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1955_16
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Cloud-to-ground lightning frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting. Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat. Wildfires can devastate vegetation and the biodiversity of an ecosystem. Wildfires that occur close to urban environments can inflict damages upon infrastructures, buildings, crops, and provide risks to explosions, should the flames be exposed to gas pipes. Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion. In areas with a high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning, like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside.
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1955_17
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Precipitation with low potential of hydrogen levels (pH), otherwise known as acid rain, is also a frequent risk produced by lightning. Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are bases. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals. Nitric oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena, caused by the splitting of nitrogen molecules, can result in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or other solid chemical compounds containing carbon. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in
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1955_18
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bodies of water and in soil, resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms.
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1955_19
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Hail damage to roofs often goes unnoticed until further structural damage is seen, such as leaks or cracks. It is hardest to recognize hail damage on shingled roofs and flat roofs, but all roofs have their own hail damage detection problems. Metal roofs are fairly resistant to hail damage, but may accumulate cosmetic damage in the form of dents and damaged coatings. Hail is also a common nuisance to drivers of automobiles, severely denting the vehicle and cracking or even shattering windshields and windows. Rarely, massive hailstones have been known to cause concussions or fatal head trauma. Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, India. The largest hailstone in terms of diameter and weight ever recorded in the United States fell on July 23, 2010 in Vivian, South Dakota in the United States; it measured in diameter and in circumference, weighing
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1955_20
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in at . This broke the previous record for diameter set by a hailstone diameter and circumference which fell in Aurora, Nebraska in the United States on June 22, 2003, as well as the record for weight, set by a hailstone of that fell in Coffeyville, Kansas in 1970.
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1955_21
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Various hazards, ranging from hail to lightning can affect outside technology facilities, such as antennas, satellite dishes, and towers. As a result, companies with outside facilities have begun installing such facilities underground, in order to reduce the risk of damage from storms.
Substantial snowfall can disrupt public infrastructure and services, slowing human activity even in regions that are accustomed to such weather. Air and ground transport may be greatly inhibited or shut down entirely. Populations living in snow-prone areas have developed various ways to travel across the snow, such as skis, snowshoes, and sleds pulled by horses, dogs, or other animals and later, snowmobiles. Basic utilities such as electricity, telephone lines, and gas supply can also fail. In addition, snow can make roads much harder to travel and vehicles attempting to use them can easily become stuck.
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1955_22
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The combined effects can lead to a "snow day" on which gatherings such as school, work, or church are officially canceled. In areas that normally have very little or no snow, a snow day may occur when there is only light accumulation or even the threat of snowfall, since those areas are unprepared to handle any amount of snow. In some areas, such as some states in the United States, schools are given a yearly quota of snow days (or "calamity days"). Once the quota is exceeded, the snow days must be made up. In other states, all snow days must be made up. For example, schools may extend the remaining school days later into the afternoon, shorten spring break, or delay the start of summer vacation.
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1955_23
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Accumulated snow is removed to make travel easier and safer, and to decrease the long-term effect of a heavy snowfall. This process utilizes shovels and snowplows, and is often assisted by sprinkling salt or other chloride-based chemicals, which reduce the melting temperature of snow. In some areas with abundant snowfall, such as Yamagata Prefecture, Japan, people harvest snow and store it surrounded by insulation in ice houses. This allows the snow to be used through the summer for refrigeration and air conditioning, which requires far less electricity than traditional cooling methods.
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1955_24
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Agriculture
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1955_25
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Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, farmers' crops. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage. Hail is one of Canada's most expensive hazards. Snowfall can be beneficial to agriculture by serving as a thermal insulator, conserving the heat of the Earth and protecting crops from subfreezing weather. Some agricultural areas depend on an accumulation of snow during winter that will melt gradually in spring, providing water for crop growth. If it melts into water and refreezes upon sensitive crops, such as oranges, the resulting ice will protect the fruit from exposure to lower temperatures. Although tropical cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they affect and bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Hurricanes in the eastern north Pacific
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1955_26
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often supply moisture to the Southwestern United States and parts of Mexico. Japan receives over half of its rainfall from typhoons. Hurricane Camille averted drought conditions and ended water deficits along much of its path, though it also killed 259 people and caused $9.14 billion (2005 USD) in damage.
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1955_27
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Aviation
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1955_28
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Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When hail stones exceed in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds. The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft. Strong wind outflow from thunderstorms causes rapid changes in the three-dimensional wind velocity just above ground level. Initially, this outflow causes a headwind that increases airspeed, which normally causes a pilot to reduce engine power if they are unaware of the wind shear. As the aircraft passes into the region of the downdraft, the localized headwind diminishes, reducing the aircraft's airspeed and increasing its sink rate. Then, when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft, the headwind becomes a tailwind, reducing lift generated by the wings, and leaving the aircraft in a low-power, low-speed descent. This can lead to an accident if the aircraft is too low to effect a recovery before ground contact. As the result of
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1955_29
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the accidents in the 1970s and 1980s, in 1988 the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on-board wind shear detection systems by 1993. Between 1964 and 1985, wind shear directly caused or contributed to 26 major civil transport aircraft accidents in the U.S. that led to 620 deaths and 200 injuries. Since 1995, the number of major civil aircraft accidents caused by wind shear has dropped to approximately one every ten years, due to the mandated on-board detection as well as the addition of Doppler weather radar units on the ground. (NEXRAD)
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1955_30
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Recreation
Many winter sports, such as skiing, snowboarding, snowmobiling, and snowshoeing depend upon snow. Where snow is scarce but the temperature is low enough, snow cannons may be used to produce an adequate amount for such sports. Children and adults can play on a sled or ride in a sleigh. Although a person's footsteps remain a visible lifeline within a snow-covered landscape, snow cover is considered a general danger to hiking since the snow obscures landmarks and makes the landscape itself appear uniform.
Notable storms in art and culture
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1955_31
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In mythology and literature
According to the Bible, a giant storm sent by God flooded the Earth. Noah and his family and the animals entered the Ark, and "the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened, and the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights." The flood covered even the highest mountains to a depth of more than twenty feet, and all creatures died; only Noah and those with him on the Ark were left alive. In the New Testament, Jesus Christ is recorded to have calmed a storm on the Sea of Galilee.
The Gilgamesh flood myth is a deluge story in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
In Greek mythology Aeolus, keeper of storm-winds, squalls and tempests.
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1955_32
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The Sea Venture was wrecked near Bermuda in 1609, which led to the colonization of Bermuda and provided the inspiration for Shakespeare's play The Tempest(1611). Specifically, Sir Thomas Gates, future governor of Virginia, was on his way to England from Jamestown, Virginia. On Saint James Day, while he was between Cuba and the Bahamas, a hurricane raged for nearly two days. Though one of the small vessels in the fleet sank to the bottom of the Florida Straits, seven of the remaining vessels reached Virginia within several days after the storm. The flagship of the fleet, known as Sea Adventure, disappeared and was presumed lost. A small bit of fortune befell the ship and her crew when they made landfall on Bermuda. The vessel was damaged on a surrounding coral reef, but all aboard survived for nearly a year on the island. The British colonists claimed the island and quickly settled Bermuda. In May 1610, they set forth for Jamestown, this time arriving at their destination.
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1955_33
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The children's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, written by L. Frank Baum and illustrated by W. W. Denslow, chronicles the adventures of a young girl named Dorothy Gale in the Land of Oz, after being swept away from her Kansas farm home by a tornado. The story was originally published by the George M. Hill Company in Chicago on May 17, 1900 and has since been reprinted numerous times, most often under the name The Wizard of Oz, and adapted for use in other media. Thanks in part to the 1939 MGM movie, it is one of the best-known stories in American popular culture and has been widely translated. Its initial success, and the success of the popular 1902 Broadway musical which Baum adapted from his original story, led to Baum's writing thirteen more Oz books.
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1955_34
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Hollywood director King Vidor (February 8, 1894 – November 1, 1982) survived the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 as a boy. Based on that experience, he published a fictionalized account of that cyclone, titled "Southern Storm", for the May 1935 issue of Esquire magazine. Erik Larson excerpts a passage from that article in his 2005 book, Isaac's Storm:
I remember now that it seemed as if we were in a bowl looking up toward the level of the sea. As we stood there in the sandy street, my mother and I, I wanted to take my mother's hand and hurry her away. I felt as if the sea was going to break over the edge of the bowl and come puring down upon us.
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1955_35
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Numerous other accounts of the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 have been made in print and in film. Larson cites many of them in Isaac's Storm, which centrally features that storm, as well as chronicles the creation of the Weather Bureau (which came to known as the National Weather Service) and that agency's fateful rivalry with the weather service in Cuba, and a number of other major storms, such as those which ravaged Indianola, Texas in 1875 and 1886.
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1955_36
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The Great Storm of 1987 is key in an important scene near the end of Possession: A Romance, the bestselling and Man Booker Prize-winning novel by A. S. Byatt. The Great Storm of 1987 occurred on the night of October 15–16, 1987, when an unusually strong weather system caused winds to hit much of southern England and northern France. It was the worst storm to hit England since the Great Storm of 1703 (284 years earlier) and was responsible for the deaths of at least 22 people in England and France combined (18 in England, at least four in France).
Hurricane Katrina (2005) has been featured in a number of works of fiction.
In fine art
The Romantic seascape painters J. M. W. Turner and Ivan Aivazovsky created some of the most lasting impressions of the sublime and stormy seas that are firmly imprinted on the popular mind. Turner's representations of powerful natural forces reinvented the traditional seascape during the first half of the nineteenth century.
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1955_37
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Upon his travels to Holland, he took note of the familiar large rolling waves of the English seashore transforming into the sharper, choppy waves of a Dutch storm. A characteristic example of Turner's dramatic seascape is The Slave Ship of 1840. Aivazovsky left several thousand turbulent canvases in which he increasingly eliminated human figures and historical background to focus on such essential elements as light, sea, and sky. His grandiose Ninth Wave (1850) is an ode to human daring in the face of the elements.
In motion pictures
The 1926 silent film The Johnstown Flood features the Great Flood of 1889 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The flood, caused by the catastrophic failure of the South Fork Dam after days of extremely heavy rainfall, prompted the first major disaster relief effort by the American Red Cross, directed by Clara Barton. The Johnstown Flood was depicted in numerous other media (both fictional and in non-fiction), as well.
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1955_38
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Warner Bros.' 2000 dramatic disaster film The Perfect Storm, directed by Wolfgang Petersen, is an adaptation of Sebastian Junger's 1997 non-fiction book of the same title. The book and film feature the crew of the Andrea Gail, which got caught in the Perfect Storm of 1991. The 1991 Perfect Storm, also known as the Halloween Nor'easter of 1991, was a nor'easter that absorbed Hurricane Grace and ultimately evolved into a small hurricane late in its life cycle.
In music
Storms have also been portrayed in many works of music. Examples of storm music include Vivaldi's Four Seasons violin concerto RV 315 (Summer) (third movement: Presto), Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony (the fourth movement), a scene in Act II of Rossini's opera The Barber of Seville, the third act of Giuseppe Verdi's Rigoletto, and the fifth (Cloudburst) movement of Ferde Grofé's Grand Canyon Suite.
Gallery
See also
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1955_39
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Anticyclonic storm
ARkStorm
Atlantic hurricane
Cyclone
Dust storm
Extreme weather, a list of historical storms and other extreme weather
Geomagnetic storm
Heat storm
Nor'easter
Perfect storm
Pulse storm
Salt storm
Splitting storm
Superstorm
Tornado
Tropical cyclone
Hypercane
References
External links
Weather hazards
Natural disasters
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1956_0
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The military forces of the Confederate States, also known as Confederate forces, were the military services responsible for the defense of the Confederacy during its existence (1861–1865).
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1956_1
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Organization
The military forces of the Confederate States had three services:
Confederate States Army – The Confederate States Army (CSA) the land-based military operations. The CS Army was established in two phases with provisional and permanent organizations, which existed concurrently.
The Provisional Army of the Confederate States (PACS) was authorized by Act of Congress on February 23, 1861, and began organizing on April 27.
The Army of Confederate States was the regular army, organized by Act of Congress on March 6, 1861. It was authorized to include 15,015 men, including 744 officers, but this level was never achieved. The men serving in the highest rank as Confederate States generals, such as Samuel Cooper and Robert E. Lee, were enrolled in the ACSA to ensure that they outranked all militia officers.
Confederate States State militias were organized and commanded by the state governments, similar to those authorized by the United States Militia Act of 1792.
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1956_2
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Confederate Home Guard – a somewhat loosely organized though nevertheless legitimate organization that was under the vague direction and authority of the Confederate States of America, working in coordination with the Confederate Army, and was tasked with both the defense of the Confederate home front during the American Civil War, as well as to help track down and capture Confederate Army deserters.
Confederate States Navy – responsible for Confederate naval operations during the American Civil War. The two major tasks of the Confederate Navy during the whole of its existence were the protection of Southern harbors and coastlines from outside invasion, and making the war costly for the North by attacking merchant ships and breaking the Union Blockade.
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1956_3
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Confederate States Marine Corps – Established by an act of the Congress of the Confederate States on March 16, 1861. The CSMC's manpower was initially authorized at 45 officers and 944 enlisted men, and was increased on September 24, 1862 to 1026 enlisted men. The organization of the Marines began at Montgomery, Alabama, and was completed at Richmond, Virginia, when the capital of the Confederate States of America was moved to that location. The CSMC headquarters and main training facilities remained in Richmond, Virginia, throughout the war, located at Camp Beall on Drewry's Bluff and at the Gosport Shipyard in Norfolk, Virginia.
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1956_4
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Command and control
Control and operation of the Confederate States Army was administered by the Confederate States War Department, which was established by the Confederate Provisional Congress in an act on February 21, 1861. The Confederate Congress gave control over military operations, and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the president of the Confederate States of America on February 28, 1861 and March 6, 1861. By May 8, a provision authorizing enlistments for war was enacted, calling for 400,000 volunteers to serve for one or three years. By April 1862, the Confederate States of America found it necessary to pass a conscription act, which drafted men into PACS.
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1956_5
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The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the United States Army and United States Navy who had resigned their federal commissions and had won appointment to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. Many had served in the Mexican–American War (including Robert E. Lee and Jefferson Davis), but others had little or no military experience (such as Leonidas Polk, who had attended West Point.) The Confederate officer corps was composed in part of young men from slave-owning families, but many came from non-owners. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the South (such as the Citadel and the Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a training ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established at Drewry's Bluff, Virginia, in 1863, but no midshipmen had graduated by
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1956_6
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the time the Confederacy collapsed.
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1956_7
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The soldiers of the Confederate armed forces consisted mainly of white males with an average age between sixteen and twenty-eight. The Confederacy adopted conscription in 1862. Many thousands of slaves served as laborers, cooks, and pioneers. Some freed blacks and men of color served in local state militia units of the Confederacy, primarily in Louisiana and South Carolina, but their officers deployed them for "local defense, not combat." Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. In the spring of 1865 the Confederate Congress, influenced by the public support by General Lee, approved the recruitment of black infantry units. Contrary to Lee's and Davis' recommendations, the Congress refused "to guarantee the freedom of black volunteers." No more than two hundred troops were ever raised. However, President Davis believed that blacks would not fight unless they were provided freedom in exchange for their service. Therefore, he waited until
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1956_8
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Congress adjourned and then stipulated by executive order than any African-American accepted into service on the congressional act must be a volunteer and be accompanied by manumission papers.
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1956_9
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Military leaders
Military leaders of the Confederacy (with their state or country of birth and highest rank) included:
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1956_10
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Robert E. Lee (Virginia) – General and General-in-Chief (1865)
Samuel Cooper (New York) – General
Albert Sidney Johnston (Kentucky) – General
Joseph E. Johnston (Virginia) – General
Braxton Bragg (North Carolina) – General
P.G.T. Beauregard (Louisiana) – General
James Longstreet (Georgia) – Lieutenant General
Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson (Virginia) – Lieutenant General
Leonidas Polk (North Carolina) – Lieutenant General
Richard S. Ewell (Virginia) – Lieutenant General
A.P. Hill (Virginia) – Lieutenant General
John Bell Hood (Kentucky) – Lieutenant General and General (temporary)
Richard Taylor (Kentucky) – Lieutenant General (Son of U.S. President Zachary Taylor)
Simon Bolivar Buckner Sr (Kentucky) – Lieutenant General
Wade Hampton III (South Carolina) – Lieutenant General
Jubal Anderson Early (Virginia) – Lieutenant General
Nathan Bedford Forrest (Tennessee) – Lieutenant General
Alexander Peter Stewart (Tennessee) – Lieutenant General
Sterling Price (Virginia) – Major General
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1956_11
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J.E.B. Stuart (Virginia) – Major General
George Edward Pickett (Virginia) – Major General
Stephen Dodson Ramseur (North Carolina) – Major General
Patrick Cleburne (Ireland) – Major General
Camille Armand Jules Marie, Prince de Polignac (France) – Major General
John Austin Wharton (Tennessee) – Major General
Thomas L. Rosser (Virginia) – Major General
Franklin Buchanan (Maryland) – Rear Admiral
Raphael Semmes (Maryland) – Rear Admiral and Brigadier General
Josiah Tattnall III (Georgia) – Commodore
Edward Porter Alexander (Georgia) – Brigadier General
Stand Watie (Georgia) – Brigadier General (last to surrender)
John Hunt Morgan (Kentucky) – Brigadier General
Moxley Sorrel (Georgia) – Brigadier General
Lloyd J. Beall (South Carolina) – Colonel-Commandant of the Confederate States Marine Corps
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1956_12
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African Americans in the Confederate military
A small number of free persons of color in New Orleans formed the 1st Louisiana Native Guard (CSA) as part of the Louisiana militia. The unit temporarily disbanded on February 15, 1862, after Louisiana law stated the militia could only be made up of white men. They were recalled to service during the Union invasion of New Orleans and permanently disbanded on April 25, 1862. Some of the soldiers later joined the Union Army.
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1956_13
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"Nearly 40% of the Confederacy's population were unfree ... the work required to sustain the same society during war naturally fell disproportionately on black shoulders as well. By drawing so many white men into the army, indeed, the war multiplied the importance of the black work force." Even Georgia's governor Joseph E. Brown noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support." Slave labor was used in a wide variety of support roles, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.
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1956_14
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The idea of arming slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but not seriously considered by Davis or others in his administration. Though an acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from Patrick Cleburne urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation, it would not be until Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction. On March 13, 1865, the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14, and President Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, but only a few black companies were raised. Two companies were armed and drilled in the streets of Richmond, Virginia, shortly before the besieged southern capital fell. However, President Davis considered it imperative that blacks be offered freedom in exchange for military service under terms of the act passed through Congress. Therefore, he waited for Congress to adjourn and then stipulated by
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1956_15
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executive order that any African-Americans accepted as soldiers under terms of the act must be volunteers and be accompanied by manumission papers.
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1956_16
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Supply
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1956_17
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Much like the Continental Army in the American Revolution, state governments were supposed to supply their soldiers. The supply situation for most Confederate Armies was dismal even when victorious. The lack of central authority and effective transportation infrastructure, especially the railroads, combined the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding, were key factors in the Army's demise. Individual commanders had to "beg, borrow or steal" food and ammunition from whatever sources were available, including captured Union depots and encampments, and private citizens regardless of their loyalties. Lee's campaign against Gettysburg and southern Pennsylvania (a rich agricultural region) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies, namely food. Not surprisingly, in addition to slowing the Confederate advance such foraging aroused anger in the North and led many Northerners to support General Sherman's total warfare tactics as
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1956_18
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retaliation. Scorched earth policies especially in Georgia, South Carolina and the Virginian Shenandoah Valley proved far more devastating than anything Pennsylvania had suffered and further reduced the capacity of the increasingly effectively blockaded Confederacy to feed even its civilian population, let alone its Army. At many points during the war, and especially near the end, Confederate Armies were described as starving and, indeed, many died from lack of food and related illnesses. Towards more desperate stages of the war, the lack of food became a principal driving force for desertion.
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1956_19
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Uniforms
See article: Uniforms of the Confederate Military
The Uniforms of the Confederate States military forces were the uniforms used by the Confederate Army and Navy during the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865. The uniform varied greatly due to a variety of reasons, such as location, limitations on the supply of cloth and other materials, and the cost of materials during the war.
Confederate forces were often poorly supplied with uniforms, especially late in the conflict. Servicemen sometimes wore combinations of uniform pieces combined with captured Union uniforms and items of personal clothing. They sometimes went without shoes altogether, and broad felt or straw hats were worn as often as kepis or naval caps.
Statistics
Total Service members – 1,050,000 (Exact number is unknown. Posted figure is average of estimated range from 600,000 – 1,500,000)
Battle Deaths (Death figures are based on incomplete returns) – 74,524
Other Deaths (In Theater) – 59,297
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1956_20
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Died in Union prisons – 26,000 to 31,000
Non-mortal Woundings – Unknown
At the end of the war 174,223 men surrendered to the Union Army.
See also
Conclusion of the American Civil War
List of Confederate Regular Army officers
Confederate Government Civil War units
References
External links
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1956_21
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The McGavock Confederate Cemetery at Franklin, TN
Confederate offices Index of Politicians by Office Held or Sought
Civil War Research & Discussion Group -*Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms, 1861
The Countryman, 1862–1866, published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner
The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared
The Making of the Confederate Constitution, by A. L. Hull, 1905.
Confederate Currency
Photographs of the original Confederate Constitution and other Civil War documents owned by the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia Libraries.
Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912.
DocSouth: Documenting the American South – numerous online text, image, and audio collections.
Confederate States of America: A Register of Its Records in the Library of Congress
Confederate and State Uniform Regulations
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1956_22
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1861 establishments in North America
1865 disestablishments in North America
Military units and formations established in 1861
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865
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1957_0
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Dioscorea is a genus of over 600 species of flowering plants in the family Dioscoreaceae, native throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. The vast majority of the species are tropical, with only a few species extending into temperate climates. It was named by the monk Charles Plumier after the ancient Greek physician and botanist Dioscorides.
Description
They are tuberous herbaceous perennial lianas, growing to or more tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, mostly broad heart-shaped. The flowers are individually inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, with six petals; they are mostly dioecious, with separate male and female plants, though a few species are monoecious, with male and female flowers on the same plant. The fruit is a capsule in most species, a soft berry in a few species.
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1957_1
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Cultivation and uses
Several species, known as yams, are important agricultural crops in tropical regions, grown for their large tubers. Many of these are toxic when fresh, but can be detoxified and eaten, and are particularly important in parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania (see yam article).
One class of toxins found in many species is steroidal saponins, which can be converted through a series of chemical reactions into steroid hormones for use in medicine and as contraceptives.
The 1889 book "The Useful Native Plants of Australia" records that Dioscorea hastifolia is "One of the hardiest of the yams. The tubers are largely consumed by the local aborigines for food. (Mueller)."
Accepted species (613), subspecies, and varieties
The genus includes the following species and subspecies:
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1957_2
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A
Dioscorea abysmophila Maguire & Steyerm.
Dioscorea abyssinica Hochst. ex Kunth
Dioscorea acanthogene Rusby
Dioscorea acerifolia Phil.
Dioscorea acuminata Baker
Dioscorea adenantha Uline
Dioscorea aesculifolia R.Knuth
Dioscorea aguilarii Standl. & Steyerm.
Dioscorea alata L.
Dioscorea alatipes Burkill & H.Perrier
Dioscorea althaeoides R.Knuth
Dioscorea altissima Lam.
Dioscorea amaranthoides C.Presl
Dioscorea amazonum Mart. ex Griseb.
Dioscorea amazonum var. klugii (R.Knuth) Ayala
Dioscorea amoena R.Knuth
Dioscorea analalavensis Jum. & H.Perrier
Dioscorea ancachsensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea andina Phil.
Dioscorea andromedusae O.Téllez
Dioscorea angustifolia Rusby
Dioscorea anomala Griseb.
Dioscorea antaly Jum. & H.Perrier
Dioscorea antucoana Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea arachidna Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea araucana Phil.
Dioscorea arcuatinervis Hochr.
Dioscorea argyrogyna Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea arifolia C.Presl
Dioscorea aristolochiifolia Poepp.
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1957_3
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Dioscorea arnensis R. Knuth
Dioscorea asclepiadea Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea aspera Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Dioscorea aspersa Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea asperula Pedralli
Dioscorea asteriscus Burkill
Dioscorea atrescens R.Knuth
Dioscorea auriculata Poepp.
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1957_4
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B
Dioscorea bahiensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea bako Wilkin
Dioscorea balcanica Košanin
Dioscorea bancana Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea banzhuana S.J.Pei & C.T.Ting
Dioscorea bartlettii C.V.Morton
Dioscorea basiclavicaulis Rizzini & A.Mattos
Dioscorea baya De Wild.
Dioscorea beecheyi R.Knuth
Dioscorea belophylla (Prain) Voigt ex Haines
Dioscorea bemandry Jum. & H.Perrier
Dioscorea bemarivensis Jum. & H.Perrier
Dioscorea benthamii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea berenicea McVaugh
Dioscorea bermejensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea bernoulliana Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea besseriana Kunth
Dioscorea beyrichii R.Knuth
Dioscorea bicolor Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea biformifolia S.J.Pei & C.T.Ting
Dioscorea biloba (Phil.) Caddick & Wilkin
Dioscorea biplicata R.Knuth
Dioscorea birmanica Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea birschelii Harms ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea blumei Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea bolivarensis Steyerm.
Dioscorea bonii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea bosseri Haigh & Wilkin
Dioscorea brachybotrya Poepp.
|
1957_5
|
Dioscorea brachystachya Phil.
Dioscorea bradei R.Knuth
Dioscorea brandisii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea brevipetiolata Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea bridgesii Griseb. ex Kunth
Dioscorea brownii Schinz
Dioscorea bryoniifolia Poepp.
Dioscorea buchananii Benth.
Dioscorea buckleyana Wilkin
Dioscorea bulbifera L.
Dioscorea bulbotricha Hand.-Mazz.
Dioscorea burchellii Baker
Dioscorea burkilliana J.Miège
|
1957_6
|
C
Dioscorea cachipuertensis Ayala
Dioscorea calcicola Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea caldasensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea calderillensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea callacatensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea cambodiana Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea campanulata Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea campestris Griseb.
Dioscorea campos-portoi R.Knuth
Dioscorea carionis Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea carpomaculata O.Téllez & B.G.Schub.
Dioscorea carpomaculata var. cinerea (Uline ex R.Knuth) O.Téllez & B.G.Schub.
Dioscorea castilloniana Hauman
Dioscorea catharinensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea caucasica Lipsky
Dioscorea cavenensis Lam.
Dioscorea cayennensis Lam.
Dioscorea cayennensis subsp. rotundata (Poir.) J.Miège; syn.: D. rotundata Poir.
Dioscorea ceratandra Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea chacoensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea chagllaensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea chancayensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea chaponensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea chiapasensis Matuda
Dioscorea chimborazensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea chingii Prain & Burkill
|
1957_7
|
Dioscorea choriandra Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea chouardii Gaussen
Dioscorea cienegensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea cinnamomifolia Hook.
Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour.
Dioscorea cissophylla Phil.
Dioscorea claessensii De Wild.
Dioscorea claussenii Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea claytonii Ayala
Dioscorea cochleariapiculata De Wild.
Dioscorea collettii Hook.f.
Dioscorea collettii var. hypoglauca (Palib.) S.J.Pei & C.T.Ting
Dioscorea communis (L.) Caddick & Wilkin
Dioscorea commutata R.Knuth
Dioscorea comorensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea composita Hemsl.
Dioscorea contracta R.Knuth
Dioscorea convolvulacea Cham. & Schltdl.
Dioscorea convolvulacea subsp. grandifolia (Schltdl.) Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea conzattii R.Knuth
Dioscorea cordifolia Laness.
Dioscorea coreana (Prain & Burkill) R.Knuth
Dioscorea coriacea Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Dioscorea coripatenis J.F.Macbr.
Dioscorea coronata Hauman
Dioscorea cotinifolia Kunth
Dioscorea craibiana Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea crateriflora R.Knuth
|
1957_8
|
Dioscorea crotalariifolia Uline
Dioscorea cruzensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea cubensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea cumingii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea curitybensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea cuspidata Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Dioscorea cuyabensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea cyanisticta J.D.Sm.
Dioscorea cymosula Hemsl.
Dioscorea cyphocarpa C.B.Rob. ex Knuth
|
1957_9
|
D
Dioscorea daunea Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea davidsei O.Téllez
Dioscorea de-mourae Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea debilis Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea decaryana H.Perrier
Dioscorea decipiens Hook.f.
Dioscorea decorticans C.Presl
Dioscorea deflexa Griseb.
Dioscorea delavayi Franch.
Dioscorea delicata R.Knuth
Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb.
Dioscorea dendrotricha Uline
Dioscorea densiflora Hemsl.
Dioscorea depauperata Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea diamantinensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea dicranandra Donn.Sm.
Dioscorea dielsii R.Knuth
Dioscorea dissimulans Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea divaricata Blanco
Dioscorea diversifolia Griseb.
Dioscorea dodecaneura Vell.
Dioscorea dregeana (Kunth) T.Durand & Schinz
Dioscorea duchassaingii R.Knuth
Dioscorea dugesii C.B.Rob.
Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax
Dioscorea dumetosa Uline ex R.Knuth
|
1957_10
|
E
Dioscorea ekmanii R.Knuth
Dioscorea elegans Ridl. ex Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea elephantipes (L'Hér.) Engl.
Dioscorea entomophila Hauman
Dioscorea epistephioides Taub.
Dioscorea escuintlensis Matuda
Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill
Dioscorea esquirolii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea exalata C.T.Ting & M.C.Chang
F
Dioscorea fandra H.Perrier
Dioscorea fasciculocongesta (Sosa & B.G.Schub.) O.Téllez
Dioscorea fastigiata Gay
Dioscorea fendleri R.Knuth
Dioscorea ferreyrae Ayala
Dioscorea filiformis Blume
Dioscorea flabellifolia Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea flaccida R.Knuth
Dioscorea floribunda M.Martens & Galeotti
Dioscorea floridana Bartlett
Dioscorea fodinarum Kunth
Dioscorea fordii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea formosana R.Knuth
Dioscorea fractiflexa R.Knuth
Dioscorea fuliginosa R.Knuth
Dioscorea furcata Griseb.
Dioscorea futschauensis Uline ex R.Knuth
|
1957_11
|
G
Dioscorea galeottiana Kunth
Dioscorea galiiflora R.Knuth
Dioscorea gallegosi Matuda
Dioscorea garrettii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea gaumeri R.Knuth
Dioscorea gentryi O.Téllez
Dioscorea gillettii Milne-Redh.
Dioscorea glabra Roxb.
Dioscorea glandulosa (Griseb.) Klotzsch ex Kunth
Dioscorea glandulosa var. calcensis (R.Knuth) Ayala
Dioscorea glomerulata Hauman
Dioscorea gomez-pompae O.Téllez
Dioscorea gracilicaulis R.Knuth
Dioscorea gracilipes Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea gracilis Hook. ex Poepp.
Dioscorea gracillima Miq.
Dioscorea grandiflora Mart. ex Griseb.
Dioscorea grandis R.Knuth
Dioscorea grata Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea gribinguiensis Baudon
Dioscorea grisebachii Kunth
Dioscorea guerrerensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea guianensis R.Knuth
|
1957_12
|
H
Dioscorea haenkeana C.Presl
Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook.f.
Dioscorea hassleriana Chodat
Dioscorea hastata Mill.
Dioscorea hastatissima Rusby
Dioscorea hastifolia Nees
Dioscorea hastiformis R.Knuth
Dioscorea haumanii Xifreda
Dioscorea havilandii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea hebridensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea hemicrypta Burkill
Dioscorea hemsleyi Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea heptaneura Vell.
Dioscorea herbert-smithii Rusby
Dioscorea herzogii R.Knuth
Dioscorea heteropoda Baker
Dioscorea hexagona Baker
Dioscorea hieronymi Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea hintonii R.Knuth
Dioscorea hirtiflora Benth.
Dioscorea hirtiflora subsp. orientalis Milne-Redh.
Dioscorea hispida Dennst.
Dioscorea holmioidea Maury
Dioscorea hombuka H.Perrier
Dioscorea hondurensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea howardiana O.Téllez, B.G.Schub. & Geeta
Dioscorea humifusa Poepp.
Dioscorea humilis Bertero ex Colla
Dioscorea humilis subsp. polyanthes (F.Phil.) Viruel, Segarra & Villar
Dioscorea hunzikeri Xifreda
|
1957_13
|
I
Dioscorea igualamontana Matuda
Dioscorea incayensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea inopinata Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea insignis C.V.Morton & B.G.Schub.
Dioscorea intermedia Thwaites
Dioscorea ionophylla Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea iquitosensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea irupanensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea itapirensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea itatiensis R.Knuth
J
Dioscorea jaliscana S.Watson
Dioscorea jamesonii R.Knuth
Dioscorea japonica Thunb. - Shan yao in Chinese ()
Dioscorea javariensis Ayala
Dioscorea juxtlahuacensis (O.Téllez & Dávila) Caddick & Wilkin
|
1957_14
|
K
Dioscorea kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea kamoonensis Kunth
Dioscorea keduensis Burkill ex Backer
Dioscorea kerrii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea killipii R.Knuth
Dioscorea kimiae Wilkin
Dioscorea kingii R.Knuth
Dioscorea kituiensis Wilkin & Muasya
Dioscorea kjellbergii R.Knuth
Dioscorea knuthiana De Wild.
Dioscorea koepperi Standl.
Dioscorea koyamae Jayas.
Dioscorea kratica Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea kunthiana Uline
Dioscorea kuntzei Uline ex Kuntze
|
1957_15
|
L
Dioscorea lacerdaei Griseb.
Dioscorea laevis Uline
Dioscorea lamprocaula Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea lanata Bail
Dioscorea larecajensis Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea laurifolia Wall. ex Hook.f.
Dioscorea lawrancei R.Knuth
Dioscorea laxiflora Mart. ex Griseb.
Dioscorea lehmannii Uline
Dioscorea lepcharum Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea lepida C.V.Morton
Dioscorea leptobotrys Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea liebmannii Uline
Dioscorea lijiangensis C.L.Long & H.Li
Dioscorea linearicordata Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea lisae Dorr & Stergios
Dioscorea listeri Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea litoralis Phil.
Dioscorea loefgrenii R.Knuth
Dioscorea loheri Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea longicuspis R.Knuth
Dioscorea longipes Phil.
Dioscorea longirhiza Caddick & Wilkin
Dioscorea longituba Uline
Dioscorea lundii Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea luzonensis Schauer
|
1957_16
|
M
Dioscorea macbrideana R.Knuth
Dioscorea maciba Jum. & H.Perrier
Dioscorea macrantha Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea macrothyrsa Uline
Dioscorea macvaughii B.G.Schub.
Dioscorea madecassa H.Perrier
Dioscorea madiunensis Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea maianthemoides Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea mamillata Jum. & H.Perrier
Dioscorea mandonii Rusby
Dioscorea mangenotiana J.Miège
Dioscorea mantigueirensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea margarethia G.M.Barroso, E.F.Guim. & Sucre
Dioscorea marginata Griseb.
Dioscorea martensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea martiana Griseb.
Dioscorea martini Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea matagalpensis Uline
Dioscorea matudae O.Téllez & B.G.Schub.
Dioscorea mayottensis Wilkin
Dioscorea megacarpa Gleason
Dioscorea megalantha Griseb.
Dioscorea melanophyma Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea melastomatifolia Uline ex Prain
Dioscorea membranacea Pierre ex Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea menglaensis H.Li
Dioscorea meridensis Kunth
Dioscorea merrillii Prain & Burkill
|
1957_17
|
Dioscorea mesoamericana O.Téllez & Mart.-Rodr.
Dioscorea mexicana Scheidw.
Dioscorea microbotrya Griseb.
Dioscorea microcephala Uline
Dioscorea microura R.Knuth
Dioscorea mindanaensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea minima C.B.Rob. & Seaton
Dioscorea minutiflora Engl.
Dioscorea mitis C.V.Morton
Dioscorea mitoensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea modesta Phil.
Dioscorea mollis Kunth
Dioscorea monadelpha (Kunth) Griseb.
Dioscorea × monandra Hauman
Dioscorea morelosana (Uline) Matuda
Dioscorea moritziana (Kunth) R.Knuth
Dioscorea mosqueirensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea moultonii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea moyobambensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea mucronata Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea multiflora Mart. ex Griseb.
Dioscorea multiloba Kunth
Dioscorea multinervis Benth.
Dioscorea mundii Baker
|
1957_18
|
N
Dioscorea nako H.Perrier
Dioscorea namorokensis Wilkin
Dioscorea nana Poepp.
Dioscorea nanlaensis H.Li
Dioscorea natalensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea natalia Hammel
Dioscorea neblinensis Maguire & Steyerm.
Dioscorea nelsonii Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea nematodes Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea nervata R.Knuth
Dioscorea nervosa Phil.
Dioscorea nicolasensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea nieuwenhuisii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea nipensis R.A.Howard
Dioscorea nipponica Makino
Dioscorea nitens Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea nuda R.Knuth
Dioscorea nummularia Lam.
Dioscorea nutans R.Knuth
|
1957_19
|
O
Dioscorea oaxacensis Uline
Dioscorea obcuneata Hook.f.
Dioscorea oblonga Gleason
Dioscorea oblongifolia Rusby
Dioscorea obtusifolia Hook. & Arn.
Dioscorea olfersiana Klotzsch ex Griseb.
Dioscorea oligophylla Phil.
Dioscorea omiltemensis O.Téllez
Dioscorea opaca R.Knuth
Dioscorea oppositiflora Griseb.
Dioscorea oppositifolia L. - Shan yao in Chinese ()
Dioscorea orangeana Wilkin
Dioscorea orbiculata Hook.f.
Dioscorea orbiculata var. tenuifolia (Ridl.) Thapyai
Dioscorea oreodoxa B.G.Schub.
Dioscorea organensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea orientalis (J.Thiébaut) Caddick & Wilkin
Dioscorea orizabensis Uline
Dioscorea orthogoneura Uline ex Hochr.
Dioscorea oryzetorum Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea ovalifolia R.Knuth
Dioscorea ovata Vell.
Dioscorea ovinala Baker
|
1957_20
|
P
Dioscorea palawana Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea paleata Burkill
Dioscorea pallens Schltdl.
Dioscorea pallidinervia R.Knuth
Dioscorea palmeri R.Knuth
Dioscorea panamensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea panthaica Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea pantojensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea paradoxa Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea pavonii Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea pedicellata Phil.
Dioscorea pencana Phil.
Dioscorea pendula Poepp. ex Kunth
Dioscorea pentaphylla L.
Dioscorea peperoides Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea perdicum Taub.
Dioscorea perenensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea perpilosa H.Perrier
Dioscorea petelotii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea philippiana Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea piauhyensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea pierrei Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea pilcomayensis Hauman
Dioscorea pilgeriana R.Knuth
Dioscorea pilosiuscula Bertero ex Spreng.
Dioscorea pinedensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea piperifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Dioscorea piscatorum Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea pittieri R.Knuth
Dioscorea planistipulosa Uline ex R.Knuth
|
1957_21
|
Dioscorea plantaginifolia R.Knuth
Dioscorea platycarpa Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea platycolpota Uline ex B.L.Rob.
Dioscorea plumifera C.B.Rob.
Dioscorea pohlii Griseb.
Dioscorea pohlii var. luschnathiana (Kunth) Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea poilanei Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea polyclados Hook.f.
Dioscorea polygonoides Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Dioscorea polystachya Turcz. (also: Dioscorea batatas Decne)
Dioscorea pomeroonensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea potarensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea praehensilis Benth.
Dioscorea prainiana R.Knuth
Dioscorea prazeri Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea preslii Steud.
Dioscorea preussii Pax
Dioscorea preussii subsp. hylophila (Harms) Wilkin
Dioscorea pringlei C.B.Rob.
Dioscorea proteiformis H.Perrier
Dioscorea psammophila R.Knuth
Dioscorea pseudomacrocapsa G.M.Barroso, E.F.Guim. & Sucre
Dioscorea pseudorajanioides R.Knuth
Dioscorea pseudotomentosa Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea pteropoda Boivin ex H.Perrier
Dioscorea pubera Blume
Dioscorea pubescens Poir.
|
1957_22
|
Dioscorea pumicicola Uline
Dioscorea pumilio Griseb.
Dioscorea puncticulata R.Knuth
Dioscorea purdiei R.Knuth
Dioscorea putisensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea putumayensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea pynaertii De Wild.
Dioscorea pyrenaica Bubani & Bordère ex Gren.
Dioscorea pyrifolia Kunth
|
1957_23
|
Q
Dioscorea quartiniana A.Rich.
Dioscorea quaternata J.F. Gmel.
Dioscorea quinquelobata Thunb.
Dioscorea quispicanchensis R.Knuth
R
Dioscorea racemosa (Klotzsch) Uline
Dioscorea regnellii Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea remota C.V.Morton
Dioscorea remotiflora Kunth
Dioscorea reticulata Gay
Dioscorea retusa Mast.
Dioscorea reversiflora Uline
Dioscorea ridleyi Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea riedelii R.Knuth
Dioscorea rigida R.Knuth
Dioscorea rimbachii R.Knuth
Dioscorea rockii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea rosei R.Knuth
Dioscorea rumicoides Griseb.
Dioscorea rupicola Kunth
Dioscorea rusbyi Uline
|
1957_24
|
S
Dioscorea sabarensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sagittata Poir.
Dioscorea sagittifolia Pax
Dioscorea sagittifolia var. lecardii (De Wild.) Nkounkou
Dioscorea salicifolia Blume
Dioscorea salvadorensis Standl.
Dioscorea sambiranensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sanchez-colini Matuda
Dioscorea sandiensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sandwithii B.G.Schub.
Dioscorea sanpaulensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax
Dioscorea santanderensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea santosensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sarasinii Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea saxatilis Poepp.
Dioscorea scabra Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Dioscorea schimperiana Hochst. ex Kunth
Dioscorea schubertiae Ayala
Dioscorea schunkei Ayala & T.Clayton
Dioscorea schwackei Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea scortechinii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea secunda R.Knuth
Dioscorea sellowiana Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea semperflorens Uline
Dioscorea septemloba Thunb.
Dioscorea septemnervis Vell.
Dioscorea sericea R.Knuth
Dioscorea seriflora Jum. & H.Perrier
|
1957_25
|
Dioscorea serpenticola Hoque & P.K.Mukh.
Dioscorea sessiliflora McVaugh
Dioscorea sexrimata Burkill
Dioscorea simulans Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea sincorensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sinoparviflora C.T.Ting, M.G.Gilbert & Turland
Dioscorea sinuata Vell.
Dioscorea sitamiana Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea skottsbergii R.Knuth
Dioscorea smilacifolia De Wild. & T.Durand
Dioscorea sonlaensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sororopana Steyerm.
Dioscorea soso Jum. & H.Perrier
Dioscorea soso var. trichopoda (Jum. & H.Perrier) Burkill & H.Perrier
Dioscorea spectabilis R.Knuth
Dioscorea spicata Roth
Dioscorea spiculiflora Hemsl.
Dioscorea spiculoides Matuda
Dioscorea spongiosa J.Q.Xi, M.Mizuno & W.L.Zhao
Dioscorea sprucei Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea standleyi C.V.Morton
Dioscorea stegelmanniana R.Knuth
Dioscorea stellaris R.Knuth
Dioscorea stemonoides Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea stenocolpus Phil.
Dioscorea stenomeriflora Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea stenopetala Hauman
Dioscorea stenophylla Uline
|
1957_26
|
Dioscorea sterilis O.Weber & Wilkin
Dioscorea stipulosa Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea subcalva Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea subhastata Vell.
Dioscorea sublignosa R.Knuth
Dioscorea submigra R.Knuth
Dioscorea subtomentosa Miranda
Dioscorea sumatrana Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea sumiderensis B.G.Schub. & O.Téllez
Dioscorea suratensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea sylvatica Eckl.
Dioscorea synandra Uline
Dioscorea syringifolia (Kunth) Kunth & R.H.Schomb. ex R.Knuth
|
1957_27
|
T
Dioscorea tabatae Hatus. ex Yamashita & M.N.Tamura
Dioscorea tacanensis Lundell
Dioscorea tamarisciflora Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea tamoidea Griseb.
Dioscorea tamshiyacuensis Ayala
Dioscorea tancitarensis Matuda
Dioscorea tarijensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea tarmensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea tauriglossum R.Knuth
Dioscorea tayacajensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea temascaltepecensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea tenebrosa C.V.Morton
Dioscorea tenella Phil.
Dioscorea tentaculigera Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea tenuipes Franch. & Sav.
Dioscorea tenuiphyllum R.Knuth
Dioscorea tenuis R.Knuth
Dioscorea tequendamensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea ternata Griseb.
Dioscorea therezopolensis Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea togoensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea tokoro Makino ex Miyabe
Dioscorea toldosensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea tomentosa J.Koenig ex Spreng.
Dioscorea torticaulis R.Knuth
Dioscorea trachyandra Griseb.
Dioscorea trachycarpa Kunth
Dioscorea traillii R.Knuth
Dioscorea transversa R.Br.
Dioscorea triandria Sessé & Moc.
|
1957_28
|
Dioscorea trichantha Baker
Dioscorea trichanthera Gleason
Dioscorea trifida L.f.
Dioscorea trifoliata Kunth
Dioscorea trifurcata Hauman
Dioscorea trilinguis Griseb.
Dioscorea trimenii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea trinervia Roxb. ex Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea trisecta Griseb.
Dioscorea trollii R.Knuth
Dioscorea truncata Miq.
Dioscorea tsaratananensis H.Perrier
Dioscorea tubiperianthia Matuda
Dioscorea tubuliflora Uline ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea tubulosa Griseb.
|
1957_29
|
U
Dioscorea uliginosa Phil.
Dioscorea ulinei Greenm. ex R.Knuth
Dioscorea undatiloba Baker
Dioscorea urceolata Uline
Dioscorea urophylla Hemsl.
Dioscorea uruapanensis Matuda
V
Dioscorea valdiviensis R.Knuth
Dioscorea vanvuurenii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea variifolia Bertero
Dioscorea velutipes Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea vexans Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea vilis Kunth
Dioscorea villosa L.
Dioscorea volckmannii Phil.
W
Dioscorea wallichii Hook.f.
Dioscorea warburgiana Uline ex Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea warmingii R.Knuth
Dioscorea wattii Prain & Burkill
Dioscorea weberbaueri R.Knuth
Dioscorea widgrenii R.Knuth
Dioscorea wightii Hook.f.
Dioscorea wittiana R.Knuth
Dioscorea wrightii Uline ex R.Knuth
X
Dioscorea xizangensis C.T.Ting
Y
Dioscorea yunnanensis Prain & Burkill
Z
Dioscorea zingiberensis C.H.Wright
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1957_30
|
The closely related genus Tamus is included in Dioscorea by some sources, but is maintained as distinct by others. For Dioscorea communis (L.) Caddick & Wilkin, see Tamus communis.
See also
Yams
Mexican barbasco trade
References
Bibliography
Flora Europaea: Dioscorea
Flora of Pakistan: Dioscorea
Schols, P. 2004. Contributions to the palynology and phylogeny of Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae). PhD thesis KU Leuven.
Dioscoreales genera
Tubers
Dioecious plants
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1958_0
|
Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a higher opinion of oneself than reality. It appears to be the result of the psychological need to satisfy one's ego and to be advantageous for memory consolidation. Research has shown that experiences, ideas, and beliefs are more easily recalled when they match one's own, causing an egocentric outlook. Michael Ross and Fiore Sicoly first identified this cognitive bias in their 1979 paper, "Egocentric biases in availability and attribution". Egocentric bias is referred to by most psychologists as a general umbrella term under which other related phenomena fall.
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1958_1
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The effects of egocentric bias can differ based on personal characteristics, such as age and the number of languages one speaks. Thus far, there have been many studies focusing on specific implications of egocentric bias in different contexts. Research on collaborative group tasks have emphasized that people view their own contributions differently than they view that of others. Other areas of research have been aimed at studying how mental health patients display egocentric bias, and at the relationship between egocentric bias and voter distribution. These types of studies surrounding egocentric bias usually involve written or verbal questionnaires, based on the subject's personal life or their decision in various hypothetical scenarios.
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1958_2
|
History and analysis
The term "egocentric bias" was first coined in 1980 by Anthony Greenwald, a psychologist at Ohio State University. He described it as a phenomenon in which people skew their beliefs so that what they recall from their memory or what they initially understood is different than what actually occurred. He cites research by Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker, who explain that the self-reference effect is the ability of people to recall information better if they think about how the information will affect them during the encoding process (recording memories in their brain). Greenwald argues that the self-reference effect causes people to exaggerate their role in a situation. Furthermore, information is better encoded, and thus people are more likely to suffer from egocentric bias, if they produce information actively rather than passively, such as by having a direct role in the outcome of a situation.
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1958_3
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Egocentric bias occurs when people fail to consider situations from other people's perspectives. Egocentric bias has influenced ethical judgements to the point where people not only believe that self-interested outcomes are preferential but are also the morally sound way to proceed. People are more inclined to be aware of their own behaviors since they can use their thoughts and emotions to gain more information about themselves. These thoughts and emotions can affect how people view themselves in relation to others in specific situations. A common example arises when people are asked to explain how much credit should be given to each person in a collaborative project. Daniel Schacter, a psychology professor at Harvard University, considers egocentric bias as one of the "seven sins" of memory and essentially reflects the prominent role played by the self when encoding and retrieving episodic memories. As such, people often feel that their contributions to a collaborative project
|
1958_4
|
are greater than those of other members, since people tend to focus more on how much they have done.
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1958_5
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In social context, egocentric bias influences people to choose a social circle that is capable of maintaining one's positive traits. Studies show that one's choice of friend or social circle is likely to be dependent on the amount of positive feedback received.
Examples
In a 1993 study conducted in Japan, subjects were asked to write down fair or unfair behaviors that they themselves or others did. When writing about fair behavior, they tended to start with the word "I" rather than "others". Likewise, they began unfair behaviors with "others" rather than "I". This demonstrates that people tend to attribute successes and positive behaviors to themselves, while placing the burden of failures and negative behaviors on others. Furthermore, in this study there were gender differences detected; Japanese women, compared to men, remembered the behaviors of others more than their own, and were also more probable to characterize fair or unfair behavior to others compared to themselves.
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1958_6
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Another study found that egocentric bias influences perceived fairness. Subjects felt that overpayment to themselves were more fair than overpayment to others; by contrast, they felt the underpayment to themselves were less fair than underpayment to others. Greenberg's studies showed that this egocentrism was eliminated when the subjects were put in a self-aware state, which was applied in his study with a mirror being placed in front of the subjects. When a person is not self-aware, they perceive that something can be fair to them but not necessarily fair to others. Therefore, fairness was something biased and subjective. When a person is self-aware, there is a uniform standard of fairness and there is no bias. When made self-aware, subjects rated overpayment and underpayment to both themselves and to others as equally unfair. It is believed that these results were obtained because self-awareness elevated subjects' concerns about perceived fairness in payment, thereby overriding
|
1958_7
|
egocentric tendencies.
|
1958_8
|
The egocentric bias can also be clearly observed in young children, especially those who have not yet developed theory of mind, or the ability to understand concrete situations from the perspective of others. In one study by Wimmer and Perner, a child and a stuffed animal were presented with two differently colored boxes and both are shown that one contains an object of interest. The experimenter then removed the stuffed animal from the room and moved the object into the other box. When asked where the stuffed animal should search for the object, the children overwhelmingly tended to point to the box that they knew the object was in. Rather than thinking about the animal's perspective, the children displayed an egocentric bias in assuming that the animal would share their point of view, even though the animal had no way of knowing the same information as them.
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1958_9
|
Causes
|
1958_10
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The causes and motivations for egocentric bias were investigated in a 1983 journal entry by Brian Mullen of Murray State University. Inspired by the study by Ross et al. demonstrating the false consensus effect, Mullen's paper focused on the overestimation of consensus. Mullen analyzed the NBC television show "Play the Percentages" to determine whether egocentric bias was rooted in a perceptual and unintentional distortion of reality versus a conscious, intentional motivation to appear normalized. Subjects in this analysis were contestants from the show, 20–30 year old middle class married couple with equal gender distribution. At the start of each show, studio audiences were asked several trivia questions, and the percentage of correct answers was recorded for later use in the game. During each round of the game, opposing contestants estimated the percentage of correct answers. The contestant who had a closer estimate wins the percentage of correct answer as a score, and then if
|
1958_11
|
they answer said trivia question correctly, wins the remaining percentage for a maximum possible 100 points. The first couple to win 300 points received a cash prize, with the opportunity to win more prizes in bonus rounds. Thus, the show provided incentive for unbiased estimates of consensus. Statistical analysis of the collected data showed that the "egocentric bias of false consensus was observed in spite of the potent incentive for unbiased estimates of consensus." This analysis ultimately supports the hypothesis that egocentric bias is a result of unintentional perceptual distortion of reality rather than a conscious, intentional motivation to appear normalized.
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1958_12
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From a psychological standpoint, memories appear to be stored in the brain in an egocentric manner: the role of oneself is magnified in one's experiences to make them more personally relevant and thereby easier to recall. Early childhood memories, therefore, may be more difficult to recall since one's sense of self is less developed, so old memories do not connect as strongly to oneself as newer ones. Moreover, egocentric bias may have evolved from hunter-gatherer times, in which communities were small and interdependent enough that individuals could assume that others around them had very similar outlooks. An egocentric view would have reduced cognitive load and increased communication efficiency.
Effects of personal characteristics
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1958_13
|
Age
A 2016 study published by Riva, Triscoli, Lamm, Carnaghi, and Silani found that egocentric bias tends to be experienced in a much greater degree by adolescents and older adults than by young and middle aged adults. They examined the emotional effect of visuo-tactile stimulation on pairs of participants from a population of 114 female of varying ages. The varying degree of egocentric bias with age was attributed to the developmental cycle of the right supramarginal gyrus (rSMG) of the parietal lobe, which finishes developing at the end of adolescence and decays early.
Bilingualism
Recent studies of egocentric bias have been done in many different subgroups of people, such as bilingual people. A study done by Paula Rubio-Fernández and Sam Glucksberg found that bilingual people are less prone to egocentric bias because they have grown to pay more attention to others' thoughts. Thus, it is less difficult for them to differentiate between their own opinions and those of others.
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1958_14
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Related phenomena
False-consensus effect
Considered to be a facet of egocentric bias, the false-consensus effect states that people believe their thoughts, actions, and opinions are much more common than they are in reality. When people are asked to make an estimate of a population's statistic, they often only have data from themselves and tend to assume that others in the population are similar to them due to egocentric bias. In turn, people tend to overestimate the extent to which their opinion is shared by the rest of the population. Moreover, people tend to believe that those who differ in opinion must be part of a minority and that the majority actually agrees with them. Therefore, the false-consensus effect, or the tendency to deduce judgements from one's own opinions, is a direct result of egocentric bias.
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1958_15
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A well known example of false-consensus effect is a study published by Ross, Greene and House in 1977. Students are asked to walk around a campus with a sandwich board that bearing the word "repent". People who agreed to do so (50%) estimated that most of their peers would also agree to do so (average estimation 63.5%). Conversely, those who refused to do the experiment reported that most of their peers would refuse as well.
|
1958_16
|
People who exhibit the false consensus effect take egocentric bias a step further: they not only forgo thinking of other perspectives, but they believe that their viewpoints are those accepted by the majority of people. Nevertheless, some psychologists do not distinguish between egocentric bias and the false consensus effect. For example, in the paper published by Ross, Greene, and House, the terms "false consensus" and "egocentric attribution bias" are used interchangeably. In the second part of their study, they gave out a questionnaire which asked participants which option (out of two choices) they would choose in specified situations, and what percentage of the population would choose which option. In all four scenarios that were given, subjects rated the option that they chose as the most probable. Ross, Greene, and House conclude that their results support the false consensus hypothesis, and that "intuitive estimates of deviance and normalcy, and the host of social
|
1958_17
|
inferences and interpersonal responses that accompany such estimates, are systematically and egocentrically biased in accord with his own behavioral choices."
|
1958_18
|
Self-serving bias
A related concept to egocentric bias is self-serving bias, in which one takes undue credit for achievements and blames failures on external forces. However, egocentric bias differs from self-serving bias in that egocentric bias is rooted in an erroneous assumption of other's perception of reality, while self-serving bias is an erroneous perception of one's own reality. For example, consider a student who earns a low grade in a class. Self-serving bias would result in the assumption that the student's low grade is a result of poor teaching, which would direct the fault of one's reality away from one's own actions.
Egocentric bias might also result in an overestimation of the number of students that received low grades in the class for the purpose to normalize these students' performance. However, similar to the false-consensus effect, the self-serving bias and the egocentric bias have also been used as interchangeable terms.
|
1958_19
|
Both concepts may be the product of individualistic cultures that usually stress independence and personal achievement over group-oriented success. Cross-cultural studies have found a strong presence of the egocentric bias in the primarily individualistic American, South African, and Yugoslavian communities, but noted the opposite effect in the collectivistic Japanese, Nepali, and Indian societies. People from these cultures tend to demonstrate a bias toward modesty, in which success is attributed to external or group-related factors and failures are seen as the result of personal shortcomings.
|
1958_20
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Bayesian inference
|
1958_21
|
Bayesian reasoning is a form of statistical inference that relies on Bayes' rule to make probability prediction based on given information. In Bayesian updating, people use prior probabilities to make estimates, and then gradually change these probabilities as they gain more information. Bayesian inference is often used by psychologists to determine whether subjects who exhibit the false-consensus effect have a rational thought process. To understand Bayes' rule, consider an example from an experiment by Kreuger and Clement: there is an urn with 100 chips, some blue and some red, and then subjects are told that the first chip drawn from the urn is blue. Subjects are asked to estimate the probability that the urn contains predominantly blue chips. Using Bayes' rule, the probability that a blue chip is drawn given that the urn contains predominantly blue chips is equal to the probability of the urn being predominantly blue multiplied by the probability of the urn being predominantly
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