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What role do trees play in global warming?
Trees help to reduce global warming by 'cleaning the air'.
Here's how:
• A gas that helps to cause global warming is carbon dioxide.
• Trees 'breathe' just like we do except when they breathe they take in carbon dioxide not oxygen.
• When a tree breathes out it breathes out oxygen.
• This is then breathed in by a human.
• Carbon dioxide is breathed out the the human...
• ...and breathed in by the tree...
• This carries on continuously.
Some trees have been growing in tropical rainforests like the Amazon Basin for hundreds of years. They store almost half their weight in carbon. So trees help reduce global warming in a way, but with people producing so much extra carbon dioxide global warming is happening. Trees probably have other effects on the environment and global warming, but I only know what is above. Hope it helps :) Only half of the story Yes, living trees breathe in carbon dioxide. But when they die, they ROT, and when they rot, all the carbon they stored over the years will be oxidized and released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Well, not ALL of the carbon. Some part of it will be transferred to the soil. But in places like the Amazon Rain Forest, the soil is too thin to hold much carbon, so very little goes into the soil and what little does is rapidly released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. On the other hand, if, instead of allowing trees to die and rot, we were to HARVEST the trees, turn them into lumber, and treat them to prevent rot, the carbon therein would be sequestered (prevented from oxidizing into the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere) almost indefinitely.
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What is man's role in global warming?
Humans are responsible for serious deforestation as well as the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas). Climate scientists agree that this is what is causin (MORE)
How do trees prevent global warming?
trees reduce global warming, but they can't prevent a process that is already taking place. trees obsorb CO2 and turn this into oxygen, reducing the Green house gas (MORE)
What role does technology play in global warming?
In Phoenix
Activities and Events in Scottsdale for the Artistic Soul
The very mention of the state of Arizona conjures up images of the Grand Canyon, the Hoover Dam, London Bridge, Meteor Crater, and numerous state parks and sprawling deserts. (MORE)
The Most Prominent Causes of Global Warming
Global warming is the rising of the earth's temperature due to an increase in carbon dioxides and other contaminants. Global warming causes major weather changes such as spora (MORE)
How do kids play a role in global warming?
kids must be taught regarding global warming, so that they are not only gain awareness but also work for its counter implementations.
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In Biology
What do tree rings have to do with global warming?
Trees tend to grow faster during warmer and wetter years, and this is reflected in the tree rings. Scientists can look back through the centuries using tree rings, and identif (MORE)
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How do trees contribute to global warming?
Living trees contribute to reducing global warming by removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. The amount they remove and store is substantial. However trees have re (MORE)
How can software engineer play a role to reduce global warming?
Any software engineer that works on improving the efficiency of anything that affects the environment is playing such a role. For example, software in cars and planes that inc (MORE)
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Gasoline is one of the fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), the burning of which is causing global warming. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, rises into the atmospher (MORE)
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I need help with following 4 questions. Step by step solution would be helpful for learning..
Image text transcribed for accessibility: The random variable X is uniformly distributed on [-1,1], and the random variable Y is uniformly distributed on [0,1]. X and Y are statistically independent. Let Z = X + Y. Write down the pdf of X and the pdf of Y: Find the mean and variance of X, and the covariance between X and Y. E{X} = var{X} = cov(XX) = Plot the cdf of Y. It is well know that the pdf of Z is the convolution of the pdf's of X and Y. Plot the pdf of Z with all necessary axis markings. You are not required to calculate fz(z).
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Definitions for tesseraˈtɛs ər ə; ˈtɛs əˌri
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word tessera
Random House Webster's College Dictionary
tes•ser•aˈtɛs ər ə; ˈtɛs əˌri(n.)(pl.)tes•ser•ae
1. one of the small pieces used in mosaic work.
2. a small square of bone, wood, or the like, used in ancient Rome as a token, tally, ticket, etc.
Category: Antiquities
Origin of tessera:
1640–50; < L, perh. shortening of Gk *tessarágōnos square
Princeton's WordNet
1. tessera(noun)
a small square tile of stone or glass used in making mosaics
1. tessera(Noun)
A small square piece of stone, wood, ivory or glass used for making a mosaic.
2. tessera(Noun)
complex-ridged surface feature seen on plateau highlands of Venus and perhaps on Triton
3. Origin: From tessera, from τέσσαρες.
Webster Dictionary
1. Tessera(noun)
1. Tessera
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June 27
This Day in History
World War I
Jun 27, 1914:
Colonel House meets with British foreign secretary in London
In Berlin, House had achieved his primary goal of the visit, a private audience with Kaiser Wilhelm II, which he was granted on June 1. As House recorded in his diary, the two men discussed "the European situation as it affected the Anglo-Saxon race." The kaiser was of the opinion that Britain, Germany and the U.S.—as the best representatives of Christian civilization—were natural allies against the semi-barbarous Latin and Slavic nations (including France and Russia), but that all the Europeans should ally in defense of Western civilization "as against the Oriental races." House worked to persuade Wilhelm that Britain would not seek to ally itself with Russia if Germany would cease the challenge to its naval power. Both men agreed that American moderation—from House, for example, or from Wilson himself—might aid in bringing the great European powers together.
House left Germany after promising the kaiser to attempt to secure Britain's agreement to an American initiative. From Paris on June 3, he wrote to President Wilson that "both England and Germany have one feeling in common and that is fear of one another." If the two nations could get together and work to solve their misunderstandings, House believed, future war in Europe could be averted.
The meeting with Grey on June 27 was arranged by Walter Hines Page, the U.S. ambassador to Britain. House and Grey discussed at length the tense political situation in Europe: France's desire to take revenge on Germany for taking their territories of Alsace and Lorraine in 1871; Britain's need to maintain good relations with Russia; and Germany's aggressive naval program. House in turn warned Grey of "the militant war spirit in Germany and of the high tension of the people" that he had witnessed during his recent visit, and expressed his opinion that "the kaiser himself and most of his immediate advisors did not want war because they wished Germany to expand commercially and grow in wealth, but the army was military and aggressive and ready for war at any time." Nonetheless, the two men both agreed, by the end of the meeting, that "Neither England, Germany, Russia, nor France desire war."
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Items tagged with scale scale Tagged Items Feed
Archimedes supposedlly, was asked to determine whether a crown made for the king consisted of pure gold. According to
legend, he solved this problem by weighing the crown first in air and then in water. Suppose the scale read 7.84 N when the
crown was in the air and 6.84 N when it was in water.
What should Archimedes have told the king ?
I am creating a plot in Maple17 which will include many line segments and polygons. I want the axes to be equally scaled, so that line segments that are perpendicular actually look perpendicular. When I view what I have created so far, line segments that are perpendicular do not appear to be so in a plot, even though I used the "scaling=constrained" option several times. I created a stripped-down file that isolates the problem. Here it is:
segp := proc(pt1, pt2)
description "plot of line segment between two points";
local m;
end proc:
slope := proc(pt1, pt2)
description "slope of line segment btwn two different points";
end proc:
pa9:=[0.1864032968, 0.9824733131];
[.1864032968, .9824733131]
pa16:=[0.6816387600, 0.7316888689];
[.6816387600, .7316888689]
pd9:=[0.05940746930, 0.7316888689];
[0.5940746930e-1, .7316888689]
An angle that should be a right angle looks obtuse in the plot. I used "scaling=constrained" in both the "display" command and the "segp" procedure. I am using "polygonplot" to plot line segments (degenerate polygons) because the final plot will contain genuine polygons and this seemed like the easiest way to do it. If this is a bad idea for some reason I can change it.
When exporting plots some labels are occasionally cropped. This is true when exporting via the context menu or with plotsetup('gif', etc.) for instance (plotsetup also drops the third label in 3D plots, the context menu keeps it).
I discovered that scaling the plot from the context menu can help: is there a programmatic way to control the plot scale?
From the context menu: Manipulator -> Scale, the plot can be rescaled to ensure that all...
I have some data that requires a logarithmic y-axis for its histogram, but I want the y-axis to start at y=10^0. In my histogram, the y-axis starts near 10^-2, seemingly because I have 0-points in my data. How can I restrict the y-axis to start at 10^0?
Hello, with "logplot", if I use "scale" or change the minimum vertical range to some smaller values, the plot mechanism will automatically print "0., 0.5*0.0001, 0.0001, 0.5*0.001, 0.001, .... " at the y-axis numeric mark.
However, I want the 10^(-n) numeric format and alwasy keep the format.
How could I always get the 10^(-n) numeric format for y-axis ?
Thanks a lot!
How to change "Scaling" in order to during "zoom in" coordinates x and y zoomed in user defined way?
Paper Models of 3D Plots...
September 09 2011 Paul 390 Maple
3D Paper Physical Model
The problem has been discussed in mapleprimes before, but I have not come across a neat solution. Perhaps there is one. What is the state of the art for exporting 3D graphics (plot3d, etc.) with Maple 15?
What I think I know is this: standard GUI has a completely new way of treating 2D graphics but has an outdated way of rendering 3D, while the classic GUI, though no longer developed, for some reason typically renders better 3D graphics.
I used to export graphics...
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To Kill a Mockingbird
To Kill a Mockingbird
by Harper Lee
Morality and Ethics Quotes
How we cite our quotes:
Quote #4
Even when others do things that Atticus would rather eat spiders than do, he still thinks they should be treated with respect. In his moral system, just because Mrs. Dubose strikes out at Jem doesn't mean he's allowed to strike back. Atticus is definitely a New Testament kind of guy, turning the other cheek rather than going after an eye for an eye.
Quote #5
"Atticus, you must be wrong...."
"How's that?"
Democracy may determine how a group will act, but it can't control what a person thinks: the jury can vote to find Tom guilty, but it can't make everyone in Maycomb believe that he is. (But you think that makes him feel any better?)
Quote #6
People who Shmooped this also Shmooped...
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Images from NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have revealed that mysterious gullies are forming on Mars as a result of frozen carbon dioxide that’s piling up on Martian dunes.
The piles may trigger avalanches that carve out the mysterious gullies.
"The alcove is a cutout at the top. Material being removed from there ends up in a fan-shaped apron below,” Diniega said. Because new flows in these gullies apparently occur in winter, the new report calls for studies of how carbon dioxide, rather than water, could be involved in the flows.
Other suggested mechanisms are that gas from sublimating frost could lubricate a flow of dry sand or erupt in puffs energetic enough to trigger slides. "The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is enabling valuable studies of seasonal changes in surface features on Mars,” said Sue Smrekar of orbiter.
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You limited your search to:
Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department
Decade: 1930-1939
Year: 1935
Collection: Government Documents A to Z Digitization Project
Earthworms as pests and otherwise.
Describes attributes of the earthworm; describes how earthworms can be both useful and damaging. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1514/
Eliminating bats from buildings.
Describes the habits of bats and possible places they choose to live, including houses. Provides various methods for repelling them. Argues against killing bats except as a last resort. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3554/
Farmhouse plans.
This bulletin presents 40 house plans including: 1-story growing houses; 1-story houses originally built with two or more separate bedrooms; houses of 1-1/2 or 2 stories; and very small houses. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc6280/
Growing rye in the western half of the United States.
Describes the different types of rye grown in the western United States, and methods for planting and harvesting it. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1779/
Gullies : how to control and reclaim them.
Outlines the importance of gullies and their function as a method of irrigation; details methods of controlling and maintaining gullies. Also outlines the potential negative effects that poorly maintained gullies can have on highways and grazing lands. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5942/
Improved sanitation in milk production.
Provides instructions for sanitary milk production. Discusses the importance of sanitary methods to protect milk during transportation from the farm to the city, thus improving the milk supply for growing urban populations. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5977/
Making cellars dry.
Describes various methods of keeping cellars and basements dry, as well as methods for improving ruined or old cellars and basements. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5900/
Preventing feed flavors and odors in milk.
Describes the causes of abnormal flavors and odors in milk; provides methods for ensuring the palatability of milk by controlling cattle feeds and production practices. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9184/
Sheep and goat lice : methods of control and eradication.
Describes common species of sheep and goat lice, and methods for their control. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9196/
Spray irrigation in the eastern states.
A guide to planning and construction of spray irrigation systems for home gardens or fields up to 5 acres in size. digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc5909/
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2014 Internet Infidels Fundraising Drive / $36,687.89 of $40,000.00
This file has been made available by the Bank of Wisdom.
Descent of Man [ 1871 ]
Charles Darwin [ 1809 - 1882 ]
Chapter III - Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man and the Lower Animals
WE HAVE seen in the last two chapters that man bears in his bodily
common objects or for the affections,* with that of the most highly
continually struck with surprise how closely the three natives on
board H. M. S. Beagle, who had lived some years in England, and
of our mental faculties. If no organic being excepting man had
have been able to convince ourselves that our high faculties had
fundamental difference of this kind. We must also admit that there
* See the evidence on those points, as given by Lubbock, Prehistoric
Times, p. 354, &c.
Nor is the difference slight in moral disposition between a
uses hardly any abstract terms, and a Newton or Shakespeare.
Differences of this kind between the highest men of the highest
races and the lowest savages, are connected by the finest
gradations. Therefore it is possible that they might pass and be
developed into each other.
difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental
faculties. Each division of the subject might have been extended
classification of the mental powers has been universally accepted, I
shall arrange my remarks in the order most convenient for my
the hope that they may produce some effect on the reader.
additional facts under Sexual Selection, shewing that their mental
powers are much higher than might have been expected. The
variability of the faculties in the individuals of the same species is
unanimous opinion of all those who have long attended to animals of
many kinds, including birds, that the individuals differ greatly in
every mental characteristic. In what manner the mental powers were
first developed in the lowest organisms, is as hopeless an enquiry
as how life itself first originated. These are problems for the
As man possesses the same senses as the lower animals, his
fundamental intuitions must be the same. Man has also some few
instincts than those possessed by the animals which come next to him
animals having similar wants, and possessing similar powers of
instinctive dread of serpents, and probably of other dangerous
The fewness and the comparative simplicity of the instincts in the
higher animals are remarkable in contrast with those of the lower
animals. Cuvier maintained that instinct and intelligence stand in
intellectual faculties of the higher animals have been gradually
developed from their instincts. But Pouchet, in an interesting essay,*
has shewn that no such inverse ratio really exists. Those insects
which possess the most wonderful instincts are certainly the most
intelligent. In the vertebrate series, the least intelligent
members, namely fishes and amphibians, do not possess complex
instincts; and amongst mammals the animal most remarkable for its
admitted by every one who has read Mr. Morgan's excellent work.*(2)
* "L'Instinct chez les insectes," Revue des Deux Mondes, Feb., 1870,
p. 690.
*(2) The American Beaver and His Works, 1868.
Although the first dawnings of intelligence, according to Mr.
Herbert Spencer,* have been developed through the multiplication and
coordination of reflex actions, and although many of the simpler
instincts graduate into reflex actions, and can hardly be
yet the more complex instincts seem to have originated independently
instinctive actions may lose their fixed and untaught character, and
other hand, some intelligent actions, after being performed during
several generations, become converted into instincts and are
are no longer performed through reason or from experience. But the
greater number of the more complex instincts appear to have been
gained in a wholly different manner, through the natural selection
of variations of simpler instinctive actions. Such variations appear
to arise from the same unknown causes acting on the cerebral
organisation, which induce slight variations or individual differences
complex instincts, when we reflect on the marvellous instincts of
the effects of experience and of modified habits.
beaver, a high degree of intelligence is certainly compatible with
complex instincts, and although actions, at first learnt voluntarily
can soon through habit be performed with the quickness and certainty
amount of interference between the development of free intelligence
and of instinct,- which latter implies some inherited modification
can perceive that as the intellectual powers become highly
intricate channels of the freest intercommunication; and as a
consequence each separate part would perhaps tend to be less well
fitted to answer to particular sensations or associations in a
definite and inherited- that is instinctive- manner. There seems
strong tendency to the formation of fixed, though not inherited
they are rendered much happier if this is encouraged.
I have thought this digression worth giving, because we may easily
underrate the mental powers of the higher animals, and especially of
actions instinctively performed by the lower animals; in this latter
case the capacity of performing such actions has been gained, step
by step, through the variability of the mental organs and natural
selection, without any conscious intelligence on the part of the
argued,* much of the intelligent work done by man is due to
imitation and not to reason; but there is this great difference
between his actions and many of those performed by the lower
well,*(2) the first time it tries as when old and experienced.
*(2) For the evidence on this head, see Mr. J. Traherne
Moggridge's most interesting work, Harvesting Ants and Trap-Door
Spiders, 1873, pp. 126, 128.
manifestly feel pleasure and pain, happiness and misery. Happiness
Even insects play together, as has been described by that excellent
observer, P. Huber,* who saw ants chasing and pretending to bite
each other, like so many puppies.
* Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis, 1810, p. 173.
The fact that the lower animals are excited by the same emotions
the offspring of fear, is eminently characteristic of most wild
decoys, without admitting that they intentionally practise deceit, and
well know what they are about. Courage and timidity are extremely
variable qualities in the individuals of the same species, as is
certainly inherited. Every one knows how liable animals are to furious
have been published on the long-delayed and artful revenge of
various animals. The accurate Rengger, and Brehm* state that the
American and African monkeys which they kept tame, certainly
revenged themselves. Sir Andrew Smith, a zoologist whose scrupulous
approaching one Sunday for parade, poured water into a hole and
hastily made some thick mud, which he skilfully dashed over the
afterwards the baboon rejoiced and triumphed whenever he saw his
* All the following statements, given on the authority of these
two naturalists, are taken from Rengger's Naturgesch. der
Saugethiere von Paraguay, 1830, ss. 41-57, and from Brehm's
quaintly says,* "A dog is the only thing on this earth that luvs you
more than he luvs himself."
* Quoted by Dr. Lauder Lindsay, in his "Physiology of Mind in the
Lower Animals," Journal of Mental Science, April, 1871, p. 38.
As Whewell* has well asked, "Who that reads the touching instances
exhibited in the most trifling details; thus Rengger observed an
American monkey (a Cebus) carefully driving away the flies which
plagued her infant; and Duvaucel saw a Hylobates washing the faces
Orphan monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded by the
capacious a heart that she not only adopted young monkeys of other
species, but stole young dogs and cats, which she continually
as his monkeys always divided everything quite fairly with their own
young ones. An adopted kitten scratched this affectionate baboon,
being scratched, and immediately examined the kitten's feet, and
without more ado bit off the claws.*(2) In the Zoological Gardens, I
naughty child, annoy and attack the young drill and mandrill
whenever it could do so with safety; this conduct exciting great
indignation in the old baboon. Monkeys will also, according to
recur. Some of Brehm's monkeys took much delight in teasing a
various ingenious ways.
* Bridgewater Treatise, p. 263.
*(2) A critic, without any grounds (Quarterly Review, July, 1871, p.
kitten nearly five weeks old.
Most of the more complex emotions are common to the higher animals
have desire to be loved. Animals manifestly feel emulation. They
called magnanimity. Several observers have stated that monkeys
certainly dislike being laughed at; and they sometimes invent
imaginary offences. In the Zoological Gardens I saw a baboon who
evidently enjoying the practical joke.
We will now turn to the more intellectual emotions and faculties,
which are very important, as forming the basis for the development
of the higher mental powers. Animals manifestly enjoy excitement,
Rengger, with monkeys. All animals feel Wonder, and many exhibit
Curiosity. They sometimes suffer from this latter quality, as when the
great that they could not desist from occasionally satiating their
which the snakes were kept. I was so much surprised at this account,
curious spectacles which I ever beheld. Three species of Cercopithecus
sharp signal cries of danger, which were understood by the other
collected round it in a large circle, and staring intently,
presented a most ludicrous appearance. They became extremely
was partly hidden, they all instantly started away. These monkeys
behaved very differently when a dead fish, a mouse,* a living
at first frightened, they soon approached, handled and examined
monkeys immediately approached, cautiously opened the bag a little,
It would almost appear as if monkeys had some notion of zoological
affinities, for those kept by Brehm exhibited a strange, though
* I have given a short account of their behaviour on this occasion
*(2) W. C. L. Martin, Natural History of Mammalia, 1841, p. 405.
The principle of Imitation is strong in man, and especially, as I
brain this tendency is exaggerated to an extraordinary degree: some
hemiplegic patients and others, at the commencement of inflammatory
softening of the brain, unconsciously imitate every word which is
gesture or action which is performed near them.* Desor*(2) has
remarked that no animal voluntarily imitates an action performed by
known to be ridiculous mockers. Animals, however, sometimes imitate
reared by dogs, learned to bark, as does sometimes the jackal,*(3) but
whether this can be called voluntary imitation is another question.
Birds imitate the songs of their parents, and sometimes of other
birds; and parrots are notorious imitators of any sound which they
often hear. Dureau de la Malle gives an account*(4) of a dog reared by
witnessed by the celebrated naturalist Audouin. I have received
afterwards practised during his life of thirteen years. Dureau de la
ever afterwards, whenever there was an opportunity.
* Dr. Bateman, On Aphasia, 1870, p. 110.
*(2) Quoted by Vogt, Memoire sur les Microcephales, 1867, p. 168.
*(3) The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, vol.
i., p. 27.
*(4) Annales des Sciences Nat., (1st series), tom, xxii., p. 397.
The parents of many animals, trusting to the principle of
imitation in their young, and more especially to their instinctive
observations on hawks which taught their young dexterity, as well as
them live birds and letting them loose.
Hardly any faculty is more important for the intellectual progress
of man than Attention. Animals clearly manifest this power, as when
animals sometimes become so absorbed when thus engaged, that they
act in plays, used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological
he was talking and explaining anything to a monkey, its attention
which carefully attended to him could always be trained.
It is almost superfluous to state that animals have excellent
Memories for persons and places. A baboon at the Cape of Good Hope, as
dormant during five years, had thus been instantaneously awakened in
his mind. Even ants, as P. Huber* has clearly shewn, recognised
their fellow-ants belonging to the same community after a separation
intervals of time between recurrent events.
* Les Moeurs des Fourmis, 1810, p. 150.
faculty he unites former images and ideas, independently of the
Paul Richter remarks,* "who must reflect whether he shall make a
character say yes or no- to the devil with him; he is only a stupid
accuracy, and clearness of our impressions, on our judgment and
taste in selecting or rejecting the involuntary combinations, and to a
cats, horses, and probably all the higher animals, even birds*(2) have
night, and especially during moonlight, in that remarkable and
to Houzeau,*(3) they do not then look at the moon, but at some fixed
point near the horizon. Houzeau thinks that their imaginations are
disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding objects, and
may almost be called superstitious.
* Quoted in Dr. Maudsley's Physiology and Pathology of Mind, 1868,
pp. 19, 220.
*(2) Dr. Jerdon, Birds of India, vol. i., 1862, p. xxi. Houzeau says
*(3) ibid., 1872, tom. ii., p. 181.
dispute that animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals may
significant fact, that the more the habits of any particular animal
the less to unlearnt instincts.* In future chapters we shall see
that some animals extremely low in the scale apparently display a
certain amount of reason. No doubt it is often difficult to
distinguish between the power of reason and that of instinct. For
so that their weight might be more evenly distributed. This was
often the first warning which the travellers received that the ice was
acquired an instinct impelling them not to attack their prey in a
close pack, when on thin ice.
* Mr. L. H. Morgan's work on The American Beaver, 1868, offers a
that he goes too far in undertaking the power of instinct.
We can only judge by the circumstances under which actions are
mere association of ideas: this latter principle, however, is
intimately connected with reason. A curious case has been given by
Prof. Mobius,* of a pike, separated by a plate of glass from an
adjoining aquarium stocked with fish, and who often dashed himself
with such violence against the glass in trying to catch the other
these particular fishes, though he would devour others which were
afterwards introduced; so strongly was the idea of a violent shock
associated in his feeble mind with the attempt on his former
differently from the pike, he would probably reflect on the nature
of the impediment, and be cautious under analogous circumstances.
disagreeable impression, from an action once performed, is sometimes
sufficient to prevent the animal from repeating it. If we attribute
this difference between the monkey and the pike solely to the
association of ideas being so much stronger and more persistent in the
difference implies the possession of a fundamentally different mind?
Houzeau relates* that, whilst crossing a wide and arid plain in
thirty and forty times they rushed down the hollows to search for
behaviour in other animals.
Zoological Gardens, he blows through his trunk on the ground beyond
informs me that he observed in Vienna a bear deliberately making
These actions of the elephant and bear can hardly be attributed to
ins7tinct or inherited habit, as they would be of little use to an
higher animals?
the coincidence under such circumstances has become associated in
their minds. A cultivated man would perhaps make some general
though frequently disappointed; and in both it seems to be equally
subject is consciously placed before the mind.* The same would apply
The savage would certainly neither know nor care by what law the
process of reasoning, as surely as would a philosopher in his
longest chain of deductions. There would no doubt be this difference
of much slighter circumstances and conditions, and would observe any
connection between them after much less experience, and this would
greater quickness, with which all sorts of objects and sounds were
associated together in his mind, compared with that of the most
* Prof. Huxley has analysed with admirable clearness the mental
case analogous to that given in my text. See his article, "Mr.
Darwin's Critics," in the Contemporary Review, Nov., 1871, p. 462, and
in his Critiques and Essays, 1873, p. 279.
The promptings of reason, after very short experience, are well
fingers. After cutting themselves only once with any sharp tool,
unfolding it they got stung; after this had once happened, they always
first held the packet to their ears to detect any movement within.*
* Mr. Belt, in his most interesting work, The Naturalist in
reasoning power.
The following cases relate to dogs. Mr. Colquhoun* winged two
then, though never before known to ruffle a feather, deliberately
finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of
the winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered
the retriever might have brought the wounded bird first and then
witnesses, and because in both instances the retrievers, after
their reasoning faculty must have been to overcome a fixed habit.
1850, p. 46.
I will conclude by quoting a remark by the illustrious Humboldt.*
whose step is easiest, but la mas racional,- the one that reasons
experience, combats the system of animated machines, better perhaps
than all the arguments of speculative philosophy." Nevertheless some
writers even yet deny that the higher animals possess a trace of
mere verbiage,*(2) all such facts as those above given.
*(2) I am glad to find that so acute a reasoner as Mr. Leslie
Stephen ("Darwinism and Divinity," Essays on Free Thinking, 1873, p.
80), in speaking of the supposed impassable barrier between the
than a great many other metaphysical distinctions; that is, the
assumption that because you can give two things different names,
they must therefore have different natures. It is difficult to
processes of reasoning."
the same senses, intuitions, and sensations,- similar passions,
jealousy, suspicion, emulation, gratitude, and magnanimity; they
practise deceit and are revengeful; they are sometimes susceptible
curiosity; they possess the same faculties of imitation, attention,
same species graduate in intellect from absolute imbecility to high
than in the case of man.* Nevertheless, many authors have insisted
that man is divided by an insuperable barrier from all the lower
their wide difference and number prove the difficulty, if not the
is capable of progressive improvement; that he alone makes use of
no animal has the power of abstraction, or of forming general
the more important and interesting of these points.
* See "Madness in Animals," by Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay, in Journal
of Mental Science, July, 1871.
Archbishop Sumner formerly maintained* that man alone is capable
of progressive improvement. That he is capable of incomparably greater
down his acquired knowledge. With animals, looking first to the
trap. They must learn caution by seeing their brethren caught or
been pursued, they exhibit, according to the unanimous testimony of
all observers, an almost incredible amount of sagacity, caution and
inheritance may possibly have come into play. I have received
several accounts that when telegraphs are first set up in any
district, many birds kill themselves by flying against the wires,
danger, by seeing, as it would appear, their comrades killed.*(2)
* Quoted by Sir C. Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 497.
*(2) For additional evidence, with details, see M. Houzeau, Etudes
doubt that birds and other animals gradually both acquire and lose
caution in relation to man or other enemies;* and this caution is
the result of individual experience. A good observer, Leroy,*(2)
first leaving their burrows, are incontestably much more wary than the
old ones in districts where they are not much disturbed.
* See, with respect to birds on oceanic islands, my Journal of
Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle," 1845, p. 398. Also,
Origin of Species.(OOS)
*(2) Lettres Phil. sur l'Intelligence des Animaux, nouvelle edit.,
1802, p. 86.
Our domestic dogs are descended from wolves and jackals,* and though
suspicion, yet they have progressed in certain moral qualities, such
intelligence. The common rat has conquered and beaten several other
Swinhoe,*(2) who describes these two latter cases, attributes the
cunning; and this latter quality may probably be attributed to the
habitual exercise of all its faculties in avoiding extirpation by man,
greater cunning than its fellow-species, before it became associated
animal during the course of ages has progressed in intellect or
belonging to several orders have larger brains than their ancient
tertiary prototypes.
Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.
*(2) Proceedings Zoological Society, 1864, p. 186.
walnut, with a stone.* Rengger*(2) easily taught an American monkey
thus also removed the soft rind of fruit that had a disagreeable
nature.*(3) I have seen a young orang, when she thought she was
straw. In these several cases stones and sticks were employed as
implements; but they are likewise used as weapons. Brehm*(4) states,
descend in troops from the mountains to plunder the fields, they
uproar, rush furiously against each other. Brehm, when accompanying
actually closed for a time against the caravan. It deserves notice
that these baboons thus acted in concert. Mr. Wallace*(5) on three
appearance of rage; causing such a shower of missiles as effectually
Hope prepared mud for the purpose.
* Savage and Wyman in Boston Journal of Natural History, vol. iv.,
1843-44, p. 383.
*(2) Saugethiere von Paraguay, 1830, ss. 51-56.
*(3) The Indian Field, March 4, 1871.
*(4) Illustriertes Thierleben, B. i., s. 79, 82.
*(5) The Malay Archipelago, vol. i., 1869, p. 87.
with their nests.
The Duke of Argyll* remarks, that the fashioning of an implement for
in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,*(2) that when primeval man first
used flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally
immense interval of time which elapsed before the men of the neolithic
period took to grinding and polishing their stone tools. In breaking
nature of fire would have been known in the many volcanic regions
where lava occasionally flows through forests. The anthropomorphous
apes, guided probably by instinct, build for themselves temporary
itself at night with the leaves of the pandanus; and Brehm states that
rude architecture and dress, as they arose amongst the early
progenitors of man.
* Primeval Man, 1869, pp. 145, 147.
*(2) Prehistoric Times, 1865, p. 473, &c.
Abstraction, General Conceptions, Self-consciousness, Mental
Individuality.- It would be very difficult for any one with even
much more knowledge than I possess, to determine how far animals
exhibit any traces of these high mental powers. This difficulty arises
from the impossibility of judging what passes through the mind of an
the meaning which they attribute to the above terms, causes a
further difficulty. If one may judge from various articles which
the abstract; for when he gets nearer his whole manner suddenly
changes if the other dog be a friend. A recent writer remarks, that in
then so do both.* When I say to my terrier, in an eager voice (and I
neighbouring tree for a squirrel. Now do not these actions clearly
animal is to be discovered and hunted?
* Mr. Hookham, in a letter to Prof. Max Muller, in the Birmingham
News, May, 1873.
be a form of self-consciousness. On the other hand, as Buchner* has
remarked, how little can the hard worked wife of a degraded Australian
existence. It is generally admitted, that the higher animals possess
memory, attention, association, and even some imagination and
capable of improvement, there seems no great improbability in more
complex faculties, such as the higher forms of abstraction, and
self-consciousness, &c., having been evolved through the development
the ascending scale animals become capable of abstraction, &c.; but
least that such powers are developed in children by imperceptible
* Conferences sur la Theorie Darwinienne, French translat., 1869, p.
That animals retain their mental individuality is unquestionable.
the before-mentioned dog, he must have retained his mental
individuality, although every atom of his brain had probably undergone
might have brought forward the argument lately advanced to crush all
material changes.... The teaching that atoms leave their impressions
as legacies to other atoms falling into the places they have vacated
is contradictory of the utterance of consciousness, and is therefore
false; but it is the teaching necessitated by evolutionism,
consequently the hypothesis is a false one."*
* The Rev. Dr. J. M'Cann, Anti-Darwinism, 1869, p. 13.
Language.- This faculty has justly been considered as one of the
another."* In Paraguay the Cebus azarae when excited utters at least
six distinct sounds, which excite in other monkeys similar
emotions.*(2) The movements of the features and gestures of monkeys
being domesticated, has learnt to bark*(3) in at least four or five
be opened. According to Houzeau, who paid particular attention to
the subject, the domestic fowl utters at least a dozen significant
* Quoted in Anthropological Review, 1864, p. 158.
*(2) Rengger, ibid., s. 45.
*(3) See my Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,
vol. i., p. 27.
*(4) Facultes Mentales des Animaux, tom. ii., 1872, p. 346-349.
The habitual use of articulate language is, however, peculiar to
muscles of the face.* This especially holds good with the more
simple and vivid feelings, which are but little connected with our
her beloved child are more expressive than any words. That which
distinguishes man from the lower animals is not the understanding of
understand many words and short sentences, but cannot yet utter a
single word. It is not the mere articulation which is our
distinguishing character, for parrots and other birds possess this
power. Nor is it the mere capacity of connecting definite sounds
been taught to speak, connect unerringly words with things, and
persons with events.*(2) The lower animals differ from man solely in
his almost infinitely larger power of associating together the most
diversified sounds and ideas; and this obviously depends on the high
development of his mental powers.
* See a discussion on this subject in Mr. E. B. Tylor's very
interesting work, Researches into the Early History of Mankind,
1865, chaps. ii. to iv.
*(2) I have received several detailed accounts to this effect.
invariably called certain persons of the household, as well as
and never reversed these salutations. To Sir B. J. Sulivan's father,
never once repeated after his father's death. He scolded violently a
add several other such cases.
widely from all ordinary arts, for man has an instinctive tendency
no philologist now supposes that any language has been deliberately
invented; it has been slowly and unconsciously developed by many
steps.* The sounds uttered by birds offer in several respects the
utter the same instinctive cries expressive of their emotions; and all
the kinds which sing, exert their power instinctively; but the
foster-parents. These sounds, as Daines Barrington*(2) has proved,
babble." The young males continue practising, or as the
slight natural differences of song in the same species inhabiting
different districts may be appositely compared, as Barrington remarks,
have given the foregoing details to shew that an instinctive
tendency to acquire an art is not peculiar to man.
* See some good remarks on this head by Prof. Whitney, in his
development of language, "works both consciously and unconsciously;
consciously as regards the immediate end to be attained; unconsciously
as regards the further consequences of the act."
*(2) Hon. Daines Barrington in Philosoph. Transactions, 1773, p.
Zoolog., tom. x., p. 119.
With respect to the origin of articulate language, after having read
on the one side the highly interesting works of Mr. Hensleigh
Wedgwood, the Rev. F. Farrar, and Prof. Schleicher,* and the
doubt that language owes its origin to the imitation and
modification of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals,
some early progenitor of man, probably first used his voice in
widely-spread analogy, that this power would have been especially
exerted during the courtship of the sexes,- would have expressed
various emotions, such as love, jealousy, triumph,- and would have
imitation of musical cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to
words expressive of various complex emotions. The strong tendency in
our nearest allies, the monkeys, in microcephalous idiots,*(2) and
in the barbarous races of mankind, to imitate whatever they hear
wild, utter signal-cries of danger to their fellows;*(3) and since
from hawks (both, as well as a third cry, intelligible to dogs),*(4)
may not some unusually wise apelike animal have imitated the growl
a language.
* On the Origin of Language, by H. Wedgwood, 1866. Chapters on
title of Darwinism tested by the Science of Language, 1869.
*(2) Vogt, Memoire sur les Microcephales, 1867, p. 169. With respect
&c., 1845, p. 206.
*(3) See clear evidence on this head in the two works so often
quoted, by Brehm and Rengger.
*(4) Houzeau gives a very curious account of his observations on
been strengthened and perfected through the principle of the inherited
But the relation between the continued use of language and the
mental powers in some early progenitor of man must have been more
highly developed than in any existing ape, before even the most
confidently believe that the continued use and advancement of this
power would have reacted on the mind itself, by enabling and
use her fingers whilst dreaming.* Nevertheless, a long succession of
to remember substantives is lost, whilst other words can be
except the initial letters of substantives and proper names are
forgotten.*(2) There is no more improbability in the continued use
of the mental and vocal organs leading to inherited changes in their
of the mind; and handwriting is certainly inherited.*(3)
* See remarks on this head by Dr. Maudsley, The Physiology and
*(2) Many curious cases have been recorded. See, for instance, Dr.
ii., p. 6.
Several writers, more especially Prof. Max Muller,* have lately
insisted that the use of language implies the power of forming general
an impassable barrier is formed between them and man.*(2) With respect
the more intelligent animals; as Mr. Leslie Stephen observes,*(3) "A
corresponding words as well as a philosopher. And the capacity to
inferior degree, as the capacity to speak."
* Lectures on Mr. Darwin's Philosophy of Language, 1873.
*(2) The judgment of a distinguished philologist, such as Prof.
is the necessary auxiliary of thought, indispensable to the
development of the power of thinking, to the distinctness and
variety and complexity of cognitions, to the full mastery of
consciousness; therefore he would fain make thought absolutely
impossible without speech, identifying the faculty with its
instrument. He might just as reasonably assert that the human hand
cannot stop short of Max Muller's worst paradoxes, that an infant
not become possessed of reason until they learn to twist their fingers
into imitation of spoken words." Max Muller gives in italics (Lectures
on Mr. Darwin's Philosophy of Language, 1873, third lecture) this
to the word thought!
*(3) Essays on Free Thinking, &c., 1873, p. 82.
Why the organs now used for speech should have been originally
difficult to see. Ants have considerable powers of inter-communication
inconvenience. As all the higher mammals possess vocal organs,
communication, it was obviously probable that these same organs
would be still further developed if the power of communication had
well adapted parts, namely the tongue and lips.* The fact of the
higher apes not using their vocal organs for speech, no doubt
depends on their intelligence not having been sufficiently advanced.
organs similarly constructed, these being used by the former for
diversified song, and by the latter only for croaking.*(2) If it be
asked why apes have not had their intellects developed to the same
considering our ignorance with respect to the successive stages of
development through which each creature has passed.
* See some good remarks to this effect by Dr. Maudsley, The
Physiology and Pathology of Mind, 1868, p. 199.
*(2) Macgillivray, Hist. of British Birds, vol. ii., 1839, p. 29. An
excellent observer, Mr. Blackwall remarks that the magpie learns to
pronounce single words, and even short sentences, more readily than
display any unusual capacity for imitation. Researches in Zoology,
1834, p. 158.
The formation of different languages and of distinct species, and
the proofs that both have been developed through a gradual process,
are curiously parallel.* But we can trace the formation of many
distinct languages striking homologies due to community of descent,
which certain letters or sounds change when others change is very like
correlated growth. We have in both cases the re-duplication of
naturally according to descent, or artificially by other characters.
Dominant languages and dialects spread widely, and lead to the gradual
or blended together.*(2) We see variability in every tongue, and new
become extinct. As Max Muller*(3) has well remarked:- "A struggle
for life is constantly going on amongst the words and grammatical
all things. The survival or preservation of certain favoured words
in the struggle for existence is natural selection.
* See the very interesting parallelism between the development of
*(2) See remarks to this effect by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, in an
interesting article, entitled Philology and Darwinism," in Nature,
March 24, 1870, p. 528.
*(3) Nature, January 6, 1870, p. 257.
The perfectly regular and wonderfully complex construction of the
languages of many barbarous nations has often been advanced as a
lowest grade of intellectual culture, we frequently observe a very
high and elaborate degree of art in their grammatical structure.
many of the American languages."* But it is assuredly an error to
elaborately and methodically formed. Philologists now admit that
conjugations, declensions, &c., originally existed as distinct
obvious relations between objects and persons, it is not surprising
earliest ages. With respect to perfection, the following
consists of no less than 150,000 pieces of shell,*(2) all arranged
with perfect symmetry in radiating lines; but a naturalist does not
differentiation and specialisation of organs as the test of
perfection. So with languages: the most symmetrical and complex
ought not to be ranked above irregular, abbreviated, and bastardised
languages, which have borrowed expressive words and useful forms of
construction from various conquering, conquered, or immigrant races.
*(2) Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise, p. 411.
From these few and imperfect remarks I conclude that the extremely
complex and regular construction of many barbarous languages, is no
proof that they owe their origin to a special act of creation.* Nor,
any insuperable objection to the belief that man has been developed
from some lower form.
* See some good remarks on the simplification of languages, by Sir
Sense of Beauty.- This sense has been declared to be peculiar to
beautiful; with cultivated men such sensations are, however,
intimately associated with complex ideas and trains of thought. When
we behold a male bird elaborately displaying his graceful plumes or
splendid colours before the female, whilst other birds, not thus
admires the beauty of her male partner. As women everywhere deck
themselves with these plumes, the beauty of such ornaments cannot be
playing passages of bower-birds are tastefully ornamented with
sweet strains poured forth by many male birds during the season of
will hereafter be given. If female birds had been incapable of
appreciating the beautiful colours, the ornaments, and voices of their
displaying their charms before the females would have been thrown
than why certain flavours and scents are agreeable; but habit has
to our senses, ultimately becomes pleasant, and habits are
inherited. With respect to sounds, Helmholtz has explained to a
certain extent on physiological principles, why harmonies and
certain cadences are agreeable. But besides this, sounds frequently
recurring at irregular intervals are highly disagreeable, as every one
vision, as the eye prefers symmetry or figures with some regular
recurrence. Patterns of this kind are employed by even the lowest
savages as ornaments; and they have been developed through sexual
not give any reason for the pleasure thus derived from vision and
the hideous ornaments, and the equally hideous music admired by most
savages, it might be urged that their Aesthetic faculty was not so
Obviously no animal would be capable of admiring such scenes as the
high tastes are acquired through culture, and depend on complex
associations; they are not enjoyed by barbarians or by uneducated
for his progressive advancement, such as the powers of the
have alluded to this point, because a recent writer* has oddly fixed
on Caprice "as one of the most remarkable and typical differences
between savages and brutes." But not only can we partially
understand how it is that man is from various conflicting influences
hereafter see, likewise capricious in their affections, aversions, and
novelty, for its own sake.
* The Spectator, Dec. 4. 1869, p. 1430.
aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the existence of
languages to express such an idea.* The question is of course wholly
distinct from that higher one, whether there exists a Creator and
by some of the highest intellects that have ever existed.
and especially the chapters on Religion in his Origin of Civilisation,
unseen or spiritual agencies the case is wholly different; for this
faculties of the imagination, wonder, and curiosity, together with
some power of reasoning, had become partially developed, man would
naturally crave to understand what was passing around him, and would
have vaguely speculated on his own existence. As Mr. M'Lennan* has
natural phenomena are ascribable to the presence in animals, plants,
rise to the notion of spirits; for savages do not readily
distinguish between subjective and objective impressions. When a
savage dreams, the figures which appear before him are believed to
of what it has seen."*(2) But until the faculties of imagination,
more than in the case of a dog.
* "The Worship of Animals and Plants," in the Fortnightly Review,
Oct. 1, 1869, p. 422.
*(2) Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 1865, p. 6. See also the three
striking chapters on the "Development of Religion," in Lubbock's
accounts for the earliest forms of religious belief throughout the
the spiritual being is supposed to exist after death and to be
aid invoked. He then further shews that names or nicknames given
and ruder stage, when anything which manifests power or movement is
faculties analogous to our own.
The tendency in savages to imagine that natural objects and agencies
are animated by spiritual or living essences, is perhaps illustrated
at a little distance a slight breeze occasionally moved an open
reasoned to himself in a rapid and unconscious manner, that movement
without any apparent cause indicated the presence of some strange
The belief in spiritual agencies would easily pass into the belief
attribute to spirits the same passions, the same love of vengeance
or simplest form of justice, and the same affections which they
intermediate condition, for when the surgeon on board the Beagle
shot some young ducklings as specimens, York Minster declared in the
much"; and this was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting
practised any religious rites; and Jemmy Button, with justifiable
bad spirits is far more common than that in good ones.
The feeling of religious devotion is a highly complex one,
consisting of love, complete submission to an exalted and mysterious
superior, a strong sense of dependence,* fear, reverence, gratitude,
experience so complex an emotion until advanced in his intellectual
a dog for his master, associated with complete submission, some
monkey to his beloved keeper, is widely different from that towards
his master as on a god.*(2)
* See an able article on the "Physical Elements of Religion," by Mr.
*(2) Religion, Moral, &c., der Darwin'schen Art-Lehre, 1869, s.
The same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in
unseen spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and
reasoning powers remained poorly developed, to various strange
&c.- yet it is well occasionally to reflect on these superstitions,
improvement of our reason, to science, and to our accumulated
knowledge. As Sir J. Lubbock* has well observed, "it is not too much
and indirect consequences of our highest faculties may be compared
with the incidental and occasional mistakes of the instincts of the
lower animals.
will be found an excellent account of the many strange and
capricious customs of savages.
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chp. 7 vocab, Student's Guide to Cog. Neuroscience (Ward)
25 terms by bdhysell
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egocentric space
map of spaced coded relative to position of the body
retinocentric space
map of space coded relative to position of eye gaze
allocentric space
map of space coding the locations of objects and places relative to each other
cross-modal perception
integrating information across sensory modalities
process by which certain information is selected for further processing and other information is discarded
inhibition of return
slowing of reaction time associated with going back to a previously attended location
exogenous orienting
attention that is externally guided by a stimulus
endogenous orienting
attention is guided by goals of the perceiver
visual search
task of detecting the presence or absence of a specified target object in an array of other distracting objects
in a non-lesioned brain there is over-attention to the left side of space
ability to detect an object amongst distractor objects in situations in which the number of distractors presented is unimportant
illusiory conjunctions
situation in which visual features of two different objects are incorrectly perceived as being associated to a single object
early selection
theory of attention in which information is selected according to perceptual attributes
late selection
theory of attention in which all incoming information is processed up to the level of meaning (semantics) before being selected for further processing
negative priming
if an ignored object suddenly becomes the attended object then participants are slower at processing it
failure to attend to stimuli on the opposite side of space to lesion
ventriloquist effect
tendency to mis-localize heard sounds onto a seen source of potential sounds
Balint's syndrome
severe difficulty in spatial processing normally following bilateral lesions of parietal lobe; symptoms include simultanagonosia, optic ataxia, and optic apraxia
inability to perceive more than one object at a time
line bisection
task involving judging the central point of a line
cancellation task
variant of the visual search paradigm in which patient must search for targets in an array normally striking them through as they are found
when presented with two stimuli at the same time (one in each hemisphere) then the stimulus on the opposite side of the lesion is not consciously perceived
reference frames
representation system for coding space (e.g. near versus far space, imaginal versus external space)
place cells
neurons that respond when an animal is in a particular location in allocentric space (normally found in the hippocampus)
water maze
test of spatial memory developed for rodents that requires learning and retaining the location of a hidden platform submerged in opaque water
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Brain Pickings
The Six Motives of Creativity: Mary Gaitskill on Why Writers Write
Why do writers — great writers — write? George Orwell attributed it to four universal motives. Joan Didion saw it as access to her own mind. For David Foster Wallace, it was about fun. Michael Lewis ascribes it to the necessary self-delusions of creativity. Joy Williams found in it a gateway from the darkness to the light. For Charles Bukowski, it sprang from the soul like a rocket. Italo Calvino found in writing the comfort of belonging to a collective enterprise. For Susan Orlean, it comes from immutable love.
But one of literary history’s most beautiful answers comes from Mary Gaitskill in her essay “The Wolf in the Tall Grass,” titled after Nabokov’s famous meditation on the art of storytelling and published in the 1998 anthology Why I Write: Thoughts on the Craft of Fiction (public library) — an altogether fantastic collection, featuring David Foster Wallace’s famous essay “The Nature of the Fun” and other notable reflections on writing from Ann Patchett, Elizabeth Gilbert, Rick Bass, Norman Mailer, Rick Moody, and more.
Mary Gaitskill by Ben Handzo
Her second motive reflects Susan Sontag’s assertion that “a writer is someone who pays attention to the world — a writer is a professional observer.” Gaitskill continues:
2. To give form to the things we can sense but not see. You walk into the living room where your father is lying on the couch, listening to music. You are small, so he doesn’t hear or see you. His face is reacting to the music, and his expression is soft, abstract, intensely inward. It is also pained. It is an expression that you have never seen. Then he sees you and smiles, but the music still fills the room with that other expression…
Quoting Nabokov’s famous words — “Between the wolf in the tall grass and the wolf in the tall story there is a shimmering go-between. That go-between, that prism, is the art of literature.” — Gaitskill reflects on that ability to give shape to the ineffable as the essence of storytelling:
Gaitskill contrasts this intense outrospection and sensitivity to the world’s unseen layers with her third reason — which coincides with Orwell’s first motive — and writes:
3. To feel important, in the simplest egotistical sense. … Strong thoughts and feelings about what you see and feel require a distinct point of view and an ego. If you are frequently told that your point of view is worthless, invalid, or crazy, your ego will get really insulted. It will sulk like a teenager hunched in her room muttering, “No one ever listens. No one cares. One day they’ll see!” To make them all see — i.e., see how important I am — was once a big part of why I wrote stories. As a motivation, it’s embarrassing, it’s base, and it smells bad, but it’s also an angry little engine that could: it will fight like hell to keep your point of view from being snatched away, or demeaned, fighting even when there’s no apparent threat.
But just as one begins to raise a skeptical eyebrow and summon Alan Watts for a counterpoint, Gaitskill herself acknowledges the existential paradox therein:
The only problem is, the more your ego fights, the smaller your point of view gets. For a while, I needed to take great pains to make myself feel safe, to the point of extreme social isolation, so I wouldn’t feel like I had to fight. The angry engine quieted down a bit, and I began to learn about other points of view.
Indeed, this impulse for empathy and for giving voice to the marginalized realities of others brings us to Gaitskill’s fourth motive:
4. To reveal and restore things that I feel might be ignored or disregarded. I was once at a coffee shop eating breakfast alone when I noticed a woman standing and talking to a table of people. She was young but prematurely aged, with badly dyed hair and lined skin. She was smiling and joking, but her body had a collapsed, defeated posture that looked deeply habitual. Her spine was curled, her head was slightly receded, and her shoulders were pulled down in a static flinch. She expressed herself loudly and crudely, but also diffidently. She talked like she was a joke. But there was something else to her, something pushing up against the defeat, a sweet, tough, humorous vitality that I could almost see running up her center. I realized that if I hadn’t looked closely, I would not have really seen this woman, that I would not have seen what was most human and lively in her. I wondered how many people saw it, or even if she herself saw it…
That kind of small, new, unrecognized thing is very tender to me, and I hate it when it gets ignored or mistaken for something ugly. I want to acknowledge and nurture it, but I usually leave it very small in the stories. I do that because I think part of the human puzzle is in the delicacy of those moments or phenomena, contrasted with the ignorance and lack of feeling we are subject to.
Gaitskill moves on to her fifth reason, echoing Oscar Wilde’s famous emphasis on receptivity and reflecting on the osmosis of reading and writing:
5. To communicate. … To read well is an act of dynamic receptivity that creates a profound sense of exchange, and I like being on both ends of it.
Citing one of her favorite passages in literature, from Saul Bellow’s The Victim, she captures the highest potentiality of literature:
It opens life up down to the pit; when I read that, I can’t ignore how extraordinary it is to be alive.
In her sixth and final reason, Gaitskill returns to Nabokov:
6. To integrate; to love. One of Nabokov’s early novels, Laughter in the Dark, has an apparently simple, almost hackneyed plot: a foolish, wealthy middle-aged man (Albinus) falls in love with a vulgar, heartless sixteen-year-old girl (Margot). She and her lover, Rex, proceed to destroy Albinus and his family in a ruthless, ultimately grotesque fashion. On the face of it, it’s a soap opera, but what makes it extraordinary, aside from the beauty of the prose, is the author’s gift for inhabiting every energetic strain of his breathing animal creations. Rex and Margot are absolutely evil, but they are also full of fierce life, with, and supple, eel-like charm. Nabokov can step inside their cruelty and vitality almost as if it were an electrical current, then step out again and enter the much slower, cooler ambience of their poor stooge Albinus, or the person of Albinus’s bland, taffy-sweet wife, and emerge again, all in a flash. … The ability to do this requires a great understanding of and regard for life that is, I think, a kind of love.
Gaitskill concludes by reflecting on this “kind of integration [that] requires holding many disparate elements together in a fluid mosaic” in her own experience of writing, from the depths of which emerges the light of the creative impulse:
When I start writing a story, I don’t feel like I’m integrating anything; I feel like I’m marching through mud. But at least some of the time when there comes a moment when I feel I’m carrying all the elements I’ve just described and more in a big, clear bowl. It doesn’t feel like I’m containing them. It feels like I’m bringing them into being and letting them be, exactly as they are. My perplexity and upset may still be there, but they are no longer the main event. I feel sadness because much of what is in that bowl is sad. But because of that tender sadness, I also feel humility and joy and love. It’s strange because much of what I write about does not seem loving. But to write it makes me feel love.
Why I Write, while out of print, is still findable and very much worth the hunt. Complement it with its contemporary counterpart, one of 2013’s best books on writing, then revisit famous writers’ advice on writing.
Donating = Loving
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“U.S. Hispanics need to learn to speak English!” Says who?
Many people get very upset when they hear of someone who has been in this country for years and does not speak any English; and the failure to learn English appears to be increasingly more prevalent among Hispanics. It seems to be an issue that strikes a chord with many Americans. “Why are they not making an effort to learn to speak English like all other immigrants did?” I venture to say that the main reason why many Latinos are not learning English as fast as others did before is because our society no longer requires it. That’s right; my contention is that, as a society, we give Latinos permission to keep their culture and language; and consequently, learning English becomes much more difficult than what other immigrants experienced years ago.
When other big immigration groups came into this country a few generations ago the situation was very different from what it is today. Many early immigrants made the hard decision to come to America with an understanding that they were breaking ties with their old country. Learning a new culture and a new language was not a choice. Our society was a true melting pot and immigrants were expected to fully assimilate into the American culture. They complied. Ever wonder why the children and grandchildren of the Italian immigrants who arrived at Ellis Island in the late 1800s never learned how to speak Italian? These early immigrants understood the importance of becoming American in every respect; and that included speaking only English. Speaking Italian was not important; in fact, it was detrimental in a society that expected assimilation- but things have changed; and assimilation is no longer expected. We are no longer melting into one pot because we no longer believe in that antiquated idea of the melting pot.
It amazes me how the same people who are troubled when everyone around them is speaking Spanish will turn to me and remark on how “important” it is that I teach my children Spanish. “You should speak Spanish to them at home,” they will say. While I wholeheartedly agree that it is important for Latinos to teach their children how to speak Spanish, I want to emphasize that this was never important before. The American society now understands that we live in a multicultural world and that knowing more than one language is beneficial. Our society now also supports (and even exalts) diversity. It is now considered appropriate to uphold and celebrate diversity, especially when it comes to culture and ethnicity. Forcing everyone to melt into one homogeneous pot is no longer considered appropriate.
While our country was founded on the idea of diversity, the practice of diversity was never as alive as it is today. With diversity comes not only permission to speak the language of our ancestors, but also the empowerment to maintain every aspect of our ethnicity. The American society promotes this understanding at many different levels. At a commercial level Latinos see most product labels and instructions written in English and Spanish; ATM machines ask us for our language of preference; and telephone companies insist that we keep in touch with our relatives in Latin America. From a government perspective most services are also offered and/or communicated in Spanish. At a community level there are hundreds of neighborhoods across the country were everyone speaks Spanish. Can someone in one of these neighborhoods get along perfectly well without ever having to learn English? Absolutely! Our society allows it.
We cannot as a society promote diversity and the use of the Spanish language and then wonder why some Latinos are having difficulty learning English. Everyone knows that it is much easier to learn a foreign language when you live in a foreign country and are immersed in a society that only speaks that language. In our society we speak English; but we also speak Spanish. For some Latinos learning English while living in a neighborhood where everyone speaks Spanish is akin to an American student taking a foreign language in school and not grasping it because nobody around them speaks that language. We need to stop pretending that our society expects Latinos to speak English when everything is laid out to make it easy for these new immigrants not to learn the language.
NOTE: Please do not take this opinion to mean that I do not feel that Hispanics should learn the English language. I believe that speaking English in our society is extremely important and encourage everyone in our Latino community to make every effort to learn the language. Being able to speak English opens the door to a myriad of new opportunities for success and paves the way to achieving the always cherished American dream.
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1. The fear of not accomplishing the person’s life mission.
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Why do most Hispanics stay poor?
At our LinkedIn group discussion a member expressed his disagreement with my ealier post Latinos Are Too Focused on Material Success stating that “the numbers do not show it.” That is true. Interestingly, I just came across an article I wrote for Quirks Magazine, which was published in April, 1998. Eleven years later some of what I wrote there still applies. Here is a segment of the article pertaining to why Hispanics stay poor. For the whole article please go here.
The U.S. is the land of opportunity. Over the years, immigrants from all over the world have come to this country and managed to work hard to improve their economic situation. What is different about the Hispanic immigrants? To answer that question, you have to take into account the fact that the times have changed. Today ’s immigrants do not arrive here by breaking all ties with their homelands. While just a century ago people would take a long boat trip across the Atlantic to get to this country, today’s immigrants can move here overnight and go back to visit the following week. They never have to lose touch. From the airlines to the telephone to the television and even the Internet, new immigrants can keep in touch with their homeland.
Even in this country, the Hispanic community keeps in touch by creating its own home away from home. Hispanics have Spanish television, can read most product labels in Spanish, can easily purchase their favorite ethnic food at the local supermarket or bodega, and can socialize with others who speak their language and share their culture. This is indeed very different from the old melting pot culture where immigrants forced their children to forget their mother tongue and become part of the new culture. Hispanics place a high value on being able to maintain their customs, language, and culture. The U.S. freedom allows it, and it is indeed attractive. Yet, I argue that not “melting into the pot” creates a difficult situation that leads to lower income.
By insisting on being “different,” Latinos are promoting discrimination. When Puerto Ricans wear their flag on everything from their cars to their T-shirts, they are making a statement that says, “I am proud of my heritage,” but it is often read as “I am not part of this country.” That leads to a common reaction: “Well, get the heck out!” which is also known as discrimination. Discrimination often leads to a lower income. This is especially true of Hispanic communities that consist of individuals with minimal education and labor skills. These communities depend on the jobs provided by members of an outside community. The number of Hispanic businesses that provide job opportunities to their own community is extremely low, compared to other ethnic groups like Asian Americans. There are exceptions. One, of course, is the Cuban community in Miami, whose Hispanic-owned businesses hire four times as many people than Hispanic- owned businesses in New York City.
Besides discrimination, there are other factors that affect income. To keep their culture, Hispanics often move near other Hispanics in typical Latino neighborhoods. Some of these neighborhoods have deteriorated — victims of crime and drug problems. To complicate matters, public education systems in many Latino neighborhoods are overcrowded and underfinanced. As a result, Hispanic young people are not receiving an equal education. Since English is not the language of choice in most Hispanic neighborhoods, and the schools are not adequate, many Latinos are not proficient enough in English to obtain decent employment. What is worse, because Spanish is not taught in school, many Hispanic Americans grow up not knowing how to read and write in Spanish.
Despite my contention that Latinos would be better off financially if they tried to blend into the American culture, I don ’ t agree with that approach. Looking at the situation from an economic standpoint you must give value to the desire of Hispanics to keep their customs, language and culture. I argue that this value is so high that it justifies whatever negative effects may occur — discrimination, lower income, or even bad neighborhoods. Since the Hispanic population continues to grow at a higher rate than any other minority group, these problems will eventually disappear. Even today, Spanish culture is quickly becoming ingrained into the American culture. Tacos are now as popular as hot dogs and hamburgers in the typical American diet, and Spanish words are becoming part of the American language — ¿Comprende?
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The Other Side of Machismo
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Latinos are too focused on material success
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Let’s stop segmenting people by race!
Photo by Kacey LópezIt is not unusual to use race as a demographic classification in the U.S. Marketing campaigns; government plans; segmentation studies; social programs- everyone pays attention to the race classification! For years, however, I have contended that race is not an appropriate demographic characteristic in the segmentation of population groups for marketing purposes. Maybe it was at one point in time; but our world today is demographically very different from what it was as recently as the beginning of the 20th century. Today there are no clear race divisions that correspond to typical group behaviors like there used to be many years ago.
To see my point here it may help us to think about what we mean by race. Race is usually defined by the physical features and characteristics of a group of people. Hundreds of years ago people that shared similar physical characteristics also shared the same social and ethnic makeup and tended to live in the same region of the world. People were not able to travel like they do today and there was hardly any interracial mixing. The colonization of the Americas started to change things a bit; but even in the United States, a country that was formed with a foundation of diversity, there was great social pressure for race segregation. For years people kept themselves divided by race. Things, however, started to get a bit confusing.
As centuries went by the Black African people that were brought in as slaves to Caribbean Islands became an integral part of the population of those islands. In some of these islands, like in Puerto Rico, the Blacks mixed with the Whites (mostly from Spain) and the native Indians resulting in the mixed race characteristics of the Puerto Rican people. Other Caribbean countries, like Jamaica, stayed mostly Black; yet the Blacks there have a completely different culture from Blacks in the United States. The same holds true for other races. Maya and Aztec Indians mixed with Spaniards in Mexico and Central America to form the characteristics we see in the people from those regions.
This is a good time to remember that Hispanic or Latino is not a race. This is a big area of confusion in the U.S. because Hispanic has been listed and often continues to be listed as a race classification in all kinds of government, business, and academic forms. Latinos with predominant Indian physical features in the U.S. do not know how to classify themselves on these forms and see Hispanic as the most obvious classification. In reality, the Hispanic classification was created partly to define this group of people that we were unable to classify otherwise. This is not all necessarily bad. Great historical accomplishments were achieved by Mexicans in Texas who set out to legally prove that they were not really white. Until the U.S. government began to recognize this distinction (by a ruling of the Supreme Court no less!), Mexicans who were accused of a crime in Texas were judged by a jury “of their peers” that did not include any Mexican. But I digress…
The fact remains that Hispanic or Latino is not really a race. When people in the Southwest say that someone looks Hispanic they are probably seeing native Indian features that are common in many Mexican immigrants. Likewise, when people in New York say that someone looks Puerto Rican they are recognizing the typical Puerto Rican race mix characteristics. Now, you would think that it would be appropriate for people from Guatemala who have a rather pure Maya heritage (many do) to say that they are of the Indian race. Not so. For one, saying that you are Indian in Latin America is still considered derogatory; a belief that comes from Spanish colonial times when Indians were at the very bottom of the social hierarchy. And more importantly, when any business, government, or academic form lists Indian as a race they mean American Indian; which surprisingly is not seen as inclusive of Aztecs and Mayas (let alone Caribbean or South American Indian natives).
In the United States, anyone with a mix that includes Black is considered Black. I never understood the reasoning behind this but the definition is very well documented. In other countries the definition is a bit different. In the Dominican Republic, for example, it is customary to consider a person White if there is White in their heritage or if the family is mostly of lighter skin. I have met many Dominicans with dark skin who are adamant about classifying themselves as White. In Puerto Rico there is a complete spectrum of skin tones between black and white; yet most Puerto Ricans will say they are White. Who is to judge what the race is when they are mixed races? This becomes worse as people continue to relocate and intermarry. It is becoming so confusing that the census now has a whole battery of questions regarding race mixes and Hispanic ethnic heritages in an effort to include all the options; but what we need to do is to simply give up on this whole race classification nonsense!
From a marketing perspective knowing a segment by their race is of little use. A Black person from Haiti has little in common with a Black person from Atlanta; let alone a Latino Black. To define African American as an American ethnic group (not a race) is valuable. Blacks who share the U.S. American heritage share the same cultural traits and exhibit similar behaviors. In defining African American as an ethnicity, however, I would not include Latino Blacks or newer Black immigrants from other countries. Marketing to Asians as a race is even more ludicrous. They do not even share the same culture or language. Marketing to Asians is only valuable when separated into the specific country segments. BUT… marketing to Hispanics as a whole works! Why? Because Hispanic is NOT a race.
While I will not argue that there are many differences among Latino segments, the fact remains that there are some very strong commonalities. We do (for the most part) share the same language, very similar values when it comes to family, a tendency to be religious or spiritual, a passion for food (even if our foods are different), a Latino wit or sense of humor that is often very different from that of Anglo Americans, a similar immigration experience, an emotional nature, and a unique way of connecting with one another that relies heavily on instincts, emotions, and non-verbal communication. Marketing to the commonalities exhibited by all Latinos does work!
My advice to marketing researchers is to forget about the race because it does not really matter; what we are trying to get at when we segment people by race is their ethnic background. Let’s segment by ethnicity, not by race. And let’s stop believing that we are different because of the color of our skin. The physical features are not what make people different; their attitudes and opinions, which stem from their culture and upbringing, do set them apart.
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We are Hispanics, we are Latinos, we are Americans!
I am proud to be Latino, or Hispanic, or whatever you want to call me. A while back I wrote a booklet that was intended to help new Latino immigrants. In it I spoke about the importance of embracing our U.S. Hispanic or Latino classification. The name is not really as important as recognizing that we are members of a group of more than 45.5 million people. We are a community that has managed to integrate into the American society while at the same time maintaining our roots and culture. As opposed to other groups of immigrants who previously arrived in the United States, the Hispanic community has not become Americanized in the same way. Many of us feel very proud to have achieved this type of integration.
For many new Latino immigrants to feel Hispanic is also an easy and immediate way of belonging to the American society without repudiating our own culture and heritage. Americans have already accepted Hispanics as members of the American community. In fact, Hispanics are many times recognized simply as an American segment – and not necessarily as foreign. This recognition gives us a feeling of solidarity with the Hispanic community, and at the same time, with the American culture. Hispanics are an “American” minority- and the largest of all minorities at that!
We are Americans! Perhaps the largest obstacle in the search for Latino success in this country is the tendency of Latin Americans to maintain themselves separate from American culture. For those Latin Americans that have become citizens of this country it takes hard work to “feel” American. The interesting thing is that, with the small exception of the Native Americans, all people in the United States are descendants of foreigners. This country was formed with the idea to establish a union based on the diversity of its members. To this day, American coins carry the motto, “E Pluribus Unum,” that is to say, “one made out of many.” We Hispanics are part of the American plurality.
There are several reasons why a number of Latin Americans prefer to maintain segregation from “Americans.” The term “American” carries with it the image of an Anglo-Saxon person of origin. That is one of the reasons why it may be very difficult to be identified as part of the American population. On the other hand, there are also many Latin Americans that are in this country transitorily and think that they will soon return to their native country. They obviously see themselves as citizens of their country of origin and not American. Many others simply refuse to be accepted as Americans. For many Hispanics, to say that they are American signifies the abandonment of their Latino inheritance and roots. Nevertheless, this way of thinking has many drawbacks. Primarily, to be American does not mean that they are blonde and have blue eyes! This should be abundantly clear by now (just look at our President!), but many Latinos still feel that they do not look the part.
As I said before, Hispanics are a segment of the American population. Hispanics live in this country just like any other person. What is important is to recognize that it is not easy to achieve success in the United States while staying segregated from the rest of the country. To do this causes the loss of many opportunities that otherwise would be attainable for all Hispanics. Certainly, this advice is not limited to Latin Americans. Many other minority groups in the United States also maintain segregation from “Americans,” and this causes them the same loss of opportunities.
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Hispanic or Latino?
Today I was asked the question again; do you say Hispanic or Latino? My response is usually quick; I use the terms interchangeably. But the reality is that there is more behind the question; which is why it pops up so often. The term Hispanic as it is used in the United States was introduced to classify a group of people that we had difficulty classifying otherwise. It started appearing in the U.S. census and other government forms in the 1960s and was picked up by researchers as a standard demographic characteristic. Businesses also began to refer to the Latino consumers target as the “Hispanic market.” In contrast, the term Latino has different roots. In Spanish we have always used the term to describe an individual from “Latin America” and it is a commonly used Spanish word worldwide.
I like using the term Hispanic in business because I feel that it more clearly identifies the Latino consumers who live in the United States. In fact, I often say that there are no Hispanics outside of the United States. In Mexico there are Mexicans, in Puerto Rico there are Puerto Ricans, and in Cuba, well… Cubans, you get my drift. But in this country Latin Americans are very often classified as Hispanics. I learned to be Hispanic in the United States!
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Hello There!
I just decided to take the plunge and start blogging. There is a reason for my plunging. For years I have been working on writing a book. Okay, it’s worse. I have started 3 books! Completing a book seems to go against my ADHD nature. It also goes against my Latino nature. You need to be so darn structured to accomplish such a task! My laid-back Hispanic character has been relying on the mañana syndrome and procrastinating writing for over 15 years; yet there is so much that I want to share! Perhaps it is just that I find myself unable to commit the time required to write a book; so I have turned to blogging. Writing articles and short stories have never been a problem for me. Perhaps this is the medium I have been waiting for. We’ll see what mañana brings…
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DARPA Project Transformer (TX)
No, we're not Decepticon-ning you, the U.S. government is actually working on something called Project Transformer, or TX, for short. Specifically, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is investigating how feasible it would be to build vehicles that could perform scouting or other duties on land, then transform to evacuate the area when done -- or when action on the ground got too hot.
As you may recall, DARPA's predecessor organization a few decades ago fronted the cash to develop the technology that eventually became today's Internet. Could research in the flying cars arena signal a similar revolution-in-the-works for transportation?
DARPA has no definitive favorite design yet, and will likely take a while to sift through all the proposals it receives. Officials envision something that might have folding wings and directed, ducted fan engines to allow vertical takeoffs and landings.
If you're interested in making a proposal, keep in mind DARPA is looking to demonstrate "A tactical four-person vehicle that can drive or fly on command." Other requirements:
• It would be manually driven on the ground like an SUV
• It rapidly reconfigures between ground and flight mode
• It can perform Vertical Takeoff and Landings (VTOL)
• It has a cruise speed equal to a light aircraft
• No tricky piloting skills needed -- automatic takeoff and landing flight control
[Source: DARPA]
What if you could experience flying in the same way it feels to ride a motorcycle or personal watercraft -- fast, fun and with the wind in your face? Go to the next page to find out how one company is aiming to make it happen.
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Pusher (railway station attendant)
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Rush hour at Ueno Station in Tokyo, 2007
A pusher (押し屋 oshiya?) is a worker who pushes people onto the train at a railway station during the morning and evening rush hours. When they were first brought in at Shinjuku Station, they were called "passenger arrangement staff" (旅客整理係 ryokaku seiri gakari?), and were largely made up of students working part-time; nowadays, station staff and/or part-time workers fill these roles during morning rush hours on many lines.[1] The term oshiya (押し屋?) is derived from the verb "osu" (押す?), meaning "push", and the suffix "-ya" (?), indicating "line of work."
Pushers in New York City Subways[edit]
In the 1941 biographical movie Sergeant York, George Tobias plays the character "Pusher" Ross, a soldier from New York City. In the film, "Pusher" has to explain his nickname to Alvin York. "Pusher" describes how he pushes passengers onto the crowded subway cars during rush hours. The story takes place during World War I, which establishes that "Pusher" was a subway pusher in New York City prior to 1918.
In the Bugs Bunny cartoon Hurdy Gurdy Hare, Bugs dons a conductor's cap and pushes a gorilla while saying, "push in, plenty of room in the center of the car!", pausing to tell the audience "I used to work on the shuttle from Times Square to Grand Central". The cartoon was copyrighted in 1948 and released in 1950.
A New York Times article from August 8, 1918 mentions the new shuttle service and guards (and police) trying to direct and push crowds onto the correct trains.[2]
1. ^ Mito, Yuko. 定刻発車 (Teikoku Hassha). pp. 113-118. Tokyo: Shinchosha, 2001.
2. ^ "Drop Shuttle Plan as Subway Crush becomes a Peril". New York Times. August 3, 1918. pp. 1 (continued on page 7).
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Monday, April 23, 2012
Overthinking and Creativity - Think Like Child
Some great quotes:
– Albert Einstein
Answer to the numbers question
1. I got the right answer in under a minute,but just in a totally different way. I looked at the numbers 2=0, because 2222=0, 1=0 because 1111=0. 3333 = 0, 9=1 because 9999=4, and since 8193=3, 8=2 therefore,2581=2
1. Same method as you... in under a minute. And plenty of higher education.
2. Same here took me a minute figuring out the same logic well hell yeah i am a programmer....
3. Same here and same method took me a minute...well as it says i do not agree because hell yeah! I am a programmer...:P
2. I used logic to get my answer in under a minute. I decided that if preschool children got the answer quickly, it couldn't have anything to do with math ... patterns, or counting, or calculating. So, I thought like a child and figured out to look for the "circles." I'm definitely an overthinker, but I'm also highly logical, which helped me in this problem.
3. Ten seconds. I feel like the problem was advertised as much harder than it is.
4. Reminds me of a puzzle I read not long ago:
"Which of these verbs is not like the others? bring, buy, catch, draw, fight, find, teach, think"
When I read "catch, fight" I thought of "catch fish" -- which led me to notice that "think" was the only verb that couldn't take a concrete direct object (you can bring a fish, you can buy a fish, you can catch a fish, you can draw a fish, you can fight a fish, you can find a fish, you can teach a fish to swim, but you can't think a fish). But that wasn't the answer on the next page.
5. People who answ quickly and think they are correct because they reached 2 are missing the point. Applying the same reasoning to all the sums means you're answer would be incorrect. 1111 = 0 but 1012 = 1
6. Quick people missed point. Look at your reasoning. 1111 = 0 but 1012 = 1.
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Vocabulary Quiz
work-out • weightlifting • done
lived abroad • sum
1. The physical trainer wants me to do some to build my muscles.
2. I didn't have a very good today because I'm tired.
3. He has for almost five years now, so it's very special when he comes home.
4. We want to help, but we don't know what needs to be .
5. To up the meeting today, we need to work hard to increase our sales next month.
Comprehension Quiz
Answer the following questions about the interview.
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388 Routine
Mike talks about his daily routine.
• Transcript
• Audio Notes
I go to the gym for a work-out before I go to work.
When you 'work-out' you spend time exercising. When used as a noun, 'work-out' refers a period of time that is spent exercising.
Notice the following:
1. I try to do a work-out every day.
2. In order to keep healthy you need to make sure that you do regular work-outs.
I usually do aerobic exercise for a while and then do some weightlifting.
'Weightlifting' is the process of using weights to help to build up certain muscle groups in the body. When you weight-lift you move weights using the same motion a certain number of times.
Notice the following:
1. I have never tried weightlifting. It looks like hard work.
2. He is a weightlifting champion.
what needs to be done
I turn on my computer and start working on what needs to be done.
'What needs to be done' refers to the things that need to be achieved.
Notice the following:
1. Just do what needs to be done.
2. I will help you with the housework. Tell me what needs to be done.
live abroad
I usually start getting phone calls from friends of mine who live abroad.
To 'live abroad' means to live in a different country than where you are from.
Notice the following:
1. My aunty lives abroad.
2. I think I would quite like to live abroad at some point in my life.
sum up
That pretty much sums up my usual daily routine.
When you 'sum something up' it means that you summarize it.
Notice the following:
1. So to sum up, you think that I need to clean my room.
2. I will then write a sentence that will sum up the document.
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Home | News
Technology: Bacteria turn straw into liquid gold
Pictures of spreads from New Scientist magazine
A genetically engineered bacteria could turn the millions of tonnes of agricultural waste produced each year into ethanol, to make a cheap alternative or an additive to petrol. Farmers could either use the product themselves or sell it.
In Britain alone, farmers produce 10 million tonnes of straw each year, but only need 4 million tonnes for bedding and animal feed. This leaves 6 million tonnes that must either be ploughed in or burnt as fuel. Straw burning is now forbidden by European law, so the new technique could be a cheap, alternative means of disposal. Ethanol is usually uneconomic as a vehicle fuel because it is expensive to grow, transport and process fermentable crops. The process developed and patented by Namdar Baghaei-Yazdi and a team at Imperial College, London would allow farmers to use agricultural waste such as corn cobs and straw. The genetically engineered bacteria, Bacillus stearothermophilus, converts ...
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Edition: U.S. / Global
Balancing Act; A special report.; One City's 30-Year Crusade for Integration
Published: December 30, 1991
For 30 years now Shaker Heights, a suburban forest of Old World estates on the eastern border of Cleveland, has made racial integration something of a crusade. It has tried to hold the races together even as they appear alienated outside its borders.
The city has found that integration is not only difficult to begin but also difficult to maintain. If it is to occur at all, residents here say, it requires prodding and pampering and a kind of eternal vigilance and preoccupation with race. The city goes so far as to provide financial incentives to those who move into neighborhoods dominated by the other race.
In all the rituals and routines of daily life, it seems, Shaker Heights puts race front and center. The idea is that if left to their own devices, people will resegregate. So the city does not leave them to their own devices. Instead it treats integration like a patient on life support: No one dares pull the plug for fear the patient won't survive.
And so while most Americans bristle when the topic turns to racial tension, here people look you in the eye and relish the chance to talk about it. What has become a delicate and divisive subject most every place else is as ordinary as mowing the grass here.
It is in the public schools, which are considered among the most rigorous in the country, that Shaker Heights's relentless race consciousness is perhaps most on display, as educators try to work on the minds of the young.
Sixth graders are required to take racial sensitivity training, where they learn about such things as racial polarization and the dynamics of prejudice. An elective course on slavery and the Holocaust, called Oppression, is one of the best attended classes at the high school.
Race and questions of fairness and balance figure into the smallest decisions, from recruitment to the field hockey team to how many blacks are pictured in a yearbook layout.
There is open fretting about why there are not more blacks on the soccer team or more whites running track. There is great pride in the racial symmetry of the chess club and the a capella choir. And among city officials, there is careful attention to the racial turnout at public events like block parties. 'We Count. We're Aware.'
"When someone comes back from a block party, we want to know how many people were there, how many blacks and how many whites?" said Donald L. DeMarco, the city's director of community services. "We count. We're aware. We don't pretend not to notice."
Still, for all this effort, there are still black sections and white sections of the city. Only three of the city's nine neighborhoods are truly racially mixed, with a black population close to the 30 percent level that characterizes Shaker Heights in general. Three are at least 90 percent white and are so expensive that they are likely to remain so for some time. Three are 50 percent or more black, and the city is willing to pay whites to move there.
And when forced by geography or circumstance, students tend to segregate themselves at lunchtime, adults tend to go their separate ways in their social lives, and the occasional racial epithet is shouted across a playground.
But with racial tensions erupting in places as disparate as Brooklyn and Dubuque, Iowa, and the growing use of appeals to racial fears in mainstream politics, determinedly integrated cities like Shaker Heights, Oak Park, Ill., and a half-dozen others stand as pockets that, while far from racial utopias, seem well ahead of the rest of the country.
"They are islands in a sea of racism," said Thomas F. Pettigrew, a professor of social psychology at both the University of California, Santa Cruz, and the University of Amsterdam, who is an expert on integration. "That they work at all is what is amazing about these cities. It is much harder to pull it off when the rest of the country is going in the opposite direction." Balancing Housing City Staves Off The Usual Flight
Years ago a white Chicago alderman, fearing the arrival of blacks in his neighborhood, defined integration as the time between when the first black person moves in and the last white person moves out. Under that definition, many American communities have suffered a brief period of "integration," bitter for the new arrivals and the old-timers alike.
Shaker Heights has followed a different course. The city, once a thriving settlement of the religious sect it is named for, is an affluent bedroom community that, with its lakes, its own country club, is Cleveland's version of Scarsdale, N.Y. Its collection of homes ranges from artful two-flats disguised as single-family Tudors to pampered estates of lawyers, bankers and corporate executives. The community of 30,831 had a median family income of $55,747 in 1987, according to the city's Department of Community Services.
The first blacks, mostly doctors and dentists and their families, began moving into town in the late 1950's after restrictive housing covenants were declared illegal by the Supreme Court. Shaker Heights was a natural landing place for black Cleveland residents looking for their dream homes. It borders the Cleveland neighborhoods where most of the city's blacks are concentrated, is only a train stop or two from the old neighborhood, has snob appeal and a school system with a great reputation.
Out of a sense of enlightened self-interest, whites in Shaker Heights decided to make the best of it. They tried to figure out a way to prevent a white exodus, maintain property values and a create a stable, multiracial community. They tried to anticipate white racial fears and defuse them before a stampede could begin. One of the first steps was prohibiting, in 1964, the display of for-sale signs on front lawns to stave off panic selling. No Doomsday
The doomsday predictions of declining schools and property values have not materialized. Increases in property values have outpaced those in the rest of Cuyahoga County and school test scores exceed national averages, just as they did before the first black family moved in.
Shaker Heights manages its racial housing patterns the way companies manage inventory. It tries to stimulate demand where demand is weakest and discourage demand for what is scarce. Because integration is historically a harder sell to whites than to blacks and typically leads to white flight, integration management essentially means keeping white families in Shaker Heights.
"Unfortunately, you can't leave it to market forces," said Stephen J. Alfred, the Mayor of Shaker Heights and an early leader in the integration plan. "Whites can move anywhere they can afford. The number of whites who want to move into a mostly black neighborhood is small. You have to go out and find them. Meanwhile you've got co-workers and grandparents saying, 'Don't do it.' " A System of Rewards
To get people to swim upstream, the city rewards blacks and whites who move where the city wants them. It is a much-debated form of social engineering that for five years has given low-cost loans to members of either group if they move into neighborhoods where they are underrepresented.
Whites get help with their mortgages if they move into a neighborhood that is 50 percent or more black. Blacks get help if they move into a neighborhood that is 90 percent or more white. The loans are typically $3,000 to $6,000, based on how segregated the neighborhood is, and are paid in a lump sum toward the downpayment or in monthly installments toward the house note. The city grants about 25 loans a year from a $390,000 fund financed by private donations.
Economics limits the program's reach. The white neighborhoods are the leafy mansion districts surrounding the country club, where few blacks can afford to move anyway. The neighborhoods where whites are encouraged to move have the city's most affordable housing, the smaller Tudors and Georgians. So 90 percent of the loans go to whites.
But because many blacks want to move to Shaker Heights, the city tries to direct them elsewhere when it can. So, along with several adjacent suburbs that have significant black populations, it funnels similar loans to blacks if they agree, and are financially able, to move to a virtually all-white suburb. The designated white suburbs, known collectively as the Hillcrest area, neither contribute to the loan program nor advocate it.
"In terms of creativity and ingenuity, it represents a sharp break from past thinking," said Marc Zegans, research director for Innovations in State and Local Government, a joint program of the Kennedy School of Government and the Ford Foundation, which cited Shaker Heights in 1988 for its integration initiative.
"The fact that you put people of different races and ethnic groups together doesn't mean that everyone is going to be comfortable," Mr. Zegans said. "Integration needs to be managed until we have a society that accepts it as the norm." Criticism for Payments
The idea of rewarding whites to move in and blacks to move somewhere else is the cost of maintaining integration, say city officials and residents, black and white.
But some black residents see it as degrading approach that only reinforces white fear of integration. "When a city will pay to get blacks to move to another community, it sends a powerful message," said Sheila Kelly, a black real estate agent and a longtime Shaker Heights resident. "They will do anything to get white people here. The city is bribing them to live next to blacks."
But the program can actually raise suspicions among potential white homebuyers. Last February, John and Sally Ziemak found the perfect three-bedroom colonial in the Lomond district, a middle-class section that is evenly split between blacks and whites.
Then they heard that the city would give them a loan just for moving there. "We thought, 'Did things really get that bad?' " Mr. Ziemak, a management consultant, said. "Do they need to save the neighborhood?' Growing up in an all-white neighborhood, you have some second thoughts about it. You only know what you see on T.V."
They bought the house anyway -- the neighborhood was charming and safe, they loved the house and the deal was a good one, $100 a month toward their house note for three years. They moved in last May. And even though the Ziemaks get along fine with their black neighbors, the couple said integration was secondary to getting a good education for their two pre-school-age boys.
"The decision was more with our brain than with our gut," Mr. Ziemak said. Apart by Geography
There are geographic divisions here that feed social separation. Most blacks live south of the primary dividing line, Van Aken Boulevard. Used-car dealerships and empty storefronts dominate the business district in the almost all-black section of Moreland, while boutiques and antique shops are clustered on the mostly white north side.
The city hierarchy is itself predominantly white. There has never been a black mayor, and currently the superintendant of schools, the vast majority of teachers and all but one of the seven City Council members are white. And only one black leads a city agency.
"It's working, but compared to what?" asked Dr. Winston Richie, a retired dentist, who was one of the first blacks to move to Shaker Heights and who was the first black elected to the City Council. "We're three-fourths of the way there. None of us know how to do this stuff. We haven't done it enough. Only if some of us put ourselves in awkward situations until we feel comfortable will any of this change." Emphasizing Schools By the Numbers, Classes Are Mixed
It is in the middle of this moral hand-wringing that Shaker Heights is watching a second generation of children raised on a diet of racial diversity.
The first generation, the children of people like Dr. Richie and Mayor Alfred, grew up in the days of proselytizing about the beauty of integration. Blacks were a novelty and it was fashionable for whites to get to know them. Black children were on the top of the A-list for birthday parties and got first pick for the softball team in what some sociologists call the pet phenomenon.
"Everybody wanted the black experience, and we were the ones who could provide it," Dr. Richie said. "My daughters had more invitations to sleepovers than they could fit on their calendars."
Now the novelty has worn off, and the city has had to get down to the business of insuring peaceful coexistence. Because many of the city's residents live in neighborhoods that are dominated by one race or the other, Shaker Heights is at its most integrated when the children go to school. So it is the public schools that become perhaps the best testing ground for integration. Division Remains
Slightly more than half the students are black, and some schools had become predominantly black or predominantly white until the city consolidated the system and redrew school boundaries in 1987. Less than three percent of the students are Asian, Hispanic or Indian.
Now each elementary school goes only to the fourth grade and takes in enough children from the nearest black neighborhoods and enough from the nearest white neighborhoods to get an enrollment that is 50-50. The racial balance issue is moot for the other grades because there is one school for all the city's fifth and sixth graders, a middle school for all seventh and eigth graders and the single high school.
But even though the students are in the same building, the high school in particular is more like two schools in one. Advanced placement and honors classes are overwhelmingly white. Regular college preparatory classes are overwhelmingly black.
White students in Yale and Dartmouth sweatshirts walk the hallways with whites to their honors classes and black students in Howard and Spelman sweatshirts walk with blacks to their classes. Separation at Lunch
In the cafeteria, with only a few exceptions, blacks sit with blacks and whites with whites. They are generally segregated by sex as well. There is no pushing, no shoving, rarely a cross word or rolling of eyes, just peaceful, mutual, voluntary segregation.
"You don't have a choice in the classroom," said Kirk Nims, a black sophomore, sitting over a plate of french fries with his friends. "You eat lunch with who your buddies are."
The students say they have nothing against any other group and have friends of other races who they have known since elementary school. They say that they know they should not segregate themselves, but that once you get to high school, the rules seem to change.
"There's a lot of pressure," said Bill Kuendig, a freshman, who follows the script, too, and sits with other whites at lunch. "If you sit with blacks, your friends would say, "Why are you hanging out with those other people?' I know it's not good. But people tend to go where they're comfortable." Opening Minds Fight Against Bias Is Continuing
In Terrence Pollack's Oppression class at the high school the other day, the subject was ethnic stereotypes. Hands shot up as the students fired off examples of one group known for large noses, another for being nerdy, another for having rhythm.
"What is the danger of what you are saying?" Mr. Pollack asked the students, as he began to dissect the stereotypes by tracing their history. "Think about the origins. People take generalities and use them to create divisions and to maintain and perpetuate hatred."
Neither city officials nor Mr. Pollack claim to be able to change minds and hearts, only to open them. "We're not attempting to end prejudice, but to make them more sensitive before they discriminate, to make them more open and tolerant."
There are tests of this kind of awareness inside the classroom and out, like the minor crisis in the yearbook office the other day. The student editors of the predominantly white staff were arranging a final page in the junior section of the yearbook when one of them, Tali Lando, noticed that there were no blacks in the layout.
"We've got too many white people on this page," she said. "You can't have a page with no black people."
"But we don't have any good pictures of them," said Heidi Jacobson, another editor. "We have so many good pictures of white people that we already aren't using. I think we should use the best picture we have."
In that moment, the yearbook staff was doing the balancing act that Shaker Heights itself has come to represent.
"We think about it all the time," Tali said. "That's all we do. Every picture we get we have to think, 'Who do we need? Which group are we not representing?' We try to make sure there is a picture of every kind of person." Not All Success
Sometimes the lessons do not take. Racial slurs crept into a conversation the other day when Dan Babbitt, a white senior at the high school, was hanging out with his white friends. He said he never expected that from them.
"They seem like nice people," he said. "But you take them out of school and see another side to them. I don't know how to react. If this is happening in Shaker Heights, what's happening in the rest of the country?"
Blacks say that Shaker Heights is not yet a racial promised land and that they face prejudice from counselors who they say steer black students into less rigorous classes, from teachers with low expectations and from children trying out a new racial epithet.
Christopher Washington, the 8-year-old son of a two black doctors, said he thought he was "back in the 1970's" when a teammate on his virtually all-white ice hockey team singled him out and called him "black boy."
"I felt bad," Christopher said. "I told them that's not nice. They're not my friends."
The coach, Carlton Strang, later called a huddle and told the boys: "We all have differences. But as a team there are no differences." Messages From Elders
The mixed messages, many residents say, often come from the parents, most of whom grew up in segregated worlds and still lapse into segregated bridge clubs and dinner parties. "They want integration for their kids, but they don't think of it for themselves," Dr. Richie said.
Indeed, many children are ahead of the parents because integration is all they know. Heather Taylor, a black seventh grader, is planning her 13th birthday party, a sleepover, next month. She already knows she will invite some of her black friends from school, a few white friends from ballet class, a few from figure skating, and the girl whose bas mitzvah she is going to. "It will be half and half," Heather said.
While this may be easy for her, for others counting may be the only way to insure racial balance until the day when such things come naturally, sociologists say. "Color blindness would be great in the 22d century," Dr. Pettigrew said. "Right now we're still evolving from the sins of the American past."
Photos: "We're three-fourths of the way there," said Dr. Winston Richie, left at rear, of the efforts made by Shaker Heights, Ohio, to begin integration and maintain it. Dr. Richie, the first black elected to the city council, walked with his wife, Bea, and his neighbors Terry and Hilde Clark.; Blacks say that Shaker Heights is not yet a racial promised land. Christopher Washington, right, said he was singled out by a teammate on his virtually all-white hockey team and called "black boy." His coach, Carlton Strang, showed Christopher and his teammates some moves during a recent practice. (pg. A11) (Photographs by Barney Taxel for The New York Times) Graphs: Show percentages of black people in Shaker Heights, Ohio in 1960, 1970, 1980 and 1990. (Source: Census Bureau) (pg. A1) Chart: "House Price Tags" shows median prices of single-family houses in Shaker Heights and all suburbs of Cuyahoga County from 1964-1990. (Housing Research Program, Cleveland State University) (pg. A11) Diagram: "The Neighborhood Racial Breakdown" shows the racial composition of neighborhoods in Shaker Heights, Ohio. (Source: Shaker Heights Department of Community Services) (pg. A11)
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pussyfoot around
Pussy is an English word meaning cat. It may also refer to the female genitalia in slang, among other definitions.
The origins of the word are unknown.
The medieval French word pucelle referred to a young adolescent girl or a virgin, although this comes from a slang term for virginity puce (= flea) rather than referring to cats (but cf. French chatte (female cat), a current vulgarism for the female pudenda). In the 17th century, the term was also used to refer to women in general. Philip Stubbs, an English pamphleteer, wrote in his 1583 book "The Anatomie of Abuses" that "the word pussie is now used of a woman".
It has been informally suggested in folk etymology that it is a shortened form of the word "pusillanimous" which is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "showing a lack of courage or determination" or cowardly. This meaning would seem to be consistent with the intention of the word "pussy" when used as an insult toward a man. This term, however, comes from the Latin words pusillus (petty) and animus (spirit) and is unrelated to the Germanic derivations of puss and pussy.
Cat and similar
The word "pussy" often refers to the female genitalia. Used in conjunction with "some", the phrase some pussy refers to sexual intercourse itself. Most dictionaries mark the anatomical meaning as "vulgar" or "offensive" and its use is frowned upon in polite company. The German form is cognate (Fotze; compare "Puss-y" to "Fotz-e" [in the style of Futs-sy]), and the (vulgar) French term "chatte" (literally a female cat) is analogous.
The meaning "weak or cowardly person" has a separate etymology. Websters 1913 Revised Unabridged Dictionary lists this version of pussy as an alternate spelling of "pursy," an otherwise obsolete English word meaning "fat and short-breathed; fat, short, and thick; swelled with pampering ... The interpretation is often misconstrued, as it contains multiple meanings which some consider derogatory. In fact, when pussy appears in the earlier 1828 edition of the dictionary, this definition is presented for the word, while the older pursy is simply offered as a "corrupt orthography."
Pursy (pronounced with a short u, and with the r slurred or silent) was in turn derived from an Old French word variously spelled pourcif, poulsif, poussif, meaning "to push, thrust, or heave." In this sense, it is cognate with the modern French verb pousser, also meaning "to push."
Word-play between meanings
The double entendre has been used for over a hundred years by performers, including the late-19th-century vaudeville act the Barrison Sisters, who performed the notorious routine "Do You Want To See My Pussy?" (see entry for more); the Popular Great Depression Era song My Girl's Pussy, the Funkadelic song "Pussy", and the character Pussy Galore in the James Bond series, as well as the 1983 film, Octopussy. On his album, The Gold Experience, Prince sings a song about a female protagonist named Pussy Control. The Belgian band, Lords of Acid, also has a song called Pussy, almost every line of which is a double entendre.
Steve Martin had a stand-up bit (found on his "A Wild and Crazy Guy" recording) in which he declared that a woman he'd met had "the best pussy . . ." He then realized what the audience was thinking, and immediately expressed outrage and disgust that "You can't say anything any more without people taking it dirty." He then muttered that "that cat was the best fuck I ever had," (suggesting bestiality).
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Thinking the unthinkable about wood heating
Household energy strategy in tough times
When homeowners fear high energy prices, winter power outages or loss of income they turn in big numbers to wood heating. It is a recognized pattern that’s been apparent each time people lose confidence in conventional energy price and supply. This response is perfectly logical for people living outside the urban core because a wood stove installation is relatively inexpensive, firewood can be bought fairly cheaply (or scavenged) and the wood stove can keep the house warm without electricity. The thinking is that if everything goes to hell in a hand basket a wood stove can help get you through. That makes firewood a strategic fuel resource for families.
When governments mention strategic fuel resources, they talk about ensuring access to adequate oil supplies at reasonable prices and enough super tankers or pipeline capacity to move the stuff. They might talk about reserves of coal and natural gas, or reliable supplies of uranium for nuclear reactors. It is a rare government indeed that sees firewood as a strategic resource. Likely influenced by urban environmentalism, governments across North America usually file wood heating under pollution problem or health risk. Burning wood is viewed as expendable because most of it is burned for ambience in dusty fireplaces that don’t heat anyway, isn’t it?
It would seem to be one of the many differences in the way families assess household security compared to how governments deal with national security.
So, why all this talk about hand baskets and strategic fuels? It started with a reference to home heating in a rather dark prediction about the near-term future by Connecticut energy specialist Jim Cameron:
“With home heating oil at $12 a gallon, people close off rooms in their “McMansions” and huddle in the few remaining spaces they can afford to heat, usually with wood stoves, which are also in short supply. Winter’s gloom is augmented by a constant gray haze of wood smoke.”
Cameron is not the first person to mention that if large numbers of desperate suburban households decided to heat with wood air quality would suffer, as would the forest resources. In fact, that prospect is probably the biggest reason why governments are shy about being seen to support the use of firewood for heating.
Then Dave Cohen, a regular columnist on energy and other predicaments we face wrote:
“The housing market is still unravelling, as foreclosures and delinquencies on underwater properties continue to rise. This is a direct consequence of the collapse of the Housing Bubble, yet it's been nearly 4 years since home prices first started to fall. . . But in 5, 7 or 10 years, the average cost of liquid fuels will be much, much higher than it is now. This is where things get messy, because in the future, I expect there to be a series of oil price shocks followed by periods of low demand and recession, just as we saw in the 2007-2010 period.”
But why, you might ask, should there be more oil price shocks? Richard Heinberg, noted author on the subject of peak oil (The Party's Over, Powerdown, etc.) recently offered this short answer:
“While the Earth still possesses a wealth of unexploited energy resources, the cheapest and easiest-accessed of those resources have by now already been used. All of these fuels are in the process of becoming more expensive, and the various energy alternatives are limited in one way or another in their ability to replace hydrocarbons. “
If we assume for the moment that Cameron, Cohen and Heinberg are right that we face an uncertain energy future, and along with that some economic unpleasantness, and if we predict based on past experience that very large numbers of households will begin to burn wood for home heating, what could be done to minimize air pollution and deforestation? Notice how just posing the question seems a little outrageous. But let us pursue it briefly based on the wisdom of the precautionary principal; i.e., plan for the worst, just in case the worst happens.
There is plenty of evidence that using the best available wood heating technology can reduce smoke emissions, although maybe not as much as some people would like. For now, the best available technology is wood stoves, fireplaces, furnaces and boilers that are certified as meeting EPA’s smoke emission limits. It has been illegal in the U.S. for twenty years to sell wood stoves and fireplace inserts that are not EPA certified, but the rules are full of holes that have allowed a lot of smoky equipment to be sold.
In preparation for the scary future we anticipate speculatively, regulations at all levels of government could become increasingly aggressive in banning the sale (or even resale) of conventional smoky wood burners and swapping out existing smokers for better burners. Handled badly, that kind of regulation can cause a huge public backlash.
The decades-long trend of building ever bigger houses will reverse as people try to heat smaller spaces to save fuel. The result will be lower consumption of wood per capita than might be implied by a straight projection from today’s data.
Those of us that heat with wood could learn to burn a lot better than we do now. On average, we collectively do a lousy job of wood heating; our firewood is too wet and it is not split small enough to burn properly. And we run our stoves, fireplaces, furnaces and boilers in ways that produce more smoke than necessary. Bad fuel and operating practices can mean that even advanced technology appliances smoke more than necessary, albeit less than older conventional equipment would under the same conditions of misuse.
Sure, there are some people who have paid attention, practiced and learned to burn wood without making a lot of smoke, but the rest of us who don’t know how to burn wood properly are not learning from them. Heck, most of us don’t know that we don’t know how to burn wood. In rural areas there are people who have heated with wood all their lives, and their parents before them, yet they have no clue how to burn wood properly, as signalled by the plumes of smoke from their chimneys.
If governments thought of firewood as a strategic fuel that could help relieve some of the economic and social pressure that our dark scenario suggests, they would support research to find out from the people who know how to burn and pass it on to those who don’t, and do it in a way that makes it easy. Is that so hard? Apparently it is because no one has ever done serious research into the practice of building and maintaining wood fires.
There is a lurking assumption among some decision-makers that there is no real technique involved, but these are normally people who don’t heat a house full time with wood. The assumption is manifestly incorrect as evidenced by the plumes of smoke so depressingly common in small towns and rural areas now. There is obviously quite a lot of technique involved, but it has never been authoritatively documented. The result is that no one can say with confidence, “this method of building and maintaining a wood fire will result in lower smoke emissions”. A secondary result is that the public information materials that do exist were developed by technical people and are necessarily superficial because they are based on opinions and assumptions. Believe that or not.
If firewood was considered a strategic fuel, governments would be a lot more interventionist than they are now. This would probably drive a lot of wood burners crazy, especially those with a strong independent streak, which could be a high percentage.
At the community level it might be possible to form cooperative firewood production and seasoning companies aimed at ensuring that the majority of the community was burning high quality firewood, meaning wood that is dry and the right size. In some regions such an idea might gain traction, but in others it might be considered socialist.
The industry that supplies appliances, chimneys and the other products used in wood burning has so far been unable to create good operating guidelines, mainly because there is no financial incentive to do so. We hear bitter complaints from new owners about how the user instructions supplied with modern wood stoves are almost completely useless, having apparently been written either by the engineering staff or lawyers, groups not noted for clear communications skills. Maybe some kind of partnership between industry and government could muster the necessary resources to research and develop some decent public information on how to run a wood burner.
Experience over the past thirty years suggests that without the leadership of government in the field of wood heating, not much changes. This effect is most noticeable in the regulatory and professional training system established in Canada during the 1980s and in EPA's intervention on smoke emission limits in the same period. Those interventions produced dramatic change for the better, change that could never have happened without them. Maybe governments will see the need this time and step in to provide leadership during the energy transition that looks likely.
More likely, though, governments will continue to take advice from the Wall Street types who have been wrong so often, and to ignore the writing on the wall until it is too late. They will continue to push back against wood heating, unwilling to be positive enough to say it is something worth doing properly. They will continue to go through the motions of informing people about reducing smoke pollution using the same superficial advice that has not worked for the past thirty years.
In general, governments don’t use the precautionary principal in their planning. It is not good for the stock market to talk about prospects for a looming energy crisis, economic contraction, high unemployment and inflation. Even though there are plenty of qualified people offering dire warnings about the consequences of peak oil, climate change and access to water, to name just three, it seems politically inconvenient to act on them. As a result, it is equally unlikely that governments will take steps to mitigate the possible bad effects of mass adoption of wood heating.
The heads of households will do what they must to protect their families in times of trouble. If they calculate that burning firewood is the right way to keep their family safe, then that is what they’ll do, despite any whining from government about smoke pollution.
Lacking the political will and resources to invest in good public information and creative regulations that support effective wood heating, governments might resort to simplistic bans and other draconian restrictions. The result of that could be some very serious blowback from people who see their household energy security differently than the government does.
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Collagenous and elastic fibers are found in ___ tissue
Muscles are connected to bones by
Which of the following is NOT a basic type of tissue?
Simple squamous epithelium has
a single layer of flat cells.
_________ bone contains numerous bony plates separated by irregular spaces.
Bone cells are located in spaces called _____ between the rings of matrix.
The fluid found between blood cells is called
Which of the following tissues would line the mouth?
Red blood cells are red due to
the red pigment hemoglobin.
Dendrites and an axon are parts of a(n)
What is the function of neuroglial cells?
support and nourish neurons
Which type of tissue will respond to stimuli and transmit impulses?
Nerve fibers are composed of
A "spinal tap" would involve removing fluid from the _____ cavity.
Usually it is not possible to penetrate inside a body cavity without cutting through protective tissues. However, sperm reach the egg via the vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes (oviducts). Without crossing any epidermal barrier, the sperm can find itself inside which body cavity?
The type of membrane that covers the heart is called a
serous membrane.
Which molecule is responsible for the waterproofing of the skin?
The part of the skin that has adipose tissue to help insulate the body is the
subcutaneous layer.
Melanin is a substance responsible for
skin pigmentation to protect from harmful light.
If you wash your skin and hair many times a day, you will soon have dry skin that cracks and bleeds because you have removed the _____ secreted by ______ that is necessary to keep the skin supple.
sebum; sebaceous glands
A __________ disease can be life-threatening, but usually occur quickly and are resolved quickly.
The structure and function of an organ is dependent upon the structure and function of the lower organizational levels such as tissues and cells.
When you look at someone, you are seeing primarily dead cells because cells at the surface of the epidermis are dead.
Sweat glands in the skin help regulate body temperature.
Which blood vessels carry blood away from the heart?
In humans, the superior vena cava
carries blood to the right atrium.
Systole occurs when
the heart tissue is contracting.
Which statement is NOT a correct association?
veins—contain small portion of overall blood volume
Incomplete closing of the ___ valves will cause heart ___.
atrioventricular; murmurs
The part of the circulation involved with pumping blood to and from the lungs is the
pulmonary circuit.
Which blood vessel has the highest concentration of carbon dioxide?
pulmonary artery
Oxygenated blood enters the heart at the
left atrium.
The blood vessel that provides oxygen to the heart tissue is the
coronary artery.
Usually there is only one capillary bed between an artery and vein; an exception to this is the
hepatic portal system which runs from the capillary bed in the intestine to the capillary bed in the liver via a hepatic portal vein.
The outer sac that encloses the heart and provides lubrication is the
Which of the following is NOT a correct association?
ventricles—receive blood from body
"Artery" and "vein" are defined by whether they leave or enter the heart. If they were defined by whether they carried oxygenated or deoxygenated blood, we would have to change the name(s) of
the pulmonary artery and vein; they would have to be switched.
___________ is (are) a condition in which there are irregular dilations of veins due to breakdown of valves.
Varicose veins
Which specific component in hemoglobin combines with oxygen?
iron in the heme
Oxygen is transported in blood most efficiently by
forming a combination with a respiratory pigment, such as hemoglobin.
Aged red blood cells are destroyed in the
spleen and liver.
A person with normal blood volume and white cell count but low red cell count or low hemoglobin content may be suffering from
Neutrophils and lymphocytes are types of
white blood cells.
In the fetal heart, the lungs are deflated and the fetus receives oxygen from its mother across the placenta through the umbilical cord. There is an opening in the wall between the left and right side of the fetal heart. This should normally grow closed before birth. What symptoms would be expected if this heart wall opening remained open?
Deoxygenated blood would mix with oxygenated blood and systemic circulation would have too little oxygen to sustain healthy growth.
There is a condition where a baby is born with an opening [foramen ovale] in the septum or wall between the atria. What are reasonable consequences?
disability when deoxygenated blood is mixed and sent to the body and partly oxygenated blood is sent to the lungs
Any disease-causing agent, either virus or bacteria, is a(n)
Which molecule causes the capillaries to dilate and become more permeable?
In order to decrease the effects of inflammation, you would take what type of medication?
Edema can be caused by
too much tissue fluid production.
Which is NOT part of a description of an antibody molecule?
contains a constant and a variable region on each chain
forms an X-shaped protein molecule
Apoptosis is
a natural programmed cell death.
The presence of antibodies in a newborn baby is most often due to
passive immunity from the mother.
Edward Jenner promoted the use of cowpox infection, that was very similar to more dangerous smallpox, as a vaccination to provide patients immunity from future smallpox epidemics. This was a case of these subjects
developing active immunity.
Cancer is more likely to occur in individuals who
have a faulty immune system.
How is a lymph capillary like a blood capillary?
Both have thin walls.
Anaphylactic shock may occur due to
a shot of penicillin.
A person who is blood type AB has
antigens A and B on the surface of RBCs.
Inflammation or the inflammatory response is a harmful process that should be avoided.
When a person is bitten by a venomous snake, a donation of blood plasma from another person who has recently survived the same snake bite would provide some passive immunity.
Tissue fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels is called
The digestive system does NOT function in the
manufacture of food molecules.
Which of these organs has food for the least time and participates least in digestion?
A correct function of the human stomach is
storage of food and mixing with digestive fluids to allow chemical digestion.
The digestive juices found in the stomach include
pepsin and hydrochloric acid.
The ____ functions to store food, kill bacteria, and partially digest proteins
Name the structure and organ that has microvilli, maltase, and absorbs nutrients.
villus, small intestine
In the processing of food through the digestive tract, what is the correct order?
bolus → chyme → feces
Which of the following is not true of the tongue?
The tongue secretes salivary amylase.
Which of the following is responsible for the storage of extra bile?
small intestine
In Figure 14.1, which structure is the liver?
1 (left top)
In Figure 14.1, the esophagus is designated by the number
3 (tube to mouth)
Into which structure in Figure 14.1 does the food pass but no digestion takes place?
3 (esophagus)
In Figure 14.1, which organ is responsible for appendicitis?
4 (low, left)
Antioxidants are
chemicals found in fruits and vegetables that defend against free radicals.
Inflammation of the gums is
Individuals who think they are overweight but are actually starving suffer from
anorexia nervosa.
If the large intestine becomes irritated and peristalsis increases, ____ may result.
Abnormally large amounts of bilirubin in the blood will cause
Simple sugars are labeled as being "empty calories" because they provide energy but not any other nutritional requirements.
A low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet is believed to lower blood cholesterol and LDL levels.
The entrance and exit of air into and out of the lungs is called
The vocal cords are found in the
The Adam's apple is actually a part of the
Food is prevented from entering the trachea by the
Which part of the respiratory system is composed of C-shaped cartilaginous rings and cilia?
Which portion of the respiratory tract is commonly referred to as the "throat"?
From the bronchioles, air next passes into the ____ during inhalation in a human.
Which part of the respiratory system will have the least amount of cartilage and the thinnest walls?
The greatest surface area for gas exchange occurs within the
It is extremely difficult to save a premature baby at 4 or 5 months of pregnancy because physicians say there is a "wall" that prevents survival much earlier than six months. What causes this "wall" past which they cannot push infant survival?
The premature alveoli do not develop surfactant to prevent their collapsing shut.
There is a certain amount of air that cannot be forced out of the lungs. This is called
residual volume.
The maximum volume of air that can be moved in plus the maximum volume of air that can be moved out during a single breath is the
vital capacity.
In humans, the lungs are caused to inflate when the
rib muscles and diaphragm contract.
If a lung is punctured in a car accident, that lobe fails to inflate even though there is no obstruction of the air passageway to that lobe. Why?
When the chest volume expands, air can now rush in through the puncture without filling the alveoli.
Expired air will contain ____ than inspired air.
less oxygen but more carbon dioxide
How is most carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
as carbon compounds and oxygen radicals
Blood richest in oxygen is found in the
pulmonary veins.
Many lung ailments are "not curable but treatable." Which is more curable?
standard tuberculosis
A lung disease caused by bacteria which become encapsulated is called
When nerve impulses pass to the diaphragm, the diaphragm relaxes and exhalation occurs.
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How did the Industrial Revolution start?
The industrial revolution started from the transition change from a worker based cottage industry to the machine based economy in England. This led to the growth of factories and the mass production of goods. This was accompanied by massive energy consumption in the 18th century.
Q&A Related to "How did the Industrial Revolution start?"
The Industrial revolution started because Britain had lots of ideas coming together, which meant that there was a lack of taxes and charges for trade in the country. then a guy relisted
The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th centuryhen...
Before the invention of the cotton gin, cotton was an extremely labor intensive crop to harvest, taking one person an entire day to separate one pound of cotton fibers from the seeds
Richard Arkwright, James Hargreaves, Samuel Crompton, James Watt,
1 Additional Answer
The Industrial Revolution started during the period between 1750 and 1800. It completely changed the economic situation of many countries. Earlier, countries had depended on agriculture but now they embraced industry and manufacturing.
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The Surgeon
News and Events
Heart Surgery
Heart surgery is also known as Cardiac surgery. It is a surgery on the heart and/or great vessels performed by a cardiac surgeon. Frequently, it is done to treat complications of ischemic heart disease (for example, coronary artery bypass grafting), correct congenital heart disease, or treat valvular heart disease created by various causes including endocarditis. It also includes heart transplanatation.
Here are many different types of heart surgery. Surgeries may be used to
Repair or replace the valves that control blood flow through the heart's chambers.
Bypass or widen blocked or narrowed arteries to the heart.
Repair aneurysms, or bulges in the aorta, which can be deadly if they burst.
Implant devices to regulate heart rhythms.
Destroy small amounts of tissue that disturb electrical flow through the heart.
Make channels in the heart muscle to allow blood from a heart chamber directly into the heart muscle.
Boost the heart's pumping power with muscles taken from the back or abdomen.
Replace the damaged heart with a heart from a donor.
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See also:
Is Soy Milk Better during Pregnancy than Cow’s Milk?
Is Soy Milk Better during Pregnancy than Cow’s Milk?
Is Soy Milk Better during Pregnancy than Cow’s Milk?
The soybean might have been responsible for the beanstalk that Jack climbed. Within the soybean is a complex array of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, along with healthy fats like monounsaturated fatty acids. Jammed pack in this little bean; it’s no wonder you can add it to your diet and feel its power.
Soy beans can be made into a number of food items like tofu, tempeh and soy milk and is highly regarded due to its quality of protein. The soybean contains all 8 essential amino acids for muscle growth. You’ll find this only in meat products and certain vegetables. For those looking to reduce dairy due to concerns with their health and the quality of milk, soy milk is often the perfect switch. But soy has had some trouble with its reputation.
Over-consumption of soy has been seen to have adverse effects in women. One of the main components of soy is an isoflavone called genistein. Isoflavones can act like antioxidants and act like estrogen, a hormone found in the body. Too much estrogen, too many hormones in the body can lead to weight gain, specifically fat in the breasts and hips, gallstones, fibroids and cancers found mainly in women like breast cancer, ovarian and uterine cancer. If increased estrogen from soybean consumption leads to side effects like this in the female body than it naturally will transfer the same positive and negative benefits to a growing fetus.
Babies’ inuteruo will react to ingested nutrients due to their sensitive systems. Research on soy consumption and pregnancy found that the offspring of mothers that had an increased amount of the isoflavone genistein may be responsible for “increasing susceptibility to carcinogen-induced mammary tumorigenesis” (1) or breast cancer in the offspring of those whom consume too much soy.
But soy is also seen to offer protection in mothers and babies during pregnancy, lactation and beyond. Soy has been seen to reduce LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol and triglycerides which can provide protection to your heart. Soy is also known to reduce body weight, control diabetes by regulating blood sugar and fortified soy milk, like fortified cow’s milk, is a reliable source of vitamin D, essential for bone growth and antioxidant protection. From The Journal of Perinatal Education the article Soy Protein talks about the benefits to moms and babies. Vegetarians and vegans who need “vitamin B12 … only found in animal products and, therefore, may be lacking in the diet of vegans. Use of soy milk is one way to obtain this essential vitamin”.
The question of whether soy, soy milk and soy products are good or harmful to health of pregnant women lies in the product. If you’re choosing to eat processed and packaged soy foods like; soy hotdogs, soy patties, soy chips etc. you’ll find soy to be more damaging to your health than if you eat tofu and fermented soy in products like miso or tempeh. Fermentation of soy cooks the beans, releases the nutrients and kills the toxins. Always choose quality nutrients and ones that are as close to nature as possible. More research needs to be done on specific products, but highly processed soy, like chips, has more negative effects that positive ones.
There is nothing wrong with drinking cow’s milk during pregnancy. Cow’s milk also contains all 8 essential amino acids, calcium and phosphorus for strong bones and is fortified with vitamins A and D for further protection. Like soy, cow’s milk should be enjoyed in a more pure state; still pasteurized but free of chemicals, hormones and additives. When the cow is allowed to eat a natural, grass-fed diet the milk produced is higher in heart healthy fats which can protect the body and is hormone and chemical free. Dairy is well known to be an important staple in the diets of pregnant and lactating women and children for the nutrients and calories it provides.
If you’re a vegetarian or vegan or a health enthusiast soy milk is probably your preference. If your New Year’s resolution for 2014 was to take charge of your health, but you’re not ready for soy milk there are still amazing options for nutrients in cow’s milk. Sticking to portion control (cow’s milk and soy milk are 8ounces for one serving) and quality nutrients is the way to go for pregnancy weight gain and helping children learn to eat healthy from day one. Choose organic cow’s milk or soy milk for your kitchen and reap the benefits.
1. Hilakivi-Clarke L, Cho E, Onojafe I, Raygada M, Clarke R. Maternal exposure to genistein during pregnancy increases carcinogen-induced mammary tumorigenesis in female rat offspring. Oncology Reports. 1999 Sep-Oct;6(5):1089-95.
2. Kristen S. Montgomery, PhD, RN. Soy Protein. J Perinat Educ. 2003 Summer; 12(3): 42–45.
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• Edited
Ahh! You just went to install your CPU into your motherboard and bent some of the pins! Now it won't mount and you're looking at paying hundreds of dollars to replace your CPU. How do you fix it without buying a new one, breaking the pins completely off, or bending more pins and making it worse?
1. Fix Bent Pins on a CPU Step 1.jpg
Place the CPU on a hard surface with the top down and the pins facing straight into the air. Be sure you have discharged any static electricity by touching a grounded metal object.
2. Fix Bent Pins on a CPU Step 2.jpg
Get your wallet and pull out your credit cards, gift cards, and ID's.
3. Fix Bent Pins on a CPU Step 3.jpg
Find a row on your CPU that has no bent pins in it. Take one of your cards, stand it on edge and run it through the row of pins. If the card is the right thickness it should slide between the pins with slight resistance and no bending of the pins. If the card is too thin it will slide through too easily. If the card is too thick you will not be able to slide the card through the pins without bowing out or bending pins.
4. Fix Bent Pins on a CPU Step 4.jpg
Once you find a card of the right thickness run it through the various rows with bent pins in all 4 directions. For example, if there is one bent pin, run the card in the rows surrounding it, much like the # symbol; this will bend the pin straight in each direction.
5. Fix Bent Pins on a CPU Step 5.jpg
Some pins will be so bent that they touch other pins or bent crooked so that they do not straighten up properly. To fix, try one of these methods:
• Take a sewing needle and slide it underneath the bent pin, pulling the needle up at one end, thereby levering the bent pin back to a position that will allow the plastic card to slide through.
• Use the tip of a mechanical pencil to align pens.
• Try using tooth floss; make a loop using the tooth floss, loop it around the offending pin (ONLY do 1 pin at a time) and slowly bend the pin into the correct position.
6. Fix Bent Pins on a CPU Step 6.jpg
Attempt to mount the CPU. If it doesn't slide right in the socket, retry the preceding steps. Do not attempt to shove or jam the CPU in.
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• Best Buy gift cards seem to fit perfectly for some odd reason.
• Hold the CPU up and look through it to try and find all the bent pins. If it isn't mounting, look especially for single bent pins towards the center, as they are hard to spot and you may have missed one.
• If it isn't mounting, feel where it is sticking. If it is mounting in every corner but one, find the bent pin(s) in that corner.
• Google search "CPU pin repair" for commercial options.
• Having improperly installed or handled the CPU (unless it arrived with bent pins) will void your warranty on the CPU.
• In most modern processors, the CPU pins are made from very thin wire plated with gold, and as such, are very soft, pliable, and break very easily. There is no way to replace broken pins on a CPU, unless you have special equipment and skill.
• Do not bend the pins too much. They do not have to be perfect; as long as they are close, when you close the CPU socket, it will push them straight. However, if you bend them too much trying to have a lot of perfection, they may break off.
• Do not forget to apply the thermal goo on top of the CPU if you had to take the heat-sink off.
Things You'll Need
• A CPU
• A gift card, credit card, or ID (the plastic card that comes with some thermal paste should be the right thickness)
• A 0.5mm mechanical pencil
• A sewing needle of appropriate diameter
• A magnifying glass will help you to periodically assess your progress. Some free-standing models or a loupe may allow you to perform the entire task with its aid
• A second safe plan in case you screw up the processor
Article Info
Categories: Hardware Maintenance and Repair
Recent edits by: Julia Saveliev, Juan, Chris Hadley
In other languages:
Español: Cómo arreglar un CPU con pines doblados, Français: Comment réparer les broches tordues de votre processeur, Deutsch: Wie man verbogene Pins auf einer CPU repariert, Português: Como Consertas os Pinos Amassados do Processador, Italiano: Come Riparare i Dentini della CPU Piegati, Русский: выпрямить загнутые ножки процессора
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Standard scale
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The standard scale is a system whereby financial criminal penalties (fines) in legislation have maximum levels set against a standard scale. Then, when inflation makes it necessary to increase the levels of the fines the legislators need to modify only the scale rather than each individual piece of legislation.
In English law, the reference in legislation will typically appear like so:
... liable on summary conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or a fine not exceeding level 4 on the standard scale, or both.
Legislation and level of fines[edit]
Further information: Penalty units
Channel Islands[edit]
Guernsey uses the UK standard scale for adopted UK legislation, and its own scale (called the uniform scale) for legislation originating in the States of Guernsey.
Guernsey's dependencies of Alderney and Sark have their own distinct scales, although these are generally in-line with the Guernsey scale.
• The Uniform Scale of Fines (Alderney) Law 1989 as amended by The Uniform Scale of Fines (Alderney) (Amendment) Ordinance 2007.
Sark has its own standard scale, which is normally maintained at the same levels as Guernsey's.
• The Uniform Scale of Fines (Sark) Law, 1989 as amended by the Uniform Scale of Fines (Sark) (Amendment) Ordinance, 1992, the Uniform Scale of Fines (Sark) (Amendment) Ordinance, 2004, and the Uniform Scale of Fines (Sark) (Amendment) Ordinance, 2006.
Hong Kong[edit]
Hong Kong
Fines specified in prior legislation were converted to points on the standard scale by section 113C.
Hong Kong standard scale
Level on the scale Maximum fine
1 HK$$2,000
2 $5,000
3 $10,000
4 $25,000
5 $50,000
6 $100,000
Isle of Man[edit]
Isle of Man
The Isle of Man uses the UK standard scale, but only in respect of Acts of Parliament that extend to the Isle of Man. It does not apply to Acts of Tynwald, which instead include specified amounts within the legislation.
Jersey standard scale
Level on the scale Maximum fine
1 £50
2 £500
3 £2,000
4 £5,500
Above amounts as of 2005.
United Kingdom[edit]
Schedule 1 to the Interpretation Act 1978 defines "the standard scale" for each United Kingdom jurisdiction with reference to the following statutes.
The "statutory maximum", which is the maximum fine which can be imposed by a summary court for a triable either way statutory offence, is similarly defined by the Interpretation Act 1978 so as to correspond to the "prescribed sum" (in effect to the maximum (level 5) fine on the standard scale, except in Scotland).
England and Wales[edit]
England Wales
Scotland The setting of the levels of the standard scale of fines in Scotland is a matter devolved to the Scottish Government.
With effect from 10 December 2007, the Criminal Proceedings etc. (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2007 has increased the "prescribed sum", and with it the "statutory maximum" from £5,000 to £10,000. The level of fines on the standard scale is unaltered.[1]
Northern Ireland[edit]
UK standard scale
Scale Level Maximum fine
1 £200
2 £500
3 £1,000
4 £2,500
5 £5,000
The above amounts apply with respect to offences committed on or after the following dates:
The United Kingdom standard scale was extended in respect of certain offences to two Crown dependencies:
Between 1984 and 1992, the standard scale in England and Wales was as follows:
Scale between 1984 and 1992
Level on the scale Maximum fine
1 £50
2 £100
3 £400
4 £1,000
5 £2,000
Further reading[edit]
See also[edit]
1. ^ 2007 Act, section 48
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World line
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Worldline)
Jump to: navigation, search
However, world lines are a general way of representing the course of events. The use of it is not bound to any specific theory. Thus in general usage, a world line is the sequential path of personal human events (with time and place as dimensions) that marks the history of a person[1] — perhaps starting at the time and place of one's birth until one's death. The log book of a ship is a description of the ship's world line, as long as it contains a time tag attached to every position. The world line allows one to calculate the speed of the ship, given a measure of distance (a so-called metric) appropriate for the curved surface of the Earth.
Usage in physics[edit]
In physics, a world line of an object (approximated as a point in space, e.g., a particle or observer) is the sequence of spacetime events corresponding to the history of the object. A world line is a special type of curve in spacetime. Below an equivalent definition will be explained: A world line is a time-like curve in spacetime. Each point of a world line is an event that can be labeled with the time and the spatial position of the object at that time.
For example, the orbit of the Earth in space is approximately a circle, a three-dimensional (closed) curve in space: the Earth returns every year to the same point in space. However, it arrives there at a different (later) time. The world line of the Earth is helical in spacetime (a curve in a four-dimensional space) and does not return to the same point.
Spacetime is the collection of points called events, together with a continuous and smooth coordinate system identifying the events. Each event can be labeled by four numbers: a time coordinate and three space coordinates; thus spacetime is a four-dimensional space. The mathematical term for spacetime is a four-dimensional manifold. The concept may be applied as well to a higher-dimensional space. For easy visualizations of four dimensions, two space coordinates are often suppressed. The event is then represented by a point in a Minkowski diagram, which is a plane usually plotted with the time coordinate, say t, upwards and the space coordinate, say x horizontally. As expressed by F.R. Harvey
A curve M in [spacetime] is called a worldline of a particle if its tangent is future timelike at each point. The arclength parameter is called proper time and usually denoted τ. The length of M is called the proper time of the worldline or particle. If the worldline M is a line segment, then the particle is said to be in free fall.[2]
A world line traces out the path of a single point in spacetime. A world sheet is the analogous two-dimensional surface traced out by a one-dimensional line (like a string) traveling through spacetime. The world sheet of an open string (with loose ends) is a strip; that of a closed string (a loop) is a volume.
Once the object is not approximated as a mere point but has extended volume, it traces out not a world line but rather a world tube.
World lines as a tool to describe events[edit]
World line, worldsheet, and world volume, as they are derived from particles, strings, and branes.
A one-dimensional line or curve can be represented by the coordinates as a function of one parameter. Each value of the parameter corresponds to a point in spacetime and varying the parameter traces out a line. So in mathematical terms a curve is defined by four coordinate functions x^a(\tau),\; a=0,1,2,3 (where x^{0} usually denotes the time coordinate) depending on one parameter \tau. A coordinate grid in spacetime is the set of curves one obtains if three out of four coordinate functions are set to a constant.
Sometimes, the term world line is loosely used for any curve in spacetime. This terminology causes confusions. More properly, a world line is a curve in spacetime which traces out the (time) history of a particle, observer or small object. One usually takes the proper time of an object or an observer as the curve parameter \tau along the world line.
Trivial examples of spacetime curves[edit]
Three different world lines representing travel at different constant speeds. t is time and x distance.
A curve that consists of a horizontal line segment (a line at constant coordinate time), may represent a rod in spacetime and would not be a world line in the proper sense. The parameter traces the length of the rod.
A line at constant space coordinate (a vertical line in the convention adopted above) may represent a particle at rest (or a stationary observer). A tilted line represents a particle with a constant coordinate speed (constant change in space coordinate with increasing time coordinate). The more the line is tilted from the vertical, the larger the speed.
Two world lines that start out separately and then intersect, signify a collision or "encounter." Two world lines starting at the same event in spacetime, each following its own path afterwards, may represent the decay of a particle into two others or the emission of one particle by another.
World lines of a particle and an observer may be interconnected with the world line of a photon (the path of light) and form a diagram which depicts the emission of a photon by a particle which is subsequently observed by the observer (or absorbed by another particle).
Tangent vector to a world line, four-velocity[edit]
The four coordinate functions x^a(\tau),\; a=0,1,2,3 defining a world line, are real functions of a real variable \tau and can simply be differentiated in the usual calculus. Without the existence of a metric (this is important to realize) one can speak of the difference between a point p on the curve at the parameter value \tau_0 and a point on the curve a little (parameter \tau_0+\Delta\tau) farther away. In the limit \Delta\tau\rightarrow 0, this difference divided by \Delta\tau defines a vector, the tangent vector of the world line at the point p. It is a four-dimensional vector, defined in the point p. It is associated with the normal 3-dimensional velocity of the object (but it is not the same) and therefore called four-velocity \vec{v}, or in components:
\vec{v} = (v^0,v^1,v^2,v^3) = \left( \frac{dx^0}{d\tau}\;,\frac{dx^1}{d\tau}\;, \frac{dx^2}{d\tau}\;, \frac{dx^3}{d\tau} \right)
where the derivatives are taken at the point p, so at \tau=\tau_0.
All curves through point p have a tangent vector, not only world lines. The sum of two vectors is again a tangent vector to some other curve and the same holds for multiplying by a scalar. Therefore all tangent vectors in a point p span a linear space, called the tangent space at point p. For example, taking a 2-dimensional space, like the (curved) surface of the Earth, its tangent space at a specific point would be the flat approximation of the curved space.
World lines in special relativity[edit]
So far a world line (and the concept of tangent vectors) has been described without a means of quantifying the interval between events. The basic mathematics is as follows: The theory of special relativity puts some constraints on possible world lines. In special relativity the description of spacetime is limited to special coordinate systems that do not accelerate (and so do not rotate either), called inertial coordinate systems. In such coordinate systems, the speed of light is a constant. The structure of spacetime is determined by a bilinear form η which gives a real number for each pair of events. The bilinear form is sometimes called a spacetime metric, but since distinct events sometimes result in a zero value, unlike metrics in metric spaces of mathematics, the bilinear form is not a mathematical metric on spacetime.
World lines of particles/objects at constant speed are called geodesics. In special relativity these are straight lines in Minkowski space.
Often the time units are chosen such that the speed of light is represented by lines at a fixed angle, usually at 45 degrees, forming a cone with the vertical (time) axis. In general, curves in spacetime can be of three types:
• light-like curves, having at each point the speed of light. They form a cone in spacetime, dividing it into two parts. The cone is three-dimensional in spacetime, appears as a line in drawings with two dimensions suppressed, and as a cone in drawings with one spatial dimension suppressed.
An example of a light cone, the three-dimensional surface of all possible light rays arriving at and departing from a point in spacetime. Here, it is depicted with one spatial dimension suppressed.
• time-like curves, with a speed less than the speed of light. These curves must fall within a cone defined by light-like curves. In our definition above: world lines are time-like curves in spacetime.
• space-like curves falling outside the light cone. Such curves may describe, for example, the length of a physical object. The circumference of a cylinder and the length of a rod are space-like curves.
At a given event on a world line, spacetime (Minkowski space) is divided into three parts.
• The future of the given event is formed by all events that can be reached through time-like curves lying within the future light cone.
• The past of the given event is formed by all events that can influence the event (that is, which can be connected by world lines within the past light cone to the given event).
• The lightcone at the given event is formed by all events that can be connected through light rays with the event. When we observe the sky at night, we basically see only the past light cone within the entire spacetime.
• Elsewhere is the region between the two light cones. Points in an observer's elsewhere are inaccessible to her/him; only points in the past can send signals to the observer. In ordinary laboratory experience, using common units and methods of measurement, it may seem that we look at the present, but in fact there is always a delay time for light to propagate. For example, we see the Sun as it was about 8 minutes ago, not as it is "right now." Unlike the present in Galilean/Newtonian theory, the elsewhere is thick; it is not a 3-dimensional volume but is instead a 4-dimensional spacetime region.
• Included in "elsewhere" is the simultaneous hyperplane, which is defined for a given observer by a space which is hyperbolic-orthogonal to her/his world line. It is really three-dimensional, though it would be a 2-plane in the diagram because we had to throw away one dimension to make an intelligible picture. Although the light cones are the same for all observers at a given spacetime event, different observers, with differing velocities but coincident at the event (point) in the spacetime, have world lines that cross each other at an angle determined by their relative velocities, and thus they have different simultaneous hyperplanes.
• The present often means the single spacetime event being considered.
Simultaneous hyperplane[edit]
Since a world line \scriptstyle w(\tau) \isin R^4 determines a velocity 4-vector \scriptstyle v = \frac {dw}{d\tau} that is time-like, the Minkowski form \scriptstyle \eta(v,x) determines a linear function \scriptstyle R^4 \rarr R by \scriptstyle x \mapsto \eta( v , x ) . Let N be the null space of this linear functional. Then N is called the simultaneous hyperplane with respect to v. The relativity of simultaneity is a statement that N depends on v. Indeed, N is the orthogonal complement of v with respect to η. When two world lines u and w are related by \scriptstyle \frac {du}{d\tau} = \frac {dw}{d\tau}, then they share the same simultaneous hyperplane. This hyperplane exists mathematically, but physical relations in relativity involve the movement of information by light. For instance, the traditional electro-static force described by Coulomb's law may be pictured in a simultaneous hyperplane, but relativistic relations of charge and force involve retarded potentials.
World lines in general relativity[edit]
The use of world lines in general relativity is basically the same as in special relativity, with the difference that spacetime can be curved. A metric exists and its dynamics are determined by the Einstein field equations and are dependent on the mass distribution in spacetime. Again the metric defines lightlike (null), spacelike and timelike curves. Also, in general relativity, world lines are timelike curves in spacetime, where timelike curves fall within the lightcone. However, a lightcone is not necessarily inclined at 45 degrees to the time axis. However, this is an artifact of the chosen coordinate system, and reflects the coordinate freedom (diffeomorphism invariance) of general relativity. Any timelike curve admits a comoving observer whose "time axis" corresponds to that curve, and, since no observer is privileged, we can always find a local coordinate system in which lightcones are inclined at 45 degrees to the time axis. See also for example Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates.
World lines of free-falling particles or objects (such as planets around the Sun or an astronaut in space) are called geodesics.
World lines in literature[edit]
A popular description of human world lines was given by J. C. Fields at the University of Toronto in the early days of relativity. As described by Toronto lawyer Norman Robertson:
Because they oversimplify world lines, which traverse four-dimensional spacetime, into one-dimensional timelines, almost all purported science-fiction stories about time travel are actually wishful fantasy stories. Some device or superpowered person is generally portrayed as departing from one point in time, and with little or no subjective lag, arriving at some other point in time — but at the same literally geographic point in space, typically inside a workshop or near some historic site. However, in reality the planet, its solar system, and its galaxy would all be at vastly different spatial positions on arrival. Thus, the time travel mechanism would also have to provide instantaneous teleportation, with infinitely accurate and simultaneous adjustment of final 3D location, linear momentum, and angular momentum.
World lines appeared in Jeffrey Rowland's webcomic Wigu Adventures as part of the "Magical Adventures in Space" side story line, in which Topato Potato and Sheriff Pony accidentally delete a world line relating to the initial creation of Earth from asteroids, causing the Earth to never have existed. According to this webcomic, calculating the exact coordinates of a world line is "embarrassingly simple", and the deletion of the world line specified is executed by making a call and entering the coordinates of the world line, and pressing 3.[4]
Author Oliver Franklin published a science fiction work in 2008 entitled World Lines in which he related a simplified explanation of the hypothesis for laymen.[5]
In the short story Life-Line, author Robert A. Heinlein describes the world line of a person:[6]
"Imagine this space-time event that we call Rogers as a long pink worm, continuous through the years, one end in his mother's womb, and the other at the grave..."
Heinlein's Methuselah's Children uses the term, as does James Blish's The Quincunx of Time (expanded from "Beep").
A visual novel named Steins;Gate, produced by 5pb., tells a story based on the shifting of world lines. Its series of works under the name hypothetical science ADV also utilized the concept.
See also[edit]
1. ^ George Gamow (1970) My World Line: An Informal Autobiography, Viking Press, ISBN 0-670-50376-2
2. ^ F. Reese Harvey (1990) Spinors and calibrations, pages 62,3, Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-329650-1
3. ^ Gilbert de Beauregard Robinson (1979) The Mathematics Department in the University of Toronto, p. 19, University of Toronto Press ISBN 0-7727-1600-5
4. ^ "Day 6 (The Multiverse, The Pool, and Elves)". "Wigu Adventures". TopatoCo.
5. ^ Oliver Franklin (2008). World Lines. Epic Press. ISBN 1-906557-00-4.
6. ^ "Technovelgy: Chronovitameter". Retrieved 8 September 2010.
• Minkowski, Hermann (1909), Raum und Zeit, Physikalische Zeitschrift 10: 75–88
External links[edit]
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The Difference Between Porter and Stout
History of Styles
Whitebread London Stout
At Whitbread, whose Chiswell Street premises, on the edge on the City of London proper (the "Square Mile"), was one of the top two or three London porter breweries, in 1805 the firm used 160 quarters of pale malt and 56 quarters of brown malt to make both its porter and single stout, and 136 quarters of pale together with 40 each of amber and brown malt to make its double stout. From these 216 quarters of malt it would make 798 barrels of porter (3.7 barrels to the quarter, around 6 per cent alcohol by volume), or 720 barrels of single stout (7 per cent abv or so) or 580 barrels of double stout (2.7 barrels to the quarter, around 8 per cent abv).
Four decades later, in 1844, the Whitbread brewing books show it was making five different black beers: porter, KP (keeping porter), single stout, double stout and triple stout, all from pale malt and brown malt only, in a ratio of approximately three quarters pale to one of brown. The stouts were generally parti-gyled with one or other of the porters, that is, the stout was made from a first, strong mashing, while the porter was made from a second mashing of the same grain, possibly mixed with a third or four mashing. The only difference between the stout and the porter, therefore, was in strength.
Ron Pattinson's research shows that in the second half of the 19th century, London brewers' recipes for porter and stout began to diverge – but the stouts were now getting LESS patent malt, where used, than the porters, and more brown malt, with the probable result that the stouts were becoming sweeter and less dry than the weaker porters.
Roasted barley became a permitted ingredient in beers in the United Kingdom (which still included Ireland at this time) in 1880, with the passing of the Free Mash Tun Act. However, there was no rush to start using it: one writer in 1885 insisted that roasted barley did not give as permanent a colour as roasted malt, and "the flavour is also very inferior; and the aroma can bear no comparison." Guinness in particular does not appear to start using roasted barley in its stouts until around 1930.
The First World War, and the high taxes and restrictions on beer that it brought, did terrible and permanent damage to the strengths of beers in the British Isles, and by the 1920s porters were down on average to around 3.6 per cent alcohol by volume, and stouts to only 4.7 per cent or so. Guinness Extra Stout, which had been around 7.7 per cent alcohol in the 19th century, was down to 4.4 per cent in the 1930s.
When the "small brewer revolution" started in Britain and the United States in the 1970s, there was more than 250 years of different styles and strengths of stout and porter to choose from, and different brewers picked different sorts to recreate. The result is that, in some cases, some brewers now brew "porters" that are stronger than their stouts. The need to categorise beers for brewing competitions in the U.S. has meant a plethora of micro-managed style descriptions, few of which, however, have any historic validity.
The answer to the question: "What's the difference between a stout and a porter" is that originally a stout was simply a strong version of porter: today the difference is whatever you want it to be.
-- Martyn Cornell
The Beer Wrangler's picture
Great article - thanks
Great article - thanks Martyn. Styles of beers have never had very rigid bounderies, and any guide should have the proviso that those guidelines are an approximation only and cover a large portion of the beers made in any given name but certainly not all!
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Picture of A introduction to VBScript Programming
VBScript is a simple programming language executed by Windows Script Host it can Be coded with Notepad or Notepad++
its extension is .vbs and can be executed on ANY windows machine VBS stands for Visual Basic Script therefore it is basic so no
icons / images can be used with it. Over the years computing has become more common and complicated VBScript is used in SO
many applications it is normally used for message boxes (Msgbox) or input boxes (inputbox) keep in mind it is A LOT more simple than C++ C# or executable files (Applications) .
Remove these adsRemove these ads by Signing Up
Step 1: Making A VBScript error message
Picture of Making A VBScript error message
1. First open Notepad then copy this : msgbox("message here"),4+16,("title here") into notepad.
2. Save The file as whatever.vbs
3.Open The File it should look like this:
Step 2: Editing the error
Picture of Editing the error
Now you can edit the message e.g msgbox("highvoltageguy"),4+16,("instructables") That will look like:
Step 3: Input Boxes
Picture of Input Boxes
Now here's where VBScript gets fun here's an example : inputbox("Sup"),,("inputbox") save as yourname.vbs start it and what do you see an inputbox! (if it worked) now you know basic programming!
lemonie2 years ago
Instructables about programming languages aren't anything like as useful as instruction on how to do something worthwhile with programming.
highvoltageguy (author) lemonie2 years ago
what do you mean???
He means that it's not worth doing a tutorial on something if your not going to to us anything useful in it.
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North Korea is pressing ahead with the preparation for a long-range rocket launch after extending its lift-off window by another week until December 29 because of technical problems.
An unidentified spokesman for the North’s Korean Committee of Space Technology told the state media yesterday that scientists found a “technical deficiency in the first-stage control engine module of the rocket’’.
The statement didn’t elaborate but said technicians were moving ahead with final preparations for the lift-off from a west coast launch site.
The second day of North Korea’s extended 20-day launch window began on Tuesday morning without signs of a lift-off.
The specifics of the rocket’s technical problems aren’t clear, but state media put out an overnight dispatch detailing the unusually cold weather and heavy snow hitting the northern part of the Korean Peninsula.
It’s North Korea’s second attempt of the year, and the fifth since 1998, to launch a rocket that the United Nations, Washington, Seoul and others call a cover meant to test technology for missiles that could be used to strike the United States.
The North Koreans call the launch a peaceful bid to advance their space programme, and a last wish of late leader Kim Jong Il, who died a year ago, on December 17.
An April launch broke apart seconds after lift-off.
The North had originally set up a 13-day launch window, starting yesterday, but it announced early Sunday that it may delay the lift-off because of unspecified reasons.
US State Department spokeswoman Victoria Nuland had said yesterday that as far as the US can tell it’s simply a delay and North Korea still plans to launch the rocket.
(This article was published on December 11, 2012)
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Internet of Everything
As I said in one of my previous posts: a drop of water is a great metaphor for the Internet of Everything (IoE). Like a single drop of water, a single person, bit of data, or thing connected with billions of other people, data, and things can also shape the face of our planet. But, are these connected items all that strange? Or do we consider them weird only because we haven’t thought of them in the context of IoE?
Cisco recently explored how the connections created by connecting the previously unconnected will impact our daily lives. Not a day (or even an hour) goes by when I don’t look at an object and consider how it will connect to the Internet and provide us with information that can improve the world in which we live.
As the InfoWorld article noted, the possibilities are endless. Just look in front of you – what do you see that might someday be connected?
Shopping carts – What is your current grocery store routine? Most likely, it includes picking up your pantry staples and then making dashes across aisles to find the other items on your list. Imagine walking into a supermarket and synching your list with the shopping cart. By connecting your shopping list with both inventory as well as location data of other shoppers, the cart can lead you along the most efficient path, making sure you get what you need. And if the item you need is sold out, the cart’s connection to store inventory can even recommend an alternative. For more information on connected supermarkets, see Cisco IBSG’s retail white paper, “Catch ‘Em and Keep ‘Em.”
Mail – In the age of online bill payments and e-cards, snail mail has become theoretically obsolete; yet, most households still use traditional mail. By connecting pieces of mail with sensors in mailboxes and the Internet, we could track when important things arrive in our household mailboxes or PO boxes. Senders would know when mail has been delivered, and recipients could see what is in their mailboxes without physically having to check.
Smart grid – Imagine a world where electric vehicles dominate transportation. To ensure that enough power is supplied to vehicle charging stations during major events that attract large audiences, multiple devices must be connected, with the ability to communicate where to send that power. Take, for example, a concert or major sporting event where 50,000 cars pull into the venue or stadium parking lot and need to recharge during the event or before leaving. A smart grid can sense and even predict this influx of electric vehicles, and then redirect energy to support the increased load at the venue’s charging stations.
Just look around – what insights could you gain from the things around you if they were connected to the Internet?
Join the conversation
1. It is possible already
2. It is happening already
3. Dave, love the image. Thx for having a sense of humor in your blogs. Mary
4. Adrian Phillips
Along with the other comments, thIs is happening now. We are working on how companies can monetize this and specifically on Smarter Cities. Whether its MQTT or Smarter Stadiums, a truly inter-connected life is all around us and I personally am really excited about.
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Read full entry
Rumex crispus
Rumex crispus (curly dock, curled dock or yellow dock) is a perennial flowering plant in the family Polygonaceae, native to Europe and Western Asia.[1]
The plant produces an inflorescence or flower stalk that grows to about 1 m high. It has smooth leaves shooting off from a large basal rosette, with distinctive waved or curled edges. On the stalk flowers and seeds are produced in clusters on branched stems, with the largest cluster being found at the apex. The seeds are shiny, brown and encased in the calyx of the flower that produced them. This casing enables the seeds to float on water and get caught in wool and animal fur, and this helps the seeds to spread to new locations.[2] The root-structure is a large, yellow, forking taproot.
Rumex crispus has a number of subspecies with distinctive habitat preferences. Rumex crispus ssp. crispus occurs on waste and cultivated ground. Rumex crispus ssp. littoreus has a coastal distribution, and Rumex crispus ssp. uliginosus occurs on tidal estuarine mud.[3] The species hybridizes readily with other Rumex species including Rumex obtusifolius, Rumex obovatus, Rumex palustris and Rumex maritimus.[3]
Fruits of Curled Dock (Rumex crispus)
Curly Dock grows in a wide variety of habitats, including disturbed soil, waste areas, roadsides, fields/meadows, shorelines, and forest edges.[4] It is widely naturalised throughout the temperate world and has become a serious invasive species in many areas, including throughout North America, southern South America, New Zealand and parts of Australia. It spreads through the seeds contaminating crop seeds, and sticking to clothing. It is classified as an "injurious weed" under the UK Weeds Act 1959.[5] It is often seen in disturbed soils at the edges of roadsides, railway beds, and car parks.
Uses and toxicity[edit]
It can be used as a wild leaf vegetable; the young leaves should be boiled in several changes of water to remove as much of the oxalic acid in the leaves as possible or can be added directly to salads in moderate amounts.[6] Once the plant matures it becomes too bitter to consume. Dock leaves are an excellent source of both vitamin A and protein, and are rich in iron and potassium.[citation needed] Curly Dock leaves are somewhat tart due to the presence of high levels of oxalic acid, and although quite palatable, this plant should only be consumed in moderation as it can irritate the urinary tract and increase the risk of developing kidney stones. It should be used with care during lactation, as it may cause a laxative effect in the infant.
In Western herbalism, the root is often used for treating anemia, due to its high level of iron.[7] It can be powdered and given in capsules, often in combination with stinging nettle - Urtica dioica. This is a classic combination with the plant. Both the leaves and root may be laxative in some individuals, though not in all, and generally it is mild. This is due to the presence of anthroquinone glycosides,[8] and is not an action that should be relied upon, but seen as a possible effect of the plant when taken. The plant may also cause intestinal discomfort to some people. The plant will help with skin conditions if taken internally or applied externally to things like itching, scrofula, and sores. Some studies show that certain anthroquinones can help stop or slow cancer growth, but this may or may not apply to the ones in yellow dock.
Yellow dock is part of the homeopathic pharmacopeia. It is used mainly for respiratory conditions, specifically those with a tickling cough that is worse when exposed to cold air. It mentions also passing pains, excessive itching, and that it helps enlarged lymphs.[9]
1. ^ Flora of North America Editorial Committee, ed. (2005). "Rumex crispus". Flora of North America: Magnoliophyta: Caryophyllidae, pt. 2. Oxford University Press. p. 522. ISBN 9780195222111.
2. ^ Richard H. Uva, Joseph C. Neal and Joseph M. Ditomaso, Weeds of The Northeast, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), Pp. 286-287.
5. ^
6. ^ Lee Allen Peterson, Edible Wild Plants, (New York City: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1977), p. 154.
7. ^ Lust, John B.. The herb book. New York: B. Lust Publications, 1974.
8. ^ Grieve, M. "Docks." A Modern Herbal. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2014. <>
9. ^ "Rumex Crispus." - Homeopathic Remedies. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2014. <>
Source: Wikipedia
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Holy Festivals
God and the Gods shower Their blessings during these auspicious holy days of celebration in the company of our family and friends
When it comes to Hindu festivals, Nepal rules. they celebrate 19 a year on their official calendar, three of them exclusively for women. India, by contrast, sets aside just two Hindu days a year on its national calendarNavaratri and Diwali. But whatever official calendars say, Hindus miss no opportunity to set mundane matters aside and join with friends, neighbors and strangers alike in invocation of the One Supreme God and the many Gods, in honor of the Guru or in celebration of the passing of the seasons. These are times when all Three Worlds of men, of devas and of Gods come close and commune with each other. While anthropologists generally assign mere social significance in our cycles of festivals, the devout Hindu knows these are times of profound mystical connection to the inner worlds, times when God and the Gods touch our world, revitalize our very souls, lighten our karmas and bless our families. In this special section we present the nine most popular Hindu festivals.
The following nine festivals are India-wide or rather, worldwide, wherever Hindus live. There are also many regional festivals, some of which are locally celebrated on an even grander scale than some of these nine.
Ram Navami
Lord Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu, was born on navami, the ninth lunar day [see last paragraph, page 37, for an explanation of the lunar day] of the bright half of Meena, or Pisces (Chaitra the lunar month of March/April). Devotees observe this day with non-stop recitation of the Ramayana, the story of Rama's life. In the evening, crowds attend Ramalila, dramatic performances recounting Rama's deeds. Every home will resound with devotional singing. This festival is especially popular in Uttar Pradesh, where Rama's ancientkingdom of Ayodhya was situated. Sometimes Ramalila and other devotional observances are done during the nine days before or after navami. People will keep fasts or eat only fruit or a special prasadam prepared for the day. If celebrated for nine days, it is common to remain awake the whole ninth night, engaged in devotional practices. Devotees also contribute generously to temples and other charitable organizations on Ram Navami. Lord Rama is honored not only as an incarnation of God, but also as an ideal man who exemplified the virtues of reverence, obedience and duty.
Raksha Bandhan
On the full moon of Karkata, or Cancer (Sravana July/August), sisters tie a rakhi around the wrist of their brothers, who in return give a present of clothing, cash or jewelry and become obligated for the safety of the sister. The rakhi can also be given to anyone chosen as an "adopted brother," even outside the Hindu community. It signifies that she is praying for his welfare and that he is determined to give protection to her. Originally the rakhi was a handspun cotton thread dyed yellow with turmeric, but now many colors and materials are used. Three knots are made in the thread to signify protection in thought, word and deed. This day is also celebrated as Narali Purnima, "coconut full moon," when coconuts are offered to Varuna, God of the Sea, by throwing them into the ocean. It is also called Avani Avittam, the ceremony of changing of the sacred thread among the brahmins. This tradition dates back to Vedic times when the year's studies were commenced on this day.
Ganesha Chaturthi
The fourth lunar day of the bright half of Simha, or Leo (Bhadra August/September), is celebrated around the world as the birthday of Ganesha, the elephant-headed God of Wisdom and Lord of Obstacles. As with other festivals, the homes and temples are elaborately decorated for the day. The special activity is the making of clay images of Ganesha, reverently formed and decorated. Some are huge works of art created by craftsmen, others are tiny icons painted and decorated by children. At the end of the day, or seven or ten days later, these images are ceremoniously immersed in the ocean or a nearby stream or lake, signifying the creation of Ganesha from the Earth and His return and dissolution in the ocean of universal consciousness. So intense has been His presence at this time that even grown men weep at His auspicious departure. His worship on this day removes obstacles and ensures smooth progress in all ventures through the year. As Ganesha is common to all Hindu sects, this festival is serving both inside and outside of India as a day to celebrate Hindu solidarity and unity.
The festival of lights, Diwali, takes place on the fourteenth lunar day of the dark half of Tula, or Libra (Karttika October/November), with related festivities on adjacent days. It is the most widely celebrated Hindu festival in the world, and possibly related to the European Celtic festival of Samhain, observed at the same time of the year with huge bonfires set on hilltops. This is the day that Rama returned to Ayodhya after spending 14 years in exile, though many other reasons forthe day are cited. It is a celebration of renewal as the New Year commences in the Vikram calendar. Everyone takes a special bath in the early morning and puts on new clothes. Houses are cleaned, painted and decorated. Goddess Lakshmi is invoked for prosperity, and Her presence is felt in every home. Businesses close out their books for the past year and open new ones, even conducting a mock first business deal of the year. In the evening, every house, store, temple and wall is decorated with thousands of small lamps, while fireworks are set off overhead and firecrackers by the hundreds of thousands below. Family bonds are renewed, especially between brothers and sisters, and forgiveness is requested from friends for any misunderstandings during the previous year. Of all festivals, Diwali holds a special place, and is the premier international one, holding official holiday status in nine countries India, Nepal, Fiji, Mauritius, Guyana, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Singapore, with attempts being made to add more countries where Hindus live.
Bonfires and the splashing of friends and strangers alike with brightly colored waters, powders and paints mark this most high-spirited of Hindu festivals. It is celebrated on the full moon day of Kumbha, or Aquarius (Phalguna February/March), and in many places for the several days preceding. Giant bonfires are built by neighborhood boys, where effigies of various demons are consumed. Friends are visited and presents of sweets exchanged. This is essentially a celebration of spring, at which different events are commemorated. This is the day the infant Krishna killed the demoness Putana; the day that Lord Vishnu's devotee Pralada, son of the demon Hiranyakasipu, survived a fire intended to kill him, and the day that Siva burnt Kama, the God of Love, to ashes. Holi is very popular among devotees of Krishna at Mathura, Krishna's birthplace. Also known as Hutasani, "fire consuming," Holi signifies the triumph of good over evil, the beginning of the new agricultural season and the renewal of relationships.
Guru Purnima
In ashrams around the world, the spiritual preceptor is honored on this full moon day of July with garlands, gifts and donations to show love and gratitude for his wisdom through the year. Devotees renew their commitment to following his teachings and guidance for the coming year. The traditional worship is pada puja, ceremonial bathing of the guru's feet (or, in his absence, his sandals) with water, milk, honey, sandalwood paste and offering gifts of precious items including 108 gold coins. This day is also known as Vyasa Puja, in honor of Sage Vyasa, codifier of the Vedas and author of the Mahabharata and Puranas. He is honored in temples with offerings of limes and rice, the latter being taken home by devotees and mixed with their own store of rice. This is also a day for reading religious books while remembering the auspicious form of the satguru through
Krishna Janmashtami
Lord Krishna, eighth incarnation of Vishnu, was born on the eighth lunar day (ashtami) of the dark half of Karkata, or Cancer (Sravana July/August). Devotees fast the preceding day until midnight, the time that Krishna was born to Vasudeva and Devika in the Mathura kingdom's prison 5,000 years ago. At midnight, amist grand ceremony the temple priest places the image of the newborn Krishna in a swinging crib. Among the traditional observances, pots of sweets, curd and butter are hung near homes, on trees and street poles in recollection of Krishna's love for these things. Teenage boys dressed as cowherds form human pyramids to reach and break the pots. The following day is again one of festivity, including puja, storytelling and the Ras Leela, a folk theater depicting major events of Krishna's life. "Dark as a rain cloud," reads one account of His birth, "He made the prison glow with the splendor of His crown, His jewelry and His yellow silk robes. He was the Lord God incarnate."
The festival of "Nine Nights," Navaratri, honoring the Goddess, begins on the first lunar day of the bright half of Kanya, or Virgo (Asvina September/October). Three days are devoted each to Durga (Goddess of valor), Lakshmi (Goddess of wealth) and Saraswati (Goddess of knowledge). In eastern India the festival is known as Durga Puja. There, images of the Goddess are created, worshiped for ten days, then immersed in the sea. In southern India, houses are decorated with displays of dolls, toys and images of the Gods. In western India, the traditional garbha dance is performed nightly. On the fifth day (Lalita Panchami), all books of a household are gathered, sacred lamps lit reverently by their side and the blessings of Saraswati invoked. Artisans give their tools a "day of rest," worship and seek blessings for them. Day ten, variously known as Vijaya Dasami, Dasara and Dussehra, marks the commencement of learning. In many localities huge effigies of Ravana are burnt to celebrate Rama's conquest of the demon.
Maha Sivaratri
On "Siva's Great Night," Maha Sivaratri, the fourteenth day of the dark half of Kumbha, or Aquarius (Phalguna February/March), devotees fast all day in preparation to worship Lord Siva from evening until early dawn bathing the sacred Siva Linga with water, milk, honey and saffron water, then offering bilva leaves while chanting Sri Rudram, the pre-eminent Vedic hymn to Siva, or reciting His 1,008 names are the highpoints of the all-night vigil. Only when the last puja is finished in early morning do devotees break their fast by eating the sacred prasadam offered earlier to the Lord. The following day is one of feasting and gaiety, especially at grand fairs held in many parts of India. On Siva's night we contemplate Siva as the Unmanifest Reality. We dive deep in yogic meditation on His endless/beginningless Radiance.
Setting Festival Dates
Most festivals are held on astrologically auspicious times for a particular deity in the same zodiac sign of the Sun each year. Ram Navami, for example, takes place in the sign of Meena or Pisces, which corresponds to the north Indian month of Chaitra or the Tamil month of Panguni. Each festival day is designated on a particular lunar day, or tithi, during a particular sign. There are 30 tithis from new moon to new moon. The month's "bright half" (shukla paksha) starts from the new moon (amavasya) to the full moon (purnima) and the "dark half" (krishna paksha) from the full moon to the new moon. Because the cycle of the Moon around the Earth (about 29.5 days) and the Sun through one zodiac sign (about 30.4 days) do not match, the month may begin on varying tithis. Tithis also vary in length from 20 to 26 hours, because of the Moon's orbit in relation to the sun. When a tithi occurs twice in one month, the second is chosen for the festival. Because a tithi is not the same as a 24-hour day and the calculations depend on location, one must consult a Hindu calendar (panchanga) computed for a particular place to determine a festival date. One cannot simply go by the dates for India. Some festivals are calculated using the nakshatra system. There are many regional variations in calendars and hence even dissent on festival calculations.
The Inner Light
Among the parties and fireworks, let us not forget the real meaning of Deepavali
From falsehood lead me to truth, from darkness lead me to light, from death lead me to immortality." Nowhere else is the symbolism of these lines from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad better expressed than in the celebration of Deepavali. Popularly known as the Festival of Lights and abbreviated to Diwali in contemporary usage, Deepavali is the most important festival for the world's Hindu population. With its arrays of lighted lamps, firecrackers and festivities, Deepavali transforms the desolate, fall moonless skies by filling them with laughter, happiness and radiance.
Like other religious festivals of the world, Deepavali is associated with several different legends and has deep social and spiritual significance. It is primarily known for the worship of the Goddess Lakshmi, who symbolizes wealth and prosperity. In North India, it is a commemoration of Lord Rama's triumphant return to Ayodhya after vanquishing the forces led by Ravana. In South India, Deepavali is celebrated in remembrance of Lord Krishna's victory over Narakasura. In addition, it marks the end of the rainy season and the harvesting cycle, and therefore it is also the festival of the Kharif or new crop.
Whichever story one might prefer, Deepavali celebrations all over the world are universally marked by majestic fireworks, a variety of cultural programs, a spirit of sharing and brotherhood, and, most importantly, the lighting of lamps (deepas) in several rows (vali) inside and outside the house. It is these luminous deepas that contain the essence of Deepavali. Just as light dispels the darkness of the night and shows the right path to a weary traveler, the lighting of lamps on the night of Karttik Amavasya, when the new moon is in Tula or Libra, symbolizes the victory of goodness over evil, justice over injustice, light over darkness and wisdom over ignorance.
Since the beginning of time, spiritual aspirants have sought light as the culmination of their journey. What is this internal, divine light of which the deepas on Deepavali night, or those set before the family deity during morning and evening prayers, are only an external representation?
One of the most illustrious conversations on this subject can be found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, wherein King Janaka of Videha, whose courtroom was famed for spiritual discussions conducted by the most distinguished rishis of his time, once asked of Sage Yajnavalkya: "Revered Sage, enlighten me! What is the light of man? What is it that allows him to function in this world?"
Yajnavalkya gave a simple and straightforward answer. "The sun is his light, O King!" he said. "If there were no sunlight, people would be unable to perform their duties in this world. By the light of the sun activity is possible, and it is by the light of the sun that one sits, moves about, completes all work and becomes content." In a series of questions, Janaka presses the sage on the issue, finally asking what light there would be in the absence of all external manifestations. Yajnavalkya gave a very revealing answer. "O King Janaka!" he said. "Know that when everything else fails, the Soul, the inner Self, will be the guide. It is the Self that will be the light."
This light, which is equated with the Supreme and supposed to be the consciousness of life, is expressed as follows in the Chandogya Upanishad (3.13.7): "There is a Light that shines beyond all things on Earth, beyond us all, beyond the heavens, beyond the highest, the very highest, heavens. This is the Light that shines in our heart."
Unfortunately, we are oblivious to it most of the time. Even when we read and hear about its presence, we are unable to see the Light, mainly because this flame, which the Vedas say is tinier than the tiniest of atomic sparks and hidden in the innermost chamber of the human heart, is now covered by layers of grossness, complexities and impressions. Also, due to our outward-turning senses, tendencies and attachments to the fruits of action, we are unable to turn our eyes inward at least not until compelled by external circumstances. But we must be able to do so somehow, if the lower self is to become one with the Ultimate Being. But this union is not as easy as it appears in words. The journey is filled with obstacles: darkness and ignorance, misleading visions.
In Arjuna's vision of Lord Krishna in His Cosmic Form on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, the experience of the transcendental Reality is associated with brilliance, splendor and light: "If a thousand suns should rise all at once in the sky, such splendor would resemble the splendor of that great Being . Then Arjuna, who was filled with amazement, whose hair was standing on end, bowing his head to the Lord with joined palms, said: 'With infinite power, without beginning, middle or end, with innumerable arms, the Moon and Sun being Your eyes, I see You, the blazing fire Your mouth, burning all this universe with Your radiance.'"
Fascinating and awesome as such visions might be, even the experience of light ought not be the final goal. If that were so, the Bhagavad Gita would have ended with the Eleventh Teaching. But it does not. According to Krishna Himself, the supreme state is that which the Sun does not illumine, nor the Moon, nor the fire, for it is the Light of Pure Consciousness. These words are analogous to those found in the Svetasvatara (6.14) and Katha Upanishad (5.15). "There the Sun shines not, nor the Moon, nor the stars; lightnings shine not there and much less earthly fire. From His light all these give light, and His radiance illumines all creation."
In the modern era, Shri Ram Chandra of Shahjahanpur for almost fifty years taught meditation on the "divine light in the heart," according to the Sahaj Marg system of Raja Yoga. In Voice Real, he writes, "Every saint has used the word light and that is the best expression for Reality. But that creates some complication, because when we talk of light, the idea of luminosity becomes prominent, and we begin to take it as glittering. The Real Light carries with it no such sense and may be represented as 'light without luminosity.' It refers only to the real substance or, more appropriately, to 'substanceless substance,' which is associated with neither light nor darkness, but beyond both."
It is painfully evident that words and descriptions of spiritual Light can convey only so much. As Babuji says, understanding comes by intuitive capacity and practical experience in the spiritual field.
We should be celebrating the Festival of Lights in renewal of our quest for that spiritual Light. But today, few, if any, attach such reverence to the occasion. Instead, it has become a night of entertainment, gambling, pleasure and consumption. Just as the candles and electric lights of modern society have gradually replaced the traditional deepas, the focus of the prayers has shifted from the journey from darkness to light to the quest for fortune and wealth.
To appreciate the spirit behind this festival and pass on its significance to others, one needs only to consider the traditional lamps that are popular even today in the small towns and villages of India. These deepas represent the four essential elements that are required in the seeker: detachment (the clay container), devotion to the Lord (the oil), prayer and meditation (the cotton wick), and spiritual wisdom (the matchstick to light the lamp). It is noteworthy that on Deepavali the first lamp is lit with a matchstick, after which that lamp is used to light the whole array of lamps inside and outside the house. The first lamp symbolizes divine effulgence, while the other lighted lamps represent the light in individual hearts. Together, they reiterate the eternal truth pronounced in the Vedas: "The One willed to become the Many."
As the flames of all these lamps burn brightly and reach upward through the entire night, they show the possibility that, with the removal of darkness, grossness and ignorance, the tiny flickering light in our hearts can also shine brightly, illumining the whole universe. May we all progress speedily to the highest levels of spirituality from darkness to light, and beyond.
Rama Devagupta, Ph.D. in bioorganic chemistry from Texas A&M University, is a full-time mother and freelance writer on parenting issues and spirituality. She teaches the Sahaj Marg system of Raja Yoga as a preceptor of Shri Ram Chandra Mission (www.srcm.org), and lives in Houston, Texas, with her family.
Rama Devagupta, 2402 Weatherford Drive, Pearland, Texas 77584 USA. email:[email protected]
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V-2 Rocket
NOTE: There is a link at the end of this page to V-2 firing tables summarizing all WSMR V-2 flights.
The German V-2 rocket, Hitler's "brain child" of World War II, is the grandfather of America's family of large missiles.
Based on findings made by America's Dr. Robert H. Goddard following World War I, the Germans hit a peak production of V-2's during 1944 and 1945 at Peenemunde, and terrorized Allied populations of Europe and England until the end of the war.
The German program started in early 1940, and the first V-2 was launched July 6, 1942. The third missile, launched in October 1942, flew 170 miles and was the first successful V-2 in flight.
Between August 1944 and February 1945, the Germans made some 3,000 rockets with a peak production of 30 missiles in one day. Hitler's production target was for 3,600 rockets in one year.
The Germans had an underground production plant in Nordhausen with a 900,000 square-foot production area. The plant was constructed in two parallel tunnels 500 feet apart, each a mile and a quarter long and cut completely through a mountain.
The main rocket assembly line started at one end of the first tunnel and missiles, moved along on rails, were finished and tested upon reaching the opposite end of the tunnel and were ready for delivery to launching sites.
The second tunnel was used for bringing in units and parts for subassembly lines which were 46 smaller tunnels cross-connecting at strategic points the two main missile arteries.
Subassemblies were channeled to tunnels and timed so that they reached the main assembly line at the time and place required. The total length of the entire tunnel-web was 18 miles.
United States Efforts Focus on White Sands
In the closing days of the war, America embarked upon its own rocket development program and established White Sands Proving Ground (now White Sands Missile Range) in New Mexico as its principal site for rocket testing and development.
In mid-August 1945, 300 railroad freight cars of V-2 components captured in the European Theater of Operations arrived in New Mexico. The Santa Fe Railroad spotted ten cars per day in Las Cruces, NM for unloading and transport by military and German personnel to the east side of the Organ Mountains.
To get an idea of the magnitude of the logistics problem, every railroad siding from El Paso, TX to Belen, NM, a distance of 210 miles, was full of cars. The Army hired every flatbed truck in Dona Ana County to move the material. The task was completed in 20 days.
Some of the components and material brought to White Sands included 215 combustion chambers, 180 sets of propellant tanks, 90 tail units, 100 sets of graphite jet vanes, and 200 turbopumps.
The Paperclip Crew
In addition to material, captured German scientists and missile experts were sent to the U.S. to assist in America's missile program. After careful screening, approximately 100 individuals were chosen to come to this country. A paperclip was placed on their folders and they became part of the program known as "Operation Paperclip."
The Paperclip crew, which was headed by the famous Dr. Wernher Von Braun, arrived in the U.S. on Nov. 17, 1945 and in January 1946 was moved to Fort Bliss, Texas. The group was divided and approximately 20 were assigned to White Sands Proving Ground (WSPG). At the end of a six-month period the Germans were returned to Fort Bliss for renewal of contracts and reassignment. A few of the original group were returned to WSPG to continue work there.
German personnel at WSPG reached its peak of 39 in March 1946. Thereafter, the German specialists and engineers were replaced by American contractor personnel in the spring of 1947.
The widespread impression that many German missiles were brought to America intact and ready for flight was erroneous. No V-2s were received in flyable condition. The General Electric Company was contracted by the U.S. Army Ordnance Department to assemble, test and fire the V-2s.
U.S. Rebuilds German Parts
V-2 Rocket Components
Nose Cone - During World War II, the nose cone held a German warhead containing almost a ton of explosives. At White Sands, the Army invited government agencies and universities to use the nose cone's 20 cubic feet of space for scientific research, up to 2,000 pounds of scientific equipment, such as cameras, sensors, and on-board experiments, were carried aloft on each flight.
Midsection - The propellant used in the V-2 consisted of alcohol and liquid oxygen, propellant tanks and associated valves and piping were located in the rocket's midsection. Glass wool insulated the rocket from the extreme cold of the liquid oxygen.
V-2 No. 13: Motion pictures showing Earth's curvature: October 24, 1946
V-2 No. 40: Photographs of 800,000 square miles of Earth's surface; July 26, 1948
View V-2 Firing Tables summarizing all flights at White Sands
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management test 2 Chapter 4
46 terms by bengland16
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the trend of the world economy toward becoming a more interdependent system
Global village
refers to the "shrinking" of time and space as air travel and the electronic media have made it easier for the people of the globe to communicate with one another.
the buying and selling of products and services through computer networks
global economy
multinational corporation
multinational enterprise, is a business firm with operations in several countries
multinational organization
a nonprofit organization with operations in several countries
ethnocentric managers
believe that their native country, culture, language, and behavior are superior to all others
polycentric managers
the view that native managers in the foreign offices best understand native personnel and practices, and so the home office should leave them alone.
Geocentric managers
accept that there are differences and similarities between home and foreign personnel and practices and that they should use whatever techniques are most effective.
manufacturing plants allowed to operate in Mexico with special privileges in return for employing Mexican citizens.
using suppliers outside of the country to provide goods and services
Global outsourcing
using suppliers outside of the United States to provide labor, goods, or services
a company buys goods outside of the country and resells them domestically
a company produces goods domestically and sells them outside the country
bartering goods for goods
Joint Venture
also known as a strategic alliance, with a foreign company to share the risks and rewards of starting a neew enterprise together in a foreign country
Wholly-owned subsidiary
a foreign subsidiary that is totally owned and controlled by an organization
Greenfield venture
is a foreign subsidiary that the owning organization has build from scratch
Free trade
the movement of goods and services among nations without political or economic obstruction.
Trade protectionism
a trade barrier in the form of a customs duty or tax levied mainly on imports
Import quota
the practice of a foreign company's exporting products abroad at a lower price than the price in the home market - or even below the costs of production - in order to drive down the price of the domestic product.
a complete ban on the import and export of certain products
World Trade Organization (WTO)
designed to monitor and enforce trade agreements
World bank
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
designed to assist in smoothing the flow of money between nations
Exchange rate
the rate at which one country's currency can be exchanged for another country's currency
Trade bloc
also known as economic community, is a group of nations within a geographical region that have agreed to remove trade barriers with one another.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA
European Union (EU)
consistsof 27 trading partners in Europe
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
a trading bloc consisting of 11 countries in Asia
the largest trade bloc in Latin America and has four core members - Argentinga, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, with venezuala scheduled to become a full member upon ratification by other countries - and a five associate members: Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador, and Peru
The Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR
involves the United States and Costa Rica, the Dominican republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua - is intended to reduce tariffs and other barriers to free trade.
Low-context culture
shared meanings are primarily derived from written and spoken words
High-context culture
people rely heavily on situational cues for meaning when communicating with others.
Hofstede model of four cultural dimensions
- identified four dimensions along which national cultures can be placed 1) individualism/collectivism 2)power distance 3) uncertainty avoidance 4) Masculinity/femininity.
Globe Project
a massive and ongoing cross-cultural investigation of nine cultural dimensions involved in leadership and organizational processes.
Monochromic time
a preference for doing one thing at a time
Polychromic time
a preference for doing more than one thing at a time
people living or working in a foreign country
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Learn more about joining as an editor!
See discussions in the Community Portal
Three Dimensional Projects
(Redirected from 3 D)
A recent 3D project made in Scratch.
The rendering of a 3D landscape in a PC game from 2005.
The rendering of a 3D world in a recent 2014 video game called Middle Earth: Shadow or Mordor. Graphics standards have changed drastically since the above image's year.
Difference in the Third-Dimension
In addition, many 2D graphics are pre-rendered meaning the instructions for how to create the graphics were already carried out or pre-coded rather than the graphics card having to render the graphics anew. Rendering is the process of creating an array of coloured pixels based on a set of instructions, such as in Scratch's vector graphics. Displaying is taking what was rendered and sending it off to a monitor to be seen. Because 2D graphics are seen from one perspective, they can be pre-rendered as bitmap images, but 3D graphics can be viewed at thousands of different angles and must follow instructions for rendering the graphics. One of the common instruction engines used to render 3D graphics is DirectX, which is found on the Windows operating system.
3D Methods Used in Scratch
Ray Tracing
Ray casting
3D Projection
Perspective is usually used, but there are simpler projections, such as the orthographic projections, that are also used. It can be built using trigonometry and the perspective formula or with quaternions.
3D Projection Example
Exporting from 3D Programs
The camera is rotatable according to the mouse x and y.
Pre-rendered Graphics
Sliced 3D method
Main article: Animating a 3D Object
Non-rotating Method
Stamping Method
3D Models Only
Some users want a 3D editor to be implemented into Scratch. The Scratch Team has rejected this suggestion, stating that it would make Scratch confusing for beginners.[5] Some users argue the point, saying that to make it less confusing, it could be restricted to only Scratchers,[6] or saying that there could be two separate editors,[7] but the suggestion remains rejected.[5]
See Also
1. Wikipedia:3D
2. Wikipedia:Ray tracing (graphics)
3. Wikipedia:Ray casting
4. Wikipedia:3D projection
5. a b
• This page was last modified on 22 November 2014, at 01:45.
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Definitions for z-transform
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word z-transform
1. Z-transform(Noun)
transform that converts a discrete time-domain signal into a complex frequency-domain representation
1. Z-transform
In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a time-domain signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex frequency-domain representation. It can be considered as a discrete-time equivalent of the Laplace transform. This similarity is explored in the theory of time scale calculus.
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OP's pretty clearly not a seasoned programmer or he would know the difference between a program and an operating system. Very likely he would know the difference between a batch language and a scripting or programming language even.
However, Perl is a pretty good language for teaching people many programming fundamentals (and pretty seriously cools as well). It is rather more forgiving than the more strongly typed languages and more quietly powerful (for some definition of powerful) than the many variants of Basic.
So even for people with green scaly skin that live under a bridge, Perl is a pretty good place to learn something about what a programming language is and does.
DWIM is Perl's answer to Gödel
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Electrostatic precipitator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
Jump to: navigation, search
Invention of the electrostatic precipitator
The first use of corona discharge to remove particles from an aerosol was by Hohlfeld in 1824. However, it was not commercialized until almost a century later. In 1907 Dr. Frederick G. Cottrell applied for a patent on a device for charging particles and then collecting them through electrostatic attraction — the first electrostatic precipitator. He was then a professor of chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley. Cottrell first applied the device to the collection of sulfuric acid mist and lead oxide fume emitted from various acid-making and smelting activities. Vineyards in northern California were being adversely affected by the lead emissions.
At the time of Cottrell's invention, the theoretical basis for operation was not understood. The operational theory was developed later in the 1920s, in Germany.
Prof. Cottrell used proceeds from his invention to fund scientific research through the creation of a foundation called Research Corporation in 1912 to which he assigned the patents. The intent of the organization was to bring inventions made by educators (such as Cottrell) into the commercial world for the benefit of society at large. The operation of Research Corporation is perpetuated by royalties paid by commercial firms after commercialization occurs. Research Corporation has provided vital funding to many scientific projects: Goddard's rocketry experiments, Lawrence's cyclotron, production methods for vitamins A and B1, among many others. By a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court the Corporation had to be split into two entities, the Research Corporation and two commercial firms making the hardware: Research-Cottrell Inc. (operating east of the Mississippi River) and Western Precipitation operating in the Western states. The Research Corporation continues to be active to this day and the two companies formed to commercialize the invention for industrial and utility applications are still in business as well.
Electrophoresis is the term used for migration of gas-suspended charged particles in a direct-current electrostatic field. If your television set accumulates dust on the face it is because of this phenomenon (a CRT is a direct-current machine operating at about 35kV).
Plate precipitator
Principle of the Electrostatic Precipitator
A negative voltage of several thousand volts is applied between wire and plate. If the applied voltage is high enough an electric (corona) discharge ionizes the gas around the electrodes. Negative ions flow to the plates and charge the gas-flow particles.
Particles build up on the collection plates and form a layer. The layer does not collapse, thanks to electrostatic pressure (given from layer resistivity, electric field, and current flowing in the collected layer).
Collection efficiency (R)
Precipitator performance is very sensitive due to two particulate properties: 1) Resistivity; and 2) Particle size distribution. These properties can be determined economically and accurately in the laboratory. A widely taught concept to calculate the collection efficiency is the Deutsch model, which assumes infinite remixing of the particles perpendicular to the gas stream.
Resistivity can be determined as a function of temperature in accordance with IEEE Standard 548. This test is conducted in an air environment containing a specified moisture concentration. The test is run as a function of ascending or descending temperature or both. Data are acquired using an average ash layer electric field of 4 kV/cm. Since relatively low applied voltage is used and no sulfuric acid vapor is present in the environment, the values obtained indicate the maximum ash resistivity.
Usually the descending temperature test is suggested when no unusual circumstances are involved. Before the test, the ash is thermally equilibrated in dry air at 454 °C (850°F) for about 14 hours. It is believed that this procedure anneals the ash and restores the surface to pre-collection condition.
If there is a concern about the effect of combustibles, the residual effect of a conditioning agent other than sulfuric acid vapor, or the effect of some other agent that inhibits the reaction of the ash with water vapor, the combination of the ascending and descending test mode is recommended. The thermal treatment that occurs between the two test modes is capable of eliminating the foregoing effects. This results in ascending and descending temperature resistivity curves that show a hysteresis related to the presence and removal of some effect such as a significant level of combustibles.
With particles of high resistivity (cement dust for example) Sulfur trioxide is sometimes injected into a flue gas stream to lower the resistivity of the particles in order to improve the collection efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator.
Modern industrial electrostatic precipitators
Wet electrostatic precipitator
A wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP or wet ESP) operates with saturated air streams (100% relative humidity). WESPs are commonly used to remove liquid droplets such as sulfuric acid mist from industrial process gas streams. The WESP is also commonly used where the gases are high in moisture content, contain combustible particulate, or have particles that are sticky in nature.
The preferred and most modern type of WESP is a downflow tubular design. This design allows the collected moisture and particulate to form a slurry that helps to keep the collection surfaces clean.
Consumer-oriented electrostatic air cleaners
The two-stage design (charging section ahead of collecting section) has the benefit of minimizing ozone production which would adversely affect health of personnel working in enclosed spaces. For shipboard engine rooms where gearboxes generate an oil fog, two-stage ESP's are used to clean the air improving the operating environment and preventing buildup of flammable oil fog accumulations. Collected oil is returned to the gear lubricating system.
The first portable electrostatic air filter systems for homes was marketed in 1954 by Raytheon. [3]
See also
1. ^ Nic, M.; Jirat, J.; Kosata, B., eds. (2006–). "electrostatic precipitator". IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (Online ed.). doi:10.1351/goldbook.E02028. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8. http://goldbook.iupac.org/E02028.html.
2. ^ "Your Furnace Filter: What A Furnace Filter Can Do For You". Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/co/maho/gemare/gemare_008.cfm. Retrieved 2008-09-01.
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Why turkey has the same name as Turkey
tympanic bone
noun, Anatomy, Zoology
(in mammals) a bone of the skull, supporting the tympanic membrane and enclosing part of the tympanum or middle ear.
1840-50 Unabridged
Cite This Source
Examples from the web for tympanic bone
• Histology and growth of the cetacean petro-tympanic bone complex.
British Dictionary definitions for tympanic bone
tympanic bone
the part of the temporal bone in the mammalian skull that surrounds the auditory canal
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
Cite This Source
tympanic bone in Medicine
tympanic bone n.
The bony ring in the fetus that develops after birth into the tympanic part of the temporal bone of the skull, partially enclosing the middle ear and supporting the eardrum. Also called tympanic ring.
The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary
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What's the difference between @title and title? Since both of them can be variable names. Also, how do I decide which kind of variable I should use? With @ or not?
share|improve this question
@title is an instance variable. title is a local variable. This is a big topic. You should read a book on ruby. – Sergio Tulentsev Jan 14 '13 at 13:32
7 Answers 7
up vote 43 down vote accepted
title is a local variable. They only exists within it's scope (current block)
@title is a instance variable - and is available to all methods within the class.
You can read more here: http://strugglingwithruby.blogspot.dk/2010/03/variables.html
In Ruby on Rails - declaring your variables in your controller as instance variables (@title) makes them available to your view.
share|improve this answer
The difference is in the scope of the variable. The @version is available to all methods of the class instance.
The short answer, if you're in the controller and you need to make the variable available to the view then use @variable.
For a much longer answer try this: http://www.ruby-doc.org/docs/ProgrammingRuby/html/tut_classes.html
share|improve this answer
A local variable is only accessible from within the block of it's initialization. Also a local variable begins with a lower case letter (a-z) or underscore (_).
And instance variable is an instance of self and begins with a @ Also an instance variable belongs to the object itself. Instance variables are the ones that you perform methods on i.e. .send etc
@user = User.all
The @user is the instance variable
And Uninitialized instance variables have a value of Nil
share|improve this answer
So how does this explain the difference between @title & title? – Rich Peck Dec 9 '13 at 9:37
With an instance variable like @title you can perform various methods on it, whereas a local variable you don't – Joe Hilton Dec 9 '13 at 10:02
So how does that actually fix the question? Looks like you're just quoting some tutorial. The OP wants to know whether he should use @title or title – Rich Peck Dec 9 '13 at 10:04
So they should use an instance variable if they want to perform any methods I.e. def new or def create etc – Joe Hilton Dec 9 '13 at 10:11
Doesn't fix the OP's question – Rich Peck Dec 9 '13 at 10:16
@variables are called instance variables in ruby. Which means you can access these variables in ANY METHOD inside the class. [Across all methods in the class]
variables without @ symbol are called local variables, which means you can access these local variables with in THAT DECLARED METHOD only. Limited to the local scope.
Example of Instance Variables:
class Customer
def initialize(id, name, addr)
def display_details()
puts "Customer id #@cust_id"
puts "Customer name #@cust_name"
puts "Customer address #@cust_addr"
In the above example @cust_id, @cust_name, @cust_addr are accessed in other method with in the class. But the same thing would not be accessible with local variables.
share|improve this answer
@ variables are instance variables, without are local variables.
Read more at http://ruby.about.com/od/variables/a/Instance-Variables.htm
share|improve this answer
Use @title in your controllers when you want your variable to be available in your views.
The explanation is that @title is an instance variable and title is a local variable and rails makes instance variables from controllers available to views. This happens because the template code (erb, haml, etc) is executed within the scope of the current controller instance.
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This was already answered long ago, anyway I would like to apport this link that explains really good the differents variables scopes, hope you enjoy it!
Link over here!
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The Final Showdown The End Game
Ch 13 - The Hermit Kingdom
The Battle of Sekigahara
On October 21, 1600, the Eastern and Western Armies clashed near the small village of Sekigahara on the Nakasendo Road in central Honshu. The dramatic battle established Lord Tokugawa Ieyasu as hegemon over all Japan and ended any claim to supremacy by the Toyotomi family. Tokugawa Ieyasu, the last of Japan's three great unifiers, became Shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa Shogunate.
The morning of October 21, 1600, began in cold, gray silence. The heavy rains of the night had diminished to a light drizzle, laying a bone-chilling fog over the hills and valleys around Sekigahara. With visibility restricted to just a few yards at best, no one could see what the other side was doing, so most samurai on both sides were preoccupied with getting warm and drying out clothing soaked during the previous night's maneuvering.
As the dense fog slowly lifted, the front ranks of the two armies on the valley floor saw each other for the first time. Rival generals, eager to fight, anxiously awaited orders to commence the battle. General Ii Naomasa waited for no one. Adorned in bright red armor and a golden-horned helmet, General Ii took the initiative without warning and impetuously charged across the Hokkoku Road just north of Sekigahara, just as Lord Ishida had hoped. At 8 o'clock in the morning, staccato musket fire erupted across the valley as General Ii's "red devils" thundered directly into the front lines of General Ukita's position. General Fukushima Masanori immediately joined the fight, taking his samurai headlong into the center of the Western army's defensive line. The battle had begun.
From his headquarters camp east of Sekigahara, Lord Tokugawa could hear the start of fighting, but with heavy fog still hanging in the valley there was little chance that he saw any of these first developments. By the time visibility improved enough for him to actually witness the developing battle, the pattern of fighting had already been set. His troops were already advancing all along the line against fierce resistance from Ishida's numerically superior troops. The premature start of the battle by General Ii Naomasa committed the Eastern Army to heavy fighting long before Lord Tokugawa's entire command had reached the area. Thousands of Eastern Army troops were still strung out along the Nakasendo Road to the east and had yet to reach the battlefield.
In the northeast, Generals Kuroda, Tanaka, Hosokawa, Kato, and Tsutsui attacked Lord Ishida's forward positions near Mount Sasao. General Kuroda had a personal grudge to settle with Lord Ishida and was determined to reach him first. The 2,000 samurai commanded by Gamo Bitchu and Shima Sakon took cover behind their defensive palisade and unleashed heavy gunfire against the charging Easterners with little effect. After overrunning the palisade defense line, Kuroda led his warriors up the slopes of Mount Sasao towards Ishida's camp. The charge finally halted after absorbing heavy fire from arquebus gunners. Ishida quickly ordered five of his artillery cannon to open fire on the Easterners, who began to withdraw from the slopes. Lord Ishida led a counterattack against General Tanaka, but was turned away when Generals Kato and Hosokawa attacked Ishida's exposed flanks.
On General Ii's left flank, samurai under Kyoguku, Todo, and Terasawa thundered into Otani Yoshitsugu's combat veterans at the western edge of the valley. General Otani stoutly defended his position against all attacks. Commanders on both sides ordered their warriors into the fight all along the fluid front as fighting degenerated into a battle of attrition throughout the rest of the morning.
At around 10 o'clock that morning, the Kikkawa leader was supposed to give the signal to bring the Mori into the battle, but he did nothing. Before the fighting began, he had sent a messenger to Lord Tokugawa with word that the Kikkawa would defect. Without help from the Mori, the fighting west of Sekigahara slowly turned in favor of the Easterners. By now, most of Tokugawa's men were committed to the fight. Despite the bloody battle raging around the valley floor, the Shimazu, Kobayakawa, and Wakizaka clans had yet to see any action. Lord Ishida saw an opportunity to swing the battle in his favor and decided to make a strong push from the south. When he sent word to the Shimazu to join the fight, he received the following reply;
In this battle each clan must look to it's own affairs and fight it's own battles with all it's might. There is no time to be concerned with the affairs of others in front, behind, or on either flank.
Stunned by the response, all Ishida could do was rely on the dubious loyalty of General Kobayakawa Hideaki and hope he would do his duty.
Lord Ishida ordered a signal fire lit about 11 o'clock that morning to send General Kobayakawa into the battle to relieve the pressure on Otani by attacking the Easterners from the rear. There was no reaction. A second signal fire was lit soon afterward, but still there was no response. General Otani Yoshitsugu was not surprised by Kobayakawa's lack of movement, for he had suspected treachery all along. The Mori also saw the signal, knowing it was time for Kikkawa to order them into battle, but still there was no movement.
Lord Tokugawa Ieyasu kept a wary eye on developments at the southern end of the battle front. His mounting tension was already tinged with fury against his own son, Hidetada, who had yet to arrive with his 38,000 troops. If Kobayakawa Hideaki's 15,600 men suddenly moved from their hillside position overlooking the bloody battlefield at the southern end of the line and attacked Lord Tokugawa's exposed southern flank, the Eastern Army's cause would probably be lost. Tokugawa was not a man who depended on luck to win battles. He relied on his own shrewdness, patience and unscrupulous native cunning. Tokugawa's spies had been in action well before the first shots were fired at the Battle of Sekigahara and cleverly convinced Kobayakawa Hideaki to betray Lord Ishida and join Lord Tokugawa's forces.
The dramatic turning point in the battle came shortly after noon. Puzzled by the lack of movement, Lord Tokugawa sent a squad of arquebusiers to fire a volley at Kobayakawa's men and stir them into action. General Kobayakawa leapt to his feet and yelled to his men, "Our target is Otani Yoshitsugu!" After watching the morning's killing from their hillside position, Kobayakawa's 15,600 samurai finally charged down the hill, directing their blood lust against the ranks of the brave General Otani, whose battle weary men had held their position for the past four hours. Despite being heavily outnumbered by fresh troops, Otani's men held out for a while longer. Soon, Admiral Wakizaka's loyalists decided to follow Kobayakawa's lead and joined the fight against Otani. As his troops were being overrun and before he could be captured, General Otani commanded a retainer to hide his severed head and committed ritual suicide, seppuku.
Having broken Ishida's southern flank, Lord Tokugawa realized that victory would be his. The loss of Otani's strong position and added defections to the Easterners resulted in a rapid collapse of Lord Ishida's battle line in the southeast. General Ukita Hideie had just managed to reestablish his own lines when the Easterners and defectors attacked them in force. By 2 o'clock in the afternoon, Westerners began to break and run all along the front. As the Westerners saw their fleeing comrades, many, including Lord Ishida himself, simply dropped their weapons and fled the battlefield to the safety of the forested northern slopes and the shelter of Mount Ibuki. Only General Shimazu Toyohisa remained, engaged in a fierce melee with General Ii Naomasa's infamous "red devils."
Eventually, Shimazu realized the inevitability of defeat and was persuaded to quit the field of battle. With his escape route to the north cut off, Shimazu's only option was to charge through the center of Lord Tokugawa's lines and try to reach the Ise Road to the south. His boldness paid off. After exchanging helmets with his nephew to confuse the Easterners, he led his surviving 200 samurai in a desperate race to freedom right past the bemused Lord Tokugawa, hotly pursued by Ii Naomasa's warriors. After reaching the Ise Road, Shimazu's brave nephew turned to fight a delaying action with General Ii's samurai. The young man was quickly overwhelmed and his head was taken, but the fatal skirmish allowed his uncle to escape, eventually returning to Kyushu with eighty of his men.
The Battle of Sekigahara was decisive victory. Among the final pursuits of the battle, when the Easterners mopped up remaining pockets of resistance, Lord Ishida's home castle at Sawayama was captured and his brother killed. Lord Tokugawa Ieyasu had to be restrained by his own commanders from taking similar vengeance against his own son, Hidetada, who showed up with his 38,000 samurai just after the end of the fighting. A "heads inspection" was performed at Lord Tokugawa's final encampment just north of Sekigahara along the Hokkoku Road, where he viewed the nearly 40,000 enemy heads taken in battle. Within three days, Lord Ishida Mitsunari was captured in the area of Mount Ibuki and taken to Kyoto with other captive leaders of the Western Army. All were executed on the river bed within a matter of days. Having cleared the path to become the next shogun, Lord Tokugawa Ieyasu sat back on his stool and mused to those in his presence, "After victory, tighten the cords of your helmet."
The Battle of Sekigahara represented the last great leap out of generations of bitter civil warfare in Japan. First and foremost, it established Lord Tokugawa Ieyasu as hegemon over all Japan and ended any claim to supremacy by the Toyotomi family. He permitted the young Toyotomi Hideyori and his mother Yodogimi to retain his residence in Osaka Castle along with 650,000 koku of land in three nearby provinces, but he confiscated the domains of some ninety daimyo outright and reduced the land holdings of many others. Before Sekigahara, all the daimyo had submitted to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Now, they would have to submit to Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Tokugawa Ieyasu spent the next three years establishing the foundations for a new form of government in Japan. The Tokugawa family made many enemies in their ascent to power. An unsuccessful assassination attempt against Tokugawa Ieyasu following a banquet to celebrate his victory at Sekigahara, left no doubt about the depth of the opposition A Deadly Dessert.
In 1603, Lord Tokugawa realized his life-long ambition when the Imperial Court assigned him the honored title of Shogun. In a purely political gesture, more for show than for practical impact,Tokugawa Ieyasu ordered Lady Yoda and Lord Hideyori to attend his inauguration in Edo as Shogun. After reluctantly accepting the invitation, etiquette demanded they make the trip, they left the safety of Osaka Castle and attended the ceremony without incident under the constant protection of their loyal samurai bodyguard. Thus began the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Tokugawa family sustained a dynasty of fifteen Shoguns and remained the governing power in Japan until 1868, supported by the descendants of the original daimyo warlords.
The last of the three great "unifiers" of sixteenth century Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu became the first shogun in 150 years to exercise the real power of the office. After establishing his new government in Edo, the new shogun set about building a new ruling government, one that sharply defined the foundation of future political relationships in Japan. Putting politics and loyalties aside, he wisely recognized the many skills and management systems the daimyo used to build and maintain their territories and saw the potential of incorporating these well-managed domains under his rule. The Tokugawa Shogunate operated under the baku-han system, which uniquely blended the best of the traditional centralized bakufu, or "tent government" of the shogun, with the local administrative duties of the daimyo's domain, or han. The shogun held national authority and the daimyo held regional authority.
It was essential that Tokugawa Ieyasu maintain dominance and control over his rivals. Building strong alliances and eradicating all opposition became a deadly serious game that Lord Tokugawa played without mercy. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyo houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. He ensured his family's supremacy by bringing the entire country under tight control through a combination of forced submission and written oaths of fealty from the daimyo, bringing his friends and loyal allies in close and pushing his opponents away. Those who would not submit were put to the sword. The price the daimyo had to pay to keep their heads and ensure the continuation of their families, was to be resettled far from their traditional domains to an area where they had no local loyalties that could spark a rebellion. The kunigae, or "changes of provinces," made Japan's great warlords a very mobile class during the first few years of the Tokugawa Shogunate. By carefully separating, even isolating the daimyo, Ieyasu established a very clear feudal hierarchy in Japanese society.
Twenty-three daimyo, all directly related to Tokugawa Ieyasu, were resettled on the borders of the shogun's lands. These were the shinpan or "related houses," families with the closest ties to the Tokugawa lineage. The shinpan were awarded mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu. The next class in the feudal hierarchy were the fudai daimyo, or "house daimyo," those who had shown consistent loyalty to Lord Tokugawa, many of whom adopted the family name Matsudaira. They were given small, strategic fiefs close to Tokugawa's holdings for their faithful service, lands that controlled the country's vital communications lines. Many fudai daimyo staffed most of the major bakufu offices, which evolved an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. By the eighteenth century, 145 fudai daimyo helped ensure the security of the Tokugawa Shogunate.
Ninety-seven daimyo who had no traditional loyalty to Tokugawa or whose loyalty had only been won by force of arms, the tozama daimyo, or "outer lords," were relocated to the outermost provinces of Japan, far from their original fiefs and far from each other. The tozama daimyo were the least trusted of the daimyo, and were relocated mostly on the periphery of central Honshu, where they collectively controlled nearly 10 million koku of productive land. They were cautiously managed and generously awarded increased land holdings, or at least permitted to hold on to their original estates. The tozama daimyo were rigidly excluded from holding positions in the central government. The distinction between fudai and tozama daimyo remained in effect for the next two-and-a-half centuries.
Although Tokugawa Ieyasu directly controlled one fourth of all Japanese land and regulated all commercial activity, he failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyo. To ensure the success of his new baku-han, he instituted a subtle, yet ingenious arrangement known as sankin kotai, or "alternate attendance" to keep the daimyo in line. The sankin kotai required all daimyo to leave their wives and children permanently in Edo, the Shogun's capital, while they alternated their own residence between Edo and their own han every other year.
The daimyo were not taxed directly, but they were regularly tapped for contributions to provide military and logistical support and for such public works projects as roads, bridges, castles, and palaces. The various regulations and levies combined with sankin kotai, not only strengthened the Tokugawa Shogunate, but depleted the wealth of the daimyo, thus weakening their threat to the central government. The han, once the military-centered domains of warlords, became mere local administrative units for the bakufu.
As the Tokugawa family consolidated its control over a reunified Japan, it also took on unprecedented power over the emperor, the imperial court, all daimyo, and religious orders in the country. The emperor was elevated as the ultimate political sanction for the shogun's ruling power, who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. Under the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan enjoyed the longest period of uninterrupted peace in its history. The brilliant and ruthless administration of the Tokugawa Shoguns and their strict policy of seclusion created the crucible that spawned a flowering of Japanese culture and ultimately forged the temperament of modern Japan.
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What happened with Wickard?
Much discussion of the Wickard v. Filburn line of precedents portrays what happened as a misconstruction of what the term “commerce” means in the Constitution, but that is not what happened. The 1942 Supreme Court did not say Filburn’s corn was “commerce”, but that it had a “substantial effect” on commerce, enough to thwart the attempt by the government to “regulate” it. That is a construction of the “Necessary and Proper” clause, not the Commerce Clause. The decision erred by construing a “power” as “getting a desired outcome” rather than “making a proper effort”. It conveniently overlooks the trailing words “to carry into execution the foregoing powers…” which is about making an effort, not getting a result.
The Necessary and Proper Clause, Art. I Sec. 8 Cl. 18:
This misconstruction in Wickard is not something new. It goes all the way back to McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819), which it cites as authority, and which contains the following passages:
Until this misconstruction is understood it is not easy to overcome it. Asserting the Tenth Amendment won't work unless we attack the notions that "necessary and proper" is to get a result and that the power to regulate is the power to do whatever it takes to get a result. See Draft Amendments.
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This article is about the armoured vehicle. For other uses, see Tank (disambiguation).
Tiger II's of Schwere Heeres Panzer Abteilung 503 (s.H.Pz.Abt. 503) 'Feldherrnhalle' posing in formation for the German newsreel
A tank is a large type of armoured fighting vehicle with tracks, designed for front-line combat. Modern tanks are strong mobile land weapons platforms, mounting a large-calibre cannon in a rotating gun turret. They combine this with heavy vehicle armour providing protection for the crew of the weapon and operational mobility, which allows them to position on the battlefield in advantageous locations. These features enable the tank to have enormous capability to perform well in a tactical situation: the combination of strong weapons fire from their tank gun and their ability to resist enemy fire means the tank can take hold of and control an area of the battle and prevent other enemy vehicles from advancing, for example. In both offensive and defensive roles, they are powerful units able to perform all primary tasks[which?] required of armoured troops on the battlefield.[1] The modern tank was the result of a century of development from primitive armoured vehicles, due to improvements in technology such as the internal combustion engine, which allowed the rapid movement of heavy equipment required to construct armoured vehicles. As a result of these advances, tanks underwent tremendous shifts in capability during the World Wars of the 20th century.
Tanks in World War I were developed separately and simultaneously by Great Britain [2] and France as a means to break the deadlock of trench warfare on the Western Front. Their first use in combat was by the British Army on September 15, 1916 between the villages of Flers and Courcelette, during the Battle of the Somme. The name "tank" was adopted by the British during the early stages of their development, as a security measure to conceal their purpose (see etymology). While the French and British built thousands of tanks between them, Germany was unconvinced of the tank's potential, and built only twenty of her own.
Tanks of the interwar period evolved into the designs of World War II. Important concepts of armoured warfare were developed; the Soviet Union launched the first mass tank/air attack at Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan) in August 1939,[3] which later resulted in the T-34, a predecessor of the main battle tank; this was quickly followed up by Germany on a larger scale when they introduced blitzkrieg ('lightning war') less than two weeks later; a technique which made use of massed concentrations of tanks supported by artillery and air power to break through the enemy front and cause a complete collapse in enemy resistance and morale.
The widespread introduction of HEAT warheads during the second half of WWII led to lightweight anti-tank weapons with considerable power. This caused major changes in tank doctrine and the introduction of effective combined arms tactics. Tanks in the Cold War were designed with these weapons in mind, and led to greatly improved armours during the 1960s, especially composite armour. Improved engines, transmissions and suspensions allowed tanks of this period to grow larger. Aspects of gun technology changed significantly as well, with advances in shell design.
Main article: History of the tank
Film clip of World War I-era tanks.
The tank is the 20th century realization of an ancient concept: that of providing troops with mobile protection and firepower. The internal combustion engine, armour plate, and the continuous track were key innovations leading to the invention of the modern tank.
Armoured trains appeared in the mid-19th century, and various armoured steam- and petrol-engined vehicles were also proposed. The first armoured car was produced in Austria in 1904. However, all were restricted to rails or reasonably passable terrain. It was the development of a practical caterpillar track that provided the necessary independent, all-terrain mobility.
Model of Leonardo's proposed vehicle.
The machines described in Wells's 1903 short story The Land Ironclads are a step closer, in being armour-plated, having an internal power plant, and being able to cross trenches. Some aspects of the story foresee the tactical use and impact of the tanks that later came into being. However, Wells's vehicles were driven by steam and moved on Pedrail wheels, technologies that were already outdated at the time of writing. After seeing British tanks in 1916, Wells denied having "invented" them, writing, "Yet let me state at once that I was not their prime originator. I took up an idea, manipulated it slightly, and handed it on."[6] It is, though, possible that one of the British tank pioneers, Ernest Swinton, was subconsciously or otherwise influenced by Wells's tale.[7][8]
It is frequently claimed that Richard Lovell Edgeworth created a caterpillar track. It is true that in 1770 he patented a "machine, that should carry and lay down its own road", but this was Edgeworth's choice of words. His own account in his autobiography is of a horse-drawn wooden carriage on eight retractable legs, capable of lifting itself over high walls. The description bears no similarity to a caterpillar track.[9] The first combinations of the three principal components of the Tank appeared in the decade before World War One. In 1903, a Captain Levavasseur of the French Artillery proposed mounting a field gun in an armoured box on tracks. Major W.E. Donohue, of the British Army's Mechanical Transport Committee, suggested fixing a gun and armoured shield on a British type of track-driven vehicle.[10] In 1911, a Lieutenant Engineer in the Austrian Army, Günther Burstyn, presented to the Austrian and Prussian War Ministries plans for a light, three-man tank with a gun in a revolving turret.[11] In the same year an Australian civil engineer named Lancelot de Mole submitted a basic design for a tracked, armoured vehicle to the British War Office.[12] In Russia, Vasiliy Mendeleev designed a tracked vehicle containing a large naval gun.[13]
All of these ideas were rejected and, by 1914, forgotten, although it was officially acknowledged after the War that de Mole's design was at least the equal of the tanks that were later produced by Great Britain, and he was voted a cash payment for his contribution. Various individuals continued to contemplate the use of tracked vehicles for military applications, but by the outbreak of the War no one in a position of responsibility in any army had any thoughts about tanks.[citation needed]
World War I[edit]
Main article: Tanks in World War I
British World War I Mark V* tank
Great Britain
As the result of an approach by Royal Naval Air Service officers who had been operating armoured cars on the Western Front, the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill[14] formed the Landships Committee, on 20 February 1915. The Director of Naval Construction for the Royal Navy, Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, was appointed to head the Committee in view of his experience with the engineering methods it was felt might be required; the two other members were naval officers, and a number of industrialists were engaged as consultants. So many played a part in its long and complicated development that it is not possible to name any individual as the sole inventor of the tank,[15] though the British Government later made proportionate cash awards to those it considered to have contributed. Their first design, Little Willie, ran for the first time in September 1915 and served to develop the form of the track but an improved design, better able to cross trenches, swiftly followed and in January 1916 the prototype, nicknamed "Mother", was adopted as the design for future tanks. Production models of "Male" tanks (armed with naval cannon and machine guns) and "Females" (carrying only machine-guns) would go on to fight in history's first tank action at the Somme in September 1916.[14][16] Great Britain produced about 2,600 tanks of various types during the war.[17]
Other nations
Interwar period[edit]
In the Second World War only Germany would initially put the theory into practice on a large scale, and it was their superior tactics and French blunders, not superior weapons, that made blitzkrieg so successful in May 1940.[23] For information regarding tank development in this period, see tank development between the wars.
Germany, Italy all experimented heavily with tank warfare during their clandestine and “volunteer” involvement in the Spanish Civil War, which saw some of the earliest examples of successful mechanised combined arms — such as when Republican troops, equipped with medium tanks and supported by aircraft, eventually routed Italian troops fighting for the Nationalists in the seven-day Battle of Guadalajara in 1937.[24] However, of the nearly 700 tanks deployed during this conflict, only about 64 tanks representing the Franco faction and 331 from the Republican side were equipped with cannon, and of those 64 nearly all were World War I vintage Renault FT tanks.[25] The balance of Nationalist tanks were machine gun armed. The primary lesson learned from this war was that machine gun armed tanks had to be equipped with cannon, with the associated armor inherent to modern tanks.
The five-month-long war between the Soviet Union and the Japanese 6th Army at Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan) in 1939 brought home some bitter lessons. In this conflict, and although the Japanese only deployed about 73 cannon armed tanks, the Soviets fielded over two thousand,[26] with the major difference being that Japanese armor were equipped with diesel engines and the Russian tanks petrol ones.[27] Even after General Georgy Zhukov inflicted a bitter defeat on the Japanese 6th Army with his massed combined tank and air attack, the Soviets had learned a bitter lesson on the use of gasoline engines, and quickly incorporated those newly found experiences into their new T-34 medium tank during World War II.[28]
World War II[edit]
Main article: Tanks in World War II
Soviet T-34 tank column advancing near Leningrad, 1942
Prior to World War II, the tactics and strategy of deploying tank forces underwent a revolution. In August 1939, Soviet General Georgy Zhukov used the combined force of tanks and airpower at Nomonhan against the Japanese 6th Army;[29] Heinz Guderian, a tactical theoretician who was heavily involved in the formation of the first independent German tank force, said "Where tanks are, the front is", and this concept became a reality in World War II.[30] During the Invasion of Poland, tanks performed in a more traditional role in close cooperation with infantry units, but in the Battle of France deep independent armoured penetrations were executed by the Germans, a technique later called blitzkrieg. Blitzkrieg used innovative combined arms tactics and radios in all of the tanks to provide a level of tactical flexibility and power that surpassed that of the Allied armour. The French Army, with tanks equal or superior to the German tanks in both quality and quantity, employed a linear defensive strategy in which the armoured cavalry units were made subservient to infantry as "support weapons".[23] In addition, they lacked radios in many of their tanks and headquarters,[31] which limited their ability to respond to German attacks.
Rommel in North Africa, June 1942
Battle of Kursk was the largest tank battle ever fought, with each side employing nearly 3,000 tanks.
Cold War arms race[edit]
Main article: Tanks in the Cold War
At one time, the Soviet T-72 was the most widely deployed main battle tank across the world.[38]
Tankers drive an M1A1 Abrams tank in Germany.
Tanks and anti-tank weapons of the Cold War era saw action in a number of proxy wars like the Korean War, Vietnam War, Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Soviet war in Afghanistan and Arab-Israeli conflicts, culminating with the Yom Kippur War. The T-55, for example, has seen action in no fewer than 32 conflicts. In these wars the USA or NATO countries and the Soviet Union or China consistently backed opposing forces. Proxy wars were studied by Western and Soviet military analysts and provided a grim contribution to the Cold War tank development process.
21st century conflicts[edit]
Research and development[edit]
Graphic representation of the US Army's cancelled XM1202 Mounted Combat System
In terms of firepower, the focus of current R&D is on increased detection capability such as thermal imagers, automated fire control systems and increased muzzle energy from the gun to improve range, accuracy and armour penetration.[44] The most mature future gun technology is the electrothermal-chemical gun.[45] The XM291 electrothermal-chemical tank gun has gone through successful multiple firing sequences on a modified M8 Armored Gun System chassis.[46]
To improve tank protection, one field of research involves making the tank invisible to radar by adapting stealth technologies originally designed for aircraft. Improvements to camouflage or and attempts to render it invisible through active camouflage is being pursued. Research is also ongoing in electromagnetic armour systems to disperse or deflect incoming shaped charge jets,[47][48] as well as various forms of active protection systems to prevent incoming projectiles from striking the tank at all.
Mobility may be enhanced in future tanks by the use of diesel-electric or turbine-electric series hybrid drives — first used in a primitive, gasoline-engined form with Porsche's Elefant German tank destroyer of 1943 — improving fuel efficiency while reducing the size and weight of the power plant.[49] Furthermore, advances in gas turbine technology, including the use of advanced recuperators,[50] have allowed for reduction in engine volume and mass to less than 1 m3 and 1 metric ton, respectively, while maintaining fuel efficiency similar to that of a diesel engine.[51]
M1 Abrams-TUSK.svg
The three traditional factors determining a tank's capability effectiveness are its firepower, protection, and mobility. Firepower is the ability of a tank's crew to identify, engage, and destroy the enemy. Protection is the tank crew's ability to evade detection, preserve themselves from enemy fire, and retain full vehicle functionality after combat. Mobility includes the ability of the tank to be transported by rail, sea, or air to the operational staging area; from the staging area by road towards the enemy; and tactical movement over the battlefield during combat, including traversing of obstacles and rough terrain.
Offensive capabilities[edit]
Main article: Tank gun
Rifling of a 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 tank gun.
Traditionally, target detection relied on visual identification. This was accomplished from within the tank through telescopic periscopes; occasionally, however, tank commanders would open up the hatch to view the outside surroundings, which improved situational awareness but incurred the penalty of vulnerability to sniper fire, especially in jungle and urban conditions. Though several developments in target detection have taken place especially recently, these methods are still common practice.
An M1 Abrams firing
In some cases spotting rifles were used confirm proper trajectory and range to a target. These spotting rifles were mounted co-axially to the main gun, and fired tracer ammunition ballistically matched to the gun itself. The gunner would track the movement of the tracer round in flight, and upon impact with a hard surface, it would give off a flash and a puff of smoke, after which the main gun was immediately fired. However these have been mostly superseded by laser rangefinding equipment.
Usually, tanks carry smaller calibre armament for short-range defence where fire from the main weapon would be ineffective, for example when engaging infantry, light vehicles or aircraft. A typical complement of secondary weapons is a general-purpose machine gun mounted coaxially with the main gun, and a heavier anti-aircraft machine gun on the turret roof. These weapons are often modified variants of those used by infantry, and so utilise the same kinds of ammunition.
Protection and countermeasures[edit]
1: Composite armour in the turret
2: Third generation Kontakt-5 ERA
3: Shtora-1 countermeasures suite.
The measure of a tank's protection is the combination of its ability to avoid detection, to avoid being hit by enemy fire, its resistance to the effects of enemy fire, and its capacity to sustain damage whilst still completing its objective, or at least protecting its crew. This is done by a variety of countermeasures, such as armour plating and reactive defences, as well as more complex ones such as heat-emissions reduction.
However, as effective and advanced as armour plating has become, tank survivability against newer-generation tandem-warhead anti-tank missiles is a concern for military planners.[52] For example, the RPG-29 from 1980s is able to penetrate the frontal hull armour of the Challenger II[53][54] and also managed to damage a M1 Abrams.[55]
Avoiding detection[edit]
Further information: Military deception
PLA's Type 99a tank with disruptive camouflage painting
Main article: Vehicle armour
The British Challenger II is protected by second-generation Chobham armour
Grenade launchers which can rapidly deploy a smoke screen that is opaque to Infrared light, to hide it from the thermal viewer of another tank. The modern Shtora countermeasure systems provides additional protection by interfering with enemy targeting and fire-control systems.
Active protection system[edit]
The latest generation of protective measures for tanks are active protection systems, particularly "hard-kill". The Soviet Drozd, the Russian Arena, the Israeli Trophy and Iron Fist, Polish ERAWA, and the American Quick Kill systems show the potential to dramatically improve protection for tanks against missiles, RPGs and potentially kinetic energy penetrator attacks, but concerns regarding a danger zone for nearby troops remain. As for 2011, only the Israeli Trophy system, installed on the Merkava Mk4, has been combat-proven, as it successfully intercepted Rocket-propelled Grenades and various anti-tank missiles during operational missions on the Gaza Strip border.
Two German Army Leopard 2s demonstrate their deep-wading capabilities
The mobility of a tank is described by its battlefield or tactical mobility, its operational mobility, and its strategic mobility. Tactical mobility can be broken down firstly into agility, describing the tank's acceleration, braking, speed and rate of turn on various terrain, and secondly obstacle clearance: the tank's ability to travel over vertical obstacles like low walls or trenches or through water. Operational mobility is a function of manoeuvre range; but also of size and weight, and the resulting limitations on options for manoeuvre.
Tactical mobility[edit]
M1 Abrams offloading from Landing Craft Air Cushioned vehicle.
Tank power output and torque in context:[citation needed]
Vehicle Power output Power/weight Torque
Racing car Formula One car 3.0 L 710 kW (950 hp) 1,600 kW/t (2,100 hp/t) 350 N·m (260 lbf·ft)
Strategic mobility[edit]
Tank commander redirects here. For other meanings see Tank commander (disambiguation).
The tank commander's position in an AMX Leclerc
• Commander - The commander is responsible for commanding the tank, most often in conjunction with other tanks and supporting infantry. The commander is provided with all round vision devices rather than the limited ones of the driver and gunner.
• Gunner - The gunner is responsible for laying the gun.
Engineering constraints[edit]
A noted author on the subject of tank design engineering Richard M Ogorkiewicz[61] outlined the following basic engineering sub-systems that are commonly incorporated into tank's technological development:
Further information: Tank classification
Command, control and communications[edit]
German Army Leopard 2A6M incorporates networked battlefield technology
Armoured bulkheads, engine noise, intervening terrain, dust and smoke, and the need to operate "buttoned up" are severe detriments to communication and lead to a sense of isolation for small tank units, individual vehicles, and tank crewmen. Radios were not then portable or robust enough to be mounted in a tank, although Morse Code transmitters were installed in some Mark IVs at Cambrai as messaging vehicles.[63] Attaching a field telephone to the rear would became a practice only during the next war. During World War I when these failed or were unavailable, situation reports were sent back to headquarters by some crews releasing carrier pigeons through loopholes or hatches[64] and communications between vehicles was accomplished using hand signals, handheld semaphore flags which continued in use in the Red Army/Soviet Army through the Second and Cold wars, or by foot or horse mounted messengers.[65]
The word tank was first applied to the British "landships" in 1915, before they entered service, to keep their nature secret. Several explanations of the precise origin of the term have been suggested, including:
1. It arose in British factories making the hulls of the first battle tanks: workmen and possible spies were to be given the impression they were constructing mobile water tanks for the British Army, thus keeping the production of a fighting vehicle secret.[22]
2. The term was first used in a secret report on the new motorised weapon presented to Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, by British Army Lt.-Col. Ernest Swinton.[66]
3. A biography of Winston Churchill states that, to disguise the device, drawings were marked "water carriers for Russia." When it was pointed out that the title might be shortened to "WCs for Russia," the drawings were relabelled "water tanks for Russia," and eventually the weapon was just called a tank.[67] (In fact, the prototype was referred to as a water-carrier for Mesopotamia [see below]. The Russian connection is that some of the first production Tanks were labelled in Russian "With Care to Petrograd," as a further security measure.)
On December 24, 1915, a meeting took place of the Inter-Departmental Conference (including representatives of the Director of Naval Construction's Committee, the Admiralty, the Ministry of Munitions, and the War Office). Its purpose was to discuss the progress of the plans for what were described as "Caterpillar Machine Gun Destroyers or Land Cruisers." In his autobiography, Albert Gerald Stern (Secretary to the Landships Committee, later head of the Mechanical Warfare Supply Department) says that at that meeting "Mr. (Thomas J.) Macnamara (M.P., and Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty) then suggested, for secrecy's sake, to change the title of the Landships Committee. Mr. d'Eyncourt agreed that it was very desirable to retain secrecy by all means, and proposed to refer to the vessel as a "Water Carrier." In Government offices, committees and departments are always known by their initials. For this reason I, as Secretary, considered the proposed title totally unsuitable.* In our search for a synonymous term, we changed the word "Water Carrier" to "Tank," and became the "Tank Supply" or "T.S." Committee. That is how these weapons came to be called Tanks," and wrongly added, " and the name has now been adopted by all countries in the world."[68]
Colonel Ernest Swinton, who was secretary to the meeting, says that he was instructed to find a non-committal word when writing his report of the proceedings. He later discussed it with a Lt-Col W. Dally Jones, and they chose the word 'tank.' "That night, in the draft report of the conference, the word 'tank' was employed in its new sense for the first time." [70] Swinton's Notes on the Employment of Tanks, in which he uses the word throughout, was published in January 1916.
In July 1918, Popular Science Monthly reported, "Because a fellow of the Royal Historical Society has unintentionally misled the British public as to the origin of the famous "tanks," Sir William Tritton, who designed and built them, has published the real story of their name ... Since it was obviously inadvisable to herald "Little Willie's" reason for existence to the world he was known as the "Instructional Demonstration Unit." "Little Willie's" hull was called in the shop orders a "water carrier for Mesopotamia;" no one knew that the hull was intended to be mounted on a truck. Naturally, the water carrier began to be called a "tank." So the name came to be used by managers and foremen of the shop, until now it has a place in the army vocabulary and will probably be so known in history for all time."[71]
In saying that the word tank was adopted worldwide, Stern was wrong. In France, the second country to use tanks in battle, the word tank or tanque was adopted initially, but was then, largely at the insistence of Colonel J.B.E. Estienne, rejected in favour of char d'assaut ("assault vehicle") or simply char ("vehicle"). During World War I German sources tended to refer to British tanks as Tanks[73][74] and to their own as Kampfwagen.[75] Later, tanks became referred to as "Panzer" (lit. "armour"), a shortened form of the full term "Panzerkampfwagen", literally "armoured fighting vehicle". In the Arab world, tanks are called Dabbāba (after a type of siege engine). In Italian, a tank is a "carro armato" (lit. "armed wagon"), without reference to its armour. Norway uses the term stridsvogn and Sweden the similar stridsvagn ("chariot", lit. "battle wagon"), whereas Denmark uses kampvogn (lit. battle wagon). Finland uses panssarivaunu (armoured wagon), although tankki is also used colloquially. The Polish name czołg, derived from verb czołgać się ("to crawl"), is used, depicting the way of machine's movement and its speed. In Japanese, the term sensha (戦車?, lit. "battle vehicle") is taken from Chinese and used, and this term is likewise borrowed into Korean as jeoncha (전차/戰車); more recent Chinese literature uses the English derived 坦克 tǎnkè (tank) as opposed to 戰車 zhànchē (battle vehicle) used in earlier days.
See also[edit]
Notes and references[edit]
2. ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-25109879
12. ^ "Australia To The Fore. Invention of the War Tank". Trove.nla.gov.au. 1920-02-12. Retrieved 2012-05-13.
14. ^ a b Churchill, p. 316
15. ^ Churchill, p. 317
17. ^ Glanfield, Devil's Chariots[page needed]
20. ^ Willmott (2003), First World War, p. 222
21. ^ "Легенда о русском танке - 0008.htm" (in Russian). Vadimvswar.narod.ru. Retrieved 2012-05-13.
22. ^ a b Willmott (2003), First World War[page needed]
24. ^ Time (1937), Chewed up
25. ^ Manrique p. 311, 321, 324
26. ^ Goldman p. 19
27. ^ Coox p. 300, 318, 437
28. ^ Coox 998
29. ^ Coox p. 579, 590, 663
31. ^ Forty (2004), p.251.
33. ^ Zaloga et al. (1997)
34. ^ Stolfi, Hitler's Panzers East[page needed]
37. ^ Starry pp. 45, 79, 129, 143, 153, etc
38. ^ T-72 Main Battle Tank 1974-93 By Steven J. Zaloga, Michael Jerchel, Stephen Sewell. Books.google.com. 1993-09-30. Retrieved 2012-05-13.
42. ^ USA Today (2005), Tank takes a beating in Iraq
52. ^ BBC News (2006) Tough lessons for Israeli armour
59. ^ John Pike. "M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-06-09.
66. ^ Barris (2007), Victory at Vimy: Canada Comes of Age April 9–12, 1917, p.116
67. ^ Gilbert (1991), Churchill: A Life, p.298.
69. ^ Fletcher, David (introduction); Chamberlain, Peter et al. (1998). Armoured Fighting Vehicles of the World, Volume One. Cannon Publications. p. 49. ISBN 1-899 695 02 8.
71. ^ Popular Science Monthly, July 1918, p7.
73. ^ Die Tankschlacht bei Cambrai: Dr. Georg Strutz, pub 1929.
74. ^ [1]
75. ^ Die deutschen Kampfwagen im Weltkriege; Ernst Volckheim, 1937.
• "Electric/Hybrid Electric Drive Vehicles for Military Applications", Military Technology (Moench Verlagsgesellschaft mbH) (9/2007), September 2007: 132–144
• Cooper, Matthew and Lucas, James (1979), Panzer: The Armoured Force of the Third Reich, Book Club Associates
• DiNardo, Richard L. (January 1986), "The First Modern Tank: Gunther Burstyn and His Motorgeschutz", Military Affairs (JSTOR: Society for Military History), 50, No.1 (1): 12–15, JSTOR 1988528
• Goodell, Brad (January 2007), "Electrothermal Chemical (ETC) Armament System Integration Into a Combat Vehicle", IEEE Transaction on Magnetics (IEEE) 43 (1): 4, doi:10.1109/TMAG.2006.887524
• Hilmes, Rolf (December 2004), "Arming Future MBTs - Some Considerations", Military Technology (Moench Verlagsgesellschaft Mbh) (12/2004): 4
• Koschier, Angelo V.; Hagen R. Mauch (2000), "Advantages of the LV100 as a Power Producer in a Hybrid Propulsion System for Future Fighting Vehicles", Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 122 (October 2000): 693–698, doi:10.1115/1.1287585
• Manrique, Jose; Lucas M. Franco (2006), Las Armas de la Guerra Civil Espanola (in Spanish), 28002 Madrid; La Los Libros, ISBN 84-9734-475-8
• McDonald, Colin F. (1990), "Gas Turbine Recuperator Renaissance", Heat Recovery Systems & CHP (Pergamon Press) 10 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1016/0890-4332(90)90246-G
• Pengelley, Rupert (1989), "A new era in tank man armament: The options multiply", Janes International Defense Review (November 1989): 1521–1531
• Sharoni, Asher H. and Bacon, Lawrence D., The Future Combat System (FCS): Technology Evolution Review and Feasibility Assessment (PDF), GlobalSecurity.org, retrieved 2008-05-26
• Thompson, William J. and Sorvig, Kim (2000), Sustainable Landscape Construction: A Guide to Green Building Outdoors, Island Press, p. 51, ISBN 1-55963-646-7
• Tomes, Robert R. (Spring 2004), "Relearning Counterinsurgency Warfare", Parameters (US Army War College), Vol. XXXIV, (No. 1,): 16–28, archived from the original on 2008-05-14, retrieved 2008-05-26
• Wickert, Matthias (January 2007), "Electric Armor Against Shaped Charges: Analysis of Jet Distortion With Respect to Jet Dynamics and Current Flow", IEEE Transaction on Magnetics (IEEE) 43 (1): 426–429, doi:10.1109/TMAG.2006.887650
• Xiaopeng, Li; Meng Tao, Zhao Chun and Li Liyi (January 2007), "Multiprojectile Active Electromagnetic Armor", IEEE Transaction on Magnetics 43 (1): 460–462, doi:10.1109/TMAG.2006.887581
• Zaloga, Steven J. and Grandsen, James (1984), Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two, London: Arms and Armour Press, ISBN 0-85368-606-8
• Zaloga, Steven J., Kinnear, Jim, Aksenov, Andrey & Koshchavtsev Aleksandr (1997), Soviet Tanks in Combat 1941–45: The T-28, T-34, T-34-85, and T-44 Medium Tanks, Hong Kong: Concord Publication, ISBN 962-361-615-5
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Take the 2-minute tour ×
I have to generate one date (string or number) from two strings, the first of which is the day and the second the time. I must have made an error something in my code, because the result is different from the concatenation of the source data.
DIR4{h} = datestr(strcat(DIR1{h},' ',DIR2{h}),'dd/mm/yyyy HH:MM:SS');
DIR1{1} = 26/06/1998
DIR2{1} = 15:00:00
DIR4{1} = 17/03/0049 15:00:00
What's happened?
share|improve this question
2 Answers 2
up vote 1 down vote accepted
If you'd executed every intermediate steps, you would have seen that strcat ignores trailing spaces (as documented):
strcat('26/06/1998',' ','15:00:00')
> 26/06/199815:00:00
The fix is rather easy: just don't use strcat, but rather use plain matrix concatenation:
strSrcDate = ['26/06/1998',' ','15:00:00']
Next you're using the wrong date conversion function. datestr is to convert tó a string, not from. Ok ok, it can handle string input, but that's quite restricted. You'll want to use datenum:
This gives a date serial (read the doc!), which is a number that represents a date (without any ambiguity). Use that number for internal storage of a date, and when you want to print that date out to screen or file, convert it to a string using datestr:
numSrcDate = datenum(strSrcDate,'dd/mm/yyyy HH:MM:SS')
> 729932.625
datestr(numSrcDate,'dd/mm/yyyy HH:MM:SS'); % or any other format
datestr(numSrcDate,'dd/mm/yy HH:MM');
> 26/06/1998 15:00:00
> 26/06/98 15:00
share|improve this answer
Thank you for your correction! It has worked! – Riccardo May 12 '13 at 14:21
The input to datestr must be a vector.
date(1,:)=[1998 6 26 15 0 0];
Sdate{1}=datestr(date,'dd/mm/yyyy HH:MM:SS');
Sdate =
26/06/1998 15:00:00
share|improve this answer
Thank you for your answer! – Riccardo May 12 '13 at 13:46
You are welcome. – Fatime May 13 '13 at 3:34
Your Answer
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The Garden Tomb of Jesus
Submit Bible questions, through our easy to use form,
to our team of mature Christians known as the Email Evangelists.
Garden Tomb of Jesus
Jesus' burial location
Jesus' garden tomb is located outside the city walls of Jerusalem and close to the Damascus Gate. Many believe this location, and not the traditional site of the burial thought to be in the Catholic Church's Church of the Holy Sepulcher, is the place where the burial of Jesus' body after he died on the cross took place.
In 1842 A.D. a man by the name of Otto Thenius proposed that the actual place of where Jesus was crucified, called Calvary (Golgotha) in Scripture, is the same as the place called the "place of the skull." In 1867 A.D., the discovery of the garden tomb (shown in the picture above) occurred near the 'skull place' thought to be where Jesus died.
The connection of the garden tomb, with the believed location of Golgotha, received prominence through a British general named Charles Gordon. In 1883, General Gordon found a rocky ridge or plateau (which now can be seen from the back of a bus station) which, from several angles, look to him like the face of a skull. Golgotha, the name of the place where Jesus was crucified, is a Aramaic word meaning skull.
"And they compel one Simon a Cyrenian . . .to bear his (Jesus') cross. And they bring him unto the place Golgotha, which is, being interpreted, The place of a skull." (Mark 15:21-22)
Gordon concluded that the rocky outcrop he thought looked like a skull was high likely to have been the Biblical place known as Golgotha. This is why another name for this location is Gordon's Tomb.
The Garden tomb itself consists of at least a couple of chambers. To the right of the first chamber the second chamber can be seen. Benches made of stone line the walls of chamber number two, except in the places where the walls join together and running along the first chamber's back wall. The benches, though heavily damaged throughout the years, can still be seen. The groove edge outside the burial location is cut diagonally. As was prophesied in Isaiah (Isaiah 53:8-9) Jesus was buried in the tomb of a rich man even though he was believed to be a criminal (Matthew 27:57 - 60).
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Gallican chant
Because of the desire of Rome to have a unified liturgical practice in the West, the Frankish kings Pippin III (d. 768) and Charlemagne (d. 814) suppressed the Gallican rite in favour of the Roman. Although no known manuscripts of Gallican chant have survived, some authentic remnants of it are found in the repertory of Gregorian chant in the liturgy for Good Friday, among them the “Improperia,” “Crux fidelis,” and “Pange lingua.” These chants embedded in the Roman liturgy help to illustrate the theory that the Gregorian chant that has come down to modern times is a synthesis of Roman and Frankish elements. Certain characteristics stand out from surviving examples of Gallican chant. There is a pull in the chants toward cadences on C, motifs frequently are built on the notes C–D–E or C–E–G, and E is often used as a reciting note.
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Monday, February 03, 2014
Learn to breathe a little easier
We take the simple things in life for granted — like taking a deep breath. Millions of people live with lung disease and would give anything to be able to take a deep breath, or blow out the candles on a birthday cake.
The American Lung Association reports that the number of adults with chronic lung disease including asthma, COPD, and lung cancer in the United States alone is 26 million. COPD, short for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, is a lung disease that makes it difficult for people to breathe and can eventually lead to death. COPD, commonly known as emphysema and chronic bronchitis is the third leading cause of death in the United States. The primary cause of COPD is smoking, but it can also be caused by other factors. The good news is that COPD is preventable and treatable.
Like most diseases, the earlier COPD is diagnosed the better the chances one has of living a full, high-quality life. People at greatest risk of having COPD are current and former smokers. Some symptoms of COPD include:
• A persistent cough, known as a “smoker’s cough”
• Shortness of breath while doing everyday activities
• Producing a lot of phlegm or mucus
• Wheezing
• Feeling like you cannot breathe or take a deep breath
Individuals who are former smokers or experience any of the above symptoms should talk with their physicians about having a test called spirometry. Spirometry, the measuring of breath, is the most common pulmonary function test and uses a spirometer to measure the amount of air going in and out of the lungs. This test is usually performed in the physician’s office and can diagnose the disease and severity so early treatment can begin.
A diagnosis of COPD does not mean that you cannot exercise. Actually, it is important to stay active. Discuss with your physician joining a pulmonary rehabilitation program. Pulmonary rehab can help you rebuild strength and reduce shortness of breath. Most of us do not like taking medications but it is extremely important to take any medications ordered by your physician exactly as instructed.
If you are having problems, talk with your physician about possible solutions. Most importantly, if you are a smoker, quit! Stopping smoking has more of an impact on the disease than any other treatment. If you have a COPD diagnosis, educate yourself. The American Lung Association has an abundance of information and resources to help you better understand the function of your lungs and COPD.
Lastly, get support. Managing COPD is a team effort. Find a local support group like the Better Breather’s Club, which follows the American Lung Association guidelines and welcomes you and your family. These groups often provide education and skills to adults with all forms of chronic lung disease.
In addition to finding comfort in talking with others who have similar ailments, a support group may also offer a schedule of educational topics such as coping skills, psychosocial issues, medications and oxygen therapy. Call 860-889-8331, ext. 2661 for more information. Together, all of these efforts can help everyone breathe a little easier!
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Gene for Alcoholism is Discovered (GABA & GABRG3 - Mental Health Center: Medical Information on Mental Illness
A Gene for Alcoholism is Discovered
Researchers at Washington University and 5 other centers have combined forces to identify a gene that is associated with alcoholism in some families. The scientists focused on a region of chromosome 15 that contains several genes involved in the movement of a brain chemical called GABA between neurons. One version of the gene, GABRG3, was found statistically linked (associated) with alcoholism in the affected families.
Our Comments: There is a difference between identifying an attitude that runs in a family and discovering a gene that contributes to alcoholism. The HealthDay title of the previous article "Heredity May Play Part in Drinking Habits" is misleading. There is no evidence whatsoever that attitudes toward drinking are hereditary. There are familial, societal, and cultural attitudes toward alcohol consumption but this does not mean that they have a genetic basis.
Genes clearly do contribute to alcoholism. However, even when a gene like GABRG3 is found, that does not mean we understand the genetic basis of alcoholism. The researchers do not yet know how changes in the GABA gene increase a person's risk of alcoholism.
Barbara K. Hecht, Ph.D.
Frederick Hecht, M.D.
Medical Editors, MedicineNet.com
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Home |Tech |Health | News
Low-strength MRI takes first scan of human brain
Pictures of spreads from New Scientist magazine
A MAGNETIC resonance imaging (MRI) scanner has taken its first blurry shots of the human brain without using massive magnets.
MRI scanners image the human body by detecting how hydrogen atoms respond to magnetic fields. They typically require fields about 100,000 times stronger than the Earth's, making it dangerous for people with metal implants, and expensive.
Now Vadim Zotev of Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico and colleagues have eliminated the need for large fields by using ultra-sensitive magnetic sensors called superconducting quantum interference devices (www.arxiv.org/abs/0711.0222). The biggest field they used was 30 millitesla, just 1000 times the Earth's. This could make MRI scans cheaper and more widely available.
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"unknown" values are represented - in our case - by a value that falls outside the legal range. e.g. a for numeric values defined to be 0 or greater, we use -1 to be the "undefined" value and -2 to be the "known to be wrong or invalid" value. For strings that decision is taken on each case, some already have a value for "known to be unknown": . (not our choice, it is a law in that database) others might be a single space.
varchar2 is Oracle-only, yet another reason to loathe Oracle. Indeed we use varchar2 instead of varchar, but they suck nevertheless.
I just don't understand how you can say that an empty string equals to NULL. That is only true in the rotten Oracle world.
FWIW I use a lot of database types (Oracle, Unify, MySQL, PostgreSQL, MariaDB, SQLite, CSV, TSV, MonetDB) and NONE is perfect. Oracle is not the only database with drawbacks.
The is more btw, how to represent (in a database)
Enjoy, Have FUN! H.Merijn
and: <code> code here </code>
• Please read these before you post! —
For: Use:
& &
< <
> >
[ [
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artemis microkernel
In Greek mythology, Artemis [(Greek: (nominative) Ἄρτεμις, (genitive) Ἀρτέμιδος)] was the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She was the Hellenic goddess of forests, hills, virginity/fertility, and the hunt and was often depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrows. The deer and the cypress were sacred to her. In later, Hellenistic times she even assumed the ancient role of Eileithyia in aiding childbirth.
There may be some connection with the Greek αρτεμης = "safe and sound" from the root αρ = "to fit".
Various conflicting accounts are given in Greek mythology of the birth of Artemis and her twin brother, Apollo. All accounts agree, however, that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto.
The myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. For further details, see Hera 5.2.
Myths of Artemis
Artemis and Actaeon
Artemis and Adonis
In some versions of the story of Adonis, Artemis sent a wild boar to kill Adonis as punishment for his hubristic boast that he was a better hunter than she.
Orion was a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis. In some versions of his story he was killed by Artemis, while in others he was killed by a scorpion sent by Gaia. In some versions, Orion tried to seduce Opis, one of her followers, and she killed him. In a version by Aratus, Orion took hold of Artemis' robe and she killed him in self-defense. In yet another version, Apollo sent the scorpion. According to Hyginus Artemis once loved Orion, but was tricked into killing him by her brother Apollo, who was protective of his sister's maidenhood.
Other stories
Iphigenia and the Taurian Artemis
Artemis punished Agamemnon after he killed a sacred stag in a sacred grove and boasted that he was a better hunter. When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to begin the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchis advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. In some version, the sacrifice goes through as planned (with Agamemnon killing his daughter), and the act results in his own death at the hands of his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus. In another version, Artemis snatches Iphigenia from the altar and substitutes a deer. Iphigenia is then transported to the Crimea and appointed as priestess in the goddess's Tauric temple, where strangers were offered as human sacrifice.
Otus and Ephialtes
The Gigantes Otus and Ephialtes were sons of Poseidon. They were so strong that nothing could harm them. One night, as they slept, Gaea whispered to them, that since they were so strong, they should be the rulers of Olympus. They built a mountain as tall as Mt. Olympus, and then demanded that the gods surrender, and that Artemis and Hera become their wives. The gods fought back, but couldn't harm them. The sons even managed to kidnap Ares and hold him in a jar for thirteen months. Artemis later changed herself into a deer and ran between them. The Aloadae, not wanting her to get away because they were eager huntsmen, each threw their javelin and simultaneously killed each other.
The Meleagrids
Artemis killed Chione for becoming too proud and vain after having an affair with Apollo.
Atalanta and Oeneus
Trojan War
Worship of Artemis
Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece.. Her best known cults were on the island of Delos (her birthplace); in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus); in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows, and accompanied by a deer.
As Aeginaea, she was worshiped in Sparta; the name means either huntress of chamois, or the wielder of the javelin (αιγανέα). She was worshipped at Naupactus as Aetole; in her temple in that town there was a statue of white marble representing her throwing a javelin. This "Aetolian Artemis" would not have been introduced at Naupactus, anciently a place of Ozolian Locris, until it was awarded to the Aetolians by Philip II of Macedon. Strabo records another precinct of "Aetolian Artemos" at the head of the Adriatic. As Agoraea she was the protector of the agora. As Agrotera, she was especially associated as the patron goddess of hunters. In Athens Artemis was often associated with the local Aeginian goddess, Aphaea. As Potnia Theron, she was the patron of wild animals; Homer used this title. As Kourotrophos, she was the nurse of youths. As Locheia, she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives. She was sometimes known as Cynthia, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos, or Amarynthia from a festival in her honor originally held at Amarynthus in Euboea. She was sometimes identified by the name Phoebe, the feminine form of her brother Apollo's solar epithet Phoebus.
Artemis in art
On June 7, 2007, a Roman era bronze sculpture of “Artemis and the Stag” was sold at Sotheby’s auction house in New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for $25.5 million.
Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus
At Ephesus in Ionia (Turkey), her temple became one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was probably the best known center of her worship except for Delos. There the Lady whom the Anatolians associated with Artemis through interpretatio Graeca was worshiped primarily as a mother goddess, akin to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, in an ancient sanctuary where her cult image depicted the "Lady of Ephesus" adorned with multiple rounded breast like protuberances on her chest. They had been traditionally interpreted as multiple accessory breasts, or as sacrificed bull testes, as some newer scholars claimed, until excavation at the site of the Artemision in 1987-88 identified the multitude of tear-shaped amber beads that had adorned her ancient wooden xoanon. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul's preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” (Acts 19:28, KJV).
Artemis in astronomy
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buckles down
Montage sequence
From the 1930s to the 1950s, montage sequences often combined numerous short shots with special optical effects (fades, dissolves, split screens, double and triple exposures) and music. They were usually assembled by someone other than the director or the editor of the specific movie.
Development of montage sequence technique
Two noted directors of montage sequences
Film critic Ezra Goodman discusses the contributions of Slavko Vorkapić, who worked at MGM and was the best known montage specialist of the 1930s:
He devised vivid montages for numerous pictures, mainly to get a point across economically or to bridge a time lapse. In a matter of moments, with images cascading across the screen, he was able to show Jeanette MacDonald's rise to fame as an opera star in Maytime [1937], the outbreak of the revolution in Viva Villa [1934], the famine and exodus in The Good Earth [1937], and the plague in Romeo and Juliet [1936].
Siegel told Peter Bogdanovich how his montages differed from the usual ones.
Siegel selected the montages he did for Yankee Doodle Dandy [1942], The Adventures of Mark Twain [1944], and Confessions of a Nazi Spy, as especially good ones. "I thought the montages were absolutely extraordinary in 'The Adventures of Mark Twain'—not a particularly good picture, by the way."
Analysis of montage sequences in The Adventures of Mark Twain
As Siegel indicated, The Adventures of Mark Twain is not an especially good movie—it is a long, episodic and largely inaccurate biography of Samuel Clemens, the man known as Mark Twain. (Speigel shares montage credit with James Leicester.) But because the film is long and episodic, it required an unusual number of montage sequences, ranging from the very short to relatively long. In a short one, 15 seconds and five shots take Clemens and a companion across the west to Nevada (three shots of a stagecoach interspersed with two shots of Twain and his friend in the stage). In another short sequence, a large clock face superimposed over faces of laughing people takes 13 seconds to covers one hour in Clemens’ first public talk.
But the longer ones are more interesting. One sequence follows Clemens leaving newspaper work in the west just after the Civil War starts. He has just sent off his first story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". After he leaves the newspaper office, a stranger enters and asks for Twain, but nobody knows Clemens by that name. Then comes the montage, which in one minute 15 seconds tells the history of the Civil War and of the spread of Twain's story. First come multiple images of Civil War soldiers fighting, and dying, clouds of gun smoke, and headlines—"Federals Crushed at Bull Run", "Union Troops Routed at Fredicksburg"—followed by a short two–shot scene of a newspaper editor telling his staff to run this story about a frog on the front page ("If the country ever needed one flicker of a smile, it needs it now", the editor says.) Then more battle scenes and headlines, now with shots of the jumping frog and the story's own headlines. A second brief scene in a newspaper office—in three shots, the stranger learns "Mark Twain" is Clemens—more battle scenes, then "Peace!" in a headline and Grant marches past cheering crowds. Fade to the now wrecked steamboat Clemens captained before heading west and the movie resumes. Every shot is multiple shots and dissolves except the two in the newspaper offices.
Another extended montage documents Clemens’ failed investment in a typesetting machine. After a sequence where Clemens shows his wife the new typesetter, a fantastic machine with an organ–style keyboard and six long–necked bird–like heads picking type from type trays, the inventor says, "Yes sir, this is certainly the age of progress" and Clemens narrates a sequence of multiple shots showing the country expanding, telegraph lines going up, railroads crossing the country, and Grant as president. Then a single shot of the inventor saying, "Another 10,000 will perfect it." Then, as a narrator says that Clemens needs to write more books to keep his publishing house solvent, comes multiple shots of sheet–fed printing press, Clemens writing, multiple pages, the inventor, housing being built, smoking factory smokestacks, Clemens writing and multiple images of the titles of his new books. It ends with Clemens announcing he's getting out of the typesetting machine business after ten years.
A more leisurely montage sequence occurs earlier in the picture, after Clemens’ son dies and his wife encourages him to write the stories of his youth on the Mississippi that he had told his son. It begins with Clemens writing the words "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" on a piece of paper and ends two minutes and 34 seconds later with his wife reading the manuscript. This is a montage with very few multiple images—basically a few multiple images of Tom, Huck and Jim on the river (shots from early in the film) as Clemens starts to write. Instead, there are slow fades between common elements in different settings—Clemens writing in a chair outside in a garden, pan down to a mug with eight cigars in it as one is removed, slow dissolve to the same mug with one cigar in it, pull back to show Clemens still writing. Brief multiple image of manuscript Chapter XVII and the boys on a raft, dissolve to Clemens writing in bed, he reaches for a cup of coffee and camera pans to the coffee pot, slow dissolve to the same coffee pot on his desk, pan to Clemens writing at desk. His head falls forward onto his writing as he falls asleep. Suddenly tiny Tom, Huck, and Jim walk on the pages and read what's written on the page. Clemens awakens as they run away. He writes "Finis" and the montage ends with his wife reading the manuscript.
Analysis of two typical montage sequences
The two montage sequences in Holiday Inn [1942] show the two basic montage styles. The focus of the movie is an inn that presents elaborate nightclub shows only on the holidays. The film was in production when America entered World War II.
Contemporary montage sequences listed
Many films are well known for their montage scenes. Examples include:
In nearly all of these examples, the montages are used to compress narrative time and show the main character learning or improving skills that will help achieve the ultimate goal.
The sports training montage
Conventions and clichés
The standard elements of a sports training montage include a build-up where the potential sports hero confronts their failure to train adequately. The solution is a serious, individual training regimen. The individual is shown engaging in physical training through a series of short, cut sequences. An inspirational song (usually fast-paced rock music) typically provides the only sound. At the end of the montage several weeks have elapsed in the course of just a few minutes and the hero is now prepared for the big competition. One of the most well-known examples is the training sequence in the 1976 movie Rocky, which culminates in Rocky's run up the steps of the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
In "Once More, with Feeling", Buffy Summers does an extended workout while Rupert Giles sings one song; this distortion of time is one of numerous musical conventions made literal by a spell affecting Sunnydale. Prior to this sequence, Buffy Summers voices her concern that "this whole session is going to turn into some training montage from an 80s movie" to which Rupert Giles replies "Well, if we hear any inspirational power chords we'll just lie down until they go away."
Use in Japanese and Hong Kong cinema
In films from Japan and Hong Kong, particular emphasis is placed on the suffering of the trainee, often with the breakthrough in training being a change in perspective rather than physical capability. More importance is often placed on the master passing down knowledge to their student, rather than the self-discovery of American film.
A classic use of the sports training montage in Hong Kong cinema is The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (Shao Lin san shi liu fang). In The 36th Chamber the student displays an arrogance and unwillingness to learn. The student develops through a process of suffering, towards self-mastery in learning, finally achieving triumph in realising that he controls his ability to learn. This training sequence is much closer to Zen Buddhist ideas regarding teaching practice, or Sufi learning concepts, than the individualistic American model used above.
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Indonesia: An Effort to Hold Together
The islands' "guided democracy" is divided by geography, ethnic differences, and religion
No one would call Jakarta an elegant city, but it has absorbed its rapid growth better than some other capitals have. Jakarta's population now stands at more than 6 million people, four times as many as when Indonesia declared its independence, thirty-seven years ago. The city is a low-lying settlement, and, at irregular intervals, solitary skyscrapers rise above the landscape. They contain banks, government offices, hotels, and the offices of the foreign businesses that operate in Jakarta. Between the skyscrapers, beneath canopies created by papaya, palm, and banana trees, lie the kampongs, urban villages that approximate the life of the countryside within the city.
Children run through the alleys of their kampong but rarely cross its borders. The people in a kampong are often connected by blood, by ties to the region of the hinterland from which they have come, and by units of government, under the leadership of a lurah, or headman. The kampongs cover most of the land area of Jakarta, and because of them, the capital is sometimes called a city of villages. The greenery that surrounds them, the product of extremely rich volcanic soil and heavy, regular rainfall, gives a strangely non-urban air to Jakarta.
The buildings in the kampongs have roofs of weathered red tile, perhaps the only fondly regarded residue of 350 years of Dutch colonial rule. When viewed from a distance or from above, these roofs seem the emblem of a solid, prosperous settlement. Seen up close, the houses and small shops beneath the roofs are scarcely different from their ramshackle, tin-roofed counterparts in other poor countries of the world.
The rainy season begins around the turn of the year and lasts for four or five months. The rains come every day, generally in the afternoon. Two or three inches may fall in a matter of hours. After a storm, the canals that snake through the city, their brownish water used for bathing, laundry, and waste disposal, are full and fast-flowing, and water runs ankle-deep through the alleys of the kampongs.
During this year's rainy season, on one day of each month, an unusual number of people were wearing a similar item of clothing in the streets of Jakarta. Perhaps one in every ten wore a blue-and- black shirt of batik, the famous Indonesian cloth. The shirts were the emblem of Golkar, the "functional group," or party, that controls the Indonesian government, and many of the people who wore them had been at Golkar rallies earlier in the day. The rallies are held on the 17th or 18th of each month, in commemoration of the country's declaration of independence from Holland, on August 17, 1945. For public employees, attendance at the rallies, as well as membership in Golkar, is effectively part of their jobs, and was especially so as the May 4 election drew near.
The election was the third to be held since a "New Order" government, run by the military, took over from President Sukarno, in 1966. During the campaign, which was expected to be uneventful, tension mounted between Golkar and its major opposition, the United Development Party, and some political demonstrations were marred by violence.
Yet the election on May 4 was only the first stage in the process of selecting Indonesia's next president. The 360 delegates elected on that day to seats in the People's House of Representatives will be joined by another 100 representatives, mainly military figures, whom the government appoints. Then those 460 elected and appointed members of the House will be combined with another 460 people, all of them appointed by the government. These 920 people, more than 60 percent of them appointed by the very regime whose performance they are asked to assess, are collectively known as the People's Consultative Assembly They will choose the president in March of 1983, and the man they are expected to select is Suharto (like his predecessor, Sukarno, and many of his countrymen, he is known by a single name), who became acting president in March of 1967.
Earlier this year, amid a swarm of Golkar shirts on one of Jakarta's major thoroughfares, I asked an Indonesian businessman what all the excitement was about. Why the big buildup to an election whose outcome seemed foreordained?
"You forget," my companion answered gravely. "We are a democracy. Of course, we do not mean 'democracy' in your sense; that would not be right for us. Ours is a guided democracy, more appropriate to a young country such as we are."
The local definition of democracy is but one illustration, and probably the mildest, of the sense of strangeness that a Westerner feels at every moment in Indonesia. Here, as elsewhere in the developing world, nationalists and scholars complain that local traditions are being uprooted by Western values; but it is harder to take that complaint seriously in Indonesia than in most other countries. True, its officials deal with international oil and timber companies, and its urban youth frequent tape-cassette stores, where they can buy pirated versions signs of American and European hit songs for 1,000 rupiahs, or about $1.50 apiece. But many Indonesians still change their names after an illness for good luck, defer to the judgment of their kampong's headman, and seek political portents in the all-night puppet show known as the wayang.
The endurance of the Indonesian culture may be partially explained by the total indifference of many Westerners, especially Americans, to the nation's very existence. This is a source of considerable irritation to many Indonesian officials. As they quite rightly point out, their country has more than a small claim to be taken seriously. The Indonesian archipelago, which contains some 13,000 islands and stretches in a semicircle from Indochina southeastward toward Australia, includes such well-known islands as Java, Sumatra, Bali, Borneo, the Celebes, and the western half of New Guinea. (Borneo is now known as Kalimantan, the Celebes as Sulawesi, and western New Guinea as Irian Jaya.) Indonesia has a population of nearly 150 million, more than any other country except China, India, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Its officials point out that it is a major exporter of oil, natural gas, tin, rubber, and other sought-after commodities; that its territory controls both sides of the Straits of Lombok and one side of the Straits of Malacca, two crucial areas through which commerce—and warships—must pass en route from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean; that, along with the other members of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), it represents the West's principal economic and strategic ally in an otherwise hostile region; that its resources and its human numbers make it a "sleeping giant."
Outsiders often tend to use Indonesia as an illustration for pat political theories. To the left, Indonesia is just another military regime whose arsenal the U.S. keeps stocking; to the right, it is a bulwark of anti-communism and private enterprise. The reality is more interesting than either of those views.
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A tarnished gem: once the sparkling crown jewel of our city, Sarasota Bay has been damaged by decades of growth, pollution and indifference. Can it be saved?
A hundred years ago, Sarasota Bay attracted the area's earliest settlers not with its beauty but with its amazing bounty. "The water appeared alive with multitudes offish of every kind and little exertion was required to net as many as we wished," an Army officer wrote back then. "Seafowl lined the beach, shown brilliantly in the sun from the red plumage of the flamingos and pink curlew ... Sharks were very numerous here, actually swimming about in schools. Any quantity of shellfish was to be had."
The scattered salt marshes that once covered the miles between the bay and the Myakka River are a distant memory, drained by the early farmers. About 40 percent of the mangroves that once ringed the bay--crucial habitat for the fish and other marine creatures that called it home--were wiped out between 1880 and 1990 to accommodate waterfront development. And more than 100 miles of seawalls and other hardened shore structures now dominate the shoreline, making what was once a fluid and naturally evolving landscape into a hard and lifeless barrier.
In just the past 30 years, throughout the bay's watershed--the 150-square-mile area where water flows downhill into the bay through such waterways as Whitaker Bayou and Phillippi Creek--more than a third of the forested freshwater wetlands have been wiped out. Wetlands filter out water pollution, so now that they're gone, every hard rain carries down to the bay a fresh load of fertilizer and pesticides from lawns and golf courses.
The consequences of all this degradation have long been obvious to people like Tom Mayer, a Longboat Key native who has worked around the bay for 35 years. "A lot of people moved in, and the nature moved out," says Mayer, a professional mangrove trimmer. Newcomers see a flock of ibis pecking at their lawns and think there's plenty of wildlife still around and the bay is all right, he says. They don't realize that the birds are in their yard "because somebody developed where they used to be."
THE FIRST VISITORS to what is now Sarasota were fishermen looking for a big catch. Even 50 years ago, when fewer than 20,000 people lived in Sarasota, the bay's sand flats held a multitude of clams and the sea grass beds were thick with scallops and oysters.
Cortez fish-house owner Karen Bell says her father used to tell her stories about netting a boatload of fish one day "and they would come back a few days later and catch even more," she recalls.
These days the fish aren't nearly as plentiful as they were back then. One big reason: A wealthy aluminum magnate named Arthur Vining Davis.
As the longtime head of the Alcoa aluminum company, 80-year-old Davis was already one of the nations wealthiest men when he retired to Florida in 1948. But he just couldn't resist the lure of making even more money in real estate. So he founded Arvida, combining the first two letters of his three names to give it his personal stamp, and bought up land all over South Florida that he believed to be ripe for development. Among his acquisitions: the southern half of Longboat Key, most of Lido and all of Bird, Otter and Coon keys in Sarasota Bay, purchased for $13.5 million from circus titan John Ringling's estate.
Bird Key was Arvida's first target in Sarasota, a 14-acre island that had already been boosted with 30,000 cubic yards of sand dredged up from the bay by its first owner back in 1912. Ringling himself had built a causeway across Bird Key to get customers over to the waterfront home-sites he was selling on St. Armands Key.
Davis was far from alone. Dredge-and-fill operations in the 1950s and 1960s wiped out more than 1,800 acres of the bay's coastal wetlands and nearly 4,500 acres of bay bottom to create waterfront homes, helping to destroy 30 percent of the seagrass beds that provide food and shelter for most of the bay's marine life.
Still, the dredging done for Bird Key, the Intracoastal Waterway and other alterations to the bay did plenty of damage, both direct and indirect. The water clouded up and seagrasses died. "The fishing was really bad then," recalls Jonnie Walker, a longtime fishing guide on the bay.
Nevertheless, people kept flocking to buy houses around Sarasota Bay. They weren't as interested in the bay's health as they were in how it looked from their back yard.
Not long ago, a study found that the main way most residents use the bay is not for boating or fishing but as a scenic backdrop, notes Jono Miller, a New College professor and longtime environmental activist. But Walker says he isn't sure the folks who have spent millions of dollars on a waterfront view even notice the bay anymore.
"I see a lot of houses where I never see any people outside," the fishing guide says. "People pay an exorbitant price for that view and never enjoy it. They never look outside. They don't care if it has any fish in it. Maybe if it stunk real bad, then they'd care about it."
EVERY AFTERNOON, Karen Bell steps out of her fish house and looks at the bay. "I go out and look at the sunset," she says. "It's lovely, with the silhouettes of all the boats."
Around the time the city first declared its preference for seawalls, its citizens voted to build a combination water and sewer system. The only problem was where the sewage eventually wound up: the bay. And Sarasota wasn't the only one using the bay as a dumping ground. In times of heavy rains, Manatee County allowed partially treated sewage to flow into the bay as well.
By the 1980s, the bay had hit its lowest point. Because of all the pollution, parts of the bay suffered from major algae blooms. The blooms not only sucked oxygen out of the water, killing fish--they also blocked sunlight from getting to the remaining seagrass beds, killing them as well. Stimulating the bloom's growth was a pollutant called nitrogen. So much nitrogen was pouring into the bay that tests showed it had hit 400 times the bay's own natural level.
Eliminating the sewage dumping cut in half the nitrogen levels in the bay, Alderson adds. With less nitrogen to spur algae blooms, the water is clearer; and as a result aerial photos show that more than 500 acres of seagrasses have come back, helping to revive the fish population. "The clarity of the bay has improved a lot," says Walker, the fishing guide.
Although halting the flow of sewage into the bay eliminated half of the nitrogen pollution, what was left was still 200 times the bays natural level--and now most of that is coming from stormwater runoff. A major contributor to nitrogen pollution in runoff is the fertilizer put out on lawns, golf courses and landscaping.
"A lot of people are putting too much fertilizer out there, and we really don't need it," Alderson says. "If you're over-applying it, there's a good chance it's not being taken up by the turf or ornamentals, and it's winding up in the bay."
State regulations that halt other kinds of pollution in stormwater runoff don't address nitrogen. Meanwhile, a massive red tide bloom in 2005 wiped out many of the gains in the bay's fish population. So many fish were killed that the bay's hungry dolphins, deprived of their usual prey, began trying to steal anglers' bait. Two became tangled in fishing gear and died.
The task force spent more than a year working on possible regulations--and drawing a storm of criticism from fertilizer industry representatives who contended that educating the public was better than imposing new rules. Finally, though, in August, the county approved the new regulations--the strictest in the state--which will go into effect in June 2008. Commissioners spelled out their reasoning in the rules, saying that "recent algae blooms and accumulation of red drift algae on local beaches have heightened community concerns about water quality."
Sarasota County's fertilizer rules may wind up having statewide implications, as Manatee and Charlotte counties and the city of Jacksonville consider following its lead with similar rules of their own.
While Alderson is hoping the new regulations will help eliminate some of the remaining nitrogen, he knows there's still a long way to go.
"We've taken the bay back to a certain level," he says, "but can we take it beyond that?"
He's wondering, for instance, if there's some way to reverse the effect of all those long-ago farmers draining the marshes--not just to protect the bay from pollution but to stop wasting all the water that is now rolling out to the bay through their ancient ditches.
It took two centuries to push the bay to the brink of collapse. Bringing it back won't be easy, and it probably won't be cheap, either.
"Everything we do on the land eventually winds up in the bay," Walker says. "If you dump oil in your driveway four miles inland, it's going to wind up in the bay. Everything drains into the bay."
2. WATER QUALITY. In 1988, Sarasota Bay had more than 400 times as much nitrogen as when the first settlers arrived. By halting the flow of sewage into the bay, we've cut the nitrogen level in half--but that's still 200 times more than is healthy.
3. ALGAE BLOOMS. In the 1980s, the high concentrations of nitrogen in the bay fueled blooms of harmful algae. The reduction of nitrogen pollution has lessened the likelihood and frequency of those blooms. A massive red tide outbreak hit the bay in 2005, but the jury is still out on whether it was fueled by pollution.
4. MARINE LIFE. By 2000, an estimated 110 million more fish were swimming in the bay than in 1988, although some of those gains were later wiped out by red tide. Pesticide residue has shown up in dolphin blubber and milk, and could be the reason some calves die. Some male dolphins in Sarasota Bay have registered PCB levels of over 800 parts per million, far above the 1 part per million considered safe for humans; this may be why they rarely live past 40.
STOP USING SO MUCH FERTILIZER ON YOUR LAWN. Don't apply any fertilizer right before a rainfall. Stormwater runoff carries the excess into the bay, polluting it. The same goes for pesticides. And if you water your lawn efficiently on the days it is legal to irrigate, there will be less runoff.
DISPOSE OF HAZARDOUS AND CHEMICAL WASTE PROPERLY. A single gallon of fuel can contaminate more than a million gallons of water. If you change your car's oil in your driveway, use a drop cloth, absorb spills with kitty litter and dispose of the oil at an approved county location.
PICK UP YOUR PET'S POOP. Pet feces left on the beach, in yards or in parks ultimately end up being washed into the bay.
IF YOU'RE A BOATER, don't let toxic substances such as oil, paint or trash get into the water. And don't discharge your sewage into the bay--it's more concentrated than domestic sewage, and often carries chemical additives or disinfectants.
DRIVE LESS AND KEEP YOUR ENGINE TUNED. The pollutants that pour out of vehicle tailpipes are a major source of atmospheric deposition of pollution into the bay waters.
COPYRIGHT 2008 Clubhouse Publishing, Inc.
Copyright 2008 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
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Author:Pittman, Craig
Publication:Sarasota Magazine
Article Type:Cover story
Date:Feb 1, 2008
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Neck Measurements to Identify Kids for Obesity
Researchers have come up with a new and easy way of knowing the obesity level in children by scaling the circumference of a child's neck.
After noting down the neck measurements of more than 1,100 youngsters from the age of 6-18 years, it was concluded that this process accurately recognized a noteworthy proportion of young people who were overweight.
Olubukola Nafiu, MD, and a team from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, said that it is a simple and a more effective way of knowing the obesity levels as the body mass index (BMI) does not dependably explain distribution of abdominal fat or deep belly fat in a body.
The researchers have come up with age and sex specific cutoff measurements, which will determine whether or not a child is obese.
For kids, the body mass index is calculated using height and weight measurements along with sex and age. It has been said that if a six years old boy has neck circumference measurement of over 11.2 inches, then there is 3.6 times more possibility of his being overweight or obese.
With this method, it will be easier to identify the young people who have more than accepted body mass indexes. The measurements were taken with an elastic tape and the children were made to stand with their head held straight and it was found that the method works more accurately in boys than girls.
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Sub-Hunting Planes Use High-Tech Gear To Search For MH370
Australian P-3 Orions and U.S. P-8A Poseidons are scoring a remote stretch of the Indian Ocean for possible wreckage from the missing Malaysia Airlines 777.
Australian P-3 Orions and U.S. P-8A Poseidons, the two aircraft at the heart of a search for possible wreckage from Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370, are equipped with sophisticated radar and other sensors that searchers hope will pick up on debris imaged by satellite in a remote stretch of the Indian Ocean.
But weather, the sheer distance to the target area, about 1,500 miles off of Australia's west coast, is already complicating efforts to answer the question of just what's out there. Because of ocean currents, the search area has also expanded since the possible wreckage was photographed on March 16. And, it could already be on the bottom of an ocean thousands of feet deep.
It's also the first "credible lead" in days in what is the largest search and rescue (SAR) mission in history, involving assets from more than two dozen countries.
Both the P-3 and the P-8 have the range – but just — to get to the general search area, spend a few hours looking, and return. The P-3 has a range of 1,500 miles with three hours on station and the P-8, a modified Boeing 737, can fly out about 1,400 miles and spend about four hours searching before having to turn back.
The P-8's AN/APY-10 radar, designed to locate enemy surface contacts such as submarine periscopes, and the Australian P-3's somewhat less sophisticated radar set, would likely be the first to pick up on any floating refuge, says Sam LaGrone, editor at U.S. Naval Institute (USNI) News and a former maritime reporter for Jane's Defence Weekly.
The EO/IR unit, though, blends high-tech camera images with infrared input into a "very detailed convential video image" similar to what military reconnaissance and strike drones use. Darkness limits the effectiveness of the cameras and the debris, now nearly as cold as the surrounding ocean, also means limited infrared input.
"Maybe [the wreckage is] down on the bottom, maybe it's floated away," he says. "If it's on the surface, the radar would be able to detect it relatively easily."
"If you determined there was something there – either on the surface or on the bottom – that's when surface ships would arrive with more sophisticated sonar and underwater equipment to take a closer look," LaGrone says.
In a nine-hour search on Thursday of the area where the satellite spotted possible debris, a U.S. P-8 came back empty-handed after finding only a freighter and some dolphins, ABCNews says.
According to ABC:
The Australian Maritime Authority says a C-130 Hercules has been dispatched to the area "to drop marker buoys to assist with the search and indicate water movements," the newspaper says, adding that "Commercial satellites have been redirected to capture further images from the area."
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Asian house geckos are benign invaders
Asian house gecko
Asian house gecko populations don't pose a threat to native flora and fauna according to experts (Source: Eric Vanderduys)
No threat invader Not all invasive species spell doom and destruction for native plants and animals, according to a new study of a stowaway gecko that has made its home in Northern Australia.
The research, reported in the Australian Journal of Zoology, found the Asian house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus) poses no threat to Australian flora and fauna, and prefers hanging around where people live.
The study by Eric Vanderduys from CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences and Dr Alex Kutt who at the time was at James Cook University, contradicts an earlier report that argues the 10-centimetre-long gecko had the potential to negatively impact Australian ecosystems by invading natural habitats.
"We found no significant invasion of the Asian house gecko into bushland," says Vanderduys.
"Where they do invade, it's in association with humanity, with buildings, lights and infrastructure. They're invading around humans and into human modified habitats."
Vanderduys and Kutt reached their conclusions while studying the effects of fire, grazing and weeds on native reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals at more than a thousand monitoring sites across Queensland and the Northern Territory between 1997 and 2012.
The sites recorded more than 11,000 geckos, of which only 13 were Asian house geckos, all from the same site located near homes in the Cape York community of Pormpuraaw.
A nearby monitoring site located a kilometre from the town recorded no Asian house geckos, even though the species were abundant in Pormpuraaw for at least 30 years.
"So in 30 years they haven't managed to spread a kilometre," says Vanderduys.
"That's what prompted me to say, well if these are an invasive species and a significant problem to Australia, then why are we not seeing them at all 1100 sites where we've visited many times.
"We have over 11,000 gecko records and only 13 of those were Asian house geckos, all from the one spot, so it seems to me that there's not a significant invading threat in Australia."
Long term residents
According to Vanderduys, the Asian house gecko arrived in Australia as stowaways on ships from South East Asia.
"They've been in Northern Australia for at least 40 or 50 years," says Vanderduys.
"They first arrived at Fisherman's Island [Brisbane] in the mid to late 80s, but didn't start turning up in great numbers until the 90s and then spread rapidly across Brisbane."
Populations of Asian house geckos now exist in every town and city along Queensland's east coast, hitching rides in trucks and cars, and disembarking at the next town they stop in.
"Whether they establish or not is dependent on a number of things; the lighting, the environment, the temperature during winter and so on," says Vanderduys.
"Lights attract insects and the Asian house gecko is insectivorous ... so they eat the insects that come in to the light.
"One of the features of Asian house geckos is that they seem to be highly efficient feeders around artificial light, giving them a slightly greater advantage than native geckos."
However, Vanderduys says, this hasn't affected native gecko populations.
While existing Asian house gecko populations don't pose a threat to native flora and fauna (except the insects), Vanderduys warns future arrivals from overseas with different genetic stock or containing pathogens are a serious issue.
"Pathogens might potentially invade Australian ecosystems, and Australian geckos and lizards or other creatures," says Vanderduys.
"That's probably the biggest concern."
Tags: reptiles
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As observed on earth, a certain type of bacteria is known to double in number every 32.8 hours. Two cultures of these bacteria are prepared, each consisting initially of one bacterium. One culture is left on earth and the other placed on a rocket that travels at a speed of 0.696c relative to the earth. At a time when the earthbound culture has grown to 128 bacteria, how many bacteria are in the culture on the rocket, according to an earth-based observer?
This problem is also up on cramster but i couldnt figureo ut the numbers and cant get the right answer. :(
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Out of Place | The Nation
Out of Place
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"The 1960s are rightly remembered as years of cultural dissent and political upheaval, but they are wrongly remembered as years stirred only from the left," writes George Will in the foreword to a recently reissued edition of Barry Goldwater's The Conscience of a Conservative. Several decades ago, Will's claim would have elicited catcalls and jeers. But in the years since, the publication of a slew of books, each advancing the notion that most of the political innovation of the last half-century, including the 1960s, has come from the right, has led historians to revise the conventional wisdom about postwar America. The new consensus is reflected in the opening sentence of Ronald Story and Bruce Laurie's The Rise of Conservatism in America, 1945-
2000: "The central story of American politics since World War II is the emergence of the conservative movement." Yet for some reason Will still feels that the travails of his political kinsmen are insufficiently appreciated and recognized.
About the Author
Corey Robin
Also by the Author
Will is not the first conservative to believe himself an exile in his own country. A sense of exclusion has haunted conservatism from the beginning, when émigrés fled the French Revolution and Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre took up their cause. Born in the shadow of loss--of property, standing, memory, inheritance, a place in the sun--conservatism remains a gathering of fugitives. From Burke's lament that "the gallery is in the place of the house" to William F. Buckley Jr.'s claim that he and his brethren were "out of place," the comfortable and connected have fashioned a philosophy of self-styled truancy. One might say this fusion of pariah and power has been the key to their success. As Buckley went on to write, the conservative's badge of exclusion has made him "just about the hottest thing in town."
Conservatives have asked us not to obey them but to feel sorry for them--or to obey them because we feel sorry for them. Rousseau was the first to articulate a political theory of pity, and for that he has been called the philosopher of the losers. But doesn't Burke, with his overwrought account of Marie Antoinette in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)--"this persecuted woman," dragged "almost naked" by "the furies of hell" from her bedroom in Versailles and marched to "a Bastile for kings" in Paris--have some claim to the title, too?
Marie Antoinette was a particular kind of loser, a person with everything who finds herself utterly and at once dispossessed. Burke saw in her fall an archetype of classical tragedy, the great person laid low by fortune. But in tragedy, the most any hero can achieve is an understanding of his fate: the wheel of time cannot be reversed; suffering cannot be undone. Conservatives, however, are not content with illumination or wisdom. They want restoration, an opportunity presented by the new forces of revolution and counterrevolution. Identifying as victims, they become the ultimate moderns, adept competitors in a political marketplace where rights and their divestiture are prized commodities.
Reformers and radicals must convince the subordinated and disenfranchised that they have rights and power. Conservatives are different. They are aggrieved and entitled--aggrieved because entitled--and already convinced of the righteousness of their cause and the inevitability of its triumph. They can play victim and victor with a conviction and dexterity the subaltern can only imagine, making them formidable claimants on our allegiance and affection. Whether we are rich or poor or somewhere in between, the conservative is, as Hugo Young said of Maggie Thatcher, one of us.
But how do they convince us that we are one of them? By making privilege democratic and democracy aristocratic. Every man, John Adams claimed, longs "to be observed, considered, esteemed, praised, beloved, and admired." To be praised, one must be seen, and the best way to be seen is to elevate oneself above one's circle. Even the American democrat, Adams reasoned, would rather rule over an inferior than dispossess a superior. His passion is for supremacy, not equality, and so long as he is assured an audience of lessers, he will be content with his lowly status:
Not only the poorest mechanic, but the man who lives upon common charity, nay the common beggars in the streets...court a set of admirers, and plume themselves on that superiority which they have, or fancy they have, over some others.... When a wretch could no longer attract the notice of a man, woman or child, he must be respectable in the eyes of his dog. "Who will love me then?" was the pathetic reply of one, who starved himself to feed his mastiff, to a charitable passenger who advised him to kill or sell the animal.
It took the American slaveholder to grasp the power of this insight. The best way to protect their class, the masters realized, was to democratize it. Make every man, or at least every white man, a master, and so invested would he be in his mastery that he'd work to keep all others in their place. The genius of the slaveholding class was that it was "not an exclusive aristocracy," wrote Daniel Hundley in Social Relations in Our Southern States (1860). "Every free white man in the whole Union has just as much right to become an Oligarch." To that end, Southern politicians attempted to pass legislation and provide tax breaks to ensure that every white man owned at least one slave.
A century before Huey Long cried "Every man a king," a more ambiguous species of democrat spoke virtually the same words, to different effect. The promise of American life was to rule over another person. By and large, American conservatives have not defended an ancien régime of king, priest and lord. Nor have they appealed to antimodern arguments of tradition and history. Instead, they have surrounded an array of old regimes--in the family, the factory and the field--with fences and gates as they descant on mobility and innovation, freedom and the future.
Making privilege palatable to the democratic masses is a permanent project for conservatives, but each generation must tailor it to the contours of its times. In 1960, Goldwater's challenge was set out in his book's title: to show that conservatives had a conscience. Not a heart--he lambasted Eisenhower and Nixon for trying to prove that they were compassionate--or a brain, which liberals from John Stuart Mill to Lionel Trilling had doubted. Political movements often have to show that they can win, that their cause is just and their leaders are savvy, but rarely must they prove that theirs is a march of inner lights. Goldwater thought otherwise: to attract new voters and rally the faithful, conservatism had to establish its idealism and integrity, its absolute independence from the beck and call of wealth, from privilege and materialism--reality itself. If they were to change reality, conservatives would have to divorce themselves, at least in their self-understanding, from reality.
In recent years, it has become fashionable to dismiss George W. Bush as a true believer who betrayed conservatism by abandoning its native skepticism and spirit of mild adjustment. Goldwater was independent and ornery, the argument goes, recoiling from anything so stultifying (and Soviet) as an ideology; Bush is rigid and doctrinaire, an enforcer of bright lines and gospel truths. Elements of this argument are found on the right (Andrew Sullivan, George Will and even John McCain) and on the left (Robert F. Kennedy Jr., Sidney Blumenthal and John Dean).
But this argument ignores the fact that conservatism has always been a creedal movement--if for no other reason than to oppose the creeds of the left. "The other side have got an ideology," declared Thatcher. "We must have one as well." To counter the left, the main reason for its existence, the right has had to mimic the left. Goldwater understood that, which is why it is strange to hear so many liberals today looking to him and his followers--everyone from Birchers to Focus on the Family--as a model for grassroots change. By focusing so intently on Goldwater, liberals overlook the fact that historically it has been the left that has tutored the right.
Reactionary theologians in eighteenth-century France mobilized against the left by aping its tactics. They funded essay contests, like those in which Rousseau made his name, to reward writers who wrote popular defenses of religion. They ceased producing abstruse disquisitions for one another and instead churned out Catholic agitprop, which they distributed through the very networks that brought enlightenment to the French people. Similarly, the slaveholders of nineteenth-century America looked to and admired the fastidiousness and industry of the abolitionists. "As small as they are," John C. Calhoun declared, they "have acquired so much influence by the course they have pursued."
Goldwater learned from the New Deal. During the Gilded Age, conservatives had opposed unions and government regulation by invoking workers' freedom to contract with their employer. Liberals countered that this freedom was illusory: workers lacked the means to contract as they wished; real freedom required material means. Goldwater agreed, only he turned that argument against the New Deal: high taxes robbed workers of their wages, rendering them less free and less able to be free. Channeling John Dewey, he asked, "How can a man be truly free if he is denied the means to exercise freedom?"
FDR claimed that conservatives cared more about money than men. Goldwater said the same about liberals. Focusing on welfare and wages, he charged, they "look only at the material side of man's nature" and "subordinate all other considerations to man's material well being." Conservatives took in "the whole man," making his "spiritual nature" the "primary concern" of politics and putting "material things in their proper place."
This romantic howl against the economism of the New Deal--similar to that of the New Left--was not a protest against politics or government; Goldwater was no libertarian. It was an attempt to elevate politics and government, to direct public discussion toward ends more noble and glorious than the management of creature comforts and material well-being. Unlike the New Left, however, Goldwater did not reject the affluent society. Instead, he transformed the acquisition of wealth into an act of self-definition through which the "uncommon" man--who could be anybody--distinguished himself from the "undifferentiated mass." To amass wealth was not only to exercise freedom through material means but also a way of lording oneself over others.
In "Conservative Thought," an unjustly neglected essay from 1927, Karl Mannheim argued that conservatives have never been wild about the idea of freedom. It threatens the submission of subordinate to superior. Because freedom is the lingua franca of modern politics, however, they have had "a sound enough instinct not to attack" it. Instead, they have made freedom the stalking horse of inequality, and inequality the stalking horse of submission. Men are naturally unequal, they argue. Freedom requires that they be allowed to develop their unequal gifts. A free society must be an unequal society, composed of radically distinct, and hierarchical, particulars.
Goldwater never rejected freedom; indeed, he celebrated it. But there is little doubt that he saw it as a proxy for inequality--or war, which he called "the price of freedom." A free society protected each man's "absolute differentness from every other human being," with difference standing in for superiority or inferiority. It was the "initiative and ambition of uncommon men"--the most different and excellent of men--that made a nation great. A free society would identify such men at the earliest stages of life and give them the resources they needed to rise to pre-eminence. Against politicians who subscribed to "the egalitarian notion that every child must have the same education," Goldwater argued for "an educational system which will tax the talents and stir the ambitions of our best students and...thus insure us the kind of leaders we will need in the future."
Mannheim also argued that conservatives often champion the group--races or nations--rather than the individual. Races and nations have unique identities, which must, in the name of freedom, be preserved. They are the modern equivalents of feudal estates. They have distinctive, and unequal, characters and functions; they enjoy different, and unequal, privileges. Freedom is the protection of those privileges, which are the outward expression of the group's unique inner genius.
Goldwater rejected racism (though not nationalism), but try as he might, when discussing freedom he could not resist the tug of feudalism. He called states' rights "the cornerstone" of liberty, "our chief bulwark against the encroachment of individual freedom" by the federal government. In theory, states protected individuals rather than groups. But who in 1960 were these individuals?
Goldwater claimed that they were anyone and everyone, that states' rights had nothing to do with Jim Crow. Yet even he was forced to admit that the South's position on segregation "is, today, the most conspicuous expression of the principle" of states' rights. The rhetoric of states' rights threw up a cordon around white privilege. While surely the most noxious plank in the conservative platform--eventually, it was abandoned--Goldwater's argument for states' rights fit squarely within a tradition that sees freedom as a shield for inequality and a surrogate for mass feudalism.
Goldwater lost big in the 1964 presidential election. His children and grandchildren have won big--by broadening the circle of discontent in the realm of domestic politics to include husbands and wives, evangelicals and white ethnics, and by continuing to absorb and transmute the idioms of the left. As Bruce Schulman and Julian Zelizer argue in their introduction to Rightward Bound--an uncommonly coherent collection of innovative essays, many by scholars in the early stages of their careers--liberals in the twentieth century permanently "refashioned" America, forcing conservatives to operate "against a backdrop where the achievements of liberalism still mattered." Adapting to the left didn't make American conservatism less reactionary--any more than Maistre's recognition that the French Revolution had permanently changed Europe tempered conservatism there. Rather, it made conservatism suppler and more successful. In The Leopard, Lampedusa's novel about the collapse of Sicilian aristocracy during the Risorgimento, the young, crafty aristocrat Tancredi tells his uncle that "if we want things to stay as they are, things will have to change." Tancredi's words could have been the rallying cry of Goldwater's descendants.
Evangelical Christians were ideal recruits to the cause, deftly playing the victim card as a way of rejuvenating the power of whites. "It's time for God's people to come out of the closet," declared a Texas televangelist in 1980. It wasn't religion, however, that made evangelicals outcasts akin to homosexuals; it was religion combined with racism. As Joseph Crespino shows in "Civil Rights and the Religious Right," one of the main catalysts of the Christian right was the defense of Southern private schools created in response to desegregation. By 1970, 400,000 white children were attending "segregation academies." States like Mississippi gave students tuition grants, and until the Nixon Administration overturned the practice, the IRS gave donors to these schools tax exemptions.
According to New Right and direct-mail pioneer Richard Viguerie, the attack on these public subsidies by civil rights activists and the courts "was the spark that ignited the religious right's involvement in real politics." Though the rise of segregation academies "was often timed exactly with the desegregation of formerly all-white public schools," writes Crespino, their advocates claimed to be defending religious minorities rather than white supremacy (initially nonsectarian, most of the schools became evangelical over time). Their cause was freedom, not inequality--not the freedom to associate with whites, as the previous generation of massive resisters had claimed, but the freedom to practice their own embattled religion. It was a shrewd transposition. In one fell swoop, the heirs of slaveholders became the descendants of persecuted Baptists, and Jim Crow a heresy the First Amendment was meant to protect.
The Christian right was equally galvanized by the backlash against the women's movement. As Marjorie Spruill demonstrates in "Gender and America's Right Turn," antifeminism was a latecomer to the conservative cause. Through the early 1970s advocates of the Equal Rights Amendment could still count Richard Nixon, George Wallace and Strom Thurmond as supporters, and even Phyllis Schlafly described the ERA as something "between innocuous and mildly helpful." But once feminism entered "the sensitive and intensely personal arena of relations between the sexes," the abstract and distant phrases of legal equality took on a more intimate and concrete meaning. The ERA provoked a counterrevolution, led by Schlafly and other women, that was as grassroots and nearly as diverse as the movement it opposed. So successful was this counterrevolution--not just at derailing the ERA but at propelling the Republican Party to power--that it seemed to prove the feminist point. If women could be that effective as political agents, why shouldn't they be in Congress or the White House?
Schlafly grasped the irony. She understood that the women's movement had tapped into, and unleashed a desire for, power and autonomy that couldn't be quelled. If women were to be sent back to the exile of their homes, they would have to view their retreat not as a defeat but as one more victory in the long battle for women's freedom and power.
In an interview with the Washington Star, just one of the many absorbing documents gathered by Story and Laurie in The Rise of Conservatism in America, Schlafly described herself as a defender, not an opponent, of women's rights. The ERA was "a takeaway of women's rights," she insisted, the "right of the wife to be supported and to have her minor children supported" by her husband. By focusing her argument on "the right of the wife in an ongoing marriage, the wife in the home," Schlafly reinforced the notion that women were wives and mothers first; their only need was protection from their husbands. At the same time, she described that relationship in the liberal language of entitlement rights. "The wife has the right to support" from her spouse, she claimed, treating the woman as a feminist claimant and her husband as the welfare state.
Like their Catholic predecessors in eighteenth-century France, the Christian right appropriated not just the ideas but the manners and mores of its opponents. Billy Graham issued an album called Rap Session: Billy Graham and Students Rap on Questions of Today's Youth. Evangelicals criticized the culture of narcissism--then colonized it. In his article in Rightward Bound, Matthew Lassiter reminds us that James Dobson got his start as a child psychologist at the University of Southern California, competing with Dr. Spock as the author of a bestselling child-rearing text. Paul Boyer points out in his contribution to the volume that evangelical bookstores "promoted therapeutic and self-help books offering advice on finances, dating, marriage, depression, and addiction from an evangelical perspective." Most audacious was the film version of Hal Lindsey's book The Late Great Planet Earth. While the book popularized Christian prophecies of the End of Days, the film was narrated by Orson Welles, bad boy of the Popular Front.
The most interesting cases of the right's appropriation of the left, however, came not from evangelicals but from big business and the Nixon Administration. The business community saw the student movement as a critical constituency. In "Make Payroll, Not War," Bethany Moreton unearths the fascinating details of their effort. Using hip and informal language, business spokesmen left "their plaid suits in the closet" in order to sell capitalism as the fulfillment of '60s-style liberation, participation and authenticity. Reeling from protests against the invasion of Cambodia (and the massacre of four students that ensued), students at Kent State formed a chapter of Students in Free Enterprise (SIFE), one of 150 across the country. They sponsored a "Battle of the Bands," for which one contestant wrote the following lyrics:
You know I could never be happy
Just working some nine-to-five.
I'd rather spend my life poor
Than living it as a lie.
If I could just save my money
Or maybe get a loan,
I could start my own business
And make it on my own.
Small-business institutes were set up on college campuses, Moreton explains, casting "the businessman as a victim, not a bully, to impressionable campus audiences."
Business brought its Gramscian tactics to secondary schools as well. In Arkansas, SIFE performed classroom skits of Milton Friedman's PBS series Free to Choose. In 1971, Arizona passed a law requiring high school graduates to take a course in economics so they would have "some foundation to stand on," according to the bill's sponsor, when they came up "against professors that are collectivists or Socialists." Twenty states followed suit. Arizona students could place out of the course if they passed an exam that asked them, among other things, to match the phrase "government intervention in a free enterprise system" with "is detrimental to the free market."
The most ambidextrous of politicians, Nixon was the master of talking left and walking right. According to Thomas J. Sugrue and John Skrentny ("The White Ethnic Strategy"), Nixon understood that the best response to the civil rights movement was not to defend whites against blacks but to make whites into white ethnics burdened with their own histories of oppression and requiring their own liberation movement. Where immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe had jumped into the American melting pot and turned white, Nixon and the ethnic revivalists of the 1970s "provided Americans of European descent a new vehicle for asserting citizenship rights at a moment when it grew increasingly illegitimate to make claims on the state on the basis of whiteness."
Under Nixon's leadership, the Republican Party was transformed from a WASP country club at the corner of Wall and Main into a version of the urban Democratic machine. Poles and Italians were appointed to high-profile offices in his Administration, and Nixon campaigned vigorously in white ethnic neighborhoods. Sugrue and Skrentny report that he even told one crowd that "he felt like he had Italian blood." Nixon's efforts occasionally went beyond the symbolic--a 1971 proposal would have extended affirmative action to "members of certain ethnic groups, primarily of Eastern, Middle, and Southern European ancestry, such as Italians, Greeks, and Slavic groups"--but most were rhetorical. That didn't make them less potent: the new vocabulary of white ethnicity, Sugrue and Skrentny conclude, helped create "a romanticized past of hard work, discipline, well-defined gender roles, and tight-knit families," providing a new language for a new age--and a very old regime.
The Christian evangelicals and right-wing activists discussed in Rightward Bound are one branch of the Goldwater clan. The neoconservatives described by Jacob Heilbrunn in They Knew They Were Right--the Kristols (Irving and William), the Podhoretzes (Norman and John) and the Kagans (Donald, Frederick, Robert and Kimberly), to name a few--are another. While this second branch has also propagated a program of domestic reaction, it is known primarily for elaborating Goldwater's hawkish views on foreign policy. Like Goldwater, the neocons sought to roll back communism. Like him, they have scorned alliances and have feared that a nation unwilling to risk death is a decadent nation awaiting servitude. Since 9/11, however, they've surpassed Goldwater's hawkishness, adumbrating an almost theological vision of the United States as the all good, all powerful, sovereign of the earth.
The rise of the neocons is a puzzle. How did a group of bookish, mostly Jewish, ex-leftists from New York City come to help govern a nation that is Christian, anti-intellectual and hates New York City? Heilbrunn (a former neocon) doesn't solve the puzzle, but he brings a welcome scrutiny to one piece of it. "Neoconservatism isn't about ideology," he writes. "It isn't about the left. It is about a mindset, one that has been decisively shaped by the Jewish immigrant experience, by the Holocaust, and by the twentieth-century struggle against totalitarianism." That mind-set includes a bitter resentment of the State Department as well as the WASP establishment, which thwarted Jews in academia--Heilbrunn repeats the story of how Elliot Cohen, Lionel Trilling's mentor, was told that only Anglo-Saxons could understand English literature. It also includes a prophetic sensibility, "an uncompromising temperament" that sees "ideas as weapons in a moral struggle."
This combination of resentment, zeal and intransigence has been a source of intellectual fertility--and political anxiety. Whenever neocons get too close to the Promised Land, they fret over losing their status as outsiders. Being comfortable makes them uncomfortable. Thanks to the failure of the war in Iraq, however, "they are back in exile, where they belong--and where they are, in some respects, most content," Heilbrunn explains.
Heilbrunn is an able chronicler of the neocons' ambivalence about belonging to a club that is willing to have them as members. But his book is marred by blemishes large and small. He claims that Arthur Schlesinger Jr. "did not see an internal threat" to the United States from domestic communism. Yet Schlesinger devoted an entire chapter of The Vital Center (1949) to that threat--almost twice as long as the chapter he wrote on the Soviet Union--and claimed that "there is surely no alternative to paying exact and unfaltering attention to the Communists in our midst." Heilbrunn writes that Leo Strauss, the University of Chicago philosopher, could not have been a "crypto-fascist" because he was "a German mandarin" with a "mania for all things Greek." Has Heilbrunn not heard of Martin Heidegger?
Heilbrunn writes that "Zionism was about the furthest thing that Hannah Arendt...wanted to be associated with in any shape or form." If that's true, why did Arendt do illegal work for Zionist organizations in Nazi Germany, which got her arrested and forced her to flee, and why did she work for Zionist organizations in France? Why did she write in 1948 that "Palestine and the building of a Jewish homeland constitute today the great hope and the great pride of Jews all over the world"? Why, when Israel was at war in 1967 and 1973, did she contribute to the United Jewish Appeal?
These are simple errors, and though one wishes that Heilbrunn didn't make them so often or with such confidence, they don't detract from his overall argument. The same cannot be said of the book's two other problems. The first is that They Knew They Were Right leaves the reader with a weary sense of déjà vu, as if watching an old newsreel one too many times. It's the 1930s, and there are the Trots in Alcove 1 of the City College cafeteria, the Stalinists in Alcove 2. Oh, and there's Daniel Bell. One day he'll call himself a liberal in politics, a socialist in economics and a conservative in culture. It's the 1950s, and Time is proclaiming "reconciliation" between America and its intellectuals. There's Partisan Review holding a symposium on "Our Country, Our Culture." But where's Irving Howe's rebuke of this accommodation? Ah, there it is: "In a famous 1952 essay, 'This Age of Conformity,' Howe asserted that the intellectuals had sold out." It's 1993; the cold war is over. But Irving Kristol is still fighting it--this time, against the liberals he's hated his whole life. In a controversial article, he writes, "My cold war has increased in intensity, as sector after sector has been ruthlessly corrupted by the liberal ethos." Heilbrunn says, "Daniel Bell told me that he was stunned that Kristol would condemn liberalism outright rather than pointing to specific flaws."
But Bell didn't say that only to Heilbrunn. He said that to everyone, in Joseph Dorman's 1998 documentary Arguing the World. Heilbrunn had the opportunity to interview Bell, Norman Podhoretz and many other conservatives and neoconservatives. But with one gem of an exception--after Heilbrunn informs Buckley at the New York Yacht Club that the only magazine Leo Strauss subscribed to was National Review, Buckley expresses delight but wonders if Strauss was "clubbable"--you've heard it all before.
Maybe you even wrote it before. Here's Heilbrunn discussing how supporters of the war in Iraq began to criticize the Iraqis once the war effort faltered:
David Brooks blamed the Iraqis for succumbing to innate "demons: greed, blood lust and a mind-boggling unwillingness to compromise...even in the face of self-immolation." Leon Wieseltier said much the same thing in The New Republic:
The security situation is at bottom the social-cultural situation. It seems increasingly clear to me that the blame for the violence in Iraq, and for its frenzied recoil from what Fouad Ajami hopefully called "the foreigner's gift," belongs to the Iraqis. Gifts must not only be given, they must also be received.... For three and a half years, the Iraqis have been free people. What have they done with their freedom?...After we invaded Iraq, Iraq invaded itself.
Here's a passage I wrote in an article about Hannah Arendt published in the January 4, 2007, issue of The London Review of Books:
According to the New York Times columnist David Brooks, after the fall of Saddam the Iraqis succumbed to their native 'demons: greed, blood lust and a mind-boggling unwillingness to compromise...even in the face of self-immolation'. Liberal hawks such as Leon Wieseltier believe much the same thing:
The security situation is at bottom the social-cultural situation. It seems increasingly clear to me that the blame for the violence in Iraq, and for its frenzied recoil from what Fouad Ajami hopefully called 'the foreigner's gift', belongs to the Iraqis. Gifts must not be only given, they must also be received.... For three and a half years, the Iraqis have been a free people. What have they done with their freedom?... After we invaded Iraq, Iraq invaded itself.
The identical order and nearly identical setup of the same quotes, with the same ellipses, caught my attention, especially since Heilbrunn cites only Wieseltier in his footnote. But I dismissed it as a single instance of carelessness. Then I found another. Here's Heilbrunn, in a chapter called "Redemption," talking about Ronald Reagan's human rights policy:
For example, on April 30, 1981, [Reagan] remarked, "Even at the negotiating table, never shall it be forgotten for a moment that wherever it is taking place in the world, the persecution of people for whatever reason...persecution of people for their religious belief...that is a matter to be on that negotiating table or the United States does not belong at that table." But the New York Times reported on the same day that "after the speech, a White House spokesman said Mr. Reagan had not meant to alter his policy of playing down the rights issue in foreign relations."
Here's Patricia Derian, Jimmy Carter's Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, in a November 7, 1981, article in The Nation:
On April 30, The New York Times quoted President Reagan as having said that "even at the negotiating table, never shall it be forgotten for a moment that wherever it is taking place in the world, the persecution of people for whatever reason...persecution of people for their religious belief...that is a matter to be on that negotiating table or the United States does not belong at that table." In the same edition of the Times, a front-page story reported that "after the speech, a White House spokesman said Mr. Reagan had not meant to alter his policy of playing down the rights issue in foreign relations."
Heilbrunn, it turns out, borrows more than the syntax, setup and sources of other people's writings. Sometimes he reproduces, sentence by sentence, the arc and logic of their prose. Here he is again on Reagan's human rights policy:
Reagan was initially rather disdainful of human rights, which he showed unmistakably by nominating Ernest Lefever, a member of the Committee on the Present Danger as well as the Washington-based Ethics and Public Policy Center (which Abrams himself would head in the 1990s), to be assistant secretary of state for human rights and humanitarian affairs. Lefever had declared that human rights were irrelevant to U.S. foreign policy and, furthermore, that any legislation making foreign aid conditional on a nation's observance of human rights should be repealed. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, which had a Republican majority, rejected his nomination.
Here's Derian again, in that same Nation article:
The President nominated Ernest Lefever to be Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs. Lefever's publicly stated views on the subject were (a) that all legislation making foreign aid conditional on a nation's observance of human rights should be repealed and (b) that human rights had no place in U.S. foreign policy. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, with a Republican majority, handed the President his first important defeat by voting 13 to 4 to reject the nomination.
Each passage contains three sentences, plotting the same arc with essentially the same information: Reagan nominated Lefever; Lefever held two views on human rights; a Senate committee rejected Lefever. Heilbrunn even duplicates Derian's prose--"that all legislation making foreign aid conditional on a nation's observance of human rights should be repealed"--with a negligible change of "all" to "any." While Heilbrunn does cite Derian for a comment on Reagan's policy, he does not cite her or her article as the source of his information, quotations, argument and language.
Heilbrunn is a journalist, not a scholar; he is a former senior editor at The New Republic and a former member of the Los Angeles Times editorial board. Yet he or his publisher has packaged this book as a serious piece of original research. It comes with blurbs from esteemed academics and highly regarded journalists. It has extensive footnotes with primary sources, suggesting an author who has moled away in archives and microfiche reading rooms for months, if not years. Has he?
The mise-en-scène of Heilbrunn's chapter "Wilderness" describes the raucous 1967 convention of the National Conference for New Politics (NCNP) in Chicago. Heilbrunn claims that his only source is a 1967 article in The New York Times Magazine by Walter Goodman. Yet several items in Heilbrunn's account don't appear in Goodman's article. There is this statement from William F. Pepper, executive director of the NCNP, to the convention: "It may well be that what you begin here may ultimately result in a new social, economic and political system in the United States." There is also a claim that some of the organization's funding came from Martin Peretz, then a member of the New Left. There is even that middle initial "F" in Pepper's name, which Goodman never uses. Each of these items does appear, however, in an April 2003 Journal of American Studies article by historian Simon Hall, who did find them by digging in archives (at the State Historical Society of Wisconsin) and poring over microfiche ("Political Activities of the Johnson White House, 1963-69").
The second problem, then, with They Knew They Were Right has to do with its fast-and-loose use of sources. Heilbrunn harvests quotes, in the same order and with the same ellipses, from sources he neither acknowledges nor cites. His expository frames for these quotes closely resemble or repeat those of his sources. Passages in his text trace the arc of passages in other texts. On at least two occasions, he expropriates the research of others without attribution. And on at least one occasion, he passes off the prose of another writer as if it were his own. His sourcing is sloppy, his thinking borrowed, his writing derivative.
And, in the end, his argument about the neocons is incoherent. One of the reasons the neocons succeed, Heilbrunn claims, is that they don't compromise their principles. Consequently, "the political class in each party regards them with a mixture of appreciation and apprehension, even loathing." Yet Heilbrunn also claims that neoconservatism has "become a partisan cause dedicated to advancing the Republican Party's electoral fortunes rather than an independent collection of thinkers." The neocons "started out as intellectuals who were attracted to power. Soon enough, however, the prospect of access to the high and mighty became an end in itself." So, are the neocons sticklers or hacks, purists or politicos? Similarly, Heilbrunn introduces Norman Podhoretz as "a compulsive truth teller," a "true prophetic type." One page later, however, Podhoretz moves to the left because of a "shrewd assessment that American culture was moving left." Two pages after that, he puts "another finger to the wind and tack[s] rightward." In Heilbrunn's universe, men who cannot surrender their principles surrender their principles; truth-telling prophets write books with titles like Making It.
Heilbrunn sets out to tell one story: how a group of moralists enter the Promised Land, discover that prophecy comes more easily to them in the wilderness and long to flee back into exile but can't. He winds up telling another story: how a group of intellectuals enter the Promised Land, gain access and power and, to the apparent regret of no one save Heilbrunn, lose their edge. This first story is sad; the second, comic. But Heilbrunn can't seem to tell the difference between them. Perhaps that is why he can say, with no evident sense of irony, that the neocon errand into the wilderness came to a climax when Seymour Martin Lipset, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and James Q. Wilson arrived at the government department at Harvard.
If Heilbrunn had a better grasp of the history of conservatism, he might have been able to turn his confusion into insight. Ever since it emerged from the shadows of the French Revolution, conservatism has been a movement of insiders pretending to be outsiders. Who better to make the case that the insider is really an outsider than the outsider who has become an insider? Staffing the offices of reaction, parvenus and upstarts can argue, like no one else, for a modernized mass feudalism. Their very presence at the centers of power signals that privilege has indeed become democratic.
Hailing from the periphery, they also instruct old and sclerotic elites in the ways of renewal and renovation. Joseph de Maistre, a jurist and diplomat from Savoy, tutored counterrevolutionary France, even though he never was a subject or citizen of that country. Edmund Burke, the bourgeois Irishman, defended aristocratic England against the Jacobins. Alexander Hamilton, bastard child of the Caribbean and rumored son of racially mixed parentage, led the Federalist reaction. Disraeli the Jew gave the Tories confidence and style. Kristol the Jew--like Scalia the Italian, Fukuyama the Asian and all the hyphens of today's conservative movement--gave the Republicans ideas and zeal.
Barry Goldwater's mother was a descendant of Roger Williams. His father, who converted to Episcopalianism, was a descendant of Polish Jews. When Goldwater ran in 1964, Harry Golden quipped, "I always knew the first Jew to run for president would be an Episcopalian." If the history of conservatism is any guide, perhaps he should have run as a Jew.
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• Real-World Geography: Andrew Carroll
Illustration by Mary Crooks
By Mary Schons
Wednesday, January 26, 2011
Andrew’s book, Here is Where, will be published in 2011. Here is Where is a guide to little-known historical sites in all 50 states. Andrew travels all over the country to find and research important, fascinating, and just plain weird bits of history that people may not know or have forgotten about.
In addition to writing Here is Where, Andrew founded the Legacy Project in 1998. The Legacy Project is a volunteer initiative that aims to “seek out and preserve the personal correspondence of our nation’s veterans, active-duty troops, and their loved ones.”
“I grew up not liking history. As a kid, history was about being forced to memorize dates.
“When my house burned down (when I was a college student at Columbia University), we lost our personal history. That's when I started the Legacy Project. I would read letters written by U.S. soldiers serving in wartime. It drew me in to the history of these wars.” The wars became “more about a young soldier writing to his fiancee about what he'd seen,” Andrew says, rather than about the battles or campaigns written about in most history books.
“I became interested in personal stories about massive events,” he says, citing the 1918 flu pandemic during World War I. There is a historical marker in Camp Funston in Fort Riley, Kansas, that identifies the place where the first strains of the disease were observed in the U.S.
However, Andrew recently found out that “the flu pandemic was actually known about a month earlier. Now I'm tracking down the doctor who first diagnosed it.”
“Traveling and meeting people. Finding kindred spirits. . . . I rely a lot on informal guides. I like reading about the famous duel that nobody knows about and then trying to find where it happened.”
“Researching and verifying the sites. I spend a lot of time in libraries and historical societies, looking up streets in city directories. Sometimes the streets move or change names over time. I try to be as careful as possible to authenticate a Here is Where site.”
“For me, not so much about places or location as it is about stories. Geography is a springboard to larger stories.
“The most heartbreaking thing I hear people say is that nothing ever happens in their town. They ask me why I'm here, and I tell them, and they'll say, 'I never knew that.'
Here is Where is about looking at the world in a way you've never seen. It's about being passionate not about one thing, but about a lot of things that makes us feel alive. Geographic stories are relevant to our lives.”
“I travel a lot. Travel reinvigorates me. I got to see parts of the country I never saw before. [To research Here is Where], I took a kayak to islands, I took subways, I hiked, and I rode in helicopters. I did some biking. It's fun to see people on trains, planes, etc. I meet people and I get to talking about what I do. After awhile they'll usually say, 'You know, my mom told me about this site . . .' We are all fellow travelers.”
Andrew was inspired to write Here is Where after learning about a little-known historical incident that took place in what is now an ordinary railway platform.
“I originally got started with the book after hearing about an incident that took place in New Jersey in 1864. A man had fallen off the train platform and would almost certainly have been killed were it not for another man who pulled him to safety. The man who fell was Robert Todd Lincoln, son of President Abraham Lincoln. The man who saved him was Edwin Booth. Edwin Booth's brother, John Wilkes Booth, would assassinate Abraham Lincoln within the year. I thought surely this story was fiction, until I found out that Robert Todd Lincoln wrote about the incident in his diary. My next thought was that there should be a marker at the spot on this New Jersey railway platform telling people what happened, but there's nothing to let people know what happened.
"I would like to use funding from the book to underwrite historical markers. It's a way to [show] all of us, but most especially young people, that history is alive and is happening all around us.
“With Here is Where, I want to reach that person who thinks history is nothing but names and dates. It's about empowering people to set out on their own journeys and tracking down their own sites. Young people can make history. Claudette Colvin is a great example of that. She was a teenager who challenged the bus segregation laws in Montgomery, Alabama, nine months before Rosa Parks.
“Some of the book is pure serendipity. One time while driving to a site I got pulled over for speeding. The police officer suggested I use my cruise control to stay within the speed limit. This got me to thinking, ‘Who invented cruise control?’ Turns out it was a blind inventor named Ralph Teetor who lives in Hagerstown, Indiana.”
1. “Read as much as possible. Some of the best stories are asides in other books. Military, science, sports. Sometimes there is some overlap, like in the case of Moe Berg—he was a baseball player who was also a spy for the United States during World War II.”
2. “Turn off the TV and computer and go out in the world. Talk to people in the place you live. Talk to the historical society. Go past the guidebooks. Don't go to the usual tourist destinations. Or, if you do turn on the computer, do a search for ‘forgotten history’ in your town.”
Submit your ideas for forgotten sites to [email protected].
• Term Part of Speech Definition Encyclopedic Entry
1918 flu pandemic Noun
(1917-1920) infectious disease that killed between 50 million and 100 million people worldwide, with healthy young adults being the most vulnerable. Also called the Spanish flu.
Abraham Lincoln Noun
(1809-1865) 16th American president.
aside Noun
short comment or remark that does not have to do with the main topic.
assassinate Verb
to murder someone of political importance.
authenticate Verb
to verify or establish as real.
blind Adjective
unable to see.
Claudette Colvin Noun
(1939-present) civil rights activist.
correspondence Noun
direct communication between people.
cruise control Noun
system or device that automatically maintains a vehicle's speed.
diagnose Verb
to identify a disease or problem.
disease Noun
a harmful condition of a body part or organ.
duel Noun
contest between two people, historically with deadly weapons such as swords or guns.
empower Verb
to give authority or power.
fascinate Verb
to cause an interest in.
fiancee Noun
woman who is engaged to be married.
fiction Noun
funding Noun
money or finances.
geography Noun
study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.
Encyclopedic Entry: geography
helicopter Noun
aircraft that flies using rotating blades on top of the body of the craft.
hike Verb
to walk a long distance.
history Noun
study of the past.
incident Noun
event or happening.
initiative Noun
first step or move in a plan.
inventor Noun
person who creates a new idea, machine, product, device, or process.
island Noun
body of land surrounded by water.
Encyclopedic Entry: island
John Wilkes Booth Noun
(1838-1865) American actor and assassin of President Abraham Lincoln.
journey Noun
voyage or trip.
kayak Noun
kindred spirit Noun
person who shares similar interests, attitudes, and emotions.
military Noun
armed forces.
Moe Berg Noun
(Morris Berg, 1902-1972) American baseball player and spy.
pandemic Noun
disease spread quickly throughout a wide geographic area.
publish Verb
to provide a written piece of work, such as a book or newspaper, for sale or distribution.
reinvigorate Verb
to provide energy or passion.
Rosa Parks Noun
(1913-2005) American civil rights leader.
segregation Noun
serendipity Noun
good luck.
soldier Noun
person who serves in a military.
Spanish flu Noun
springboard Noun
situation or idea that serves as a starting point for a project or program.
subway Noun
travel Noun
movement from one place to another.
troop Noun
a soldier.
underwrite Verb
to fund or contribute money to a project or program.
verify Verb
to prove as true.
veteran Noun
person who has served their country in a military capacity.
volunteer Noun
person who performs work without being paid.
weird Noun
unusual or bizzare.
World War I Noun
For Further Exploration
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Front Page
UK Politics
Talking Point
In Depth
Commonwealth Games 2002
BBC Sport
BBC Weather
Wednesday, 2 January, 2002, 18:54 GMT
New pig clones born
New pig clones: PPL Therapeutics
The five cloned pigs: Noel, Angel, Star, Joy and Mary
A biopharmaceutical company that helped produce Dolly the sheep has produced new pig clones.
PPL Therapeutics says the pigs, which lack a specific gene, are a major step towards using animal organs for human transplants.
The female piglets were born on Christmas Day in the United States.
David Ayares, PPL
They have been named Noel, Angel, Star, Joy and Mary.
These are not the first pig clones, but PPL, a commercial offshoot of the Roslin Institute in Scotland, says the pigs are the first to be engineered in a way that should help prevent their tissues being rejected by the human body.
The animals' biological make-up is slightly different from ordinary pigs.
'Near term' solution
A specific gene, which makes the human body reject pig organs, has been "knocked out".
PPL says that it intends to use the pigs as part of its programme to seek a cure for humans suffering from diabetes.
It raises serious ethical issues over the use of animals and a major question of safety
Dr Donald Bruce, Church of Scotland
Dr David Ayares, Vice-President of Research at PPL's US division said the birth of the pigs was a critical milestone in the company's xenograft programme.
"This advance provides a near-term solution for overcoming the shortage of human organs for transplants as well as insulin-producing cells to cure diabetes," Dr Ayares said in a statement.
The news was given a cautious welcome by the Society, Religion and Technology Project of the Church of Scotland.
Safety concerns
Dr Donald Bruce said the disabling of a gene that would otherwise cause the rejection of a pig organ by the human body might, potentially, be ethically acceptable in the context of xenotransplantation but only if a number of conditions were fulfilled.
Genetically altered pig: AP
Genetically altered pigs are now a reality
"The prospect of using pig organs to save many human lives, or to improve substantially the quality of life of dialysis patients or diabetics, is attractive from the viewpoint of human medicine," he said.
"But it raises serious ethical issues over the use of animals and a major question of safety." He added: "The fact that we already eat pigs is not a sufficient moral argument. This would be an entirely new way of relating to animals. Switching organs across species represents a different way of using animals from anything humans have done before."
PPL was the first to clone pigs in spring 2000. In April 2001, PPL said that it had produced gene-altered, or transgenic, pig clones.
The pigs had had a foreign gene added to the cells from which they were developed.
A month later an Australian company, BresaGen Ltd, said it had also produced a pig clone using a different technology.
Potential obstacles
Pigs are thought by some scientists to be the most suitable animals for providing organs for transplant into humans.
A pig's heart is about the same size as a human's and has about the same power output.
Furthermore, scientists think they understand the steps they need to take to genetically modify pig tissue so that it will not be rejected by the human immune system.
However, there are a number of major problems yet to be overcome. These include the theoretical risk that pig viruses might jump into humans and cause new diseases.
Sarah Kite, from the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection, was critical of the development, saying that many animals were being put through horrific and pointless experiments.
"We believe this is yet further scientific hype because it is leading people to falsely believe that successful animal transplants are just around the corner," she told the BBC.
She said scientists still did not understand the rejection issue properly and added that there were major doubts over whether animal organs could sustain human life.
"The full potential for getting human donor organs has not yet been realised. We still haven't got an 'opt out' system in this country where humans are assumed to want their organs used for transplant after their death."
The BBC's Richard Bilton
"Potential hope for thousands of people"
Dr Andre Menache, Doctors Responsible for Medicine
"We are crossing a red line here"
Dr Sandy Thomas, Nuffield Council of Bioethics
"The prospect of transmission of viruses is a serious one"
BUAV spokesperson Sarah Kite
"Rather than using animals just as spare parts we should be looking at other methods"
See also:
09 May 01 | Sci/Tech
Australian researchers clone pig
11 Apr 01 | Sci/Tech
Pig cloning advance
14 Mar 00 | Sci/Tech
Scientists produce five pig clones
14 Mar 00 | Sci/Tech
Pig organ transplants much closer
14 Mar 00 | Sci/Tech
Cloned pigs: The reaction
Internet links:
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What's Actually Taught In Sex Ed Class
Nora Gelperin, director of training and education, Answer
Dr. Diane Foley, pediatrician and director of Education for a Lifetime
NEAL CONAN, host: This is TALK OF THE NATION. I'm Neal Conan, in Washington. And before we begin, a word of warning: We're about to start a conversation on sex education that will include mention of body parts and practices.
There are few educational issues that are more controversial. In New York City, public schools are about to start a new curriculum that some complain is too explicit. In some places, classes focus on abstinence until marriage. Others discuss oral sex, and teach kids how to use condoms.
There is, in fact, a range of programs that are often adjusted by local school boards. So when you're in the classroom, how do they actually differ? Parents, teachers, what should be taught? Who should teach it? Give us a call, 800-989-8255. Email, [email protected]. You can also join the conversation on our website. That's at npr.org. Click on TALK OF THE NATION.
Later in the program, cautious optimism as change begins in Myanmar. But first, sex education, and we begin with Nora Gelperin. She's director of training at Answer, an organization that promotes comprehensive sexuality education - based at Rutgers University. She trains educators nationwide to teach all types of sex education curricula, and joins us now from a studio in Piscataway, New Jersey. Nice to have you with us.
NORA GELPERIN: Thanks so much.
CONAN: And help us understand. What kinds of sex ed curricula can schools choose from?
GELPERIN: There's quite a range, from abstinence-only-until-marriage programs, which have rarely shown to be effective; to comprehensive sexuality education, which is age appropriate and medically accurate, and implemented across the grade spans of kindergarten through 12th grade. So quite a range.
CONAN: And as I understand, there are different companies, like textbook companies that have - well, offer different curricula.
GELPERIN: That's true. There's many different nonprofit organizations that promote various curriculum that are available. Some are evidence-based. Some are evidence-informed. Many of them are infused into the school day by the individual teacher - or the districts - that figures out what's best for their students.
CONAN: And you work with teachers to teach whatever curricula their local school board, or their state, mandates, right?
GELPERIN: Exactly. So the state board of education decides what's the policy at the state level, and then the individual districts decide, based - what's in compliance with their state policy, what's going to be in best interest of their young people. So it goes - a tiered effect, from the state down to the local districts.
CONAN: And obviously, this varies from - you know, it's quite different, say, in Louisiana or New York.
GELPERIN: Absolutely. The policies really range. Only about 35 states mandate comprehensive sexuality education, or HIV-STD prevention. Some of them don't require it at all. So it's left up to the discretion of the local district - or actually, sometimes teacher to teacher.
CONAN: And in some cases, you are prohibited from discussing abortion.
GELPERIN: Absolutely. So the state of Michigan is a good example. They're prohibited from discussing that term or that concept at all. Actually, sometimes there can be financial penalties if they do versus, like a state - here in New Jersey - that is actually required to teach about pregnancy options, including abortion, in high school.
CONAN: In high school and obviously, these lessons can vary as - whether they're taught in middle school or high school.
GELPERIN: Right, absolutely. So middle-schoolers need different information than high-schoolers do. Obviously, that's much more age appropriate, relevant to where they are in their lives and developmentally appropriate as well, versus high school students, which need something different - whether they're sexually active in high school, or looking toward the future.
CONAN: And language - I mean, is the language in different curricula different? I mean, in some cases, do they use clinical terms? In other cases, do they tend more towards - well, expressions that the kids in class might be more familiar with?
GELPERIN: Absolutely. So we at Answer really promote and recommend that schools adopt curriculum that are medically accurate and using the scientifically correct terms. Sometimes what also happens is, a teacher really struggles that her students or his students know a different set of terms than what is medically accurate. So they struggle with the street terms, or the slang. So we really encourage teachers to make sure that their students are aware of what the medically accurate terms are, and make sure to use those in their teaching.
CONAN: And obviously, sometimes students are uncomfortable with language and can giggle. Obviously, sometimes teachers can be uncomfortable with the language, too.
GELPERIN: Absolutely, that's so true.
CONAN: Who are the teachers?
GELPERIN: Typically in a school district, you might have a range. Typically, it's a health and physical education teacher who's implementing comprehensive sexuality education. Sometimes, it might be a biology teacher or a science teacher. Rarely, we might see implementation done by a guidance counselor or social worker; sometimes even a school nurse, if we're talking about elementary schools.
CONAN: And they can run into conflicts, too. Somebody who might believe, for example, in a comprehensive program might be required by their school or their state to teach something else, and vice versa.
GELPERIN: Definitely. So sometimes health professionals might have their own religious or moral beliefs, which might be in contradiction with the curriculum that they're required to implement. We definitely have those professionals in our workshops, and we work with them about ways that they might be able to accommodate their own beliefs.
But typically, school districts really are in alignment with what Answer believes, which is that young people deserve medically accurate and complete information so they can make healthy choices in their lives.
CONAN: We want to get some callers in on the conversation. We want to hear from parents and teachers today. What should be taught in your child's sex education classes, and who should teach it; 800-989-8255, email us, [email protected]. We'll start with Peter, and Peter's on the line from Berkeley.
PETER: Hi, thanks for this topic. My contribution I wanted to make was bringing up the advisability of having a checklist for healthy relationships so that young people, as well as older people, can match up their expectations of what they expect out of this relationship before they get into it, and how important that is psychologically - because I think, you know, teenagers are, like the rest of us, often very romantic around sex.
And just having some feet-on-the-ground criteria to go through to discuss before they jump into bed with somebody and get emotionally bonded, as often can happen, it would be a very, very great contribution, in addition to physical sex education.
CONAN: Nora Gelperin, is that taught in - in what kinds of classes is that taught?
GELPERIN: It's a terrific question, and I think what's so wonderful is to think beyond the physicality of sexuality education. We know sexuality is complex, and what young people really crave is to talk about the emotions that come along with relationships and sexual behaviors, not just the plumbing.
So at sexetcetera.org, our teen website, we really hear from the 5,000 young people every day who are looking for just that kind of information your caller suggested - some criteria by which to base their actual lived experiences on what's healthy or not as healthy.
CONAN: But are there any programs that would skip that?
GELPERIN: There might be. If some have an exclusive focus just on abstinence only until marriage, or just on HIV or STD prevention, they might not have the time, the luxury of time, to talk about things in a positive way, like healthy relationships or positive body image - or even things like media literacy, navigating technology, preventing sexting. All of these topics are of critical importance but often get shortchanged when we focus exclusively on health outcomes.
CONAN: Peter, thanks very much for the call.
PETER: Here, here.
CONAN: You raised the question of time. How much time is devoted in schools, typically? - and let's just say high schools, for example. This would vary. I mean, there may be a health class of which sex ed may be a part, but so would be other things, including phys ed and obesity, for example.
GELPERIN: That's true, Neal. And too often, what we hear from young people is sexuality education is too little and too late. There are just a few, precious hours to cover all of health education, of which sexuality education is one, small piece. And what we hear time and again, from both our health teachers and our young people, on sexetcetera.org is that it's just too little, too late, and they crave more.
CONAN: Here's an email from Antoine(ph) in Oakland, California: I do not want, under any circumstances, to have teachers or experts on any level teaching sexual behavior to my children. Teaching behavior is a license to practice. Teaching about diseases that go along with casual sex or health-related talk, I am fine with, but I do not want it to go any further than that.
California, I note, does not require sexual education.
GELPERIN: That's right, and I think that the writer has really identified a very common concern we hear from parents. They worry that talking about information is harmful when really, decades of research has shown us that actually, talking about information is helpful, not harmful. It's not giving directions; it's giving realistic, reality-based information about how to protect yourself, both now
and into the future.
CONAN: Well, that's an argument for, and there's a time and place for that. But as a practical matter, does he have an alternative? Are there - is he - can he opt in or out for his child?
GELPERIN: Absolutely. So every parent, no matter the topic area, is always given the right to opt their child out of any topic area that they deem in conflict with their strongly held moral or religious beliefs. So he as a parent, if he felt strongly that the local curriculum was in conflict with his beliefs, could approach the health teacher in the district and choose to remove his child from that portion of instruction.
CONAN: Let's go next to Tina, and Tina's on the line from San Antonio.
TINA: Hi. I was a teenage mother, and I also now have a teenager. So what I have taught my daughter, starting from very young - about 7 - just the basics, and I always built on it. And building on it over the years helps us to become comfortable with all of the terms.
But I tell her now, as a teenager, that the best thing is for me to give her all the information that's out there so she can make the best decisions for herself. And I think that that should be what the school should do also - without the emotional portion of what sex
education is, put into the curriculum, but with space for that when students need someplace to talk about it - because not everybody parents the way I do.
CONAN: Yeah, no, I understand that. Do you know what she does learn in high school?
TINA: Yes, actually, I do. She has a really open-minded health teacher who was a teen parent, and they watch videos. They do learn all of the anatomical, but they also deal with some emotion also, as well.
CONAN: OK, thanks very much for the call. We wish you the best of luck.
TINA: Thank you.
CONAN: OK, the - as we get down to the relationship with the parents, obviously, parents can help school districts. Sometimes, they serve on the boards that advise school districts on what kind of sex education package to pick up, or to teach. But they also, I would assume, all of these classes say, talk to your mom and dad.
GELPERIN: Absolutely, Neal. Parents and schools must work together. Parents play a critical role. They're the most important sexuality educator to provide the values, the family culture, all of those pieces that schools cannot provide. But what parents tell us is they want help, they want support.
Schools and health professionals are trained to deliver sexuality education. They have the knowledge and the expertise. So they must work together.
CONAN: Here's an email from Meadow in Sacramento. No matter what program is taught, abstinence instruction needs to be given to students as an option. Teaching women and men that they do not have to engage in sex empowers them to control what happens to their bodies. When we don't present abstinence as an option to our young women, we are keeping that power from them.
Abstinence as an option - is that commonly taught in all of these different programs?
GELPERIN: Absolutely. It's one of the central tenets of all responsible sexuality education. I think there's a misunderstanding that comprehensive sex ed skips abstinence, but it's absolutely at the forefront, and I couldn't agree with your caller any more.
CONAN: Well, stay with us if you would. We're talking about what schools teach about sex. Parents, teachers, what should be taught? Who should teach it; 800-989-8255 is the phone number. You can also drop us an email. The address: [email protected]. Stay with us. I'm Neal Conan. It's the TALK OF THE NATION, from NPR News.
CONAN: This is TALK OF THE NATION, from NPR News. I'm Neal Conan. We're talking today about sex ed. Policies on what to teach, and what not to, vary from state to state. Fewer than half mandate any sex ed at all. More require education on HIV and STDs. Some prohibit any discussion of abortion, while others cover detailed methods of contraception.
You can find a link to a chart that shows how each state handles these issues. Go to npr.org, and click on TALK OF THE NATION. Parents, teachers, what should be taught? Do you want discussions about homosexuality or sexting? And who should teach it; 800-989-8255. Email us, [email protected]. You can also join the conversation at our website. That's at npr.org. Click on TALK OF THE NATION.
Our guest is Nora Gelperin, director of training and education at Answer, a national organization that promotes comprehensive sexuality education. And joining us now is Dr. Diane Foley, a pediatrician who specializes in adolescent gynecology. She's director of Education for a Lifetime, which is a nonprofit organization that focuses on abstinence in Colorado Springs Public Schools, and joins us now by phone from her home there in Colorado Springs. Nice to have you with us today.
DIANE FOLEY: Thank you so much, Neal.
CONAN: And clarify for us, if you will: As I understand it, there are different kinds of programs that describe themselves with the word abstinence.
FOLEY: Yes, there are, and I think that that's one important fact that has come out already in the program - is that I think it's very important for parents to find out exactly what's being taught in their own schools because as has already been mentioned, most local school districts are the ones who make the choice about which curricula are used and how it's taught, actually, in their own school districts.
And so you can't make an assumption by hearing that this is a comprehensive program, or this is an abstinence program, and know exactly what's being taught in your own school.
CONAN: For example, I gather there's something called abstinence-plus.
FOLEY: Well, I agree, and I think sometimes the terminology is a little bit confusing. And so I think it's important, again, that parents are able to look at that curriculum and see exactly what is being taught.
CONAN: Well, your program - an abstinence-only program, is that accurate?
FOLEY: No, our program is actually - we actually refer to this as a sexual risk-avoidance program. And the reason it's that way is because we know that teenagers are going to be involved in high-risk behavior, and we know that the healthiest choice for them is to avoid that high-risk behavior. And we know that a lot of these behaviors are related to each other. And so we teach them that the healthiest choice for them, again, is to avoid that behavior.
CONAN: To avoid that behavior. In the event they do not, do you teach birth control?
FOLEY: Yes, we do, and we - that's another one of the misconceptions that is out there about programs that are called abstinence only, that they aren't supposedly allowed to teach about contraception. But that's not true. And in fact, we agree that teenagers deserve to have medically accurate and complete information given to them about this area. And so these programs - and again, that's important.
So our particular program does teach about contraception as a part of the whole message that is given; that there is a risk avoidance, and there's also a way to reduce your risk if you are involved sexually.
CONAN: And then there are other sexual behaviors that are also controversial. Does your program address homosexuality, transgender, that sort of thing?
FOLEY: We address that simply from the standpoint that the risks are the same in those programs. It depends on the particular school district as to how, specifically, you can address each of those issues. And so for the most part, they are not dealt with other than to explain that the risk behaviors for the type of sex that you're having increase with the number of partners that you have.
CONAN: And Nora Gelperin, I wanted to bring you in. There are, as I understand it, a number of programs around the country that are what they describe as LGBTQ biased. What does that mean?
GELPERIN: Sure, so some - actually, state laws require that there is a negative bias perpetuated through sexuality education. So for example, it must be stated that it's not an acceptable lifestyle, in some states. That's, literally, lifted from the laws. It - there sometimes is misinformation perpetuated that people who are gay or bisexual may have higher rates of HIV, which we know is actually, also incorrect.
So it's really damaging to young people, and to young people who have family members who are LGBTQ, to have some of these biases exist in our state laws.
CONAN: And Diane Foley, this is - there's scarcely anything that is more controversial.
FOLEY: Right, that's right, and I think that again, parents need to know what's being taught in their local areas, and it's very important that what is being taught is being taught by people who are credible and actually have medical information that is accurate for them.
CONAN: OK, let's see if we can get another caller in on the conversation. Let's go to Mike(ph), and Mike's with us from Miami.
MIKE: Thank you. I just wanted to remind the folks who were concerned about their middle-schoolers that your children grow up fast, and when they are turning in college applications, you may wish that they had even more sex education.
CONAN: And do you know what your kids received, what they were taught?
MIKE: Well, fortunately, my wife is a nurse. We have two daughters. And the education was comprehensive. And - but still, I wasn't part of it, being the dad, and so I still have a little bit of fear if the kids move out, you know, was there something else? It's human nature, I think.
CONAN: All right, Mike, thanks very much for the call. Here's an email we have from Sara(ph): When I was going through sex ed, no one ever mentioned rape or sexual assault. I think it would be crucial for this conversation to be introduced to both boys and girls candidly and early. Dr. Foley, is it discussed there in Colorado Springs?
FOLEY: Yes, it is. Actually, a big part of our program talks about recognizing healthy and unhealthy relationships and actually, gives the students the warning signs for - particularly, dating violence and date rape, but also gives them listing of things that they are to do should they be involved in a rape themselves, and numbers to call with the other organizations that we work with here in our city.
CONAN: And Nora Gelperin, I understand, for example, the one - the curriculum in New York City that's about to get under way in the second semester of this year includes tactics for avoidance, if that's what you want.
GELPERIN: Absolutely, and I think strategies for young people to prevent and delay sexual behavior is critical, understanding community resources and most particularly, giving them the skills that they need to be healthy. And that's all part of the New York City curriculum. It's a terrific one.
CONAN: Here's an email from Laurie(ph) in Palo Alto: Is high school too late to be discussing sex? I'm wondering if age-appropriate content for middle-schoolers needs to be more comprehensive. What's the reality of sexual activity within that really young age group? Dr. Foley?
FOLEY: Well, I do think that age-appropriate discussion needs to be there and in fact, when we have middle school - as well as high school - programs, and when we're in the high school, a lot of times what we hear from students is: Where were you last year?
And I think I see this even more so in my private practice, where I deal with adolescents that come in with questions about sexual activity. And the information that is out there, they certainly are exposed to it much younger than high school - in our media and other things. And so that discussion is - that's a good place to have that, in a younger age group as well.
CONAN: You raise an interesting question about media. It's been a long time since boys, you know, tittered over Playboy magazine. There are far more explicit options available on the Internet. Nora Gelperin, do sex education classes at any range of these - in this wide range, do they deal with what's available on the Internet - what's healthy, what's not?
GELPERIN: I think that's a central component of any quality program. Unfortunately, the reality is that many programs don't have the luxury of time to cover these really critical issues, which is why we need to elevate the importance of sexuality education so they're given more time.
But you're right - a lot of the images that a lot of young people see on the Internet, in the media, are very confusing. And if they don't have these conversations at home, or at school, to get reality-based sexuality education, our young people suffer.
CONAN: Dr. Foley, I wanted to ask you about that. Obviously, this is a world in which sexting is a reality, and this is not something that most parents have any experience with whatsoever.
FOLEY: Right. And again, some of it depends on how your curriculum is accepted in the school, and how much time you are given. But we have the opportunity to be able to introduce the concept of sexting - and the kids already know about it - but really, to help them understand the significant ramifications that can occur, particularly depending on what state you're in, that it's considered - it could be students that send pictures of themselves can actually be charged with significant crimes as a result of that.
And they really tend to look at it as a very harmless activity, and they don't really understand that. So that's a big part of the education that needs to happen.
CONAN: Let's go next to Sharon(ph), Sharon on the line with us from Redwood City in California.
SHARON: Yes, hi. I have two teenage girls in high school, and I honestly believe this has to be taught in the schools because we don't know what's being taught at home. And my girls came through a junior high and a high school that have pregnant schools in them.
Sometimes, in junior high, the girls don't know how they got that way. They're just following what feels good. So they need to have the information. It needs to be taught by people who are well-educated and open. I want them to know that everything is OK if it's not abusive and that a loving, monogamous, respectful relationship is a good thing.
CONAN: And thank you very much for the call, Sharon - and two girls in high school, good luck.
SHARON: Thank you so much. I need it.
CONAN: I wonder, Dr. Foley, what percentage of parents decide to opt out?
FOLEY: A very small percentage in our community. I think that - I mean, it would depend - it depends school by school, but certainly, less than 5 percent of the parents opt out of this type of education when we're there.
CONAN: And Nora Gelperin, do you get feedback from the teachers that you talk to, about what kind of percentages they encounter?
GELPERIN: I would agree with Diane. That's about the rates that we're hearing out of a class of about 25 to 30 kids. Our teachers tell us it's maybe one or two students. Unfortunately, what happens is the parents that have concerns, even though nine out of 10 parents in the United States support and want their kids to have comprehensive sexuality education, it's the small, vocal minority that can sometimes instill the fear of controversy in our administrators and our elected officials and therefore, programs can be changed as a result.
CONAN: Here's an email from Gene: I want to share a very smart way I encountered last month, when I visited Lincoln Elementary in Washington State. A student in a higher grade was given a computer-program toy baby to care for, for 24 hours. That means the baby would cry in the middle of the night, so the student had to get up, figuring if the baby needed to be fed or changed diaper. This taught the students that sex takes great responsibility, and not just an impulse action or just fun. Is that a technique that's taught in some programs, Nora Gelperin?
GELPERIN: It is. It's called a Baby Think It Over doll, and there was certainly a lot of enthusiasm about this program. I think that writer really has hit the nail on the head. It's important that young people have a taste of reality and understand the reality of the importance of responsibility coming along with any decision connected to sexuality. That particular program hasn't been shown to be very effective, so we want to make sure that any program that goes into - impact young people is based in evidence and is shown to be effective.
CONAN: Do you use that in Colorado Springs, Dr. Foley?
FOLEY: It is not used as part of our program. I know that some of the health classes do use it, but it's not considered part of what we do. One my concerns is that we recognize that the consequences of teens starting to have sex are much more than just getting pregnant or getting a sexually transmitted infection. And I think it's important that the emotional consequences are discussed with them, if there are mental consequences that can occur, and helping them to make a healthy choice. They need to understand that it goes beyond just getting a sexually transmitted disease or getting pregnant.
CONAN: Dr. Diane Foley is a pediatrician and director of Education for a Lifetime, a nonprofit organization that teaches sexual risk-avoidance education in public schools in Colorado Springs. Also with us is Nora Gelperin, director of training and education at Answer, a national organization that promotes comprehensive sexuality education. She's with us from Piscataway, New Jersey, and the campus at Rutgers University. You're listening to TALK OF THE NATION, from NPR News.
And here's an email from Marjorie in Ann Arbor: Many years ago, in the 1960s, I had sex ed. Later, when I was pregnant, I realized I knew nothing about getting un-pregnant, i.e. delivery and labor. It was a very scary void. I hope sex ed goes beyond the medical terms, the mechanics, even the ethics, but goes all the way through the birth process and the work involved in raising a baby. Nora Gelperin, is that part of different kinds of programs?
GELPERIN: Certainly. In New Jersey, it is. There's a lot of emphasis placed on a healthy pregnancy, prenatal care, the importance of parenting. I think that's another area where we don't do a very good job of helping young people realize what goes into being a healthy, productive parent. So certainly, in the states that have more progressive policies, that would be part of it.
CONAN: And is it part of it in Colorado Springs?
FOLEY: Yes, it is. And one of the things that we also focus on is, we really look at teen fathers because a lot of times, the only - that we tend to focus on the teenage girls that are pregnant without really looking at the ways it affects young men as well - as becoming teen fathers. And so it's a big part of what we teach.
CONAN: And let's get Christina on the line. She's with us from St. Cloud, in Florida.
CHRISTINA: Yes. Hi. I'm more concerned - I've been an health educator for quite a few years, and what I was teaching in middle and high school was, actually, abstinence. And I also have teenagers in my home. And I think one of the points that had been missed throughout the entire sex education programs, or abstinence programs, is to do it comprehensive, because they have to make right choices in general. That's the only way that we're going to raise children and kids that are actually able to take care of themselves and their own kids.
It's not just about sex. You have to include drugs. You have to include alcohol, cigarettes, every risky behavior that they can encounter. And when you kind of separate the sex from the entire purpose, it's just defeated. You know, you have to teach everything. It has to be a one - it's one ball. You cannot separate the choices that they made in regards to alcohol or drugs, or the ones that they do with regards to sex, you know? So I think it's very important that they just do, like, a whole theme for them to make the right choices in every sense.
CONAN: And when you were teaching it, Christina, were you able to include those other risky behaviors?
CHRISTINA: I did in every lesson. And the important thing about that, we did here Florida - unfortunately, we don't have the funds anymore - we started in fifth grade. So of course, in fifth grade, we did not talk about sex. But we talk about responsibility, discipline, making the right choices on friendships, on school work. So that's doing the, you know, the basics. It's a nice foundation. So at the time that they start going out, going to middle school, includes bullying and all that. It just give them all the tools that they're going to need in order to make the right choices in everything.
CONAN: Nora Gelperin, that means even less time devoted to - yes, those things are important, too. I'm not denying that for a second, but it takes up time.
GELPERIN: It does. But I think Christina has an excellent point - that really, the skills to keep a young person healthy around sexual risk avoidance and postponement are the same skills that come into play to help a young person stay healthy around not using drugs, substance abuse, obesity prevention. All those same kind of health skills are interconnected. And so it's so terrific to hear about a program that Christina's mentioning that really, weaves them together, because we don't operate sexually in a vacuum. There's so much context to our lives.
CONAN: Nora Gelperin, thanks very much for your time today. We appreciate it.
GELPERIN: My pleasure.
CONAN: Again, Nora Gelperin is director of training for Answer, a national sexuality education organization based at Rutgers, and joined us today from a studio there. Dr. Foley, appreciate your time as well.
FOLEY: Thank you so much.
CONAN: Diane Foley, a pediatrician and director of Education for a Lifetime, a nonprofit that focuses on abstinence education in Colorado Springs, joined us by phone from her home there. Coming up: signs of change in Myanmar, and plenty of skepticism, too. We'll talk to a reporter recently back from that country, which is, of course, also known as Burma. Stay with us. I'm Neal Conan, TALK OF THE NATION, NPR News.
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For Educators
Teacher Resources: Forms of Government — Constitutional Monarchy
The fourth episode of "Monarchy: The Royal Family at Work" follows Queen Elizabeth II as she performs some of her official duties as Head of State of the United Kingdom. The program provides a dramatic illustration of Britain's constitutional monarchy and the important role the Queen plays in Her Majesty's government.
Below you will find resources from the program that teachers can use as a starting point for discussions about the constitutional monarchy form of government and the key differences between the political systems of the United States and the United Kingdom.
How to use these resources in the Classroom:
Step 1: Introduce the topic of constitutional monarchy
Talking Points:
• Characteristics of the British Parliamentary system:
Step 2: Watch the Video Clip
These two video clips will describe for students the annual State Opening of Parliament, marking the beginning of the British political season. In this dramatic ceremony, all of the important elements of the British constitution gather to illustrate their respective roles in the government. Here are the key elements of the ceremony:
• In grand style, the Monarch comes to Parliament to deliver a speech from her throne in the House of Lords.
• As the House of Lords assembles, the Queen sends her messenger, known as Black Rod, to the House of Commons to summon the elected representatives to the House of Lords to hear her speech.
• In a symbol of the Commons' independence, the door to their Chamber is slammed in Black Rod's face and not opened until he has knocked on the door with his staff of office.
• The Commons assemble in the House of Lords to hear the Queen's speech outlining her Government's plans for the coming year. Although the Queen delivers the speech, the content is entirely written by the Government and approved by the Cabinet.
The purpose of all this pomp and circumstance is to show that although Parliament gets its authority from the Queen, the elected Government is in charge. The State Opening is not a celebration of Royal Power but of a constitutional compromise which allows the Monarch to sit on the throne and an elected Government to rule.
Step 3: Take the Constitutional Monarchy quiz with your class
crownQuiz: Constitutional Monarchy
Does the Queen reign or rule? Test your knowledge.
Step 4: Classroom discussion questions
What are some of the key similarities and differences between constitutional republics (such as the U.S. system) and constitutional monarchies (such as the British system)?
Why do you think the United Kingdom has kept the monarchy? What benefits does the institution bring to the country?
What did you think of the political ceremony of the State Opening of Parliament? Do you think such elaborate rituals serve a practical purpose?
Do we have similar political ceremonies in the United States? How do they symbolize and illustrate our political system?
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The Genetic Intelligentsia
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It is sometimes simpler (if reductive) to think of the varna system as a dichotomy, at least from the perspective of the people who invented it: the ‘Dwija’ (twice-born), and the ‘Shudra’ (the vast majority of humanity). The Dwija are the favored of humanity: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (rich folk), whose dharma is to do Splendid Deeds and reap good karma. The Brahmins get to proclaim who the Dwija at any given point in history are/were, usually with a firm eye on the politically expedient, and the Dwija have historically been a coalition of the High with people who rise to the top and can’t be ignored. The High here are solely Brahmins, the rest must work their way into being worthy of attention, and if they do well, are then given positions on the lower rungs of Dwija-dom.
Education has always been an exclusive privilege in India, especially formal, classical education: only Brahmins are (technically) allowed to read the Vedas, for example. As a result, regional literatures across India retain a strong tradition against hegemonic, oppressive languages like Sanskrit (and now English); and writing in the vernacular remains a very political decision.
It is established history that the jatis that did much of the ruling and wealth gathering across the centuries were initially lowly folk, later worked into the grand tapestry of Kshatriya dynasties. The Central Asian tribes that became the Rajputs are famous examples of this tendentious historiography: they appeased the Brahmins (gave them land), and were conferred political legitimacy (Kshatriya status). It is not surprising Brahmins have pulled this trick off from pre-Mauryan times: the Mahabharata is a history devoted to the self-destruction of the original Kshatriyas. There could hardly have been enough of them left after that epic bloodbath to colonize the rest of India.
The Brahmin Imaginary
In Brahminical Hinduism, to be a Dwija (and a man) is mere qualification: there are still plenty of things that can get in the way of your dharma, disrupt your karma and interfere with your rebirth cycle. There are hells aplenty in Hinduism: you could go to the nether world and become man-cattle for the animals you have eaten, you could be born an insect (doomed to repeated death), a Shudra (retribution), or a woman (shudder). That is the path for sinners; if you are born a Shudra or a woman, you must have done something to deserve it.
For a Dwija who lives a humdrum life, the canon offers him another birth with the same lifestyle, so he can try harder next time. The brilliant, the heroic, the extravagant, and the virtuous Dwijas are allowed on the path to salvation (‘moksha’), where one may go hang out with gods, become at one with the universe, zip around creation—Hinduism is as profuse in heavens as it is in hells.
cover art
The Hindus: An Alternative History
Wendy Doniger
(Penguin; US: Mar 2009)
Boundary markers established, Brahmin philosophy assumes you are a male Dwija and goes about its business, pondering the ineffable: What is death in an illusory world? How do you go about attaining salvation? What kind of salvation do you want? How much do you want give up? Do you like your life enough to stick around for another generation? And so forth. The basic exclusivity of this domain is its hallmark: these aren’t the concerns of the masses, for how could they possibly understand? (And if they did, who would serve us?) Besides, the justification of varna runs, if they deserved to dwell in arcana, why would they have been born women and Shudras in the first place?
Thankfully, Brahmins have faced many voluble antagonists, including radical challengers to caste and its allotted implications. The Buddhists were a famous rival, but there is a venerable tradition of incessant insurrection in Indian history, with Brahmins losing ground as fast as they could make it up. Hinduism has seen many cults bubble up and fade away—rationalists, monists, materialists, hedonists, nihilists, ascetics, flagellants, fanatics—only to be reborn in another place with a new god. Apart from political exigencies, such as transforming ‘Mlecchas’ (barbarians) into kings, Brahmins have been forced into social compromises (such as giving goddesses both bite and autonomy); and the threat of irrelevance has often led to dramatic modifications even in the ivory towers of doctrine.
The Vedic Brahmin, for instance, would’ve snorted at anyone brave enough to expound upon the notion of ‘Bhakti’ (intense devotion to a benign deity) to him; his was a violent and bloodthirsty pantheon appeased by ritual sacrifice. Yet the heart of popular Hinduism in India today is the loving deity who rewards the pious. There are hundreds of possible deities competing for the privilege points to Hinduism’s willingness to be all things to all people, but this basic democracy was hard won. The shadows of the warrior gods remain, nonetheless, embedded in myth and folklore. There are still some gods (and goddesses) one prays to just so they’ll ignore the pious and move on, others whom it is dangerous even to pray to for fear of drawing attention, and some that one can only call upon for vengeance.
Hinduism’s eclecticism and inclusiveness is ample proof of the sheer variety of ideas and opinions that have been flung its way. The people who questioned the whole set up, fomented revolution, and raised havoc almost never wrote in Sanskrit, are rarely preserved by Sanskrit tradition, and often couldn’t write at all. Education has always been an exclusive privilege in India, especially formal, classical education: only Brahmins are (technically) allowed to read the Vedas, for example. As a result, regional literatures across India retain a strong tradition against hegemonic, oppressive languages like Sanskrit (and now English); and writing in the vernacular remains a very political decision.
Unfortunately for Indian historiography, the colonial administration conveniently co-opted the Brahmin imaginary to help along its own agenda: finding injustice to exploit is classic imperial strategy. Orientalist history, as well as the nationalist history it inspired, strongly emphasizes Sanskrit literature, belittling if not wholly excluding the many regional tongues that operated in practical life across India. In effect, the chaotic reality of jati in India was frozen into lists compiled by pedants, both old and new.
British administrators, enthralled by the new classical language they had ‘discovered’, condemned 2000 years of rich, diverse history to be told only by its most conservative observers. Successive translators of Sanskrit sanitized what grit remained, and the chronological period now known as “Ancient India” was born. British administrators took ideology to represent history, and went blundering in to reform caste with the ignorant, self-serving ham-handedness that characterized colonial rule in India. Reform led to reaction, and the seeds of today’s defensive, reactionary Hindutva were sown.
Caste in the Corporate Dream
The Brahmin stranglehold on the telling of Indian history is twofold: literacy, and legitimacy. As the clergy, Brahmins were the only caste where formal education was in the job description. This made them readers, and collectors of manuscripts in a predominantly oral culture; the genetic intelligentsia.
As a class, they have always been dependent upon royal power: first for ritual sacrifice, later for land grants. Divine kingship has always been a potent symbol in Indian politics: even the Mughals fell under its spell. The Brahmins, intermediaries to the gods, were convenient legitimators for any king seeking to attest his kingship and establish a dynasty. Thus, ritual sacrifice persisted in royal consecrations long after it had disappeared from the popular religion. Even the British found them handy collaborators, and from colonial times Brahmins have drifted off the land and into the professions.
Even in 2010 India, Brahmins dominate education, especially higher education. I suspect the trend would be especially prominent in the professions and the higher echelons of management: the very executives Bait and Switch talks about. Companies owned by other communities, such as the Parsis or Vaishyas, are nevertheless likely to employ a fair number of Brahmins in managerial posts. While the civil services and public companies reserve posts for the “scheduled” castes, private enterprise is free to hire who it wants, and they tend to prefer the dwija.
The obvious disadvantage Shudras in corporate India face is that they are relatively alone in a culture still dominated by kinship bonds: they have a far smaller network of family and friends to turn to for employment. However, even as family businesses give way to the more impersonal firm and the corporate meritocracy entrenches itself, the process of exclusion is likely to continue unabated: caste privilege can operate in many covert, insidious ways. Idiomatic English, comfort with technology, dietary habits, an elite education, even a person’s name and home address can flag off their caste to potential recruiters, making candidates vulnerable to the potential employer’s prejudices.
In any case, verticality far predates the birth of the corporation in India, so one can be sure that access and promotion remain two very different things. It would be very interesting to study to how two famously opaque hierarchies, caste and corporation, interpenetrate within Indian corporate culture to create a new heaven of conspicuous consumption for the Dwija, oblivious to reality. For the Dwija, reality comes with an escape clause. For the excluded majority, however, the really interesting question is this: when the lean times come, who among the Dwija will be shed?
Ehrenreich tells a compelling story about betrayed people living out the nightmare inversion of the American dream. I will hazard the guess that the advantages of the lean, mean corporate machine she experienced in America will suggest itself to Indian employers soon. When the new Brahmin heaven implodes, as so many have in the past, I am curious to see what the tenacious bunch does next. India’s rulers no longer require divine legitimacy, the traditional route Brahmins have for bouncing back. Brahmins have, however, spent centuries arbitrating employment and honing their blaming the victim expertise. Perhaps as in America, the Brahmins will just morph into the transition industry in the (even more) destitute India their vision leaves in its wake.
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Abdominal Wall
Random Science Quiz
Can you name the the HYTQ concepts of the Abdominal Wall?
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peritoneal fossa lateral to the lateral umbilical fold and potential site for indirect inguinal hernia
3. The fatty layer of this subcutaneous facia is known as what?
Above the umbilicus, lymphatics drain where?
excess fluid in the peritoneal cavity is called
5. Innervation of Muscle (2 nerves)
innervation of the transversus abdominis (2 nerves)
this fold is a remnant of the urachus and it extends from the aoex of the urinary bladder to the umbilicus
. Below the umbilicus, lymphatics drain into what?
rectus abdominus muscles are connected via the _____ ______.
this plane passes from the midpoints of the clavicles to the midinguinal points.
5. Identify Muscle
3. The membraneous layer of this subcutaneous fascia is known as what?
this plane passes through the umbilicus and IV discs between the L4 and L5 planes
the subcostal plane is located at what vertebral level?
the ilioinguinal nerve emerges from the _______ inguinal ring.
the ilioinguinal nerve runs on the spermatic cord in males. It runs on the ___ ____ in females.
double-layer sheets of peritoneum that suspend most of the gut and associated structures from the posterior body wall and provide pathways for blood vessels and nerves to the visce
innervation of the internal oblique (2 nerves)
Organs without a mesentery are called what?
2. Identify
1. Identify Muscle
this plane passes through the inferior border of the 10th costal cartilage on each side
longest portion of the small intestine
peritoneal fossa between the median and medial umbilical folds.
7. Identify Muscle
peritoneal fossa between the medial and lateral umbilical folds and potential sites for direct inguinal hernias
Organs that have a mesentery are called what?
1. Innervation of Muscle (2 nerves)
the musculophrenic and superior epigastric arteries are branches of what artery?
layer lining the surface of the organs within the abdomen
this plane passes through the line of the iliac tubercles and the body of L5 vertebra
the inferior epigastric and the deep circumflex iliac artery are branches of what artery?
the superficial epigastric artery is a branch of what artery?
True or False: The retroperitoneal space is within the peritoneal cavity.
a potential space between the parietal peritoneum lining the body wall and visceral peritoneum covering the abdominal organs.
the aponeuroses of the muscles of the abdominal wall form a sheath that encloses the rectus abdominus called?
demarcates the transition between the posterior rectus sheath and the transversalis fascia.
midline raphe formed by the aponeuroses of the external oblique, internal oblique, and transversus abdominus
true or false: the fascia of the internal and external obliques make up the anterior rectus sheath
6. Identify
The layer lining the abdominal wall, the pelvic wall and pelvic viscera, and the inferior surface of the diaphragm is the _____ ______.
these folds are lateral to the medial umbilical folds and cover the inferior epigastric vessels
the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves are the terminal branches of what spinal nerve?
infection and inflammation of the peritoneum
the transtubercular plane is located at about what vertebral layer?
most common type of inguinal hernia
9. Identify
the surgical puncture of the peritoneal cavity for the aspiration or drainage of fluid
innervation of the external oblique (2 nerves)
the abdominal cavity is bound superiorly by what?
these folds are lateral to the median umbilical fold and are formed by the occluded parts of the umbilical arteries
4. Identify Muscle
8. Identify Muscle
10. Identify
space behind the peritoneum of the posterior abdominal wall.
the superficial epigastric and the superficial circumflex iliac are branches of what artery?
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9 December 2013
Africa: Nutrition for Growth - Will a U.S. $4.15 Billion Landmark Pledge Lead to Landmark Changes?
Big challenges remain to ensure the biggest ever pledge for nutrition specific interventions is not a wasted opportunity.
This June, the G8 Nutrition for Growth Summit pledged a landmark $4.15 billion to combat malnutrition in the developing world. This is the largest sum ever pledged to support nutrition, and could help save millions of lives.
Around the world, there are estimated to be 55 million people currently suffering from severe acute malnutrition, and every year 3.1 million children die from lack of food - that's an average of nearly 8,500 deaths every day.
Meanwhile, 165 million children are affected stunted growth, 19 million under-5s are experiencing severe wasting, and insufficient nutrition amongst pregnant mothers contributes to 800,000 neonatal deaths each year.
The goals for $4.15 billion pledged include ensuring that 500 million pregnant women and children are sufficiently nourished, preventing 20 million children from being stunted, and saving at least 1.7 million lives by 2020 through effective nutrition interventions.
But while these funds could prove crucial in the struggle against malnutrition, a number of hurdles remain.
The pledge remains a pledge, rather than secured funds, for now. There are concerns that a demand for results will privilege quick-fire outcomes over sustainable structural change.
And making a global fund relevant to myriad diverse and specific problems in a variety of different cultural contexts presents some major challenges.
Delivering on the pledges
At a specifically convened G8 event to address the issue of nutrition, several NGOs and governments pledged to significantly increase their funding towards nutrition interventions.
The UK government, for example, committed to triple its current investment in nutritional programmes as well as come up with a further £280 million ($378 million) between 2013 and 2020; the EU pledged €410 million ($533 million) for nutrition-specific programmes and another €3.1 billion ($4.18 billion) for nutrition sensitive interventions between 2014-2020; and the Child Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF) agreed to contribute $700 million.
Overall, $4.15 billion was committed for 'nutrition specific' interventions - such as vitamin supplementation schemes and programmes ensuring young children are well-nourished - while $19 billion was pledged to be spent on 'nutrition sensitive' initiatives - such as sanitation programmes, educational schemes, and other efforts that contribute to nutrition in an indirect way. Both funds are committed up to 2020.
The $4.15 billion sum is the largest amount ever pledged for nutrition specific interventions, but for activists this is just a start.
As Kat Pittore, Nutrition Advocacy Officer at Results UK, explains, "The Lancet estimates a total of $9.6 billion per annum is needed to scale up the proven nutrition interventions. $4.15 billion is great, but is still nowhere near the amount that globally has been estimated that it is going to cost."
Pittore and others are nevertheless encouraged by the pledge and well aware of the impact it could potentially make.
However, they also recognise that the first step for them is simply to ensure the committed funds are realised.
"We don't have a tracking mechanism to see if governments who made commitments are really keeping to those commitments," explains Rufaro Madzima, development consultant and former head of Zimbabwe's Nutrition Unit.
"As with any commitment that people make, it is essential to make sure that it is kept. Will we be able to get the money that was committed?"
These concerns are particularly pressing given that around $1.25 billion of the $4.15 pledged relies on matched funding.
That's to say that $1.25 billion of the pledge comes from a number of donors agreeing to contribute the same particular sum; the reason this is somewhat precarious is that if one donor fails to keep this promise, the remaining groups are no longer obligated to keep theirs.
This means that in fact only $2.9 billion of the pledge is secured core funding, and, as Pittore explains, "Many activists have actually started using the $2.9 billion figure instead of $4.15 billion, because much of it comes from very unclear funding."
Sharing the right goals and targets
Along with ensuring the money committed is actually raised, many nutrition activists are also concerned over how the money will be spent.
In particular, some are worried that interventions will be overly simplistic and short-term, and that donors will fail to recognise that malnutrition is not just a problem in of itself, but also the symptom of a set of much deeper challenges.
As Elizabeth Hull, a nutrition specialist and anthropology lecturer at the School of Oriental and African Studies, notes, the funding compact contains "a strong emphasis on private-sector principles such as value for money and so on ... The approach promoted seems to be very 'outcomes' focused."
Indeed, a number of the donors are in fact private companies with fairly straightforward and surface-level goals: Britannia Industries, for instance, has vowed to increase the reach of its iron-fortified biscuits from 300,000 to 1 million children; one of GlaxoSmithKline's commitments is to donate 400 million intestinal worm treatments; while Unilever has announced a programme which aims to improve hand-washing amongst birth attendants.
These programmes could of course prove valuable, but Hull explains that this "technicist" attitude is not a route to alleviating malnutrition in a sustainable and long-term manner, and is concerned that this outcomes-led mindset has been adopted by the donor community more widely.
"The problem is that this approach fails to address the underlying social and economic causes and consequences of malnutrition," she says. "This makes it a politically safe option, but ultimately limited."
Hull traces the technicist approach to nutrition back to the 1991 Ending Hidden Hunger conference in Montreal.
That event, she says, "marked a shift from national level solutions to donor-driven, global approaches that focused specifically on alleviating micro-nutrient deficiencies.
This led to a focus on developing scientific and technical solutions such as fortification, crop science and so on, which was essentially a way of bypassing the more messy questions of institutional capacity, governance and politics at national levels."
According to an article in the Lancet, this reluctance to address these more messy questions is also bolstered by political concerns and the fact that tackling malnutrition is a long-term goal while electoral cycles are based on short-term achievements: "Undernutrition has a complex set of political, social, and economic causes, none of which are amenable to easy solutions that fit within the timeframe of a single political cycle," it notes.
The result of this is that donors and governments can tend to fixate on immediate outcomes rather than capacity-building and structural solutions.
After all, training health workers, building health infrastructure, and educating communities can take a much longer time to reveal clearly-visible benefits than simply shipping across millions of food parcels and medicines. Initiatives to tackle both short-term and long-term problems are needed.
Relevant programmes
A final and related issue over how the billions committed are spent concerns the need for context-specific interventions.
Another problem with a technicist approach is that it can fail to recognise important differences in the challenges facing different communities.
After all, the dynamics underlying malnutrition can differ markedly from one place to the next, meaning the types of intervention needed are very different.
Madzima explained, for example, how the success of 'orange sweet potatoes', a special strain of the tuber fortified with vitamin A, in Uganda and Mozambique came down to its careful targeting.
Sweet potatoes were known to be a local staple, and through talking to men, women and children, researchers believed that the orange variety stood a chance of being adopted and integrated into people's diets.
Vitamin A deficiency in children was a serious problem, and with the introduction of the orange sweet potato alongside an accompanying education campaign, many locals - including children who liked the taste and appearance of the crop - were happy to eat it.
Pittore meanwhile described a similarly culturally-sensitive and relevant scheme in Bangladesh whereby imams were persuaded to tell men either to buy more nutritious foods or to allow women to go to the market to buy supplies.
In this case, an understanding of underlying issues was again crucial, and coming up with a context-specific solution was key.
Recognising that malnutrition is inextricably tied into all other kinds of local social, cultural and economic dynamics - dynamics which vary from community to community let alone country to country - will be central to making the nutrition funds count.
At the moment, frameworks for accountability are being drafted by the UK's Department for International Development (DfID) to monitor the outcomes of the initiatives paid for by the funds, the World Health Organisation (WHO) is investigating data collection possibilities, and the EU and Canada are addressing critical data gaps.
The sum pledged is already a historical landmark for its sheer size, and though much more is needed, the figure provides hope that nutrition is starting to be taken more seriously.
However, if used intelligently to address structural issues and fund locally-sensitive initiatives as well as tackling more urgent concerns, the G8 summit fund could go down in history for more than just its size - it could also prove to be a real turning point.
James Bullock is a freelance journalist and researcher with a particular focus on sub-Saharan political development, post-colonial literature and West African music.
He had been published in the Financial Times and Monocle magazine. You can contact him via his twitter.
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For the unblack metal album, see Falconry (album).
Chart by Louis Agassiz Fuertes (1920) illustrating falconers terminology.
Flying a Saker Falcon
Falconry is the hunting of wild quarry in its natural state and habitat by means of a trained bird of prey. There are two traditional terms used to describe a person involved in falconry: a falconer flies a falcon; an austringer (German origin) flies a hawk (Accipiter and some buteos and similar) or an eagle (Aquila or similar). In modern falconry the Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and the Harris hawk are often used. The words "hawking" and "hawker" have become used so much to mean petty traveling traders, that the terms "falconer" and "falconry" now apply to all use of trained birds of prey to catch game.
Detail of two falconers from De arte venandi cum avibus, 1240s
Evidence suggests that the art of falconry may have begun in Mesopotamia, with the earliest accounts dating to approximately 2,000 BC. There are also some raptor representations in the northern Altai, western Mongolia.[3] The falcon was a symbolic bird of ancient Mongol tribes.[citation needed] There is some disagreement about whether such early accounts document the practice of falconry (from The Epic of Gilgamesh and others) or are misinterpreted depictions of humans with birds of prey.[4][page needed][5][page needed] During the Turkic Period of Central Asia (A.D. 7th century). concrete figures of falconer on horseback were described on the rocks in Kyrgyz.[3] Falconry was probably introduced to Europe around AD 400, when the Huns and Alans invaded from the East.[citation needed] Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1194–1250) is generally acknowledged as the most significant wellspring of traditional falconry knowledge. He is believed to have obtained firsthand knowledge of Arabic falconry during wars in the region (between June 1228 – June 1229). He obtained a copy of Moamyn's manual on falconry and had it translated into Latin by Theodore of Antioch. Frederick II himself made corrections to the translation in 1241 resulting in De Scientia Venandi per Aves.[6] King Frederick II is most recognized for his falconry treatise, De arte venandi cum avibus ("The Art of Hunting with Birds"). Written himself toward the end of his life, it is widely accepted as the first comprehensive book of falconry, but also notable in its contributions to ornithology and zoology. De arte venandi cum avibus incorporated a diversity of scholarly traditions from east to west, and is one of the earliest and most significant challenges to Aristotle's often flawed explanations of nature.[7][page needed]
Three panels depicting Hawking in England from various time periods, as reprinted in Joseph Strutt's 1801 book, The sports and pastimes of the people of England from the earliest period. The middle panel is from a Saxon manuscript dated to the late 900s – early 1000s, as of 1801 held in the "Cotton Library", showing a Saxon nobleman and his falconer. The top and bottom panels are drawings from a manuscript held, as of 1801, in the "Royal Library" dating from early 14th century showing parties of both sexes hawking by the waterside; the falconer is frightening the fowl to make them rise and the hawk is in the act of seizing upon one of them.[8]
In the UK and parts of Europe, falconry probably reached its zenith in the 17th century,[1][2] but soon faded, particularly in the late 18th and 19th centuries, as firearms became the tool of choice for hunting (this likely took place throughout Europe and Asia in differing degrees). Falconry in the UK had a resurgence in the late 19th, early 20th century during which time a number of falconry books were published.[10][page needed] This revival led to the introduction of falconry in North America in the early 1900s. Col R. Luff Meredith is recognized as the father of North American falconry.[11]
The Book of St Albans[edit]
A Lady with Peregrine Falcon on horse
The often-quoted Book of St Albans or Boke of St Albans, first printed in 1486, often attributed to Dame Julia Berners, provides this hierarchy of hawks and the social ranks for which each bird was supposedly appropriate. The line numbers are not in the original.
1. Emperor: The Golden Eagle, Vulture, and Merloun
2. King: The Gyr Falcon and the Tercel of the Gyr Falcon
3. Prince: The Falcon Gentle and the Tercel Gentle
4. Duke: The Falcon of the Loch
5. Earl: The Falcon Peregrine
6. Baron: The Bustard
7. Knight: The Sacre and the Sacret
8. Esquire: The Lanere and the Laneret
9. Lady: The Marlyon
10. Young Man: The Hobby
11. Yeoman: The Goshawk
12. Poor Man: The Tercel
13. Priest: The Sparrowhawk
14. Holy Water Clerk: The Musket
15. Knave or Servant: The Kestrel
This list, however, was mistaken in several respects.
Falconry in Britain in 1973[edit]
A book about falconry published in 1973[17] says:
Birds used in contemporary falconry[edit]
There are several categories of raptor that could possibly be used in falconry. They are also classed by falconers as:
Harris's Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)[edit]
Falconer with Harris' Hawk
Parabuteo unicinctus is one of two representatives of this genus worldwide. The other is the White-rumped Hawk (Parabuteo leucorrhous). Arguably the best rabbit or hare raptor available anywhere, the Harris' Hawk is also adept at catching birds. Often captive-bred, the Harris' Hawk is remarkably popular because of its temperament and ability. The Harris Hawk is found in the wild living in groups or packs and hunts cooperatively, with a social hierarchy similar to wolves. This highly social behavior is not observed in any other bird of prey species and is very adaptable to falconry. This genus is native to the Americas from southern Texas and Arizona to northern South America. The Harris Hawk is often used in the modern technique of car hawking (aka drive-by falconry), where the raptor is launched from the window of a moving car at suitable prey.
Soaring hawks and the Common Buzzard (Buteo)[edit]
The genus Buteo, known as "hawks" in North America and not to be confused with vultures, has worldwide distribution but is particularly well represented in North America. The Red-tailed Hawk, Ferruginous Hawk, and rarely, the Red-shouldered Hawk are all examples of species from this genus that are used in falconry today. The Red-tailed Hawk is hardy and versatile, taking rabbits, hares, and squirrels; given the right conditions it can catch geese, ducks, pheasants, and even wild turkeys. The Red-Tailed Hawk is also considered a good bird for beginners. The Eurasian or Common Buzzard is also used, although this species requires more perseverance if rabbits are to be hunted.
True hawks (Accipiter)[edit]
The genus Accipiter is also found worldwide. The hawk expert Mike McDermott once said, "The attack of the accipiters is extremely swift, rapid and violent in every way." They are well known in falconry use both in Europe and North America. The Northern Goshawk has been trained for falconry for hundreds of years, taking a variety of birds and mammals. Other popular Accipiters used in falconry include: the Cooper's Hawk and Sharp-shinned Hawk in North America and the European Sparrowhawk in Europe and Eurasia. New Zealand is likely to be one of the few countries to use a harrier species for falconry, there falconers successfully hunt with the Australasian Harrier (Circus approximans).[18]
A Peregrine falcon with its lure
Falcons (Falco)[edit]
The genus Falco is found worldwide and has occupied a central niche in ancient and modern falconry. Most falcon species used in falconry are specialized predators, most adapted to capturing bird prey such as the Peregrine Falcon and Merlin. A notable exception is the use of desert falcons such the Saker Falcon in ancient and modern Middle Eastern and Asian falconry, where hares were and are commonly taken. In North America, the Prairie Falcon and the Gyrfalcon can capture small mammal prey (as well as gamebirds and waterfowl) in falconry, but this is rarely practiced. Young falconers often begin practicing the art with American Kestrels, the smallest of the falcons in North America; there is debate on whether this practice should continue.[19] Small species, such as kestrels, merlins and hobbys can also be used for recreational bug hawking – that is, hunting large flying insects such as dragonflies and moths.
Booted eagles (Aquila)[edit]
Eagle huntsman in Karakol, Kyrgyzstan
The Aquila (all have "booted" or feathered tarsus) genus has a nearly worldwide distribution. The more powerful types are used in falconry; for example Golden Eagles have reportedly been used to hunt wolves[20] in Kazakhstan, and are now most widely used by the Altaic Kazakh eagle hunters in the western Mongolian province of Bayan-Ölgii to hunt foxes,[21][22][23][24] [25] and other large prey, as they are in neighbouring Kyrgyzstan.[26] Most are primarily ground-oriented but will occasionally take birds. Eagles are not used as widely in falconry as other birds of prey, due to the lack of versatility in the larger species (they primarily hunt over large open ground), the greater potential danger to other people if hunted in a widely populated area, and the difficulty of training and managing an eagle. There are a little over 300 active falconers using eagles in Central Asia, with 250 in western Mongolia, 50 in Kazakhstan, and smaller numbers in Kyrgyzstan and western China.[24]
Owls (Strigidae)[edit]
Owls are not closely related to hawks or falcons. There is little written in classic falconry that discusses the use of Owls in falconry. However, there are at least two species that have successfully been used, the Eurasian Eagle Owl and the Great Horned Owl. Successful training of owls is much different from the training of hawks and falcons, as they are hearing- rather than sight-oriented (owls can only see black and white, and are long-sighted). This often leads falconers to believe that they are less intelligent, as they are distracted easily by new or unnatural noises and they do not respond as readily to food cues. However, if trained successfully, owls show intelligence on the same level as that of hawks and falcons.
Osprey (Pandion)[edit]
The Osprey is a medium-large bird with a worldwide distribution that specializes in eating fish. Generally speaking, it does not lend itself to falconry. However, the possibility of using a falcon to catch fish remains intriguing. (Some references to "ospreys" in old records mean a mechanical fish-catching device and not the bird.)
Sea eagles (Haliaëtus)[edit]
Species for beginners[edit]
In North America the capable Red-tailed Hawk is commonly flown by the beginner falconer during his/her apprenticeship[citation needed]. Opinions differ on the usefulness of the Kestrel for beginners due to its inherent fragility. In the UK, beginner falconers are often permitted to acquire a larger variety of birds, but the Harris Hawk and Red-tailed Hawk remain the most commonly used for beginners and experienced falconers alike.[27] The Red-tailed Hawk is held in high regard in the UK due to the ease of breeding them in captivity, their inherent hardiness, and their capability hunting the rabbits and hares commonly found throughout the countryside in the UK. Many falconers in the UK and North America switch to accipiters or large falcons following their introduction with easier birds. In the USA accipiters, several types of buteos, and large falcons are only allowed to be owned by falconers who hold a general license. There are three kinds of falconry licenses in the United States, typically Apprentice class, General class, and Master class.
Husbandry, training, and equipment[edit]
See hack (falconry) and Falconry (training).
Imping is replacing a bird's broken flight feather with the same part of a moulted feather.
Falconry around the world[edit]
A Brown Falcon used for falconry in Tasmania
The Shaw Monument, a falconry observation tower in Scotland.
Falconry is currently practiced in many countries around the world. The falconer's traditional choice of bird is the Northern Goshawk and Peregrine Falcon. In contemporary falconry in both North America and the UK they remain popular, although the Harris Hawk and Red-tailed Hawk are likely more widely used. The Northern Goshawk and the Golden Eagle are more commonly used in Eastern Europe than elsewhere. In the Middle East, the Saker Falcon is the most traditional species flown against the Houbara Bustard, Sandgrouse, Stone-curlew, Hares, and other birds. Peregrines and other captively bred imported falcons are also commonplace. Falconry remains an important part of the Arab heritage and culture. The UAE reportedly spends over 27 million dollars annually towards the protection and conservation of wild falcons, and has set up several state-of-the-art falcon hospitals in Abu Dhabi and Dubai.[28] The Abu Dhabi Falcon Hospital is the largest falcon hospital in the whole world. There are two breeding farms in the Emirates, as well as those in Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Every year, falcon beauty contests and demonstrations take place at the ADIHEX exhibition in Abu Dhabi.
A Saker Falcon used for falconry in Qatar
A Middle Eastern Falconer[14]
South Korea allows a tiny number of people (a national total of 4 in 2005) to own raptors and practice falconry as a cultural asset.[citation needed]
In Japan, the Northern Goshawk has been used for centuries. Japan continues to honor its strong historical links with falconry (Takagari) while adopting some modern techniques and technologies.
In New Zealand, falconry was formally legalised for one species only, the Swamp/Australasian harrier (Circus approximans) in 2011. This was only possible with over 25 years of effort from both Wingspan National Bird of Prey Centre[30] and The Raptor Association of New Zealand (RANZ).[31] Falconry can only be practiced by people who have been issued a falconry permit by the Department of Conservation. There are currently only four practicing falconers in New Zealand.
South Africa has about 180 active falconers.[32]
Tangent aspects, such as bird abatement and raptor rehabilitation also employ falconry techniques to accomplish their goals, but are not falconry in the proper sense of the word.
Clubs and organizations[edit]
The North American Falconers' Association[33] (NAFA), founded in 1961, is the premier club for falconry in the US, Canada, and Mexico, and has members worldwide. See North American Falconers Association. NAFA is the primary club in the United States and has a membership from around the world. NAFEX is the primary falconry forum for the United States and North America. Most USA states have their own falconry clubs. Although these clubs are primarily social, they also serve to represent falconers within the state in regards to that state's wildlife regulations.
The IAF - International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey,[34] founded in 1968, currently represents 75 falconry clubs and conservation organisations from 50 countries worldwide totaling over 30,000 members.
Captive breeding and conservation[edit]
Between 1972 and 2001, nearly all Peregrines used for falconry in the U.S. were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the U. S. Endangered Species Act was enacted and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine Falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list on August 25, 1999.[35] Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild Peregrines was allowed in 2001, the first wild Peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years.
Hybrid falcons[edit]
The species within the genus Falco are closely related and some pairings produce viable offspring. The heavy northern Gyrfalcon and Asiatic Saker being especially closely related, and it is not known whether the Altai Falcon is a subspecies of the Saker or descendants of naturally occurring hybrids. Peregrine and prairie falcons have been observed breeding in the wild and have produced offspring.[37] These pairings are thought to be rare, however extra-pair copulations between closely related species may occur more frequently and/or account for most natural occurring hybridization. Some male first generation hybrids may have viable sperm, whereas very few first generation female hybrids lay fertile eggs. Thus, naturally occurring hybridization is thought to be somewhat insignificant to gene flow in raptor species.
Artificial selection and domestication[edit]
Escaped falconry birds[edit]
Regulations in Great Britain[edit]
Regulations in the U.S[edit]
Falconry today[edit]
Falconry Centres or Birds of Prey Centres house these raptors. They are responsible for many aspects of Bird of Prey Conservation (through keeping the birds for education and breeding). Many conduct regular flying demonstrations and educational talks, and are popular with visitors worldwide.
Such centres may also provide Falconry Courses, Hawk Walks, Displays and other experiences with these raptors - see links at bottom of page for details.
Literature and film[edit]
English language words and idioms derived from falconry[edit]
These English language words and idioms are derived from falconry:
ExpressionMeaning in falconryDerived meaning
Hawked it up[citation needed]The sound of a hawk expelling the indigestible parts of a mealClearing phlegm from the throat
haggard[46]of a hawk, caught from the wild when adultlooking exhausted and unwell, in poor condition; wild or untamed
under his/her thumb[citation needed]of the hawk's leash when secured to the fisttightly under control
wrapped round his/her little finger[citation needed]of the hawk's leash when secured to the fisttightly under control
lure[47]Originally a device used to recall hawks. The hawks, when young, were trained to associate the device (usually a bunch of feathers) with food.To tempt with a promise/reward/bait
rouse[48]To shake one's feathersStir or awaken
pounce[49]Referring to a hawk's claws, later derived to refer to birds springing or swooping to catch preyJump forward to seize or attack something
to turn tail[50]Fly awayTo turn and run away
See also[edit]
1. ^ At the moment there are about 5,000 falconers around the United states.[42]
2. ^ a b Latham, S (1633), The Falcon's Lure and Cure .
4. ^ Epic of Gilgamesh .
6. ^ Egerton, F (2003), Part 8: Fredrick II of Hohenstaufen: Amateur Avian Ecologist and Behaviorist (PDF), "A History of the Ecological Sciences", Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America (Esa pubs) 84 (1): 40–44, doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2003)84[40:ahotes]2.0.co;2 .
7. ^ Ferber, S (1979), Islam and The Medieval West .
9. ^ Thesiger, W (1959), Arabian Sands, Penguin Books .
11. ^ A brief history of North American Falconry, NAFA .
12. ^ Quran 5:4.
13. ^ IAF history ] .
15. ^ Falconry on UNESCO website ] .
16. ^ "The Welsh Hawking Club", Austringer (36): 11 .
18. ^ http://www.nzfalconersassociation.com/falconry.html
22. ^ http://www.analytrics.org/Documents/HSS_Actes_Proceedings_2012.pdf
23. ^ http://www.mefrg.org/images/falco/falco41.pdf
24. ^ a b http://discover-bayanolgii.com/eagle-hunters/
27. ^ "Harris' Hawk". DK: Cyber city. Retrieved 2013-03-19.
28. ^ UAE interact .
30. ^ "Wingspan National Bird of Prey Centre". NZ. Retrieved 01-09-2012.
31. ^ "Raptor Association". NZ. Retrieved 2013-03-19.
32. ^ "South African Falconry History". Falconry in History. South African Falconry Association. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
33. ^ NAFA .
34. ^ IAF .
37. ^ Oliphant, LW (1991), The Journal of Raptor Research 25 (2): 36–39 .
38. ^ Falcons, CA .
39. ^ 73 FR 59448
40. ^ Matthiessen, P (1959), Wildlife in America, Viking .
41. ^ Migratory birds, US: Department of the Interior, USFWS .
43. ^ "Hawks", Misc. tracts, U Chicago .
44. ^ Kimmel, Stana (2009-10-08). "On Falconry". You tube (video). Retrieved 2012-05-21.
45. ^ Poets .
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
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Ecclesiastes 7 (New Living Translation)
View In My Bible
1 A good reputation is more valuable than the most expensive perfume. In the same way, the day you die is better than the day you are born. 2 It is better to spend your time at funerals than at festivals. For you are going to die, and you should think about it while there is still time. 3 Sorrow is better than laughter, for sadness has a refining influence on us. 4 A wise person thinks much about death, while the fool thinks only about having a good time now. 5 It is better to be criticized by a wise person than to be praised by a fool! 6 Indeed, a fool's laughter is quickly gone, like thorns crackling in a fire. This also is meaningless. 7 Extortion turns wise people into fools, and bribes corrupt the heart. 8 Finishing is better than starting. Patience is better than pride. 9 Don't be quick-tempered, for anger is the friend of fools. 10 Don't long for "the good old days," for you don't know whether they were any better than today. 11 Being wise is as good as being rich; in fact, it is better. 12 Wisdom or money can get you almost anything, but it's important to know that only wisdom can save your life. 13 Notice the way God does things; then fall into line. Don't fight the ways of God, for who can straighten out what he has made crooked? 14 Enjoy prosperity while you can. But when hard times strike, realize that both come from God. That way you will realize that nothing is certain in this life. 15 In this meaningless life, I have seen everything, including the fact that some good people die young and some wicked people live on and on. 16 So don't be too good or too wise! Why destroy yourself? 17 On the other hand, don't be too wicked either -- don't be a fool! Why should you die before your time? 18 So try to walk a middle course -- but those who fear God will succeed either way. 19 A wise person is stronger than the ten leading citizens of a town! 20 There is not a single person in all the earth who is always good and never sins. 21 Don't eavesdrop on others -- you may hear your servant laughing at you. 22 For you know how often you yourself have laughed at others. 23 All along I have tried my best to let wisdom guide my thoughts and actions. I said to myself, "I am determined to be wise." But it didn't really work. 24 Wisdom is always distant and very difficult to find. 25 I searched everywhere, determined to find wisdom and to understand the reason for things. I was determined to prove to myself that wickedness is stupid and that foolishness is madness. 26 I discovered that a seductive woman is more bitter than death. Her passion is a trap, and her soft hands will bind you. Those who please God will escape from her, but sinners will be caught in her snare. 27 "This is my conclusion," says the Teacher. "I came to this result after looking into the matter from every possible angle. 28 Just one out of every thousand men I interviewed can be said to be upright, but not one woman! 29 I discovered that God created people to be upright, but they have each turned to follow their own downward path."
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on October 04, 2009 at 2:15 PM, updated October 04, 2009 at 2:16 PM
Human teeth, Ardi's teeth, chimp's teethArdi's canine teeth are considerably smaller than in chimps and apes, suggesting this hominid species didn't use them to fight and compete for mates. The molars aren't as thick as those of chimps, indicating a diet of softer, less-abrasive foods.
The parched, sun-blasted badlands of Ethiopia's Afar Rift are a long way from the leafy stillness of University Circle. Seventy-three hundred miles, to be precise.
But the road to the African desert and its treasure trove of early human fossils often passes through Cleveland, with a side trip to nearby Kent.
For more than three decades, some of the most important remnants of humankind's long evolutionary slog have been found or analyzed by people with strong ties to Northeast Ohio and its research institutions.
"People don't know how important Cleveland is in the field of human evolution," said Bruce Latimer, the former director of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History and a professor of anthropology and anatomy at Case Western Reserve University. "You read stories all the time about the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Cleveland Orchestra. What we're doing in human evolution is just as important as that in science."
The latest, and possibly greatest, of those discoveries with local connections came Thursday, when a team of scientists unveiled the substantially complete skeleton of Ardipithecus ramidus, a 4.4 million-year-old human ancestor that shows the oldest unambiguous evidence of upright walking.
Seven of the 11 research papers describing the remarkable find were co-authored by Northeast Ohioans.
The skeleton's first bones were spotted by Yohannes Haile-Selassie, now the curator of physical anthropology at the natural history museum.
The 89-year-old museum is the center of gravity, with its strong tradition of field researchers, blockbuster fossil finds and a wealth of specimens in its bone collections with which to compare new samples. There's also deep hominid-hunting and classifying expertise at CWRU and Kent State University.
"The museum is a key feature," said Carol Ward, a University of Missouri paleoanthropologist who specializes in apes of the Miocene epoch 18 million years ago, which gave rise to the earliest human ancestors. The museum's vast holdings of ape and monkey skeletons are "an invaluable resource," Ward said. "I was just there a couple of weeks ago."
Cleveland and its natural history museum are best known for "Lucy," the iconic 3.2 million-year-old early human ancestor found in Ethiopia in 1974 by then-anthropology curator and CWRU anthropology professor Donald Johanson. At the time, Lucy was the oldest hominid yet discovered.
But Chicago, not Cleveland, might have been forever linked with Lucy if not for a couple of forward-thinking anatomists and a lot of musty corpses.
Building an unmatched skeleton collection
Back in 1893, a young anatomy professor named Carl August Hamann had started collecting skeletons to use as teaching aids in his classes at Cleveland's Western Reserve University Medical School. He had about 100 when he was named the school's dean.
Hamann's successor in the anatomy post, an energetic Englishman named T. Wingate Todd, launched a huge expansion of the collection in the early 1900s. He eventually amassed the largest assemblage of its kind in the world -- more than 3,000 human skeletons (many of them unclaimed bodies from the City Jail and county morgue) and 900 skeletons of African apes, chimps, lowland gorillas and monkeys.
The Hamann-Todd Collection is an anthropologist's dream. Researchers attempting to identify and put into contest the primate fossils they've found in the field can compare them with the drawers full of skulls, vertebrae and other bones. About 200 U.S. and foreign scientists per year visit Cleveland to use the collection.
(Others come for the Bolton-Brush Growth Study records, a massive set of X-rays and other data about human growth patterns housed at CWRU's dental school.)
At one point, Chicago's renowned Field Museum of Natural History indicated it would like to acquire the Hamann-Todd skeletons, but the medical school eventually donated them to the Cleveland museum in the 1950s and 1960s.
Johanson, a Chicago native with a freshly minted Ph.D. from the University of Chicago, took the museum and academic jobs in Cleveland just before his discovery of Lucy, in part to have access to the Hamann-Todd Collection.
During the late 1970s, the labs in the natural history museum's basement were the epicenter of the paleoanthropology world. A year after unearthing Lucy, Johanson and his team had returned to Ethiopia and hit the mother lode -- a jumble of bones that proved to be at least 13 adult and juvenile hominids. The media-savvy Johanson dubbed them the First Family and wrote a 22-page spread for National Geographic.
The researchers who worked with Johanson to analyze the fossils of Lucy and the First Family forged connections and built reputations that would keep Northeast Ohio in the limelight for the next three decades.
Foremost was biological anthropologist Owen Lovejoy, who had gone to graduate school at CWRU and joined the Kent State University faculty in 1968. Using bones in the Hamann-Todd collection for comparison, Lovejoy did groundbreaking work to determine that Australopithecus, the ancestral grouping to which Lucy belonged, walked upright on two legs as well as modern humans do. The findings overturned convention that Lucy's kind had a shuffling, bent-kneed, apelike gait.
Lovejoy, a lover of fast cars who prefers the lab to the field, would go on to develop a sweeping theory of how bipedality arose as part of a suite of behavioral, body and reproductive changes that helped early human ancestors thrive. His name is on many of the most significant studies documenting new hominid fossils.
Reconstruction an arduous task
For "Ardi," the 4.4 million-year-old partial skeleton announced last week, Lovejoy spent years overseeing reconstruction of the specimen's badly shattered pelvis.
Linda Spurlock, a forensic artist and former Lovejoy student who is the natural history museum's director of human health, painstakingly sculpted idealized versions of Ardi's splintered left hip, filling in the gaps using measurements from the hips of humans and apes. Each version was cast and shipped to Tokyo for comparison to the real Ardi pelvis fragments, which were undergoing CT scanning.
The 11th version, which Spurlock said was "deemed as perfect as we were ever going to get it," was used to make a model of the entire pelvis. Lovejoy used it as a basis for the team's startling conclusion that Ardi walked upright while on the ground but on all four limbs while on tree branches. Lovejoy used the pelvis' architecture as well as other anatomical details to reach the team's conclusion.
Another of the pivotal figures working on Lucy and the First Family in Johanson's Cleveland lab was Tim White. A friend of Lovejoy's from graduate school days, when he would drive down from the University of Michigan and sleep on Lovejoy's couch, the young California paleoanthropologist had been digging up hominid fossils in Tanzania and Kenya that were about the same age as Lucy and the First Family.
White and Johanson spent two years trying to classify the samples, using the Hamann-Todd collection as a reference. They finally concluded that Lucy and the First Family belonged to a single, newly identified species they named Australopithecus afarensis. They proposed a major realignment of the human family tree, with A. afarensis as the ancestor of every hominid that came after it. Their announcement was an international sensation.
White would go on to superstardom in paleoanthropology, becoming perhaps the pre-eminent hominid fossil-hunter of his time. Although he is based at the University of California at Berkeley, he has kept close ties with Cleveland and is a friend of and collaborator with Lovejoy, Latimer and CWRU paleoanthropologist Scott Simpson.
Former students make their marks
Latimer and Simpson are both Lovejoy's former graduate students at Kent State and have been regular members of White's fossil-hunting Middle Awash project in Ethiopia, as well as making significant accomplishments in their own careers.
Simpson, for example, led a research team that last year announced the discovery in Ethiopia of an important 1.3 million-year-old female pelvis from the Homo erectus species. Analysis of the remarkably intact fossil indicated that H. erectus could give birth to babies with much larger brains than previously thought and raised questions about the prevailing idea that the hominid species was specially adapted for long-distance running and hot climates.
Latimer, whom Johanson tapped as a graduate student to analyze the crucial fossilized foot bones of Lucy and the First Family, became an expert in the origin and mechanics of upright walking. He eventually went on to hold Johanson's post as the museum's curator of physical anthropology and direct its casting lab.
Under Latimer, the lab developed a standardized method for making high-quality plaster casts of fragile hominid fossils so they can be studied and displayed. The "Cleveland technique" is now in use worldwide, and the lab has trained casting technicians who work in other top museums.
Soon after Latimer moved up to the museum's directorship in 2000, he recruited Haile-Selassie as his replacement. Haile-Selassie, an Ethiopian native, had been a graduate student and prot g of Tim White's at Berkeley.
Latimer, Simpson and White had worked side by side with Haile-Selassie in the desert of the Afar rift valley, where he had earned a reputation as an uncannily talented fossil hunter and a keen analyst. During the 1990s, while still a student, Haile-Selassie had made major finds: the 2.5 million-year-old skull of a previously unknown hominid species called Australopithecus garhi; the first bones of the partial skeleton that would later gain fame as Ardi; and fossils of one of the earliest human ancestors of all, the 5.8 million-year-old Ardipithecus kadabba.
"He's gifted, a very special guy," said Latimer, who has partnered with Haile-Selassie to launch a hominid fossil-hunting operation in Ethiopia called the Woranso-Mille project.
Haile-Selassie knows the tradition he has inherited, and the responsibility he shares to keep it going.
"This museum has been the center of human origins for so many years," he said last week, before jetting to Washington, D.C., to help announce Ardi's discovery. "If you think about any other city in the United States, you don't have multiple institutions working together on the same question.
"We have a research trail that goes back decades," he said. And soon, "people are going to turn their eyes and ears to Cleveland for what's coming up."
Is that a hint of more big discoveries? Haile-Selassie won't divulge much. The Woranso-Mille project's new site "is producing a lot of fossils," he said with a smile. "I can tell you there are a lot of surprises still to come."
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Nonpersonal Time Deposit
DEFINITION of 'Nonpersonal Time Deposit'
Time deposit accounts held by corporate bank customers that pay a fixed amount of interest for a specified time period. Money may not be withdrawn without advance notice at the risk of incurring an early withdrawal penalty.
INVESTOPEDIA EXPLAINS 'Nonpersonal Time Deposit'
Examples of nonpersonal time deposits include money market deposit accounts, certificates of deposit and investment accounts. Nonpersonal time deposits are not subject to reserve requirements under the Federal Reserve's Regulation D. Federally insured banks are required to report their nonpersonal time deposit account balances to their regional Federal Reserve bank on a regular basis.
1. Demand Deposit
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A Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulation governing ...
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5. Term Deposit
A deposit held at a financial institution that has a fixed term. ...
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Slosh Team Readies for Important Launch
December 17, 2013
[image-36][image-96]After a successful demonstration flight in September, the next Orb-1 mission is scheduled to launch on an Antares rocket in January 2014 as part of the NASA Commercial Resupply to Station contract.
The first operational delivery flight to actually carry supplies and experiments, Orbital Sciences Corporation’s unmanned cargo freighter Cygnus will loft approximately 3,217 pounds (1,459 kg) of science equipment, spare parts and supplies to the International Space Station (ISS) for NASA.
Along for the ride with this payload will be the ISS Fluid Slosh experiment, a Space Technology Mission Directorate, Game Changing Development Program project dedicated to improving our understanding of how liquids behave when there is little to no gravity.
"Modern computer models try to predict how liquid moves inside a propellant tank," said NASA's Brandon Marsell, co-principal investigator on the Slosh Project. "Now that rockets are bigger and are going farther, we need more precise data. Most of the models we have were validated under 1 g conditions on Earth. None have been validated in the surface tension-dominated microgravity environment of space."
The proposed research provides the first data set from long duration tests in zero gravity that can be directly used to benchmark computational fluid dynamics models, including the interaction between the sloshing fluid and the tank/vehicle dynamics. [image-80]
Powerful rockets use liquid fuel to bring satellites into orbit, and are subjected to varying forces as they are propelled forward. But computer simulations may not accurately represent how liquids behave in low-gravity conditions, causing safety concerns. The Slosh experiments improve these models, and thereby improve rocket safety, by measuring how liquids move around inside a container when external forces are applied to it. This simulates how rocket fuels swirl around inside their tanks while a rocket moves through space.
To explore the coupling of liquid slosh with the motion of an unconstrained tank in microgravity, NASA’s Launch Services Program (LSP) teamed up with NASA’s Game Changing Development (GCD) Program, the Florida Institute of Technology (FIT), and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to perform a series of slosh dynamics experiments in the ISS using the Synchronized Position Hold Engage Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHERES) platform. The SPHERES test bed provides a unique, free-floating instrumented platform on ISS that can be utilized in a manner that would solve many of the limitations of the current knowledge related to propellant slosh dynamics on launch vehicle and spacecraft propellant tanks.[image-51]
"It was a complex and detailed process to bring this concept to fruition,” said Charlie Holicker, an FIT student who worked on the physical design of the experiment and aluminum machining. “The data that this experiment will gather sets the foundation for all long-term space flight involving liquid fuels. It was an honor to be a part of something that will have such a great impact in the exploration of space."
Rich Schulman, an FIT student involved in the Slosh experiment since its beginning, said, “One huge benefit for the students working on this project is seeing firsthand the requirements for developing a payload for the ISS. Having gone through this process successfully, the students involved can effectively build future payloads or projects at the same standard.”
Many satellites launch on rockets powered by liquid propellants, and improved understanding of these propellants could enhance efficiency, potentially lowering costs for industry and taxpayer-funded satellite launches.
Denise M. Stefula
NASA Langley Research Center
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Slosh experiment launch package.
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Cygnus spacecraft shortly before attachment to ISS on September 29, 2013.
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Brandon Marsell, co-principal investigator for Fluid Slosh, shows off the Slosh model.
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Bipolar Disorder Health Center
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Am I Bipolar?
By Barbara Brody
WebMD Feature
Reviewed by Joseph Goldberg, MD
No one's mood is stable 100% of the time. It's normal to feel down when you hit a rough patch and elated when life goes your way.
But if you have bipolar disorder, the highs and lows are a lot more extreme, and they can sometimes seem random. The good news is that with treatment and some hard work, you can control the impact this disease has on your life.
Recommended Related to Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar I Disorder
Bipolar I disorder (pronounced "bipolar one" and also known as manic-depressive disorder or manic depression) is a form of mental illness. A person affected by bipolar I disorder has had at least one manic episode in his or her life. A manic episode is a period of abnormally elevated mood and high energy, accompanied by abnormal behavior that disrupts life. Most people with bipolar I disorder also suffer from episodes of depression. Often, there is a pattern of cycling between mania and depression...
Read the Bipolar I Disorder article > >
Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder
Doctors aren’t sure what causes this condition, which is also called manic depression. It could have to do with brain structure -- the pathways or circuits that control mood, behavior, and thinking. Or it could be brain chemistry. It’s likely genetic, since it often runs in families. Anyone can get bipolar disorder at any age, but most people show symptoms before the age of 25.
Manic periods (hypomania or mania), which tend to happen less often than depressed ones, involve unusual bursts of energy.
What’s the difference between being happy and manic? "You'll feel much more energetic than you do at your baseline, have racing thoughts, talk louder and faster than normal, and notice a decreased need for sleep," says Joseph Calabrese, MD. He's the director of the mood disorders program at Case Western Reserve University.
Also, your judgment will be off. "People do things quickly without thinking about the consequences," Calabrese says. For example, you might spend too much money, have impulsive sex, or get into trouble with the law. During full-blown mania, you could have feelings that you’re better or more important than other people. You may even hear and see things that aren't there.
How to Get Help
About 10 million Americans have bipolar disorder, but many don't know it. "Between 20 and 40 percent of people with bipolar disorder are not properly diagnosed or not diagnosed at all," Calabrese says.
Why? Most people don’t seek help unless they're feeling down. "Bipolar disorder can get missed if a person starts with a depressive episode," says Ken Duckworth, MD. He's the medical director of NAMI, the National Alliance on Mental Illness, and an assistant clinical professor at Harvard University Medical School.
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For any baseball pitcher, learning how to throw a baseball harder will greatly increase your effectiveness. While increasing your pitching velocity is not the only quality necessary to be a great pitcher, it is one of the more important ones. Throwing harder does not happen overnight. Here are some things you can do in order to throw as hard as you can.
1. Throw a Baseball Harder Step 1.jpg
Throw gently with a partner at the beginning of every session. Throwing gently to start will warm up your throwing arm, and throwing too hard too quickly greatly increases the risk of injury to your arm.
2. Throw a Baseball Harder Step 2.jpg
Stand about 40 feet (12.2 m) apart from your partner when you begin throwing. As your arm warms up slowly increase the distance between the two of you.
• The maximum distance between you and your partner should be the point where you can throw to one another comfortably, without overexerting yourselves on each throw and without throwing the baseball with too much arc.
• As you continue to throw with your partner over the course of the next few days and weeks the amount of time you are able to throw should slowly increase.
3. Throw a Baseball Harder Step 3.jpg
Grip the baseball with your forefinger and middle finger gripping a baseball with the seams perpendicular to your fingers. This is called a four seam fastball, which will help maximize your pitching velocity. Throwing a four seam fastball will almost always achieve the highest speed over any other pitch.
• This is called a four seam fastball because when the ball is thrown the four seams will rotate in the air, minimizing air resistance, maximizing the number of rotations the ball makes in the air, and maximizing your pitching velocity.
4. Throw a Baseball Harder Step 4.jpg
Concentrating on your making your pitching motion consistent will help you not waste any energy with throwing hard and increase your pitching velocity.
• After going into your windup your lead foot should always hit the ground a split send before your throwing arm releases the ball.
• Depending on your height your lead foot should land three to five feet from the pitching mound.
• When you release the ball your shoulders should be square, or parallel, to home plate.
5. Throw a Baseball Harder Step 5.jpg
Participating in a regular exercise program to improve your fitness will also help you throw a baseball harder, though you should always consult a doctor before engaging in any rigorous exercise program. While much of the work involved in throwing hard is done by your throwing arm, strengthening your legs, midsection and upper body will help put less stress on your arm and help in increasing your pitching velocity.
6. Throw a Baseball Harder Step 6.jpg
Work out your throwing arm on a regular basis. If you are currently a pitcher on a baseball team make sure you are working to throw hard on days other than when you are pitching. If you are not currently playing baseball still throw on a regular basis.
• Throwing a baseball for a long time at once but infrequently will not help your pitching velocity as much as shorter sessions of regular throwing.
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• Do not throw a baseball through constant pain. If you find your arm consistently hurting either during or after your pitching sessions, take a few days off from throwing and consult a doctor.
Things You'll Need
• Baseball, glove, throwing partner
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Español: Cómo lanzar una pelota de béisbol más fuerte, Italiano: Come Lanciare più Forte una Palla da Baseball, Português: Como Arremessar uma Bola de Baseball com Mais Força, Русский: бросать бейсбольный мяч сильнее
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The Axolotl Is Not A Fish By David Rentz
From time to time I see axolotls for sale in Australian aquarium shops and frequently they are labelled "walking fish". They are not fish at all but amphibians called salamanders, related to frogs and lizards. It is easy to understand the reason for the misnaming; there are no salamanders native to Australia and the axolotl is probably the only salamander the average Australian will ever see alive. There are some interesting biological characteristics about axolotls which are worth noting here.
The peculiar word axolotl is an Aztec word, probably one of the few in use in our language. It is a species of salamander known as the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum. This species has a very broad distribution for a salamander. It occurs in Western North America and extends South into Mexico, hence it's association with the native Aztec people of central Mexico. The axolotl is a peculiarity in the normal life cycle of the tiger salamander as you will read.
Normally the tiger salamander follows a conventional pattern in its life history. Adults are terrestrial. A migration of males and females to the breeding ponds occurs in late winter. Certain sites are the scene of courtship activity and mating. The eggs are not fertilised as they leave the females body but males deposit lumps of a gelatinous substance tipped with a whitish ball containing hundreds of spermatozoa on the bottom of the pond. The female crawls over this 'spermatophore’, takes up the fertilising tip, then within her body the eggs are fertilised and they are laid within a few hours.
The larvae are small and have bushy gills. They resemble a tadpole with feet. By autumn they are full-sized and ready to leave the water and take up life on land. The gills shrink and lungs develop, the tail also undergoes a change. The tiger salamander then begins its life on land. This is typical of many salamanders. They are predators and eat insects, snails, slugs and any other small creatures, including salamanders, that they can find.
How the axolotl comes about is an interesting part of this story. In the highland lakes of Mexico and the Rocky Mountains the salamander larvae never change into adults. They grow to adult size but remain aquatic retaining gills and a large fin-like tail. This is termed 'neoteny" and it was this form that the Conquistadors of Mexico found and learned the Aztec name axolotl. The sexes breed in water and the larvae develop into adults and remain there (but the chain may be broken).
The neoteny described above is triggered by cold water. If the water becomes warm or some other factor occurs (like a nice terrarium) that seems favourable towards a terrestrial existence, the axolotl will emerge from the water and become a land-loving creature. Once this happens, it cannot be reversed.
Axolotls like deep, cool water. During a Canberra summer, they should be moved to an air-conditioned room or a few ice cubes should be placed daily in their tank. In captivity axolotls do well on unwanted fish but will also thrive on pieces of meat, fish, prawns and earthworms. An albino form is often available but remember that all albino forms of animals suffer 'discomfort under strong light. And with axolotls, remember to keep the water cold.
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Redshank (soldier)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Redshank was a nickname for Scottish mercenaries from the Highlands' Western Isles. They were a prominent feature of Irish armies throughout the 16th century. They were called Redshanks because they went dressed in kilts and waded bare-legged through rivers in the coldest weather. They were usually armed alike, principally with bows and two-handed claymores.
They came from the clans of the Hebrides because of the recent breakup of the Lordship of the Isles, as well as from the poorer clans of mainland Scotland. The Redshanks mostly came from the clans of MacLeod, MacQuarrie, MacLean, MacDonald, and Campbell.
Unlike the Gallowglass, which were hired for long periods of service and paid in land and beef, the Redshanks were hired for the summer months. They were billeted (housed) with civilians, usually by force. This was known as the Buannacht system.
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For the subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire, see Vilayet. For the Spanish movie, see Wilaya (film).
A wilayah (Arabic: ولاية) or ولایت (velâyat) in Persian, vilayet in Turkish or vilayat in Urdu, is an administrative division, usually translated as "province", rarely as "governorate". The word comes from the Arabic "w-l-y", "to govern": a wāli—"governor"—governs a wilayah, "that which is governed". Under the Caliphate, the term referred to any constituent near-sovereign state.
Use in specific countries[edit]
In Arabic, wilayah is used to refer to the states of the United States, and the United States of America as a whole is called "الولايات المتّحدة الأمريكية" (al-Wilāyāt al-Muttaḥidah al-Amrīkīyah) literally meaning "the American United States".
Arab World[edit]
The governorates of Iraq (muhafazah) are sometimes translated as province, in contrast to official Iraqi documents and the general use for other Arab countries. This conflicts somehow with the general translation for muhafazah (governorate) and wilāyah (province).
In the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, 9 prefectures take the name Wilayit (Uyghur Language) which is rendered as Diqu (地區) in Chinese. Thereby demoting the term to a prefectural level, which is one level lower than the provincial level.
ئالتاي ۋىلايىتى
Altay Wilayiti 阿勒泰地区
تارباغاتاي ۋىلايىتى
Tarbaghatay Wilayiti 塔城地区
تۇرپان ۋىلايىتى
Turpan Wilayiti 吐鲁番地区
قۇمۇل ۋىلايىتى
Qumul Wilayiti 哈密地区
قەشقەر ۋىلايىتى
Qeshqer Wilayiti 喀什地区
ئاقسۇ ۋىلايىتى
Aqsu Wilayiti 阿克苏地区
خوتەن ۋىلايىتى
Xoten Wilayiti 和田地区
Kenya and Tanzania[edit]
Malaysia and Indonesia[edit]
In Malaysia, the term
Ottoman Empire[edit]
The current provinces of Turkey are called il in Turkish.
Central Asia and Caucasus[edit]
In Iran, the word is also used unofficially.
South Asia[edit]
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Hillforts in Iron Age Britain
A 'hillfort' is the name given to a very common type of archaeological site found in Britain and other parts of western and northern Europe. Hillforts are hill tops surrounded by large walls or ramparts. Often, they also have deep ditches in front of the ramparts. Hillforts are found in different parts of Iron Age Britain: for example, southern England, the Welsh borders and southern Scotland. Hillforts at Maiden Castle, South Cadbury and Danebury can be visited today.
Many hillforts were built as fortresses. Some provided secure living space for large numbers of people, whereas others may have been empty refuges. Sometimes local communities came together for religious ceremonies and celebrations in hillforts. Archaeological excavations at hillforts such as Maiden Castle and Danebury continue to provide very important evidence for the study of Iron Age life and society.
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Chapter 2 – An Overview of Normal Sleep
Sudhansu Chokroverty
The history of sleep medicine and sleep research is a history of remarkable progress and remarkable ignorance. In the 1940s and 1950s, sleep had been in the forefront of neuroscience, and then again in the late 1990s there had been a resurgence of our understanding of the neurobiology of sleep. Sleeping and waking brain circuits can now be studied by sophisticated neuroimaging techniques that have shown remarkable progress by mapping different areas of the brain during sleep states and stages. Electrophysiologic research has shown that even a single neuron sleeps, as evidenced by the electrophysiologic correlates of sleep-wakefulness at the cellular (single-cell) level. Despite recent progress, we are still groping for answers to two fundamental questions: What is sleep? Why do we sleep? Sleep is not simply an absence of wakefulness and perception, nor is it just a suspension of sensorial processes; rather, it …
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Nutrition for Esophageal Cancer Treatment
Nutrition for Esophageal Cancer Treatment
If you've been diagnosed with esophageal cancer, maintaining good nutrition will be a crucial part of your treatment program. The esophagus is the swallowing tube that connects the back of your throat to your stomach.
fruit smoothie
How cancer of the esophagus affects nutrition
Cancer of the esophagus can narrow your esophagus. This can make it difficult or painful to swallow and take in the nutrition you need. You can get help with this from an important member of your treatment team: the nutrition specialist. Here are some of the concerns a nutritionist can help you with:
• Loss of appetite during treatment with cancer drugs
• Dryness and narrowing of the throat and esophagus from radiation therapy
• Inability to swallow while recovering from surgery
Your options for nutrition during treatment
• Tube feeding may be needed if you just can't eat enough food by mouth or are recovering from surgery. This is when a tube is inserted through your nose and into your stomach for short periods of time.
• If you need tube feeding for a long time, a tube called a gastrostomy tube can be inserted directly into your stomach during a short surgical procedure. This type of tube can be taken out if you are able to start swallowing by mouth again.
If you need tube or IV feedings, your medical team will select the type of nutrition you get.
Tips to make eating easier
Many people with esophageal cancer have trouble maintaining a normal weight and the following tips can help. If on the other hand, you are overweight, talk to your doctor or nutritionist before adding some of these high calorie foods into your diet.
If you are able to take foods by mouth before, during, or after treatment, these tips can help with discomfort and increase nutrition intake:
• If swallowing is still difficult, soften your foods with gravies or sauces. Chop up meat into small pieces. Examples of nutritious soft foods include scrambled eggs, pasta, custard, pudding, and soups and stews made with ground meat.
• You may need to sip fluids while you are eating to assist in swallowing comfort. This can also promote the passage of food through the esophagus.
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Barbarea verna
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Land cress)
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"Land cress" redirects here. For the winter annual plant, see Cardamine hirsuta.
Land cress
Barbarea verna BB-1913.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Barbarea
Species: B. verna
Binomial name
Barbarea verna
(P. Mill.) Aschers.
Land cress (Barbarea verna), also known as American cress, bank cress, black wood cress, Belle Isle cress, Bermuda cress, early yellowrocket, early wintercress, scurvy cress, creasy greens, and upland cress, is a biennial herb in the family Brassicaceae. It is native to southwestern Europe, but is also cultivated in Florida. As it requires less water than watercress, it is easier to cultivate. Land cress has been cultivated as a leaf vegetable in England since the 17th century.
Synonyms include Barbarea praecox and Lepidum nativum. Other common names include dryland cress, cassabully, and American watercress. A variegated form is available.
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, Volume 121, Issue 2, pp 397-412
Date: 04 Sep 2013
Countries’ contributions to climate change: effect of accounting for all greenhouse gases, recent trends, basic needs and technological progress
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In the context of recent discussions at the UN climate negotiations we compared several ways of calculating historical greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and assessed the effect of these different approaches on countries’ relative contributions to cumulative global emissions. Elements not covered before are: (i) including recent historical emissions (2000–2010), (ii) discounting historical emissions to account for technological progress; (iii) deducting emissions for ‘basic needs’; (iv) including projected emissions up to 2020, based on countries’ unconditional reduction proposals for 2020. Our analysis shows that countries’ contributions vary significantly based on the choices made in the calculation: e.g. the relative contribution of developed countries as a group can be as high as 80 % when excluding recent emissions, non-CO2 GHGs, and land-use change and forestry CO2; or about 48 % when including all these emissions and discounting historical emissions for technological progress. Excluding non-CO2 GHGs and land-use change and forestry CO2 significantly changes relative historical contributions for many countries, altering countries’ relative contributions by multiplicative factors ranging from 0.15 to 1.5 compared to reference values (i.e. reference contribution calculations cover the period 1850-2010 and all GHG emissions). Excluding 2000–2010 emissions decreases the contributions of most emerging economies (factor of up to 0.8). Discounting historical emissions for technological progress reduces the relative contributions of some developed countries (factor of 0.8) and increases those of some developing countries (factor of 1.2–1.5). Deducting emissions for ‘basic needs’ results in smaller contributions for countries with low per capita emissions (factor of 0.3–0.5). Finally, including projected emissions up to 2020 further increases the relative contributions of emerging economies by a factor of 1.2, or 1.5 when discounting pre-2020 emissions for technological progress.
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November 05, 2009
Modfied HIV Delivered Gene Therapy Could Treat Many Diseases
Other Gene Therapy Success and Progress
Lungs too damaged for use in transplant operations may be salvageable through a gene-based technique, doubling or tripling the supply of organs.
The flawed lungs could be removed from donors’ bodies after death and repaired using the gene IL-10, which lowers inflammation. 1800 people in the US are awaiting lung transplants.
Gene Therapy helps treat a form of blindness The condition is known as Leber’s congenital amaurosis and there are 2000 people in the US who have it.
A number of companies are developing gene therapies and 320 trials are under way or cleared to begin by U.S. regulators, said Karen Riley, a U.S. Food and Drug Administration spokeswoman. Genzyme Corp. of Cambridge, Massachusetts, will begin a human trial using gene therapy next year to treat macular degeneration, the leading form of age-related vision loss, said John Lacey, a Genzyme spokesman
Research in monkeys suggests that genetically delivering dopamine avoids some side effects and helps with Parkinson's.
In the new trial, reported today in the journal Science Translational Medicine, Bechir Jarraya and colleagues at the Molecular Imaging Research Center in Fontenay-aux-Roses, France, mimicked Parkinson's in monkeys by giving them a neurotoxin that causes movement problems characteristic of the disorder. The researchers then injected three genes involved in dopamine production into the brains of the monkeys, as well as specially designed probes to measure dopamine levels in the brain, monitoring the animals for up to three and a half years. The gene therapy restored concentrations of dopamine in the brain, corrected movement problems, and prevented dyskinesias--without any severe adverse side effects. An early stage human clinical trial using the same dopamine gene therapy approach is now underway.
The Modified HIV Gene Therapy
Wrong Diagnosis has statistics on ALD
Prevalance Rate: approx 1 in 20,000 or 0.00% or 13,600 people in USA
Wikipedia on Adrenoleukodystrophy
Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) (also known as "Addison-Schilder Disease," "Siemerling-Creutzfeldt Disease," and "Schilder's disease") is a rare, inherited disorder that leads to progressive brain damage, failure of the adrenal glands and eventually death. ALD is one disease in a group of inherited disorders called leukodystrophies. Adrenoleukodystrophy progressively damages the myelin, a complex fatty neural tissue that insulates many nerves of the central and peripheral nervous systems, eventually destroying it. Without myelin, nerves are unable to conduct an impulse, leading to increasing disability as myelin destruction increases and intensifies.
NY Times: For Gene Therapy, Seeing Signs of a Resurgence
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Take the 2-minute tour ×
BringWindowToTop, SetForegroundWindow, SwitchToThisWindow, SetWindowPos, ShowWindow all are described as showing and activating a window.
What are the real differences between them? When and why would BringWindowToTop be preferred to SetForegroundWindow, or SwitchToThisWindow or even SetWindowPos with the flags set to activate and show?
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2 Answers 2
There are many closely-related concepts involved, and related terms are often misused, even in the official documentation.
Important types of windows:
• top-level windows: Windows that have no parent window. The main window for an application is almost always a top-level window. It does not have anything to do with z-order.
• child windows: Windows that are contained by a parent window. Their position is always relative to the parent widow's area. Child windows are often "controls": UI things like buttons and edit boxes.
• parent windows: Windows that have child windows. Top-level windows often have children. But note that child windows may also have children and thus be both parent and child windows.
• owned windows: Windows that are controlled by a another window, but aren't necessarily children of the other window. An example is a floating tool palette: it's owned by another window in the application, but it's not locked to that other window's area.
• owner windows: Windows that own an owned window.
Often the distinction between an owner/owned relationship and a parent/child relationship isn't important, so the parent and child terms are often used for both contexts, even in documentation. In some cases, parent fields and parameters are overloaded to mean parent and/or owner.
Important concepts:
• top of the z-order: This literally means the window that displays above other windows.
• active window: A fuzzy concept, but it typically means the top-level window the user would consider the "current" window. The active window is typically drawn with a distinctive border and it's tile on the task bar is highlighted. The active window is usually at or near to the top of the z-order among all other top-level windows, and it is the parent or owner (perhaps indirectly) of the window with keyboard focus.
• keyboard focus: Indicates the window that will receive the keyboard messages. Conceptually, there is one window with keyboard focus. Often the window with focus is a child (or grandchild, etc.) of the active window.
• foreground: The active window is typically in the foreground. The name seems to suggest that it's at the top of the z-order, but it really means that the thread that created the window gets a slight priority boost. That active window is usually also the foreground window.
So let's say you've got this browser window open, and you've also got an instance of Notepad running. If you click on the document in Notepad, a whole flurry of messages and state changes occur. You're actually clicking on a big edit box, which is a child window of Notepad's top-level window. That click causes the edit box to get activated, but child windows can't really be the "active" window, so it just takes the keyboard focus and passes the activation message up through its ancestors until it gets to a top-level window. The top-level window "activates" by moving to the top of the z-order, highlighting its border, etc. It also becomes the foreground window, so its thread gets a little boost to make the UI a little more responsive than any other windows.
With these terms in mind, you can parse the MSDN descriptions for the functions you listed to tease out the subtle differences.
If you're trying to lay out your window's children, just use SetWindowPos (or MoveWindow, SizeWindow, and ShowWinow). Of the remaining functions, SwitchToThisWindow looks deprecated and essentially the same as SetForegroundWindow. (Note that, in many cases, SetForegroundWindow won't do what you want unless you're the active application or the active application has given you permission to use it.) BringWindowToTop is mostly about bringing a window to the top of the z-order (which you can do with SetWindowPos), with extra side effects that make it behave like SetForegroundWindow if you call it on a top-level window.
Update: Raymond Chen posted a clearer distinction between the active window and the foreground window. To quote:
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Use setwindowpos if you need to change the size of the window (not just its state)
Use showwindow to change just the state of the window
Use bringwindowtotop to activate a parent window via the child. if you send it a child window (perhaps a floating toolbar) the parent will be brought to front and have focus instead of the child.
They all have their place and obviously have duplicate functionality, but each does things just a little different depending on what you want to do.
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Once my child has sprained a joint, is it more like to happen again?
Yes. A sprain weakens the ligaments, so it's easier for a joint to twist out of place again. Ensuring that your child's sprain or strain heals properly makes reinjury less likely.
How can I protect my child from strains and sprains?
Make sure that the areas your child plays in are safe — the playground should have padded surfaces beneath the equipment, for example.
As your child starts playing sports, make sure she wears the right shoes and protective gear. Running shoes, for example, aren't good for hiking or tennis because their extra cushioning makes the base slightly more elevated and less stable. For hiking, be sure your child wears boots that lace up over the ankles to support them, especially if she's carrying a backpack.
And remember that your child is likely to take a few spills while in-line skating or snowboarding, so have her wear protective wrist, elbow, and knee pads (along with a helmet) to protect those joints.
It can also help to warm up before playing a sport — for instance, by jogging for a few minutes. Light aerobic activity literally heats up the muscles and ligaments, making them more pliable and less prone to tearing.
Spending a few minutes stretching after a workout is helpful, too. This will improve the flexibility of the joints and muscles, which can get stiff from exertion.
If your child is just beginning a new sport, have her start out slowly and increase the intensity as she builds strength and endurance.
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Female Body Diagram?
The female body is similar to a male's body, except for breasts, and reproductive organs. A female body diagram will show a uterus, breasts, ovaries, and a cervix. A male does not have any of this. The colon, rectum, kidneys, lungs, brain, and so on, are the same for both sexes. The female body is a bit more challenging because of all the extra organs that can be found in the pelvic region. Knowing a woman's anatomy is helpful for many reasons, including diagnosing illness.
Q&A Related to "Female Body Diagram?"
1. Look at a photograph of the spider you want to draw. Use a live specimen for an even better model, if possible. 2. Begin with the head. Draw eight eyes on the head. Draw two jaws
A free body diagram is a representation of how the forces that are acting on a point or particle interact. You place your point at the origin and then draw your forces with their
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1 Sketch the wireframe of the human figure. Learning about human anatomy and proportion is highly recommended if you want to draw more realistically. Ad 2 Sketch the body shapes to
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South Korean rocket successfully puts satellite in orbit
Just Watched
Why South Korea's rocket launch matters
Why South Korea's rocket launch matters 02:30
Story highlights
• South Korea was forced to suspend its previous attempt weeks earlier
• Other launch attempts in 2009 and 2010 had failed
• North Korea successfully launched its own rocket last month, defying U.N. resolutions
South Korean officials: North Korean rocket could hit U.S. mainland
Officials and technicians watched the launch intently to see if it would succeed in delivering its payload into orbit. A crowd of onlookers near the site applauded and waved national flags.
About an hour after takeoff, Science Minister Lee Ju-ho declared the launch a success.
North Korea on Google Maps: Monuments, nuclear complex, gulags
The pressure on the South Korean rocket scientists to get the satellite into space increased after North Korea carried out its own successful launch last month in defiance of U.N. Security Council resolutions.
Just Watched
South Korea launches its own rocket
South Korea launches its own rocket 02:20
Only weeks before that, the South was forced to suspend its previous attempt to launch the Naro-1 rocket after finding problems with the electronic signal just minutes before it was due to take off.
The country's previous launch attempts in 2009 and 2010 had failed.
After threats against U.S., North Korea turns ire to South
Wednesday's successful effort comes at a delicate time on the Korean peninsula: North Korea said last week that it plans to conduct a new nuclear test and carry out more rocket launches after the U.N. Security Council voted to tighten sanctions on the secretive regime.
Although the North's rocket launch last month managed to put an object in space, it was widely considered to be a test of long-range ballistic missile technology. It's unclear whether that satellite is functional.
Saber-rattling statements
In its saber-rattling statements last month, North Korea said its missile and nuclear programs were part of a new phase of confrontation with the United States. It also threatened "physical counter-measures" against South Korea if it participates in the imposition of the new sanctions.
South Korean authorities say their latest attempted satellite launch is a crucial step for the development of the country's civilian space program. The satellite carried by the launch vehicle is mainly intended for gathering climate data and other atmospheric information, they say.
Is Asia on cusp of space race?
Analysts have said the South Korean launch is different from that of the North because it is more transparent, clearly focused on civilian applications and doesn't contravene U.N. sanctions.
South Korea already has a number of satellites in space, but they were launched in other countries using foreign rocket technology.
Opinion: Rescind North Korea's license to provoke
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Take the 2-minute tour ×
I believe it is NOT “Buon lavoro” because an Italian person online expressed that this was to wish someone a good day at work.
So - what do teachers say to students to let them know they've done something well?
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"this was to wish someone a good day at work." Not only that. For example a teacher could give an assignment to his students and say Buon lavoro to wish them a good work on the assignment. The term lavoro (work) is quite broad in that context. Any kind of activity could be included, not just the job. – Bakuriu Jul 12 '14 at 10:40
My Italian teacher has always said "Bravo"/"Brava". – Bill Jul 13 '14 at 11:53
9 Answers 9
Ben Fatto:
is a useful expression used to indicate that you are satisfied with a job/ task which have been done well.
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Yes. Lower-case f though. – Mauro Vanetti Dec 16 '14 at 14:55
Bravo or Brava means "Good job!". In English, it's often used as an exclamation in the theatre, but it doesn't have to be an exclamation, nor is it restricted to the theatre context.
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Teachers say 'Ottimo!' or 'Eccellente!' or 'Ottimo lavoro!' or 'Lavoro eccellente!', but they also say 'Buon lavoro!' when a job is a 'Good job!'
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"Ottimo lavoro" is spot on, while I never heard "buon lavoro" as a compliment (it's used as a wish, instead). – Matteo Italia Jul 12 '14 at 23:00
A common Italian expression is "Ben Fatto," or "well done." Here, the emphasis is on the adjectival modifier, "ben."
Other expressions are "Bravo," "eccellente," or "ottimo," which are also adjectives.
"Buon lavoro" is used, but is less common, because it would put the emphasis on "job," rather than "well" or "good."
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"Buon lavoro" si usa però non come forma di apprezzamento, ma di incoraggiamento per un lavoro che si deve ancora svolgere, augurando che venga ben svolto. – martina Jul 14 '14 at 7:18
Just to add to the other excellent answers: a simple translation as
Bel lavoro!
is also very common. So, good becomes beautiful/nice in the translation.
On the other hand, "buon lavoro!" is used as an encouragement to someone who has to perform a task and you want to with her success.
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Bravo/Brava doesn't mean "Good job", it's more stating a personal opinion about a person who did a good job, so "brava/bravo, because of the way the job was completed".
The best way to translate "good job" in Italian is, imho, ben fatto: it sounds like "properly done", so stating something related to the way the task was completed.
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The equivalent for "Good Job" is Bravo or Brava, depending on who you're talking to. And you could simply emphasise the same by making that Bravissimo or Bravissima.
Then there are many other words, Ottimo (Excellent), Ben fatto (You did well) and a few others. Easiest to use is Bravo.
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I think that the closest Italian translation of "Good job!" is "hai fatto un buon/ottimo lavoro"
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I think that the best is "Ottimo lavoro!"... I always use this (I'm italian)...
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(HR. Muslim, Ahmad dan Hakim).
Senin, 22 Februari 2010
Pericarditis, Constrictive-Effusive
Effusive-constrictive pericarditis is a clinical syndrome characterized by concurrent pericardial effusion and pericardial constriction where constrictive hemodynamics are persistent after the pericardial effusion is removed. The mechanism of effusive-constrictive pericarditis is thought to be visceral pericardial constriction. Pericardial effusions vary in size and age and may be transudative, exudative, sanguineous, or chylous. An effusion persisting for months to years may evolve into effusive-constrictive pericarditis.1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
The pericardium consists of two layers, a parietal layer and visceral layer. The visceral pericardium is composed of 1 or 2 cell layers of mesothelial cells and adheres closely with the epicardium. The parietal pericardium is separated from the visceral pericardium by a small amount of fluid that serves as a lubricant. Any supraphysiological accumulation of this fluid is identified as a pericardial effusion.1,2,11,12,13 In general, a pericardial effusion should be evaluated to determine its etiology and hemodynamic significance.
Patients with effusive-constrictive pericarditis may present with symptoms caused from a limitation of intercardiac end-diastolic volume. These findings are secondary to not only the pericardial effusion but also pericardial constriction. Symptoms, as well as history and physical findings, vary and a moderate-to-large pericardial effusion may occur.
Jugular venous and arterial pressures may be within the reference range, with or without signs of cardiac tamponade. This syndrome can evolve as part of a clinical continuum initiated by pericarditis or a pericardial effusion; thus, its etiologies mirror those of pericarditis, pericardial tamponade, and chronic constrictive pericarditis (see Pericarditis, Constrictive). The hemodynamic definition of this syndrome is the continued elevation of right atrial, end-diastolic right ventricular and left ventricular diastolic pressures after the removal of pericardial fluid returns the pericardial pressure to zero (or near zero).1,3,14
Recognition of effusive-constrictive pericarditis is clinically important because treatment with pericardiocentesis or a pericardial window may be inadequate as it would not address the visceral pericardium. Rather, a visceral pericardiectomy may be indicated for optimal therapy since it is the visceral pericardium that is constricting.
Importantly, not all cases of effusive-constrictive pericarditis progress to chronic constrictive pericarditis. In some clinical situations, relief from the effusion is obtained by means of pericardiocentesis or a pericardial window, and medical treatment is used to manage the underlying condition. The constriction may be transitory and surgical pericardiectomy may be avoided. These situations usually occur in the first months of a chronic effusion and close monitoring is required.
The effusive-constrictive variant of pericarditis was first described in the 1960s. Hancock popularized this definition of a constrictive physiology with a coexisting pericardial effusion.3 In 2004, Sagrista-Sauldea et al reported 15 subjects from Barcelona, Spain who were identified as having effusive-constrictive pericarditis.14 These individuals were among 190 consecutive subjects with clinical tamponade who underwent pericardiocentesis and concurrent catheterization. The etiologies of the effusive-constrictive pericarditis were infectious causes, irradiation, cardiac surgery, and idiopathic. Consistent with Hancock's data, Sagrista-Sauldea reported that most cases were due to idiopathic factors.
Constrictive pericarditis and cardiac tamponade both restrict filling of the cardiac chambers, thereby increasing both systemic and pulmonary filling pressures. In tamponade, single forward flow occurs during systole (prominent x descent in atrial pressure tracings), whereas in constriction, a biphasic pressure tracing is greater during diastole (prominent y descent). Patients with effusive-constrictive pericarditis may have tamponadelike pressure tracings, which change to constrictivelike tracings after pericardiocentesis. This is because the visceral pericardium, not the parietal, is constrictive. In rare cases, a loculated effusion may lead to constriction with regional tamponade of 1 or more cardiac chambers. Almost any form of chronic pericardial effusion has the potential to organize into an effusive-constrictive state even though the absolute number of cases is relatively low.4
Effusive-constrictive pericarditis may be part of a clinical continuum. Stages of infective pericarditis have been observed that range from acute pericarditis and tamponade with effusion to constrictive pericarditis without effusion. Effusive-constrictive pericarditis is likely a middle phase in this evolution. Therefore, suspicion for this entity should be high in cases of indolent, subacute pericarditis, as well in cases of chronic pericardial effusion.
United States
Effusive-constrictive pericarditis is a rare disorder. As a complication of pericarditis, pericardial effusion, pericardial tamponade, or chronic constrictive pericarditis, the incidence of effusive-constrictive pericarditis is proportional to the incidence of each of these entities. Cases in the United States are more often secondary to irradiation, cardiac surgery, uremia, or malignancy, or are idiopathic (see Differentials).6
Effusive-constrictive pericarditis is a rare disorder. As a complication of pericarditis, pericardial effusion, pericardial tamponade, or chronic constrictive pericarditis, the incidence of effusive-constrictive is proportional to the incidence of each of these entities. Cases in the developing countries are more often secondary to infectious causes (eg, tuberculosis) than other causes (see Differentials).15 In a prospective study of 1184 patients with pericarditis, Sagrista-Sauldea et al reported that 6.9% of 218 patients with tamponade had confirmed effusive-constrictive pericarditis.14
* The mortality of effusive-constrictive disease is directly related to its etiology. For example, patients with metastatic carcinoma in the pericardial space usually have a prognosis much poorer than that of patients with postviral or idiopathic pericardial effusion with constriction.
* Constrictive physiology increases the risk of morbidity, but no definitive statistics are available.
* Noncardiac metastatic effusions are often end-stage, with reported mortality rates of 47% and 80% at 3 and 6 months, respectively.
No reported racial predilection exists.
No reported sex predilection exists.
Since the incidences of many of the diseases that can cause effusive-constrictive pericarditis occur more frequently in older age groups, an age association exists. However, this disease can affect people of any age.
* Symptoms of effusive-constrictive pericarditis can be hard to interpret but may include atypical or typical chest pain, chest heaviness, or pressure.
* Other symptoms include dyspnea on exertion, fatigability, or peripheral edema.
* Many patients are asymptomatic until the advanced stages of disease. In more severe cases, impaired mental status may be evident as a result of decreased cardiac output.
* Specific etiologies of effusive-constrictive pericarditis may have characteristic antecedent histories that may suggest pericardial disease (eg, tuberculosis, renal failure, malignancy, radiation therapy, cardiovascular surgery).2
* Physical findings may be a continuum, including findings common with cardiac tamponade (see Cardiac Tamponade).16
* Findings may include hypotension, jugular venous distension, and diminished heart sounds (classic Beck triad).
* Other common findings may include pulsus paradoxus (paradoxical pulse), jugular venous pulse with a prominent x descent and absent y descent, tachycardia, tachypnea, hepatomegaly, ascites, peripheral edema, pleural effusion (in the absence of left-sided congestive signs), renal dysfunction, liver dysfunction and/or auscultation of a pericardial friction rub.
* The classic description of percussible cardiac dullness at the apex may be unreliable.
* Careful attention to all physical findings is required to find clues as to the underlying etiology of the pericardial disease.
Because effusive-constrictive pericarditis is rare, the differential diagnosis is guided by few published series and case reports (see Pericarditis, Constrictive). Effusive-constrictive pericarditis likely occurs at any point along a clinical continuum, from the occurrence of an effusion to the development of chronic pericardial constriction.
* Leading causes
o Idiopathic factors
o Irradiation
o Cardiac surgery
o Neoplasm - Most commonly lung, breast, or hematologic
o Infectious disease - Particularly in immunocompromised states (most commonly tuberculosis and fungal, although streptococcus species have been reported)17,18
o Myocardial infiltration
o Connective tissue disease
o Uremia
* The etiology can often be suspected from the clinical setting in which the effusion occurs.
* The differential diagnosis of effusive-constrictive pericarditis requires a consideration of all the causes for pericardial effusions and pericardial tamponade and then a determination if the particular patient has constrictive physiology.
Pericarditis, Constrictive
The thousand mysteries around us would not trouble but interest us, if only we had cheerful, healthy hearts.
If we all had healthy hearts, the mysteries of the heart would not trouble us; however, constrictive pericarditis certainly has been a mystery and remains a diagnostic challenge to this day.
The history of constrictive pericarditis is replete with some of the most famous names in medicine. Richard Lower described a patient with dyspnea and an intermittent pulse in 1669. Lancisi first reported on the constrictive syndrome in 1828. Corrigan described the pericardial knock in 1842. Kussmaul described his sign and the associated paradoxical pulse in 1873.1,2,3
Constrictive pericarditis has symptoms that overlap a variety of diseases as diverse as myocardial infarction, aortic dissection, pneumonia, influenza, and connective tissue disorders. This overlap can confuse the most skilled diagnostician. An increased suspicion for constriction helps move it to the top of the broad differential diagnosis and provides for a correct diagnosis and timely therapy.
Constrictive pericarditis occurs when a thickened fibrotic pericardium, of whatever cause, impedes normal diastolic filling. This usually involves the parietal pericardium, although it can involve the visceral pericardium (see Pericarditis, Constrictive-Effusive). Acute and subacute forms of pericarditis (which may or may not be symptomatic) may deposit fibrin, which may, in turn, evoke a pericardial effusion. This often leads to pericardial organization, chronic fibrotic scarring, calcification, and restricted cardiac filling.4
The classic diagnostic conundrum of constrictive pericarditis is the difficulty in distinguishing it from restrictive cardiomyopathy (see Cardiomyopathy, Restrictive) and other syndromes associated with elevated right-sided pressures that all share similar symptoms, physical findings, and hemodynamics. Although obtaining a careful history and performing a physical examination remain the cornerstones of evaluation, technologic advances have facilitated diagnosis, particularly with the appropriate use of Doppler echocardiography, high-resolution computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and invasive hemodynamic measurement.
The normal pericardium is composed of 2 layers: the tough fibrous parietal pericardium and the smooth visceral pericardium. Usually, approximately 50 mL of fluid (plasma ultrafiltrate) is present in the intrapericardial space to minimize friction during cardiac motion.5
Acute and subacute forms of pericarditis (which may or may not be symptomatic) may deposit fibrin, which may, in turn, evoke a pericardial effusion. This often leads to pericardial organization, chronic fibrotic scarring, and calcification, most often involving the parietal pericardium (see Pericarditis, Constrictive-Effusive).6
This thickened fibrotic pericardium, regardless of cause, impedes normal late diastolic filling, distinguishing constrictive from restrictive pericarditis. Since the myocardium is unaffected, early ventricular filling during the first third of diastole is unimpeded, but afterwards, the stiff pericardium affects flow and hemodynamics. In other words, the ventricular pressure decreases rapidly early (producing a steep y descent on right atrial pressure waveform tracings) and then increases abruptly to a level that is sustained until systole ("dip-and-plateau waveform" or "square root sign" seen on right or left ventricular pressure waveform tracings).7
The clinical symptoms and classic hemodynamic findings can be explained by early rapid diastolic filling and elevation and equalization of the diastolic pressures in all of the cardiac chambers restricting late diastolic filling, leading to venous engorgement and decreased cardiac output, all secondary to a confining pericardium.
United States
Similar to many diseases that in the past were predominantly infectious in origin, the clinical spectrum of constrictive pericarditis has changed in recent years. Approximately 9% of patients with acute pericarditis for any reason go on to develop constrictive physiology.8 T he true frequency is therefore dependent on the incidence of the specific causes of pericarditis, but since acute pericarditis is only clinically diagnosed in 1 in 1,000 hospital admissions, the frequency of a diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis is less than 1 in 10,000 hospital admissions.
In the developing world, infectious etiologies remain more prominent (tuberculosis has the highest total incidence).
* Scant data exist because the disease is rare.
* The underlying disease usually determines the prognosis. Poorer prognoses are associated with malignancy and New York Heart Association (NYHA) class III or IV heart failure symptoms.
* Long-term survival after pericardiectomy depends on the underlying cause. Of common causes, idiopathic constrictive pericarditis has the best prognosis (88% survival at 7 years), followed by constriction due to cardiac surgery (66% at 7 years). The worst postpericardiectomy prognosis occurs in postradiation constrictive pericarditis (27% survival at 7 years). This likely represents confounding comorbidities. Predictors of poor outcomes in patients who undergo pericardiectomy including history of prior radiation, worsening renal function, pulmonary hypertension, systolic heart failure, hyponatremia, and advanced age.9
* No race predilection exists for this disorder.
* Most likely a male predominance exists, with a male-to-female ratio of 3:1 in some studies.
* Cases have been reported in persons aged 8-70 years. Predilection is likely reflective of the underlying disease.
* Historical studies suggest a median age of 45 years, while more recent studies suggest a median age of 61 years. This likely reflects a demographic change that is likely to continue.
* Constrictive pericarditis presents with a myriad of symptoms, making a diagnosis based solely on clinical history virtually impossible. Additionally, these symptoms may develop slowly over a number of years such that patients may not be aware of all of their symptoms until questioned.
* Dyspnea tends to be the most common presenting symptom and occurs in virtually all patients. Fatigue and orthopnea are common.
* Lower-extremity edema and abdominal swelling and discomfort are other common symptoms. Nausea, vomiting, and right upper quadrant pain, if present, are thought to be due to hepatic congestion, bowel congestion, or both.
* The initial history may be more compatible with liver disease (cryptogenic cirrhosis) than with pericardial constriction because of the predominance of findings related to the venous system.
* Chest pain, presumably due to active inflammation, may be present, although this is observed in a minority of patients.
* General findings
o In the early stages, physical findings may be subtle, requiring close examination to avoid missing the diagnosis.
o In more advanced stages, the patient may appear ill, with marked muscle wasting, cachexia, or jaundice.
o Constriction should be considered in the presence of otherwise unexplained jugular venous distention, pleural effusion, hepatomegaly, or ascites.
* Cardiovascular findings
o Elevated jugular venous pressures are an almost universal finding.
o Avoid examining the patient only in the supine position because venous pressures may be above the angle of the jaw and inadvertently mistaken for normal.
o Sinus tachycardia is common while the blood pressure is normal or low, depending on the stage of the disease process.
o The apical impulse is often impalpable, and the patient may have distant or muffled heart sounds.
o A pericardial knock, which corresponds with the sudden cessation of ventricular filling early in diastole, occurs in approximately half the cases and may be mistaken for an S3 gallop. However, a knock is of higher frequency than an S3 and occurs slightly earlier in diastole.
o A cardiac murmur is typically not present unless concomitant valvular heart disease or a fibrous band that constricts the right ventricular outflow tract is present.
o Pulsus paradoxicum (paradoxus) is a variable finding and, if present, rarely exceeds 10 mm Hg unless a concomitant pericardial effusion with an abnormally elevated pressure exists.
o The Kussmaul sign (ie, elevation of systemic venous pressures with inspiration) is a common nonspecific finding, but this sign is also observed in patients with right ventricular failure, restrictive cardiomyopathy, right ventricular infarction, and tricuspid stenosis, although, importantly, not in patients with cardiac tamponade.
* Gastrointestinal, pulmonary, and other organ system findings
o Hepatomegaly with prominent hepatic pulsations can be detected in as many as 70% of patients.
o Other signs that result from chronic hepatic congestion include ascites, spider angiomata, and palmar erythema, which can contribute to the common but erroneous diagnosis of primary liver disease.
o Peripheral edema is a common finding, although it may be less prominent in younger patients with competent venous valves.
The varied etiologies of constrictive pericarditis parallel those of acute pericarditis (see Pericarditis, Acute), which is a common precipitant. All forms of pericarditis may eventually lead to pericardial constriction. Generally, these can be broken down by frequency into common, less common, and rare forms. The top 3 causes of constrictive pericarditis are idiopathic (presumably viral), postcardiothoracic surgery, and irradiation therapy, which, according to a recent study, are responsible for 46%, 37%, and 9%, respectively, of cases of constrictive pericarditis (in patients who underwent surgical therapy).9
* The following are common etiologies:
o Idiopathic: In many cases, particularly in developed countries, no antecedent diagnosis can be found. These cases are termed idiopathic. Reports by many authors indicate that a high percentage of idiopathic cases of constrictive pericarditis may be related to previously recognized or unrecognized viral pericarditis. Of the viruses, coxsackievirus A and B, other echoviruses, and adenoviruses are most commonly implicated.8
o Infectious (bacterial): Tuberculosis is the leading cause of constrictive pericarditis in developing nations but represents only a minority of causes in the United States and other developed countries. Bacterial infections that lead to purulent pericarditis are also declining in frequency. In the past, purulent pericarditis associated with pneumococcal pneumonia was the most common presentation of a bacterial source. However, the widespread use of antibiotics has drastically changed the frequency and spectrum of purulent pericarditis such that the most common presentation now occurs following cardiac surgery. An increasing number of gram-positive organisms, including multiple resistant strains of staphylococci, may be isolated. Group A and B streptococci and gram-negative rods (eg, Pseudomonas species, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella species) have also been documented.
o Infectious (viral [see also Idiopathic]): Coxsackievirus, hepatitis, adenovirus, and echovirus.
o Radiation-induced: The long-term effects of thoracic and mediastinal radiation therapy (eg, used in the treatment of hematological, breast, and other malignancies) are being increasingly realized. The common features of radiation-induced cardiac complications stem from microcirculation injury with endothelial damage, capillary rupture, and platelet adhesion. This sets up an inflammatory response, which may either resolve or organize to form adhesions between the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium, which leads to constriction. Generally, radiation-induced constrictive pericarditis presents 5-10 years after radiation therapy and is more likely to present with an associated pericardial effusion. In a study by Bertog in 2004, the median time between radiation and pericardiectomy was 11 years, with a broad range of 2-30 years, which is consistent with other previous studies.9
o Postsurgical: Any operative or invasive (catheterization) procedure in which the pericardium is opened, manipulated, or damaged may invoke an inflammatory response, leading to constrictive pericarditis. The most common example is constrictive pericarditis in the setting of previous coronary artery bypass grafting.
* The following are less common etiologies:
o Infectious (fungal): Fungal infections are an uncommon source of constrictive pericarditis in patients who are immunocompetent. Nocardia species can be causative organisms, especially in endemic areas such as the Ohio Valley. Aspergillus, Candida, and Coccidioides species are important pathogens in patients infected with HIV and in other immunocompromised hosts.
o Neoplasms: Malignant involvement may also manifest as pericardial effusion (with or without tamponade) or as an encased heart with thickening of both visceral and parietal layers, resulting in constrictive physiology. Although many types of neoplasms have been reported, breast and lung carcinomas and lymphomas are the most common metastatic malignancies associated with constrictive pericarditis. Other malignancies that involve the pericardium with relative frequency include melanoma and mesothelioma.
o Uremia: Constrictive pericarditis may develop in association with long-term hemodialysis.
o Connective tissue disorders: Autoimmune disorders that involve the pericardium are not unusual, typically manifesting as a small pericardial effusion or as an episode of acute pericarditis. Chronic pericardial involvement is less common but can occur in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, usually associated with the presence of subcutaneous nodules. Systemic lupus erythematosus and scleroderma also may lead to constrictive pericarditis, and, in the latter, this carries a poor prognosis.
o Drug-induced: Procainamide and hydralazine have been reported to cause constrictive pericarditis through a drug-induced lupuslike syndrome. Methysergide therapy also has been implicated as a cause of constrictive pericarditis.
o Trauma: Although uncommon, both blunt and penetrating trauma to the chest wall have been reported to cause constrictive pericarditis, presumably through an inflammatory mechanism.
o Myocardial infarction: Postmyocardial infarction constrictive pericarditis has been reported. The patient typically has a history of Dressler syndrome or hemopericardium after thrombolytic therapy.
* The following are rare etiologies:
o Toxic or metabolic: Uremia with chronic hemodialysis can lead to constrictive pericarditis and is usually associated with a pericardial effusion.
o Intrapericardial instrumentation: Constrictive pericarditis after implantation of an epicardial pacemaker or automated implantable cardiac defibrillator is a rare but reported phenomenon.
o Hereditary: Mulibrey nanism is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by multiple abnormalities, including dwarfism, constrictive pericarditis, abnormal fundi, and fibrous dysplasia of the long bones.
o Chemical trauma: Constrictive pericarditis following sclerotherapy for esophageal varices is rare.
o Chylopericardium: This is a rare cause of constrictive pericarditis.
Aortitis is literally inflammation of the aorta, and it is representative of a cluster of large-vessel diseases that have various or unknown etiologies. While inflammation can occur in response to any injury, including trauma, the most common known causes are infections or connective tissue disorders. Infections can trigger a noninfectious vasculitis by generating immune complexes or by cross-reactivity. The etiology is important because immunosuppressive therapy, the main treatment for vasculitis, could aggravate an active infectious process.
Inflammation of the aorta can cause aortic dilation, resulting in aortic insufficiency. Also, it can cause fibrous thickening and ostial stenosis of major branches, resulting in reduced or absent pulses, low blood pressure in the arms, possibly with central hypertension due to renal artery stenosis. Depending on what other vessels are involved, ocular disturbances, neurological deficits, claudication, and other manifestations of vascular impairment may accompany this disorder.
Agents known to infect the aorta include Neisseria (eg, gonorrhea), tuberculosis, Rickettsia (eg, Rocky Mountain spotted fever) species, spirochetes (eg, syphilis), fungi (eg, aspergillosis, mucormycosis), and viruses (eg, herpes, varicella-zoster, hepatitis B, hepatitis C).
Immune disorders affecting the aorta include Takayasu arteritis, giant cell arteritis, polyarteritis nodosa, Behcet disease, Cogan syndrome, sarcoidosis, spondyloarthropathy, serum sickness, cryoglobulinemia, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, Henoch-Schönlein purpura, and postinfectious or drug-induced immune complex disease.
Also, anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody (ANCA) can affect the large vessels, as in Wegener granulomatosis, polyangiitis, and Churg-Strauss syndrome. Other antibodies such as anti-glomerular basement membrane (ie, Goodpasture syndrome) and anti-endothelial (ie, Kawasaki disease) also can be culprits. Transplant rejection, inflammatory bowel diseases, and paraneoplastic vasculitis also may afflict the large vessels.
The cause or causes of giant cell or temporal arteritis, Takayasu arteritis, and polyarteritis nodosa are unknown.
The disease has 3 phases. Phase I is the prepulseless inflammatory period characterized by nonspecific systemic symptoms including low-grade fever, fatigue, arthralgia, and weight loss. Phase II involves vascular inflammation associated with pain (eg, carotidynia) and tenderness over the arteries. Phase III is the fibrosis stage, with predominant ischemic symptoms and signs secondary to dilation, narrowing, or occlusion of the proximal or distal branches of the aorta. Bruits frequently are heard, especially over carotid arteries and the abdominal aorta. The extremities become cool, and pain develops with use (ie, arm or leg claudication). Even in phase III, a significant number of patients seem to have insidious vascular inflammation, which has been demonstrated in surgical specimens and postmortem series.
In advanced cases, occlusion of the vessels to the extremities may result in ischemic ulcerations or gangrene, and with the involvement of cerebral arteries, strokes can occur. Because of the chronic nature of the disease, however, collateral circulation usually develops in the areas involved by vasculitis.
Pathologic changes involved in Takayasu arteritis are the same as for giant cell arteritis. Involved vessel walls develop irregular thickening and intimal wrinkling. Early in the disease, mononuclear infiltration with perivascular cuffing is seen. That extends to the media, followed by granulomatous changes and patches of necrosis and scarring (fibrosis) of all layers, especially the intima. Late stages have lymphocytic infiltration.
The distinction between Takayasu and giant cell arteritis is primarily the clinical pattern of vessels involved. Giant cell arteritis commonly involves the temporal artery, whereas Takayasu arteritis primarily involves the aorta, its main branches, and, in 50% of cases, the pulmonary artery. The initial vascular lesions frequently occur in or at the origin of the left subclavian artery, which can cause weakened radial pulse and easy fatigability in the left arm. As the disease progresses, the left common carotid, vertebral, brachiocephalic, right-middle or proximal subclavian, right carotid, and vertebral arteries, as well as the aorta, also are affected, as well as retinal vessels.
When the abdominal aorta and its branches, eg, the renal arteries, are involved, central hypertension may develop. Accurate blood pressure measurement may be difficult because of arterial lesions affecting supply to the extremities.
Varying degrees of narrowing and occlusion or dilation of involved portions of the arteries result in a wide variety of symptoms.
United States
In the United States and Europe, incidence is 1-3 new cases per year per million population. In a cohort of 1204 surgical aortic specimens described by Rojo-Leyva et al1 , 168 (14%) had inflammation and 52 (4.3%) were classified as having idiopathic aortitis. Among 383 individuals with thoracic aortic aneurysms, 12% had idiopathic aortitis.
Vasculitis has a worldwide distribution, with the greatest prevalence among Asians. An extensive epidemiological study conducted in Japan in 1984 identified 20 cases per million population. In 1990, Takayasu arteritis was added to the list of intractable diseases maintained by the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare; by the year 2000, 5000 patients were registered (the reported prevalence increased 2.5-fold).
The 2 major predictors of poor outcome are complications (eg, Takayasu retinopathy, hypertension, aortic regurgitation, aneurysm) and progressive course.
* Patients with no complications or with mild to moderately severe complications have a 10-year survival rate of 100% and a 15-year survival rate of 93-96%. With notable complications or progression, the 10-year survival rate is 80-90% and the 15-year survival rate is 66-68 %.
* The occurrence of both a major complication and progressive course predicts the worst outcome (43% survival rate at 15 y).
Vasculitis is most common among women of reproductive age (female cases outnumber male at a ratio of 9:1).
Aortitis is most commonly discovered at age 10-40 years.
In 1905, at the 12th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Ophthalmology Society, Mikito Takayasu, an ophthalmologist, described a 21-year-old Japanese woman with a peculiar retinal arteriovenous anastomosis. At the same meeting, Onishi described a patient with similar funduscopic findings and absence of radial pulses. Giovan B. Morgagni, an Italian pathologist, reported the first case with signs and symptoms consistent with Takayasu arteritis. In 1948, Shimizu and Sano described a condition characterized by absent pulses, peripapillary arteriovenous anastomosis of the retina, and accelerated carotid sinus reflex, which they called pulseless disease. The name "Takayasu's disease" was applied by Caccamis in 1954, and that eponym held.
* Vanoli et al2 reported a study of 104 Italian patients (91 female, 13 male) with Takayasu arteritis. Median delay in diagnosis was 15.5 months. The main clinical features and laboratory findings were arterial bruit (90%), decreased or absent pulse (85%), blood pressure deference over 10 mm Hg (70%), claudication of extremities (45%), hypertension (40%), asthenia (50%), fever (30%), arthralgia/arthritis (25%), weight loss over 5 kg (20%), headache (20%), erythrocyte sedimentation rate greater than 30 mm/hr (85%), anemia (60%), and leukocytosis (20%). Vascular involvement based on full aortography revealed involvement of the left subclavian (65%), right subclavian (52%), left carotid (44%), abdominal aorta (39%), and right carotid (36%).
* Many patients have ischemia of the upper extremities that may manifest as arm claudication or numbness at the time of disease recognition. Claudication of the lower limbs is less common as a presenting symptom.
* Hall et al3 reported arthralgias or myalgias in about one half of patients at the early stage of disease. Symmetric inflammatory polyarthritides resembling rheumatoid arthritis were observed in 5 of 32 patients. Articular symptoms were either transient or continual for several months or longer. Myalgia sometimes dominates the clinical presentation and may mislead clinicians.
* Neurologic symptoms are generally caused by decreased cerebral blood flow in the carotid and vertebral arteries. Neurologic manifestations include vertigo, syncope, orthostasis, headaches, convulsions, transient ischemic attacks, stroke, and dementia. Seizures are often attributed to hypertensive encephalopathy. Because of central retinal hypoperfusion, visual impairment is most often bilateral and 48% of patients with vertebral artery involvement and 40% with common carotid artery involvement have visual aberrations.
* In a minority of cases (8-18% of pooled series), skin lesions resembling erythema nodosum or pyoderma gangrenosum were found over the legs. Upon biopsy, the lesions frequently showed vasculitis of the small vessels. Erythema nodosum is the predominant dermatologic finding in the United States and Europe, whereas pyoderma gangrenosum is found more frequently in Japan. Raynaud phenomenon has also been reported in 8-14% of patients.
* Angina pectoris occurs as a result of coronary artery ostial narrowing from aortitis or coronary arteritis and can lead to myocardial infarction, heart failure, or sudden death. Congestive heart failure may be caused by valvular disease. Aortic regurgitation that results from dilation of the aortic root is common.
* In cases of documented pulmonary artery involvement, fewer than 25% of patients had related clinical manifestations and only 20% had pulmonary hypertension. Pulmonary symptoms include cough, dyspnea, and hemoptysis.
* Abdominal pain, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal hemorrhage may result from mesenteric artery ischemia, but this is rare.
* Specific arteries that are inflamed may be tender to the touch (eg, carotid, temporal).
Patients frequently appear chronically ill. Mild to moderate fever may be present. Heart rate and rhythm are unaffected. Reduced blood pressure in one or both arms is common. Laterality of blood pressure (ie, a difference between left and right arms greater than 10 mm Hg) suggests vascular obstruction, and the difference may be greater than 30 mm Hg. Maneuvers can distinguish this pressure drop and/or pulse weakness from scalenus anticus syndrome, in which arm elevation and turning of the head are influential.
* Arterial pulse intensity in any of the limbs may be diminished, often asymmetrically. Bruits may be audible over the carotid arteries, abdominal aorta, and sometimes the subclavian and brachial arteries. In a North American study by Kerr et al, bruit was the most common clinical finding (80%), and the most common site was in the carotid vessels (70%). A diastolic decrescendo murmur may signal aortic valve insufficiency. The cardiac apex may be displaced laterally. Rales, edema, liver congestion, elevated venous pressure, and hepatojugular reflux, if present, signify the complication of heart failure.
* Hypertension develops in 33-76% of patients, most frequently resulting from narrowing of the renal artery, but narrowing and decreased elasticity of the aorta and branches also can be exacerbating factors. As narrowing or occlusion may lower the pressure in the arms, all limbs must be checked, and measuring central pressure by catheterization may be required to identify hypertension.
* Synovitis mimicking rheumatoid arthritis may be noticeable over larger joints, such as the knees or wrists, early in the course of disease.
The pathogenesis of Takayasu arteritis has not been elucidated completely. Genetic influences and immunological mechanisms have received the most attention. The associations of Takayasu arteritis with other autoimmune diseases, such as connective tissue diseases and ulcerative colitis, provide clinical support for the importance of autoimmunity in the pathogenesis.
* High titers of anti-endothelial antibodies were detected in patients clinically diagnosed as having Takayasu arteritis.
o In a study of 19 patients by Eichorn et al4 , anti-endothelial antibodies were found in 18, and the titers were approximately 20 times higher than normal. Chauhan et al5 showed that the antibodies are directed against 60-65 kd antigens and may induce expression of endothelial adhesion molecules, cytokine production, and apoptosis.
o The only patient who did not have a positive titer for the antibody had inactive disease. However, whether this antibody is pathogenic or merely an epiphenomenon secondary to the vascular injury remains unclear.
o The presence of elevated anti-cardiolipin antibody titer also has been reported.
* Cell-mediated immunological mechanisms are thought to be of primary importance.
o Histopathologic examination has shown heavily infiltrating cells in all layers of the aorta, including alpha-beta T cells, gamma-delta T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
o In comparison to the cells found in a patient with an atherosclerotic aortic aneurysm, the proportion of gamma-delta T cells (ie, cytotoxic cells) was exceedingly high.
o Enhanced expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules and restricted usage of alpha-beta T-cell receptor genes and gamma-delta T-cell receptor genes in the infiltrating cells suggest the existence of a targeted specific antigen. Gamma-delta T cells can recognize the major histocompatability complex (MHC) class I (MIC) chain-related molecules MICA and MICB, whose expression is known to be increased by stress. The MICA gene was found to be located near the HLA-B gene. MICA-1.2 is strongly associated with Takayasu arteritis, even in the absence of HLA-B52, which is highly prevalent in Japanese patients. Expression of heat shock protein-65, a stress-induced protein, also is increased in the tissue. These findings suggest that unknown stress, such as infection, may trigger the autoimmune process involved in patients with Takayasu arteritis.
Aortic Dissection
Aortic dissection is defined as separation of the layers within the aortic wall. Tears in the intimal layer result in the propagation of dissection (proximally or distally) secondary to blood entering the intima-media space.
This disease was first described long ago (>200 y), but new challenges have arisen since the advent of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. The clinical manifestations are diverse, making the diagnosis difficult and requiring a high clinical index of suspicion.1,2,3
Aortic dissection can be diagnosed premortem or postmortem because many patients die before presentation to the emergency department (ED) or before diagnosis is made in the ED.
Aortic dissection is more common in males than in females, with a male-to-female ratio of 2:1. The condition commonly occurs in persons in the sixth and seventh decades of life.3 Patients with Marfan syndrome present earlier, usually in the third and fourth decades of life.
Aortic dissection. CT scan showing a flap (right ...
Aortic dissection. CT scan showing a flap (right side of image).
Aortic dissection. CT scan showing a flap (center...
Aortic dissection. CT scan showing a flap (center of image).
For more examples of aortic dissection visible on CT scans, see the Multimedia section.
History of the Procedure
Morgagni first described aortic dissection more than 200 years ago. The condition was associated with a high mortality rate before the introduction of the cardiopulmonary bypass in the 1950s, which led to aortic arch repair and construction.
Recent advancements in the field of stent placements and percutaneous aortic fenestrations have further reduced mortality rates. However, despite recent advancements, the mortality rate associated with aortic dissection remains high.1,3
An aortic dissection is a split or partition in the media of the aorta; this split is frequently horizontal or diagonal. An intimal tear connects the media with the aortic lumen, and an exit tear creates a true lumen and a false lumen. The true lumen is lined by intima, and the false lumen is within the media.
Aortic dissection. True lumen and false lumen sep...
Aortic dissection. True lumen and false lumen separated by an intimal flap.
Aortic dissection. True lumen and false lumen sep...
Typically, flow in the false lumen is slower than in the true lumen, and the false lumen often becomes aneurysmal when subjected to systemic pressure. The dissection usually stops at an aortic branch vessel or at the level of an atherosclerotic plaque.
An acute aortic dissection (<2 wk) is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates (highest mortality in the first 7 d) compared with chronic aortic dissection (>2 wk), which has a better prognosis.
In the United States, aortic dissection is an uncommon disease. The true prevalence of aortic dissection is difficult to estimate, and most estimates are based on autopsy studies. Evidence of aortic dissection is found in 1-3% of all autopsies (1 in 350 cadavers). The incidence of aortic dissection is estimated to be 5-30 cases per 1 million people per year. Aortic dissection occurs once per 10,000 patients admitted to the hospital; approximately 2,000 new cases are reported each year in the United States.4
* Arterial hypertension:3 Of patients with aortic dissection, 70% have elevated blood pressure.
* Aortic dilatation and wall thinning: Aortic aneurysm is defined as a pathologic dilatation of a segment of a blood vessel. A true aneurysm involves all 3 layers of the aortic wall.
* Iatrogenic: Aortic dissection can be caused by cardiac surgery, including aortic and mitral valve replacements, coronary artery bypass graft surgery, or percutaneous catheter placement (eg, cardiac catheterization, percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty). Aortic dissection occurs when the layers are split in the process of cannulation or aortotomy.
* Aortic atherosclerosis: Factors include cystic medial necrosis and aortic medial disease.
* Congenital aortic valve anomalies: These may include unicommissural or bicuspid aortic valves or aortic coarctation.
* Marfan syndrome
* Advanced age
* Pregnancy
* Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
* Syphilitic aortitis
* Deceleration injury possibly with related chest trauma
* Aortic arch hypoplasia
* Cocaine use
The aortic wall is continuous and is exposed to high pulsatile pressure and shear stress (the steep slope of the pressure curve, ie, the water hammer effect), making the aorta particularly prone to injury and disease from mechanical trauma. The aorta is more prone to rupture than any other vessel, especially with the development of aneurysmal dilatation, because its wall tension, as governed by the Laplace law (proportional to the product of pressure and radius), is intrinsically high.
An intimal tear connects the media with the aortic lumen, and an exit tear creates a true lumen and a false lumen. The true lumen is lined by intima, and the false lumen is lined by media. The true lumen is frequently smaller than the false lumen, but not invariably. The false lumen is indeed within the media, but suggesting that it is "lined" with it is misleading; if the aortic dissection becomes chronic, the lining becomes a serosal pseudointima. Typically, flow in the false lumen is slower than flow in the true lumen, and the false lumen often becomes aneurysmal when subjected to systemic pressure.
Aortic dissection. True lumen versus false lumen ...
Aortic dissection. True lumen versus false lumen in an intimal flap.
Aortic dissection. True lumen versus false lumen ...
The dissection usually stops at an aortic branch vessel or at the level of an atherosclerotic plaque. Most classic aortic dissections begin at 1 of 3 distinct anatomic locations, including (1) the aortic arch, (2) approximately 2.2 cm above the aortic root, or (3) distal to the left subclavian artery.
Ascending aortic involvement may result in death from wall rupture, hemopericardium and tamponade, occlusion of the coronary ostia with myocardial infarction, or severe aortic insufficiency. The nervi vascularis (ie, bundles of nerve fibers found in the aortic adventitia) are involved in the production of pain.
DeBakey and coworkers classify aortic dissection into 3 types, as follows:
* Type I: The intimal tear occurs in the ascending aorta, but the descending aorta is also involved.
* Type II: Only the ascending aorta is involved.
* Type III: Only the descending aorta is involved.
o Type IIIA involves the descending aorta that originates distal to the left subclavian artery and extends as far as the diaphragm.
o Type IIIB involves the descending aorta below the diaphragm.
The Stanford classification has 2 types, as follows:
* Type A: The ascending aorta is involved (DeBakey types I and II).
* Type B: The descending aorta is involved (DeBakey type III).
This system also helps delineate treatment. Type A dissections usually require surgery, whereas type B dissections are managed medically under most conditions.5
Image A represents a Stanford A or a DeBakey type...
Image A represents a Stanford A or a DeBakey type 1 dissection. Image B represents a Stanford A or DeBakey type II dissection. Image C represents a Stanford type B or a DeBakey type III dissection. Image D is classified in a manner similar to A but contains an additional entry tear in the descending thoracic aorta. Note that a primary arch dissection does not fit neatly into either classification.
Patients with acute aortic dissection present with the sudden onset of severe and tearing chest pain, although this description is not universal. Some patients present with only mild pain, often mistaken for a symptom of musculoskeletal conditions located in the thorax, groin, or back. Some patients present with no pain.6
The pain of aortic dissection is typically distinguished from the pain of acute myocardial infarction by its abrupt onset, although the presentations of the two conditions overlap to some degree and are easily confused. Aortic dissection can be presumed in patients with symptoms and signs suggestive of myocardial infarction but without classic ECG findings.
Presenting signs and symptoms in acute thoracic aortic dissection include the following:
Anterior chest pain is a manifestation of ascending aortic dissection. Neck or jaw pain is a manifestation of aortic arch dissection. Interscapular tearing or ripping pain is a manifestation of descending aortic dissection.
Neurologic deficits are a presenting sign in up to 20% of cases. Syncope is part of the early course of aortic dissection in approximately 5% of patients and may be the result of increased vagal tone, hypovolemia, or dysrhythmia.6 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) symptoms include hemianesthesia and hemiparesis or hemiplegia.6 Altered mental status is also reported. Other causes of syncope or altered mental status include (1) CVA from compromised blood flow to the brain or spinal cord or (2) ischemia from interruption of blood flow to the spinal arteries.
Patients with peripheral nerve ischemia can present with numbness and tingling in the extremities, limb paresthesias, pain, or weakness.
Horner syndrome is caused by interruption in the cervical sympathetic ganglia and manifests as ptosis, miosis, and anhidrosis.
Hoarseness from recurrent laryngeal nerve compression has also been described.
Cardiovascular manifestations involve symptoms and signs suggestive of congestive heart failure6 secondary to acute severe aortic regurgitation or dyspnea, orthopnea, bibasilar crackles, or elevated jugular venous pressure. Signs of aortic regurgitation include bounding pulses, wide pulse pressure, and diastolic murmurs. Hypertension may result from a catecholamine surge or underlying essential hypertension.7,6 Hypotension is an ominous finding and may be the result of excessive vagal tone, cardiac tamponade, or hypovolemia from rupture of the dissection.
Other cardiovascular manifestations include findings suggestive of cardiac tamponade (eg, muffled heart sounds, hypotension, pulsus paradoxus, jugular venous distension); these may be present and must be recognized quickly. Superior vena cava syndrome can result from compression of the superior vena cava from a large, distorted aorta. Wide pulse pressure and pulse deficit or asymmetry of peripheral pulses is reported. Patients with right coronary artery ostial dissection may present with acute myocardial infarction, commonly inferior myocardial infarction. Pericardial friction rub may occur secondary to pericarditis.
Respiratory symptoms can include dyspnea and hemoptysis if dissection ruptures into the pleura or if tracheal or bronchial obstruction has occurred. Physical findings of a hemothorax may be found if the dissection ruptures into the pleura.
GI symptoms include dysphagia, flank pain, and/or abdominal pain. Dysphagia may occur from compression of the esophagus. Flank pain may be present if the renal artery is involved. Abdominal pain may be present if the dissection involves the abdominal aorta.
Other nonspecific clinical presentations include fever or anxiety and premonitions of death.8
Emergent surgical correction is the preferred treatment for the following classifications of aortic dissection:
* Stanford type A (DeBakey type I and II) ascending aortic dissection
* Complicated Stanford type B (DeBakey type III) aortic dissections with clinical or radiological evidence of the following conditions:
o Propagation (increasing aortic diameter)
o Increasing size of hematoma
o Compromise of major branches of the aorta
o Impending rupture
o Persistent pain despite adequate pain management
o Bleeding into the pleural cavity
o Development of saccular aneurysm
Relevant Anatomy
From outside to inside, the aorta is composed of the intima, media, and adventitia. The intima, the innermost layer, is thin, delicate, lined by endothelium, and easily traumatized.
The media is responsible for imparting strength to the aorta and is composed of laminated but intertwining sheets of elastic tissue. The arrangement of these sheets in a spiral provides the aorta with its maximum allowable tensile strength. The aortic media contains very little smooth muscle and collagen between the elastic layers and thus has increased distensibility, elasticity, and tensile strength. This contrasts with peripheral arteries, which, in comparison, have more smooth muscle and collagen between the elastic layers.
The outermost layer of the aorta is adventitia. This largely consists of collagen. The vasa vasorum, which supplies blood to the outer half of the aortic wall, lies within the adventitia. The aorta does not have a serosal layer.
The aorta plays an integral role in the forward circulation of the blood in diastole. During left ventricular contraction, the aorta is distended by blood flowing from the left ventricle, and kinetic energy from the ventricle is transformed into potential energy stored in the aortic wall. During recoil of the aortic wall, this potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, propelling aortic lumen blood into the periphery.
The volume of blood ejected into the aorta, the compliance of the aorta, and resistance to blood flow are responsible for the systolic pressures within the aorta. Resistance is mainly due to the tone of the peripheral vessels, although the inertia exerted by the column of blood during ventricular systole also plays a small part.
The aorta has thoracic and abdominal regions. The thoracic aorta is divided into the ascending, arch, and descending segments; the abdominal aorta is divided into suprarenal and infrarenal segments.
The ascending aorta is the anterior tubular portion of the thoracic aorta from the aortic root proximally to the innominate artery distally. The ascending aorta is 5 cm long and is made up of the aortic root and an upper tubular segment. The aortic root consists of the aortic valve, sinuses of Valsalva, and left and right coronary arteries. The aortic root extends from the aortic valve to the sinotubular junction. The aortic root supports the base of the aortic leaflets and allows the 3 sinuses of Valsalva to bulge outward, facilitating the full excursion of the leaflets in systole. The left and right coronary arteries arise from these sinuses.
The upper tubular segment of the ascending aorta starts at the sinotubular junction and ends at the beginning of the aortic arch. The ascending aorta lies slightly to the right of the midline, with its proximal portion in the pericardial cavity. Structures around the aorta include the pulmonary artery anteriorly; the left atrium, right pulmonary artery, and right mainstem bronchus posteriorly; and the right atrium and superior vena cava to the right.
The arch of the aorta curves upward between the ascending and descending aorta. The brachiocephalic arteries originate from the aortic arch. Arteries that arise from the aortic arch carry blood to the brain via the left common carotid, innominate, and left subclavian arteries. Initially, the aortic arch lies slightly left and in front of the trachea and ends posteriorly to the left of the trachea and esophagus. Inferior to the arch is the pulmonary artery bifurcation, the right pulmonary artery, and the left lung. The recurrent laryngeal nerve passes beneath the distal arch, and the phrenic and vagus nerves lie to the left. The junction between the aortic arch and the descending aorta is called the aortic isthmus. The isthmus is a common site for coarctations and trauma.
The descending aorta extends from distal to the left subclavian artery to the 12th intercostal space. Initially, the descending aorta lies in the posterior mediastinum to the left of the course of the vertebral column. It passes in front of the vertebral column in its descent and ends behind the esophagus before passing through the diaphragm at the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra. The abdominal aorta extends from the descending aorta at the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra to the level of bifurcation at the fourth lumbar vertebra. The splanchnic arteries branch from the abdominal aorta. The thoracoabdominal aorta is the combination of the descending thoracic and abdominal aorta.
With increasing age, the elasticity and distensibility of the aorta decline, thus inducing the increase in pulse pressure observed in elderly individuals. The progression of this process is exacerbated in patients with hypertension, coronary artery disease, or hypercholesterolemia. The loss of physiologic distensibility is observed anatomically by fragmentation of elastin and the resultant increase in collagen. This results in an increased collagen-to-elastin ratio. This, along with impairment in flow in the vasa vasorum, may be responsible for the age-related changes. These factors cumulatively lead to increased left ventricular systolic pressure and wall tension with associated increases in end-diastolic pressure and volume.
Cautions and relative contraindications to surgery include the following:
* Cerebrovascular accident
* Severe left ventricular dysfunction
* Coagulopathy
* Pregnancy
* Postmyocardial infarction ( <6 mo)
* Significant arrhythmias
* Advanced age
* Severe valvular disease
Loeffler Endocarditis
Loeffler endocarditis and endomyocardial fibrosis are restrictive cardiomyopathies, defined as diseases of the heart muscle that result in impaired ventricular filling with normal or decreased diastolic volume of either or both ventricles. Systolic function and wall thickness may remain normal, especially early in the disease, as reported by Richardson and associates.1 Both conditions are associated with eosinophilia.
The associations among eosinophilia, active carditis, and multiorgan involvement were first described by Loeffler in 1936.2 Pathologic specimens in Loeffler endocarditis show eosinophilic myocarditis, a tendency toward endomyocardial fibrosis and clinical manifestations of thromboembolism, and acute heart failure.
Eosinophilic states that may occur in association with Loeffler endocarditis include hypereosinophilic syndrome, eosinophilic leukemia, carcinoma, lymphoma, drug reactions or parasites, as reported in multiple case series.
Although eosinophilic endocardial disease has been well described, myocardial and vascular damage due to eosinophilic infiltration and degranulation is rarely diagnosed during life, as reported by Oakley et al and others.3 Herzog et al and Tonnesen et al have proposed that the reason for this situation may be the rapidly fatal evolution of most cases of eosinophilic arteritis and myocarditis.4,5 These conditions are usually diagnosed based on postmortem examination and nonspecificity of clinical manifestations, as reported by Kim et al, Isaka et al, and Seshadri et al.6,7,8
Pathophysiologically, the fibrotic stage of Loeffler endocarditis is very similar to the disease entity described as endomyocardial fibrosis, which is indolent in comparison to Loeffler endocarditis. The tropical form of endomyocardial fibrosis is associated with eosinophilia, a common finding in Loeffler endocarditis.
Endomyocardial damage in Loeffler endocarditis is well known and described in a study by Solley and associates.9 Myocardial involvement is less well known and has been considered a manifestation of an acute necrotic stage of eosinophilic endomyocardial disease, as reported by Olsen and colleagues.10 More recently, cases of isolated eosinophilic myocarditis have been reported without signs of endomyocardial involvement, with or without vasculitis.
Additionally, idiopathic eosinophilic endomyocarditis, in the absence of peripheral eosinophilia, has been reported by Priglinger et al.11
Morphologic abnormalities of eosinophils have been noted in patients with Loeffler endocarditis, suggesting that these eosinophils were mature or stimulated. The intracytoplasmic granular content of activated eosinophils is thought to be responsible for the toxic damage to the heart, as reported by Tai and associates.12 Spry et al reported eosinophilic degranulation of basic proteins causing myocardial damage in tissue cultures in vitro.13 Gliech et al reported a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect of the eosinophilic granular proteins, inhibiting multiple enzyme systems.14
The cationic eosinophilic proteins bind to the anionic endothelial protein, thrombomodulin. This complex impairs anticoagulant activities, leading to enhanced endocardial thrombus formation, as reported by Slungaard and colleagues.15
Toxins released by the eosinophils include eosinophil-derived neurotoxin, cationic protein, major basic protein, reactive oxygen species, and arachidonic acid derivatives. As described by Cunningham et al, these toxins may cause endothelial and myocyte damage, resulting in thrombosis, fibrosis, and infarction.16
The intensity and timing of the active carditis is related closely to the severity of the circulating eosinophilia. Some have suggested that, particularly in the tropics, patients who present with later fibrotic stages of endomyocardial disease may have had either transient earlier bouts of moderate eosinophilia with spontaneous resolution, or only moderate levels of eosinophilia leading to a low-grade endomyocarditis with gradual progressive fibrosis, as reported by Olsen et al.10
Molecular pathophysiology
Cools et al reported a landmark finding by treating patients with hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES) with imatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor.17
* The gene defect is localized to an interstitial chromosomal deletion on chromosome band 4q12, resulting in fusion of the Fip1-like1 (FIP1L1) gene to the platelet-derived growth factor gene alpha (PDGFRA). The protein product of this gene is a tyrosine kinase enzyme that transforms the hematopoietic stem cells. This FIP1L1-PDGFRA fusion gene defect was identified in 9 of 16 patients treated with imatinib.
* This study also highlights the importance of reclassifying HES as a myeloproliferative disorder of a possible single clone based on genotyping, as the FIP1L1-PDGFRA gene rearrangement is a clonal abnormality.
* Treatment with imatinib caused rapid regression of eosinophilic proliferation and endomyocardiopathy in subsequent cases reported by Vandenberghe et al and Rotoli et al.18,19
The following list summarizes the initial clinical presentations of eosinophilic endomyocardial disease in relation to the predominant pathologic stage of the disease as reported by Alderman et al in the Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine.20 Death is usually related to multiorgan dysfunction in the presence of congestive heart failure. (See Medscape's Heart Failure Resource Center.)
The initial clinical presentation and stages of eosinophilic endomyocardial disease are as follows:20
* Necrotic stage (early stage)
o Hypereosinophilia with systemic illness (20-30%)
+ Fever
+ Sweating
+ Chest pain (as described by Bestetti et al21 )
+ Lymphadenopathy
+ Splenomegaly
o Acute carditis (20-50%)
+ Anorexia
+ Weight loss
+ Cough
+ Pulmonary infiltrates
+ Skin and retinal lesion
+ Atrioventricular valve (AV) valve regurgitation
+ Biventricular failure
* Thrombotic stage
o Thrombotic emboli (10-20%)
+ Cerebral, splenic, renal, and coronary infarction
+ Splinter hemorrhages
* Fibrotic stage (late stage)
o Restrictive myopathy (10%)
+ AV valvular regurgitation
+ Right and left heart failure
The image shows dense fibrosis of ventricle in a postmortem dissected heart.
Myocardial as well as valvular involvement with L...
Myocardial as well as valvular involvement with Loffler endocarditis. This image shows dense fibrosis of ventricle in a postmortem dissected heart.
Myocardial as well as valvular involvement with L...
United States
The condition is rare and is seen mostly in immigrants from Africa, Asia, and South America.
Loeffler endocarditis is primarily confined to the rain forest (tropical and temperate) belts of Africa, Asia, and South America.
The literature reports a 35-50% 2-year mortality rate in patients with advanced myocardial fibrosis. Substantially better survival rates may be seen in less symptomatic patients who have milder forms of the disease. As noted, this rate may reflect underdiagnosis of clinically inapparent disease, as for other types of cardiomyopathy.
The condition has a predilection for African and African American populations, notably the Rwanda tribe in Uganda, and for people of low socioeconomic status. Whether this is due to genetic factors or the epidemiology of underlying environmental factors is not known.
Loeffler endocarditis has a predilection for males. However, endomyocardial fibrosis, which has similar clinical manifestations, is found equally frequently in both sexes.
The reported age range is 4-70 years. Loeffler endocarditis particularly affects young males, as does its close counterpart, endomyocardial fibrosis, which is more common in children and young adults.
Patients with Loeffler endocarditis may present with weight loss, fever, cough, rash, and symptoms related to congestive heart failure. Initial cardiac involvement has been reported in about 20-50% of cases; however, cardiac involvement rarely presents with chest pain, as reported by Bestetti et al.21
Signs of biventricular failure (eg, pedal edema, elevated jugulovenous pressure, pulmonary edema, third heart sound [S3] gallop) are commonly seen once congestive heart failure develops.
* Cardiomegaly may be present without overt signs of congestive heart failure.
* Murmur of mitral regurgitation may be present, as reported by multiple authors, including Weller et al.22
* Systemic embolism is frequent and may lead to neurologic and renal dysfunction.
* The Kussmaul sign may be present.
* S 3 gallop may be present, but rarely fourth heart sound (S4).
* Restrictive cardiomyopathy, such as Loeffler endocarditis, is sometimes difficult to differentiate from constrictive pericarditis. Physical signs in constrictive pericarditis that may help differentiate the 2 conditions include a nonpalpable apex (usually), presence of pericardial knock, and usually absent regurgitation murmurs.
* Published case reports highlight presentations with unusual ECG changes mimicking posterior myocardial infarction as described by Maruyoshi et al23 , acute myocardial infarction as described by Mor et al24 , and aortic valve regurgitation secondary to valve fibrosis and fibrotic vegetations on the aortic valve as described by Gudmundsson et al
Sudden Cardiac Death
Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is an unexpected death due to cardiac causes occurring in a short time period (generally within 1 h of symptom onset) in a person with known or unknown cardiac disease. Most cases of SCD are related to cardiac arrhythmias. Approximately half of all cardiac deaths can be classified as SCDs. SCD represents the first expression of cardiac disease in many individuals presenting with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. This article explores the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnostic approach, and treatment of patients who experience SCD.
Interplay of various risk factors that can lead t...
Interplay of various risk factors that can lead t...
United States
Cardiac death, sudden. Plots of mortality rates (...
* Coronary artery disease
o Previous cardiac arrest
o Syncope
o Prior myocardial infarction, especially within 6 months
o Ejection fraction less than 30-35%
o History of frequent ventricular ectopy (more than 10 PVCs per h or nonsustained VT)
* Dilated cardiomyopathy
o Previous cardiac arrest
o Syncope
o Ejection fraction less than 30-35%
o Use of inotropic medications
* Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
o Previous cardiac arrest
o Syncope
o Family history of SCD
o Symptoms of heart failure
o Drop in SBP or ventricular ectopy upon stress testing
o Palpitations
o Most are asymptomatic
* Valvular disease
o Valve replacement within 6 months
o Syncope
o History of frequent ventricular ectopy
o Symptoms associated with severe uncorrected aortic stenosis or mitral stenosis
* Long QT syndrome
o Family history of long QT and SCD
o Medications that prolong the QT interval
o Bilateral deafness
* Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome (with atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter with extremely rapid ventricular rates): With extremely rapid conduction over an accessory pathway, degeneration to VF can occur.
* Brugada syndrome, arrhythmogenic right ventricular (RV) cardiomyopathy/dysplasia, and others
* Clinical characteristic points
o ED SBP greater than 90 mm Hg = 1 point
o ED SBP less than 90 mm Hg = 0 points
o Time to ROSC less than 25 minutes = 1 point
o Time to ROSC more than 25 minutes = 0 points
o Neurologically responsive = 1 point
o Comatose = 0 point
o Maximum score = 3 points
* Patients with a score of 3 points can be expected to have an 89% chance of neurologic recovery and an 82% chance of survival to discharge (see Media file 3).
Cardiac death, sudden. Figure a shows neurologic ...
Cardiac death, sudden. Figure a shows neurologic ...
Ischemic heart disease
Nonischemic cardiomyopathies
* Dilated cardiomyopathy
* Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
* Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy
Cardiac death, sudden. Epsilon wave in a patient ...
Valvular disease
Other valvular lesions
Congenital heart disease
o Tetralogy of Fallot
o Transposition of the great arteries
o Fontan operation
o Aortic stenosis
o Marfan syndrome
o Mitral valve prolapse
o Hypoplastic left heart syndrome
o Eisenmenger syndrome
o Congenital heart block
o Ebstein anomaly
o Kawasaki syndrome
o DCM or myocarditis
o Congenital coronary artery abnormalities
o Arrhythmogenic RV cardiomyopathy
o Long QT syndrome
o WPW syndrome
o Primary ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation
o Primary pulmonary hypertension
Primary electrophysiologic abnormalities
* Long QT syndrome
* Acquired long QT syndrome
o Electrolyte abnormalities that cause acquired long QT syndrome include hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and hypocalcemia.
* Short QT syndrome
* Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome
Cardiac death, sudden. Ventricular fibrillation a...
Cardiac death, sudden. Ventricular fibrillation a...
* Brugada syndrome
o Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia
* Primary ventricular fibrillation occurs in a structurally normal heart due to idiopathic etiology.
* Right ventricular outflow tract ventricular tachycardia
Other causes of sudden death
Two major causes of sudden cardiopulmonary death deserve mention.
Jual Rumah Kontrakan 2 Pintu
Jual Rumah Kontrakan 2 Pintu
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1:55 pm
Tue August 5, 2014
Detroit's honey bees offer lesson in working together
In urban areas, the importance of honey bees to a city’s neighborhoods and communities often gets overlooked. But in Detroit, honey bees are crucial to the city’s rebirth, says Joan Mandell. Mandell operates Green Toe Gardens, which has more than 100 beehives in community gardens, schools and yards all across the Detroit metropolitan area. Not only do bees help pollinate many plant species in Detroit, says Mandell, but their collective behavior could also serve as an example of how to work together for a common good. Current State’s Hannah Meiklejohn reports.
Related Program
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bradwell, sk
Experts at the Royal Saskatchewan Museum have confirmed that workers at a gravel pit found a bone from a wooly mammoth.
The discovery was near Bradwell, Sask., about 35 kilometres southeast of Saskatoon in July.
"This was a fairly good portion of the bone," the museum's Harold Bryant told CBC Radio Host Stefani Langenegger Thursday. "It is a mammoth's tibia ... a part of the hind limb."
Bryant said the fragment is mostly the shaft of the bone, minus the ends.
"It's not crushed, it's quite nicely preserved. Often the bones are mashed up."
A staff member at the museum went to see what else might be in the pit, but did not immediately find more.
Bryant said if the gravel pit is used, again, people have been asked to keep an eye out for more fossils.
A wooly mammoth bone was found in a gravel near Bradwell, Sask. (Royal Saskatchewan Museum/Facebook)
The 22 kilogram bone is estimated to be between 30,000 to 100,000 years old.
"Anytime we can find a new bone it can tell a little bit more about that animal," Bryant said. For instance, measurements of the bone can lead to approximations for the size of the entire animal.
"Our primary goal right now is to preserve the bone," he said. After that it will form part of the museum's collection, which could lead to its being on display at some point.
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The extraordinary run of blockbuster rulings expected in the space of a single week also will reshape the meaning of legal equality and help define for decades to come one of the Constitution's grandest commands: "the equal protection of the laws."
Concepts of equality
But such rulings are hard to reconcile with the historical meaning of the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause, adopted after the Civil War and meant to protect newly freed black slaves. It would be odd, said David Strauss, a law professor at the University of Chicago, for that amendment to helps gays but not blacks.
Texas case
Consider the case of Abigail Fisher, a white woman denied admission to the University of Texas. She contends that UT should not classify people on the basis of race because that violates a colorblind conception of the Constitution's equal protection clause.
Defenders of the university's affirmative action program say the purpose of the classification must figure in the equal protection analysis.
"What we're really trying to do is try to make sure there aren't castes in our society, and we will try to lift up castes," explained Kenji Yoshino, a law professor at New York University.
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Proper Preparation of a Peripheral Blood Smear - UMC
Hematology Laboratory: Proper Preparation of a Peripheral Blood Smear
Slide Staining with Wright's Stain
Proper Preparation of a Peripheral Blood Smear
At the completion of this laboratory, the student will be able to:
1. State the appropriate sample used for preparing a peripheral blood smear.
2. Describe the appearance of a well prepared blood smear.
3. Demonstrate the appropriate technique for preparing a peripheral blood smear.
4. Evaluate prepared blood smears for acceptability in the clinical laboratory.
Slide Staining with Wright's Stain
1. State the principle of the stain in terms of constituents and component affinity in the cell.
2. Discuss the importance of controlling the pH in terms of problems encountered if the pH is altered.
3. Demonstrate the appropriate technique for staining a blood smear with Wight's stain.
4. Evaluate incorrectly stained smears and offer techniques for correcting the problem(s).
Proper Preparation of a Peripheral Blood Smear
Requirements for Proper Smear Preparation:
1) Perfectly clean glass slides or coverslips
2) Proper size blood drop
3) Quick, smooth spreading of drop
4) Rapid drying of smear
5) Proper placement of drop
6) Preparation of smear within 3 hours of collection
1) Mix sample well, either by inversion or by mechanical rocker. Remove stopper holding tube away
from face. Using two wooden applicator sticks rim the tube and check for fibrin clots.
2) Holding a 1 X 3 inch slide in your left hand by the short side, place a 2-3 mm drop of mixed whole
blood about 1/4 inch from the right side of the slide, utilizing the wooden applicator sticks held in the
right hand. Alternate Method: Leave slide on a flat surface.
3. Place the slide containing the drop of blood on a flat surface and hold securely.
4. Grasp a second slide (spreader slide) in the right hand between thumb and forefinger.
5. Place the spreader slide onto the lower slide in front of the blood drop, and pull the slide back until it
touches the drop.
6. Allow the blood to spread by capillary action almost to the edges of the lower slide.
7. Push the spreader slide forward at approximately a 30 degree angle, using a rapid, even motion. The
weight of the spreader slide should be the only weight applied. Do NOT press down. Perform this
step quickly. The drop of blood must be spread within seconds or the cell distribution will be uneven.
Characteristics of a Good Smear
1) Thick at one end, thinning out to a smooth rounded feather edge.
2) Should occupy 2/3 of the total slide area.
3) Should not touch any edge of the slide.
4) Should be margin free, except for point of application.
Adjustment of the Smear Length
Increasing the angle of the spreader slide will decrease the length of the smear. Decreasing the angle will
increase the smear length.
Slide Staining with Wright's Stain
Wright's stain is a Romanowsky type metachromatic stain made by mixing old or specially treated
methylene blue dye with eosin in a methanol diluent. Basic components of the cell, such as hemoglobin or
certain inclusions or granules, will unite with the acidic portion of the stain, eosin, and are said to be
eosinophilic. These components are stained varying shades of pink or red. Acidic cell components, such
as nucleic acids, reactive cytoplasm, etc. take up the basic dye components, methylene azure, and stain
blue or purple. pH must be carefully controlled through the use of a buffer of 6.4-6.7. If the pH is too
acidic the stain will take on a pinkish tint, and nuclear structures will be poorly stained. A basic pH will
cause all intracellular structures, nuclei, etc. to be blue-black in color, with poorly defined structure.
Procedure: (Drennan, 1991)
1) Prepare a solution of 20 ml Giemsa stain + 240 ml deionized H2O. This must be made fresh daily.
2) Using a Beral pipette, overlay a properly prepared blood smear slide with enough Wright's stain to
completely cover the slide with a layer of stain approximately 1/8" thick. The stain will be held to the
slide by surface tension, and should not run off. Assure that the slide is level and does not touch the
side of the staining rack.
3) After 2 minutes, cover the slide with an equal amount of the Giemsa solution prepared in step 1 above.
Blow gently to mix and watch for metallic sheen to appear. Allow to stand for 4 minutes.
4) After 4 minutes, wash the slide for 30 seconds with distilled water.
4) Allow slide to dry at room temperature before examination.
Too Acid Stain:
1) insufficient staining time
2) prolonged buffering or washing
3) old stain
Correction: 1) lengthen staining time
2) check stain and buffer pH
3) shorten buffering or wash time
Too Alkaline Stain:
1) thick blood smear
2) prolonged staining
3) insufficient washing
4) alkaline pH of stain components
Correction: 1) check pH
2) shorten stain time
3) prolong buffering time
Tuesday, August 21, 2012
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A bear-y good bed time story
Cover page for Little Bear Won't Sleep
Christine Swift, Frank Endersby
In many households with young children, there is the never-ending battle of the inevitable- bed time.
In the opinion of a toddler, bed time is an absolute no-no. Not when there are so many other things to do and see. Who will play with their toys when they sleep? What happens during this mysterious “night,” when the stars come out and the moon is up? And why is it that, even though they’re never tired, they cannot stay up all night?
Christine Swift’s “Little Bear Won’t Sleep!” explores this idea. Through beautiful art by illustrator, Frank Endersby and Swift’s engaging, yet patient narrative, the reader is shown what happens when Little Bear doesn’t go to sleep as he’s told.
Upon his insistence that he can stay awake all night, Mother Bear allows Little Bear to stay awake. He adventures in a world covered with moonlight and discovers a host of animals, such as bats, owls, foxes, and many more who were just waking up.
After exploring and making friends, Little Bear (though he won’t admit it) starts to get sleepy and eventually, falls asleep on a log. A smiling Mother Bear takes him home for the night. When Little Bear wakes up the next morning, he goes to look for his night-time friends, but is disappointed to see that they’re nowhere to be found.
His mother explains that those kinds of animals really do stay up all night, that they don’t come out during the day. Later on, Little Bear’s friends come over and ask if he would like to play, but since he spent so much time awake the night before, Little Bear is taking a nap.
This book is excellent for before-nap or bed time reading. Though much of children’s literature is devoted to trying to get children to sleep, fewer books explore what happens when children stay up longer than they should. It’s important to explain to children (especially if they’re toddler age) why they need their sleep and what will inevitably happen if they don’t get the proper amount of rest.
For more information on “Little Bear Won’t Sleep,” check out this website.
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What Do Recycling Symbols on Plastics Mean?
Your guide to figuring out what those recycling codes on plastics mean.
Plastic Recycling Symbol 1
Sometimes it seems like modern America is one colossal plastic palace. The versatile material is in our cars, toys, packaging, clothing, home goods, food utensils, medical devices and so much more. It is also littering our streets, clogging our waterways and choking marine life. Many plastics can be readily recycled, but how do consumers make sense of all the different types and rules?
Number 1 Plastics
PET or PETE (polyethylene terephthalate)
Recycling: Picked up through most curbside recycling programs.
Plastic Recycling Symbol 2
Number 2 Plastics
HDPE (high density polyethylene)
HDPE is a versatile plastic with many uses, especially for packaging. It carries low risk of leaching and is readily recyclable into many goods.
Plastic Recycling Symbol 3
Number 3 Plastics
V (Vinyl) or PVC
Recycling: Rarely recycled; accepted by some plastic lumber makers.
Recycled into: Decks, paneling, mudflaps, roadway gutters, flooring, cables, speed bumps, mats
PVC is tough and weathers well, so it is commonly used for piping, siding and similar applications. PVC contains chlorine, so its manufacture can release highly dangerous dioxins. If you must cook with PVC, don't let the plastic touch food. Also never burn PVC, because it releases toxins.
Plastic Recycling Symbol 4
Number 4 Plastics
LDPE (low density polyethylene)
LDPE is a flexible plastic with many applications. Historically it has not been accepted through most American curbside recycling programs, but more and more communities are starting to accept it.
Plastic Recycling Symbols 5
Number 5 Plastics
PP (polypropylene)
Found in: Some yogurt containers, syrup bottles, ketchup bottles, caps, straws, medicine bottles
Plastic Recycling Symbol 6
Number 6 Plastics
PS (polystyrene)
Polystyrene can be made into rigid or foam products -- in the latter case it is popularly known as the trademark Styrofoam. Evidence suggests polystyrene can leach potential toxins into foods. The material was long on environmentalists' hit lists for dispersing widely across the landscape, and for being notoriously difficult to recycle. Most places still don't accept it, though it is gradually gaining traction.
Plastic Recycling Symbol 7
Number 7 Plastics
Recycled into: Plastic lumber, custom-made products
• 0
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[438b] “that of relative terms those that are somehow qualified are related to a qualified correlate, those that are severally just themselves to a correlate that is just itself.1” “I don't understand,” he said. “Don't you understand,” said I, “that the greater2 is such as to be greater than something?” “Certainly.” “Is it not than the less?” “Yes.” “But the much greater than the much less. Is that not so?” “Yes.” “And may we add the one time greater than the one time less and that which will be greater than that which will be less?” “Surely.”
1 ὅσα γ᾽ ἐστὶ τοιαῦτα etc.: a palmary example of the concrete simplicity of Greek idiom in the expression of abstract ideas.ὅσα etc. (that is, relative terms) divide by partitive apposition into two classes,τὰ μὲν . . . τὰ δέ. The meaning is that if one term of the relation is qualified, the other must be, but if one term is without qualification, the other is also taken absolutely. Plato, as usual (Cf. on 347 B), represents the interlocutor as not understandiong the first general abstract statement, which he therefore interprets and repeats. I have varied the translation in the repetition in order to bring out the full meaning, and some of the differences between Greek and English idiom.
2 The notion of relative terms is familiar. Cf. Charmides 167 E, Theaetetus 160 A, Symposium 199 D-E, Parmenides 133 C ff., Sophist 255 D, Aristotle Topics vi. 4, and Cat. v. It is expounded here only to insure the apprehension of the further point that the qualifications of either term of the relation are relative to each other. In the Politicus 283 f. Plato adds that the great and small are measured not only in relation to each other, but by absolute standards. Cf. Unity of Plato's Thought, pp. 61, 62, and 531 A.
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Scientist Shows How To Beat Toxic Nanoparticles
May 5, 2010
Dr Amanda Barnard, will receive the Australian Academy of Science’s 2010 Frederick White Prize for her world-leading research into how nanoparticles will react in different environments, which is aimed at guarding the Earth against pollution from a new category of potentially hazardous materials.
Using Australia’s most powerful supercomputer, the National Computation Infrastructure (NCI), Amanda investigates the environmental impact of the new technology by predicting possible hazardous nanoparticles ““ some of which are human-invented and do not occur in nature.
‘It is extremely difficult to predict the exact risks that come with these particles without understanding how people are being exposed to them,’ Dr Barnard says. ‘So, instead our research sets out to predict the possible hazards in a given environment.’
‘This then enables us to choose which nanomaterials are likely to be safest, both for people and the environment. By saying ‘here’s a size and shape that we can focus on’, we can also help mitigate risk of harmful combinations.’
However, their versatility causes them to be inherently unpredictable. Dr Barnard explains that nanoparticles are intrinsically unstable ““ unlike chemical systems where molecules have a fixed number of possible forms, the billions of atoms in a nanoparticle can have billions of possible combinations ““ some of those combinations, when exposed to particular environment, can have undesirable consequences, such as the emission of free radicals that are toxic to humans and other life.
‘Variations in the shapes of nanoparticles mean that some will produce more free radicals than others ““ and so be potentially more harmful. Others can be quite safe. The key is to work out their optimal structures and the different ways to produce them. Some can be produced at higher temperatures to reduce the hazard; others may need different surface coatings.’
This also ensures that our attempts to make nanomaterials safe will not decrease their efficiency ““ the very reason they were developed in the first place. ‘With the predictions, we can reassure industry that the nanomaterials will do what is required of them – and that they will not harm our health or the environment if used in the right quantities and in the right ways.’
Dr Amanda Barnard will give a presentation on her work at the Shine Dome in Canberra on Thursday 6 May 2010 at 12.15pm, as part of the Academy’s annual Science at the Shine Dome meeting. Media are welcome to attend and interview participants.
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Bot is a word that can be used after almost any adjective, verb and proper noun. The word bot is used to mean programmed to be, to perform or to posses only the word preceding bot. If someone is a (insert word) bot, then they are most known for, always doing, always acting like or strongly associated with the the inserted word.
Originally Sting Bot, which means programmed to sting, it was concatinated to just bot to refer to any word that someone seemingly is programmed to do. (See Sting Bot in the urban dictionary for a definition.)
Damn that girl Stacy has slept with the entire football team. She is a slut bot.
That girl has the biggest breast but is completely stupid and boring. She is a Titty Bot.
You spent $20,000 on Cubs gear and game tickets. You are a Cub Bot.
by Popz Productions May 04, 2011
72 more definitions
Top Definition
1. Simple computer program used to perform highly repetitive operations, e.g. trawling websites to collect email addresses.
2. Computer program run concurrently with an online game to give the player an unfair advantage. Bots may alter the game environment, boost the abilities of the player's character or hinder opponents. Writing bots requires a great deal of skill; using them almost none.
"So you're using an aimbot... and he's using an aimbot... if you're both going to cheat, why bother to play?"
"Just to show that I cheat better than him."
by shoggoth August 11, 2003
Things on instant messanger programs that try to act like stupid girls who give you links to pay porn sites. Usually are hella annoying and repeat everything over and over again
Hotchickee45: Hey Guys wanna see me play with myself and my freinds? CLICK HERE! ill be waiting..
xcopcv22: fuck you bot
devilinmypants4: stupid bot
by blackmage53 December 08, 2004
A program that runs autonomously, and which performs repetitive and/or remotely-controlled tasks, from very simple IRC commands to incredibly complex online game manipulation.
A program that behaves and interacts with other programs as if it were a user.
Short for 'robot', specifically a cyber-robot, almost exclusively used on the internet.
I set up a bot to keep spammers out of the e-group.
by Seraph March 17, 2004
Abbreviation: Robots
Battle Bots, Swarm Bots
by LFReD April 15, 2010
Someone who is highly arrogant or up themselves. Constantly boasts about their achievements.
Guy 1: "I'm way too hot for her anyway"
Guy 2: "Bots guy"
by Waaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa July 13, 2010
A derogatory term used to describe a simple process truncated by complicated procedures. Also is used in response to a statement or question that one feels is arbitrary in value or merit.
Person 1: "Johnny, I want you to go send me over a report of all your daily activities, as well as your sales forecast for next week"
Person 2: "Bot"
Person 3: "Johnny, I'm sorry I haven't had time for you today, I was busy watching Lifetime movie marathon."
Person 2: "Bot"
by marshbanks January 12, 2011
That girl has a B.O.T
by Nasty mike January 20, 2011
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Is It Just Snoring, or Sleep Apnea?
We all know a snorer (could be you!). But depending on the symptoms, it could be a more serious threat to your body.
When is snoring just annoying, and when is it a sign of something worse?
Millions of adults snore. Although some find that it isn't an issue in their lives, others report that snoring can be a serious annoyance to family members. For some, it can be so serious that it causes bed partners to sleep separately, leading to marital discord in some couples.
MORE: Sleep Apnea Explained by Dr. Oz & Dr. Roizen
Is It Just Snoring, or Sleep Apnea?
People often snore more when they've gained a few pounds, when they've had alcohol or even sleeping in specific positions. Effective treatments exist for snoring, such as using nasal strips, losing weight, steering clear of alcohol and sedative medications at night, and avoiding sleeping on one’s back. For many, though, these are simply not enough, and snoring is a sign of a more serious sleep disorder: obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).
When we fall asleep, the muscles in our body relax, including the muscles in our throat and airway. Some people have a narrow throat area and when the muscles relax during sleep, the airway can become blocked or further narrowed which leads to pauses in breathing (often longer than 10 seconds at a time!). A pause in breathing is called an apnea and a decrease in airflow during breathing is called a hypopnea. Almost everyone has brief apneas while they sleep, but having multiple apneas and/or hypopneas every hour is cause for concern. The snoring in people with obstructive sleep apnea is caused by the air trying to squeeze through the narrowed or blocked airway
VIDEO: Understanding Sleep Apnea
OSA is reported to affect 3 percent of all women and 5 percent of all men, but these estimates are outdated; the numbers are likely much higher for both women and men given the increasing obesity rates in our society. Although being overweight increases your risk of developing OSA, you don't have to be overweight to have OSA. The most common risk factors for OSA include: male gender, over age 40, having a large neck size (17 inches or more for men and 16 inches or more for women), gastroesophageal reflux, nasal obstruction due to allergies, deviated septum or sinus problems.
Many doctors don't routinely ask about snoring, so it is important to bring this up to your doctor if you have any concerns.
The best three signs of OSA include the three S's: loud snoring, excessive daytime sleepiness, and stops/pauses in breathing observed by someone else. Other symptoms may include: difficulty staying asleep, using the bathroom multiple times per night, waking with a dry mouth, headache or heartburn, and having hard-to-control blood pressure. Talk with your doctor if you have the three "S's" or if you have a combination of any of the above symptoms.
If left untreated, OSA can lead to a number of poor medical outcomes. These include: high blood pressure, heart failure, irregular heart rhythms, stroke, heart attack, diabetes and weight gain. Untreated OSA can lead to excessive daytime sleepiness and problems with attention, concentration and motor functioning. OSA can cause poor work and school performance and can put one at greater risk for motor vehicle crashes. In addition, having OSA can make it harder to do many things one normally enjoys simply because of the increased sleepiness. As a result, many believe that OSA can lead to, or worsen, depression in those who have sleep-related breathing issues. OSA has also been linked to worsening of ADHD.
To properly be diagnosed with OSA, you need to go to a sleep center and be evaluated by a sleep specialist. You’ll likely need a sleep study (either sleeping overnight in a lab or sleeping at home with a special cap on your head) to diagnose OSA. Your doctor will then discuss diagnosis and treatment options.
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