 1944, the U.S. sent a special diplomatic envoy, called the Dixie Mission, to the Chinese Communist Party.", "The American soldiers who were sent to the mission were favourably impressed.", "The party seemed less corrupt, more unified, and more vigorous in its resistance to Japan than the Kuomintang.", "The soldiers confirmed to their superiors that the party was both strong and popular over a broad area.", "In the end of the mission, the contacts which the U.S. developed with the Chinese Communist Party led to very little.", "After the end of World War II, the U.S. continued their diplomatic and military assistance to Chiang Kai-shek and his KMT government forces against the People's Liberation Army (PLA) led by Mao Zedong during the civil war and abandoned the idea of a coalition government which would include the CCP.", "Likewise, the Soviet Union gave support to Mao by occupying north-eastern China, and secretly giving it to the Chinese communists in March 1946.PLA troops, supported by captured M5 Stuart light tanks, attacking the Nationalist lines in 1948In 1948, under direct orders from Mao, the People's Liberation Army starved out the Kuomintang forces occupying the city of Changchun.", "At least civilians are believed to have perished during the siege, which lasted from June until October.", "PLA lieutenant colonel Zhang Zhenglu, who documented the siege in his book ''White Snow, Red Blood'', compared it to Hiroshima: \"The casualties were about the same.", "Hiroshima took nine seconds; Changchun took five months.\"", "On 21 January 1949, Kuomintang forces suffered great losses in decisive battles against Mao's forces.", "In the early morning of 10 December 1949, PLA troops laid siege to Chongqing and Chengdu on mainland China, and Chiang Kai-shek fled from the mainland to Taiwan." ], [ "Leadership of China", "=== Establishment of the People's Republic of China ===Mao declares the founding of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China from the Gate of Heavenly Peace (Tian'anmen) on 1 October 1949, and later that week declared \"The Chinese people have stood up\" ().", "Mao went to Moscow for long talks in the winter of 1949–50.Mao initiated the talks which focused on the political and economic revolution in China, foreign policy, railways, naval bases, and Soviet economic and technical aid.", "The resulting treaty reflected Stalin's dominance and his willingness to help Mao.Mao's views as a Marxist were strongly influenced by Lenin, particularly with regard to the vanguardism.", "Mao believed that only the correct leadership of the Communist Party could advance China into socialism.", "Conversely, Mao also believed that mass movements and mass criticism were necessary in order to check the bureaucracy.Mao with his fourth wife, Jiang Qing, called \"Madame Mao\", 1946=== Korean War ===Mao pushed the Party to organise campaigns to reform society and extend control.", "These campaigns were given urgency in October 1950, when Mao made the decision to send the People's Volunteer Army, a special unit of the People's Liberation Army, into the Korean War and fight as well as to reinforce the armed forces of North Korea, the Korean People's Army, which had been in full retreat.", "The United States placed a trade embargo on the People's Republic as a result of its involvement in the Korean War, lasting until Richard Nixon's improvements of relations.", "At least 180 thousand Chinese troops died during the war.Mao directed operations to the minutest detail.", "As the Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC), he was also the Supreme Commander in Chief of the PLA and the People's Republic and Chairman of the Party.", "Chinese troops in Korea were under the overall command of then newly installed Premier Zhou Enlai, with General Peng Dehuai as field commander and political commissar.=== Social reform ===During the land reform campaigns, large numbers of landlords and rich peasants were beaten to death at mass meetings organised by the Communist Party as land was taken from them and given to poorer peasants, which significantly reduced economic inequality.", "The Campaign to Suppress Counter-revolutionaries targeted bureaucratic bourgeoisie, such as compradors, merchants and Kuomintang officials who were seen by the party as economic parasites or political enemies.", "In 1976, the U.S. State Department estimated as many as a million were killed in the land reform, and killed in the counter-revolutionary campaign.Mao himself claimed that a total of people were killed in attacks on \"counter-revolutionaries\" during the years 1950–1952.Because there was a policy to select \"at least one landlord, and usually several, in virtually every village for public execution\", the number of deaths range between 2 million and 5 million.", "In addition, at least 1.5 million people, perhaps as many as 4 to 6 million, were sent to \"reform through labour\" camps where many perished.", "Mao played a personal role in organising the mass repressions and established a system of execution quotas, which were often exceeded.", "He defended these killings as necessary for the securing of power.Mao at Joseph Stalin's 70th birthday celebration in Moscow, December 1949The Mao government is credited with eradicating both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform.", "Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops.", "Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region.=== Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns ===Starting in 1951, Mao initiated two successive movements in an effort to rid urban areas of corruption by targeting wealthy capitalists and political opponents, known as the Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns.", "Whereas the three-anti campaign was a focused purge of government, industrial and party officials, the five-anti campaign set its sights slightly broader, targeting capitalist elements in general.", "Workers denounced their bosses, spouses turned on their spouses, and children informed on their parents; the victims were often humiliated at struggle sessions, where a targeted person would be verbally and physically abused until they confessed to crimes.", "Mao insisted that minor offenders be criticised and reformed or sent to labour camps, \"while the worst among them should be shot\".", "These campaigns took several hundred thousand additional lives, the vast majority via suicide.Mao and Zhou Enlai meeting with the Dalai Lama (right) and Panchen Lama (left) to celebrate the Tibetan New Year, Beijing, 1955In Shanghai, suicide by jumping from tall buildings became so commonplace that residents avoided walking on the pavement near skyscrapers for fear that suicides might land on them.", "Some biographers have pointed out that driving those perceived as enemies to suicide was a common tactic during the Mao-era.", "In his biography of Mao, Philip Short notes that Mao gave explicit instructions in the Yan'an Rectification Movement that \"no cadre is to be killed\" but in practice allowed security chief Kang Sheng to drive opponents to suicide and that \"this pattern was repeated throughout his leadership of the People's Republic\".Photo of Mao sitting, published in \"Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung\", ca.", "1955=== Five-year plans of China ===Following the consolidation of power, Mao launched the first five-year plan (1953–1958), which emphasised rapid industrial development.", "Within industry, iron and steel, electric power, coal, heavy engineering, building materials, and basic chemicals were prioritised with the aim of constructing large and highly capital-intensive plants.", "Many of these plants were built with Soviet assistance and heavy industry grew rapidly.", "Agriculture, industry and trade was organised on a collective basis (socialist cooperatives).", "This period marked the beginning of China's rapid industrialisation and it resulted in an enormous success.Despite being initially sympathetic towards the reformist government of Imre Nagy, Mao feared the \"reactionary restoration\" in Hungary as the Hungarian crisis continued and became more hardline.", "Mao opposed the withdrawal of Soviet troops by asking Liu Shaoqi to inform the Soviet representatives to use military intervention against \"Western imperialist-backed\" protestors and Nagy's government.", "However, it was unclear if Mao's stance played a crucial role, if any role, in Khrushchev's decision to invade Hungary.", "It was also unclear if China was forced to conform to the Soviet position due to economic concerns and China's poor power projections compared to the USSR.", "Despite his disagreements with Moscow's hegemony in the Socialist Camp, Mao viewed the integrity of the international communist movement as more important than the national autonomy of the countries in the Soviet sphere of influence.", "The Hungarian Revolution also influenced Mao's Hundred Flowers Campaign.", "Mao decided to soften his stance on Chinese intelligentsia and allow them to express their social dissatisfaction and criticisms of the errors of the government.", "Mao wanted to use this movement to prevent a similar uprising in China.", "However, as people in China began to criticize the CCP's policies and Mao's leadership following the Hundred Flowers Campaign, Mao cracked down the movement he initiated and compared it to the \"counter-revolutionary\" Hungarian Revolution.Programs pursued during this time include the Hundred Flowers Campaign, in which Mao indicated his supposed willingness to consider different opinions about how China should be governed.", "Given the freedom to express themselves, liberal and intellectual Chinese began opposing the Communist Party and questioning its leadership.", "This was initially tolerated and encouraged.", "After a few months, Mao's government reversed its policy and persecuted those who had criticised the party, totalling perhaps , as well as those who were merely alleged to have been critical, in what is called the Anti-Rightist Movement.", "The movement led to the persecution of at least 550,000 people, mostly intellectuals and dissidents.", "Li Zhisui, Mao's physician, suggested that Mao had initially seen the policy as a way of weakening opposition to him within the party and that he was surprised by the extent of criticism and the fact that it came to be directed at his own leadership.=== Military projects ===United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower's threats during the First Taiwan Strait Crisis to use nuclear weapons against military targets in Fujian province prompted Mao to begin China's nuclear program.", "Under Mao's Two Bombs, One Satellite program, China developed the atomic and hydrogen bombs in record time and launched a satellite a few years after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik.Project 523 () is a code name for a 1967 secret military project of the People's Republic of China to find antimalarial medications.", "Named after the date the project launched, 23 May, it addressed malaria, an important threat in the Vietnam War.", "At the behest of Ho Chi Minh, Prime Minister of North Vietnam, Zhou Enlai convinced Mao Zedong to start the mass project \"to keep the allies' troops combat-ready\", as the meeting minutes put it.", "More than 500 Chinese scientists were recruited.", "The project was divided into three streams.", "The one for investigating traditional Chinese medicine discovered and led to the development of a class of new antimalarial drugs called artemisinins.", "Launched during and lasting throughout the Cultural Revolution, Project 523 was officially terminated in 1981.=== Great Leap Forward ===Mao with Nikita Khrushchev, Ho Chi Minh, and Soong Ching-ling during a state dinner in Beijing, 1959In January 1958, Mao launched the second five-year plan, known as the Great Leap Forward, a plan intended to turn China from an agrarian nation to an industrialised one and as an alternative model for economic growth to the Soviet model focusing on heavy industry that was advocated by others in the party.", "Under this economic program, the relatively small agricultural collectives that had been formed to date were rapidly merged into far larger people's communes, and many of the peasants were ordered to work on massive infrastructure projects and on the production of iron and steel.", "Some private food production was banned, and livestock and farm implements were brought under collective ownership.Under the Great Leap Forward, Mao and other party leaders ordered the implementation of a variety of unproven and unscientific new agricultural techniques by the new communes.", "The combined effect of the diversion of labour to steel production and infrastructure projects, and cyclical natural disasters led to an approximately 15% drop in grain production in 1959 followed by a further 10% decline in 1960 and no recovery in 1961.In an effort to win favour with their superiors and avoid being purged, each layer in the party exaggerated the amount of grain produced under them.", "Based upon the falsely reported success, party cadres were ordered to requisition a disproportionately high amount of that fictitious harvest for state use, primarily for use in the cities and urban areas but also for export.", "The result, compounded in some areas by drought and in others by floods, was that farmers were left with little food for themselves and many millions starved to death in the Great Chinese Famine.", "The people of urban areas in China were given food stamps each month, but the people of rural areas were expected to grow their own crops and give some of the crops back to the government.", "The death count in rural parts of China surpassed the deaths in the urban centers.", "Additionally, the Chinese government continued to export food that could have been allocated to the country's starving citizens.", "The famine was a direct cause of the death of some 30 million Chinese peasants between 1959 and 1962.Furthermore, many children who became malnourished during years of hardship died after the Great Leap Forward came to an end in 1962.In late autumn 1958, Mao condemned the practices that were being used during Great Leap Forward such as forcing peasants to do exhausting labour without enough food or rest which resulted in epidemics and starvation.", "He also acknowledged that anti-rightist campaigns were a major cause of \"production at the expense of livelihood.\"", "He refused to abandon the Great Leap Forward to solve these difficulties, but he did demand that they be confronted.", "After the July 1959 clash at Lushan Conference with Peng Dehuai, Mao launched a new anti-rightist campaign along with the radical policies that he previously abandoned.", "It wasn't until the spring of 1960, that Mao would again express concern about abnormal deaths and other abuses, but he did not move to stop them.", "Bernstein concludes that the Chairman \"wilfully ignored the lessons of the first radical phase for the sake of achieving extreme ideological and developmental goals\".Jasper Becker notes that Mao was dismissive of reports he received of food shortages in the countryside and refused to change course, believing that peasants were lying and that rightists and kulaks were hoarding grain.", "He refused to open state granaries, and instead launched a series of \"anti-grain concealment\" drives that resulted in numerous purges and suicides.", "Other violent campaigns followed in which party leaders went from village to village in search of hidden food reserves, and not only grain, as Mao issued quotas for pigs, chickens, ducks and eggs.", "Many peasants accused of hiding food were tortured and beaten to death.The extent of Mao's knowledge of the severity of the situation has been disputed.", "Mao's personal physician, Li Zhisui, said that Mao may have been unaware of the extent of the famine, partly due to a reluctance of local officials to criticise his policies, and the willingness of his staff to exaggerate or outright fake reports.", "Li writes that upon learning of the extent of the starvation, Mao vowed to stop eating meat, an action followed by his staff.Mao shaking hands with a people's commune farmer, 1959Mao stepped down as President of China on 27 April 1959; he retained other top positions such as Chairman of the Communist Party and of the Central Military Commission.", "The Presidency was transferred to Liu Shaoqi.", "Mao was eventually forced to abandon the policy in 1962, and he lost political power to Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.The Great Leap Forward was a tragedy for the vast majority of the Chinese.", "Although the steel quotas were officially reached, almost all of the supposed steel made in the countryside was iron, as it had been made from assorted scrap metal in home-made furnaces with no reliable source of fuel such as coal.", "This meant that proper smelting conditions could not be achieved.", "According to Zhang Rongmei, a geometry teacher in rural Shanghai during the Great Leap Forward: \"We took all the furniture, pots, and pans we had in our house, and all our neighbours did likewise.", "We put everything in a big fire and melted down all the metal\".", "The worst of the famine was steered towards enemies of the state.", "Jasper Becker explains: \"The most vulnerable section of China's population, around five percent, were those whom Mao called 'enemies of the people'.", "Anyone who had in previous campaigns of repression been labeled a 'black element' was given the lowest priority in the allocation of food.", "Landlords, rich peasants, former members of the nationalist regime, religious leaders, rightists, counter-revolutionaries and the families of such individuals died in the greatest numbers.", "\"According to official Chinese statistics for Second Five-Year Plan (1958–1962):\"industrial output value value had doubled; the gross value of agricultural products increased by 35 percent; steel production in 1962 was between 10.6 million tons or 12 million tons; investment in capital construction rose to 40 percent from 35 percent in the First Five-Year Plan period; the investment in capital construction was doubled; and the average income of workers and farmers increased by up to 30 percent.", "\"At a large Communist Party conference in Beijing in January 1962, dubbed the \"Seven Thousand Cadres Conference\", State Chairman Liu Shaoqi denounced the Great Leap Forward, attributing the project to widespread famine in China.", "The overwhelming majority of delegates expressed agreement, but Defense Minister Lin Biao staunchly defended Mao.", "A brief period of liberalisation followed while Mao and Lin plotted a comeback.", "Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping rescued the economy by disbanding the people's communes, introducing elements of private control of peasant smallholdings and importing grain from Canada and Australia to mitigate the worst effects of famine.Mao with Henry Kissinger and Zhou Enlai, Beijing, 1972At the Lushan Conference in July/August 1959, several ministers expressed concern that the Great Leap Forward had not proved as successful as planned.", "The most direct of these was Minister of Defence and Korean War veteran General Peng Dehuai.", "Following Peng's criticism of the Great Leap Forward, Mao orchestrated a purge of Peng and his supporters, stifling criticism of the Great Leap policies.", "Senior officials who reported the truth of the famine to Mao were branded as \"right opportunists.\"", "A campaign against right-wing opportunism was launched and resulted in party members and ordinary peasants being sent to prison labour camps where many would subsequently die in the famine.", "Years later the CCP would conclude that as many as six million people were wrongly punished in the campaign.Haile Selassie I with Mao in 1971 after the death of Lin Biao The number of deaths by starvation during the Great Leap Forward is deeply controversial.", "Until the mid-1980s, when official census figures were finally published by the Chinese Government, little was known about the scale of the disaster in the Chinese countryside, as the handful of Western observers allowed access during this time had been restricted to model villages where they were deceived into believing that the Great Leap Forward had been a great success.", "There was also an assumption that the flow of individual reports of starvation that had been reaching the West, primarily through Hong Kong and Taiwan, must have been localised or exaggerated as China was continuing to claim record harvests and was a net exporter of grain through the period.", "Because Mao wanted to pay back early to the Soviets debts totalling 1.973 billion yuan from 1960 to 1962, exports increased by 50%, and fellow Communist regimes in North Korea, North Vietnam and Albania were provided grain free of charge.Censuses were carried out in China in 1953, 1964 and 1982.The first attempt to analyse this data to estimate the number of famine deaths was carried out by American demographer Dr. Judith Banister and published in 1984.Given the lengthy gaps between the censuses and doubts over the reliability of the data, an accurate figure is difficult to ascertain.", "Nevertheless, Banister concluded that the official data implied that around 15 million excess deaths incurred in China during 1958–61, and that based on her modelling of Chinese demographics during the period and taking account of assumed under-reporting during the famine years, the figure was around 30 million.", "Hu Yaobang, a high-ranking official of the CCP, states that 20 million people died according to official government statistics.", "Yang Jisheng, a former Xinhua News Agency reporter who had privileged access and connections available to no other scholars, estimates a death toll of 36 million.", "Frank Dikötter estimates that there were at least 45 million premature deaths attributable to the Great Leap Forward from 1958 to 1962.Various other sources have put the figure at between 20 and 46 million.=== Split from Soviet Union ===U.S.", "President Gerald Ford watches as Henry Kissinger shakes hands with Mao during their visit to China, 2 December 1975On the international front, the period was dominated by the further isolation of China.", "The Sino-Soviet split resulted in Nikita Khrushchev's withdrawal of all Soviet technical experts and aid from the country.", "The split concerned the leadership of world communism.", "The USSR had a network of Communist parties it supported; China now created its own rival network to battle it out for local control of the left in numerous countries.", "Lorenz M. Lüthi writes: \"The Sino-Soviet split was one of the key events of the Cold War, equal in importance to the construction of the Berlin Wall, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Second Vietnam War, and Sino-American rapprochement.", "The split helped to determine the framework of the Second Cold War in general, and influenced the course of the Second Vietnam War in particular.", "\"The split resulted from Khrushchev's more moderate Soviet leadership after the death of Stalin in March 1953.Only Albania openly sided with China, thereby forming an alliance between the two countries which would last until after Mao's death in 1976.Warned that the Soviets had nuclear weapons, Mao minimised the threat.", "Becker says that \"Mao believed that the bomb was a 'paper tiger', declaring to Khrushchev that it would not matter if China lost 300 million people in a nuclear war: the other half of the population would survive to ensure victory\".", "Struggle against Soviet revisionism and U.S. imperialism was an important aspect of Mao's attempt to direct the revolution in the right direction.In the late 1950s, Mao wrote reading notes responding to the Soviet Book ''Political Economy: A Textbook'' and essays (''A Critique of Soviet Economics'') responding to Stalin's ''Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR.''", "These texts reflect Mao's views that the USSR was becoming alienated from the masses and distorting socialist development.According to historian Mingjiang Li, Mao deliberately escalated Sino-Soviet diplomatic tensions as part of his attempt to reassert his domestic political power and limit that of his rivals by showcasing his commitment to revolution and his hardline stance against what he deemed Soviet revisionism.=== Third Front ===After the failure of the Great Leap Forward, China's leadership slowed the pace of industrialization.", "It invested more on in China's coastal regions and focused on the production of consumer goods.", "Preliminary drafts of the Third Five Year Plan contained no provision for developing large scale industry in China's interior.", "After an April 1964 General Staff report concluded that the concentration of China's industry in its major coastal cities made it vulnerable to attack by foreign powers, Mao argued for the development of basic industry and national defense industry in protected locations in China's interior.", "Although other key leaders did not initially support the idea, the 2 August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident increased fears of a potential invasion by the United States and crystallized support for Mao's industrialization proposal, which came to be known as the Third Front.", "Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident, Mao's own concerns of invasion by the United States increased.", "He wrote to central cadres, \"A war is going to break out.", "I need to reconsider my actions\" and pushed even harder for the creation of the Third Front.The secretive Third Front construction involved massive projects including extensive railroad infrastructure like the Chengdu–Kunming line, aerospace industry including satellite launch facilities, and steel production industry including Panzhihua Iron and Steel.Development of the Third Front slowed in 1966 during the Cultural Revolution, but accelerated again after the Sino-Soviet border conflict at Zhenbao Island, which increased the perceived risk of Soviet Invasion.", "Third Front construction again decreased after United States President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China and the resulting rapprochement between the United States and China.", "When Reform and Opening up began after Mao's death, China began to gradually wind down Third Front projects.", "The Third Front distributed physical and human capital around the country, ultimately decreased regional disparities and created favorable conditions for later market development.=== Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution ===A public appearance of Chairman Mao and Lin Biao among Red Guards, in Beijing, during the Cultural Revolution (November 1966)During the early 1960s, Mao became concerned with the nature of post-1959 China.", "He saw that the revolution and Great Leap Forward had replaced the old ruling elite with a new one.", "He was concerned that those in power were becoming estranged from the people they were to serve.", "Mao believed that a revolution of culture would unseat and unsettle the \"ruling class\" and keep China in a state of \"continuous revolution\" that, theoretically, would serve the interests of the majority, rather than a tiny and privileged elite.", "State Chairman Liu Shaoqi and General Secretary Deng Xiaoping favoured the idea that Mao be removed from actual power as China's head of state and government but maintain his ceremonial and symbolic role as Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, with the party upholding all of his positive contributions to the revolution.", "They attempted to marginalise Mao by taking control of economic policy and asserting themselves politically as well.", "Many claim that Mao responded to Liu and Deng's movements by launching the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1966.Some scholars, such as Mobo Gao, claim the case for this is overstated.", "Others, such as Frank Dikötter, hold that Mao launched the Cultural Revolution to wreak revenge on those who had dared to challenge him over the Great Leap Forward.The Cultural Revolution led to the destruction of much of China's traditional cultural heritage and the imprisonment of a huge number of Chinese citizens, as well as the creation of general economic and social chaos in the country.", "Millions of lives were ruined during this period, as the Cultural Revolution pierced into every part of Chinese life, depicted by such Chinese films as ''To Live'', ''The Blue Kite'' and ''Farewell My Concubine''.", "It is estimated that hundreds of thousands of people, perhaps millions, perished in the violence of the Cultural Revolution.", "This included prominent figures such as Liu Shaoqi.When Mao was informed of such losses, particularly that people had been driven to suicide, he is alleged to have commented: \"People who try to commit suicide—don't attempt to save them!", "... China is such a populous nation, it is not as if we cannot do without a few people.\"", "The authorities allowed the Red Guards to abuse and kill opponents of the regime.", "Said Xie Fuzhi, national police chief: \"Don't say it is wrong of them to beat up bad persons: if in anger they beat someone to death, then so be it.\"", "In August and September 1966, there were a reported 1,772 people murdered by the Red Guards in Beijing alone.It was during this period that Mao chose Lin Biao, who seemed to echo all of Mao's ideas, to become his successor.", "Lin was later officially named as Mao's successor.", "By 1971, a divide between the two men had become apparent.", "Official history in China states that Lin was planning a military coup or an assassination attempt on Mao.", "Lin Biao died on 13 September 1971, in a plane crash over the air space of Mongolia, presumably as he fled China, probably anticipating his arrest.", "The CCP declared that Lin was planning to depose Mao and posthumously expelled Lin from the party.", "At this time, Mao lost trust in many of the top CCP figures.", "The highest-ranking Soviet Bloc intelligence defector, Lt. Gen. Ion Mihai Pacepa claimed he had a conversation with Nicolae Ceaușescu, who told him about a plot to kill Mao with the help of Lin Biao organised by the KGB.In 1969, Mao declared the Cultural Revolution to be over, although various historians in and outside of China mark the end of the Cultural Revolution—as a whole or in part—in 1976, following Mao's death and the arrest of the Gang of Four.", "The Central Committee in 1981 officially declared the Cultural Revolution a \"severe setback\" for the PRC.", "It is often looked at in all scholarly circles as a greatly disruptive period for China.", "Despite the pro-poor rhetoric of Mao's regime, his economic policies led to substantial poverty.Estimates of the death toll during the Cultural Revolution, including civilians and Red Guards, vary greatly.", "An estimate of around 400,000 deaths is a widely accepted minimum figure, according to Maurice Meisner.", "MacFarquhar and Schoenhals assert that in rural China alone some 36 million people were persecuted, of whom between 750,000 and 1.5 million were killed, with roughly the same number permanently injured.Historian Daniel Leese writes that in the 1950s, Mao's personality was hardening: \"The impression of Mao's personality that emerges from the literature is disturbing.", "It reveals a certain temporal development from a down-to-earth leader, who was amicable when uncontested and occasionally reflected on the limits of his power, to an increasingly ruthless and self-indulgent dictator.", "Mao's preparedness to accept criticism decreased continuously.\"" ], [ "State visits", " Country Date Host 16 December 1949Joseph Stalin 2–19 November 1957Nikita KhrushchevDuring his leadership, Mao traveled outside China on only two occasions, both of which were state visits to the Soviet Union.", "His first visit abroad was in December 1949 to celebrate the 70th birthday of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow, which was also attended by East German Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers Walter Ulbricht and Mongolian communist General Secretary Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal.", "The second visit to Moscow in November 1957 was a two-week state visit of which the highlights included Mao's attendance at the 40th anniversary (Ruby Jubilee) celebrations of the October Revolution (he attended the annual military parade of the Moscow Garrison on Red Square as well as a banquet in the Moscow Kremlin) and the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties, where he met with other communist leaders such as North Korea's Kim Il Sung and Albania's Enver Hoxha.", "When Mao stepped down as head of state on 27 April 1959, further diplomatic state visits and travels abroad to the Soviet Union and other countries were undertaken by either President Liu Shaoqi, Premier Zhou Enlai or Deputy Premier Deng Xiaoping rather than Mao personally." ], [ "Death and aftermath", "Ailing Mao with Pakistani prime minister Zulfiqar Bhutto during a private visit in May 1976With Egyptian Vice President Hosni Mubarak during the latter's visit to Beijing in 1976Mao's health declined in his last years, probably aggravated by his chain-smoking.", "It became a state secret that he suffered from multiple lung and heart ailments during his later years.", "There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had Parkinson's disease in addition to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as Lou Gehrig's disease.", "His final public appearance—and the last known photograph of him alive—had been on 27 May 1976, when he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.", "He suffered two major heart attacks, one in March and another in July, then a third on 5 September, rendering him an invalid.", "He died nearly four days later, at 00:10 on 9 September 1976, at the age of 82.The Communist Party delayed the announcement of his death until 16:00, when a national radio broadcast announced the news and appealed for party unity.Mao's embalmed body, draped in the CCP flag, lay in state at the Great Hall of the People for one week.", "One million Chinese filed past to pay their final respects, many crying openly or displaying sadness, while foreigners watched on television.", "Mao's official portrait hung on the wall with a banner reading: \"Carry on the cause left by Chairman Mao and carry on the cause of proletarian revolution to the end\".", "On 17 September the body was taken in a minibus to the 305 Hospital, where his internal organs were preserved in formaldehyde.On 18 September, guns, sirens, whistles and horns across China were simultaneously blown and a mandatory three-minute silence was observed.", "Tiananmen Square was packed with millions of people and a military band played \"The Internationale\".", "Hua Guofeng concluded the service with a 20-minute-long eulogy atop Tiananmen Gate.", "Despite Mao's request to be cremated, his body was later permanently put on display in the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, in order for the Chinese nation to pay its respects.On 27 June 1981, the communist party's Central Committee adopted the ''Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China,''which assessed the legacy of the Mao era and the party's priorities going forward.", "The ''Resolution'' describes setbacks during the period 1957 to 1964 (although it generally affirms this period) and major mistakes beginning in 1965, attributing Mao's errors to individualist tendencies which arose when he departed from the collective view of the leadership.", "Regarding Mao's legacy, the Resolution concludes Mao's contributions to the Chinese Revolution far outweigh his mistakes." ], [ "Legacy", "Statue of young Mao in Changsha, the capital of HunanMao remains a controversial figure and there is little agreement over his legacy both in China and abroad.", "He is regarded as one of the most important and influential individuals in the twentieth century.", "He is also known as a political intellect, theorist, military strategist, poet, and visionary.", "He was credited and praised for driving imperialism out of China, having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war.", "He is also credited with having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education.", "In December 2013, a poll from the state-run ''Global Times'' indicated that roughly 85% of the 1,045 respondents surveyed felt that Mao's achievements outweighed his mistakes.", "It is said in China that Mao was 70 percent right and 30 percent wrong.His policies resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of people in China during his 27-year reign, according to some sources, more than any other 20th-century leader; estimates of the number of people who died under his regime range from 40 million to as many as 80 million, done through starvation, persecution, prison labour in ''laogai'', and mass executions.", "Mao rarely gave direct instruction for peoples' physical elimination.", "According to biographer Philip Short, the overwhelming majority of those killed by Mao's policies were unintended casualties of famine, while the other three or four million, in Mao's view, were necessary victims in the struggle to transform China.", "Mao's China is described as an autocratic and totalitarian regime responsible for mass repression, as well as the destruction of religious and cultural artifacts and sites (particularly during the Cultural Revolution).China's population grew from around 550 million to over 900 million under his rule while the government did not strictly enforce its family planning policy, leading his successors such as Deng Xiaoping to take a strict one-child policy to cope with human overpopulation.", "Mao's revolutionary tactics continue to be used by insurgents, and his political ideology continues to be embraced by many Communist organisations around the world.In 1978, the classroom of a kindergarten in Shanghai putting up portraits of then- Chairman Hua Guofeng and former Chairman Mao ZedongIn mainland China, Mao is revered by many members and supporters of the Chinese Communist Party and respected by a great number of the general population.", "Mobo Gao, in his 2008 book ''The Battle for China's Past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution'', credits him for raising the average life expectancy from 35 in 1949 to 63 by 1975, bringing \"unity and stability to a country that had been plagued by civil wars and foreign invasions\", and laying the foundation for China to \"become the equal of the great global powers\".", "Gao also lauds him for carrying out massive land reform, promoting the status of women, improving popular literacy, and positively \"transform(ing) Chinese society beyond recognition.\"", "Mao is credited for boosting literacy (only 20% of the population could read in 1949, compared to 65.5% thirty years later), doubling life expectancy, a near doubling of the population, and developing China's industry and infrastructure, paving the way for its position as a world power.Mao also has Chinese critics.", "Opposition to him can lead to censorship or professional repercussions in mainland China, and is often done in private settings such as the Internet.", "When a video of Bi Fujian, a television host, insulting Mao at a private dinner in 2015 went viral, Bi garnered the support of Weibo users, with 80% of them saying in a poll that Bi should not apologize amidst backlash from state affiliates.", "In the West, Mao has a bad reputation.", "He is known for the deaths during the Great Leap Forward and for persecutions during the Cultural Revolution.", "Chinese citizens are aware of Mao's mistakes, but nonetheless, many see Mao as a national hero.", "He is seen as someone who successfully liberated the country from Japanese occupation and from Western imperialist exploitation dating back to the Opium Wars.", "Between 2015 and 2018, 70 interviewees in China were asked about the Maoist era.", "Their responses mixed nostalgia with trauma.", "Life used to be simpler and had clear meaning; people trusted and helped one another, and inequality was minimal.", "They also acknowledged the negative experiences, however, and said their \"material life\" was poor.Mao Zedong Square at SaoshanOn 25 December 2008, China opened the Mao Zedong Square to visitors in his home town of central Hunan Province to mark the 115th anniversary of his birth.There continue to be disagreements on Mao's legacy.", "Former party official Su Shachi has opined that \"he was a great historical criminal, but he was also a great force for good.\"", "In a similar vein, journalist Liu Binyan has described Mao as \"both monster and a genius.\"", "Li Rui, Mao's personal secretary and Communist Party comrade, opined that \"Mao's way of thinking and governing was terrifying.", "He put no value on human life.", "The deaths of others meant nothing to him.", "\"Chen Yun, a leading Chinese Communist Party official under Mao and Deng Xiaoping remarked \"Had Mao died in 1956, his achievements would have been immortal.", "Had he died in 1966, he would still have been a great man but flawed.", "But he died in 1976.Alas, what can one say?\"", "Deng Xiaoping said \"I should remind you that Chairman Mao dedicated most of his life to China, that he saved the party and the revolution in their most critical moments, that, in short, his contribution was so great that, without him, the Chinese people would have had a much harder time finding the right path out of the darkness.", "We also shouldn't forget that it was Chairman Mao who combined the teachings of Marx and Lenin with the realities of Chinese history—that it was he who applied those principles, creatively, not only to politics but to philosophy, art, literature, and military strategy.", "\"In their 2013 biography, ''Mao: The Real Story'', Alexander V. Pantsov and Steven I. Levine asserted that Mao was both \"a successful creator and ultimately an evil destroyer\" but also argued that he was a complicated figure who should not be lionised as a saint or reduced to a demon, as he \"indeed tried his best to bring about prosperity and gain international respect for his country.\"", "They also remarked on Mao's legacy: \"A talented Chinese politician, an historian, a poet and philosopher, an all-powerful dictator and energetic organizer, a skillful diplomat and utopian socialist, the head of the most populous state, resting on his laurels, but at the same time an indefatigable revolutionary who sincerely attempted to refashion the way of life and consciousness of millions of people, a hero of national revolution and a bloody social reformer—this is how Mao goes down in history.", "The scale of his life was too grand to be reduced to a single meaning.", "\"Mao's English interpreter Sidney Rittenberg wrote in his memoir ''The Man Who Stayed Behind'' that whilst Mao \"was a great leader in history\", he was also \"a great criminal because, not that he wanted to, not that he intended to, but in fact, his wild fantasies led to the deaths of tens of millions of people.\"", "Dikötter argues that CCP leaders \"glorified violence and were inured to massive loss of life.", "And all of them shared an ideology in which the end justified the means.", "In 1962, having lost millions of people in his province, Li Jingquan compared the Great Leap Forward to the Long March in which only one in ten had made it to the end: 'We are not weak, we are stronger, we have kept the backbone.", "Regarding the large-scale irrigation projects, Dikötter stresses that, in spite of Mao being in a good position to see the human cost, they continued unabated for several years, and ultimately claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of exhausted villagers.Some historians argue that Mao was \"one of the great tyrants of the twentieth century\", and a dictator comparable to Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, with a death toll surpassing both.", "Mao was frequently likened to the First Emperor of a unified China, Qin Shi Huang, and personally enjoyed the comparison.", "During a speech to party cadre in 1958, Mao said he had far outdone Qin Shi Huang in his policy against intellectuals: \"What did he amount to?", "He only buried alive 460 scholars, while we buried 46,000.In our suppression of the counter-revolutionaries, did we not kill some counter-revolutionary intellectuals?", "I once debated with the democratic people: You accuse us of acting like Ch'in-shih-huang, but you are wrong; we surpass him 100 times.\"", "As a result of such tactics, critics have compared it to Nazi Germany.", "Philip Short reject comparisons by saying that whereas the deaths caused by Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia were largely systematic and deliberate, the overwhelming majority of the deaths under Mao were unintended consequences of famine.", "Short stated that landlord class were not exterminated as a people due to Mao's belief in redemption through thought reform, and compared Mao with 19th-century Chinese reformers who challenged China's traditional beliefs in the era of China's clashes with Western colonial powers.", "Short writes that \"Mao's tragedy and his grandeur were that he remained to the end in thrall to his own revolutionary dreams.", "...", "He freed China from the straitjacket of its Confucian past, but the bright Red future he promised turned out to be a sterile purgatory.", "\"Mao greets U.S. President Richard Nixon during his visit to China in 1972.The United States placed a trade embargo on the People's Republic as a result of its involvement in the Korean War, lasting until Richard Nixon decided that developing relations with the PRC would be useful in dealing with the Soviet Union.", "The television series ''Biography'' stated: \"Mao turned China from a feudal backwater into one of the most powerful countries in the World.", "...", "The Chinese system he overthrew was backward and corrupt; few would argue the fact that he dragged China into the 20th century.", "But at a cost in human lives that is staggering.\"", "In the book ''China in the 21st Century: What Everyone Needs to Know'' published in 2010, Professor Jeffrey Wasserstrom of the University of California, Irvine compares China's relationship to Mao to Americans' remembrance of Andrew Jackson; both countries regard the leaders in a positive light, despite their respective roles in devastating policies.", "Jackson forcibly moved Native Americans through the Trail of Tears, resulting in thousands of deaths, while Mao was at the helm during the violent years of the Cultural Revolution and the Great Leap Forward.LijiangJohn King Fairbank remarked, \"The simple facts of Mao's career seem incredible: in a vast land of 400 million people, at age 28, with a dozen others, to found a party and in the next fifty years to win power, organize, and remold the people and reshape the land—history records no greater achievement.", "Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, all the kings of Europe, Napoleon, Bismarck, Lenin—no predecessor can equal Mao Tse-tung's scope of accomplishment, for no other country was ever so ancient and so big as China.\"", "In ''China: A New History'', Fairbank and Goldman assessed Mao's legacy: \"Future historians may conclude that Mao's role was to try to destroy the age-old bifurcation of China between a small educated ruling stratum and the vast mass of common people.", "We do not yet know how far he succeeded.", "The economy was developing, but it was left to his successors to create a new political structure.", "\"Stuart R. Schram said in ''The Thought of Mao Tse-Tung'' (1989), \"Eternal rebel, refusing to be bound by the laws of God or man, nature or Marxism, he led his people for three decades in pursuit of a vision initially noble, which turned increasingly into a mirage, and then into a nightmare.", "Was he a Faust or Prometheus, attempting the impossible for the sake of humanity, or a despot of unbridled ambition, drunk with his own power and his own cleverness?\"", "Schram wrestled with the problem of making any overall assessment of Mao.", "Schram said \"I agree with the current Chinese view that Mao's merits outweighed his faults, but it is not easy to put a figure on the positive and negative aspects.", "How does one weigh, for example, the good fortune of hundreds of millions of peasants in getting land against the execution, in the course of land reform and the 'Campaign against Counter-Revolutionaries,' or in other contexts, of millions, some of whom certainly deserved to die, but others of whom undoubtedly did not?", "How does one balance the achievements in economic development during the first Five-Year Plan, or during the whole twenty-seven years of Mao's leadership after 1949, against the starvation which came in the wake of the misguided enthusiasm of the Great Leap Forward, or the bloody shambles of the Cultural Revolution?\"", "Schram added, \"In the last analysis, however, I am more interested in the potential future impact of his thought than in sending Mao as an individual to Heaven or to Hell.", "\"Maurice Meisner, ''Mao's China and After: A History of the People's Republic'' (3rd ed., 1999) assessed Mao's legacy: \"It is the blots on the Maoist record, especially the Great Leap and the Cultural Revolution, that are now most deeply imprinted on our political and historical consciousness.", "That these adventures were failures colossal in scope, and that they took an enormous human toll, cannot and should not be forgotten.", "But future historians, without ignoring the failures and the crimes, will surely record the Maoist era in the history of the People's Republic (however else they may judge it) as one of the great modernizing epochs in world history, and one that brought great social and human benefits to the Chinese people.", "\"Delia Davin, in ''Mao: A Very Short Introduction'' (2013), remarked: \"The consequences of Mao's actions were inevitably in proportion to the prodigious power he exercised, and the enormous population he ruled over.", "As a unifier and modernizer his achievements were immense, but his errors caused appalling suffering on a scale that is difficult to grasp.", "His utopian dreams, his periodic refusal to engage with reality, his ruthlessness, and his determination to win imposed terrible suffering on the Chinese people and cost millions of them their lives.", "He was ready to accept huge costs because he believed that suffering and death were inevitable in the pursuit of his cause.", "Mao's revolution improved life for those who survived it, bringing the economic development, education, and modernization on which subsequent progress was built.", "It also reunified China and made the country a force to be reckoned with in the world.", "He left an indelible mark on history.", "\"=== Third World ===The ideology of Maoism has influenced many Communists, mainly in the Third World, including revolutionary movements such as Cambodia's Khmer Rouge, Peru's Shining Path, and the Nepalese revolutionary movement.", "Under the influence of Mao's agrarian socialism and Cultural Revolution, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge conceived of his disastrous Year Zero policies which purged the nation of its teachers, artists and intellectuals and emptied its cities, resulting in the Cambodian genocide.", "The Revolutionary Communist Party, USA, also claims Marxism–Leninism-Maoism as its ideology, as do other Communist Parties around the world which are part of the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement.", "China itself has moved sharply away from Maoism since Mao's death, and most people outside of China who describe themselves as Maoist regard the Deng Xiaoping reforms to be a betrayal of Maoism, in line with Mao's view of \"capitalist roaders\" within the Communist Party.", "As the Chinese government instituted market economic reforms starting in the late 1970s and as later Chinese leaders took power, less recognition was given to the status of Mao.", "This accompanied a decline in state recognition of Mao in later years in contrast to previous years when the state organised numerous events and seminars commemorating Mao's 100th birthday.", "Nevertheless, the Chinese government has never officially repudiated the tactics of Mao.", "Deng Xiaoping, who was opposed to the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, stated that \"when we write about his mistakes we should not exaggerate, for otherwise we shall be discrediting Chairman Mao Zedong and this would mean discrediting our party and state.", "\"=== Military strategy ===Mao's military writings continue to have a large amount of influence both among those who seek to create an insurgency and those who seek to crush one, especially in manners of guerrilla warfare, at which Mao is popularly regarded as a genius.", "The Nepali Maoists were highly influenced by Mao's views on protracted war, new democracy, support of masses, permanency of revolution and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.", "Mao's major contribution to the military science is his theory of People's War, with not only guerrilla warfare but more importantly, Mobile Warfare methodologies.", "Mao had successfully applied Mobile Warfare in the Korean War, and was able to encircle, push back and then halt the UN forces in Korea, despite the clear superiority of UN firepower.", "In 1957, Mao also gave the impression that he might even welcome a nuclear war.=== Literature ===Mao's poems and writings are frequently cited by both Chinese and non-Chinese.", "The official Chinese translation of President Barack Obama's inauguration speech used a famous line from one of Mao's poems.", "In the mid-1990s, Mao's picture began to appear on all new renminbi currency from the People's Republic of China.", "This was officially instituted as an anti-counterfeiting measure as Mao's face is widely recognised in contrast to the generic figures that appear in older currency.", "On 13 March 2006, the ''People's Daily'' reported that a member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference proposed to include the portraits of Sun Yat-sen and Deng Xiaoping in the renminbi.=== Public image ===Mao gave contradicting statements on the subject of personality cults.", "In 1955, as a response to the Khrushchev Report that criticised Joseph Stalin, Mao stated that personality cults are \"poisonous ideological survivals of the old society\", and reaffirmed China's commitment to collective leadership.", "At the 1958 party congress in Chengdu, Mao expressed support for the personality cults of people whom he labelled as genuinely worthy figures, not those that expressed \"blind worship\".In 1962, Mao proposed the Socialist Education Movement (SEM) in an attempt to educate the peasants to resist the \"temptations\" of feudalism and the sprouts of capitalism that he saw re-emerging in the countryside from Liu's economic reforms.", "Large quantities of politicised art were produced and circulated—with Mao at the centre.", "Numerous posters, badges, and musical compositions referenced Mao in the phrase \"Chairman Mao is the red sun in our hearts\" () and a \"Savior of the people\" ().In October 1966, Mao's ''Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung'', known as the ''Little Red Book'', was published.", "Party members were encouraged to carry a copy with them, and possession was almost mandatory as a criterion for membership.", "According to ''Mao: The Unknown Story'' by Jun Yang, the mass publication and sale of this text contributed to making Mao the only millionaire created in 1950s China (332).", "Over the years, Mao's image became displayed almost everywhere, present in homes, offices and shops.", "His quotations were typographically emphasised by putting them in boldface or red type in even the most obscure writings.", "Music from the period emphasised Mao's stature, as did children's rhymes.", "The phrase \"Long Live Chairman Mao for ten thousand years\" was commonly heard during the era.300x300pxMao also has a presence in China and around the world in popular culture, where his face adorns everything from T-shirts to coffee cups.", "Mao's granddaughter, Kong Dongmei, defended the phenomenon, stating that \"it shows his influence, that he exists in people's consciousness and has influenced several generations of Chinese people's way of life.", "Just like Che Guevara's image, his has become a symbol of revolutionary culture.\"", "Since 1950, over 40 million people have visited Mao's birthplace in Shaoshan, Hunan.A 2016 survey by YouGov survey found that 42% of American millennials have never heard of Mao.", "According to the CIS poll, in 2019 only 21% of Australian millennials were familiar with Mao Zedong.", "In 2020s China, members of Generation Z are embracing Mao's revolutionary ideas, including violence against the capitalist class, amid rising social inequality, long working hours, and decreasing economic opportunities.", "As of the early 2020s, surveys conducted on Zhihu frequently rank Mao as one of the greatest and most influential figures in Chinese history." ], [ "Genealogy", "=== Ancestors ===Mao's ancestors were:* (, born Xiangtan 1870, died Shaoshan 1920), father, courtesy name () or also known as Mao Jen-sheng* (, born Xiangxiang 1867, died 1919), mother.", "She was illiterate and a devout Buddhist.", "She was a descendant of Wen Tianxiang.", "* (, born 1846, died 1904), paternal grandfather* (, given name not recorded, born 1847, died 1884), paternal grandmother* (), paternal great-grandfather=== Wives ===Mao with Jiang Qing and daughter Li Na in the 1940sMao had four wives who gave birth to a total of 10 children, among them:# Luo Yixiu (1889–1910) of Shaoshan: married 1907 to 1910# Yang Kaihui (1901–1930) of Changsha: married 1921 to 1927, executed by the KMT in 1930; mother to Mao Anying, Mao Anqing, and Mao Anlong# He Zizhen (1910–1984) of Jiangxi: married May 1928 to 1937; mother to 6 children# Jiang Qing (1914–1991), married 1939 until Mao's death; mother to Li Na=== Siblings ===Mao had several siblings:* Mao Zemin (1896–1943), younger brother, executed by a warlord* Mao Zetan (1905–1935), younger brother, executed by the KMT* Mao Zejian (1905–1929), adopted sister, executed by the KMTMao's parents altogether had five sons and two daughters.", "Two of the sons and both daughters died young, leaving the three brothers Mao Zedong, Mao Zemin, and Mao Zetan.", "Like all three of Mao Zedong's wives, Mao Zemin and Mao Zetan were communists.", "Like Yang Kaihui, both Mao Zemin and Mao Zetan were killed in warfare during Mao Zedong's lifetime.", "Note that the character ''zé'' () appears in all of the siblings' given names; this is a common Chinese naming convention.From the next generation, Mao Zemin's son Mao Yuanxin was raised by Mao Zedong's family, and he became Mao Zedong's liaison with the Politburo in 1975.In Li Zhisui's ''The Private Life of Chairman Mao'', Mao Yuanxin played a role in the final power-struggles.=== Children ===Mao had a total of ten children, including:* Mao Anying (1922–1950): son to Yang, married to (), killed in action during the Korean War* Mao Anqing (1923–2007): son to Yang, married to Shao Hua, son Mao Xinyu, grandson Mao Dongdong* Mao Anlong (1927–1931): son to Yang, died during the Chinese Civil War* Mao Anhong: son to He, left to Mao's younger brother Zetan and then to one of Zetan's guards when he went off to war, was never heard of again* Li Min (b.", "1936): daughter to He, married to (), son (), daughter Kong Dongmei ()* Li Na (b.", "1940): daughter to Jiang (whose birth surname was Lǐ, a name also used by Mao while evading the KMT), married to (), son ()Mao's first and second daughters were left to local villagers because it was too dangerous to raise them while fighting the Kuomintang and later the Japanese.", "Their youngest daughter (born in early 1938 in Moscow after Mao separated) and one other child (born 1933) died in infancy.", "Two English researchers who retraced the entire Long March route in 2002–2003 located a woman whom they believe might well be one of the missing children abandoned by Mao to peasants in 1935.Ed Jocelyn and Andrew McEwen hope a member of the Mao family will respond to requests for a DNA test.Through his ten children, Mao became grandfather to twelve grandchildren, many of whom he never knew.", "He has many great-grandchildren alive today.", "One of his granddaughters is businesswoman Kong Dongmei, one of the richest people in China.", "His grandson Mao Xinyu is a general in the Chinese army.", "Both he and Kong have written books about their grandfather." ], [ "Personal life", "Zhang Yufeng in 1964Mao's private life was kept very secret at the time of his rule.", "After Mao's death, Li Zhisui, his personal physician, published ''The Private Life of Chairman Mao'', a memoir which mentions some aspects of Mao's private life, such as chain-smoking cigarettes, addiction to powerful sleeping pills and large number of sexual partners.", "Some scholars and others who knew Mao personally have disputed the accuracy of these accounts and characterisations.Having grown up in Hunan, Mao spoke Mandarin with a marked Hunanese accent.", "Ross Terrill wrote Mao was a \"son of the soil ... rural and unsophisticated\" in origins, while Clare Hollingworth said that Mao was proud of his \"peasant ways and manners\", having a strong Hunanese accent and providing \"earthy\" comments on sexual matters.", "Lee Feigon said that Mao's \"earthiness\" meant that he remained connected to \"everyday Chinese life.", "\"Sinologist Stuart R. Schram emphasised Mao's ruthlessness but also noted that he showed no sign of taking pleasure in torture or killing in the revolutionary cause.", "Lee Feigon considered Mao \"draconian and authoritarian\" when threatened but opined that he was not the \"kind of villain that his mentor Stalin was\".", "Alexander Pantsov and Steven I. Levine wrote that Mao was a \"man of complex moods\", who \"tried his best to bring about prosperity and gain international respect\" for China, being \"neither a saint nor a demon.\"", "They noted that in early life, he strove to be \"a strong, wilful, and purposeful hero, not bound by any moral chains\", and that he \"passionately desired fame and power\".Mao learned to speak some English, particularly through Zhang Hanzhi, his English teacher, interpreter and diplomat who later married Qiao Guanhua, Foreign Minister of China and the head of China's UN delegation.", "His spoken English was limited to a few single words, phrases, and some short sentences.", "He first chose to systematically learn English in the 1950s, which was very unusual as the main foreign language first taught in Chinese schools at that time was Russian." ], [ "Writings and calligraphy", "Mao's calligraphy: a bronze plaque of a poem by Li Bai.", "(Chinese: 白帝城毛澤東手書李白詩銅匾 )Mao was a prolific writer of political and philosophical literature.", "The main repository of his pre-1949 writings is the Selected Works of Mao Zedong, published in four volumes by the People's Publishing House since 1951.A fifth volume, which brought the timeline up to 1957, was briefly issued during the leadership of Hua Guofeng, but subsequently withdrawn from circulation for its perceived ideological errors.", "There has never been an official \"Complete Works of Mao Zedong\" collecting all his known publications.", "Mao is the attributed author of ''Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung'', known in the West as the \"Little Red Book\" and in Cultural Revolution China as the \"Red Treasure Book\" ().", "First published in January 1964, this is a collection of short extracts from his many speeches and articles (most found in the Selected Works), edited by Lin Biao, and ordered topically.", "''The Little Red Book'' contains some of Mao's most widely known quotes.Mao wrote prolifically on political strategy, commentary, and philosophy both before and after he assumed power.", "Mao was also a skilled Chinese calligrapher with a highly personal style.", "In China, Mao was considered a master calligrapher during his lifetime.", "His calligraphy can be seen today throughout mainland China.", "His work gave rise to a new form of Chinese calligraphy called \"Mao-style\" or ''Maoti'', which has gained increasing popularity since his death.", "There exist various competitions specialising in Mao-style calligraphy.=== Literary works ===As did most Chinese intellectuals of his generation, Mao's education began with Chinese classical literature.", "Mao told Edgar Snow in 1936 that he had started the study of the Confucian Analects and the Four Books at a village school when he was eight, but that the books he most enjoyed reading were ''Water Margin'', ''Journey to the West'', the ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''.", "Mao published poems in classical forms starting in his youth and his abilities as a poet contributed to his image in China after he came to power in 1949.His style was influenced by the great Tang dynasty poets Li Bai and Li He.Some of his best known poems are \"Changsha\" (1925), \"The Double Ninth\" (October 1929), \"Loushan Pass\" (1935), \"The Long March\" (1935), \"Snow\" (February 1936), \"The PLA Captures Nanjing\" (1949), \"Reply to Li Shuyi\" (11 May 1957), and \"Ode to the Plum Blossom\" (December 1961)." ], [ "Portrayal in film and television", "Mao has been portrayed in film and television numerous times.", "Some notable actors include: Han Shi, the first actor ever to have portrayed Mao, in a 1978 drama ''Dielianhua'' and later again in a 1980 film ''Cross the Dadu River''; Gu Yue, who had portrayed Mao 84 times on screen throughout his 27-year career and had won the Best Actor title at the Hundred Flowers Awards in 1990 and 1993; Liu Ye, who played a young Mao in ''The Founding of a Party'' (2011); Tang Guoqiang, who has frequently portrayed Mao in more recent times, in the films ''The Long March'' (1996) and ''The Founding of a Republic'' (2009), and the television series ''Huang Yanpei'' (2010), among others.", "Mao is a principal character in American composer John Adams' opera ''Nixon in China'' (1987).", "The Beatles' song \"Revolution\" refers to Mao in the verse \"but if you go carrying pictures of Chairman Mao you ain't going to make it with anyone anyhow...\"; John Lennon expressed regret over including these lines in the song in 1972." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese tunic suitMao Zedong" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * , which is superseded by *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "=== General ===* \"Foundations of Chinese Foreign Policy online documents in English from the Wilson Center in Washington* Asia Source biography* ChineseMao.com: Extensive resources about Mao Zedong * CNN profile* Collected Works of Mao at the Maoist Internationalist Movement* Collected Works of Mao Tse-tung (1917–1949) Joint Publications Research Service* Mao quotations* Mao Zedong Reference Archive at marxists.org* Oxford Companion to World Politics: Mao Zedong* Bio of Mao at the official Communist Party of China web site=== Commentary ===* Discusses the life, military influence and writings of Chairman Mao ZeDong.", "* What Maoism Has Contributed by Samir Amin (21 September 2006)* China must confront dark past, says Mao confidant* Mao was cruel – but also laid the ground for today's China* On the Role of Mao Zedong by William Hinton.", "Monthly Review Foundation 2004 Volume 56, Issue 04 (September)* Propaganda paintings showing Mao as the great leader of China* Remembering Mao's Victims* Mao's Great Leap to Famine* Finding the Facts About Mao's Victims* Remembering China's Great Helmsman* Did Mao Really Kill Millions in the Great Leap Forward?", "* Mao Tse Tung: China's Peasant Emperor'''Chinese Soviet Republic''''''People's Republic of China'''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mechanical engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "ShiptankerRenaultVolkswagen'''Mechanical engineering''' is the study of physical machines that may involve force and movement.", "It is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematics principles with materials science, to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems.", "It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches.Mechanical engineering requires an understanding of core areas including mechanics, dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, design, structural analysis, and electricity.", "In addition to these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), computer-aided engineering (CAE), and product lifecycle management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling systems, transport systems, motor vehicles, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and others.Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the world.", "In the 19th century, developments in physics led to the development of mechanical engineering science.", "The field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements; today mechanical engineers are pursuing developments in such areas as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology.", "It also overlaps with aerospace engineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineering, structural engineering, electrical engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering, industrial engineering, and other engineering disciplines to varying amounts.", "Mechanical engineers may also work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology, and modelling of biological systems." ], [ "History", "The application of mechanical engineering can be seen in the archives of various ancient and medieval societies.", "The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East.", "The wedge and the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times.", "The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.", "The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.", "The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC.", "The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC.The Sakia was developed in the Kingdom of Kush during the 4th century BC.", "It relied on animal power reducing the tow on the requirement of human energy.", "Reservoirs in the form of Hafirs were developed in Kush to store water and boost irrigation.", "Bloomeries and blast furnaces were developed during the seventh century BC in Meroe.", "Kushite sundials applied mathematics in the form of advanced trigonometry.The earliest practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.", "In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes (287–212 BC) influenced mechanics in the Western tradition.", "In Roman Egypt, Heron of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) created the first steam-powered device (Aeolipile).", "In China, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200–265 AD) invented a chariot with differential gears.", "The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020–1101 AD) incorporated an escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before escapement devices were found in medieval European clocks.", "He also invented the world's first known endless power-transmitting chain drive.During the Islamic Golden Age (7th to 15th century), Muslim inventors made remarkable contributions in the field of mechanical technology.", "Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous ''Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'' in 1206 and presented many mechanical designs.In the 17th century, important breakthroughs in the foundations of mechanical engineering occurred in England and the Continent.", "The Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens invented the pendulum clock in 1657, which was the first reliable timekeeper for almost 300 years, and published a work dedicated to clock designs and the theory behind them.", "In England, Isaac Newton formulated Newton's Laws of Motion and developed the calculus, which would become the mathematical basis of physics.", "Newton was reluctant to publish his works for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues, such as Edmond Halley.", "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who earlier designed a mechanical calculator, is also credited with developing the calculus during the same time period.During the early 19th century Industrial Revolution, machine tools were developed in England, Germany, and Scotland.", "This allowed mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering.", "They brought with them manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.", "The first British professional society of mechanical engineers was formed in 1847 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, thirty years after the civil engineers formed the first such professional society Institution of Civil Engineers.", "On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann (1820–1901) founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, Germany in 1848.In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871).", "The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825.Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science." ], [ "Education", "Archimedes' screw was operated by hand and could efficiently raise water, as the animated red ball demonstrates.Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at various universities worldwide.", "Mechanical engineering programs typically take four to five years of study depending on the place and university and result in a Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.", "or B.E.", "), Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.", "or B.S.", "), Bachelor of Science Engineering (B.Sc.Eng.", "), Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.", "), Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering (B.M.E.", "), or Bachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc.)", "degree, in or with emphasis in mechanical engineering.", "In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither B.S.", "nor B.Tech.", "programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is \"Mechanical Engineer\", and the course work is based on five or six years of training.", "In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, but in order to qualify as an Engineer one has to pass a state exam at the end of the course.", "In Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum.In the United States, most undergraduate mechanical engineering programs are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to ensure similar course requirements and standards among universities.", "The ABET web site lists 302 accredited mechanical engineering programs as of 11 March 2014.Mechanical engineering programs in Canada are accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB), and most other countries offering engineering degrees have similar accreditation societies.In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical) or similar nomenclature, although there are an increasing number of specialisations.", "The degree takes four years of full-time study to achieve.", "To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord.", "Before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm.", "Similar systems are also present in South Africa and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA).In India, to become an engineer, one needs to have an engineering degree like a B.Tech.", "or B.E., have a diploma in engineering, or by completing a course in an engineering trade like fitter from the Industrial Training Institute (ITIs) to receive a \"ITI Trade Certificate\" and also pass the All India Trade Test (AITT) with an engineering trade conducted by the National Council of Vocational Training (NCVT) by which one is awarded a \"National Trade Certificate\".", "A similar system is used in Nepal.Some mechanical engineers go on to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering, Master of Technology, Master of Science, Master of Engineering Management (M.Eng.Mgt.", "or M.E.M.", "), a Doctor of Philosophy in engineering (Eng.D.", "or Ph.D.) or an engineer's degree.", "The master's and engineer's degrees may or may not include research.", "The Doctor of Philosophy includes a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.", "The Engineer's degree exists at a few institutions at an intermediate level between the master's degree and the doctorate.===Coursework===Standards set by each country's accreditation society are intended to provide uniformity in fundamental subject material, promote competence among graduating engineers, and to maintain confidence in the engineering profession as a whole.", "Engineering programs in the U.S., for example, are required by ABET to show that their students can \"work professionally in both thermal and mechanical systems areas.\"", "The specific courses required to graduate, however, may differ from program to program.", "Universities and institutes of technology will often combine multiple subjects into a single class or split a subject into multiple classes, depending on the faculty available and the university's major area(s) of research.The fundamental subjects required for mechanical engineering usually include:* Mathematics (in particular, calculus, differential equations, and linear algebra)* Basic physical sciences (including physics and chemistry)* Statics and dynamics* Strength of materials and solid mechanics* Materials engineering, composites* Thermodynamics, heat transfer, energy conversion, and HVAC* Fuels, combustion, internal combustion engine* Fluid mechanics (including fluid statics and fluid dynamics)* Mechanism and Machine design (including kinematics and dynamics)* Instrumentation and measurement* Manufacturing engineering, technology, or processes* Vibration, control theory and control engineering* Hydraulics and Pneumatics* Mechatronics and robotics* Engineering design and product design* Drafting, computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)Mechanical engineers are also expected to understand and be able to apply basic concepts from chemistry, physics, tribology, chemical engineering, civil engineering, and electrical engineering.", "All mechanical engineering programs include multiple semesters of mathematical classes including calculus, and advanced mathematical concepts including differential equations, partial differential equations, linear algebra, differential geometry, and statistics, among others.In addition to the core mechanical engineering curriculum, many mechanical engineering programs offer more specialized programs and classes, such as control systems, robotics, transport and logistics, cryogenics, fuel technology, automotive engineering, biomechanics, vibration, optics and others, if a separate department does not exist for these subjects.Most mechanical engineering programs also require varying amounts of research or community projects to gain practical problem-solving experience.", "In the United States it is common for mechanical engineering students to complete one or more internships while studying, though this is not typically mandated by the university.", "Cooperative education is another option.", "Future work skills research puts demand on study components that feed student's creativity and innovation." ], [ "Job duties", "Mechanical engineers research, design, develop, build, and test mechanical and thermal devices, including tools, engines, and machines.Mechanical engineers typically do the following:* Analyze problems to see how mechanical and thermal devices might help solve the problem.", "* Design or redesign mechanical and thermal devices using analysis and computer-aided design.", "* Develop and test prototypes of devices they design.", "* Analyze the test results and change the design as needed.", "* Oversee the manufacturing process for the device.", "* Manage a team of professionals in specialized fields like mechanical drafting and designing, prototyping, 3D printing or/and CNC Machines specialists.Mechanical engineers design and oversee the manufacturing of many products ranging from medical devices to new batteries.", "They also design power-producing machines such as electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines as well as power-using machines, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning systems.Like other engineers, mechanical engineers use computers to help create and analyze designs, run simulations and test how a machine is likely to work.===License and regulation===Engineers may seek license by a state, provincial, or national government.", "The purpose of this process is to ensure that engineers possess the necessary technical knowledge, real-world experience, and knowledge of the local legal system to practice engineering at a professional level.", "Once certified, the engineer is given the title of Professional Engineer (United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Bangladesh and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India and Zimbabwe), ''Chartered Professional Engineer'' (in Australia and New Zealand) or ''European Engineer'' (much of the European Union).In the U.S., to become a licensed Professional Engineer (PE), an engineer must pass the comprehensive FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam, work a minimum of 4 years as an ''Engineering Intern (EI)'' or ''Engineer-in-Training (EIT)'', and pass the \"Principles and Practice\" or PE (Practicing Engineer or Professional Engineer) exams.", "The requirements and steps of this process are set forth by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES), composed of engineering and land surveying licensing boards representing all U.S. states and territories.In the UK, current graduates require a BEng plus an appropriate master's degree or an integrated MEng degree, a minimum of 4 years post graduate on the job competency development and a peer-reviewed project report to become a Chartered Mechanical Engineer (CEng, MIMechE) through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "CEng MIMechE can also be obtained via an examination route administered by the City and Guilds of London Institute.In most developed countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a professional engineer or a chartered engineer.", "\"Only a licensed engineer, for instance, may prepare, sign, seal and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or to seal engineering work for public and private clients.\"", "This requirement can be written into state and provincial legislation, such as in the Canadian provinces, for example the Ontario or Quebec's Engineer Act.In other countries, such as Australia, and the UK, no such legislation exists; however, practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics independent of legislation, that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.===Salaries and workforce statistics===The total number of engineers employed in the U.S. in 2015 was roughly 1.6 million.", "Of these, 278,340 were mechanical engineers (17.28%), the largest discipline by size.", "In 2012, the median annual income of mechanical engineers in the U.S. workforce was $80,580.The median income was highest when working for the government ($92,030), and lowest in education ($57,090).", "In 2014, the total number of mechanical engineering jobs was projected to grow 5% over the next decade.", "As of 2009, the average starting salary was $58,800 with a bachelor's degree." ], [ "Subdisciplines", "The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many mechanical engineering science disciplines.", "Several of these subdisciplines which are typically taught at the undergraduate level are listed below, with a brief explanation and the most common application of each.", "Some of these subdisciplines are unique to mechanical engineering, while others are a combination of mechanical engineering and one or more other disciplines.", "Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses skills and techniques from several of these subdisciplines, as well as specialized subdisciplines.", "Specialized subdisciplines, as used in this article, are more likely to be the subject of graduate studies or on-the-job training than undergraduate research.", "Several specialized subdisciplines are discussed in this section.===Mechanics===Mohr's circle, a common tool to study stresses in a mechanical elementMechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of forces and their effect upon matter.", "Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration and deformation (both elastic and plastic) of objects under known forces (also called loads) or stresses.", "Subdisciplines of mechanics include* Statics, the study of non-moving bodies under known loads, how forces affect static bodies* Dynamics the study of how forces affect moving bodies.", "Dynamics includes kinematics (about movement, velocity, and acceleration) and kinetics (about forces and resulting accelerations).", "* Mechanics of materials, the study of how different materials deform under various types of stress* Fluid mechanics, the study of how fluids react to forces* Kinematics, the study of the motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of objects), while ignoring the forces that cause the motion.", "Kinematics is often used in the design and analysis of mechanisms.", "* Continuum mechanics, a method of applying mechanics that assumes that objects are continuous (rather than discrete)Mechanical engineers typically use mechanics in the design or analysis phases of engineering.", "If the engineering project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to evaluate where the stresses will be most intense.", "Dynamics might be used when designing the car's engine, to evaluate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles.", "Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials for the frame and engine.", "Fluid mechanics might be used to design a ventilation system for the vehicle (see HVAC), or to design the intake system for the engine.===Mechatronics and robotics===Training FMS with learning robot SCORBOT-ER 4u, workbench CNC Mill and CNC LatheMechatronics is a combination of mechanics and electronics.", "It is an interdisciplinary branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and software engineering that is concerned with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid automation systems.", "In this way, machines can be automated through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanisms, and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software.", "A common example of a mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive.", "Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it to bits.", "Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer.Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive.", "These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world.", "To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot).Robots are used extensively in industrial automation engineering.", "They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them economically, and to ensure better quality.", "Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, especially in Automotive Industries and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves.", "Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields.", "Robots are also sold for various residential applications, from recreation to domestic applications.===Structural analysis===Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil engineering) devoted to examining why and how objects fail and to fix the objects and their performance.", "Structural failures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure.", "''Static structural failure'' occurs when, upon being loaded (having a force applied) the object being analyzed either breaks or is deformed plastically, depending on the criterion for failure.", "''Fatigue failure'' occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading cycles.", "Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation) until the crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure.Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended.", "Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some plastic bags, are designed to break.", "If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause.Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure.", "Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes.Once theory is applied to a mechanical design, physical testing is often performed to verify calculated results.", "Structural analysis may be used in an office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests.===Thermodynamics and thermo-science===Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering, including mechanical and chemical engineering.", "At its simplest, thermodynamics is the study of energy, its use and transformation through a system.", "Typically, engineering thermodynamics is concerned with changing energy from one form to another.", "As an example, automotive engines convert chemical energy (enthalpy) from the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels.Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical engineers in the fields of heat transfer, thermofluids, and energy conversion.", "Mechanical engineers use thermo-science to design engines and power plants, heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, heat exchangers, heat sinks, radiators, refrigeration, insulation, and others.===Design and drafting===mechanical double seal Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers design products and create instructions for manufacturing parts.", "A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information.", "A U.S. mechanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman.", "Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions.Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program.", "Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings.", "However, with the advent of computer numerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing, parts can now be fabricated without the need for constant technician input.", "Manually manufactured parts generally consist of spray coatings, surface finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture.", "Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD)." ], [ "Modern tools", "An oblique view of a four-cylinder inline crankshaft with pistonsMany mechanical engineering companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have incorporated computer-aided engineering (CAE) programs into their existing design and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD).", "This method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing mating interfaces and tolerances.Other CAE programs commonly used by mechanical engineers include product lifecycle management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations.", "Analysis tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and manufacturability.", "These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the design process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other constraints.", "No physical prototype need be created until the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative few.", "In addition, CAE analysis programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as viscoelasticity, complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows.As mechanical engineering begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen in mechatronics, multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is being used with other CAE programs to automate and improve the iterative design process.", "MDO tools wrap around existing CAE processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes home for the day.", "They also use sophisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently explore possible designs, often finding better, innovative solutions to difficult multidisciplinary design problems." ], [ "Areas of research", "Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically possible in order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficient machines and mechanical systems.", "Some technologies at the cutting edge of mechanical engineering are listed below (see also exploratory engineering).===Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)===Micron-scale mechanical components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devices are fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers like SU8.Examples of MEMS components are the accelerometers that are used as car airbag sensors, modern cell phones, gyroscopes for precise positioning and microfluidic devices used in biomedical applications.===Friction stir welding (FSW)===Friction stir welding, a new type of welding, was discovered in 1991 by The Welding Institute (TWI).", "The innovative steady state (non-fusion) welding technique joins materials previously un-weldable, including several aluminum alloys.", "It plays an important role in the future construction of airplanes, potentially replacing rivets.", "Current uses of this technology to date include welding the seams of the aluminum main Space Shuttle external tank, Orion Crew Vehicle, Boeing Delta II and Delta IV Expendable Launch Vehicles and the SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket, armor plating for amphibious assault ships, and welding the wings and fuselage panels of the new Eclipse 500 aircraft from Eclipse Aviation among an increasingly growing pool of uses.===Composites===Composite cloth consisting of woven carbon fiberComposites or composite materials are a combination of materials which provide different physical characteristics than either material separately.", "Composite material research within mechanical engineering typically focuses on designing (and, subsequently, finding applications for) stronger or more rigid materials while attempting to reduce weight, susceptibility to corrosion, and other undesirable factors.", "Carbon fiber reinforced composites, for instance, have been used in such diverse applications as spacecraft and fishing rods.===Mechatronics===Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, and software engineering.", "The discipline of mechatronics began as a way to combine mechanical principles with electrical engineering.", "Mechatronic concepts are used in the majority of electro-mechanical systems.", "Typical electro-mechanical sensors used in mechatronics are strain gauges, thermocouples, and pressure transducers.===Nanotechnology===At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology—one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis.", "For now that goal remains within exploratory engineering.", "Areas of current mechanical engineering research in nanotechnology include nanofilters, nanofilms, and nanostructures, among others.===Finite element analysis===Finite Element Analysis is a computational tool used to estimate stress, strain, and deflection of solid bodies.", "It uses a mesh setup with user-defined sizes to measure physical quantities at a node.", "The more nodes there are, the higher the precision.", "This field is not new, as the basis of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or Finite Element Method (FEM) dates back to 1941.But the evolution of computers has made FEA/FEM a viable option for analysis of structural problems.", "Many commercial codes such as NASTRAN, ANSYS, and ABAQUS are widely used in industry for research and the design of components.", "Some 3D modeling and CAD software packages have added FEA modules.", "In the recent times, cloud simulation platforms like SimScale are becoming more common.Other techniques such as finite difference method (FDM) and finite-volume method (FVM) are employed to solve problems relating heat and mass transfer, fluid flows, fluid surface interaction, etc.===Biomechanics===Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to biological systems, such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells.", "Biomechanics also aids in creating prosthetic limbs and artificial organs for humans.", "Biomechanics is closely related to engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering sciences to analyze biological systems.", "Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics and/or materials sciences can supply correct approximations to the mechanics of many biological systems.In the past decade, reverse engineering of materials found in nature such as bone matter has gained funding in academia.", "The structure of bone matter is optimized for its purpose of bearing a large amount of compressive stress per unit weight.", "The goal is to replace crude steel with bio-material for structural design.Over the past decade the Finite element method (FEM) has also entered the Biomedical sector highlighting further engineering aspects of Biomechanics.", "FEM has since then established itself as an alternative to in vivo surgical assessment and gained the wide acceptance of academia.", "The main advantage of Computational Biomechanics lies in its ability to determine the endo-anatomical response of an anatomy, without being subject to ethical restrictions.", "This has led FE modelling to the point of becoming ubiquitous in several fields of Biomechanics while several projects have even adopted an open source philosophy (e.g.", "BioSpine).===Computational fluid dynamics===Computational fluid dynamics, usually abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows.", "Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the interaction of liquids and gases with surfaces defined by boundary conditions.", "With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved.", "Ongoing research yields software that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios such as turbulent flows.", "Initial validation of such software is performed using a wind tunnel with the final validation coming in full-scale testing, e.g.", "flight tests.===Acoustical engineering===Acoustical engineering is one of many other sub-disciplines of mechanical engineering and is the application of acoustics.", "Acoustical engineering is the study of Sound and Vibration.", "These engineers work effectively to reduce noise pollution in mechanical devices and in buildings by soundproofing or removing sources of unwanted noise.", "The study of acoustics can range from designing a more efficient hearing aid, microphone, headphone, or recording studio to enhancing the sound quality of an orchestra hall.", "Acoustical engineering also deals with the vibration of different mechanical systems." ], [ "Related fields", "Manufacturing engineering, aerospace engineering and automotive engineering are grouped with mechanical engineering at times.", "A bachelor's degree in these areas will typically have a difference of a few specialized classes." ], [ "See also", "* Automobile engineering* Index of mechanical engineering articles; Lists* Glossary of mechanical engineering* List of historic mechanical engineering landmarks* List of inventors* List of mechanical engineering topics* List of mechanical engineers* List of related journals* List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by revenue; Associations* American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)* American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)* Pi Tau Sigma (Mechanical Engineering honor society)* Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)* Society of Women Engineers (SWE)* Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) (British)* Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) (British)* Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI) (Germany); Wikibooks* Engineering Mechanics* Engineering Thermodynamics* Engineering Acoustics* Fluid Mechanics* Heat Transfer* Microtechnology* Nanotechnology* Pro/Engineer (ProE CAD)* Strength of Materials/Solid Mechanics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Mechanical engineering at MTU.edu" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minister" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Minister''' may refer to:* Minister (Christianity), a Christian cleric** Minister (Catholic Church)* Minister (government), a member of government who heads a ministry (government department)** Minister without portfolio, a member of government with the rank of a normal minister but who doesn't head a ministry** Shadow minister, a member of a Shadow Cabinet of the opposition** Minister (Austria)* Minister (diplomacy), the rank of diplomat directly below ambassador* Ministerialis, a member of a noble class in the Holy Roman Empire* ''The Minister'', a 2011 French-Belgian film directed by Pierre Schöller" ], [ "See also", "*Ministry (disambiguation)*Minster (disambiguation)*''Yes Minister''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 11" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 222 – Roman emperor Elagabalus is murdered alongside his mother, Julia Soaemias.", "He is replaced by his 14-year old cousin, Severus Alexander.", "* 843 – Triumph of Orthodoxy: Empress Theodora II restores the veneration of icons in the Orthodox churches in the Byzantine Empire.", "*1343 – Arnošt of Pardubice becomes the last Bishop of Prague (3 March 1343 O.S.", "), and, a year later, the first Archbishop of Prague.", "*1387 – Battle of Castagnaro: Padua, led by John Hawkwood, is victorious over Giovanni Ordelaffi of Verona.===1601–1900===*1641 – Guaraní forces living in the Jesuit reductions defeat bandeirantes loyal to the Portuguese Empire at the Battle of Mbororé in present-day Panambí, Argentina.", "*1649 – The Frondeurs and the French government sign the Peace of Rueil.", "*1702 – ''The Daily Courant'', England's first national daily newspaper, is published for the first time.", "*1708 – Queen Anne withholds Royal Assent from the Scottish Militia Bill, the last time a British monarch vetoes legislation.", "*1784 – The signing of the Treaty of Mangalore brings the Second Anglo-Mysore War to an end.", "*1795 – The Battle of Kharda is fought between the Maratha Confederacy and the Nizam of Hyderabad, resulting in Maratha victory.", "*1845 – Flagstaff War: Unhappy with translational differences regarding the Treaty of Waitangi, chiefs Hōne Heke, Kawiti and Māori tribe members chop down the British flagpole for a fourth time and drive settlers out of Kororāreka, New Zealand.", "*1848 – Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin become the first Prime Ministers of the Province of Canada to be democratically elected under a system of responsible government.", "*1851 – The first performance of ''Rigoletto'' by Giuseppe Verdi takes place in Venice.", "*1861 – American Civil War: The Constitution of the Confederate States of America is adopted.", "*1864 – The Great Sheffield Flood kills 238 people in Sheffield, England.", "*1872 – Construction of the Seven Sisters Colliery, South Wales, begins; it is located on one of the richest coal sources in Britain.", "*1879 – Shō Tai formally abdicates his position of King of Ryūkyū, under orders from Tokyo, ending the Ryukyu Kingdom.", "*1888 – The Great Blizzard of 1888 begins along the eastern seaboard of the United States, shutting down commerce and killing more than 400 people.===1901–present===*1917 – World War I: Mesopotamian campaign: Baghdad falls to Anglo-Indian forces commanded by General Frederick Stanley Maude.", "*1927 – In New York City, Samuel Roxy Rothafel opens the Roxy Theatre.", "*1941 – World War II: United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Lend-Lease Act into law, allowing American-built war supplies to be shipped to the Allies on loan.", "*1945 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy attempts a large-scale kamikaze attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet anchored at Ulithi atoll in Operation Tan No.", "2.", "* 1945 – World War II: The Empire of Vietnam, a short-lived Japanese puppet state, is established.", "*1946 – Rudolf Höss, the first commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp, is captured by British troops.", "*1977 – The 1977 Hanafi Siege: Around 150 hostages held in Washington, D.C., by Hanafi Muslims are set free after ambassadors from three Islamic nations join negotiations.", "*1978 – Coastal Road massacre: At least 37 are killed and more than 70 are wounded when Fatah hijack an Israeli bus, prompting Israel's Operation Litani.", "*1981 – Hundreds of students protest in the University of Pristina in Kosovo, then part of Yugoslavia, to give their province more political rights.", "The protests then became a nationwide movement.", "*1982 – Fifteen people are killed when Widerøe Flight 933 crashes into the Barents Sea near Gamvik, Norway.", "*1983 – Bob Hawke is appointed Prime Minister of Australia.", "*1985 – Mikhail Gorbachev is elected to the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, making Gorbachev the USSR's de facto, and last, head of state.", "*1990 – Lithuania declares independence from the Soviet Union.", "* 1990 – Patricio Aylwin is sworn in as the first democratically elected President of Chile since 1970.", "*2003 – The International Criminal Court holds its inaugural session in The Hague.", "*2004 – Madrid train bombings: Simultaneous explosions on rush hour trains in Madrid, Spain kill 191 people.", "*2006 – Michelle Bachelet is inaugurated as the first female president of Chile.", "*2009 – Winnenden school shooting: Sixteen are killed and 11 are injured before recent graduate Tim Kretschmer shoots and kills himself, leading to tightened weapons restrictions in Germany.", "*2010 – Economist and businessman Sebastián Piñera is sworn in as President of Chile.", "Aftershocks of the 2010 Pichilemu earthquake hit central Chile during the ceremony.", "*2011 – An earthquake measuring 9.0 in magnitude strikes east of Sendai, Japan, triggering a tsunami killing thousands of people.", "This event also triggered the second largest nuclear accident in history, and one of only two events to be classified as a Level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale.", "*2012 – A U.S. soldier kills 16 civilians in the Panjwayi District of Afghanistan near Kandahar.", "*2018 – A Bombardier Challenger 604 crashes into the Zagros Mountains near the Iranian city of Shar-e-kord, killing all 11 people on board.", "*2020 – The World Health Organization (WHO) declares the COVID-19 virus epidemic a pandemic.", "*2021 – US President Joe Biden signs the $1.9 trillion American Rescue Plan into law.", "*2023 – The Burmese military kills at least 30 villagers, including 3 Buddhist monks, during the Pinlaung massacre in Shan State, Myanmar." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1278 – Mary of Woodstock, daughter of Edward I of England (d. c.1332) *1544 – Torquato Tasso, Italian poet and educator (d. 1595)===1601–1900===*1738 – Benjamin Tupper, American general (d. 1792)*1785 – John McLean, American jurist and politician (d. 1861)*1806 – Louis Boulanger, French Romantic painter, lithographer and illustrator (d. 1867)*1811 – Urbain Le Verrier, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1877)*1815 – Anna Bochkoltz, German operatic soprano, voice teacher and composer (d. 1879)*1818 – Marius Petipa, French-Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1910)*1819 – Henry Tate, English businessman and philanthropist, founded Tate & Lyle (d. 1899)*1822 – Joseph Louis François Bertrand, French mathematician, economist, and academic (d. 1900)*1863 – Andrew Stoddart, English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1915)*1870 – Louis Bachelier, French mathematician and theorist (d. 1946)*1876 – Carl Ruggles, American composer and painter (d. 1971)*1880 – Harry H. Laughlin, American eugenicist and sociologist (d. 1943)*1884 – Lewi Pethrus, Swedish minister and hymn-writer (d. 1974)*1885 – Malcolm Campbell, English race car driver (d. 1948)*1887 – Raoul Walsh, American actor and director (d. 1980)*1890 – Vannevar Bush, American engineer and academic (d. 1974)*1893 – Wanda Gág, American author and illustrator (d. 1946)*1897 – Henry Cowell, American pianist and composer (d. 1965)*1898 – Dorothy Gish, American actress (d. 1968)*1899 – Frederik IX of Denmark (d. 1972)* 1899 – James H. Douglas, Jr., American lawyer, and politician, United States Deputy Secretary of Defense (d. 1988)===1901–present===*1903 – Ronald Syme, New Zealand historian and scholar (d. 1989)* 1903 – Lawrence Welk, American accordion player and bandleader (d. 1992)*1907 – Jessie Matthews, English actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1981)*1908 – Matti Sippala, Finnish javelin thrower (d. 1997)*1910 – Robert Havemann, German chemist and academic (d. 1982)*1911 – Sir Fitzroy Maclean, 1st Baronet, Scottish general and politician (d. 1996)*1913 – Wolf-Dietrich Wilcke, German colonel and pilot (d. 1944)*1915 – Vijay Hazare, Indian cricketer (d. 2004)* 1915 – J. C. R. Licklider, American computer scientist and psychologist (d. 1990)*1916 – Harold Wilson, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1995)*1920 – Nicolaas Bloembergen, Dutch-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017)*1921 – Astor Piazzolla, Argentine tango composer and bandoneon player (d. 1992)*1922 – Cornelius Castoriadis, Greek economist and philosopher (d. 1997)* 1922 – Abdul Razak Hussein, Malaysian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Malaysia (d. 1976)* 1922 – José Luis López Vázquez, Spanish actor, costume designer and assistant director (d. 2009)*1923 – Louise Brough, American tennis player (d. 2014)*1925 – Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, American biochemist and academic (d. 1983)*1926 – Ralph Abernathy, American minister and activist (d. 1990)*1927 – Freda Meissner-Blau, Austrian activist and politician (d. 2015)* 1927 – Robert Mosbacher, American businessman, and politician, United States Secretary of Commerce (d. 2010)* 1927 – Josep Maria Subirachs, Spanish sculptor and painter (d. 2014)*1929 – Timothy Carey, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1994)* 1929 – Jackie McGlew, South African cricketer (d. 1998)*1930 – David Gentleman, English illustrator and engraver* 1930 – Claude Jutra, Canadian actor, director and screenwriter (d. 1986)*1931 – Rupert Murdoch, Australian-American businessman and media magnate*1932 – Leroy Jenkins, American violinist and composer (d. 2007)* 1932 – Nigel Lawson, English journalist and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 2023)*1934 – Sam Donaldson, American journalist*1936 – Antonin Scalia, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 2016)*1940 – Alberto Cortez, Argentinian-Spanish singer-songwriter (d. 2019)*1943 – Arturo Merzario, Italian race car driver*1945 – Dock Ellis, American baseball player and coach (d. 2008)* 1945 – Harvey Mandel, American guitarist*1947 – Tristan Murail, French composer and educator*1948 – Roy Barnes, American politician, 80th Governor of Georgia*1950 – Bobby McFerrin, American singer-songwriter, producer, and conductor* 1950 – Jerry Zucker, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1951 – Dominique Sanda, French model and actress*1952 – Douglas Adams, English author and playwright (d. 2001)*1953 – Derek Daly, Irish-American race car driver and sportscaster* 1953 – Jimmy Iovine, American record producer and businessman, co-founded Beats Electronics* 1953 – Bernie LaBarge, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist*1954 – David Newman, American composer and conductor* 1954 – Gale Norton, American politician, 48th United States Secretary of the Interior*1955 – Leslie Cliff, Canadian swimmer* 1955 – Nina Hagen, German singer-songwriter*1956 – Willie Banks, American triple jumper* 1956 – Helen Rollason, English sports journalist and sportscaster (d. 1999)*1957 – Qasem Soleimani, Former Iranian commander of the Quds Force (d. 2020)*1958 – Anissa Jones, American child actress (d. 1976)*1959 – Nina Hartley, American pornographic actress/director, sex educator, sex-positive feminist, and author*1960 – Warwick Taylor, New Zealand rugby player*1961 – Elias Koteas, Canadian actor* 1961 – Bruce Watson, Canadian-Scottish guitarist*1962 – Matt Mead, American politician, Governor of Wyoming*1963 – Gary Barnett, English footballer and manager* 1963 – Alex Kingston, English actress* 1963 – David LaChapelle, American photographer and director*1964 – Vinnie Paul, American drummer, songwriter and producer (d. 2018)* 1964 – Shane Richie, English actor and singer*1965 – Nigel Adkins, English footballer and manager* 1965 – Jesse Jackson, Jr., American lawyer and politician* 1965 – Jenny Packham, English fashion designer*1966 – John Thompson III, American basketball player and coach*1967 – John Barrowman, Scottish-American actor and singer* 1967 – Brad Carson, American lawyer and politician*1968 – Lisa Loeb, American singer-songwriter*1969 – Terrence Howard, American actor and producer* 1969 – Soraya, Colombian-American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2006)*1971 – Johnny Knoxville, American actor and entertainer*1974 – Bobby Abreu, Venezuelan baseball player*1976 – Thomas Gravesen, Danish footballer*1977 – Becky Hammon, American-Russian basketball player and coach*1978 – Didier Drogba, Ivorian footballer* 1978 – Albert Luque, Spanish footballer*1979 – Elton Brand, American basketball player* 1979 – Fred Jones, American basketball player* 1979 – Benji Madden, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1979 – Joel Madden, American singer-songwriter and producer*1980 – Dan Uggla, American baseball player*1981 – LeToya Luckett, American singer-songwriter and actress*1982 – Brian Anderson, American baseball player*1985 – Paul Bissonnette, Canadian ice hockey player* 1985 – Daniel Vázquez Evuy, Equatoguinean footballer* 1985 – Cassandra Fairbanks, American journalist and activist* 1985 – Stelios Malezas, Greek footballer* 1985 – Greg Olsen, American football player and commentator* 1985 – Nikolai Topor-Stanley, Australian footballer*1986 – Dario Cologna, Swiss skier*1987 – Marc-André Gragnani, Canadian ice hockey player* 1987 – Tanel Kangert, Estonian cyclist* 1987 – Ngonidzashe Makusha, Zimbabwean sprinter and long jumper*1988 – Fábio Coentrão, Portuguese footballer* 1988 – Cecil Lolo, South African footballer (d. 2015)*1989 – Anton Yelchin, Russian-born American actor (d. 2016)*1990 – Ayumi Morita, Japanese tennis player*1993 – Jodie Comer, British actress* 1993 – Anthony Davis, American basketball player*1994 – Andrew Robertson, Scottish footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 222 – Elagabalus, Roman emperor (b.", "203)* 638 – Sophronius of Jerusalem (b.", "560)*1198 – Marie of France, Countess of Champagne (b.", "1145)*1486 – Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg (b.", "1414)*1575 – Matthias Flacius, Croatian theologian and reformer (b.", "1520)===1601–1900===*1602 – Emilio de' Cavalieri, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1550)*1607 – Giovanni Maria Nanino, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1543)*1665 – Clemente Tabone, Maltese landowner and militia member (b. c. 1575)*1722 – John Toland, Irish philosopher and theorist (b.", "1670)*1759 – John Forbes, Scottish general (b.", "1707)*1820 – Benjamin West, American-English painter and academic (b.", "1738)*1851 – Marie-Louise Coidavid, Queen of Haiti (b.", "1778)* 1851 – George McDuffie, American lawyer and politician, 55th Governor of South Carolina (b.", "1790)*1863 – Sir James Outram, 1st Baronet, English general (b.", "1803)*1869 – Vladimir Odoyevsky, Russian philosopher and critic (b.", "1803)*1870 – Moshoeshoe I of Lesotho (b.", "1786)*1874 – Charles Sumner, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1811)*1898 – William Rosecrans, American general and politician (b.", "1819)===1901–present===*1907 – Jean Casimir-Perier, French lawyer and politician, 6th President of France (b.", "1847)*1908 – Edmondo De Amicis, Italian journalist and author (b.", "1846)* 1908 – Benjamin Waugh, English minister and activist (b.", "1839)*1915 – Thomas Alexander Browne, English-Australian author (b.", "1826)*1931 – F. W. Murnau, German-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1888)*1937 – Joseph S. Cullinan, American businessman, co-founded Texaco (b.", "1860)*1944 – Hendrik Willem van Loon, Dutch-American journalist and historian (b.", "1882)* 1944 – Edgar Zilsel, Austrian historian and philosopher of science, linked to the Vienna Circle (b.", "1891)*1949 – Henri Giraud, French general and politician (b.", "1879)*1952 – Pierre Renoir, French actor and director (b.", "1885)*1955 – Alexander Fleming, Scottish biologist, pharmacologist, and botanist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1881)* 1955 – Oscar F. Mayer, German-American businessman, founded Oscar Mayer (b.", "1859)*1956 – Aleksanteri Aava, Finnish poet (b.", "1883)*1957 – Richard E. Byrd, American admiral and explorer (b.", "1888)*1959 – Lester Dent, American author (b.", "1904)*1960 – Roy Chapman Andrews, American paleontologist and explorer (b.", "1884)*1967 – Geraldine Farrar, American soprano and actress (b.", "1882)*1969 – John Wyndham, English author (b.", "1903)*1970 – Erle Stanley Gardner, American lawyer and author (b.", "1889)*1971 – Philo Farnsworth, American inventor (b.", "1906)* 1971 – Whitney Young, American activist (b.", "1921)*1982 – Edmund Cooper, English poet and author (b.", "1926)* 1982 – Horace Gregory, American poet, translator, and academic (b.", "1898)*1986 – Sonny Terry, American singer and harmonica player (b.", "1911)*1989 – James Kee, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1917)* 1989 – John J. McCloy, American lawyer and diplomat (b.", "1895)*1992 – Richard Brooks, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1912)*1995 – Myfanwy Talog, Welsh actress and singer (b.", "1945)*1996 – Vince Edwards, American actor and director (b.", "1928)*1999 – Herbert Jasper, Canadian psychologist, anatomist, and neurologist (b.", "1906)* 1999 – Camille Laurin, Canadian psychiatrist and politician (b.", "1922)*2002 – James Tobin, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)*2006 – Bernie Geoffrion, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1931)* 2006 – Slobodan Milošević, Serbian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (b.", "1941)*2010 – Hans van Mierlo, Dutch politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b.", "1931)*2012 – James B. Morehead, American colonel and pilot (b.", "1916)*2013 – Martin Adolf Bormann, German priest and theologian (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Simón Alberto Consalvi, Venezuelan journalist and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Venezuela (b.", "1927)*2014 – Dean Bailey, Australian footballer and coach (b.", "1967)* 2014 – Joel Brinkley, American journalist and academic (b.", "1952)*2015 – Walter Burkert, German philologist and scholar (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Jimmy Greenspoon, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (b.", "1948)*2016 – Iolanda Balaș, Romanian high jumper (b.", "1936)* 2016 – Doreen Massey, English geographer and political activist (b.", "1944)*2018 – Ken Dodd, English comedian and singer (b.", "1927)* 2018 – Siegfried Rauch, German actor (b.", "1932)* 2018 – Karl Lehmann, German cardinal (b.", "1936)* 2018 – Mary Rosenblum, American science fiction and mystery author (b.", "1952)*2021 – Ray Campi, American singer and musician (b.", "1934)* 2021 – Takis Mousafiris, Greek composer and songwriter (b.", "1936)*2022 – Rupiah Banda, President of Zambia (b.", "1937)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Alberta of Agen**Constantine**Óengus of Tallaght**Sophronius of Jerusalem**Vindicianus*Day of Restoration of Independence from the Soviet Union in 1990 (Lithuania)*Moshoeshoe Day (Lesotho)" ], [ "Notes", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 11" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monkey Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Monkey Island''''' is a series of adventure games.", "The first four games were produced and published by LucasArts, earlier known as Lucasfilm Games.", "The fifth was developed by Telltale Games with LucasArts, while the sixth was developed by Terrible Toybox with Lucasfilm Games and Devolver Digital.The games follow the adventures of the hapless Guybrush Threepwood as he struggles to become the most notorious pirate in the Caribbean, defeat the plans of the evil undead pirate LeChuck and win the heart of Governor Elaine Marley.", "The plots often involve the mysterious Monkey Island and its secrets.", "''Monkey Island'' was created by Ron Gilbert, Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman.", "Gilbert worked on the first two games before leaving LucasArts.", "Grossman and Schafer had success on other games before they both left LucasArts.", "The rights to ''Monkey Island'' remained with LucasArts, and the third and fourth games were created without direct involvement from the original writing staff.", "Grossman was the project leader of the fifth game in the series and Gilbert was involved with the first design of the game.", "Gilbert's studio developed the sixth game, ''Return to Monkey Island'' (2022), with Grossman assisting." ], [ "Background", "Ron Gilbert's two main inspirations for the story were Disneyland's Pirates of the Caribbean ride and Tim Powers' book ''On Stranger Tides''.", "The book was the inspiration for the story and characters, while the ride was the inspiration for the ambiance.", "Gilbert said in an interview that \"the POTC Ride keeps you moving through the adventure but I've always wished I could get off and wander around, learn more about the characters, and find a way onto those pirate ships.", "So with ''The Secret of Monkey Island'' I wanted to create a game that had the same flavor, but where you could step off the boat and enter that whole storybook world\"." ], [ "Media", "===Games=======''The Secret of Monkey Island''====The series debuted in 1990 with ''The Secret of Monkey Island'' on the Amiga, MS-DOS, Atari ST and Macintosh platforms; the game was later ported to FM Towns and Mega-CD (1993).", "A remake version with updated graphics and new voiceovers was released for PlayStation Network, PC Windows, Xbox Live Arcade and OS X.", "An iPhone version was also released on July 23, 2009.The game starts off with the main character Guybrush Threepwood stating \"I want to be a pirate!\"", "To do so, he must prove himself to three old pirate captains.", "During the perilous pirate trials, he meets the beautiful governor Elaine Marley, with whom he falls in love, unaware that the ghost pirate LeChuck also has his eyes on her.", "When Elaine is kidnapped, Guybrush procures crew and ship to track LeChuck down, defeat him and rescue his love.====''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge''====The second game, ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'' from 1991, was available for fewer platforms; it was only released for PC MS-DOS, Amiga, Macintosh, and later for FM Towns.", "A Special Edition version, in a similar style as ''The Secret of Monkey Island: Special Edition'', was released in July 2010 for iPhone, iPad, iPod Touch, Mac, PC, PS3 and Xbox 360.As Guybrush, with a treasure chest in hand, and Elaine hang onto ropes in a void, he tells her the story of the game.", "He has decided to find the greatest of all treasures, that of Big Whoop.", "Unwittingly he helps revive LeChuck, who is now in zombie form.", "Guybrush is eventually captured by his nemesis, but escapes with help from Wally and finds the treasure only to find himself dangling from a rope, as depicted at the beginning of the game.", "As Guybrush concludes his story, his rope breaks and he finds himself facing LeChuck, whom he finally defeats using voodoo.", "The surrealistic ending is open to a number of interpretations.", "In the manual of ''The Curse of Monkey Island'', it is stated that Guybrush falls victim to a hex implemented by LeChuck.====''The Curse of Monkey Island''====''The Curse of Monkey Island'', the third in the series, was released exclusively for Microsoft Windows on PC in 1997, after a 6-year hiatus.", "''The Curse of Monkey Island'' was released at the height of some of the biggest technological advancements in the gaming industry—digital audio, CD-ROM technology, and improved graphics.", "''Monkey Island I'' and ''II'' were originally released on floppy discs with text dialogue only.", "Entire conversations between characters would appear as written text, or as captions above their heads.The visuals of the third installment were also an improvement over the original game, using a more modern cel animation style.", "''The Curse of Monkey Island'' is the only game in the series to feature this style of animation; subsequent games used three-dimensional polygon animation.Threepwood, unwittingly, turns Elaine into a gold statue with a cursed ring, and she is subsequently stolen by pirates.", "He tracks her down before searching for another ring that can lift the curse.", "LeChuck appears in a fiery demon form, and is hot on Threepwood’s heels until a stand-off on LeChuck's amusement park ride, Monkey Mountain.====''Escape from Monkey Island''====''Escape from Monkey Island'', the fourth installment, was released in 2000 for PC Windows, and in 2001 for Macintosh and PlayStation 2.When Guybrush Threepwood and Elaine Marley return from their honeymoon, they find that Elaine has been declared officially dead, her mansion is under a destruction order, and her position as governor is up for election.", "Guybrush investigates and unearths a conspiracy by LeChuck and evil real estate developer Ozzie Mandrill to use a voodoo talisman, \"The Ultimate Insult\", to make all pirates docile in order to turn the Caribbean into a center of tourism.====''Tales of Monkey Island''====''Tales of Monkey Island'' is the fifth installment within the series, co-developed by Telltale Games and LucasArts, with a simultaneous release both on WiiWare and PC.", "Unlike other installments, ''Tales'' is an episodic adventure consisting of five different episodes.", "The first episode was released on July 7, with the last one released on December 8, 2009.During a heated battle with his nemesis, the evil pirate LeChuck, Guybrush unwittingly unleashes an insidious pox that rapidly spreads across the Caribbean, turning pirates into zombie-like monsters.", "The Voodoo Lady sends Guybrush in search of a legendary sea sponge to stem the epidemic, but this seemingly straightforward quest has surprises around every corner.", "''Tales of Monkey Island'' was also released on PlayStation Network as a bundle for US$20.00.In November 2011, when CEO of Telltale games Dan Conners was asked a question about another season of ''Monkey Island'', he replied: \"I wish we had the rights to do more ''Monkey'' but we don't.", "Right now what I gather is LA is focused on building AAA titles internally but honestly we don't talk much these days\".There had also been some speculation on Telltale Games forums about a possible sequel to ''Tales of Monkey Island'', although this was dismissed by Gilbert, who stated: \"Basically, when we were working on ''Tales'', I understood that ...", "I'm too old for that job now\" in an interview with ''Edge'' in March 2010.The ''Tales'' team claims that, despite a considerably increasing fanbase since 2009–10, there were not any plans to continue the series within the next five-year interval.", "In 2018 Telltale Games closed down.====''Return to Monkey Island''====With the purchase of LucasArts by the Walt Disney Company in 2012, the rights to the franchise are now property of Disney.", "In the second half of 2010s, Disney Interactive ceased the production on gaming and transitioned to a licensing model.", "Gilbert wrote on Twitter that he was interested in buying the ''Monkey Island'' and ''Maniac Mansion'' properties.", "Fans of the series launched an online petition asking Disney to sell the franchise to Gilbert; by December 2021, the petition had gathered about 29,000 signatures.", "''Return to Monkey Island'', the sixth ''Monkey Island'' installment, was released on September 19, 2022 on the Nintendo Switch and Windows, coming to other formats later.", "It is a collaboration between Gilbert's Terrible Toybox studio and Lucasfilm Games, and published by Devolver Digital.", "A frame story in the game serves to explain and continue from the ending of ''LeChuck's Revenge'', while the main narrative takes place after the other games in the series.", "Ron Gilbert has expressed his desire to tell a simple and focused pirate story in the game, while also redefining the adventure game user interface and deepening the greater lore.", "In addition to Gilbert, Grossman returns as co-writer, with music from veteran series composers Michael Land, Peter McConnell, and Clint Bajakian, and Dominic Armato, Alexandra Boyd, and Denny Delk reprising their roles as Guybrush, Elaine, and Murray.", "Jess Harnell replaces the retired Earl Boen as the voice of LeChuck.====Other appearances====Stan's Used Coffins is referred to in one of the levels of the LucasArts game ''Outlaws''.", "In ''Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine'', Guybrush can be accessed as a playable character via a cheat code; in addition, a ''Monkey Island''-themed secret room can be found in the game's final level.", "Guybrush also appears in ''Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II'' as a playable skin for Starkiller named \"Guybrush Threepkiller\".Guybrush is paid homage in the Naughty Dog video game ''Uncharted 4: A Thief's End'', where a pirate with major similarities to Guybrush is featured as one of the twelve pirate captains that founded Libertalia.", "Although he remains unnamed throughout the game, the resemblance is uncanny and his sigil is represented by a monkey.", "His portrait can be seen in the Libertalia treasury with the other founders and though his name is partly scratched out, the letters still visible spell out the truncated name \"Guy Wood\".Several elements from the ''Monkey Island'' series appear in ''Sea of Thieves'' as part of its June 2021 \"A Pirate's Life\" update.", "Developed in collaboration with Disney and primarily themed after ''Pirates of the Caribbean'', multiple references to the characters and locales from the Monkey Island franchise can be found in journals by Kate Capsize scattered around the wreckage of The Headless Monkey during the update's first Tall Tale, accompanied by an original arrangement of the Monkey Island theme.", "According to the journals, Guybrush and Elaine Threepwood are celebrating their honeymoon somewhere upon the Sea of Thieves, while Kate perished attempting to get revenge on Guybrush for framing her.", "A full ''Monkey Island''-themed expansion for the game, \"The Legend of Monkey Island\", was released on July 20, 2023 and spread across three monthly episodes.", "In the story, set between ''Curse'' and ''Escape'', Guybrush and Elaine's honeymoon on the Sea of Thieves is interrupted by LeChuck, who traps them in a dream version of Mêlée Island where everyone worships Guybrush as a legendary pirate.", "To stop LeChuck from restoring the legendary Burning Blade and conquering the Sea of Thieves, the Pirate Lord recruits the now-revived Kate Capsize and the player pirates to enter the dreamworld and rescue Guybrush and Elaine.In an update to ''Hitman 3'', a new pirate-themed map was added, which featured an Easter Egg referencing ''Monkey Island'' in the form of a gravestone in the environment reading \"G Threepwood, Mighty Pirate\", a clear reference to Guybrush.===Cancelled film===Shortly after Pixar, a spinout from Lucasfilm, found success with the first ''Toy Story'' film in 1995, there had been a push across Hollywood for more digitally animated films.", "Lucasfilm's Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), in the midst of transitioning from practical to digital effects, offered its services for producing these films to other studios.", "One of the first projects they tried to work on was with Universal Pictures to revive the Universal Classic Monsters line with a film called ''Frankenstein and the Wolfman''.", "While several scripts and preliminary art was produced for this film, shake-ups at Universal due to the financial failure of ''Babe: Pig in the City'' led to changes in leadership for the film and ultimately its cancellation.David Carson, who had been set to direct ''Frankenstein and the Wolfman'' but left after the Universal shake-up, came back to ILM with the idea of an animated film based on the first ''Monkey Island'' game around 2000.With initial support from ILM, Carson worked an initial script with Corey Rosen and Scott Leberecht as to pitch the idea to Amblin Entertainment, the production company owned by Steven Spielberg.", "Spielberg had told Carson that he had previously told George Lucas that he should have made a ''Monkey Island'' movie years before, and other meetings with Amblin went well to proceed to further screenwriting work.", "The rest of ILM's story department was brought in to help write, including Steve Purcell, but this team worked separately from the writers that were developing the actual games, creating a disconnect between story the film was going with and the narrative already established in the video game series.", "As they continued to work out the screenplay, the direction of the film continued to veer further from the video game series, including at one point where Spielberg had suggested the game be about the monkeys on Monkey Island instead of the pirates.", "According to Carson, the lack of a creative direction at this point led to the film being shelved at ILM.Details about the film were first revealed publicly in 2011 as part of the ''Monkey Island Special Edition Collection'' which included some of the film's concept art, storyboards, and scripts.It had been rumored that Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio had been involved in the writing of the ''Monkey Island'' script which they subsequently used as the basis for the first ''Pirates of the Caribbean'' film.", "Both Elliott and Rossio had been to ILM and were shown parts of the ''Monkey Island'' script, around the same time they were working on their script for ''Pirates''.", "When ''Pirates'' was released, many fans of the ''Monkey Island'' series made comparisons of parts of the film to the games, and when news of the cancelled film first arose in 2011, the potential connection of Elliott and Rossio to the ''Monkey Island'' script started.", "Both Carson and Rossio stated that many of the tropes in both ''Monkey Island'' and ''Pirates'' are based on the classic pirate movies and that there was no direct reuse of the cancelled ''Monkey Island'' film in ''Pirates''." ], [ "The “Secret” of Monkey Island", "None of the first five games explicitly reveal the \"Secret of Monkey Island\".", "The team behind ''Escape from Monkey Island'' attempted to resolve the issue by showing that the Giant Monkey Head was actually the control room of a Giant Monkey Robot.", "The cut-scene in which the revelation was made is called \"The Real Secret of Monkey Island\".Gilbert stated that he never told anyone what the true secret of Monkey Island is.", "In a 2004 interview, Gilbert stated that when the game was originally conceived, it was considered \"too big\", so they split it into three parts.", "He added that he \"knows what the third part is\" and \"how the story's supposed to end\", indicating that he had a definite concept of the “secret” and a conclusive third game.The true nature of the secret is the main focus of ''Return to Monkey Island'', with several characters competing amongst themselves in a race to discover \"the Secret\".", "The game's conclusion reveals the secret to be a novelty T-shirt earned as a prize at a pirate-themed amusement park, which has acted as the setting for all of Guybrush Threepwood’s previous adventures.", "Threepwood, as the game's narrator, is intentionally ambiguous as to whether this is the actual secret, even suggesting that the secret means different things to different people, and putting forth the notion that the story of the journey (and the joy of speculating about the secret with others) is more valuable than the reward itself.After the release of ''Return to Monkey Island'', Gilbert stated in an interview that the true secret (as conceived during development of the first installment of the series) is that Guybrush was, in fact, inside of a pirate-themed amusement park the entire time." ], [ "See also", "* LucasArts adventure games* SCUMM* ScummVM" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cardiff Arms Park" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cardiff Arms Park''' (), also known as '''The Arms Park''', is situated in the centre of Cardiff, Wales.", "It is primarily a rugby union stadium, but it also has a bowling green.", "The Arms Park was host to the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in 1958, and hosted four games in the 1991 Rugby World Cup, including the third-place play-off.", "The Arms Park also hosted the inaugural Heineken Cup Final of 1995–96 and the following year in 1996–97.The history of the rugby ground begins with the first stands appearing for spectators in the ground in 1881–1882.Originally the Arms Park had a cricket ground to the north and a rugby union stadium to the south.", "By 1969, the cricket ground had been demolished to make way for the present day rugby ground to the north and a second rugby stadium to the south, called the National Stadium.", "The National Stadium, which was used by Wales national rugby union team, was officially opened on 7 April 1984, however in 1997 it was demolished to make way for the Millennium Stadium in 1999, which hosted the 1999 Rugby World Cup and became the national stadium of Wales.", "The rugby ground has remained the home of the semi-professional Cardiff RFC yet the professional Cardiff Blues regional rugby union team moved to the Cardiff City Stadium in 2009, but returned three years later.The site is owned by Cardiff Athletic Club and has been host to many sports, apart from rugby union and cricket; they include athletics, association football, greyhound racing, tennis, British baseball and boxing.", "The site also has a bowling green to the north of the rugby ground, which is used by Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club, which is the bowls section of the Cardiff Athletic Club.", "The National Stadium also hosted many music concerts including Michael Jackson, Dire Straits, David Bowie, Bon Jovi, The Rolling Stones and U2." ], [ "History", "=== Early history of the site ===The Cardiff Arms Park site was originally called the Great Park, a swampy meadow behind the Cardiff Arms Hotel.", "The hotel was built by Sir Thomas Morgan, during the reign of Charles I. Cardiff Arms Park was named after this hotel.", "From 1803, the Cardiff Arms Hotel and the Park had become the property of the Bute family.", "The Arms Park soon became a popular place for sporting events, and by 1848, Cardiff Cricket Club was using the site for its cricket matches.", "However, by 1878, Cardiff Arms Hotel had been demolished.The 3rd Marquess of Bute stipulated that the ground could only be used for \"recreational purposes\".", "At that time Cardiff Arms Park had a cricket ground to the north and a rugby union ground to the south.", "1881–2 saw the first stands for spectators; they held 300 spectators and cost £50.The architect was Archibald Leitch, who also designed Ibrox Stadium and Old Trafford.", "In 1890, new standing areas were constructed along the entire length of the ground, with additional stands erected in 1896.=== 1912 redevelopment ===By 1912, the Cardiff Football Ground, as it was then known, had a new south stand and temporary stands on the north, east and west ends of the ground.", "The south stand was covered, while the north terrace was initially without a roof.", "The improvements were partly funded by the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU).", "The opening ceremony took place on 5 October 1912, with a match between Newport RFC and Cardiff RFC.", "The new ground was opened by Lord Ninian Crichton-Stuart.", "This new development increased the ground capacity to 43,000 and much improved facilities at the ground compared to the earlier stands.In 1922, The 4th Marquess of Bute sold the entire site and it was bought by the Cardiff Arms Park Company Limited for £30,000.It was then leased to the Cardiff Athletic Club (cricket and rugby sections) for 99 years at a cost of £200 per annum.=== North and South Stand redevelopments ===The 1934 new North Stand, rugby ground, Cardiff Arms ParkDuring 1934 the cricket pavilion had been demolished to make way for the new North Stand which was built on the rugby union ground, costing around £20,000.However, in 1941 the new North Stand and part of the west terracing was badly damaged in the Blitz by the Luftwaffe during the Second World War.At a general meeting of the WRU in June 1953 they made a decision \"That until such time as the facilities at Swansea were improved, all international matches be played at Cardiff\".", "At the same time, plans were made for a new South Stand which was estimated to cost £60,000; the tender price, however, came out at £90,000, so a compromise was made and it was decided to build a new upper South Stand costing £64,000 instead, with the Cardiff Athletic Club contributing £15,000 and the remainder coming from the WRU.", "The new South Stand opened in 1956, in time for the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games.", "This brought the overall capacity of the Arms Park up to 60,000 spectators, of which 12,800 were seated and the remainder standing.Cardiff Athletic ClubThe Arms Park hosted the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, which was used for the athletics events, but this event caused damage to the drainage system, so much so, that other rugby unions (England, Scotland and Ireland) complained after the Games about the state of the pitch.", "On 4 December 1960, due to torrential rain, the River Taff burst its banks with the Arms Park pitch being left under of water.", "The Development Committee was set up to resolve these issues on a permanent basis.", "They looked at various sites in Cardiff, but they all proved to be unsatisfactory.", "They also could not agree a solution with the Cardiff Athletic Club, so they purchased about of land at Island Farm in Bridgend, which was previously used as a prisoner-of-war camp.", "It is best known for being the camp where the biggest escape attempt was made by German prisoners of war in Great Britain during the Second World War.", "Due to problems including transport issues Glamorgan County Council never gave outline planning permission for the proposals and by June 1964 the scheme was abandoned.", "At that stage, the cricket ground to the north was still being used by Glamorgan County Cricket Club, and the rugby union ground to the south was used by the national Wales team and Cardiff RFC.By 7 October 1966, the first floodlit game was held at Cardiff Arms Park, a game in which Cardiff RFC beat the Barbarians by 12 points to 8.=== National Stadium redevelopment ===The National Stadium, which was previously known as the Welsh National Rugby Ground, was designed by Osborne V Webb & Partners and built by G A Williamson & Associates of Porthcawl and Andrew Scott & Company of Port Talbot.", "In 1969 construction began on the stadium which replaced the existing rugby ground built in 1881.The stadium was home to the Wales national rugby union team since 1964 and the Wales national football team since 1989.In 1997 the stadium was demolished to make way for the new Millennium Stadium.=== Millennium Stadium ===The Millennium StadiumThirteen years after the National Stadium had opened in 1984, it was considered too small and did not have the facilities required of the time and it was demolished and a new stadium, the Millennium Stadium, was built in its place (completed to a north–south alignment and opened in June 1999).", "This would become the fourth redevelopment on the site.Construction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium, Wales Empire Pool in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building and the newly built Territorial Auxiliary and Volunteer Reserve building both in Park Street, and the Social Security offices in Westgate Street.", "The Millennium Stadium is now on roughly two-thirds of the National Stadium, but it no longer uses the Arms Park name.", "Since 2016 it has been known as the Principality Stadium." ], [ "Timeline" ], [ "Current site", "===Rugby ground ===Only the rugby ground and the Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club now use the name Cardiff Arms Park.", "The rugby ground has two main stands, the North Stand and the South Stand.", "Both the Stands have terracing below seating.", "The other stands in the ground are the Westgate Street end Family Stand, which has rows of seating below executive boxes, plus the club shop, and the River Taff end (the Barry Nelmes Suite, named after Barry Nelmes, the former Cardiff RFC captain), which has 26 executive boxes.", "The rugby ground has two main entrances, the south entrance, and the Gwyn Nicholls Memorial Gates (Angel Hotel entrance), which was unveiled on 26 December 1949 in honour of the Welsh international rugby player Gwyn Nicholls.", "The Cardiff Athletic Clubhouse is situated in the corner of the ground between the South Stand and the Westgate Street end.The South Stand of the rugby ground formed a complete unit with the North Stand of the National Stadium.", "Now the same structure of the South Stand of the rugby ground is also physically attached to the North Stand of the Millennium Stadium.", "This section is known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, after Glanmor Griffiths, former chair and President of the WRU.", "This came about because the WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the Millennium Stadium, and the National Lottery Commission would not provide any additional funds to be used for the construction of a new ground for Cardiff RFC.", "The Millennium Stadium was therefore built with the old reinforced concrete structure of the National Stadium (North Stand) and the new steel Millennium Stadium structure built around it.There was doubt about the future of the Arms Park after 2010 following the move of the Cardiff Blues to the Cardiff City Stadium.", "Cardiff RFC Ltd, the company that runs Cardiff Blues and Cardiff RFC, still has a 15-year lease on the Arms Park, but talks are underway to release the rugby club from the terms of the lease, to enable the Millennium Stadium to be redeveloped with a new North Stand and adjoining convention centre.", "However, it still has the original requirement on the lease, that the land will only be used for \"recreational purposes\", as stipulated by the Bute family.", "But the Arms Park site is a prime piece of real estate in the centre of Cardiff, which means that it may be difficult to sell the land to property developers.", "The estimated value of the whole Arms Park site could be at least £25 million, although with the \"recreational use\" requirement, its actual value could be a lot less than that figure.", "A decision by Cardiff Athletic Club on the future of the Arms Park has yet to be made.", "In 2011, the Cardiff Blues regional rugby union team made a £6 million bid for the Arms Park, later the WRU made an increased bid of £10 million for the site.", "Both bids were rejected by the trustees of the Cardiff Athletic Club.", "However, in 2012 Cardiff Blues announced that they would be making a permanent return to Cardiff Arms Park following declining attendances at the Cardiff City Stadium.", "During the 2013 off-season, the pitch at the rugby ground was replaced with an all weather 3G (third generation) artificial turf surface from FieldTurf at a cost of £400,000, intended to prevent any adverse weather conditions from affecting the rugby.", "; '''Proposed redevelopment'''An agreement in principle was reached in December 2015 between the landlord of the stadium site (Cardiff Athletic Club) and its tenant (Cardiff Blues) to give the club a 150-year lease on the stadium site.", "This could see the redevelopment of the Arms Park, including a new 15,000 seater stadium at 90 degrees to the existing stadium costing between £20 million and £30 million and surrounded by new offices and apartments.", "If the final agreement goes ahead, Cardiff Athletic Club would receive an upfront payment of approximately £8 million.", "As part of the agreement, the bowls section would have to vacate its current site at the Arms Park and move to a new facility.", "At present Cardiff Blues pay Cardiff Athletic Club rent of around £115,000 per annum, however this would nearly double to around £200,000.=== Bowling green ===Cardiff Arms Park is best known as a rugby union stadium, but Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club (CABC) was established in 1923, and ever since then, the club has used the Arms Park as its bowling green.", "The bowls club is a section of the Cardiff Athletic Club and shares many of the facilities of the Cardiff Arms Park athletics centre.Cardiff Arms Park including Cardiff Athletic Bowls Club The Les Spence Memorial Gates were erected in memory of the former Cardiff RFU player, who captained the team in 1936–37.He was born in 1907 and became chairman of the Cardiff RFU and president of the WRU between 1973 and 1974.He was awarded an MBE and died in 1988.The club has produced two Welsh international bowlers; Mr. C Standfast in 1937 and Mr. B Hawkins who represented Wales in the 1982 World Pairs and captained Wales in 1982 and 1984." ], [ "Usage", "=== Association football ===The Riverside Football Club, founded in 1899, played some matches at the Arms Park until 1910, when they moved to Ninian Park, and later became Cardiff City Football Club.On 31 May 1989, Wales played its first international game against West Germany at the National Stadium in a World Cup qualifying match, which ended goalless.", "It was also the first ever international football match held in Great Britain that was watched by all-seater spectators.The adjoining Cardiff Rugby Club ground has also been used for Association Football.", "In July 1995, Ton Pentre played two Intertoto Cup games there, against Heerenveen (Netherlands) and Uniao Leiria (Portugal) as their own ground was not suitable.", "The Heerenveen game - the first ever soccer match to be played there - kicked off at 6pm on Saturday 1 July 1995 and resulted in the Dutch side winning 7–0.The Wales U-21 team have also played a home game there in the late 1990s.On 5 April 2017, the ground was used to host the men's and women's football matches as part of the 2017 Welsh Varsity, between Cardiff University and Swansea University.", "The women's game finished in a 1-1 draw, while the men's game resulted in a 1-0 win for Swansea.=== Athletics ===In 1958, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Cardiff.", "The event was (to date) the biggest sporting event ever held in Wales; however, it would not have been possible without the financial support given by the WRU and the Cardiff Athletic Club.", "Both the opening and closing ceremonies took place at Cardiff Arms Park, plus all the track and field events, on what had been the greyhound track.", "It would turn out to be the last time that South Africa would participate in the Games until 1994.South Africa withdrew from the Commonwealth Games in 1961.=== Baseball and British baseball ===Baseball was established early on in Cardiff, and one of the earliest of games to be held at the Arms Park was on 18 May 1918.It was a charity match in aid of the Prisoner of War Fund between Welsh and American teams of the U.S. Beaufort and U.S. Jupiter.", "British baseball matches have also regularly taken place at the Arms Park and hosted the annual England versus Wales international game every four years.", "The games are now usually held at Roath Park.=== Boxing ===The first boxing contest held at the Arms Park was on 24 January 1914, when Bombardier Billy Wells beat Gaston Pigot by a knockout in the first round of a 20-round contest.", "Boxing contests were held later on 14 June 1943, 12 August 1944, 4 October 1951 and 10 September 1952.Around 25,000 spectators watched international boxing on 1 October 1993, at the National Stadium with a World Boxing Council (WBC) Heavyweight title bout between Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno.", "It was the first time that two British-born boxers had fought for the world heavyweight title.", "Lewis beat Bruno by a technical knockout in the 7th round, in what was called the \"Battle of Britain\".", "On 30 September 1995, Steve Robinson the World Boxing Organization (WBO) World Featherweight Champion, lost against Prince Naseem Hamed at the rugby ground in 8 rounds.=== Cricket ===In 1819 Cardiff Cricket Club was formed and by 1848 they had moved to their new home at the Arms Park.", "Glamorgan County Cricket Club, at the time not a first-class county, played their first match at the ground in June 1869 against Monmouthshire Cricket Club.", "The county club played their first County Championship match on the ground in 1921, competing there every season (except while first-class cricket was suspended during the Second World War) until their final match on the ground against Somerset in August 1966.Cardiff Cricket Club played their final game at the ground against Lydney Cricket Club on 17 September 1966.Both Cardiff Cricket Club and Glamorgan then moved to a new ground at Sophia Gardens on the opposite bank of the River Taff to the Arms Park following work on the creation of the national rugby stadium.The first first-class cricket match to be held on the ground was between West of England and East of England, on 20 June 1910.In all more than 240 first-class matches were played on the ground, all but two involving Glamorgan as the home team.", "Only one List A cricket match was played on the ground, Glamorgan's Gillette Cup fixture against Somerset on 22 May 1963.=== Greyhound racing ===The Greyhound track at the National Stadium with part of the North Stand (top left), offices (top middle) and the East Terrace (top right).", "Greyhound racing took place at the Arms Park for fifty years from 1927 until 1977.=== Rugby union ===In 1876, the Cardiff RFC was formed and soon after they also used the park.", "On 12 April 1884, the first international match was played at the ground between Wales and Ireland, when 5,000 people watched Wales beat Ireland by two tries and a drop goal to nil.The Arms Park rugby ground became the permanent home of the Wales national rugby union team in 1964.Later, the National Stadium was also home to the WRU Challenge Cup from 1972 until the match held at the Stadium on 26 April 1997, at a much reduced capacity, between Cardiff RFC and Swansea RFC.", "Cardiff RFC won the match 33–26.The National Stadium is best known as the venue for what is considered to be \"the greatest try ever scored\" by Gareth Edwards for the Barbarians against New Zealand in what is also called \"the greatest match ever played\" on 27 January 1973.The final result was a win for the Barbarians.", "The score, 23–11, which translates to 27–13 in today's scoring system.The scorers were:Barbarians: Tries: Gareth Edwards, Fergus Slattery, John Bevan, J P R Williams; Conversions: Phil Bennett (2); Penalty: Phil Bennett.All Blacks: Tries: Grant Batty (2); Penalty: Joseph Karam.The National Stadium hosted four games in the 1991 Rugby World Cup, including the third-place play-off.", "The National Stadium was also host to the inaugural Heineken Cup final of 1995–96 when Toulouse beat Cardiff RFC by 21–18 after extra time, in front of 21,800 spectators.", "The following final in 1996–97 was also held at the National Stadium, this time it was between Brive and Leicester Tigers.", "Brive won the match 28–9, in front of a crowd of 41,664.In 2008, the rugby ground hosted all the games in Pool A of the 2008 IRB Junior World Championship and also the semi-final on 18 June 2008, in which England beat South Africa 26–18.Cardiff Blues versus Edinburgh, 17 May 2009Until February 2012, it had been assumed that the last professional rugby union game to take place at the Arms Park was on 17 May 2009, when Edinburgh beat the Cardiff Blues 36–14 in a Celtic League match during the 2008–09 season.However, on Tuesday, 7 February 2012, it was confirmed that Cardiff Blues would face Connacht at the Arms Park on Friday, 10 February 2012.The Pro12 League game result was a win for the Cardiff Blues 22–15 and attendance of 8,000.The following Tuesday, it was announced that the match against Ulster on Friday, 17 February, would also be at the Arms Park, resulting in a Blues win, 21–14 and attendance of 8,600.The agreement signed during 2009 tied Cardiff Blues to a 20-year contract to play a maximum of 18 games per season for a set fee, rather than per match at Cardiff City Stadium.", "But on 23 February, it was announced that the two Welsh 'derbies' against the Scarlets and the Ospreys would be played at Cardiff City Stadium, rather than the Arms Park, because of Cardiff Blues' anticipation that the attendance figures would far exceed the maximum capacity of 9,000.On 8 May 2012, it was announced that Cardiff Blues would be returning to the Arms Park on a permanent basis after just three years at the Cardiff City Stadium.On 23 May 2014, the rugby ground hosted the final of the 2013–14 Amlin Challenge Cup in which Northampton Saints beat Bath 30–16.", "; '''Rugby World Cup'''Cardiff Arms Park hosted matches of the 1991 Rugby World Cup.", "Date Competition Home team Away team Attendance6 October 1991 1991 Rugby World Cup Pool 3 13 16 45,0009 October 1991 1991 Rugby World Cup Pool 3 16 7 35,00012 October 1991 1991 Rugby World Cup Pool 3 3 38 54,00030 October 1991 1991 Rugby World Cup Third-place play-off 13 6 47,000=== Rugby league ===South Wales Scorpions played a Rugby League Championship 1 match against London Skolars at Cardiff Arms Park on Sunday, 27 July 2014 and on Sunday 10 May 2015 at Cardiff Arms Park, South Wales Scorpions took on North Wales Crusaders.", "The 2015 European Cup match between France and Wales was held at Cardiff Arms Park on Friday on 30 October 2015.On 11 April it was announced Cardiff Arms Park would be the new home ground of the Women's Betfred Super League South team Cardiff Demons.", "The inaugural league champions will play all home games at the stadium during the 2022 season.The highest attendance for a rugby league game at the Arms Park was recorded on 8 June 1996 during the first Super League season when 6,708 saw St. Helens defeat the Sheffield Eagles 43–32.The St Helens team at the time contained Welsh players Anthony Sullivan, Karle Hammond and Keiron Cunningham.", "; '''Rugby league test matches'''List of rugby league test matches played at Cardiff Arms Park.", "Test# Date Result Attendance Notes1 26 June 1996 26–12 5,425 1996 European Rugby League Championship2 30 October 2015 14–6 1,028 2015 European Cup=== Tennis ===Tennis courts were laid out in the Arms Park for Cardiff Tennis Club until the club moved to Sophia Gardens in 1967.In 2003, the club amalgamated with Lisvane Tennis Club to form Lisvane (CAC) Tennis Club, which is still a section of Cardiff Athletic Club (CAC).=== Music concerts ===Major music concerts were also held at the National Stadium from 1987 until 1996, they included Tina Turner, U2, Michael Jackson, The Rolling Stones, Dire Straits, Bon Jovi and R.E.M.", "The last music concert was held on 14 July 1996.Jehovah's Witnesses held their annual conventions at the National Stadium." ], [ "Singing tradition", "Cardiff Arms Park Male ChoirThe National Stadium was known primarily as the venue for massed voices singing such hymns as \"Cwm Rhondda\", \"Calon Lân\", \"Men of Harlech\" and \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" (\"Land of my Fathers\" – the national anthem of Wales).", "The legendary atmosphere including singing of the crowd was said to be worth at least a try or a goal to the home nation.", "This tradition of singing has now passed on to the Millennium Stadium.The Arms Park has its own choir, called the Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir.", "It was formed in 1966 as the Cardiff Athletic Club Male Voice Choir, and today performs internationally with a schedule of concerts and tours.", "In 2000, the choir changed their name to become the Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir." ], [ "See also", "*List of Commonwealth Games venues*Sport in Cardiff" ], [ "References", "=== Inline ====== General ===* Harris, K. M. ''The Story of the Development of the National Rugby Ground'', 7 April 1984.Cover of the booklet on www.rugbyrelics.com" ], [ "External links", "* * Photographs of the National Stadium in April 1997, prior to demolition* Gareth Edwards try for the Barbarians Vs All Blacks, 27 January 1973, at the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park* Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir website* The opening ceremony of the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, Cardiff Arms Park* wikimapia.org image of Cardiff Arms Park* Bill Hardiman (groundsman) profile* Principality Stadium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mikhail Kalashnikov" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mikhail Timofeyevich Kalashnikov''' (, ; ; 10 November 191923 December 2013) was a Soviet and Russian lieutenant general, inventor, military engineer, writer, and small arms designer.", "He is most famous for developing the AK-47 assault rifle and its improvements, the AKM and AK-74, as well as the RPK light machine gun and PK machine gun.Kalashnikov was, according to himself, a self-taught tinkerer who combined innate mechanical skills with the study of weaponry to design arms that achieved battlefield ubiquity.", "Even though Kalashnikov felt sorrow at the weapons' uncontrolled distribution, he took pride in his inventions and in their reputation for reliability, emphasizing that his rifle is \"a weapon of defense\" and \"not a weapon for offense\"." ], [ "Early life", "Kalashnikov, Kalashnikov was born in the village of Kurya, in present-day Altai Krai, Russia, as the seventeenth child of the 19 children of Aleksandra Frolovna Kalashnikova (née Kaverina) and Timofey Aleksandrovich Kalashnikov, who were peasants.", "In his youth, Mikhail suffered from various illnesses and was on the verge of death at age six.", "He was attracted to all kinds of machinery, but also wrote poetry, dreaming of becoming a poet.", "He later went on to write six books and continued to write poetry all of his life.", "In 1930, his father and most of his family had their properties confiscated and were deported as kulaks to the village of Nizhnyaya Mokhovaya, Tomsk Oblast.", "After deportation, his family had to combine farming with hunting, and thus Mikhail frequently used his father's rifle in his teens.", "Kalashnikov continued hunting into his 90s.After completing seventh grade, Mikhail, with his stepfather's permission, left his family and returned to Kurya, hiking for nearly 1,000 km.", "In Kurya, he found a job in mechanics at a tractor station.", "A party organizer embedded within the factory noticed the man's dexterity and issued him a directive (''napravlenie'') to work at a nearby weapons design bureau, where he was employed as a tester of fitted stocks in rifles.", "In 1938, he was conscripted into the Red Army.", "Because of his small size and engineering skills he was assigned as a tank mechanic, and later became a tank commander.", "While training, he made his first inventions, which concerned not only tanks, but also small weapons, and was personally awarded a wrist watch by Georgy Zhukov.", "Kalashnikov served on the T-34s of the 24th Tank Regiment, 108th Tank Division stationed in Stryi before the regiment retreated after the Battle of Brody in June 1941.He was wounded in combat in the Battle of Bryansk in October 1941 and hospitalised until April 1942.In the last few months of being in hospital, he overheard some fellow soldiers bemoaning their current rifles, which were plagued with reliability issues, such as jamming.", "As he continued to overhear the complaints that the Soviet soldiers had, as soon as he was discharged, he went to work on what would become the famous AK-47 assault rifle.The SMG predecessor of the Kalashnikov rifleSeeing the drawbacks of the standard infantry weapons at the time, he decided to construct a new rifle for the Soviet military.", "During this time Kalashnikov began designing a submachine gun.", "Although his first submachine gun design was not accepted into service, his talent as a designer was noticed.", "From 1942 onwards, Kalashnikov was assigned to the Central Scientific-developmental Firing Range for Rifle Firearms of the Chief Artillery Directorate of the Red Army.In 1944, he designed a gas-operated carbine for the new 7.62×39mm cartridge.", "This weapon, influenced by the Garand rifle design, lost out to the new Simonov carbine which would be eventually adopted as the SKS; but it became a basis for his entry in an assault rifle competition in 1946.His winning entry, the \"Mikhtim\" (so named by taking the first letters of his name and patronymic, '''Mikh'''ail '''Tim'''ofeyevich) became the prototype for the development of a family of prototype rifles.", "A Type 2 AK-47, the first machined receiver variationThis process culminated in 1947, when he designed the AK-47 (standing for ''Avtomat Kalashnikova model 1947'').", "In 1949, the AK became the standard issue assault rifle of the Soviet Army and went on to become Kalashnikov's most famous invention.While developing his first assault rifles, Kalashnikov competed with two much more experienced weapon designers, Vasily Degtyaryov and Georgy Shpagin, who both accepted the superiority of the AK-47 design.", "Kalashnikov named Alexandr Zaitsev and Vladimir Deikin as his major collaborators during those years." ], [ "Later career", "From 1949, Mikhail Kalashnikov lived and worked in Izhevsk, Udmurtia.", "He held a degree of Doctor of Technical Sciences (1971) and was a member of 16 academies.Over the course of his career, he evolved the basic design into a weapons family.", "The AKM (), first brought into service in 1959, was lighter and cheaper to manufacture, owing to the use of a stamped steel receiver (in place of the AK-47's milled steel receiver) and contained detail improvements such as a re-shaped stock and muzzle compensator.", "From the AKM, he developed a squad automatic weapon variant, known as the RPK ().Kalashnikov (right) and Eugene Stoner (left) hold the rifles they designed, taken May 1990.He also developed the general-purpose PK machine gun (), which used the more powerful 7.62×54mmR cartridge of the Mosin–Nagant rifle.", "It is cartridge belt-fed, not magazine-fed, as it is intended to provide heavy sustained fire from a tripod mount, or be used as a light, bipod-mounted weapon.", "The common characteristics of all these weapons are simple design, ruggedness and ease of maintenance in all operating conditions.Approximately 100 million AK-47 assault rifles had been produced by 2009, and about half of them are counterfeit, manufactured at a rate of about a million per year.", "Izhmash, the official manufacturer of AK-47 in Russia, did not patent the weapon until 1997, and in 2006 accounted for only 10% of the world's production.", "This arm became famous due to its reliability in the most extreme climatic conditions, functioning as perfectly in the desert as in the tundra.", "It is in official use by the militaries of 55 nations, and has been so influential in military struggle that it has been used on national flags.", "Prominent examples include the flags of Mozambique and Hezbollah, as well as the East Timorese and Zimbabwean coats of arms.Kalashnikov himself claimed he was always motivated by service to his country rather than money.", "He did however own 30% of a German company Marken Marketing International (MMI) run by his grandson Igor.", "The company revamps trademarks and produces merchandise carrying the Kalashnikov name, such as vodka, umbrellas and knives.", "One of the items is a knife named for the AK-74.During a visit to the United States in the early 2000s, Kalashnikov was invited to tour a Virginia holding site for the forthcoming American Wartime Museum.", "Kalashnikov, a former tank commander, became visibly moved at the sight of his old tank in action, painted with his name in Cyrillic." ], [ "Death", "After a prolonged illness, Kalashnikov was hospitalized on 17 November 2013, in an Udmurtian medical facility in Izhevsk, the capital of Udmurtia and where he lived.", "He died 23 December 2013, at age 94 from gastric hemorrhage.", "In January 2014, a letter that Kalashnikov wrote six months before his death to the leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Kirill, was published by the Russian daily newspaper ''Izvestia''.", "In the letter, he stated that he was suffering \"spiritual pain\" about whether he was responsible for the deaths caused by the weapons he created.", "Translated from the published letter he states, \"I keep having the same unsolved question: if my rifle claimed people's lives, then can it be that I... a Christian and an Orthodox believer, was to blame for their deaths?", "\".The patriarch wrote back, thanked Kalashnikov, and said that he \"was an example of patriotism and a correct attitude toward the country\".", "Kirill added about the design responsibility for the deaths by the rifle, \"the church has a well-defined position when the weapon is defense of the Motherland, the Church supports its creators and the military, which use it.", "\"He became one of the first people buried in the Federal Military Memorial Cemetery." ], [ "Family", "Kalashnikov's father, Timofey Aleksandrovich Kalashnikov (1883–1930), was a peasant.", "He completed two grades of parochial school and could read and write.", "In 1901, he married Aleksandra Frolovna Kaverina (1884–1957), who was illiterate throughout her life.", "They had 19 children, but only eight survived to adult age; Kalashnikov was born 17th, and was close to death at age six.In 1930, the government labeled Timofey Aleksandrovich a kulak, confiscated his property, and deported him to Siberia, along with most of the family.", "The eldest three siblings, daughters Agasha (b.", "1905) and Anna and son Victor, were already married by 1930, and remained in Kuriya.", "After her husband's death in 1930, Aleksandra Frolovna married Efrem Kosach, a widower who had three children of his own.Mikhail Kalashnikov married twice, the first time to Ekaterina Danilovna Astakhova of Altai Krai.", "He married the second time to Ekaterina Viktorovna Moiseyeva (1921–1977).", "She was an engineer and did much technical drawing work for her husband.", "They had four children: daughters Nelli (b.", "1942), Elena (b.", "1948) and Natalya (1953–1983), and a son Victor (1942–2018).", "Victor also became a prominent small arms designer.The title to the AK-47 trademark belonged to Mikhail Kalashnikov's family until 4 April 2016, when the Kalashnikov Concern won a lawsuit to invalidate the registration of the trademark." ], [ "Weapon designs", "During his career, Kalashnikov designed about 150 models of small weapons.", "The most famous of them are:*AK-47*AKM*AK-74 / AKS-74U / AK-74M / AKS-74*AK-101 / AK-102*AK-103 / AK-104*AK-105*AK-12*RPK / RPK-74 *PK / PKM / PKP*Saiga semi-automatic rifle" ], [ "Awards and tribute", "''Incorporates information from the corresponding article in the Russian Wikipedia''* Medal of Small Arms Maker was introduced in 2008 and named after Kalashnikov.Recipients of the Order of St. Andrew*In 1998, he was awarded an Order of Saint Andrew the Protoclete* On his 90th birthday on 10 November 2009, Kalashnikov was named a \"Hero of the Russian Federation\" and presented with a medal by President Dmitry Medvedev who lauded him for creating \"the brand every Russian is proud of\"* In 2012, Izhevsk State Technical University was named after Kalashnikov* On 7 November 2014 a statue of Kalashnikov was unveiled at the Russian 102nd Military Base in Gyumri, Armenia.", "Armenian Defense Minister Seyran Ohanyan attended the opening ceremony.", "* On 19 September 2017 a monument of Kalashnikov was unveiled in Garden Ring, central Moscow.", "An activist who sought to disrupt the ceremony by displaying a sign reading \"a creator of weapons is a creator of death\" was subsequently arrested.===Russian Federation===; Decorations*Hero of the Russian Federation (2009)*Order of St. Andrew (2008)*Order \"For Merit to the Fatherland\", 2nd class (1994)*Order of Military Merit (2004); Awards*State Prize of the Russian Federation in the field of design (1997)*Award of the President of the Russian Federation in the field of education (2003)*All-Russian Literary Prize of Suvorov (2009)A 2019 Russian stamp dedicated to the 100th anniversary of Kalashnikov's birth; Honorary diplomas*Diploma of the Government of the Russian Federation (1997, 1999); Medals*Jubilee Medal \"50 Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945\"*Medal \"Symbol of Science\" (2007)*Gold Medal of Zhukov*Medal \"For outstanding contribution to the development of the collection business in Russia\"; Acknowledgements*Gratitude of the President of the Russian Federation (1997,1999,2002,2007)===Soviet===;Honors*Hero of Socialist Labour (1958, 1976)*Order of Lenin (1958, 1969, 1976)*Order of the October Revolution (1974)*Order of the Red Star (1949)*Order of the Patriotic War, 1st Class (1985)*Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1957)*Order of Friendship of Peoples (1982);Medals*Medal \"Hammer and Sickle\" (1958,1976)*Medal \"For Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945\"*Medal \"Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945\"*Medal \"In commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin\"*Jubilee Medal \"Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945\"*Jubilee Medal \"Forty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945\"*Medal \"For Distinction in Guarding the State Border of the USSR\"*Medal \"Veteran of Labor\" on behalf of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR*Jubilee Medal \"30 years of the Soviet Army and Navy\"*Jubilee Medal \"40 years of the Armed Forces of the USSR\"*Jubilee Medal \"50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR\"*Jubilee Medal \"60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR\"*Jubilee Medal \"70 years of the Armed Forces of the USSR\"*Medal \"In Commemoration of the 800th anniversary of Moscow\";Awards*Stalin Prize (1949)*Lenin Prize (1964)===Foreign decorations===*Order of Honour of Belarus (1999)*Order of Friendship, First Class (2003)===Other honors===*the home of Mikhail Kalashnikov in the village he set Courier lifetime bronze bust (1980)*the name of the designer named projected prospect in Izhevsk (1994)*\"Honorary Citizen of the Altai Territory\" (1997)*Ministry of Economy of Russia award – The sign \"of small arms designer Mikhail Kalashnikov\" (1997)*Union of scientific and engineering organizations and the Government of Udmurtia established an award named after Mikhail Kalashnikov (1999)*Diamond company \"Alrosa\" extracted 29 December 1995 gem diamonds weighing 50.74 carats given the name \"designer Mikhail Kalashnikov\" (14.5 x 15, 0h15, 5 mm, quality Stones Black) (1999)*Mikhail Kalashnikov Cadet School in Votkinsk (2002)*Award in his name at the School of Weapon Skills of Izhevsk (2002)*Izhevsk State Cultural Institution \"Museum of Mikhail Kalashnikov\"*\"Honorary Engineer of Kazakhstan\" (Kazakhstan; 2004)*Gift from President Hugo Chávez, the highest award of the Republic – a copy of the famous sword of Simon Bolivar, which is a relic of Venezuela and the copy is equal to the highest award of the country (2009)*The name of Mikhail Kalashnikov was given to the military department of the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg (2009)*Izhevsk State Technical University was awarded the name of Mikhail Kalashnikov (2012)*German knife company Boker has dedicated a series to him (2013)*The companies that make Kalashnikov rifles, Izhmash and Izhevsk Mechanical Plant were merged and formally renamed Kalashnikov Concern.", "(2013)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ''Ружье.", "Оружие и амуниция'' double/special issue of 1997/5-6 has a fairly complete inventory of Kalashnikov's designs.", "Issues 1 and 2 of the same magazine from 1999 have articles on Kalashnikov's 1st sub-machine gun (1942) and respectively his first rifle (1944–45) .", "* ''The Gun'' by C.J.", "Chivers thoroughly describes Mikhails early home life and retails the history of the AK-47, its distribution and entrance into prevalence.", "* Kalashnikov AK-47 - biography film (2020)" ], [ "See also", "*List of Heroes of the Russian Federation" ], [ "External links", "* M.T.", "Kalashnikov Museum and Exhibition Small Arms Complex * 'I sleep soundly' – Interview with and article on Mikhail Kalashnikov at the age of 83, from The Guardian newspaper.", "* Mikhail Kalashnikov backs weapons control* BBC NEWS Profile: Mikhail Kalashnikov* Free illustrated virtual guided tour of the Museum of Mikhail Kalashnikov * The life of Mikhail Kalashnikov * 7,62 мм ручной пулемет М.Т.", "Калашникова.", "1944 г. Kalashikov model 1944 light machine gun—his 2nd design.", "* The Economist: Obituary 11 January 2014 Mikhail Timofeyevich Kalashnikov, weapons inventor, died on 23 December, aged 94" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Multi-user dungeon" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''multi-user dungeon''' ('''MUD''', ), also known as a '''multi-user dimension''' or '''multi-user domain''', is a multiplayer real-time virtual world, usually text-based or storyboarded.", "MUDs combine elements of role-playing games, hack and slash, player versus player, interactive fiction, and online chat.", "Players can read or view descriptions of rooms, objects, other players, and non-player characters, and perform actions in the virtual world that are typically also described.", "Players typically interact with each other and the world by typing commands that resemble a natural language, as well as using a character typically called an avatar.Traditional MUDs implement a role-playing video game set in a fantasy world populated by fictional races and monsters, with players choosing classes in order to gain specific skills or powers.", "The objective of this sort of game is to slay monsters, explore a fantasy world, complete quests, go on adventures, create a story by roleplaying, and advance the created character.", "Many MUDs were fashioned around the dice-rolling rules of the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' series of games.Such fantasy settings for MUDs are common, while many others have science fiction settings or are based on popular books, movies, animations, periods of history, worlds populated by anthropomorphic animals, and so on.", "Not all MUDs are games; some are designed for educational purposes, while others are purely chat environments, and the flexible nature of many MUD servers leads to their occasional use in areas ranging from computer science research to geoinformatics to medical informatics to analytical chemistry.", "MUDs have attracted the interest of academic scholars from many fields, including communications, sociology, law, and economics.", "At one time, there was interest from the United States military in using them for teleconferencing.Most MUDs are run as hobbies and are free to play; some may accept donations or allow players to purchase virtual items, while others charge a monthly subscription fee.", "MUDs can be accessed via standard telnet clients, or specialized MUD clients, which are designed to improve the user experience.", "Numerous games are listed at various web portals, such as The Mud Connector.The history of modern massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) like ''EverQuest'' and ''Ultima Online'', and related virtual world genres such as the social virtual worlds exemplified by ''Second Life'', can be traced directly back to the MUD genre.", "Indeed, before the invention of the term MMORPG, games of this style were simply called graphical MUDs.", "A number of influential MMORPG designers began as MUD developers and/or players (such as Raph Koster, Brad McQuaid, Matt Firor, and Brian Green) or were involved with early MUDs (like Mark Jacobs and J. Todd Coleman)." ], [ "Early history", "Will Crowther's ''Adventure''=== Origins ===''Colossal Cave Adventure'', created in 1975 by Will Crowther on a DEC PDP-10 computer, was the first widely played adventure game.", "The game was significantly expanded in 1976 by Don Woods.", "Also called ''Adventure'', it contained many D&D features and references, including a computer controlled dungeon master.Numerous dungeon crawlers were created on the PLATO system at the University of Illinois and other American universities that used PLATO, beginning in 1975.Among them were \"pedit5\", \"oubliette\", \"moria\", \"avatar\", \"krozair\", \"dungeon\", \"dnd\", \"crypt\", and \"drygulch\".", "By 1978–79, these games were heavily in use on various PLATO systems, and exhibited a marked increase in sophistication in terms of 3D graphics, storytelling, user involvement, team play, and depth of objects and monsters in the dungeons.Inspired by ''Adventure'', a group of students at MIT in the summer of 1977 wrote a game for the PDP-10 minicomputer; called ''Zork'', it became quite popular on the ARPANET.", "''Zork'' was ported, under the filename DUNGEN (\"dungeon\"), to FORTRAN by a programmer working at DEC in 1978.In 1978 Roy Trubshaw, a student at the University of Essex in the UK, started working on a multi-user adventure game in the MACRO-10 assembly language for a DEC PDP-10.He named the game ''MUD'' (''Multi-User Dungeon''), in tribute to the ''Dungeon'' variant of ''Zork'', which Trubshaw had greatly enjoyed playing.", "Trubshaw converted MUD to BCPL (the predecessor of C), before handing over development to Richard Bartle, a fellow student at the University of Essex, in 1980.The game revolved around gaining points till one achieved the Wizard rank, giving the character immortality and special powers over mortals.=== Wider access and early derivatives ===''MUD'', better known as ''Essex MUD'' and ''MUD1'' in later years, ran on the University of Essex network, and became more widely accessible when a guest account was set up that allowed users on JANET (a British academic X.25 computer network) to connect on weekends and between the hours of 2 AM and 8 AM on weekdays.", "It became the first Internet multiplayer online role-playing game in 1980 and started the online gaming industry as a whole when the university connected its internal network to ARPANet.The original ''MUD'' game was closed down in late 1987, reportedly under pressure from CompuServe, to whom Richard Bartle had licensed the game.", "This left ''MIST'', a derivative of ''MUD1'' with similar gameplay, as the only remaining MUD running on the University of Essex network, becoming one of the first of its kind to attain broad popularity.", "''MIST'' ran until the machine that hosted it, a PDP-10, was superseded in early 1991.1985 saw the origin of a number of projects inspired by the original ''MUD''.", "These included ''Gods'' by Ben Laurie, a ''MUD1'' clone that included online creation in its endgame, and which became a commercial MUD in 1988; and ''MirrorWorld'', a tolkienesque MUD started by Pip Cordrey who gathered some people on a BBS he ran to create a ''MUD1'' clone that would run on a home computer.Neil Newell, an avid ''MUD1'' player, started programming his own MUD called ''SHADES'' during Christmas 1985, because ''MUD1'' was closed down during the holidays.", "Starting out as a hobby, ''SHADES'' became accessible in the UK as a commercial MUD via British Telecom's Prestel and Micronet networks.", "A scandal on ''SHADES'' led to the closure of Micronet, as described in Indra Sinha's net-memoir, ''The Cybergypsies''.At the same time, Compunet started a project named ''Multi-User Galaxy Game'' as a science fiction alternative to ''MUD1'', a copy of which they were running on their system at the time.", "When one of the two programmers left CompuNet, the remaining programmer, Alan Lenton, decided to rewrite the game from scratch and named it ''Federation II'' (at the time no ''Federation I'' existed).", "The MUD was officially launched in 1989.", "''Federation II'' was later picked up by AOL, where it became known simply as ''Federation: Adult Space Fantasy''.", "''Federation'' later left AOL to run on its own after AOL began offering unlimited service.=== Other early MUD-like games ===In 1978, around the same time Roy Trubshaw wrote ''MUD'', Alan E. Klietz wrote a game called ''Scepter'' (Scepter of Goth), and later called ''Milieu'' using Multi-Pascal on a CDC Cyber 6600 series mainframe which was operated by the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium.", "Klietz ported ''Milieu'' to an IBM XT in 1983, naming the new port ''Scepter of Goth''.", "''Scepter'' supported 10 to 16 simultaneous users, typically connecting in by modem.", "It was the first commercial MUD; franchises were sold to a number of locations.", "''Scepter'' was first owned and run by GamBit (of Minneapolis, Minnesota), founded by Bob Alberti.", "GamBit's assets were later sold to Interplay Productions.In 1984, Mark Peterson wrote ''The Realm of Angmar'', beginning as a clone of ''Scepter of Goth''.", "In 1994, Peterson rewrote ''The Realm of Angmar'', adapting it to MS-DOS (the basis for many dial-in BBS systems), and renamed it ''Swords of Chaos''.", "For a few years this was a very popular form of MUD, hosted on a number of BBS systems, until widespread Internet access eliminated most BBSes.In 1984, Mark Jacobs created and deployed a commercial gaming site, ''Gamers World''.", "The site featured two games coded and designed by Jacobs, a MUD called ''Aradath'' (which was later renamed, upgraded and ported to GEnie as ''Dragon's Gate'') and a 4X science-fiction game called ''Galaxy'', which was also ported to GEnie.", "At its peak, the site had about 100 monthly subscribers to both ''Aradath'' and ''Galaxy''.", "GEnie was shut down in the late 1990s, although ''Dragon's Gate'' was later brought to AOL before it was finally released on its own.", "Dragon's Gate was closed on February 10, 2007.In the summer of 1980, University of Virginia classmates John Taylor and Kelton Flinn wrote ''Dungeons of Kesmai'', a six player game inspired by ''Dungeons & Dragons'' which used roguelike ASCII graphics.", "They founded the Kesmai company in 1982 and in 1985 an enhanced version of ''Dungeons of Kesmai'', ''Island of Kesmai'', was launched on CompuServe.", "Later, its 2-D graphical descendant ''Legends of Kesmai'' was launched on AOL in 1996.The games were retired commercially in 2000.The popularity of MUDs of the University of Essex tradition escalated in the United States during the late 1980s when affordable personal computers with 300 to 2400 bit/s modems enabled role-players to log into multi-line BBSs and online service providers such as CompuServe.", "During this time it was sometimes said that MUD stands for \"Multi Undergraduate Destroyer\" due to their popularity among college students and the amount of time devoted to them.", "''Avalon: The Legend Lives'' was published by Yehuda Simmons in 1989.It was the first persistent game world of its kind without the traditional hourly resets and points-based puzzle solving progression systems.", "Avalon introduced equilibrium and balance (cooldowns), skill-based player vs player combat and concepts such as player-run governments and player housing.=== Later history ===In 2004, significant usages of MUDs included \"online gaming, education,...socializing\", and religious rituals or other religious activities." ], [ "Popular variants", "===AberMUD===The first popular MUD codebase was AberMUD, written in 1987 by Alan Cox, named after the University of Wales, Aberystwyth.", "Alan Cox had played the original University of Essex MUD, and the gameplay was heavily influenced by it.", "AberMUD was initially written in B for a Honeywell L66 mainframe under GCOS3/TSS.", "In late 1988 it was ported to C, which enabled it to spread rapidly to many Unix platforms upon its release in 1989.AberMUD's popularity resulted in several inspired works, the most notable of which were TinyMUD, LPMud, and DikuMUD.===TinyMUD===''Monster'' was a multi-user adventure game created by Richard Skrenta for the VAX and written in VMS Pascal.", "It was publicly released in November 1988.", "''Monster'' was disk-based and modifications to the game were immediate.", "''Monster'' pioneered the approach of allowing players to build the game world, setting new puzzles or creating dungeons for other players to explore.", "Monster, which comprised about 60,000 lines of code, had a lot of features which appeared to be designed to allow ''Colossal Cave Adventure'' to work in it.", "Though there never were many network-accessible Monster servers, it inspired James Aspnes to create a stripped-down version of ''Monster'' which he called TinyMUD.TinyMUD, written in C and released in late 1989, spawned a number of descendants, including TinyMUCK and TinyMUSH.", "TinyMUCK version 2 contained a full programming language named MUF (Multi-User Forth), while MUSH greatly expanded the command interface.", "To distance itself from the combat-oriented traditional MUDs it was said that the \"D\" in TinyMUD stood for Multi-User \"Domain\" or \"Dimension\"; this, along with the eventual popularity of acronyms other than MUD (such as MUCK, MUSH, MUSE, and so on) for this kind of server, led to the eventual adoption of the term MU* to refer to the TinyMUD family.", "UberMUD, UnterMUD, and MOO were inspired by TinyMUD but are not direct descendants.TinyMUD is also used to refer to the first database run under the TinyMUD codebase, which is also known as TinyMUD Classic; it ran from August 1989 to April 1990, and still comes back up every August during a holiday called Brigadoon Day, a reference to the Scottish village in the musical Brigadoon.===Hourglass===The first version of Hourglass was written by Yehuda Simmons and later Daniel James for ''Avalon: The Legend Lives'' which debuted in 1989 at the last of the London MUD mega Meets aptly named ''Adventure '89'' and initially hosted on the IOWA system.", "Initially written in ARM assembly language on the Acorn Archimedes 440, in 1994 it made the leap from the venerable Archimedes to Debian Linux on the PC and later Red Hat where, other than shifting to Ubuntu, it has remained ever since.", "An early version of Hourglass was also ported to the PC, named Vortex, by Ben Maizels in 1992.Although written specifically for ''Avalon: The Legend Lives'', it went on to spawn a number of games, including ''Avalon: The First Age'', which ran from 1999 to 2014.The now defunct 1996 ''Age of Thrones'' and notably ''Achaea, Dreams of Divine Lands'' started life in Vortex prior to moving to its own Rapture engine.", "Hourglass continues to be developed as of 2016 and ''Avalon: The Legend Lives'' currently has 2,901,325 written words and 2,248,374 lines of game code (with 2,417,900 instructions).", "The original game came in at 1 KB in 1989, compared to 102 GB in January 2016.===LPMud===In 1989, LPMud was developed by Lars Pensjö (hence the '''LP''' in LPMud).", "Pensjö had been an avid player of TinyMUD and AberMUD and wanted to create a world with the flexibility of TinyMUD and the gameplay of AberMUD.", "In order to accomplish this he wrote what is nowadays known as a virtual machine, which he called the LPMud driver, that ran the C-like LPC programming language used to create the game world.", "Pensjö's interest in LPMud eventually waned and development was carried on by others such as Jörn \"Amylaar\" Rennecke, Felix \"Dworkin\" Croes, Tim \"Beek\" Hollebeek and Lars Düning.", "During the early 1990s, LPMud was one of the most popular MUD codebases.", "Descendants of the original LPMud include MudOS, DGD, SWLPC, FluffOS, and the Pike programming language, the latter the work of long-time LPMud developer Fredrik \"Profezzorn\" Hübinette.===DikuMUD===In 1990, the release of DikuMUD, which was inspired by AberMUD, led to a virtual explosion of hack and slash MUDs based upon its code.", "DikuMUD inspired numerous derivative codebases, including CircleMUD, Merc, ROM, SMAUG, and GodWars.", "The original Diku team comprised Sebastian Hammer, Tom Madsen, Katja Nyboe, Michael Seifert, and Hans Henrik Staerfeldt.", "DikuMUD had a key influence on the early evolution of the MMORPG genre, with ''EverQuest'' (created by avid DikuMUD player Brad McQuaid) displaying such Diku-like gameplay that Verant developers were made to issue a sworn statement that no actual DikuMUD code was incorporated.===Simutronics===In 1987, David Whatley, having previously played ''Scepter of Goth'' and ''Island of Kesmai'', founded Simutronics with Tom and Susan Zelinski.", "In the same year they demonstrated a prototype of ''GemStone'' to GEnie.", "After a short-lived instance of ''GemStone II'', ''GemStone III'' was officially launched in February 1990.", "''GemStone III'' became available on AOL in September 1995, followed by the release of ''DragonRealms'' in February 1996.By the end of 1997 ''GemStone III'' and ''DragonRealms'' had become the first and second most played games on AOL." ], [ "Gameplay", "Gameplay scene from ''God Wars II''The typical MUD will describe to the player the room or area they are standing in, listing the objects, players and non-player characters (NPCs) in the area, as well as all of the exits.", "To carry out a task the player would enter a text command such as '''take apple''' or '''attack dragon'''.", "Movement around the game environment is generally accomplished by entering the direction (or an abbreviation of it) in which the player wishes to move, for example typing '''north''' or just '''n''' would cause the player to exit the current area via the path to the north.MUD clients are computer applications that make the MUD telnet interface more accessible to users, with features such as syntax highlighting, keyboard macros, and connection assistance.", "Prominent clients include TinyTalk, TinyFugue, TinTin++, and zMUD." ], [ "Style", "While there have been many variations in overall focus, gameplay and features in MUDs, some distinct sub-groups have formed that can be used to help categorize different game mechanics, game genres and non-game uses.===Hack and slash MUDs===Perhaps the most common approach to game design in MUDs is to loosely emulate the structure of a ''Dungeons & Dragons'' campaign focused more on fighting and advancement than role-playing.", "When these MUDs restrict player-killing in favor of player versus environment conflict and questing, they are labeled '''hack and slash MUDs'''.", "This may be considered particularly appropriate since, due to the room-based nature of traditional MUDs, ranged combat is typically difficult to implement, resulting in most MUDs equipping characters mainly with close-combat weapons.", "This style of game was also historically referred to within the MUD genre as \"adventure games\", but video gaming as a whole has developed a meaning of \"adventure game\" that is greatly at odds with this usage.===Player versus player MUDs===Most MUDs restrict player versus player combat, often abbreviated as PK (Player Killing).", "This is accomplished through hard coded restrictions and various forms of social intervention.", "MUDs without these restrictions are commonly known as '''PK MUDs'''.", "Taking this a step further are MUDs devoted ''solely'' to this sort of conflict, called '''pure PK''' MUDs, the first of which was ''Genocide'' in 1992.", "''Genocide'' ideas were influential in the evolution of player versus player online gaming.===Roleplaying MUDs==='''Roleplaying MUDs''', generally abbreviated as '''RP MUDs''', encourage or enforce that players act out the role of their playing characters at all times.", "Some RP MUDs provide an immersive gaming environment, while others only provide a virtual world with no game elements.", "MUDs where roleplay is enforced and the game world is heavily computer-modeled are sometimes known as '''roleplay intensive MUDs''', or '''RPIMUDs'''.", "In many cases, role-playing MUDs attempt to differentiate themselves from hack and slash types, by dropping the \"MUD\" name entirely, and instead using '''MUX''' (Multi-User Experience) or '''MUSH''' (Multi-User Shared Hallucination).===Social MUDs==='''Social MUDs''' de-emphasize game elements in favor of an environment designed primarily for socializing.", "They are differentiated from talkers by retaining elements beyond online chat, typically online creation as a community activity and some element of role-playing.", "Often such MUDs have broadly defined contingents of socializers and roleplayers.", "Server software in the TinyMUD family, or MU*, is traditionally used to implement social MUDs.===Talkers===A less-known MUD variant is the '''talker''', a variety of online chat environment typically based on server software like ew-too or NUTS.", "Most of the early Internet talkers were LPMuds with the majority of the complex game machinery stripped away, leaving just the communication commands.", "The first Internet talker was ''Cat Chat'' in 1990.===Educational MUDs===Taking advantage of the flexibility of MUD server software, some MUDs are designed for educational purposes rather than gaming or chat.", "''MicroMUSE'' is considered by some to have been the first educational MUD, but it can be argued that its evolution into this role was not complete until 1994, which would make the first of many educational MOOs, ''Diversity University'' in 1993, also the first educational MUD.", "The MUD medium lends itself naturally to constructionist learning pedagogical approaches.", "The Mud Institute (TMI) was an LPMud opened in February 1992 as a gathering place for people interested in developing LPMud and teaching LPC after it became clear that Lars Pensjö had lost interest in the project.", "TMI focussed on both the LPMud driver and library, the driver evolving into MudOS, the TMI Mudlib was never officially released, but was influential in the development of other libraries.===Graphical MUDs===A '''graphical MUD''' is a MUD that uses computer graphics to represent parts of the virtual world and its visitors.", "A prominent early graphical MUD was ''Habitat'', written by Randy Farmer and Chip Morningstar for Lucasfilm in 1985.Some graphical MUDs require players to download a special client and the game's artwork, while others provide a rich experience by being website-based.", "Graphical MUDs range from simply enhancing the user interface (e.g.", "Wolfery provides an option to set the room picture, but otherwise remains a text-based interaction) to simulating 3D worlds with visual spatial relationships and customized avatar appearances (e.g.", "Ultima Online provides a rich point-and-click experience).Games such as ''Meridian 59'', ''EverQuest'', ''Ultima Online'' and ''Dark Age of Camelot'' were routinely called graphical MUDs in their earlier years.", "''RuneScape'' was actually originally intended to be a ''text-based'' MUD, but graphics were added very early in development.", "However, with the increase in computing power and Internet connectivity during the late 1990s, and the shift of online gaming to the mass market, the term \"graphical MUD\" fell out of favor, being replaced by MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game) a term coined by Richard Garriott in 1997." ], [ "Development", "Within a MUD's technical infrastructure, a mudlib (concatenation of \"MUD library\") defines the rules of the in-game world.", "Examples of mudlibs include Ain Soph Mudlib, CDlib, Discworld Mudlib, Lima Mudlib, LPUniversity Mudlib, MorgenGrauen Mudlib, Nightmare Mudlib, and TMI Mudlib.MUDs that include object-oriented programming can add complex features, such as adding elements to the game world and giving users more ways to interact with it, that MUDs without it cannot." ], [ "Community", "MUD history has been preserved primarily through community sites and blogs and not through mainstream sources with journalistic repute.", "As of the late 1990s, a website called The Mud Connector has served as a central and curated repository for active MUDs.", "In 1995, ''The Independent'' reported that over 60,000 people regularly played about 600 MUDs, up from 170 MUDs three years prior.", "''The Independent'' also noted distinct patterns of socialization within MUD communities.", "In 2004, MUDs were relatively popular in the United States and mostly text-based.Seraphina Brennan of ''Massively'' wrote that the MUD community was \"in decline\" as of 2009." ], [ "Psychology and engagement", "Sherry Turkle developed a theory that the constant use (and in many cases, overuse) of MUDs allows users to develop different personalities in their environments.", "She uses examples, dating back to the text-based MUDs of the mid-1990s, showing college students who simultaneously live different lives through characters in separate MUDs, up to three at a time, all while doing schoolwork.", "The students claimed that it was a way to \"shut off\" their own lives for a while and become part of another reality.", "Turkle claims that this could present a psychological problem of identity for today's youths.", "\"A Story About A Tree\" is a short essay written by Raph Koster regarding the death of a ''LegendMUD'' player named Karyn, raising the subject of inter-human relationships in virtual worlds.Observations of MUD-play show styles of play that can be roughly categorized.", "Achievers focus on concrete measurements of success such as experience points, levels, and wealth; Explorers investigate every nook and cranny of the game, and evaluate different game mechanical options; Socializers devote most of their energy to interacting with other players; and then there are Killers who focus on interacting negatively with other players, if permitted, killing the other characters or otherwise thwarting their play.", "Few players play only one way, or play one way all the time; most exhibit a diverse style.", "According to Richard Bartle, \"People go there as part of a hero's journey—a means of self-discovery\".Research has suggested that various factors combine in MUDs to provide users with a sense of ''presence'' rather than simply communication." ], [ "Grammatical usage and derived terms", "As a noun, the word '''MUD''' is variously written MUD, Mud, and mud, depending on speaker and context.", "It is also used as a verb, with '''to mud''' meaning to play or interact with a MUD and '''mudding''' referring to the act of doing so.", "A '''mudder''' is, naturally, one who MUDs.", "Compound words and portmanteaux such as '''mudlist''', '''mudsex''', and '''mudflation''' are also regularly coined.", "Puns on the \"wet dirt\" meaning of \"mud\" are endemic, as with, for example, the names of the ROM ('''R'''ivers '''o'''f '''M'''UD), MUCK, MUSH, and CoffeeMUD codebases and the MUD ''Muddy Waters''." ], [ "See also", "* MUD trees* Chronology of MUDs* Bartle Test* Online text-based role-playing game* Integrated development environment* Virtual economy* Cyberformance* Digital architecture" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * **" ], [ "External links", "===Source code repositories===* Erwin S. Andreasen: Home of the 16k MUD competition, and other resources.", "* MudBytes.net: MUD code repository and discussion.===Resources===* The Mud Connector: Extensive mud portal with hundreds of mud listings* Top Mud Sites: MUD listings, reviews, discussion forum and rankings by category.", "* MUDseek: Google custom search engine indexing MUD and MUD-related web sites.", "* MUD Stats: MUD statistics.", "* * MUDbase" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Muslims" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Muslims''' () are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition.", "They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraham (or ''Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet.", "Alongside the Qur'an, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah; from ), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injeel (Gospel).", "These earlier revelations are also associated with Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded by Muslims as earlier versions of Islam.", "The majority of Muslims also follow the teachings and practices attributed to Muhammad (''sunnah'') as recorded in traditional accounts (''hadith'').With an estimated population of almost 1.9 billion followers as of 2020 year estimation, Muslims comprise around 25% of the world's total population.", "In descending order, the percentage of people who identify as Muslims on each continental landmass stands at: 45% of Africa, 25% of Asia and Oceania (collectively), 6% of Europe, and 1% of the Americas.", "Additionally, in subdivided geographical regions, the figure stands at: 91% of the Middle East–North Africa, 90% of Central Asia, 65% of the Caucasus, 42% of Southeast Asia, 32% of South Asia, and 42% of sub-Saharan Africa.While there are several Islamic schools and branches, the two largest denominations are Sunni Islam (75–90% of all Muslims) and Shia Islam (10–20% of all Muslims).", "By sheer numbers, South Asia accounts for the largest portion (31%) of the global Muslim population.", "By country, Indonesia is the largest in the Muslim world, holding around 12% of all Muslims worldwide; outside of the Muslim-majority countries, India and China are home to the largest (11%) and second-largest (2%) Muslim populations, respectively.", "Due to high Muslim population growth, Islam is the fastest-growing religion in the world." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''muslim'' (, ; , , () or ''moslem'' , ()) is the active participle of the same verb of which ''islām'' is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral ''S-L-M'' \"to be whole, intact\".", "A female adherent is a ''muslima'' () (also transliterated as \"Muslimah\").", "The plural form in Arabic is ''muslimūn'' () or ''muslimīn'' (), and its feminine equivalent is ''muslimāt'' ().The ordinary word in English is \"Muslim\".", "In the 20th century the preferred spelling in English was \"Moslem\", but this has now fallen into disuse.", "The word ''Mosalman'' (, alternatively ''Mussalman'') is a common equivalent for ''Muslim'' used in Central and South Asia.", "In English it was sometimes spelled '''Mussulman''' and has become archaic in usage; however, cognates of this word remain the standard term for \"Muslim\" in various other European languages.", "Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term ''Mohammedans'' or ''Mahometans''.", "Although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God.", "Other obsolete terms include ''Muslimite'' and ''Muslimist''.", "In Medieval Europe, Muslims were commonly called Saracens.The Muslim philologist Ibn al-Anbari said:In several places in the Quran, the word ''muslim'' conveys a universal meaning, beyond the description of the followers of Muhammad, for example:" ], [ "Qualifier", "To become a Muslim and to convert to Islam, it is essential to utter the ''Shahada'', one of the Five Pillars of Islam, a declaration of faith and trust that professes that there is only one God ''(Allah)'' and that Muhammad is God's messenger.", "It is a set statement normally recited in Arabic: ''ašhadu ʾan-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh'' () \"I testify that there is no god worthy of worship except Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.", "\"In Sunni Islam, the shahada has two parts: ''la ilaha illa'llah'' (there is no god but Allah), and ''Muhammadun rasul Allah'' (Muhammad is the messenger of God), which are sometimes referred to as the first ''shahada'' and the second ''shahada''.", "The first statement of the shahada is also known as the ''tahlīl''.In Shia Islam, the shahada also has a third part, a phrase concerning Ali, the first Shia Imam and the fourth Rashid caliph of Sunni Islam: (), which translates to \"Ali is the ''wali'' of God\".In Quranist Islam, the shahada is the testimony that there is no god but Allah (''la ilaha illa'llah'' ).The religious practices of Muslims are enumerated in the Five Pillars of Islam: the declaration of faith (''shahadah''), daily prayers (''salah''), almsgiving (''zakat''), fasting during the month of Ramadan (''sawm''), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (''hajj'') at least once in a lifetime." ], [ "In Islamic theology", "The majority of theological traditions of Islam accept that works do not determine if someone is a Muslim or not.", "God alone would know about the belief of a person.", "Fellow Muslims can only accept the personal declaration of faith.", "Only the Khawārij developed an understanding of Muslim identity based mainly on the adherence to liturgical and legal norms.When asked about one's beliefs, it is recommended to say the ''Istit̲h̲nāʾ'', for example, \"''in-sha'allah'' I am Muslim a believer\" (so God will, I am Muslim), since only God knows the future of a person.The Qur'an describes many prophets and messengers within Judaism and Christianity, and their respective followers, as Muslim.", "Some of those that were mentioned are: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus and his apostles are all considered to be Muslims in the Qur'an.", "The Qur'an states that these men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values, which included praying, charity, fasting and pilgrimage.", "Thus, in Surah 3:52 of the Qur'an, Jesus' disciples tell him, \"We believe in God; and you be our witness that we are Muslims (''wa-shahad be anna muslimūn'').\"", "In Islamic belief, before the Qur'an, God had given the Tawrat (Torah) to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel, the Zabur (Psalms) to David and the Injil (Gospel) to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets." ], [ "Demographics", "World Muslim population by percentageMuslim distribution worldwideThe most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12.7% of the world's Muslims, followed by Pakistan (11.0%), Bangladesh (9.2%), Nigeria (5.3%) and Egypt (4.9%).", "About 20% of the world's Muslims live in the Middle East and North Africa.", "Non-majority India contains 10.9% of the world's Muslims.", "Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world, followed by Bengalis, and Punjabis.Over 75–90% of Muslims are Sunni.", "The second and third largest sects, Shia and Ahmadiyya, make up 10–20%, and 1% respectively.", "While the majority of the population in the Middle East identify as either Sunni or Shi'a, a significant number of Muslims identify as non-denominational.With about 1.8 billion followers (2015), almost a quarter of earth's population, Islam is the second-largest and the fastest-growing religion in the world, primarily due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims, with Muslims having a rate of (3.1) compared to the world average of (2.5).", "According to the same study, religious switching has no impact on Muslim population, since the number of people who embrace Islam and those who leave Islam are roughly equal.As of 2010, 49 countries countries in the world had Muslim majorities, in which Muslims comprised more than 50% of the population.", "In 2010, 74.1% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 25.9% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority.", "A Pew Center study in 2010 found that 3% of the world's Muslims population live in non-Muslim-majority developed countries.", "India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).", "Followed by Ethiopia (28 million), China (22 million), Russia (16 million) and Tanzania (13 million).", "Sizable minorities are also found in the Americas (5.2 million or 0.6%), Australia (714,000 or 1.9%) and parts of Europe (44 million or 6%).A Pew Center study in 2016 found that Muslims have the highest number of adherents under the age of 15 (34% of the total Muslim population) of any major religion, while only 7% are aged 60+ (the smallest percentage of any major religion).", "According to the same study, Muslims have the highest fertility rates (3.1) of any major religious group.", "The study also found that Muslims (tied with Hindus) have the lowest average levels of education with an average of 5.6 years of schooling, though both groups have made the largest gains in educational attainment in recent decades among major religions.", "About 36% of all Muslims have no formal schooling, and Muslims have the lowest average levels of higher education of any major religious group, with only 8% having graduate and post-graduate degrees." ], [ "Culture", "Muslim culture or Islamic culture are terms used to describe the cultural practices common to Muslims and historically Islamic people.", "The early forms of Muslim culture, from the Rashidun Caliphate to early Umayyad period, were predominantly Arab, Byzantine, Persian and Levantine.", "With the rapid expansion of the Arab Islamic empires, Muslim culture has influenced and assimilated much from the Persian, Egyptian, Bengali, Caucasian, Turkic, Mongol, South Asian, Malay, Somali, Berber, Indonesian, and Moro cultures." ], [ "See also", "* Cultural Muslims* Islamic schools and branches* Mohammedan* Lists of Muslims* List of converts to Islam*Latino Muslims* Islamic holidays* Muslim world* Mumin* Persecution of Muslims* Islam by country" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ritual Prayer: Its Meaning and Manner – The Islamic Supreme Council of America.", "* Muhammad and the First Muslim Ummah – University of Chicago* ''Islamophobia Today'' Newspaper – An Islamophobia news clearing house* Sammy Aziz Rahmatti, ''Understanding and Countering Islamophobia''*WikiSaurus:Muslim* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MUSH" ], [ "Introduction", "In multiplayer online games, a '''MUSH''' (a backronymed variation on MUD most often expanded as Multi-User Shared Hallucination, though Multi-User Shared Hack, Habitat, and Holodeck are also observed) is a text-based online social medium to which multiple users are connected at the same time.", "MUSHes are often used for online social intercourse and role-playing games, although the first forms of MUSH do not appear to be coded specifically to implement gaming activity.", "MUSH software was originally derived from MUDs; today's two major MUSH variants are descended from TinyMUD, which was fundamentally a social game.MUSH has forked over the years and there are now different varieties with different features, although most have strong similarities and one who is fluent in coding one variety can switch to coding for the other with only a little effort.", "The source code for most widely used MUSH servers is open source and available from its current maintainers.A primary feature of MUSH codebases that tends to distinguish it from other multi-user environments is the ability, by default, of any player to extend the world by creating new rooms or objects and specifying their behavior in the MUSH's internal scripting language.", "The programming language for MUSH, usually referred to as \"MUSHcode\" or \"softcode\" (to distinguish it from \"hardcode\"the language in which the MUSH server itself is written) was developed by Larry Foard.", "TinyMUSH started life as a set of enhancements to the original TinyMUD code.", "\"MUSHcode\" is similar in syntax to Lisp." ], [ "Roleplay", "Traditionally, roleplay consists of a series of \"poses\".", "Each character makes a \"pose\"that is, writes a description of speech, actions, etc.", "which the character performs.", "Special commands allow players to print OOC (out of character) messages, distinguished by a prefixed string from IC (in character) action.", "This medium borrows traits from both improvisational stage acting and writing.", "Roleplaying is one of the primary activities of MUSHes, along with socializing.There is nothing in the code base that restricts a new MUSH from being a traditional hack-and-slash MUD-style game.", "However, the earliest uses of MUSH servers were for roleplaying and socializing, and these early trends have largely governed their descendants." ], [ "Administration", "All MUSH servers provide a flag that, when set on a player, bestows the ability to view and modify nearly everything in the game's database.", "Such players are usually called Wizards, and typically form the basis for the MUSH administration." ], [ "Software", "Maintainers and developers of MUSH servers have traditionally shared ideas with one another, so most MUSH servers include concepts or code developed originally in other servers.", "There is particular interest in ensuring that common MUSHcode features work similarly across servers.PennMUSH, TinyMUSH, TinyMUX and RhostMUSH are all open-source MUSH servers" ], [ "See also", "*TinyMUD – the ancestor to MUSH servers.", "*MOO*MUCK*MUD*Online text-based role-playing game*Online creation*MUSHclient" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* PennMUSH developed from TinyMUD and PernMUSH at University of Pennsylvania, and later at University of California, Berkeley and University of Illinois at Chicago.", "* TinyMUSH 3.0 through 3.3 (currently in alpha stage of development) derive from a merger of TinyMUSH 2.2.5 and TinyMUX 1.6, both of which ultimately derive from TinyMUD.", "* TinyMUX 2.0 through 2.9 derive from TinyMUX 1.6.TinyMUX 1.0 through 1.6 were developed from a fork of TinyMUSH 2.0 10p6 and ultimately from TinyMUD.", "* BattletechMUX A TinyMUX 1.6 derived codebase with real-time Battletech extensions.", "* RhostMUSH developed from TinyMUD, then TinyMUSE.", "It is currently opensource.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microevolution" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Microevolution''' is the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population.", "This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow and genetic drift.", "This change happens over a relatively short (in evolutionary terms) amount of time compared to the changes termed macroevolution.Population genetics is the branch of biology that provides the mathematical structure for the study of the process of microevolution.", "Ecological genetics concerns itself with observing microevolution in the wild.", "Typically, observable instances of evolution are examples of microevolution; for example, bacterial strains that have antibiotic resistance.Microevolution provides the raw material for macroevolution." ], [ "Difference from macroevolution", "Macroevolution is guided by sorting of interspecific variation (\"species selection\"), as opposed to sorting of intraspecific variation in microevolution.", "Species selection may occur as (a) effect-macroevolution, where organism-level traits (aggregate traits) affect speciation and extinction rates, and (b) strict-sense species selection, where species-level traits (e.g.", "geographical range) affect speciation and extinction rates.", "Macroevolution does not produce evolutionary novelties, but it determines their proliferation within the clades in which they evolved, and it adds species-level traits as non-organismic factors of sorting to this process." ], [ "Four processes", "===Mutation===Duplication of part of a chromosomeMutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic chemicals, as well as errors that occur during meiosis or DNA replication.", "Errors are introduced particularly often in the process of DNA replication, in the polymerization of the second strand.", "These errors can also be induced by the organism itself, by cellular processes such as hypermutation.", "Mutations can affect the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene.", "Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the proofreading ability of DNA polymerases.", "(Without proofreading error rates are a thousandfold higher; because many viruses rely on DNA and RNA polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates.)", "Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.", "Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA—nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations.", "Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment making some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way.", "These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).Mutation can result in several different types of change in DNA sequences; these can either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning.", "Studies in the fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'' suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.", "Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on cells, organisms have evolved mechanisms such as DNA repair to remove mutations.", "Therefore, the optimal mutation rate for a species is a trade-off between costs of a high mutation rate, such as deleterious mutations, and the metabolic costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes.", "Viruses that use RNA as their genetic material have rapid mutation rates, which can be an advantage since these viruses will evolve constantly and rapidly, and thus evade the defensive responses of e.g.", "the human immune system.Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination.", "These duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years.", "Most genes belong to larger families of genes of shared ancestry.", "Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions.Here, domains act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties.", "For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for color vision and one for night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene.", "Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an entire genome) is that this increases redundancy; this allows one gene in the pair to acquire a new function while the other copy performs the original function.", "Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.===Selection===''Selection'' is the process by which heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations.It is sometimes valuable to distinguish between naturally occurring selection, natural selection, and selection that is a manifestation of choices made by humans, artificial selection.", "This distinction is rather diffuse.", "Natural selection is nevertheless the dominant part of selection.Natural selection of a population for dark coloration.The natural genetic variation within a population of organisms means that some individuals will survive more successfully than others in their current environment.", "Factors which affect reproductive success are also important, an issue which Charles Darwin developed in his ideas on sexual selection.Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype which gives a reproductive advantage will become more common in a population (see allele frequency).", "Over time, this process can result in adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches and may eventually result in the speciation (the emergence of new species).Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology.", "The term was introduced by Darwin in his groundbreaking 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species'', in which natural selection was described by analogy to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction.", "The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics.", "The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical and molecular genetics is termed the ''modern evolutionary synthesis''.", "Natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.===Genetic drift===Ten simulations of random genetic drift of a single given allele with an initial frequency distribution 0.5 measured over the course of 50 generations, repeated in three reproductively synchronous populations of different sizes.", "In general, alleles drift to loss or fixation (frequency of 0.0 or 1.0) significantly faster in smaller populations.Genetic drift is the change in the relative frequency in which a gene variant (allele) occurs in a population due to random sampling.", "That is, the alleles in the offspring in the population are a random sample of those in the parents.", "And chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces.", "A population's allele frequency is the fraction or percentage of its gene copies compared to the total number of gene alleles that share a particular form.Genetic drift is an evolutionary process which leads to changes in allele frequencies over time.", "It may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability.", "In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success, the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and may be beneficial, neutral, or detrimental to reproductive success.The effect of genetic drift is larger in small populations, and smaller in large populations.", "Vigorous debates wage among scientists over the relative importance of genetic drift compared with natural selection.", "Ronald Fisher held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades.", "In 1968 Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with his neutral theory of molecular evolution which claims that most of the changes in the genetic material are caused by genetic drift.", "The predictions of neutral theory, based on genetic drift, do not fit recent data on whole genomes well: these data suggest that the frequencies of neutral alleles change primarily due to selection at linked sites, rather than due to genetic drift by means of sampling error.===Gene flow===Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations, which are usually of the same species.", "Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of pollen.", "Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.Migration into or out of a population can change allele frequencies, as well as introducing genetic variation into a population.", "Immigration may add new genetic material to the established gene pool of a population.", "Conversely, emigration may remove genetic material.", "As barriers to reproduction between two diverging populations are required for the populations to become new species, gene flow may slow this process by spreading genetic differences between the populations.", "Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man-made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes.Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules.", "Such hybrids are generally infertile, due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during meiosis.", "In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct.", "However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype.", "The importance of hybridization in developing new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.Hybridization is, however, an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals.", "Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis.", "Polyploid hybrids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations.Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria.", "In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.", "Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' and the adzuki bean beetle ''Callosobruchus chinensis'' may also have occurred.", "An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants.", "Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains.", "Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria.", "''Gene flow'' is the transfer of alleles from one population to another.Migration into or out of a population may be responsible for a marked change in allele frequencies.", "Immigration may also result in the addition of new genetic variants to the established gene pool of a particular species or population.There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations.", "One of the most significant factors is mobility, as greater mobility of an individual tends to give it greater migratory potential.", "Animals tend to be more mobile than plants, although pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals or wind.Maintained gene flow between two populations can also lead to a combination of the two gene pools, reducing the genetic variation between the two groups.", "It is for this reason that gene flow strongly acts against speciation, by recombining the gene pools of the groups, and thus, repairing the developing differences in genetic variation that would have led to full speciation and creation of daughter species.For example, if a species of grass grows on both sides of a highway, pollen is likely to be transported from one side to the other and vice versa.", "If this pollen is able to fertilise the plant where it ends up and produce viable offspring, then the alleles in the pollen have effectively been able to move from the population on one side of the highway to the other." ], [ "Origin and extended use of the term", "===Origin===The term ''microevolution'' was first used by botanist Robert Greenleaf Leavitt in the journal ''Botanical Gazette'' in 1909, addressing what he called the \"mystery\" of how formlessness gives rise to form.", ":''..The production of form from formlessness in the egg-derived individual, the multiplication of parts and the orderly creation of diversity among them, in an actual evolution, of which anyone may ascertain the facts, but of which no one has dissipated the mystery in any significant measure.", "This '''microevolution''' forms an integral part of the grand evolution problem and lies at the base of it, so that we shall have to understand the minor process before we can thoroughly comprehend the more general one...''However, Leavitt was using the term to describe what we would now call developmental biology; it was not until Russian Entomologist Yuri Filipchenko used the terms \"macroevolution\" and \"microevolution\" in 1927 in his German language work, ''Variabilität und Variation'', that it attained its modern usage.", "The term was later brought into the English-speaking world by Filipchenko's student Theodosius Dobzhansky in his book Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937).===Use in creationism===In young Earth creationism and baraminology a central tenet is that evolution can explain diversity in a limited number of created kinds which can interbreed (which they call \"microevolution\") while the formation of new \"kinds\" (which they call \"macroevolution\") is impossible.", "This acceptance of \"microevolution\" only within a \"kind\" is also typical of old Earth creationism.Scientific organizations such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science describe microevolution as small scale change within species, and macroevolution as the formation of new species, but otherwise not being different from microevolution.", "In macroevolution, an accumulation of microevolutionary changes leads to speciation.", "The main difference between the two processes is that one occurs within a few generations, whilst the other takes place over thousands of years (i.e.", "a quantitative difference).", "Essentially they describe the same process; although evolution beyond the species level results in beginning and ending generations which could not interbreed, the intermediate generations could.Opponents to creationism argue that changes in the number of chromosomes can be accounted for by intermediate stages in which a single chromosome divides in generational stages, or multiple chromosomes fuse, and cite the chromosome difference between humans and the other great apes as an example.", "Creationists insist that since the actual divergence between the other great apes and humans was not observed, the evidence is circumstantial.Describing the fundamental similarity between macro and microevolution in his authoritative textbook \"Evolutionary Biology,\" biologist Douglas Futuyma writes,Contrary to the claims of some antievolution proponents, evolution of life forms beyond the species level (i.e.", "speciation) has indeed been observed and documented by scientists on numerous occasions.", "In creation science, creationists accepted speciation as occurring within a \"created kind\" or \"baramin\", but objected to what they called \"third level-macroevolution\" of a new genus or higher rank in taxonomy.", "There is ambiguity in the ideas as to where to draw a line on \"species\", \"created kinds\", and what events and lineages fall within the rubric of microevolution or macroevolution." ], [ "See also", "* Punctuated equilibrium - due to gene flow, major evolutionary changes may be rare" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Microevolution (UC Berkeley)* Microevolution vs Macroevolution" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MySQL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MySQL''' () is an open-source relational database management system (RDBMS).", "Its name is a combination of \"My\", the name of co-founder Michael Widenius's daughter My, and \"SQL\", the acronym for Structured Query Language.", "A relational database organizes data into one or more data tables in which data may be related to each other; these relations help structure the data.", "SQL is a language that programmers use to create, modify and extract data from the relational database, as well as control user access to the database.", "In addition to relational databases and SQL, an RDBMS like MySQL works with an operating system to implement a relational database in a computer's storage system, manages users, allows for network access and facilitates testing database integrity and creation of backups.MySQL is free and open-source software under the terms of the GNU General Public License, and is also available under a variety of proprietary licenses.", "MySQL was owned and sponsored by the Swedish company MySQL AB, which was bought by Sun Microsystems (now Oracle Corporation).", "In 2010, when Oracle acquired Sun, Widenius forked the open-source MySQL project to create MariaDB.MySQL has stand-alone clients that allow users to interact directly with a MySQL database using SQL, but more often, MySQL is used with other programs to implement applications that need relational database capability.", "MySQL is a component of the LAMP web application software stack (and others), which is an acronym for ''Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python''.", "MySQL is used by many database-driven web applications, including Drupal, Joomla, phpBB, and WordPress.", "MySQL is also used by many popular websites, including Facebook, Flickr, MediaWiki, Twitter, and YouTube." ], [ "Overview", "MySQL is written in C and C++.", "Its SQL parser is written in yacc, but it uses a home-brewed lexical analyzer.", "MySQL works on many system platforms, including AIX, BSDi, FreeBSD, HP-UX, ArcaOS, eComStation, IBM i, IRIX, Linux, macOS, Microsoft Windows, NetBSD, Novell NetWare, OpenBSD, OpenSolaris, OS/2 Warp, QNX, Oracle Solaris, Symbian, SunOS, SCO OpenServer, SCO UnixWare, Sanos and Tru64.A port of MySQL to OpenVMS also exists.The MySQL server software itself and the client libraries use dual-licensing distribution.", "They are offered under GPL version 2, or a proprietary license.Support can be obtained from the official manual.", "Free support additionally is available in different IRC channels and forums.", "Oracle offers paid support via its MySQL Enterprise products.", "They differ in the scope of services and in price.", "Additionally, a number of third party organisations exist to provide support and services.MySQL has received positive reviews, and reviewers noticed it \"performs extremely well in the average case\" and that the \"developer interfaces are there, and the documentation (not to mention feedback in the real world via Web sites and the like) is very, very good\".", "It has also been tested to be a \"fast, stable and true multi-user, multi-threaded SQL database server\"." ], [ "History", "David Axmark (left) and Michael \"Monty\" Widenius, founders of MySQL AB, in 2003MySQL was created by a Swedish company, MySQL AB, founded by Swedes David Axmark, Allan Larsson and Finnish Michael \"Monty\" Widenius.Original development of MySQL by Widenius and Axmark began in 1994.The first version of MySQL appeared on 23 May 1995.It was initially created for personal usage from mSQL based on the low-level language ISAM, which the creators considered too slow and inflexible.", "They created a new SQL interface, while keeping the same API as mSQL.", "By keeping the API consistent with the mSQL system, many developers were able to use MySQL instead of the (proprietarily licensed) mSQL antecedent.===Milestones===Additional milestones in MySQL development included:* First internal release on 23 May 1995* Version 3.19: End of 1996, from www.tcx.se* Version 3.20: January 1997* Windows version was released on 8 January 1998 for Windows 95 and NT* Version 3.21: production release 1998, from www.mysql.com* Version 3.22: alpha, beta from 1998* Version 3.23: beta from June 2000, production release 22 January 2001* Version 4.0: beta from August 2002, production release March 2003 (unions).", "* Version 4.1: beta from June 2004, production release October 2004 (R-trees and B-trees, subqueries, prepared statements).", "* Version 5.0: beta from March 2005, production release October 2005 (cursors, stored procedures, triggers, views, XA transactions).", "** The developer of the Federated Storage Engine states that \"The Federated Storage Engine is a proof-of-concept storage engine\", but the main distributions of MySQL version 5.0 included it and turned it on by default.", "Documentation of some of the short-comings appears in \"MySQL Federated Tables: The Missing Manual\".", "* Sun Microsystems acquired MySQL AB in 2008.", "* Version 5.1: production release 27 November 2008 (event scheduler, partitioning, plugin API, row-based replication, server log tables)** Version 5.1 contained 20 known crashing and wrong result bugs in addition to the 35 present in version 5.0 ''(almost all fixed as of release 5.1.51)''.", "** MySQL 5.1 and 6.0-alpha showed poor performance when used for data warehousing partly due to its inability to utilize multiple CPU cores for processing a single query.", "* Oracle acquired Sun Microsystems on 27 January 2010.", "* The day Oracle announced the purchase of Sun, Michael \"Monty\" Widenius forked MySQL, launching MariaDB, and took a swath of MySQL developers with him.Geir Høydalsvik, current Senior Software Development Director for MySQL at Oracle in 2018* MySQL Server 5.5 was generally available ().", "Enhancements and features include:** The default storage engine is InnoDB, which supports transactions and referential integrity constraints.", "** Improved InnoDB I/O subsystem** Improved SMP support** Semisynchronous replication.", "** SIGNAL and RESIGNAL statement in compliance with the SQL standard.", "** Support for supplementary Unicode character sets utf16, utf32, and utf8mb4.", "** New options for user-defined partitioning.", "* MySQL Server 6.0.11-alpha was announced on 22 May 2009 as the last release of the 6.0 line.", "Future MySQL Server development uses a New Release Model.", "Features developed for 6.0 are being incorporated into future releases.", "* The general availability of MySQL 5.6 was announced in February 2013.New features included performance improvements to the query optimizer, higher transactional throughput in InnoDB, new NoSQL-style memcached APIs, improvements to partitioning for querying and managing very large tables, column type that correctly stores milliseconds, improvements to replication, and better performance monitoring by expanding the data available through the .", "The InnoDB storage engine also included support for full-text search and improved group commit performance.", "* The general availability of MySQL 5.7 was announced in October 2015.As of MySQL 5.7.8, August 2015, MySQL supports a native JSON data type defined by RFC 7159.", "* MySQL Server 8.0 was announced in April 2018, including NoSQL Document Store, atomic and crash safe DDL sentences and JSON Extended syntax, new functions, such as JSON table functions, improved sorting, and partial updates.", "Previous MySQL Server 8.0.0-dmr (Milestone Release) was announced 12 September 2016.", "* MySQL was declared DBMS of the year 2019 from the DB-Engines ranking=== Release history === Release General availability Latest minor version Latest release End of support 5.1.73 2013-12-03 Dec 2013 5.5.62 2018-10-22 Dec 2018 5.6.51 2021-01-20 Feb 2021 5.7.44 2023-10-25 Oct 2023 8.0.36 2024-01-16 Apr 2026 8.1.26 2023-07-18 Oct 2023 8.2.0 2023-10-25 Jan 2024 8.3.0 2024-01-16 Apr 2024 IR = Innovation Release, LTS = Long-Term SupportWork on version 6 stopped after the Sun Microsystems acquisition.", "The MySQL Cluster product uses version 7.The decision was made to jump to version 8 as the next major version number.===Legal disputes and acquisitions===On 15 June 2001, NuSphere sued MySQL AB, TcX DataKonsult AB and its original authors Michael (\"Monty\") Widenius and David Axmark in U.S District Court in Boston for \"breach of contract, tortious interference with third party contracts and relationships and unfair competition\".In 2002, MySQL AB sued Progress NuSphere for copyright and trademark infringement in United States district court.", "NuSphere had allegedly violated MySQL AB's copyright by linking MySQL's GPL'ed code with NuSphere Gemini table without being in compliance with the license.", "After a preliminary hearing before Judge Patti Saris on 27 February 2002, the parties entered settlement talks and eventually settled.", "After the hearing, FSF commented that \"Judge Saris made clear that she sees the GNU GPL to be an enforceable and binding license.", "\"In October 2005, Oracle Corporation acquired Innobase OY, the Finnish company that developed the third-party InnoDB storage engine that allows MySQL to provide such functionality as transactions and foreign keys.", "After the acquisition, an Oracle press release mentioned that the contracts that make the company's software available to MySQL AB would be due for renewal (and presumably renegotiation) some time in 2006.During the MySQL Users Conference in April 2006, MySQL AB issued a press release that confirmed that MySQL AB and Innobase OY agreed to a \"multi-year\" extension of their licensing agreement.In February 2006, Oracle Corporation acquired Sleepycat Software, makers of the Berkeley DB, a database engine providing the basis for another MySQL storage engine.", "This had little effect, as Berkeley DB was not widely used, and was dropped (due to lack of use) in MySQL 5.1.12, a pre-GA release of MySQL 5.1 released in October 2006.In January 2008, Sun Microsystems bought MySQL AB for $1 billion.In April 2009, Oracle Corporation entered into an agreement to purchase Sun Microsystems, then owners of MySQL copyright and trademark.", "Sun's board of directors unanimously approved the deal.", "It was also approved by Sun's shareholders, and by the U.S. government on 20 August 2009.On 14 December 2009, Oracle pledged to continue to enhance MySQL as it had done for the previous four years.A movement against Oracle's acquisition of MySQL AB, to \"Save MySQL\" from Oracle was started by one of the MySQL AB founders, Monty Widenius.", "The petition of 50,000+ developers and users called upon the European Commission to block approval of the acquisition.", "At the same time, some Free Software opinion leaders (including Pamela Jones of Groklaw, Jan Wildeboer and Carlo Piana, who also acted as co-counsel in the merger regulation procedure) advocated for the unconditional approval of the merger.", "As part of the negotiations with the European Commission, Oracle committed that MySQL server will continue until at least 2015 to use the dual-licensing strategy long used by MySQL AB, with proprietary and GPL versions available.", "The antitrust of the EU had been \"pressuring it to divest MySQL as a condition for approval of the merger\".", "But the US Department of Justice, at the request of Oracle, pressured the EU to approve the merger unconditionally.", "The European Commission eventually unconditionally approved Oracle's acquisition of MySQL AB on 21 January 2010.In January 2010, before Oracle's acquisition of MySQL AB, Monty Widenius started a GPL-only fork, MariaDB.", "MariaDB is based on the same code base as MySQL server 5.5 and aims to maintain compatibility with Oracle-provided versions." ], [ "Features", "MySQL is offered under two different editions: the open source MySQL Community Server and the proprietary Enterprise Server.", "MySQL Enterprise Server is differentiated by a series of proprietary extensions which install as server plugins, but otherwise shares the version numbering system and is built from the same code base.Major features as available in MySQL 5.6:* A broad subset of ANSI SQL 99, as well as extensions* Cross-platform support* Stored procedures, using a procedural language that closely adheres to SQL/PSM* Triggers* Cursors* Updatable views* Online Data Definition Language (DDL) when using the InnoDB Storage Engine.", "* Information schema* Performance Schema that collects and aggregates statistics about server execution and query performance for monitoring purposes.", "* A set of SQL Mode options to control runtime behavior, including a strict mode to better adhere to SQL standards.", "* X/Open XA distributed transaction processing (DTP) support; two phase commit as part of this, using the default InnoDB storage engine* Transactions with savepoints when using the default InnoDB Storage Engine.", "The NDB Cluster Storage Engine also supports transactions.", "* ACID compliance when using InnoDB and NDB Cluster Storage Engines* SSL support* Query caching* Sub-SELECTs (i.e.", "nested SELECTs)* Built-in replication support** Asynchronous replication: master-slave from one master to many slaves or many masters to one slave** Semi synchronous replication: Master to slave replication where the master waits on replication** Synchronous replication: Multi-master replication is provided in MySQL Cluster.", "** Virtual Synchronous: Self managed groups of MySQL servers with multi master support can be done using: Galera Cluster or the built in Group Replication plugin* Full-text indexing and searching* Embedded database library* Unicode support* Partitioned tables with pruning of partitions in optimizer* Shared-nothing clustering through MySQL Cluster* Multiple storage engines, allowing one to choose the one that is most effective for each table in the application.", "* Native storage engines InnoDB, MyISAM, Merge, Memory (heap), Federated, Archive, CSV, Blackhole, NDB Cluster.", "* Commit grouping, gathering multiple transactions from multiple connections together to increase the number of commits per second.The developers release minor updates of the MySQL Server approximately every two months.", "The sources can be obtained from MySQL's website or from MySQL's GitHub repository, both under the GPL license.===Limitations===When using some storage engines other than the default of InnoDB, MySQL does not comply with the full SQL standard for some of the implemented functionality, including foreign key references.", "Check constraints are parsed but ignored by all storage engines before MySQL version 8.0.15.Up until MySQL 5.7, triggers are limited to one per action / timing, meaning that at most one trigger can be defined to be executed after an operation, and one before on the same table.No triggers can be defined on views.Before MySQL 8.0.28, inbuilt functions like would return after 03:14:07 UTC on 19 January 2038.In 2017, an attempt to solve the problem was submitted, but was not used for the final solution that was shipped in 2022.===Deployment===MySQL can be built and installed manually from source code, but it is more commonly installed from a binary package unless special customizations are required.", "On most Linux distributions, the package management system can download and install MySQL with minimal effort, though further configuration is often required to adjust security and optimization settings.LAMP software bundle, displayed here together with Squid.Though MySQL began as a low-end alternative to more powerful proprietary databases, it has gradually evolved to support higher-scale needs as well.", "It is still most commonly used in small to medium scale single-server deployments, either as a component in a LAMP-based web application or as a standalone database server.", "Much of MySQL's appeal originates in its relative simplicity and ease of use, which is enabled by an ecosystem of open source tools such as phpMyAdmin.In the medium range, MySQL can be scaled by deploying it on more powerful hardware, such as a multi-processor server with gigabytes of memory.There are, however, limits to how far performance can scale on a single server ('scaling up'), so on larger scales, multi-server MySQL ('scaling out') deployments are required to provide improved performance and reliability.", "A typical high-end configuration can include a powerful master database which handles data write operations and is replicated to multiple slaves that handle all read operations.", "The master server continually pushes binlog events to connected slaves so in the event of failure a slave can be promoted to become the new master, minimizing downtime.", "Further improvements in performance can be achieved by caching the results from database queries in memory using memcached, or breaking down a database into smaller chunks called shards which can be spread across a number of distributed server clusters.===High availability software===Oracle MySQL offers a high availability solution with a mix of tools including the MySQL router and the MySQL shell.", "They are based on Group Replication, open source tools.MariaDB offers a similar offer in terms of products.===Cloud deployment===MySQL can also be run on cloud computing platforms such as Microsoft Azure, Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud, Oracle Cloud Infrastructure.", "Some common deployment models for MySQL on the cloud are:; Virtual machine image: In this implementation, cloud users can upload a machine image of their own with MySQL installed, or use a ready-made machine image with an optimized installation of MySQL on it, such as the one provided by Amazon EC2.", "; MySQL as a service: Some cloud platforms offer MySQL \"as a service\".", "In this configuration, application owners do not have to install and maintain the MySQL database on their own.", "Instead, the database service provider takes responsibility for installing and maintaining the database, and application owners pay according to their usage.", "Notable cloud-based MySQL services are the Amazon Relational Database Service; Oracle MySQL HeatWave Database Service, Azure Database for MySQL, Rackspace; HP Converged Cloud; Heroku and Jelastic.", "In this model the database service provider takes responsibility for maintaining the host and database." ], [ "User interfaces", "===Graphical user interfaces===A graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices or programs through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation.Third-party proprietary and free graphical administration applications (or \"front ends\") are available that integrate with MySQL and enable users to work with database structure and data visually.MySQL Workbench running on macOS====MySQL Workbench====MySQL Workbench is the integrated environment for MySQL.", "It was developed by MySQL AB, and enables users to graphically administer MySQL databases and visually design database structures.MySQL Workbench is available in three editions, the regular free and open source ''Community Edition'' which may be downloaded from the MySQL website, and the proprietary ''Standard Edition'' which extends and improves the feature set of the Community Edition, and the MySQL Cluster CGE.", "====Other GUI tools====* Adminer* Database Workbench* DBeaver* DBEdit* HeidiSQL* LibreOffice Base* Navicat* OpenOffice.org Base* phpMyAdmin* SQLBuddy* SQLyog* Toad for MySQL* Webmin===Command-line interfaces===A command-line interface is a means of interacting with a computer program where the user issues commands to the program by typing in successive lines of text (command lines).", "MySQL ships with many command line tools, from which the main interface is the client.MySQL Utilities is a set of utilities designed to perform common maintenance and administrative tasks.", "Originally included as part of the MySQL Workbench, the utilities are a stand-alone download available from Oracle.Percona Toolkit is a cross-platform toolkit for MySQL, developed in Perl.", "Percona Toolkit can be used to prove replication is working correctly, fix corrupted data, automate repetitive tasks, and speed up servers.", "Percona Toolkit is included with several Linux distributions such as CentOS and Debian, and packages are available for Fedora and Ubuntu as well.", "Percona Toolkit was originally developed as Maatkit, but as of late 2011, Maatkit is no longer developed.MySQL shell is a tool for interactive use and administration of the MySQL database.", "It supports JavaScript, Python or SQL modes and it can be used for administration and access purposes." ], [ "Application programming interfaces", "Many programming languages with language-specific APIs include libraries for accessing MySQL databases.", "These include MySQL Connector/Net for .NET/CLI Languages, and the JDBC driver for Java.In addition, an ODBC interface called MySQL Connector/ODBC allows additional programming languages that support the ODBC interface to communicate with a MySQL database, such as ASP or ColdFusion.", "The HTSQL URL-based query method also ships with a MySQL adapter, allowing direct interaction between a MySQL database and any web client via structured URLs.", "Other drivers exists for languages like Python or Node.js." ], [ "Project forks", "A variety of MySQL forks exist, including the following.=== Current ===; MariaDB: MariaDB is a community-developed fork of the MySQL relational database management system intended to remain free under the GNU GPL.", "The fork has been led by the original developers of MySQL, who forked it due to concerns over its acquisition by Oracle.", "; Percona Server for MySQL: Percona Server for MySQL, forked by Percona, aims to retain close compatibility to the official MySQL releases.", "Also included in Percona Server for MySQL is XtraDB, Percona's fork of the InnoDB Storage Engine.=== Abandoned ===; Drizzle: Drizzle was a free software/open source relational database management system (DBMS) that was forked from the now-defunct 6.0 development branch of the MySQL DBMS.", "Like MySQL, Drizzle had a client/server architecture and uses SQL as its primary command language.", "Drizzle was distributed under version 2 and 3 of the GNU General Public License (GPL) with portions, including the protocol drivers and replication messaging under the BSD license.", "; WebScaleSQL: WebScaleSQL was a software branch of MySQL 5.6, and was announced on 27 March 2014 by Facebook, Google, LinkedIn and Twitter as a joint effort to provide a centralized development structure for extending MySQL with new features specific to its large-scale deployments, such as building large replicated databases running on server farms.", "Thus, WebScaleSQL opened a path toward deduplicating the efforts each company had been putting into maintaining its own branch of MySQL, and toward bringing together more developers.", "By combining the efforts of these companies and incorporating various changes and new features into MySQL, WebScaleSQL aimed at supporting the deployment of MySQL in large-scale environments.", "The project's source code is licensed under version 2 of the GNU General Public License, and is hosted on GitHub.", "; OurDelta: The OurDelta distribution, created by the Australian company Open Query (later acquired by Catalyst IT Australia), had two versions: 5.0, which was based on MySQL, and 5.1, which was based on MariaDB.", "It included patches developed by Open Query and by other notable members of the MySQL community including Jeremy Cole and Google.", "Once the patches were incorporated into the MariaDB mainline, OurDelta's objectives were achieved and OurDelta passed on its build and packaging toolchain to Monty Program (now MariaDB Plc)." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of database administration tools* Comparison of MySQL database engines* Comparison of relational database management systems" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * MySQL at Oracle*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Modernism" ], [ "Introduction", "Pablo Picasso, (1907).", "This proto-cubist work is considered a seminal influence on subsequent trends in modernist painting.Frank Lloyd Wright, Solomon Guggenheim Museum completed in 1959'''Modernism''' is a philosophical, religious, and art movement that arose from broad transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new forms of art, philosophy, and social organization which reflected the newly emerging industrial world, including features such as urbanization, architecture, new technologies, and war.", "Artists attempted to depart from traditional forms of art, which they considered outdated or obsolete.", "The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to \"Make it New\" was the touchstone of the movement's approach.Modernist innovations included abstract art, the stream of consciousness novel, montage cinema, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and modern architecture.", "Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and made use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody.", "Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists also rejected religious belief.", "A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness concerning artistic and social traditions, which often led to experimentation with form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and materials used in creating works of art.While some scholars see modernism continuing into the 21st century, others see it evolving into late modernism or high modernism.", "Postmodernism is a departure from modernism and rejects its basic assumptions." ], [ "Definition", "Some commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines.", "More common, especially in the West, are those who see it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.", "From this perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was holding back progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end.According to Roger Griffin, modernism can be defined as a broad cultural, social, or political initiative, sustained by the ethos of \"the temporality of the new\".", "Modernism sought to restore, Griffin writes, a \"sense of sublime order and purpose to the contemporary world, thereby counteracting the (perceived) erosion of an overarching 'nomos', or 'sacred canopy', under the fragmenting and secularizing impact of modernity.\"", "Therefore, phenomena apparently unrelated to each other such as \"Expressionism, Futurism, vitalism, Theosophy, psychoanalysis, nudism, eugenics, utopian town planning and architecture, modern dance, Bolshevism, organic nationalism – and even the cult of self-sacrifice that sustained the hecatomb of the First World War – disclose a common cause and psychological matrix in the fight against (perceived) decadence.\"", "All of them embody bids to access a \"supra-personal experience of reality\", in which individuals believed they could transcend their own mortality, and eventually that they had ceased to be victims of history to become instead its creators." ], [ "Modernism, Romanticism, Philosophy and Symbol", "Literary modernism is often summed up in a line from W. B. Yeats: \"Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold\" (in 'The Second Coming').", "Modernists often search for a metaphysical 'centre' but experience its collapse.", "(Postmodernism, by way of contrast, celebrate that collapse, exposing the failure of metaphysics, for instance in Jacques Derrida's deconstruction of metaphysical claims.)", "Philosophically, the collapse of metaphysics can be traced back to the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776), who argued that we never actually perceive one event causing another.", "We only experience the 'constant conjunction' of events, and do not perceive a metaphysical 'cause'.", "Similarly, Hume argues (without using the actual terms) that we never know the self as object, only the self as subject, and we are thus blind to our true natures.", "More generally, if we only 'know' through sensory experience (seeing, touching, etc.", "), then we cannot 'know' or make metaphysical claims.", "Modernism is thus often driven emotionally by the desire for metaphysical truths, while understanding their impossibility.", "Modernist novels, for instance, feature characters like Marlow in ''Heart of Darkness'' or Nick Carraway in ''The Great Gatsby'' who believe that they have encountered some great truth about nature or character, truths that the novels themselves treat ironically, offering more mundane explanations.", "Similarly, many poems of Wallace Stevens struggle with the sense of nature's significance, falling under two headings: poems in which the speaker denies that nature has meaning, only for nature to loom up by the end of the poem; and poems in which the speaker claims nature has meaning, only for that meaning to collapse by the end of the poem.Modernism often rejects nineteenth century realism, if the latter is understood as focusing on the embodiment of meaning within a naturalistic representation.", "At the same time, some modernists aim at a more 'real' realism, one that is decentred.", "Picasso's proto-cubist painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon of 1907 (see picture above) does not present its subjects from a single point of view (that of a single viewer), but instead presents a flat, two-dimensional picture plane.", "'The Poet' of 1911 is similarly decentred, presenting the body from every point of view.", "As the Peggy Guggenheim Collections website puts it, 'Picasso presents multiple views of each object, as if he had moved around it, and synthesizes them into a single compound image'.Modernism, with its sense that 'things fall apart,' can be seen as the apotheosis of romanticism, if romanticism is the (often frustrated) quest for metaphysical truths about character, nature, God and meaning in the world.", "Modernism often yearns for a romantic or metaphysical centre, but finds only its collapse.This distinction between modernism and romanticism extends to their respective treatments of 'symbol'.", "The romantics at times see an essential relation (the 'ground') between the symbol (the 'vehicle', in I.A.", "Richards's terms) and its 'tenor' (its meaning)—for example in Coleridge's description of nature as 'that eternal language which thy God / Utters'.", "But while nature and its symbols may be God's language, for some romantic theorists it remains inscrutable.", "As Goethe (not quite a romantic) said, 'the idea or meaning remains eternally and infinitely active and inaccessible in the image'.", "This was extended in modernist theory which, drawing on its Symbolist precursors, often emphasises the inscrutability and failure of symbol and metaphor—for example in Stevens who seeks and fails to find meaning in nature, even if he at times seems to sense such a meaning.", "As such, symbolists and modernists at times adopt a mystical approach to suggest a non-rational sense of meaning.", "For these reasons, modernist metaphors are often unnatural, as for instance in T.S.", "Eliot's description of an evening 'spread out against the sky / Like a patient etherized upon a table'.", "Similarly, in many later modernist poets nature is unnaturalised and at times mechanised, as for example in Stephen Oliver's image of the moon busily 'hoisting' itself into consciousness." ], [ "Early history", "=== Origins ===Eugène Delacroix's ''Liberty Leading the People'', 1830, a Romantic work of artAccording to a critic, modernism developed out of Romanticism's revolt against the effects of the Industrial Revolution and bourgeois values: \"The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view ... the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism.\"", "While J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), one of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th century, was a member of the Romantic movement, as \"a pioneer in the study of light, colour, and atmosphere\", he \"anticipated the French Impressionists\" and therefore modernism \"in breaking down conventional formulas of representation; though unlike them, he believed that his works should always express significant historical, mythological, literary, or other narrative themes.", "\"Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck.", "Modernist artists largely rejected realism.The dominant trends of industrial Victorian England were opposed, from about 1850, by the English poets and painters that constituted the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, because of their \"opposition to technical skill without inspiration.\"", "They were influenced by the writings of the art critic John Ruskin (1819–1900), who had strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve the lives of the urban working classes, in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain.", "Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists: \"There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the pre-Raphaelites (and even before them, as proto-proto-Modernists, the German Nazarenes).", "The Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet (1832–1883), with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins.", "They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding that its realism wasn't truthful enough.\"", "Rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and later Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), both of whom had significant influence on existentialism and nihilism.However, the Industrial Revolution continued.", "Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s, and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this.", "A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.", "Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854) and King's Cross station (1852).", "These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889).", "The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be.", "These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people.", "The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of the electric telegraph from 1837, and the adoption of standard time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.Despite continuing technological advances, the idea that history and civilization were inherently progressive, and that progress was always good, came under increasing attack in the nineteenth century.", "Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form.", "Early in the century, the philosopher Schopenhauer (1788–1860) (''The World as Will and Representation'', 1819) had called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche.", "Two of the most significant thinkers of the mid nineteenth century were biologist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), author of ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection'' (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–1883), author of ''Das Kapital'' (1867).", "Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness.", "In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as \"lower animals\" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality.", "Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free.Odilon Redon, ''Guardian Spirit of the Waters'', 1878, charcoal on paper, Art Institute of Chicago=== The beginnings in the late nineteenth century ===Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism.", "Historian William Everdell, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ontological) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician Richard Dedekind's (1831–1916) Dedekind cut, and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844–1906) statistical thermodynamics.", "Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–1886 with Seurat's Divisionism, the \"dots\" used to paint ''A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte''.", "On the other hand, visual art critic Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) \"the first real Modernist\", though he also wrote, \"What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction.", "(It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture).\"", "The poet Baudelaire's ''Les Fleurs du mal'' (''The Flowers of Evil''), and Flaubert's novel ''Madame Bovary'' were both published in 1857.Baudelaire's essay \"The Painter of Modern Life\" (1863) inspired young artists to break away from tradition and innovate new ways of portraying their world in art.In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, beginning in the 1860s.", "The first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (''en plein air'').", "Impressionist paintings attempted to convey that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself.", "The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential.", "Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon.", "A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon.", "While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement.", "The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891) ''Une Saison en Enfer'' (''A Season in Hell'', 1873), Paul Verlaine (1844–1896), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898), and Paul Valéry (1871–1945).", "The symbolists \"stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy,\" and were especially interested in \"the musical properties of language.", "\"Cabaret, which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, including the immediate precursors of film, may be said to have begun in France in 1881 with the opening of the Black Cat in Montmartre, the beginning of the ironic monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts.Henri Matisse, ''Le bonheur de vivre'', 1905–06, Barnes Foundation, Merion, PA. An early Fauvist masterpiece.Influential in the early days of modernism were the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).", "Freud's first major work was ''Studies on Hysteria'' (with Josef Breuer, 1895).", "Central to Freud's thinking is the idea \"of the primacy of the unconscious mind in mental life,\" so that all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived.", "Freud's description of subjective states involved an unconscious mind full of primal impulses, and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions derived from social values.Henri Matisse, ''The Dance,'' 1910, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.", "At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with \"wild\", multi-colored, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism.", "Henri Matisse's second version of ''The Dance'' signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting.Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was another major precursor of modernism, with a philosophy in which psychological drives, specifically the \"will to power\" (''Wille zur Macht''), was of central importance: \"Nietzsche often identified life itself with 'will to power', that is, with an instinct for growth and durability.\"", "Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific, clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time.", "His work on time and consciousness \"had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists,\" especially those modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941).", "Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of ''élan vital'', the life force, which \"brings about the creative evolution of everything.\"", "His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.Important literary precursors of modernism were Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), who wrote the novels ''Crime and Punishment'' (1866) and ''The Brothers Karamazov'' (1880); Walt Whitman (1819–1892), who published the poetry collection ''Leaves of Grass'' (1855–1891); and August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including the trilogy ''To Damascus'' 1898–1901, ''A Dream Play'' (1902) and ''The Ghost Sonata'' (1907).", "Henry James has also been suggested as a significant precursor, in a work as early as ''The Portrait of a Lady'' (1881).Out of the collision of ideals derived from Romanticism, and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of works in the first decade of the 20th century, which, while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art, broke the implicit contract with the general public that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas.", "These \"Modernist\" landmarks include the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, the expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903, and culminating with his first abstract painting and the founding of the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of fauvism and the inventions of cubism from the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and others, in the years between 1900 and 1910." ], [ "Main period", "Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, Mill Run, Pennsylvania (1937).", "Fallingwater was one of Wright's most famous private residences (completed 1937).=== Early 20th century to 1930 ===Palais Stoclet (1905–1911) by modernist architect Josef HoffmannPablo Picasso, ''Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler'', 1910, Art Institute of ChicagoAn important aspect of modernism is how it relates to tradition through its adoption of techniques like reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.Piet Mondrian, ''View from the Dunes with Beach and Piers, Domburg,'' 1909, oil and pencil on cardboard, Museum of Modern Art, New York CityThe Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (MNCARS) is Spain's national museum of 20th-century art, located in Madrid.", "The photo shows the old building with the addition of one of the contemporary glass towers to the exterior by Ian Ritchie Architects with the closeup of the modern art tower.T.", "S. Eliot made significant comments on the relation of the artist to tradition, including: \"We shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of a poet's work, may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously.\"", "However, the relationship of Modernism with tradition was complex, as literary scholar Peter Childs indicates: \"There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions, fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, nihilism and fanatical enthusiasm, creativity and despair.", "\"An example of how Modernist art can be both revolutionary and yet be related to past tradition, is the music of the composer Arnold Schoenberg.", "On the one hand Schoenberg rejected traditional tonal harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music that had guided music making for at least a century and a half.", "He believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows.", "Yet while this was indeed wholly new, its origins can be traced back in the work of earlier composers, such as Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss and Max Reger.", "Schoenberg also wrote tonal music throughout his career.In the world of art, in the first decade of the 20th century, young painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were causing a shock with their rejection of traditional perspective as the means of structuring paintings, though the impressionist Monet had already been innovative in his use of perspective.", "In 1907, as Picasso was painting , Oskar Kokoschka was writing ''Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen'' (''Murderer, Hope of Women''), the first Expressionist play (produced with scandal in 1909), and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F sharp minor (1908), his first composition without a tonal centre.A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d'Automne.", "In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form; instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.", "Cubism was brought to the attention of the general public for the first time in 1911 at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris (held 21 April – 13 June).", "Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri Le Fauconnier, Robert Delaunay, Fernand Léger and Roger de La Fresnaye were shown together in Room 41, provoking a 'scandal' out of which Cubism emerged and spread throughout Paris and beyond.", "Also in 1911, Kandinsky painted ''Bild mit Kreis'' (''Picture with a Circle''), which he later called the first abstract painting.", "In 1912, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote the first (and only) major Cubist manifesto, ''Du \"Cubisme\"'', published in time for the Salon de la Section d'Or, the largest Cubist exhibition to date.", "In 1912 Metzinger painted and exhibited his enchanting ''La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a Horse)'' and ''Danseuse au Café (Dancer in a Café)''.", "Albert Gleizes painted and exhibited his ''Les Baigneuses (The Bathers)'' and his monumental ''Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing)''.", "This work, along with ''La Ville de Paris'' (''City of Paris'') by Robert Delaunay, was the largest and most ambitious Cubist painting undertaken during the pre-War Cubist period.In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke (the Bridge) in the city of Dresden.", "This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, though they did not use the word itself.", "A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich.", "The name came from Wassily Kandinsky's ''Der Blaue Reiter'' painting of 1903.Among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and August Macke.", "However, the term \"Expressionism\" did not firmly establish itself until 1913.Though initially mainly a German artistic movement, most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910 and 1930, most precursors of the movement were not German.", "Furthermore, there have been expressionist writers of prose fiction, as well as non-German speaking expressionist writers, and, while the movement had declined in Germany with the rise of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.", "''Portrait of Eduard Kosmack'' (1910) by Egon SchieleLe Corbusier, The Villa Savoye in Poissy (1928–1931)Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it \"overlapped with other major 'isms' of the modernist period: with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism and Dada.\"", "Richard Murphy also comments: \"the search for an all-inclusive definition is problematic to the extent that the most challenging expressionists\" such as the novelist Franz Kafka, poet Gottfried Benn, and novelist Alfred Döblin were simultaneously the most vociferous anti-expressionists.", "What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that developed in the early 20th century mainly in Germany in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities, and that \"one of the central means by which expressionism identifies itself as an avant-garde movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a whole is through its relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of representation.\"", "More explicitly: that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism.There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in early 20th century German theatre, of which Georg Kaiser and Ernst Toller were the most famous playwrights.", "Other notable Expressionist dramatists included Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn, and Arnolt Bronnen.", "They looked back to Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind as precursors of their dramaturgical experiments.", "Oskar Kokoschka's ''Murderer, the Hope of Women'' was the first fully Expressionist work for the theatre, which opened on 4 July 1909 in Vienna.", "The extreme simplification of characters to mythic types, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity would become characteristic of later Expressionist plays.", "The first full-length Expressionist play was ''The Son'' by Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914 and first performed in 1916.Futurism is yet another modernist movement.", "In 1909, the Parisian newspaper ''Le Figaro'' published F. T. Marinetti's first manifesto.", "Soon afterwards a group of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed the Futurist Manifesto.", "Modeled on Marx and Engels' famous \"Communist Manifesto\" (1848), such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers.", "However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time, largely confined to \"little magazines\" which had only tiny circulations.", "Modernist primitivism and pessimism were controversial, and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in progress and liberal optimism.Jean Metzinger, 1913, ''En Canot (Im Boot)'', oil on canvas, 146 x 114 cm (57.5 in × 44.9 in), exhibited at Moderni Umeni, S.V.U.", "Mánes, Prague, 1914, acquired in 1916 by Georg Muche at the Galerie Der Sturm, confiscated by the Nazis circa 1936–1937, displayed at the Degenerate Art show in Munich, and missing ever since.Abstract artists, taking as their examples the impressionists, as well as Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) and Edvard Munch (1863–1944), began with the assumption that color and shape, not the depiction of the natural world, formed the essential characteristics of art.", "Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality.", "The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist.", "By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy.", "The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.", "Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color.", "The use of photography, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism.Modernist architects and designers, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier, believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete.", "Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as \"machines for living in\", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in.", "Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages.", "Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms.", "The skyscraper is the archetypal modernist building, and the Wainwright Building, a 10-story office building built 1890–91, in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, is among the first skyscrapers in the world.", "Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956–1958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist high-rise architecture.", "Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture, though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.André Masson, ''Pedestal Table in the Studio'' 1922, early example of SurrealismIn 1913—which was the year of philosopher Edmund Husserl's ''Ideas'', physicist Niels Bohr's quantized atom, Ezra Pound's founding of imagism, the Armory Show in New York, and in Saint Petersburg the \"first futurist opera\", Mikhail Matyushin's ''Victory over the Sun''—another Russian composer, Igor Stravinsky, composed ''The Rite of Spring'', a ballet that depicts human sacrifice, and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm.", "This caused uproar on its first performance in Paris.", "At this time though modernism was still \"progressive\", increasingly it saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and was recasting the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society.", "Also in 1913 a less violent event occurred in France with the publication of the first volume of Marcel Proust's important novel sequence ''À la recherche du temps perdu'' (1913–1927) (''In Search of Lost Time'').", "This is often presented as an early example of a writer using the stream-of-consciousness technique, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust \"is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness\" and that he \"was deliberately recapturing the past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not write a stream-of-consciousness novel.", "\"Stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovation, and it has been suggested that Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931) was the first to make full use of it in his short story \"Leutnant Gustl\" (\"None but the Brave\") (1900).", "Dorothy Richardson was the first English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her novel sequence ''Pilgrimage'' (1915–1967).", "The other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of this narrative technique include James Joyce in ''Ulysses'' (1922) and Italo Svevo in ''La coscienza di Zeno'' (1923).However, with the coming of the Great War of 1914–1918 and the Russian Revolution of 1917, the world was drastically changed and doubt cast on the beliefs and institutions of the past.", "The failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth: prior to 1914 it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high.", "The birth of a machine age which had made major changes in the conditions of daily life in the 19th century now had radically changed the nature of warfare.", "The traumatic nature of recent experience altered basic assumptions, and realistic depiction of life in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of trench warfare.", "The view that mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter, described in works such as Erich Maria Remarque's novel ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' (1929).", "Therefore, modernism's view of reality, which had been a minority taste before the war, became more generally accepted in the 1920s.In literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more vivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions.", "This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century.", "Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conventional thinking.", "The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay ''Avant-Garde and Kitsch''.", "Greenberg labeled the products of consumer culture \"kitsch\", because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed.", "For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music, Hollywood, and advertising.", "Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism.Some modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution.", "In Russia after the 1917 Revolution there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant-garde cultural activity, which included Russian Futurism.", "However others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures.", "But many modernists saw themselves as apolitical.", "Others, such as T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position.", "Some even argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture which excluded the majority of the population.Surrealism, which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism, or \"the avant-garde of Modernism\".", "The word \"surrealist\" was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play ''Les Mamelles de Tirésias'', which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917.Major surrealists include Paul Éluard, Robert Desnos, Max Ernst, Hans Arp, Antonin Artaud, Raymond Queneau, Joan Miró, and Marcel Duchamp.By 1930, Modernism had won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment, although by this time Modernism itself had changed.=== Modernism continues: 1930–1945 ===Modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s.", "Between 1930 and 1932 composer Arnold Schoenberg worked on ''Moses und Aron'', one of the first operas to make use of the twelve-tone technique, Pablo Picasso painted in 1937 ''Guernica'', his cubist condemnation of fascism, while in 1939 James Joyce pushed the boundaries of the modern novel further with ''Finnegans Wake''.", "Also by 1930 Modernism began to influence mainstream culture, so that, for example, ''The New Yorker'' magazine began publishing work, influenced by Modernism, by young writers and humorists like Dorothy Parker, Robert Benchley, E. B.", "White, S. J. Perelman, and James Thurber, amongst others.", "Perelman is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most often in ''The New Yorker'', which are considered to be the first examples of surrealist humor in America.", "Modern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in commercials and logos, an early example of which, from 1916, is the famous London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston.One of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into daily life of ordinary people in Western Europe and North America.", "Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created social change.", "The kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence.", "For example, the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in middle class North America.", "Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children.London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston.", "This is the modern version (with minor modifications) of one that was first used in 1916.Another strong influence at this time was Marxism.", "After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of pre-World War I Modernism (which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions) and the neoclassicism of the 1920s (as represented most famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinsky—which rejected popular solutions to modern problems), the rise of fascism, the Great Depression, and the march to war helped to radicalise a generation.", "Bertolt Brecht, W. H. Auden, André Breton, Louis Aragon and the philosophers Antonio Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this Modernist form of Marxism.", "There were, however, also modernists explicitly of 'the right', including Salvador Dalí, Wyndham Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, the Dutch author Menno ter Braak and others.Significant Modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, Robert Musil, and Dorothy Richardson.", "The American Modernist dramatist Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s, 1930s and early 1940s.", "Two other significant Modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht and Federico García Lorca.", "D. H. Lawrence's ''Lady Chatterley's Lover'' was privately published in 1928, while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of William Faulkner's ''The Sound and the Fury'' in 1929.In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner, Samuel Beckett published his first major work, the novel ''Murphy'' (1938).", "Then in 1939 James Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake'' appeared.", "This is written in a largely idiosyncratic language, consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams.", "In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, and Wallace Stevens were writing from the 1920s until the 1950s.", "While Modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, there were important British Modernist poets, including David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Basil Bunting, and W. H. Auden.", "European Modernist poets include Federico García Lorca, Anna Akhmatova, Constantine Cavafy, and Paul Valéry.James Joyce statue on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie FitzGibbonThe Modernist movement continued during this period in Soviet Russia.", "In 1930 composer Dimitri Shostakovich's (1906–1975) opera ''The Nose'' was premiered, in which he uses a montage of different styles, including folk music, popular song and atonality.", "Amongst his influences was Alban Berg's (1885–1935) opera ''Wozzeck'' (1925), which \"had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it was staged in Leningrad.\"", "However, from 1932 Socialist realism began to oust Modernism in the Soviet Union, and in 1936 Shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw his 4th Symphony.", "Alban Berg wrote another significant, though incomplete, Modernist opera, ''Lulu'', which premiered in 1937.Berg's Violin Concerto was first performed in 1935.Like Shostakovich, other composers faced difficulties in this period.In Germany Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) was forced to flee to the U.S. when Hitler came to power in 1933, because of his Modernist atonal style as well as his Jewish ancestry.", "His major works from this period are a Violin Concerto, Op.", "36 (1934/36), and a Piano Concerto, Op.", "42 (1942).", "Schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite for Strings in G major (1935) and the Chamber Symphony No.", "2 in E minor, Op.", "38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939).", "During this time Hungarian Modernist Béla Bartók (1881–1945) produced a number of major works, including ''Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta'' (1936) and the ''Divertimento for String Orchestra'' (1939), String Quartet No.", "5 (1934), and No.", "6 (his last, 1939).", "But he too left for the US in 1940, because of the rise of fascism in Hungary.", "Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) continued writing in his neoclassical style during the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like the ''Symphony of Psalms'' (1930), Symphony in C (1940) and ''Symphony in Three Movements'' (1945).", "He also emigrated to the US because of World War II.", "Olivier Messiaen (1908–1992), however, served in the French army during the war and was imprisoned at Stalag VIII-A by the Germans, where he composed his famous ''Quatuor pour la fin du temps'' (\"Quartet for the End of Time\").", "The quartet was first performed in January 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards.In painting, during the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, modernism was defined by Surrealism, late Cubism, Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, and Modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard as well as the abstractions of artists like Piet Mondrian and Wassily Kandinsky which characterized the European art scene.", "In Germany, Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II, while in America, modernism is seen in the form of American Scene painting and the social realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world.", "Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent.", "Modernism is defined in Latin America by painters Joaquín Torres-García from Uruguay and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, while the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado, and Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo, began a renaissance of the arts for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and an emphasis on political messages.Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, ''Man at the Crossroads'', in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center.", "When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff.", "Frida Kahlo's works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain.", "Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism.", "Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition, which were often bloody and violent.", "Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works relate strongly to Surrealism and to the magic realism movement in literature.Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career.", "His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution.", "The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal.", "The young Jackson Pollock attended the workshop and helped build floats for the parade.During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including Pablo Picasso.", "On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was bombed by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe.", "The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque government and the Spanish Republican government.", "Pablo Picasso painted his mural-sized ''Guernica'' to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.During the Great Depression of the 1930s and through the years of World War II, American art was characterized by social realism and American Scene painting, in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others.", "''Nighthawks'' (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night.", "It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art.", "The scene was inspired by a diner in Greenwich Village.", "Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting.", "The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts.", "This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.", "''American Gothic'' is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930.Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art.", "Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting; like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life.", "It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 ''Winesburg, Ohio'', Sinclair Lewis's 1920 ''Main Street'', and Carl Van Vechten's ''The Tattooed Countess'' in literature.", "However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.The situation for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazis' power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased.", "''Degenerate art'' was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for virtually all modern art.", "Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions.", "These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely.", "Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937.The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas.", "German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York.", "In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age.Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning is an example of the evolution of abstract expressionism from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism.", "Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham, Gorky created biomorphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings.", "Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature." ], [ "After World War II", "While ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature'' states that modernism ended by c. 1939 with regard to British and American literature, \"When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred.\"", "Clement Greenberg sees modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts, but with regard to music, Paul Griffiths notes that, while Modernism \"seemed to be a spent force\" by the late 1920s, after World War II, \"a new generation of composers—Boulez, Barraqué, Babbitt, Nono, Stockhausen, Xenakis\" revived modernism\".", "In fact many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally they were no longer producing major works.", "The term \"late modernism\" is also sometimes applied to Modernist works published after 1930.Among modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 were Wallace Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper Powys, and Ezra Pound.", "Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important Modernist poem ''Briggflatts'' in 1965.In addition, Hermann Broch's ''The Death of Virgil'' was published in 1945 and Thomas Mann's ''Doctor Faustus'' in 1947.Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a \"later Modernist\".", "Beckett is a writer with roots in the expressionist tradition of Modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, including ''Molloy'' (1951), ''Waiting for Godot'' (1953), ''Happy Days'' (1961), and ''Rockaby'' (1981).", "The terms \"minimalist\" and \"post-Modernist\" have also been applied to his later works.", "The poets Charles Olson (1910–1970) and J. H. Prynne (born 1936) are among the writers in the second half of the 20th century who have been described as late modernists.More recently the term \"late modernism\" has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930.With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the Holocaust and the dropping of the atom bomb.The postwar period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup.", "In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of the art world) the climate for art was a disaster.", "Important collectors, dealers, and Modernist artists, writers, and poets had fled Europe for New York and America.", "The surrealists and modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States.", "Many of those who did not flee perished.", "A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard, remained in France and survived.The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a Modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, surrealism, Joan Miró, cubism, Fauvism, and early modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham.", "American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery ''The Art of This Century'', as well as other factors.Paris, moreover, recaptured much of its luster in the 1950s and 60s as the center of a machine art florescence, with both of the leading machine art sculptors Jean Tinguely and Nicolas Schöffer having moved there to launch their careers—and which florescence, in light of the technocentric character of modern life, may well have a particularly long lasting influence.=== Theatre of the Absurd ===Samuel Beckett's ''En attendant Godot'', (''Waiting for Godot'') Festival d'Avignon, 1978The term \"Theatre of the Absurd\" is applied to plays, written primarily by Europeans, that express the belief that human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down.", "Logical construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence.", "While there are significant precursors, including Alfred Jarry (1873–1907), the Theatre of the Absurd is generally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of Samuel Beckett.Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay \"Theatre of the Absurd\".", "He related these plays based on a broad theme of the Absurd, similar to the way Albert Camus uses the term in his 1942 essay, ''The Myth of Sisyphus''.", "The Absurd in these plays takes the form of man's reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces.", "Though the term is applied to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays: broad comedy, often similar to vaudeville, mixed with horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the \"well-made play\".Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), Eugène Ionesco (1909–1994), Jean Genet (1910–1986), Harold Pinter (1930–2008), Tom Stoppard (born 1937), Alexander Vvedensky (1904–1941), Daniil Kharms (1905–1942), Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–1990), Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929), Fernando Arrabal (born 1932), Václav Havel (1936–2011) and Edward Albee (1928–2016).=== Pollock and abstract influences ===During the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all contemporary art that followed him.", "To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself.", "Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture in the early 20th century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art is made.", "His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all who came after.", "Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—placing unstretched raw canvas on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and nonimagery—essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary.", "Abstract expressionism generally expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new works of art.The other abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own.", "In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them.", "Rereadings into abstract art by art historians such as Linda Nochlin, Griselda Pollock and Catherine de Zegher critically show, however, that pioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by official accounts of its history.=== International figures from British art ===Henry Moore (1898–1986) emerged after World War II as Britain's leading sculptor.", "He was best known for his semi-abstract monumental bronze sculptures which are located around the world as public works of art.", "His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically depicting mother-and-child or reclining figures, usually suggestive of the female body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he sculpted family groups.", "His forms are generally pierced or contain hollow spaces.Henry Moore, ''Reclining Figure'' (1957).", "In front of the Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland.In the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including a reclining figure for the UNESCO building in Paris in 1958.With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly.", "The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein, with several major retrospectives taking place around the world, notably a prominent exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the Forte di Belvedere overlooking Florence.", "By the end of the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work.", "On the campus of the University of Chicago in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicists led by Enrico Fermi achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's ''Nuclear Energy'' was unveiled.", "Also in Chicago, Moore commemorated science with a large bronze sundial, locally named ''Man Enters the Cosmos'' (1980), which was commissioned to recognise the space exploration program.The \"London School\" of figurative painters, including Francis Bacon (1909–1992), Lucian Freud (1922–2011), Frank Auerbach (born 1931), Leon Kossoff (born 1926), and Michael Andrews (1928–1995), have received widespread international recognition.Francis Bacon was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw imagery.", "His painterly but abstracted figures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages set against flat, nondescript backgrounds.", "Bacon began painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically until his mid-30s.", "His breakthrough came with the 1944 triptych ''Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion'' which sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition.", "His output can be crudely described as consisting of sequences or variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s male heads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone figures suspended in geometric structures.", "These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucifixion in the triptych format.", "From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly compassionate portraits of friends.", "Following the suicide of his lover George Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal, inward-looking, and preoccupied with themes and motifs of death.", "During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled and acclaimed.Lucian Freud was a German-born British painter, known chiefly for his thickly impastoed portrait and figure paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time.", "His works are noted for their psychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and model.", "According to William Grimes of ''The New York Times'', \"Lucien Freud and his contemporaries transformed figure painting in the 20th century.", "In paintings like ''Girl with a White Dog'' (1951–1952), Freud put the pictorial language of traditional European painting in the service of an anti-romantic, confrontational style of portraiture that stripped bare the sitter's social facade.", "Ordinary people—many of them his friends—stared wide-eyed from the canvas, vulnerable to the artist's ruthless inspection.", "\"=== In the 1960s after abstract expressionism ===In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like hard-edge painting and other forms of geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism.", "Clement Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly abstraction when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964.color field painting, hard-edge painting and lyrical abstraction emerged as radical new directions.By the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process art and Arte Povera also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early conceptual art.", "Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space.", "Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Colin McCahon, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Pat Lipsky, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz and Peter Reginato were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.=== Pop art ===Eduardo Paolozzi.", "''I was a Rich Man's Plaything'' (1947) is considered the initial standard bearer of \"pop art\" and first to display the word \"pop\".In 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted ''The New Realists'', the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City.", "Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery.", "The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide.", "Earlier in England in 1958 the term \"Pop Art\" was used by Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated the consumerism of the post World War II era.", "This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior in favor of art that depicted and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and the iconography of the mass production age.", "The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi (who created the groundbreaking ''I was a Rich Man's Plaything'', 1947) are considered seminal examples in the movement.", "Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in New York's East Village 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art.", "Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show the works of Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist.", "Later Leo Castelli exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein for most of their careers.", "There is a connection between the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists with a sense of humor, and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of Ben-Day dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction.=== Minimalism ===Minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and music, wherein artists intend to expose the essence or identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms, features, or concepts.", "Minimalism is any design or style wherein the simplest and fewest elements are used to create the maximum effect.As a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s.", "Prominent artists associated with this movement include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Ronald Bladen, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.", "It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a bridge to Postminimal art practices.", "By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in the geometric abstraction of Kazimir Malevich, the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of action painting.", "Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art.", "Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to postmodernism, or as a postmodern movement itself.", "In the latter perspective, early minimalism yielded advanced Modernist works, but the movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the anti-form movement.Hal Foster, in his essay ''The Crux of Minimalism'', examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian Modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.", "He argues that minimalism is not a \"dead end\" of Modernism, but a \"paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today.", "\"====Minimal music====The terms have expanded to encompass a movement in music that features such repetition and iteration as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams.", "Minimalist compositions are sometimes known as systems music.", "The term 'minimal music' is generally used to describe a style of music that developed in America in the late 1960s and 1970s; and that was initially connected with the composers.", "The minimalism movement originally involved some composers, and other lesser known pioneers included Pauline Oliveros, Phill Niblock, and Richard Maxfield.", "In Europe, the music of Louis Andriessen, Karel Goeyvaerts, Michael Nyman, Howard Skempton, Eliane Radigue, Gavin Bryars, Steve Martland, Henryk Górecki, Arvo Pärt and John Tavener.==== Postminimalism ====Smithson's ''Spiral Jetty'' from atop Rozel Point, Utah, US, in mid-April 2005.Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level.", "It consists of some 6500 tons of basalt, earth and salt.In the late 1960s Robert Pincus-Witten coined the term \"postminimalism\" to describe minimalist-derived art which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected.", "The term was applied by Pincus-Whitten to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, Barry Le Va, and others.", "Other minimalists including Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others continued to produce late Modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainders of their careers.Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or postminimal styles, and the label \"Postmodern\" has been attached to them.====Collage, assemblage, installations====Related to abstract expressionism was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture.", "The work of Robert Rauschenberg exemplifies this trend.", "His \"combines\" of the 1950s were forerunners of pop art and installation art, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs.", "Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art.", "Creating new conventions of art-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely materials.", "Another pioneer of collage was Joseph Cornell, whose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of found objects.==== Neo-Dada ====In the early 20th century Marcel Duchamp submitted for exhibition a urinal as a sculpture.", "He professed his intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art.", "He referred to his work as \"readymades\".", "''Fountain'' was a urinal signed with the pseudonym \"R. Mutt\", the exhibition of which shocked the art world in 1917.This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada.", "Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being John Cage's ''4′33″'', which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's ''Erased de Kooning Drawing''.", "Many conceptual works take the position that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself.", "In choosing \"an ordinary article of life\" and creating \"a new thought for that object\" Duchamp invited onlookers to view ''Fountain'' as a sculpture.Marcel Duchamp famously gave up \"art\" in favor of chess.", "Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a piece, ''Reunion'' (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in which each move triggers a lighting effect or projection.", "Duchamp and Cage played the game at the work's premier.Steven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Duchamp, between Modernism and Postmodernism.", "Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high Modernism.==== Performance and happenings ====alt=Carolee Schneemann, performing her piece ''Interior Scroll, 1975.''", "|upright=0.75|Yves Klein in France, and Carolee Schneemann (pictured), Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman, and Yoko Ono in New York City were pioneers of performance based works of art, that often entailed nudity.During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art.", "Yves Klein in France, Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman and Yoko Ono in New York City, and Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell and Nam June Paik in Germany were pioneers of performance-based works of art.", "Groups like The Living Theatre with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments, radically changing the relationship between audience and performer, especially in their piece ''Paradise Now''.", "The Judson Dance Theater, located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton and others; collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klüver.", "Park Place Gallery was a center for musical performances by electronic composers Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and other notable performance artists including Joan Jonas.These performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation.", "They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalism and the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of abstract expressionism.", "Images of Schneeman's performances of pieces meant to shock are occasionally used to illustrate these kinds of art, and she is often seen photographed while performing her piece ''Interior Scroll''.", "However, according to modernist philosophy surrounding performance art, it is cross-purposes to publish images of her performing this piece, for performance artists reject publication entirely: the performance itself is the medium.", "Thus, other media cannot illustrate performance art; performance is momentary, evanescent, and personal, not for capturing; representations of performance art in other media, whether by image, video, narrative or otherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve the inherent limitations of each medium.", "The artists deny that recordings illustrate the medium of performance as art.During the same period, various avant-garde artists created Happenings, mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts.", "Notable creators of happenings included Allan Kaprow—who first used the term in 1958, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman.==== Intermedia, multi-media ====Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together.", "Intermedia is a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art.", "Higgins was the publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet married to artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp.", "Ihab Hassan includes \"Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms,\" in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.", "One of the most common forms of \"multi-media art\" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed video art.", "While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.==== Fluxus ====Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (1931–1978), a Lithuanian-born American artist.", "Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at The New School for Social Research in New York City.", "Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music.", "Cage's students included Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins.Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity.", "Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice.", "Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.Andreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for Postmodernism as \"either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement—as it were, postmodernism's sublime.\"", "Instead he sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition.", "It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against \"the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the Cold War.", "\"=== Avant-garde popular music ===Modernism had an uneasy relationship with popular forms of music (both in form and aesthetic) while rejecting popular culture.", "Despite this, Stravinsky used jazz idioms on his pieces like \"Ragtime\" from his 1918 theatrical work ''Histoire du Soldat'' and 1945's ''Ebony Concerto''.In the 1960s, as popular music began to gain cultural importance and question its status as commercial entertainment, musicians began to look to the post-war avant-garde for inspiration.", "In 1959, music producer Joe Meek recorded ''I Hear a New World'' (1960), which ''Tiny Mix Tapes'' Jonathan Patrick calls a \"seminal moment in both electronic music and avant-pop history ... a collection of dreamy pop vignettes, adorned with dubby echoes and tape-warped sonic tendrils\" which would be largely ignored at the time.", "Other early avant-pop productions included the Beatles's 1966 song \"Tomorrow Never Knows\", which incorporated techniques from musique concrète, avant-garde composition, Indian music, and electro-acoustic sound manipulation into a 3-minute pop format, and the Velvet Underground's integration of La Monte Young's minimalist and drone music ideas, beat poetry, and 1960s pop art.=== Late period ===Brice Marden, ''Vine'', 1992–93, oil on linen, , Museum of Modern Art, New YorkThe continuation of abstract expressionism, color field painting, lyrical abstraction, geometric abstraction, minimalism, abstract illusionism, process art, pop art, postminimalism, and other late 20th-century Modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continued through the first decade of the 21st century and constitute radical new directions in those mediums.At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as Sir Anthony Caro, Lucian Freud, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, James Rosenquist, Alex Katz, Philip Pearlstein, and younger artists including Brice Marden, Chuck Close, Sam Gilliam, Isaac Witkin, Sean Scully, Mahirwan Mamtani, Joseph Nechvatal, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Richard Serra, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Pat Lipsky, Joel Shapiro, Tom Otterness, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture.==== Modern architecture ====Many skyscrapers in Hong Kong and Frankfurt have been inspired by Le Corbusier and modernist architecture, and his style is still used as influence for buildings worldwide." ], [ "Modernism in Africa and Asia", "Peter Kalliney suggests that \"Modernist concepts, especially aesthetic autonomy, were fundamental to the literature of decolonization in anglophone Africa.\"", "In his opinion, Rajat Neogy, Christopher Okigbo, and Wole Soyinka, were among the writers who \"repurposed modernist versions of aesthetic autonomy to declare their freedom from colonial bondage, from systems of racial discrimination, and even from the new postcolonial state\".The terms \"modernism\" and \"modernist\", according to scholar William J. Tyler, \"have only recently become part of the standard discourse in English on modern Japanese literature and doubts concerning their authenticity vis-a-vis Western European modernism remain\".", "Tyler finds this odd, given \"the decidedly modern prose\" of such \"well-known Japanese writers as Kawabata Yasunari, Nagai Kafu, and Jun'ichirō Tanizaki\".", "However, \"scholars in the visual and fine arts, architecture, and poetry readily embraced \"modanizumu\" as a key concept for describing and analyzing Japanese culture in the 1920s and 1930s\".", "In 1924, various young Japanese writers, including Kawabata and Riichi Yokomitsu started a literary journal ''Bungei Jidai'' (\"The Artistic Age\").", "This journal was \"part of an 'art for art's sake' movement, influenced by European Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, and other modernist styles\".Japanese modernist architect Kenzō Tange (1913–2005) was one of the most significant architects of the 20th century, combining traditional Japanese styles with modernism, and designing major buildings on five continents.", "Tange was also an influential patron of the Metabolist movement.", "He said: \"It was, I believe, around 1959 or at the beginning of the sixties that I began to think about what I was later to call structuralism\", He was influenced from an early age by the Swiss modernist, Le Corbusier, Tange gained international recognition in 1949 when he won the competition for the design of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park.In China the \"New Sensationists\" (新感觉派, Xīn Gǎnjué Pài) were a group of writers based in Shanghai who in the 1930s and 1940s were influenced, to varying degrees, by Western and Japanese modernism.", "They wrote fiction that was more concerned with the unconscious and with aesthetics than with politics or social problems.", "Among these writers were Mu Shiying and Shi Zhecun.In India, the Progressive Artists' Group was a group of modern artists, mainly based in Mumbai, India formed in 1947.Though it lacked any particular style, it synthesised Indian art with European and North America influences from the first half of the 20th century, including Post-Impressionism, Cubism and Expressionism." ], [ "Relationship with postmodernism", "''Strip Club'', an early Stuckist work by Charles Thompson, who would later co-found the remodernist movement against postmodern art.By the early 1980s the Postmodern movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various conceptual and intermedia formats.", "Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier.", "In music, postmodernism is described in one reference work as a \"term introduced in the 1970s\", while in British literature, ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature'' sees modernism \"ceding its predominance to postmodernism\" as early as 1939.However, dates are highly debatable, especially as according to Andreas Huyssen: \"one critic's postmodernism is another critic's modernism.\"", "This includes those who are critical of the division between the two and see them as two aspects of the same movement, and believe that late Modernism continues.Modernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements.", "Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on sociopolitical theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.Postmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonise Modernism \"after the fact\" is doomed to undisambiguable contradictions.In a narrower sense, what was Modernist was not necessarily also postmodern.", "Those elements of Modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only Modernist.", "Modernist reactions against postmodernism include remodernism, which rejects the cynicism and deconstruction of postmodern art in favor of reviving early modernist aesthetic currents." ], [ "Attack on early modernism", "Franz Marc, ''The fate of the animals'', 1913, oil on canvas.", "The work was displayed at the exhibition of \"Entartete Kunst\" (\"degenerate art\") in Munich, Nazi Germany, 1937.Modernism's stress on freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and primitivism disregards conventional expectations.", "In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects, as in the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in Surrealism or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in Modernist music.", "In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation.", "Within the Catholic Church, the specter of Protestantism and Martin Luther was at play in anxieties over modernism and the notion that doctrine develops and changes over time.From 1932, socialist realism began to oust Modernism in the Soviet Union; it had previously endorsed Futurism and Constructivism.", "The Nazi government of Germany deemed modernism narcissistic and nonsensical, as well as \"Jewish\" (see Antisemitism) and \"Negro\".", "The Nazis exhibited Modernist paintings alongside works by the mentally ill in an exhibition entitled \"Degenerate Art\".", "Accusations of \"formalism\" could lead to the end of a career, or worse.", "For this reason many modernists of the postwar generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the \"canary in the coal mine\", whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened.", "Louis A. Sass compared madness, specifically schizophrenia, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence." ], [ "Criticism of late modernity", "In fact, modernism flourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies, despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself.", "However, high modernism began to merge with consumer culture after World War II, especially during the 1960s.", "Modernist devices also started to appear in popular cinema, and later on in music videos.", "Modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a space age high-tech future.In 2008, Janet Bennett published ''Modernity and Its Critics'' through The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory.", "Merging of consumer and high versions of Modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of \"Modernism\".", "First, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own.", "Second, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite Modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision.", "Modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now \"post avant-garde\", indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement.", "Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as postmodernism.", "For others, such as art critic Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism.", "\"Anti-modern\" or \"counter-modern\" movements seek to emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as remedies or antidotes to modernism.", "Such movements see modernism as reductionist, and therefore subject to an inability to see systemic and emergent effects.Some traditionalist artists like Alexander Stoddart reject modernism generally as the product of \"an epoch of false money allied with false culture\".In some fields, the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others.", "Visual art has made the most complete break with its past.", "Most major capital cities have museums devoted to modern art as distinct from post-Renaissance art ( to ).", "Examples include the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Tate Modern in London, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris.", "These galleries make no distinction between modernist and Postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within Modern Art." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* John Barth (1979) ''The Literature of Replenishment'', later republished in ''The Friday Book'' (1984).", "* Eco, Umberto (1990) ''Interpreting Serials'' in ''The limits of interpretation'', pp.", "83–100, excerpt * Everdell, William R. (1997) ''The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).", "* Orton, Fred and Pollock, Griselda (1996) ''Avant-Gardes and Partisans Reviewed'', Manchester University.", "* Steiner, George (1998) ''After Babel'', ch.6 ''Topologies of culture'', 3rd revised edition* Art Berman (1994) ''Preface to Modernism'', University of Illinois Press." ], [ "Further reading", "* Robert Archambeau.", "\"The Avant-Garde in Babel.", "Two or Three Notes on Four or Five Words\", ''Action-Yes'' vol.", "1, issue 8 Autumn 2008.", "* Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.", "), ''Women Artists as the Millennium'', Cambridge, MA: October Books, MIT Press, 2006..* Aspray, William & Philip Kitcher, eds., ''History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics,'' Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol.", "XI, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988* Bäckström, Per (ed.", "), '' Centre-Periphery.", "The Avant-Garde and the Other'', Nordlit.", "University of Tromsø, no.", "21, 2007.", "* Bäckström, Per.", "\"One Earth, Four or Five Words.", "The Peripheral Concept of 'Avant-Garde'\", ''Action-Yes'' vol.", "1, issue 12 Winter 2010* Bäckström, Per & Bodil Børset (eds.", "), ''Norsk avantgarde'' (Norwegian Avant-Garde), Oslo: Novus, 2011.", "* Bäckström, Per & Benedikt Hjartarson (eds.", "), ''Decentring the Avant-Garde'', Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, Avantgarde Critical Studies, 2014.", "* Bäckström, Per and Benedikt Hjartarson.", "\"Rethinking the Topography of the International Avant-Garde\", in ''Decentring the Avant-Garde'', Per Bäckström & Benedikt Hjartarson (eds.", "), Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, Avantgarde Critical Studies, 2014.", "* Baker, Houston A., Jr., ''Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance,'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987* Berman, Marshall, ''All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity.''", "Second ed.", "London: Penguin, 1982..* Bradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.", "), ''Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930'' (Penguin \"Penguin Literary Criticism\" series, 1978, ).", "* Brush, Stephen G., ''The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution, 1800–1950,'' Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1988* Centre Georges Pompidou, ''Face a l'Histoire, 1933–1996''.", "Flammarion, 1996..* Crouch, Christopher, ''Modernism in art design and architecture'', New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000* Eysteinsson, Astradur, ''The Concept of Modernism,'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992* Friedman, Julia.", "''Beyond Symbolism and Surrealism: Alexei Remizov's Synthetic Art'', Northwestern University Press, 2010.", "(Trade Cloth)* Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.).", "''Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology''.", "Published in association with The Open University.", "London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London: Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982.", "* Gates, Henry Louis.", "''The Norton Anthology of African American Literature''.", "W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.", "* Hughes, Robert, ''The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change'' (Gardners Books, 1991, ).", "* Kenner, Hugh, ''The Pound Era'' (1971), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973* Kern, Stephen, ''The Culture of Time and Space,'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983* Klein, Jürgen, ''On Modernism\", ''Berlin, Bruxelles, Lausanne, New York Oxford: Peter Lang, 2022.''", "ISBN 978-3-631-87869-9.", "* Kolocotroni, Vassiliki ''et al.", "'', ed.,''Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).", "* Levenson, Michael, (ed.", "), ''The Cambridge Companion to Modernism'' (Cambridge University Press, \"Cambridge Companions to Literature\" series, 1999, ).", "* Lewis, Pericles.", "''The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).", "* Nicholls, Peter, ''Modernisms: A Literary Guide'' (Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1995).", "* Pevsner, Nikolaus, ''Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005, ).", "* ''The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design'' (Thames & Hudson, \"World of Art\" series, 1985, ).", "* Pollock, Griselda, ''Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts''.", "(Routledge, London, 1996.).", "* Pollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, ''Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s''.", "(New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001.", ")* * Sass, Louis A.", "(1992).", "''Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought''.", "New York: Basic Books.", "Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004).", "\"Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music\", in ''The Pleasure of Modernist Music''.", ".", "* Schorske, Carl.", "''Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture''.", "Vintage, 1980..* Schwartz, Sanford, ''The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought,'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985* Tyler, William J., ed.", "''Modanizumu: Modernist Fiction from Japan, 1913–1938''.", "University of Hawai'i Press, 2008.", "* Van Loo, Sofie (ed.", "), ''Gorge(l)''.", "Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp, 2006..* Weir, David, ''Decadence and the Making of Modernism'', 1995, University of Massachusetts Press, .", "* Weston, Richard, ''Modernism'' (Phaidon Press, 2001, ).", "* de Zegher, Catherine, ''Inside the Visible''.", "(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996)." ], [ "External links", "* Ballard, J. G., on Modernism.", "* Denzer, Anthony S., PhD, Masters of Modernism.", "* Hoppé, E. O., photographer, Edwardian Modernists.", "* Malady of Writing.", "Modernism you can dance to An online radio show that presents a humorous version of Modernism* Modernism Lab @ Yale University* ''Modernism/Modernity'' , official publication of the Modernist Studies Association* Modernism vs. Postmodernism" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marshall McLuhan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herbert Marshall McLuhan''' (July 21, 1911 – December 31, 1980) was a Canadian philosopher whose work is among the cornerstones of the study of media theory.", "He studied at the University of Manitoba and the University of Cambridge.", "He began his teaching career as a professor of English at several universities in the United States and Canada before moving to the University of Toronto in 1946, where he remained for the rest of his life.", "He is known as the \"father of media studies\".McLuhan coined the expression \"the medium is the message\" in the first chapter in his ''Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man'' and the term ''global village.''", "He predicted the World Wide Web almost 30 years before it was invented.", "He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, though his influence began to wane in the early 1970s.", "In the years following his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles.", "However, with the arrival of the Internet and the World Wide Web, interest was renewed in his work and perspectives." ], [ "Life and career", "McLuhan was born on July 21, 1911, in Edmonton, Alberta, and was named \"Marshall\" from his maternal grandmother's surname.", "His brother, Maurice, was born two years later.", "His parents were both also born in Canada: his mother, Elsie Naomi (née Hall), was a Baptist school teacher who later became an actress; and his father, Herbert Ernest McLuhan, was a Methodist with a real-estate business in Edmonton.", "When the business failed at the start of World War I, McLuhan's father enlisted in the Canadian Army.", "After a year of service, he contracted influenza and remained in Canada, away from the front lines.", "After Herbert's discharge from the army in 1915, the McLuhan family moved to Winnipeg, Manitoba, where Marshall grew up and went to school, attending Kelvin Technical School before enrolling in the University of Manitoba in 1928.=== Undergraduate education ===After studying for one year as an engineering student, he changed majors and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree (1933), winning a University Gold Medal in Arts and Sciences.", "He went on to receive a Master of Arts degree (1934) in English from the university as well.", "He had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and was accepted by Trinity Hall, Cambridge, having failed to secure a Rhodes Scholarship to study at Oxford.Though having already earned his BA and MA in Manitoba, Cambridge required him to enrol as an undergraduate \"affiliated\" student, with one year's credit towards a three-year bachelor's degree, before entering any doctoral studies.", "He went up to Cambridge in the autumn of 1934, studied under I.", "A. Richards and F. R. Leavis, and was influenced by New Criticism.", "Years afterward, upon reflection, he credited the faculty there with influencing the direction of his later work because of their emphasis on the \"training of perception\", as well as such concepts as Richards' notion of \"feedforward\".", "These studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms.", "He received the required bachelor's degree from Cambridge in 1936 and entered their graduate program.=== Conversion to Catholicism ===At the University of Manitoba, McLuhan explored his conflicted relationship with religion and turned to literature to \"gratify his soul's hunger for truth and beauty,\" later referring to this stage as agnosticism.", "While studying the trivium at Cambridge, he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion to Catholicism in 1937, founded on his reading of G. K. Chesterton.", "In 1935, he wrote to his mother:Had I not encountered Chesterton I would have remained agnostic for many years at least.", "Chesterton did not convince me of religious faith, but he prevented my despair from becoming a habit or hardening into misanthropy.", "He opened my eyes to European culture and encouraged me to know it more closely.", "He taught me the reasons for all that in me was simply blind anger and misery.At the end of March 1937, McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process, when he was formally received into the Catholic Church.", "After consulting a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert.", "His mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable.", "McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter.", "He had a lifelong interest in the number three (e.g., the trivium, the Trinity) and sometimes said that the Virgin Mary provided intellectual guidance for him.", "For the rest of his career, he taught in Catholic institutions of higher education.=== Early career, marriage, and doctorate ===McLuhan at Cambridge, circa 1940Unable to find a suitable job in Canada, he went to the United States to take a job as a teaching assistant at the University of Wisconsin–Madison for the 1936–37 academic year.", "From 1937 to 1944, he taught English at Saint Louis University (with an interruption from 1939 to 1940 when he returned to Cambridge).", "There he taught courses on Shakespeare, eventually tutoring and befriending Walter J. Ong, who would write his doctoral dissertation on a topic that McLuhan had called to his attention, as well as become a well-known authority on communication and technology.McLuhan met Corinne Lewis in St. Louis, a teacher and aspiring actress from Fort Worth, Texas, whom he married on August 4, 1939.They spent 1939–40 in Cambridge, where he completed his master's degree (awarded in January 1940) and began to work on his doctoral dissertation on Thomas Nashe and the verbal arts.", "While the McLuhans were in England, World War II had erupted in Europe.", "For this reason, he obtained permission to complete and submit his dissertation from the United States, without having to return to Cambridge for an oral defence.", "In 1940, the McLuhans returned to Saint Louis University, where they started a family as he continued teaching.", "He was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in December 1943.He next taught at Assumption College in Windsor, Ontario, from 1944 to 1946, then moved to Toronto in 1946 where he joined the faculty of St. Michael's College, a Catholic college of the University of Toronto, where Hugh Kenner would be one of his students.", "Canadian economist and communications scholar Harold Innis was a university colleague who had a strong influence on his work.", "McLuhan wrote in 1964: \"I am pleased to think of my own book ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'' as a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences, first of writing then of printing.", "\"=== Later career and reputation ===McLuhan with a television showing his own image, 1967In the early 1950s, McLuhan began the Communication and Culture seminars at the University of Toronto, funded by the Ford Foundation.", "As his reputation grew, he received a growing number of offers from other universities.", "During this period, he published his first major work, ''The Mechanical Bride'' (1951), in which he examines the effect of advertising on society and culture.", "Throughout the 1950s, he and Edmund Carpenter also produced an important academic journal called ''Explorations''.", "McLuhan and Carpenter have been characterized as the Toronto School of communication theory, together with Harold Innis, Eric A. Havelock, and Northrop Frye.", "During this time, McLuhan supervised the doctoral thesis of modernist writer Sheila Watson on the subject of Wyndham Lewis.", "Hoping to keep him from moving to another institute, the University of Toronto created the Centre for Culture and Technology (CCT) in 1963.From 1967 to 1968, McLuhan was named the Albert Schweitzer Chair in Humanities at Fordham University in the Bronx.", "While at Fordham, he was diagnosed with a benign brain tumor, which was treated successfully.", "He returned to Toronto where he taught at the University of Toronto for the rest of his life and lived in Wychwood Park, a bucolic enclave on a hill overlooking the downtown where Anatol Rapoport was his neighbour.In 1970, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada.", "In 1975, the University of Dallas hosted him from April to May, appointing him to the McDermott Chair.", "Marshall and Corinne McLuhan had six children: Eric, twins Mary and Teresa, Stephanie, Elizabeth, and Michael.", "The associated costs of a large family eventually drove him to advertising work and accepting frequent consulting and speaking engagements for large corporations, including IBM and AT&T.=== Death ===In September 1979, McLuhan suffered a stroke which affected his ability to speak.", "The University of Toronto's School of Graduate Studies tried to close his research center shortly thereafter, but was deterred by substantial protests.", "McLuhan never fully recovered from the stroke and died in his sleep on December 31, 1980.He is buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Thornhill, Ontario, Canada." ], [ "Major works", "During his years at Saint Louis University (1937–1944), McLuhan worked concurrently on two projects: his doctoral dissertation and the manuscript that was eventually published in 1951 as a book, titled ''The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man'', which included only a representative selection of the materials that McLuhan had prepared for it.McLuhan's 1942 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation surveys the history of the verbal arts (grammar, logic, and rhetoric—collectively known as the trivium) from the time of Cicero down to the time of Thomas Nashe.", "In his later publications, McLuhan at times uses the Latin concept of the ''trivium'' to outline an orderly and systematic picture of certain periods in the history of Western culture.", "McLuhan suggests that the Late Middle Ages, for instance, were characterized by the heavy emphasis on the formal study of logic.", "The key development that led to the Renaissance was not the rediscovery of ancient texts, but a shift in emphasis from the formal study of logic to rhetoric and grammar.", "Modern life is characterized by the re-emergence of grammar as its most salient feature—a trend McLuhan felt was exemplified by the New Criticism of Richards and Leavis.McLuhan also began the academic journal ''Explorations'' with anthropologist Edmund \"Ted\" Carpenter.", "In a letter to Walter Ong, dated 31 May 1953, McLuhan reports that he had received a two-year grant of $43,000 from the Ford Foundation to carry out a communication project at the University of Toronto involving faculty from different disciplines, which led to the creation of the journal.At a Fordham lecture in 1999, Tom Wolfe suggested that a major under-acknowledged influence on McLuhan's work is the Jesuit philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, whose ideas anticipated those of McLuhan, especially the evolution of the human mind into the \"noosphere.\"", "In fact, McLuhan warns against outright dismissing or whole-heartedly accepting de Chardin's observations early on in his second published book ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'':In his private life, McLuhan wrote to friends saying: \"I am not a fan of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.", "The idea that anything is better because it comes later is surely borrowed from pre-electronic technologies.\"", "Further, McLuhan noted to a Catholic collaborator: \"The idea of a Cosmic thrust in one direction ... is surely one of the lamest semantic fallacies ever bred by the word 'evolution'.… That development should have any direction at all is inconceivable except to the highly literate community.", "\"Some of McLuhan's main ideas were influenced or prefigured by anthropologists like Edward Sapir and Claude Lévi-Strauss, arguably with a more complex historical and psychological analysis.", "The idea of the retribalization of Western society by the far-reaching techniques of communication, the view on the function of the artist in society, and the characterization of means of transportation, like the railroad and the airplane, as means of communication, are prefigured in Sapir's 1933 article on ''Communication'' in the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, while the distinction between \"hot\" and \"cool\" media draws from Lévi-Strauss' distinction between hot and cold societies.=== ''The Mechanical Bride'' (1951) ===McLuhan's first book, ''The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man'' (1951), is a pioneering study in the field now known as popular culture.", "In the book, McLuhan turns his attention to analysing and commenting on numerous examples of persuasion in contemporary popular culture.", "This followed naturally from his earlier work as both dialectic and rhetoric in the classical trivium aimed at persuasion.", "At this point, his focus shifted dramatically, turning inward to study the influence of communication media independent of their content.", "His famous aphorism \"the medium is the message\" (elaborated in his ''Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man'', 1964) calls attention to this intrinsic effect of communications media.His interest in the critical study of popular culture was influenced by the 1933 book ''Culture and Environment'' by F. R. Leavis and Denys Thompson, and the title ''The Mechanical Bride'' is derived from a piece by the Dadaist artist Marcel Duchamp.Like his later ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'' (1962), ''The Mechanical Bride'' is composed of a number of short essays that may be read in any order—what he styled the \"mosaic approach\" to writing a book.", "Each essay begins with a newspaper or magazine article, or an advertisement, followed by McLuhan's analysis thereof.", "The analyses bear on aesthetic considerations as well as on the implications behind the imagery and text.", "McLuhan chose these ads and articles not only to draw attention to their symbolism, as well as their implications for the corporate entities who created and disseminated them, but also to mull over what such advertising implies about the wider society at which it is aimed.", "Roland Barthes's essays 1957 ''Mythologies'', echoes McLuhan's ''Mechanical Bride'', as a series of exhibits of popular mass culture (like advertisements, newspaper articles and photographs) that are analyzed in a semiological way.=== ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'' (1962) ===Written in 1961 and first published by University of Toronto Press, ''The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man'' (1962) is a pioneering study in the fields of oral culture, print culture, cultural studies, and media ecology.Throughout the book, McLuhan makes efforts to reveal how communication technology (i.e., alphabetic writing, the printing press, and the electronic media) affects cognitive organization, which in turn has profound ramifications for social organization:If a new technology extends one or more of our senses outside us into the social world, then new ratios among all of our senses will occur in that particular culture.", "It is comparable to what happens when a new note is added to a melody.", "And when the sense ratios alter in any culture then what had appeared lucid before may suddenly become opaque, and what had been vague or opaque will become translucent.==== Movable type ====McLuhan's episodic history takes the reader from pre-alphabetic, tribal humankind to the electronic age.", "According to McLuhan, the invention of movable type greatly accelerated, intensified, and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet, by which McLuhan means phonemic orthography.", "(McLuhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet from logographic or logogramic writing systems, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs or ideograms.", ")Print culture, ushered in by the advance in printing during the middle of the 15th century when the Gutenberg press was invented, brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural/oral.", "Quoting (with approval) an observation on the nature of the printed word from William Ivins' ''Prints and Visual Communication'', McLuhan remarks:In this passage Ivins not only notes the ingraining of lineal, sequential habits, but, even more important, points out the visual homogenizing of experience of print culture, and the relegation of auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background.…The technology and social effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and, as it were, \"formal\" causality, both in our inner and external lives.", "Print exists by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist outlook.The main concept of McLuhan's argument (later elaborated upon in ''The Medium Is the Massage'') is that new technologies (such as alphabets, printing presses, and even speech) exert a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn, affects social organization: print technology changes our perceptual habits—\"visual homogenizing of experience\"—which in turn affects social interactions—\"fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a…specialist outlook\".", "According to McLuhan, this advance of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the modern period in the Western world: individualism, democracy, Protestantism, capitalism, and nationalism.", "For McLuhan, these trends all reverberate with print technology's principle of \"segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visual quantification.", "\"==== Global village ====In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called \"electronic interdependence\" wherein electronic media replaces visual culture with aural/oral culture.", "In this new age, humankind would move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity, with a \"tribal base.\"", "McLuhan's coinage for this new social organization is the ''global village''.The term is sometimes described as having negative connotations in ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'', but McLuhan was interested in exploring effects, not making value judgments:Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as an infantile piece of science fiction.", "And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside.", "So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and superimposed co-existence.… Terror is the normal state of any oral society, for in it everything affects everything all the time.…In our long striving to recover for the Western world a unity of sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture.Key to McLuhan's argument is the idea that technology has no ''per se'' moral bent—it is a tool that profoundly shapes an individual's and, by extension, a society's self-conception and realization:Is it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also taking a moral stand on technological grounds?…Print is the extreme phase of alphabet culture that detribalizes or decollectivizes man in the first instance.", "Print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest intensity of definition.", "Thus, print carries the individuating power of the phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do.", "Print is the technology of individualism.", "If men decided to modify this visual technology by an electric technology, individualism would also be modified.", "To raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz-saw for lopping off fingers.", "\"But\", someone says, \"we didn't know it would happen.\"", "Yet even witlessness is not a moral issue.", "It is a problem, but not a moral problem; and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our technologies.", "It would be good for morality.The moral valence of technology's effects on cognition is, for McLuhan, a matter of perspective.", "For instance, McLuhan contrasts the considerable alarm and revulsion that the growing quantity of books aroused in the latter 17th century with the modern concern for the \"end of the book.\"", "If there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology, McLuhan believes that \"there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of the causalities and effects inherent in our technologies\".Though the World Wide Web was invented almost 30 years after ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'', and 10 years after his death, McLuhan prophesied the web technology seen today as early as 1962:The next medium, whatever it is—it may be the extension of consciousness—will include television as its content, not as its environment, and will transform television into an art form.", "A computer as a research and communication instrument could enhance retrieval, obsolesce mass library organization, retrieve the individual's encyclopedic function and flip into a private line to speedily tailored data of a saleable kind.Furthermore, McLuhan coined and certainly popularized the usage of the term ''surfing'' to refer to rapid, irregular, and multidirectional movement through a heterogeneous body of documents or knowledge, e.g., statements such as \"Heidegger surf-boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly as Descartes rode the mechanical wave.\"", "Paul Levinson's 1999 book ''Digital McLuhan'' explores the ways that McLuhan's work may be understood better through using the lens of the digital revolution.McLuhan frequently quoted Walter Ong's ''Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue'' (1958), which evidently had prompted McLuhan to write ''The Gutenberg Galaxy''.", "Ong wrote a highly favorable review of this new book in ''America''.", "However, Ong later tempered his praise, by describing McLuhan's ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'' as \"a racy survey, indifferent to some scholarly detail, but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond.\"", "McLuhan himself said of the book, \"I'm not concerned to get any kudos out of ''The Gutenberg Galaxy''.", "It seems to me a book that somebody should have written a century ago.", "I wish somebody else had written it.", "It will be a useful prelude to the rewrite of ''Understanding Media'' the 1960 NAEB report that I'm doing now.", "\"McLuhan's ''The Gutenberg Galaxy'' won Canada's highest literary award, the Governor-General's Award for Non-Fiction, in 1962.The chairman of the selection committee was McLuhan's colleague at the University of Toronto and oftentime intellectual sparring partner, Northrop Frye.=== ''Understanding Media'' (1964) ===McLuhan's best-known work, ''Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man'' (1964), is a seminal study in media theory.", "Dismayed by the way in which people approach and use new media such as television, McLuhan famously argues that in the modern world \"we live mythically and integrally…but continue to think in the old, fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electric age.", "\"McLuhan proposes that media themselves, not the content they carry, should be the focus of study—popularly quoted as \"the medium is the message\".", "His insight is that a medium affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content it delivers, but by its own characteristics.", "McLuhan points to the light bulb as a clear demonstration of this.", "A light bulb does not have content in the way that a newspaper has articles, or a television has programs, but it is a medium that has a social effect; that is, a light bulb enables people to create spaces at night that would otherwise be enveloped by darkness.", "He describes the light bulb as a medium without any content.", "McLuhan writes, \"a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence.\"", "More controversially, he postulates that content has little effect on society—for example, whether television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming, its effect on society is identical.", "He notes that all media have characteristics that engage the viewer in different ways; for instance, a passage in a book can be reread at will, but a movie must be screened again in its entirety to study any part of it.==== \"Hot\" and \"cool\" media ====In the first part of ''Understanding Media'', McLuhan writes that different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium.", "Using terminology derived from French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss's distinction between hot and cold societies, McLuhan argues that a '''cool medium''' requires increased involvement due to decreased description, while a '''hot medium''' is the opposite, decreasing involvement and increasing description.", "In other words, a society that appears to be actively participating in streaming content but does not consider the tool's effects is not allowing an \"extension of ourselves\".", "A movie is thus said to be \"high definition\", demanding a viewer's attention, and a comic book \"low definition\", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value: \"Any hot medium allows of less participation than a cool one, as a lecture makes for less participation than a seminar, and a book for less than a dialogue.", "\"Some media, such as movies, are ''hot''—that is, they enhance a single sense, in this case vision, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort to perceive a detailed moving image.", "Hot media usually, but not always, provide complete involvement with considerable stimulus.", "In contrast, \"cool\" print may also occupy visual space, using visual senses, but require focus and comprehension to immerse readers.", "Hot media creation favour analytical precision, quantitative analysis and sequential ordering, as they are usually sequential, linear, and logical.", "They emphasize one sense (for example, of sight or sound) over the others.", "For this reason, hot media include film (especially silent films), radio, the lecture, and photography.McLuhan contrasts ''hot'' media with ''cool''—specifically, television of the 1960s i.e.", "small black-and-white screens, which he claims requires more effort from the viewer to determine meaning; and comics, which, due to their minimal presentation of visual detail, require a high degree of effort to fill in details the cartoonist may have intended to portray.", "Cool media are usually, but not always, those that provide little involvement with substantial stimulus.", "They require more active participation on the part of the user, including the perception of abstract patterning and simultaneous comprehension of all parts.", "Therefore, in addition to television, cool media include the seminar and cartoons.", "McLuhan describes the term ''cool media'' as emerging from jazz and popular music used, in this context, to mean \"detached\".This appears to force media into binary categories, but McLuhan's hot and cool exist on a continuum: they are more correctly measured on a scale than as dichotomous terms.==== Critiques of ''Understanding Media'' ====Some theorists have attacked McLuhan's definition and treatment of the word \"medium\" for being too simplistic.", "Umberto Eco, for instance, contends that McLuhan's medium conflates channels, codes, and messages under the overarching term of the medium, confusing the vehicle, internal code, and content of a given message in his framework.In ''Media Manifestos'', Régis Debray also takes issue with McLuhan's envisioning of the medium.", "Like Eco, he is ill at ease with this reductionist approach, summarizing its ramifications as follows: The list of objections could be and has been lengthened indefinitely: confusing technology itself with its use of the media makes of the media an abstract, undifferentiated force and produces its image in an imaginary \"public\" for mass consumption; the magical naivete of supposed causalities turns the media into a catch-all and contagious \"mana\"; apocalyptic millenarianism invents the figure of a ''homo mass-mediaticus'' without ties to historical and social context, and so on.Furthermore, when ''Wired'' magazine interviewed him in 1995, Debray said he saw McLuhan \"more as a poet than a historian, a master of intellectual collage rather than a systematic analyst.… McLuhan overemphasizes the technology behind cultural change at the expense of the usage that the messages and codes make of that technology.", "\"Dwight Macdonald, in turn, reproached McLuhan for his focus on television and for his \"aphoristic\" prose style, which he believes leaves ''Understanding Media'' filled with \"contradictions, non-sequiturs, facts that are distorted and facts that are not facts, exaggerations, and chronic rhetorical vagueness.", "\"Brian Winston's ''Misunderstanding Media'', published in 1986, chides McLuhan for what he sees as his technologically deterministic stances.", "Raymond Williams furthers this point of contention, claiming:The work of McLuhan was a particular culmination of an aesthetic theory which became, negatively, a social theory ...", "It is an apparently sophisticated technological determinism which has the significant effect of indicating a social and cultural determinism.… For if the medium—whether print or television—is the cause, all other causes, all that men ordinarily see as history, are at once reduced to effects.David Carr wrote that there has been a long line of \"academics who have made a career out of deconstructing McLuhan’s effort to define the modern media ecosystem\", whether it be due to what they see as McLuhan's ignorance of sociohistorical context or the style of his argument.While some critics have taken issue with McLuhan's writing style and mode of argument, McLuhan himself urged readers to think of his work as \"probes\" or \"mosaics\" offering a toolkit approach to thinking about media.", "His eclectic writing style has also been praised for its postmodern sensibilities and suitability for virtual space.=== ''The Medium Is the Massage'' (1967) ===''The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects'', published in 1967, was McLuhan's best seller, \"eventually selling nearly a million copies worldwide.\"", "Initiated by Quentin Fiore, McLuhan adopted the term \"massage\" to denote the effect each medium has on the human sensorium, taking inventory of the \"effects\" of numerous media in terms of how they \"massage\" the sensorium.Fiore, at the time a prominent graphic designer and communications consultant, set about composing the visual illustration of these effects which were compiled by Jerome Agel.", "Near the beginning of the book, Fiore adopted a pattern in which an image demonstrating a media effect was presented with a textual synopsis on the facing page.", "The reader experiences a repeated shifting of analytic registers—from \"reading\" typographic print to \"scanning\" photographic facsimiles—reinforcing McLuhan's overarching argument in this book: namely, that each medium produces a different \"massage\" or \"effect\" on the human sensorium.In ''The Medium Is the Massage'', McLuhan also rehashed the argument—which first appeared in the Prologue to 1962's ''The Gutenberg Galaxy''—that all media are \"extensions\" of our human senses, bodies and minds.Finally, McLuhan described key points of change in how man has viewed the world and how these views were changed by the adoption of new media.", "\"The technique of invention was the discovery of the nineteenth century\", brought on by the adoption of fixed points of view and perspective by typography, while \"the technique of the suspended judgment is the discovery of the twentieth century,\" brought on by the bard abilities of radio, movies and television.The past went that-a-way.", "When faced with a totally new situation we tend always to attach ourselves to the objects, to the flavor of the most recent past.", "We look at the present through a rear-view mirror.", "We march backward into the future.", "Suburbia lives imaginatively in Bonanza-land.An audio recording version of McLuhan's famous work was made by Columbia Records.", "The recording consists of a pastiche of statements made by McLuhan ''interrupted'' by other speakers, including people speaking in various phonations and falsettos, discordant sounds and 1960s incidental music in what could be considered a deliberate attempt to translate the disconnected images seen on TV into an audio format, resulting in the prevention of a connected stream of conscious thought.", "Various audio recording techniques and statements are used to illustrate the relationship between spoken, literary speech and the characteristics of electronic audio media.", "McLuhan biographer Philip Marchand called the recording \"the 1967 equivalent of a McLuhan video.", "\"\"I wouldn't be seen dead with a living work of art.", "\"—'Old man' speaking\"Drop this jiggery-pokery and talk straight turkey.", "\"—\"Middle-aged man\" speaking=== ''War and Peace in the Global Village'' (1968) ===In ''War and Peace in the Global Village'', McLuhan used James Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake'', an inspiration for this study of war throughout history, as an indicator as to how war may be conducted in the future.Joyce's ''Wake'' is claimed to be a gigantic cryptogram that reveals a cyclic pattern for human history through its Ten Thunders.", "Each \"thunder\" below is a 100-character portmanteau of other words to create a statement McLuhan likens to an effect that each technology has on the society into which it is introduced.", "In order to glean the most understanding out of each, the reader must break the portmanteau into separate words (many of these themselves portmanteaus of words taken from multiple languages other than English) and speak them aloud for the spoken effect of each word.", "There is much dispute over what each portmanteau truly denotes.McLuhan claims that the ten thunders in ''Wake'' represent different stages in the history of man:*''Thunder 1: Paleolithic to Neolithic.''", "Speech.", "Split of East/West.", "From herding to harnessing animals.", "*''Thunder 2: Clothing as weaponry.''", "Enclosure of private parts.", "First social aggression.", "*''Thunder 3: Specialism.''", "Centralism via wheel, transport, cities: civil life.", "*''Thunder 4: Markets and truck gardens.''", "Patterns of nature submitted to greed and power.", "*''Thunder 5: Printing.''", "Distortion and translation of human patterns and postures and pastors.", "*''Thunder 6: Industrial Revolution.''", "Extreme development of print process and individualism.", "*''Thunder 7: Tribal man again.''", "All characters end up separate, private man.", "Return of choric.", "*''Thunder 8: Movies.''", "Pop art, pop Kulch via tribal radio.", "Wedding of sight and sound.", "*''Thunder 9: Car and Plane.''", "Both centralizing and decentralizing at once create cities in crisis.", "Speed and death.", "*''Thunder 10: Television.''", "Back to tribal involvement in tribal mood-mud.", "The last thunder is a turbulent, muddy wake, and murk of non-visual, tactile man.=== ''From Cliché to Archetype'' (1970) ===Collaborating with Canadian poet Wilfred Watson in ''From Cliché to Archetype'' (1970), McLuhan approaches the various implications of the verbal cliché and of the archetype.", "One major facet in McLuhan's overall framework introduced in this book that is seldom noticed is the provision of a new term that actually succeeds the global village: the ''global theater''.In McLuhan's terms, a ''cliché'' is a \"normal\" action, phrase, etc.", "which becomes so often used that we are \"anesthetized\" to its effects.", "McLuhan provides the example of Eugène Ionesco's play ''The Bald Soprano'', whose dialogue consists entirely of phrases Ionesco pulled from an Assimil language book: \"Ionesco originally put all these idiomatic English clichés into literary French which presented the English in the most absurd aspect possible.", "\"McLuhan's ''archetype'' \"is a quoted extension, medium, technology, or environment.\"", "''Environment'' would also include the kinds of \"awareness\" and cognitive shifts brought upon people by it, not totally unlike the psychological context Carl Jung described.McLuhan also posits that there is a factor of interplay between the ''cliché'' and the ''archetype'', or a \"doubleness\":Another theme of the Wake ''Finnegans Wake'' that helps in the understanding of the paradoxical shift from cliché to archetype is 'past time are pastimes.'", "The dominant technologies of one age become the games and pastimes of a later age.", "In the 20th century, the number of 'past times' that are simultaneously available is so vast as to create cultural anarchy.", "When all the cultures of the world are simultaneously present, the work of the artist in the elucidation of form takes on new scope and new urgency.", "Most men are pushed into the artist's role.", "The artist cannot dispense with the principle of 'doubleness' or 'interplay' because this type of hendiadys dialogue is essential to the very structure of consciousness, awareness, and autonomy.McLuhan relates the cliché-to-archetype process to the Theater of the Absurd:Pascal, in the seventeenth century, tells us that the heart has many reasons of which the head knows nothing.", "The Theater of the Absurd is essentially a communicating to the head of some of the silent languages of the heart which in two or three hundred years it has tried to forget all about.", "In the seventeenth century world the languages of the heart were pushed down into the unconscious by the dominant print cliché.The \"languages of the heart\", or what McLuhan otherwise defined as oral culture, were thus made archetype by means of the printing press, and turned into cliché.According to McLuhan, the satellite medium encloses the Earth in a man-made environment, which \"ends 'Nature' and turns the globe into a repertory theater to be programmed.\"", "All previous environments (book, newspaper, radio, etc.)", "and their artifacts are retrieved under these conditions (\"past times are pastimes\").", "McLuhan thereby meshes this into the term ''global theater''.", "This updates his concept of the global village, which, in its own definitions, can be said to be subsumed into the overall condition of the global theater.=== ''The Global Village'' (1989) ===In his posthumous book, ''The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century'' (1989), McLuhan, collaborating with Bruce R. Powers, provides a strong conceptual framework for understanding the cultural implications of the technological advances associated with the rise of a worldwide electronic network.", "This is a major work of McLuhan's as it contains the most extensive elaboration of his concept of ''acoustic space'', and provides a critique of standard 20th-century communication models such as the Shannon–Weaver model.McLuhan distinguishes between the existing worldview of ''visual space''—a linear, quantitative, classically geometric model—and that of ''acoustic space''—a holistic, qualitative order with an intricate, paradoxical topology: \"Acoustic Space has the basic character of a sphere whose focus or center is simultaneously everywhere and whose margin is nowhere.\"", "The transition from ''visual'' to ''acoustic'' ''space'' was not automatic with the advent of the global network, but would have to be a conscious project.", "The \"universal environment of simultaneous electronic flow\" inherently favors right-brain Acoustic Space, yet we are held back by habits of adhering to a fixed point of view.", "There are no boundaries to sound.", "We hear from all directions at once.", "Yet Acoustic and Visual Space are inseparable.", "The resonant interval is the invisible borderline between Visual and Acoustic Space.", "This is like the television camera that the Apollo 8 astronauts focused on the Earth after they had orbited the Moon.McLuhan illustrates how it feels to exist within acoustic space by quoting from the autobiography of Jacques Lusseyran, ''And There Was Light.''", "Lusseyran lost his eyesight in a violent accident as a child, and the autobiography describes how a reordering of his sensory life and perception followed:When I came upon the myth of objectivity in certain modern thinkers, it made me angry.", "So, there was only one world for these people, the same for everyone.", "And all the other worlds were to be counted as illusions left over from the past.", "Or why not call them by their name—hallucinations?", "I had learned to my cost how wrong they were.", "From my own experience I knew very well that it was enough to take from a man a memory here, an association there, to deprive him of hearing or sight, for the world to undergo immediate transformation, and for another world, entirely different, but entirely coherent, to be born.", "Another world?", "Not really.", "The same world, rather, but seen from a different angle, and counted in entirely new measures.", "When this happened all the hierarchies they called objective were turned upside down, scattered to the four winds, not even theories but like whims.Reading, writing, and hierarchical ordering are associated with the left brain and visual space, as are the linear concept of time and phonetic literacy.", "The left brain is the locus of analysis, classification, and rationality.", "The right brain and acoustic space are the locus of the spatial, tactile, and musical.", "''\"Comprehensive awareness\"'' results when the two sides of the brain are in true balance.", "Visual Space is associated with the simplified worldview of Euclidean geometry, the intuitive three dimensions useful for the architecture of buildings and the surveying of land.", "It is linearly rational and has no grasp of the acoustic.", "Acoustic Space is multisensory.", "McLuhan writes about robotism in the context of Japanese Zen Buddhism and how it can offer us new ways of thinking about technology.", "The Western way of thinking about technology is too related to the left brain, which has a rational and linear focus.", "What he called robotism might better be called androidism in the wake of ''Blade Runner'' and the novels of Philip K. Dick.", "Robotism-androidism emerges from the further development of the right brain, creativity and a new relationship to spacetime (most humans are still living in 17th-century classical Newtonian physics spacetime).", "Robots-androids will have much greater flexibility than humans have had until now, in both mind and body.", "Robots-androids will teach humanity this new flexibility.", "And this flexibility of androids (what McLuhan calls robotism) has a strong affinity with Japanese culture and life.", "McLuhan quotes from Ruth Benedict's ''The Chrysanthemum and the Sword'' an anthropological study of Japanese culture published in 1946:Occidentals cannot easily credit the ability of the Japanese to swing from one behavior to another without psychic cost.", "Such extreme possibilities are not included in our experience.", "Yet in Japanese life the contradictions, as they seem to us, are as deeply based in their view of life as our uniformities are in ours.The ability to live in the present and instantly readjust.==== Beyond existing communication models ====\"All Western scientific models of communication are—like the Shannon–Weaver model—linear, sequential, and logical as a reflection of the late medieval emphasis on the Greek notion of efficient causality.\"", "McLuhan and Powers criticize the Shannon-Weaver model of communication as emblematic of left-hemisphere bias and linearity, descended from a print-era perversion of Aristotle's notion of efficient causality.A third term of ''The Global Village'' that McLuhan and Powers develop at length is The Tetrad.", "McLuhan had begun development on the Tetrad as early as 1974.The tetrad is an analogical, simultaneous, fourfold pattern of transformation.", "\"At full maturity the tetrad reveals the metaphoric structure of the artifact as having two figures and two grounds in dynamic and analogical relationship to each other.\"", "Like the camera focused on the Earth by the Apollo 8 astronauts, the tetrad reveals figure (Moon) and ground (Earth) simultaneously.", "The right-brain hemisphere thinking is the capability of being in many places at the same time.", "Electricity is acoustic.", "It is simultaneously everywhere.", "The Tetrad, with its fourfold Möbius topological structure of enhancement, reversal, retrieval and obsolescence, is mobilized by McLuhan and Powers to illuminate the media or technological inventions of cash money, the compass, the computer, the database, the satellite, and the global media network." ], [ "Key concepts", "=== Tetrad of media effects ===In ''Laws of Media'' (1988), published posthumously by his son Eric, McLuhan summarized his ideas about media in a concise tetrad of media effects.", "The tetrad is a means of examining the effects on society of any technology (i.e., any medium) by dividing its effects into four categories and displaying them simultaneously.", "McLuhan designed the tetrad as a pedagogical tool, phrasing his laws as questions with which to consider any medium:*What does the medium enhance?", "*What does the medium make obsolete?", "*What does the medium retrieve that had been obsolesced earlier?", "*What does the medium flip into when pushed to extremes?The laws of the tetrad exist simultaneously, not successively or chronologically, and allow the questioner to explore the \"grammar and syntax\" of the \"language\" of media.", "McLuhan departs from his mentor Harold Innis in suggesting that a medium \"overheats,\" or reverses into an opposing form, when taken to its extreme.Visually, a tetrad can be depicted as four diamonds forming an X, with the name of a medium in the centre.", "The two diamonds on the left of a tetrad are the ''Enhancement'' and ''Retrieval'' qualities of the medium, both ''Figure'' qualities.", "The two diamonds on the right of a tetrad are the ''Obsolescence'' and ''Reversal'' qualities, both ''Ground'' qualities.A blank tetrad diagramUsing the example of radio:* Enhancement (figure): What the medium amplifies or intensifies.", "''Radio amplifies news and music via sound.", "''* Obsolescence (ground): What the medium drives out of prominence.", "''Radio reduces the importance of print and the visual.", "''* Retrieval (figure): What the medium recovers which was previously lost.", "''Radio returns the spoken word to the forefront.", "''* Reversal (ground): What the medium does when pushed to its limits.", "''Acoustic radio flips into audio-visual TV.", "''=== Figure and ground ===McLuhan adapted the Gestalt psychology idea of a ''figure and a ground'', which underpins the meaning of \"the medium is the message.\"", "He used this concept to explain how a form of communications technology, the medium, or ''figure'', necessarily operates through its context, or ''ground''.McLuhan believed that in order to grasp fully the effect of a new technology, one must examine figure (medium) and ground (context) together, since neither is completely intelligible without the other.", "McLuhan argued that we must study media in their historical context, particularly in relation to the technologies that preceded them.", "The present environment, itself made up of the effects of previous technologies, gives rise to new technologies, which, in their turn, further affect society and individuals.All technologies have embedded within them their own assumptions about time and space.", "The message which the medium conveys can only be understood if the medium and the environment in which the medium is used—and which, simultaneously, it effectively creates—are analysed together.", "He believed that an examination of the figure-ground relationship can offer a critical commentary on culture and society.===Opposition between optic and haptic perception===In McLuhan's (and Harley Parker's) work, electric media have an affinity with haptic and hearing perception, while mechanical media have an affinity with visual perception.", "This opposition between optic and haptic had previously been formulated by art historians Alois Riegl in his 1901 ''Late Roman Art Industry'', and by Erwin Panofsky, in his 1927 ''Perspective as Symbolic Form''.In his ''The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction'' (1935), Walter Benjamin observed how, in perceptions of modern Western culture, from about the 19th century a shift began from the optic toward the haptic.", "This shift is one of the main recurring topics in McLuhan's work, which McLuhan attributes to the advent of the electronic era." ], [ "Legacy", "A portion of Toronto's St. Joseph Street is co-named Marshall McLuhan Way.===Influence===After the publication of ''Understanding Media'', McLuhan received an astonishing amount of publicity, making him perhaps the most-publicized 20th-century English teacher and arguably the most controversial.", "This publicity began with the work of two California advertising executives, Howard Gossage and Gerald Feigen, who used personal funds to fund their practice of \"genius scouting\".", "Much enamoured of McLuhan's work, Feigen and Gossage arranged for McLuhan to meet with editors of several major New York magazines in May 1965 at the Lombardy Hotel in New York.", "Philip Marchand reports that, as a direct consequence of these meetings, McLuhan was offered the use of an office in the headquarters of both ''Time'' and ''Newsweek'' anytime he wanted it.In August 1965, Feigen and Gossage held what they called a \"McLuhan festival\" in the offices of Gossage's advertising agency in San Francisco.", "During this \"festival\", McLuhan met with advertising executives, members of the mayor's office, and editors from the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' and ''Ramparts'' magazine.", "More significant was the presence at the festival of Tom Wolfe, who wrote about McLuhan in a subsequent article, \"What If He Is Right?", "\", published in ''New York'' magazine and Wolfe's own ''The Pump House Gang''.", "According to Feigen and Gossage, their work had only a moderate effect on McLuhan's eventual celebrity: they claimed that their work only \"probably speeded up the recognition of his genius by about six months.\"", "In any case, McLuhan soon became a fixture of media discourse.", "''Newsweek'' magazine did a cover story on him; articles appeared in ''Life'', ''Harper's'', ''Fortune'', ''Esquire'', and others.", "Cartoons about him appeared in ''The New Yorker''.", "In 1969, ''Playboy'' magazine published a lengthy interview with him.", "In a running gag on the popular sketch comedy ''Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In'', the \"poet\" Henry Gibson would randomly say, \"Marshall McLuhan, what are you doin'?", "\"McLuhan was credited with coining the phrase ''Turn on, tune in, drop out'' by its popularizer, Timothy Leary, in the 1960s.", "In a 1988 interview with Neil Strauss, Leary said the slogan was \"given to him\" by McLuhan during a lunch in New York City.", "Leary said McLuhan \"was very much interested in ideas and marketing, and he started singing something like, 'Psychedelics hit the spot / Five hundred micrograms, that’s a lot,' to the tune of a Pepsi commercial.", "Then he started going, 'Tune in, turn on, and drop out.During his lifetime and afterward, McLuhan heavily influenced cultural critics, thinkers, and media theorists such as Neil Postman, Jean Baudrillard, Timothy Leary, Terence McKenna, William Irwin Thompson, Paul Levinson, Douglas Rushkoff, Jaron Lanier, Hugh Kenner, and John David Ebert, as well as political leaders such as Pierre Elliott Trudeau and Jerry Brown.", "Andy Warhol was paraphrasing McLuhan with his now famous \"15 minutes of fame\" quote.", "When asked in the 1970s for a way to sedate violence in Angola, he suggested a massive spread of TV devices.", "Douglas Coupland argued that McLuhan \"was conservative, socially, but he never let politics enter his writing or his teaching\".===Popular culture===Woody Allen's Oscar-winning ''Annie Hall'' (1977) featured McLuhan in a cameo as himself.", "In the film, a pompous academic is arguing with Allen in a cinema queue when McLuhan suddenly appears and silences him, saying, \"You know nothing of my work.", "\"The character \"Brian O'Blivion\" in David Cronenberg's 1983 film ''Videodrome'' is a \"media oracle\" based on McLuhan.In 1991, McLuhan was named the \"patron saint\" of ''Wired'' magazine and a quote of his appeared on the masthead for the first ten years of its publication.McLuhan's perspective on the cycle of cultural identity inspired Duke Ellington's album ''The Afro-Eurasian Eclipse''.He is mentioned by name in a Peter Gabriel–penned lyric in the song \"Broadway Melody of 1974\", on Genesis's concept album ''The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway'': \"Marshall McLuhan, casual viewin', head buried in the sand.", "\"McLuhan is jokingly referred to in an episode of ''The Sopranos'' titled \"House Arrest\".Despite his death in 1980, someone claiming to be McLuhan posted on a ''Wired'' mailing list in 1996.The information this person provided convinced one ''Wired'' writer that \"if the poster was not McLuhan himself, it was a bot programmed with an eerie command of McLuhan's life and inimitable perspective.", "\"McLuhan is the subject of the 1993 play ''The Medium'', the first major work by the Saratoga International Theater Institute and director Anne Bogart.", "The play was revived by SITI Company for a farewell tour in 2022.===Recognition===A new centre known as the McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology, formed soon after his death in 1980, was the successor to McLuhan's Centre for Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto.", "Since 1994, it has been part of the University of Toronto Faculty of Information.", "In 2008, the centre incorporated in the Coach House Institute, which was subsequently renamed The McLuhan Centre for Culture and Technology.", "In 2011, at the time of his centenary, the centre established a \"Marshall McLuhan Centenary Fellowship\" program in his honour, and each year appoints up to four fellows for a maximum of two years.In Toronto, Marshall McLuhan Catholic Secondary School is named after him.The media room at Canada House in Berlin is called the Marshall McLuhan Salon.", "It includes a multimedia information centre and an auditorium, and hosts a permanent exhibition dedicated to McLuhan, based on its collection of film and audio items by and about him." ], [ "Bibliography of major works", "This is a partial list of works cited in this article.", "* 1951.", "''The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man'' (1st ed.).", "New York: Vanguard Press.", "** reissued by Gingko Press, 2002..* 1962.", "''The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man''.", "(1st ed.).", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press.", "** reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul.", ".", "* 1964.", "''Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man'' (1st ed.).", "New York: McGraw Hill.", "** reissued by MIT Press, 1994, with introduction by Lewis H. Lapham; reissued by Gingko Press, 2003..* 1967.", "''The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects'' (1st ed.", "), with Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel.", "Random House.", "** reissued by Gingko Press, 2001..* 1968.", "''War and Peace in the Global Village'' (1st ed.", "), with design/layout by Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel.", "New York: Bantam.", "** reissued by Gingko Press, 2001..* 1970.", "''From Cliché to Archetype'', with Wilfred Watson.", "New York: Viking.", ".", "* 1988.", "''Laws of Media'', edited by Eric McLuhan.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press.", ".", "* 2016 ''The Future of the Library: From Electronic Media to Digital Media'', edited by Robert K. Logan.", "Peter Lang.", "." ], [ "Discography", "* ''The Medium Is The Massage: With Marshall McLuhan'' (1967) Columbia – CS 9501" ], [ "See also", "* Neuroplasticity* Cortical remapping* Social interface" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Footnotes ====== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Marshall McLuhan bibliography at Monoskop* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Multiple inheritance" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Multiple inheritance''' is a feature of some object-oriented computer programming languages in which an object or class can inherit features from more than one parent object or parent class.", "It is distinct from single inheritance, where an object or class may only inherit from one particular object or class.Multiple inheritance has been a controversial issue for many years, with opponents pointing to its increased complexity and ambiguity in situations such as the \"diamond problem\", where it may be ambiguous as to which parent class a particular feature is inherited from if more than one parent class implements said feature.", "This can be addressed in various ways, including using virtual inheritance.", "Alternate methods of object composition not based on inheritance such as mixins and traits have also been proposed to address the ambiguity." ], [ "Details", "In object-oriented programming (OOP), ''inheritance'' describes a relationship between two classes in which one class (the ''child'' class) ''subclasses'' the ''parent'' class.", "The child inherits methods and attributes of the parent, allowing for shared functionality.", "For example, one might create a variable class ''Mammal'' with features such as eating, reproducing, etc.", "; then define a child class ''Cat'' that inherits those features without having to explicitly program them, while adding new features like ''chasing mice''.Multiple inheritance allows programmers to use more than one totally orthogonal hierarchy simultaneously, such as allowing ''Cat'' to inherit from ''Cartoon character'' and ''Pet'' and ''Mammal'' and access features from within all of those classes." ], [ "Implementations", "Languages that support multiple inheritance include: C++, Common Lisp (via Common Lisp Object System (CLOS)), EuLisp (via The EuLisp Object System TELOS), Curl, Dylan, Eiffel, Logtalk, Object REXX, Scala (via use of mixin classes), OCaml, Perl, POP-11, Python, R, Raku, and Tcl (built-in from 8.6 or via Incremental Tcl (Incr Tcl) in earlier versions).IBM System Object Model (SOM) runtime supports multiple inheritance, and any programming language targeting SOM can implement new SOM classes inherited from multiple bases.Some object-oriented languages, such as Swift, Java, Fortran since its 2003 revision, C#, and Ruby implement ''single inheritance'', although protocols, or ''interfaces,'' provide some of the functionality of true multiple inheritance.PHP uses traits classes to inherit specific method implementations.", "Ruby uses modules to inherit multiple methods." ], [ "The diamond problem", "A diamond class inheritance diagram.The \"'''diamond problem'''\" (sometimes referred to as the \"Deadly Diamond of Death\") is an ambiguity that arises when two classes B and C inherit from A, and class D inherits from both B and C. If there is a method in A that B and C have overridden, and D does not override it, then which version of the method does D inherit: that of B, or that of C?For example, in the context of GUI software development, a class Button may inherit from both classes Rectangle (for appearance) and Clickable (for functionality/input handling), and classes Rectangle and Clickable both inherit from the Object class.", "Now if the equals method is called for a Button object and there is no such method in the Button class but there is an overridden equals method in Rectangle or Clickable (or both), which method should be eventually called?It is called the \"diamond problem\" because of the shape of the class inheritance diagram in this situation.", "In this case, class A is at the top, both B and C separately beneath it, and D joins the two together at the bottom to form a diamond shape.=== Mitigation ===Languages have different ways of dealing with these problems of repeated inheritance.", "* C# (since C# 8.0) allows default interface method implementation, causing a class A, implementing interfaces Ia and Ib with similar methods having default implementations, to have two \"inherited\" methods with the same signature, causing the diamond problem.", "It is mitigated either by requiring A to implement the method itself, hence removing ambiguity, or forcing the caller to first cast the A object to the appropriate interface to use its default implementation of that method (e.g.", "((Ia) aInstance).Method();).", "* C++ by default follows each inheritance path separately, so a D object would actually contain two separate A objects, and uses of A's members have to be properly qualified.", "If the inheritance from A to B and the inheritance from A to C are both marked \"virtual\" (for example, \"class B : virtual public A\"), C++ takes special care to only create one A object, and uses of A's members work correctly.", "If virtual inheritance and nonvirtual inheritance are mixed, there is a single virtual A, and a nonvirtual A for each nonvirtual inheritance path to A. C++ requires stating explicitly which parent class the feature to be used is invoked from i.e.", "Worker::Human.Age.", "C++ does not support explicit repeated inheritance since there would be no way to qualify which superclass to use (i.e.", "having a class appear more than once in a single derivation list class Dog : public Animal, Animal).", "C++ also allows a single instance of the multiple class to be created via the virtual inheritance mechanism (i.e.", "Worker::Human and Musician::Human will reference the same object).", "* Common Lisp CLOS attempts to provide both reasonable default behavior and the ability to override it.", "By default, to put it simply, the methods are sorted in D,B,C,A, when B is written before C in the class definition.", "The method with the most specific argument classes is chosen (D>(B,C)>A) ; then in the order in which parent classes are named in the subclass definition (B>C).", "However, the programmer can override this, by giving a specific method resolution order or stating a rule for combining methods.", "This is called method combination, which may be fully controlled.", "The MOP (metaobject protocol) also provides means to modify the inheritance, dynamic dispatch, class instantiation, and other internal mechanisms without affecting the stability of the system.", "* Curl allows only classes that are explicitly marked as ''shared'' to be inherited repeatedly.", "Shared classes must define a ''secondary constructor'' for each regular constructor in the class.", "The regular constructor is called the first time the state for the shared class is initialized through a subclass constructor, and the secondary constructor will be invoked for all other subclasses.", "* In Eiffel, the ancestors' features are chosen explicitly with select and rename directives.", "This allows the features of the base class to be shared between its descendants or to give each of them a separate copy of the base class.", "Eiffel allows explicit joining or separation of features inherited from ancestor classes.", "Eiffel will automatically join features together, if they have the same name and implementation.", "The class writer has the option to rename the inherited features to separate them.", "Multiple inheritance is a frequent occurrence in Eiffel development; most of the effective classes in the widely used EiffelBase library of data structures and algorithms, for example, have two or more parents.", "* Go prevents the diamond problem at compile time.", "If a structure D embeds two structures B and C which both have a method F(), thus satisfying an interface A, the compiler will complain about an \"ambiguous selector\" if D.F() is called, or if an instance of D is assigned to a variable of type A.", "B and C's methods can be called explicitly with D.B.F() or D.C.F().", "* Java 8 introduces default methods on interfaces.", "If A,B,C are interfaces, B,C can each provide a different implementation to an abstract method of A, causing the diamond problem.", "Either class D must reimplement the method (the body of which can simply forward the call to one of the super implementations), or the ambiguity will be rejected as a compile error.", "Prior to Java 8, Java was not subject to the Diamond problem risk, because it did not support multiple inheritance and interface default methods were not available.", "* JavaFX Script in version 1.2 allows multiple inheritance through the use of mixins.", "In case of conflict, the compiler prohibits the direct usage of the ambiguous variable or function.", "Each inherited member can still be accessed by casting the object to the mixin of interest, e.g.", "(individual as Person).printInfo();.", "* Kotlin allows multiple inheritance of Interfaces, however, in a Diamond problem scenario, the child class must override the method that causes the inheritance conflict and specify which parent class implementation should be used.", "eg super.someMethod()* Logtalk supports both interface and implementation multi-inheritance, allowing the declaration of method ''aliases'' that provide both renaming and access to methods that would be masked out by the default conflict resolution mechanism.", "* In OCaml, parent classes are specified individually in the body of the class definition.", "Methods (and attributes) are inherited in the same order, with each newly inherited method overriding any existing methods.", "OCaml chooses the last matching definition of a class inheritance list to resolve which method implementation to use under ambiguities.", "To override the default behavior, one simply qualifies a method call with the desired class definition.", "* Perl uses the list of classes to inherit from as an ordered list.", "The compiler uses the first method it finds by depth-first searching of the superclass list or using the C3 linearization of the class hierarchy.", "Various extensions provide alternative class composition schemes.", "The order of inheritance affects the class semantics.", "In the above ambiguity, class B and its ancestors would be checked before class C and its ancestors, so the method in A would be inherited through B.", "This is shared with Io and Picolisp.", "In Perl, this behavior can be overridden using the mro or other modules to use C3 linearization or other algorithms.", "* Python has the same structure as Perl, but, unlike Perl, includes it in the syntax of the language.", "The order of inheritance affects the class semantics.", "Python had to deal with this upon the introduction of new-style classes, all of which have a common ancestor, object.", "Python creates a list of classes using the C3 linearization (or Method Resolution Order (MRO)) algorithm.", "That algorithm enforces two constraints: children precede their parents and if a class inherits from multiple classes, they are kept in the order specified in the tuple of base classes (however in this case, some classes high in the inheritance graph may precede classes lower in the graph).", "Thus, the method resolution order is: D, B, C, A.", "* Ruby classes have exactly one parent but may also inherit from multiple ''modules;'' ruby class definitions are executed, and the (re)definition of a method obscures any previously existing definition at the time of execution.", "In the absence of runtime metaprogramming this has approximately the same semantics as rightmost depth first resolution.", "* Scala allows multiple instantiation of ''traits'', which allows for multiple inheritance by adding a distinction between the class hierarchy and the trait hierarchy.", "A class can only inherit from a single class, but can mix-in as many traits as desired.", "Scala resolves method names using a right-first depth-first search of extended 'traits', before eliminating all but the last occurrence of each module in the resulting list.", "So, the resolution order is: D, C, A, B, A, which reduces down to D, C, B, A.", "* Tcl allows multiple parent classes; the order of specification in the class declaration affects the name resolution for members using the C3 linearization algorithm.Languages that allow only single inheritance, where a class can only derive from one base class, do not have the diamond problem.", "The reason for this is that such languages have at most one implementation of any method at any level in the inheritance chain regardless of the repetition or placement of methods.", "Typically these languages allow classes to implement multiple protocols, called interfaces in Java.", "These protocols define methods but do not provide concrete implementations.", "This strategy has been used by ActionScript, C#, D, Java, Nemerle, Object Pascal, Objective-C, Smalltalk, Swift and PHP.", "All these languages allow classes to implement multiple protocols.Moreover, Ada, C#, Java, Object Pascal, Objective-C, Swift and PHP allow multiple-inheritance of interfaces (called protocols in Objective-C and Swift).", "Interfaces are like abstract base classes that specify method signatures without implementing any behaviour.", "(\"Pure\" interfaces such as the ones in Java up to version 7 do not permit any implementation or instance data in the interface.)", "Nevertheless, even when several interfaces declare the same method signature, as soon as that method is implemented (defined) anywhere in the inheritance chain, it overrides any implementation of that method in the chain above it (in its superclasses).", "Hence, at any given level in the inheritance chain, there can be at most one implementation of any method.", "Thus, single-inheritance method implementation does not exhibit the Diamond Problem even with multiple-inheritance of interfaces.", "With the introduction of default implementation for interfaces in Java 8 and C# 8, it is still possible to generate a Diamond Problem, although this will only appear as a compile-time error." ], [ "See also", "* Directed graph* Nixon diamond" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Stroustrup, Bjarne (1999).", "''Multiple Inheritance for C++''.", "Proceedings of the Spring 1987 European Unix Users Group Conference* Object-Oriented Software Construction'', Second Edition, by Bertrand Meyer, Prentice Hall, 1997, * *" ], [ "External links", "* Tutorial on inheritance usage in Eiffel* Tutorial on effective use of multiple inheritance in Python* An overview of inheritance in Ocaml" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Media studies" ], [ "Introduction", "landing on the Moon''' Media studies''' is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media.", "Media Studies may draw on traditions from both the social sciences and the humanities, but mostly from its core disciplines of mass communication, communication, communication sciences, and communication studies.Researchers may also develop and employ theories and methods from disciplines including cultural studies, rhetoric (including digital rhetoric), philosophy, literary theory, psychology, political science, political economy, economics, sociology, anthropology, social theory, art history and criticism, film theory, and information theory." ], [ "Origin", "Former priest and American educator, John Culkin, was one of the earliest advocates for the implementation of media studies curriculum in schools.", "He believed students ought to be capable of scrutinizing mass media, and valued the application of modern communication techniques within the education system.", "In 1975, Culkin introduced the first media studies M.A.", "program in the U.S, which has since graduated more than 2,000 students.Culkin was also responsible for bringing his colleague, and fellow media scholar, Marshall McLuhan to Fordham University, and subsequently founding the Center for Understanding Media, which became the New School program.", "Both educators are recognized as pioneers in the discipline, credited with paving the way for media studies curriculum within the education system.", "Father of media studies, Marshall McLuhan" ], [ "Global contributions and perspectives on media studies", "=== Canada ===In his book \"Understanding Media, The Extensions of Man\", media theorist Marshall McLuhan suggested that \"the medium is the message\", and that all human artefacts and technologies are media.", "His book introduced the usage of terms such as \"media\" into our language along with other precepts, among them \"global village\" and \"Age of Information\".", "A medium is anything that mediates our interaction with the world or other humans.", "Given this perspective, media study is not restricted to just media of communications but all forms of technology.", "Media and their users form an ecosystem and the study of this ecosystem is known as media ecology.", "With this in mind, media ecology also states that our environment ultimately changes due to technology.", "Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks elaborate on this theory in their book, stating “...adding smartphones to a family doesn’t create a 'family plus smartphones.'", "The technology changes the family into something different than what it was before.” McLuhan says that the \"technique of fragmentation that is the essence of machine technology\" shaped the restructuring of human work and association and \"the essence of automation technology is the opposite\".", "He uses an example of the electric light to make this connection and to explain \"the medium is the message\".", "The electric light is pure information and it is a medium without a message unless it is used to spell out some verbal ad or a name.", "The characteristic of all media means the \"content\" of any medium is always another medium.", "For example, the content of writing is speech, the written word is the content of print, and print is the content of the telegraph.", "The change that the medium or technology introduces into human affairs is the \"message\".", "If the electric light is used for Friday night football or to light up your desk you could argue that the content of the electric light is these activities.", "The fact that it is the medium that shapes and controls the form of human association and action makes it the message.", "The electric light is over looked as a communication medium because it does not have any content.", "It is not until the electric light is used to spell a brand name that it is recognized as medium.", "Similar to radio and other mass media electric light eliminates time and space factors in human association creating deeper involvement.", "McLuhan compared the \"content\" to a juicy piece of meat being carried by a burglar to distract the \"watchdog of the mind\".", "The effect of the medium is made strong because it is given another media \"content\".", "The content of a movie is a book, play or maybe even an opera.McLuhan talks about media being \"hot\" or \"cold\" and touches on the principle that distinguishes them from one another.", "A hot medium (i.e., radio or Movie) extends a single sense in \"high definition\".", "High definition means the state of being well filled with data.", "A cool medium (i.e., Telephone and TV) is considered \"low definition\" because a small amount of data/information is given and has to be filled in.", "Hot media are low in participation and cool media are high in participation.", "Hot media are low in participation because it is giving most of the information and it excludes.", "Cool media are high in participation because it gives you information but you have to fill in the blanks and it is inclusive.", "He used lecturing as an example for hot media and seminars as an example for low media.", "If you use a hot medium in a hot or cool culture makes a difference.In his book, ''Empire and Communications'', University of Toronto professor, Harold Innis, highlighted media technologies as a powerful contributor to the rise and collapse of empires.", "Innis’ theory of media bias pulls upon historical evidence to argue that a medium will be biased towards either time or space.", "He claims that this inherent bias will reveal a medium’s significance to the development of its civilization.", "Innis identifies media biased towards time as a medium durable in character like clay, stone or parchment.", "Time biased media are heavy, therefore difficult to relocate, which keeps their message centralized, and thus maintains economic and social control within the hands of a hierarchical authority structure.", "He defines media in favor of space as a lighter, more transferable medium like papyrus.", "Opposite to media in favor of time, Innis explains that the transferable quality of media biased towards space permits civilizations to expand more quickly across vast areas, thus benefiting the growth of sectors like trade.", "Space biased media influences an empire to decentralize its power and widen its reach of influence.", "Though these biases are in competition with each other, Innis argued that an empire requires the presence of both time and space biased media to succeed as a lasting civilization.=== France ===One prominent French media critic is the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu who wrote among other books ''On Television'' (New Press, 1999).", "Bourdieu's analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, than we think.", "In his view, the market (which implies the hunt for higher advertising revenue) not only imposes uniformity and banality, but also a form of invisible censorship.", "When, for example, television producers \"pre-interview\" participants in news and public affairs programs, to ensure that they will speak in simple, attention-grabbing terms, and when the search for viewers leads to an emphasis on the sensational and the spectacular, people with complex or nuanced views are not allowed a hearing.Bourdieu is also remembered in the discipline for his theory of the habitus.", "In his written work ''Outline of a Theory of Practice'' (Bourdieu 1977), Bourdieu claims an audiences’ preference in media is shaped by their social context.", "How an individual interprets and engages with their surroundings, or their habitus, is the lasting and transferable elements of character which structure their consumer preferences.", "Bourdieu explains that though durable, the habitus is not set in stone, it instead acts as a “strategy-generating principle” allowing individuals to navigate new and unfamiliar situations.Bourdieu expanded on the theory of the habitus, introducing his famous term, cultural capital.", "According to the French sociologist, cultural capital signifies an individual’s socially or culturally valuable skills and knowledge.", "He claims these competencies are developed through one’s upbringing, and access to education resources, as well as unconsciously shaped by their social environment.", "Bourdieu highlights this accumulation of competencies as a determining factor in one’s life chances.", "One’s cultural capital, such as a university degree, can lead them to be offered more opportunities, thus linking the concept to both economic and social capital.", "Bourdieu explains that it is through the content of the different capitals that the habitus will structure an individual's consumer taste.=== Germany ===In Germany two main branches of media theory or media studies can be identified.The first major branch of media theory has its roots in the humanities and cultural studies, such as film studies (\"Filmwissenschaft\"), theater studies (\"Theaterwissenschaft\") and German language and literature studies (\"Germanistik\") as well as Comparative Literature Studies (\"Komparatistik\").", "This branch has broadened out substantially since the 1990s.", "And it is on this initial basis that a culturally-based media studies (often emphasised more recently through the disciplinary title ''Medienkulturwissenschaft'') in Germany has primarily developed and established itself.This plurality of perspectives make it difficult to single out one particular site where this branch of Medienwissenschaft originated.", "While the Frankfurt-based theatre scholar, Hans-Theis Lehmanns term \"post dramatic theater\" points directly to the increased blending of co-presence and mediatized material in the German theater (and elsewhere) since the 1970s, the field of theater studies from the 1990s onwards at the Freie Universität Berlin, led in particular by Erika Fischer-Lichte, showed particular interest in the ways in which theatricality influenced notions of performativity in aesthetic events.", "Within the field of Film Studies, again, both Frankfurt and Berlin were dominant in the development of new perspectives on moving image media.", "Heide Schlüpman in Frankfurt and , first in Bochum then in Berlin, were key theorists contributing to an aesthetic theory of the cinema (Schlüpmann) as ''dispositif'' and the moving image as medium, particularly in the context of illusion (Koch).", "Many scholars who became known as media scholars in Germany originally were scholars of German, such as Friedrich Kittler, who taught at the Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, completed both his dissertation and habilitation in the context of ''Germanistik''.", "One of the early publications in this new direction is a volume edited by Helmut Kreuzer, ''Literature Studies - Media Studies'' (''Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft''), which summarizes the presentations given at the Düsseldorfer Germanistentag 1976.The second branch of media studies in Germany is comparable to Communication Studies.", "Pioneered by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in the 1940s, this branch studies mass media, its institutions and its effects on society and individuals.", "The German Institute for Media and Communication Policy, founded in 2005 by media scholar Lutz Hachmeister, is one of the few independent research institutions that is dedicated to issues surrounding media and communications policies.The term ''Wissenschaft'' cannot be translated straightforwardly as ''studies'', as it calls to mind both scientific methods and the humanities.", "Accordingly, German media theory combines philosophy, psychoanalysis, history, and scientific studies with media-specific research.=== Poland ===According to the Zeszyty Prasoznawcze, translated to Press Journals in English, one of the \"architects\" of media studies in Poland is Professor Walery Pisarek.", "Pisarek spent over 40 years of his career studying how topics such as persuasion, language, and propaganda intersect with media studies and linguistics, specifically in Poland.", "This focus on linguistics also led to Pisarek's support of the Polish Language Act, a piece of legislation that protected the Polish language and its use while also promoting the Polish culture and history.", "=== United Kingdom ===Much research in the field of news media studies has been led by the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism.", "Details of the research projects and results are published in the RISJ annual report.", "In addition to the research performed at the Reuters Institute, media researchers in the United Kingdom have also used comments from the British press to look at their impression of media studies as a topic for study.", "Researchers Lucy Bennett and Jenny Kidd found that there was a link between the Conservative party in Britain and the idea that media studies were not an academic field worth studying due to its lack of scientific principles and employability for students.", "Stuart Hall, a Jamaican-born social scientist, also contributed to the field of media studies through his writings on cultural studies, separate but similar to media studies.", "Hall's main viewpoint was that the mainstream media as a whole serves the beliefs of the rich and powerful within society, an idea that was heavily influenced by Karl Marx and Antonio Gramsci in his writings.", "By naming his theory \"cultural studies\", Hall felt that he was able to bring in the cultural element of media studies that he felt was often left out by academics in the field.", "=== United States ===Despite the field normally being called mass communication in American circles, many theories within the realm of media studies have evolved from the United States.", "Elihu Katz’s uses and gratifications theory examines why individuals choose to take in media.", "At its core, the uses and gratifications theory explores how there is no single reason why people consume the messages that they do.", "Instead, one person consumes specific media for different reasons than another person may consume the same media.", "Some possible gratifications include “companionship”, “escape”, and “information”.", "A newer theory from the 2010s comes from danah boyd and Alice Marwick when they studied how media eliminates borders between contexts.", "In their joint article, they refer to this as part of a process called ‘context collapse’.", "Context collapse directly refers to the occurrence of a media platform as it flattens multiple audiences into one.", "An individual may present themselves to multiple audiences in various ways, but in context collapse, they are put in front of every audience at the same time and must choose which identity to assume.In the United States, there is a rise in research surrounding social media and its use as a media form for communication.", "As the amount of social media research is on the rise, many researchers are calling on social media corporations to release data about their services to the general public." ], [ "Media studies in education", "=== Australia ===Media is studied as a broad subject in most states in Australia.", "Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, and in secondary schools in the mid 1960s.Today, almost all Australian universities teach media studies.", "According to the Government of Australia's \"Excellence in Research for Australia\" report, the leading universities in the country for media studies (which were ranked well above World standards by the report's scoring methodology) are Monash University, QUT, RMIT, University of Melbourne, University of Queensland and UTS.In secondary schools, an early film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s.", "And, by the early 1970s, an expanded media studies course was being taught.", "The course became part of the senior secondary curriculum (later known as the Victorian Certificate of Education or \"VCE\") in the 1980s.", "It has since become, and continues to be, a strong component of the VCE.", "Notable figures in the development of the Victorian secondary school curriculum were the long time Rusden College media teacher Peter Greenaway (not the British film director), Trevor Barr (who authored one of the first media text books ''Reflections of Reality'') and later John Murray (who authored ''The Box in the Corner'', ''In Focus'', and ''10 Lessons in Film Appreciation'').Today, Australian states and territories that teach media studies at a secondary level are Australian Capital Territory, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia.", "Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level.In Victoria, the VCE media studies course is structured as: Unit 1 – Representation, Technologies of Representation, and New Media; Unit 2 – Media Production, Australian Media Organisations; Unit 3 – Narrative Texts, Production Planning; and Unit 4 – Media Process, Social Values, and Media Influence.", "Media studies also form a major part of the primary and junior secondary curriculum, and includes areas such as photography, print media and television.Victoria also hosts the peak media teaching body known as ATOM which publishes ''Metro'' and ''Screen Education'' magazines.=== Canada ===In Canada, media studies and communication studies are incorporated in the same departments and cover a wide range of approaches (from critical theory to organizations to research-creation and political economy, for example).", "Over time, research developed to employ theories and methods from cultural studies, philosophy, political economy, gender, sexuality and race theory, management, rhetoric, film theory, sociology, and anthropology.", "Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan are famous Canadian scholars for their contributions to the fields of media ecology and political economy in the 20th century.", "They were both important members of the Toronto School of Communication at the time.", "More recently, the School of Montreal and its founder James R. Taylor significantly contributed to the field of organizational communication by focusing on the ontological processes of organizations.Carleton University and the University of Western Ontario, 1945 and 1946 prospectively, created Journalism specific programs or schools.", "A Journalism specific program was also created at Ryerson in 1950.The first communication programs in Canada were started at Ryerson and Concordia Universities.", "The Radio and Television Arts program at Ryerson were started in the 1950s, while the Film, Media Studies/Media Arts, and Photography programs also originated from programs started in the 1950s.", "The Communication studies department at Concordia was created in the late 1960s.", "Ryerson's Radio and Television, Film, Media and Photography programs were renowned by the mid 1970s, and its programs were being copied by other colleges and universities nationally and Internationally.", "Western University later followed suit, establishing The Faculty of Information and Media Studies.", "Carleton later expanded upon its school of journalism, introducing the mass communication and media studies program in 1978.Today, most universities offer undergraduate degrees in Media and Communication Studies, and many Canadian scholars actively contribute to the field, among which: Brian Massumi (philosophy, cultural studies), Kim Sawchuk (cultural studies, feminist, ageing studies), Carrie Rentschler (feminist theory), and François Cooren (organizational communication).=== China ===There are two universities in China that specialize in media studies.", "Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, that dates back to 1954.CUC has 15,307 full-time students, including 9264 undergraduates, 3512 candidates for doctor and master's degrees and 16,780 students in programs of continuing education.", "The other university known for media studies in China is Zhejiang University of Media and Communications (ZUMC) which has campuses in Hangzhou and Tongxiang.", "Almost 10,000 full-time students are currently studying in over 50 programs at the 13 Colleges and Schools of ZUMC.", "Both institutions have produced some of China's brightest broadcasting talents for television as well as leading journalists at magazines and newspapers.=== Czech Republic ===There is no university specialized on journalism and media studies, but there are seven public universities which have a department of media studies.", "Three biggest are based in Prague (Charles University), Brno (Masaryk University) and Olomouc (Palacký University).", "There are another nine private universities and colleges which has media studies department.=== France ===Numerous French post-secondary institutions offer courses in communications and media studies, at both the undergraduate and graduate level.", "Media and communications programs at ESCP Business School, Paris Institute of Political Studies, and Grenoble Alpes University, center around the study of journalism and other multimedia content, teaching media creation and management strategies.", "=== Germany ===''Medienwissenschaften'' is currently one of the most popular courses of study at universities in Germany, with many applicants mistakenly assuming that studying it will automatically lead to a career in TV or other media.", "This has led to widespread disillusionment, with students blaming the universities for offering highly theoretical course content.", "The universities maintain that practical journalistic training is not the aim of the academic studies they offer.=== India ===Media Studies is a fast growing academic field in India, with several dedicated departments and research institutes.", "With a view to making the best use of communication facilities for information, publicity and development, the Government of India in 1962-63 sought the advice of the Ford Foundation/UNESCO team of internationally known mass communication specialists who recommended the setting up of a national institute for training, teaching and research in mass communication.", "Anna University was the first university to start Master of Science in Electronic Media programmes.", "It offers a five-year integrated programme and a two-year programme in Electronic Media.", "The Department of Media Sciences was started in January 2002, branching off from the UGC's Educational Multimedia Research Centre (EMMRC).", "National Institute of Open Schooling, the world's largest open schooling system, offers Mass Communication as a subject of studies at senior secondary level.", "All the major universities in the country have mass media and journalism studies departments including Asian College of Journalism, Chennai, Indian Institute of Mass Communication, New Delhi, Xavier Institute of Communications, Mumbai, Parul University, Vadodara, Amity University, Jawaharlal Neheru University, Apeejay Institute of Mass Communications, Brainware University Kolkata and others.", "Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), Delhi has media studies as one of their major emphasis.=== Netherlands ===In the Netherlands, media studies are split into several academic courses such as (applied) communication sciences, communication- and information sciences, communication and media, media and culture or theater, film and television sciences.", "Whereas communication sciences focuses on the way people communicate, be it mediated or unmediated, media studies tends to narrow the communication down to just mediated communication.", "However, it would be a mistake to consider media studies a specialism of communication sciences, since media make up just a small portion of the overall course.", "Indeed, both studies tend to borrow elements from one another.Communication sciences (or a derivative thereof) can be studied at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Radboud University, Tilburg University, University of Amsterdam, University of Groningen, University of Twente, Roosevelt Academy, University of Utrecht, VU University Amsterdam and Wageningen University and Research Centre.Media studies (or something similar) can be studied at the University of Amsterdam, VU University Amsterdam, Erasmus University Rotterdam, University of Groningen,University of Maastricht and the University of Utrecht.Nine Dutch universities collaborate in the overarching Netherlands Research school for Media Studies (RMeS), which acts as a platform for graduate students to build connections within the media studies discipline and to represent Dutch media scholars on an international level.", "=== New Zealand ===Media studies in New Zealand is healthy, especially due to renewed activity in the country's film industry and is taught at both secondary and tertiary education institutes.", "Media studies in NZ can be regarded as a singular success, with the subject well-established in the tertiary sector (such as Screen and Media Studies at the University of Waikato; Media Studies, Victoria University of Wellington; Film, Television and Media Studies, University of Auckland; Media Studies, Massey University; Communication Studies, University of Otago).Different courses can offer students a range of specialisations- such as cultural studies, media theory and analysis, practical film-making, journalism and communications studies.", "But what makes the case of New Zealand particularly significant in respect of Media Studies is that for more than a decade it has been a nationally mandated and very popular subject in secondary (high) schools, taught across three years in a very structured and developmental fashion, with Scholarship in Media Studies available for academically gifted students.", "According to the New Zealand Ministry of Education Subject Enrolment figures 229 New Zealand schools offered Media Studies as a subject in 2016, representing more than 14,000 students.=== Pakistan ===In Pakistan, media studies programs are widely offered.International Islamic University,Islamabad.", "University of the Punjab.", "Lahore is the oldest department.", "Later on University of Karachi, Federal Urdu university of Art's science and technology, established department of mass communication in 2002 and many students past out this university, nowadays working in different News channels and media house, Peshawar University, BZU Multaan, Islamia University Bahwalpur also started communication programs.", "Now, newly established universities are also offering mass communication program in which University of Gujrat emerged as a leading department.", "Bahria University which is established by Pakistan Navy is also offering BS in media studies.=== Switzerland ===In Switzerland, media and communication studies are offered by several higher education institutions including the International Institute in Geneva, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, University of Lugano, University of Fribourg and others.", "The Swiss programs study current trends and strategies used by media corporations, while examining their influence and consequences on modern day society.=== United Kingdom ===In the United Kingdom, media studies developed in the 1960s from the academic study of English, and from literary criticism more broadly.", "The key date, according to Andrew Crisell, is 1959:When Joseph Trenaman left the BBC's Further Education Unit to become the first holder of the Granada Research Fellowship in Television at Leeds University.", "Soon after in 1966, the Centre for Mass Communication Research was founded at Leicester University, and degree programmes in media studies began to sprout at polytechnics and other universities during the 1970s and 1980s.James Halloran at the University of Leicester is credited with much influence in the development of media studies and communication studies, as the head of the university's Centre for Mass Communication Research, and founder of the International Association for Media and Communication Research.", "Media Studies is now taught all over the UK.", "It is taught at Key Stages 1– 3, Entry Level, GCSE and at A level and the Scottish Qualifications Authority offers formal qualifications at a number of different levels.", "It is offered through a large area of exam boards including AQA and WJEC.As mentioned earlier, much research in the field of news media studies has been led by the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism is one of the leaders in news media research for the United Kingdom.", "The Institute focuses on journalism and news media as topics of study.", "=== United States ===Mass communication, communication studies or simply 'Communication' are names that are used far more frequently than “media studies” for academic departments in the United States.", "However, the focus of such programs sometimes excludes certain media—film, book publishing, video games, etc.", "The title “media studies” may be used alone, to designate film studies and rhetorical or critical theory, or it may appear in combinations like “media studies and communication” to join two fields or emphasize a different focus.", "It involves the study of many emerging, contemporary media and platforms, with social media having boomed in recent years.", "Broadcast and cable TV is no longer the primary form of entertainment, with various screens offering worldwide events and pastimes around the clock.", "Proceeding are some examples of the evolution of some institutions that reside within the United States who have taken media studies under their wing and grown with it.In 1999, the MIT Comparative Media Studies program started under the leadership of Henry Jenkins, since growing into a graduate program, MIT's largest humanities major, and, following a 2012 merger with the Writing and Humanistic Studies program, a roster of twenty faculty, including Pulitzer Prize-winning author Junot Diaz, science fiction writer Joe Haldeman, games scholar T. L. Taylor, and media scholars William Uricchio (a CMS co-founder), Edward Schiappa, and Heather Hendershot.", "Now named Comparative Media Studies/Writing, the department places an emphasis on what Jenkins and colleagues had termed \"applied humanities\": it hosts several research groups for civic media, digital humanities, games, computational media, documentary, and mobile design, and these groups are used to provide graduate students with research assistantships to cover the cost of tuition and living expenses.", "The incorporation of Writing and Humanistic Studies also placed MIT's Science Writing program, Writing Across the Curriculum, and Writing and Communications Center under the same roof.Around the same time as MIT an interdisciplinary major at the University of Virginia, the Department of Media Studies was officially established in 2000 and has rapidly grown and doubled in size in 2011.This is partly thanks to the acquisition of Professor Siva Vaidhyanathan, a cultural historian and media scholar, as well as the Inaugural Verklin Media Policy and Ethics Conference, endowed by the CEO of Canoe Ventures and UVA alumnus David Verklin.University of California, Irvine had professor Mark Poster who was one of the first and foremost theorists of media culture in the US who boasted a strong Department of Film & Media Studies.", "University of California, Berkeley has three institutional structures within media studies that take place in the department of Film and Media (formerly Film Studies Program), including famous theorists as Mary Ann Doane and Linda Williams, the Center for New Media, and a long established interdisciplinary program formerly titled Mass Communications, which recently changed its name to Media Studies.", "This change eliminated any connotations that may accompany the term “Mass” in the former title.", "Until recently, Radford University in Virginia used the title \"media studies\" for a department that taught practitioner-oriented major concentrations in journalism, advertising, broadcast production and Web design.", "In 2008, those programs were combined with a previous department of communication (speech and public relations) to create a School of Communication.", "(A media studies major at Radford still means someone concentrating on journalism, broadcasting, advertising or Web production.", ")Brooklyn College has collaborated with City University of New York to offer graduate studies in television and media since 2015.Currently, the Department of Television and Radio administers an MS in Media Studies, and hosts the Center for the Study of World Television." ], [ "See also", "*Anthropology of media*Fan studies*Innis's time- and space-bias*Journalism*Market for loyalties theory*Mass media*Mass communication*McLuhan's tetrad of media effects*Media culture*Media echo chamber*Media ecology*Media literacy*Media psychology*Media-system dependency*Mediatization (media)*Narcotizing dysfunction*Social aspects of television*Sociology*The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere*Transparency (humanities)*Uses and gratifications theory" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ‘Media Studies: Text, Production and Context' - How to do Media Studies by Paul Long and Tim Wall from Birmingham City University.", "* The Media Literacy of Primary School Children - How far do Primary School children have the knowledge and skills to access media, make sense of the representations and images produced and to create their own?", "by Grant Strudley, University of Reading'" ] ]
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