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CREPE

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train · 3.46k rows

id stringlengths 10 10	question stringlengths 18 294	comment stringlengths 28 6.89k	passages sequence	presuppositions sequence	corrections sequence	labels sequence	raw_presuppositions sequence	raw_labels sequence	raw_corrections sequence
2018-02588	Why does hitting the gates so hard in ski racing not slow them down too much?	It is a careful balance. On one hand hitting the gates will slow you down a bit, but on the other hand a tighter line may put you in contact with the gates. When they are making contact it is because the path is more efficient despite the gate contact.	[ "Because the offsets are relatively small in slalom, ski racers take a fairly direct line and often knock the poles out of the way as they pass, which is known as blocking. (The main blocking technique in modern slalom is cross-blocking, in which the skier takes such a tight line and angulates so strongly that he or she is able to block the gate with the outside hand.) Racers employ a variety of protective equipment, including shin pads, hand guards, helmets and face guards.\n\nSection::::Clearing the gates.\n", "A less commonly used feature of gate compensation is that an athlete's coach may make a tactical decision to request a lower gate if they believe there is potential ground to be made in terms of points, at the cost of inrun speed.\n\nSection::::Event details.\n", "The position of the start gate determines the inrun speed, creating a difference of as much as depending on whether the gate is set higher (thereby lengthening the inrun) or lower (shortening the inrun); the difference in height between individual gates is . Based on the jury's decision, the gate position – of which there are several available numbers – is subject to being adjusted accordingly, including between each jump. In especially tricky conditions, athletes may sometimes be forced to exit and re-enter the gate multiple times before they are cleared to jump. The issue of gates being adjusted too often has become highly unpopular for athletes and audiences.\n", "The new gates allow a more direct path down a slalom course through the process of cross-blocking or shinning the gates. Cross-blocking is a technique in which the legs go around the gate with the upper body inclined toward, or even across, the gate; in this case the racer's outside pole and shinguards hit the gate, knocking it down and out of the way. Cross-blocking is done by pushing the gate down with the arms, hands, or shins. By 1989, most of the top technical skiers in the world had adopted the cross-block technique.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n", "Traditionally, bamboo poles were used for gates, the rigidity of which forced skiers to maneuver their entire body around each gate. In the early 1980s, rigid poles were replaced by hard plastic poles, hinged at the base. The hinged gates require, according to FIS rules, only that the skis and boots of the skier go around each gate.\n", "If conditions are normal and a green light is shown, the athlete's coach – who is situated in a coaches' section lower down the inrun with a flag in hand – gives them the final signal to go; coaches may sometimes have to whistle or give a shouted confirmation in low-visibility conditions. Once given this signal, the athlete must commit to their jump within ten seconds or else risk disqualification, and are no longer permitted to exit the gate. To begin descending the inrun, they drop down from the gate to a crouching position. Speed is rapidly picked up within seconds via built-in tracks, made from porcelain or ceramic, into which the skis are slotted. The athlete's streamlined crouch minimises air resistance along the inrun, and a further effort is made to reduce friction by not allowing the skis (which have wax applied to them) to bump too much against the sides of the tracks. Takeoff speed, or \"inrun speed\", is measured from the table using a speed gun.\n", "Near the top of the inrun, there is a \"start gate\" – a metal or wooden beam – on which an athlete sits and awaits their signal to jump via a set of traffic lights (green, amber, and red). These lights are operated directly by Borek Sedlák. An athlete may enter the gate when amber is shown. If red is shown after an athlete has entered the gate, the jury will have deemed the wind conditions to be unfavourable for a safe jump. The athlete must then carefully exit the gate as they had entered it and await another opportunity to jump. Failure to dismount the gate within ten to fifteen seconds of being shown a red light, or jumping without having been given the signal to go, will disqualify the athlete.\n", "The second aspect of the compensation system involves the start gate position. If the gate is changed at any point during a round after at least one athlete has jumped, then all subsequent athletes are individually penalised with a points deduction based on how many positions the gate was moved up, or awarded additional points for the gate being lowered. In variable wind conditions requiring either a higher or lower inrun speed than originally anticipated, it is not uncommon for many gate changes to be made as a round wears on. In the era prior to gate compensation, athletes who had jumped before a gate adjustment had to quickly make their way back up the hill to jump again, which was always logistically difficult to arrange due to time constraints. Collectively the system is known as \"wind/gate compensation\", as points gained or lost due to the wind element are set against points gained or lost from gate changes, which is then reflected in an athlete's points score after a jump.\n", "The vertical drop for a GS course must be for men, and for women. The number of gates in this event is 56–70 for men and 46–58 for women. The number of direction changes in a GS course equals 11–15% of the vertical drop of the course in metres, 13–18% for children. As an example, a course with a vertical drop of would have 33–45 direction changes for an adult race.\n\nSection::::Speed.\n\nAlthough giant slalom is not the fastest event in skiing, on average a well-trained racer may reach average speeds of .\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n", "No ski poles are used, and no assistance from others (such as being pushed from the gate) is allowed. In heavy snow conditions the tracks can become clogged up, which reduces inrun speed and may cause an unpredictable descent for athletes. Event personnel standing by the sides of the inrun are often assigned to use leaf blowers to prevent the tracks from clogging up with snow.\n\nSection::::Rules and technique.:Takeoff and transition phase.\n", "For the World Cup downhill race in December 2012, the starting gate was at an elevation of above sea level with the finish line at , a vertical drop of . The course was in length, an average gradient of 27 percent (15 degrees), with a maximum gradient of 45 percent in the middle. Rahlves' time of 1:39.59 in December 2003 is the fastest in competition for the full course, an average speed of and an average vertical descent of per second. The course that year had a vertical drop of and a length of .\n", "On both courses, players must successfully pass through a number of gates on their way down the course, with gates on the downhill course spaced farther apart than those on the slalom course. Missing a gate adds a five-second penalty to a player's race time. As each player begins their race, the current fastest time is displayed at the starting line, with their final time displayed after the player crosses the finish line.\n\nSection::::Ports and other versions.\n", "A course is constructed by laying out a series of gates, formed by alternating pairs of red and blue poles. The skier must pass between the two poles forming the gate, with the tips of both skis and the skier's feet passing between the poles. A course has 55 to 75 gates for men and 40 to 60 for women. The vertical drop for a men's course is and slightly less for women. The gates are arranged in a variety of configurations to challenge the competitor.\n", "The vertical drop for a Super-G course must be between for men, for women, and for children. In the Olympic Winter Games, FIS World Ski Championships, and FIS World Cups, minimums are raised to for both men and women. Courses are normally at least in width, but sections with lower widths are permissible if the line and terrain before and after allow it. Higher widths can also be required if deemed necessary. Gates must be between and in width for open gates, and between and in width for vertical gates. The distance between turning poles of successive gates must be at least . The number of direction changes must be at least 7% of the course drop in meters (6% for Olympic Winter Games, FIS World Ski Championships and FIS World Cups).\n", "Gate and wind factors were introduced by the 2009 rules, to allow fairer comparison of results for a scoring compensation for variable outdoor conditions. Aerodynamics and take-off speed are important variables that affect the jump length, and if weather conditions change during a competition, the conditions will not be the same for all competitors. Gate factor is an adjustment made when the inrun (or start gate) length is adjusted from the initial position in order to provide optimal take-off speed. Since higher gates result in higher take-off speeds, and therefore present an advantage to competitors, points are subtracted when the starting gate is moved up, and added when the gate is lowered. An advanced calculation also determines compensation points for the actual unequal wind conditions at the time of the jump. These points are added or withdrawn from the original scores of the individual jump according to the wind conditions; when there is back wind, the points are added, and when there is front wind, the points are subtracted. Wind speed and direction are measured at five different points based on average value, which is determined before every competition.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gates\" – Gates consist of pairs of twin poles with a rectangular panel between the poles. Gates have an or larger opening.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n", "Three different gate types require a specific manner of crossing. Double cone gates must be crossed in level flight, single cone gates must be crossed in a 90° angle, and slalom flying through the chicane gates (knife or level flying not mandatory).\n\nPenalties are incurred for violations of the rules, as follows.\n\nSection::::Rules.:3 second penalty.\n\nBULLET::::- Hitting a gate (1st time)\n\nBULLET::::- Hitting a gate (2nd time)\n\nSection::::Rules.:2 second penalty.\n\nBULLET::::- Flying too high, through or over an Air Gate\n\nBULLET::::- Incorrect level (at an angle) crossing through an Air Gate\n\nSection::::Rules.:1 second penalty.\n\nBULLET::::- Insufficient or no smoke\n", "The motorized gate drastically reduced the number of false starts, but did not eliminate them. If the starter, who rides in the vehicle facing backward toward the horses, sees that the start is not fair in some way, he may issue a recall and order the race to be started again. Today, the start speed, acceleration, score up distance, and gate closing are controlled via a computer system, which takes control of the vehicle and provides a printout at the end of the score up.\n", "The Elite Race is an extreme slalom time trial. Each racer goes down the course one at a time to have the fastest time, while also navigating around “gates” that are determined by the organizers to make the racers do challenging and difficult maneuvers. Failure to go on the correct side of the gate results in a 50-second penalty, and touching the gate results in a 5-second penalty. Each racer gets 2 runs down the course, and the fastest time is recorded for the results.\n\nSection::::Race Format.:Expert Race.\n", "BULLET::::- Super-G: A speed event where athletes complete one run down a course that is shorter than the downhill but longer than the other alpine events. The number of gates to be passed through is dependent on the vertical drop of the course, but must include 35 direction changes for the men and 30 for women, and gates must be set at least 25m apart. The penalty for missing a gate is disqualification.\n", "Moments before being launched off the table, the athlete undergoes a sudden increase in g-force due to the curvature – or 'compression' – of the bottom of the inrun. They then initiate a very powerful, explosive jump that requires great leg strength. At this instant the skis are opened up into a horizontal \"V\" shape, legs straightened and spread apart, and arms held backwards as the athlete adopts their own unique flying position and enters the \"transition\". This highly aerodynamic \"V\" essentially turns the athlete into a 'flying wing', and all of this takes place in only a tenth of a second before the transition is then \"closed\" and the flying position maintained until the end of the jump.\n", "In the downhill mode, the player's goal is to reach the bottom of the ski course as rapidly as possible, while a timer records his relative success.\n\nIn the slalom mode, the player must similarly reach the end of the course as rapidly as he can, but must at the same time pass through a series of gates (indicated by a pair of closely spaced flagpoles). Each gate missed counts as a penalty against the player's time.\n\nSection::::Promotion.\n", "While starting gates are standard for flat racing, steeplechase tracks frequently still use earlier forms of starting barriers.\n\nSection::::Harness racing.\n", "In all forms of downhill, both at a local youth-level as well as the higher FIS international level, racers are allowed extensive preparation for the race, which includes daily course inspection and discussion with their coaches and teammates as well as several practice runs before the actual race. Racers do not make any unnecessary turns while on the course, and try to do everything they can to maintain the most aerodynamic position while negotiating turns and jumps.\n", "The \"ban'ei\" course consists of a dirt track with lanes separated by ropes laid in the sand. This creates ten lanes, each incorporating a starting gate and two hill-shaped obstacles. The second and steeper obstacle is called the Ban'ei Point. Horses haul sleds across this track, with the weight of each sled ranging from to 1 ton, as seen in the Ban'ei Kinen event.\n" ]	[ "Hitting gates doesn't slow down skiers that much." ]	[ "It does slow them down it is just a balnce between that and a more efficient route. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hitting gates doesn't slow down skiers that much." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It does slow them down it is just a balnce between that and a more efficient route. " ]
2018-04833	Why do so many Islamic countries have the moon and a star in their flag?	The crescent moon and star have a long history in the Middle East that actually predates Islam by a few centuries. The iconography was used by the Byzantines, for instance. It was used as a symbol by the Ottoman Empire, and it lives on in the flags of a number of former Ottoman Empire countries, like the ones you listed.	[ "BULLET::::- The flag of Turkey, which is very similar to the last flag of the old Ottoman Empire, has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations. During the time of the Ottomans the crescent began to be associated with Islam and this is reflected on the flags of Algeria, Azerbaijan, Comoros, Libya, Mauritania, Pakistan, Tunisia and Maldives\n", "The crescent moon symbol used as a form of blazon is not a feature of early Islam, as would be expected if it were linked to Pre-Islamic pagan roots. The use of the crescent symbol on Muslim flags originates during the later Middle Ages. 14th-century Muslim flags with an upward-pointing crescent in a monocolor field included the flags of Gabes, Tlemcen (Tilimsi), Damas and Lucania, Cairo, Mahdia, Tunis and Buda.\n", "Turkish historians tend to stress the antiquity of the crescent (not star-and-crescent) symbol among the early Turkic states in Asia. In Turkish tradition, there is an Ottoman legend of a dream of the eponymous founder of the Ottoman house, Osman I, in which he is reported to have seen a moon rising from the breast of a Muslim judge whose daughter he sought to marry. \"When full, it descended into his own breast. Then from his loins there sprang a tree, which as it grew came to cover the whole world with the shadow of its green and beautiful branches.\" Beneath it Osman saw the world spread out before him, surmounted by the crescent.\n", "In accounting for the crescent and star symbol, the Ottomans sometimes referred to a legendary dream of the eponymous founder of the Ottoman house, Osman I, in which he is reported to have seen a moon rising from the breast of a qadi whose daughter he sought to marry. \"When full, it descended into his own breast. Then from his loins there sprang a tree, which as it grew came to cover the whole world with the shadow of its green and beautiful branches.\" Beneath it Osman saw the world spread out before him, surmounted by the crescent.\n\nSection::::Legal basis.\n", "Islamic flags containing the calligraphy of the Quran were commonly used by the Mughal Emperor Akbar, it was the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, who is known to have inlaid the Crescent and Star symbol upon his personal shield, his son Aurangzeb is also known to have used similar shields and flags containing an upward Crescent and Star symbol. Various Nawabs, such as the Nawab of the Carnatic, also used the Crescent and Star symbols.\n\nSection::::Evidence adduced.:The Arab idol Hubal.\n", "The modern emblem of Turkey shows the star outside the arc of the crescent, as it were a \"realistic\" depiction of a conjunction of Moon and Venus, while in the 19th century, the Ottoman star and crescent was occasionally still drawn as the (classical but \"astronomically incorrect\") star-within-crescent.\n\nBy contrast, the designs of both the flags of Algeria and Tunisia (as well as Mauritania and Pakistan) place the star within the crescent.\n", "The crescent appears to have been adopted as an emblem on military flags by the Islamic armies from at least the 13th century, although the scholarly consensus holds that the widespread use of the crescent in Islam develops later, during the 14th to 15th century.\n\nThe use of such flags is reflected in the 14th-century \"Libro del Conoscimiento\" and the Catalan Atlas.\n\nExamples include the flags attributed to Gabes, Tlemcen, Tunis and Buda, Nubia/Dongola (documented by Angelino Dulcert in 1339) and the Mamluks of Egypt. \n", "Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of Carthage, located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries, and have become known as symbols of Islam, when in fact, they may be cultural symbols. Likewise, the sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient Punic religion, especially with the Sign of Tanit.\n\nSection::::Tunisian culture.:Cultural symbols.:Coat of arms.\n", "The moon is an extremely important symbol in Islam which has astrological, religious, and spiritual significance. Jihadi imagery typically simplifies this complex symbol, using to evoke the notion of the divine and a connection to Islamic identity and, for full moons in particular, the afterlife. When paired with images that reference martyrdom, the moon suggests that there will be a heavenly reward for the martyr. In the example image on the right, the presence of a white horse and clouds around the man's portrait indicate that he is a martyr, and the moon evokes the benefit he will gain for his sacrifice in heaven.\n", "The crescent appears in flags attributed to Tunis from as early as the 14th century \"Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms\", long before Tunis fell under Ottoman rule in 1574. The Spanish Navy Museum in Madrid shows two Ottoman naval flags dated 1613; both are swallow-tailed, one green with a white crescent near the hoist, the other white with two red stripes near the edges of the flag and a red crescent near the hoist. \n", "According to Ludvík Mucha, author of \"Webster's Concise Encyclopedia of Flags & Coats of Arms\", the white disk located in the center of the flag represents the sun. The red crescent and the five-pointed star, two ancient symbols of Islam, were most notably used on Ottoman flag and have since appeared on many flags of Islamic countries. The crescent is, from the viewpoint of an Arabic observer, supposed to bring good luck. The color red is a symbol of resistance against Turkish supremacy. Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of Carthage, located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries, and have become known as symbols of Islam, when in fact, they may be cultural symbols. Likewise, the sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient Punic religion, especially with the Sign of Tanit.\n", "This flag represented Libya from its independence in 1951 until the 1969 Libyan coup d'état. The symbolism of the star and crescent in the flag of the Kingdom of Libya was explained in an English language booklet, \"The Libyan Flag & The National Anthem\", issued by the Ministry of Information and Guidance of the Kingdom of Libya (year unknown) as follows: \"The crescent is symbolic of the beginning of the lunar month according to the Muslim calendar. It brings back to our minds the story of Hijra [migration] of our Prophet Mohammed from his home in order to spread Islam and teach the principles of right and virtue. The Star represents our smiling hope, the beauty of aim and object and the light of our belief in God, in our country, its dignity and honour which illuminate our way and puts an end to darkness.\"\n", "In addition to Ottoman imperial insignias, symbols appears on the flag of Bosnia Eyalet (1580–1867) and Bosnia Vilayet (1867–1908), as well as the flag of 1831 Bosnian revolt, while the symbols appeared on some representations of medieval Bosnian coat of arms too.\n", "Flags with crescents appear to have been used on Ottoman vessels since at least the 16th century. \n", "The adoption of star and crescent as the Ottoman state symbol started during the reign of Mustafa III (1757–1774) and its use became well-established during Abdul Hamid I (1774–1789) and Selim III (1789–1807) periods.\n\nA \"\" from 1793 states that the ships in the Ottoman navy have that flag, and various other documents from earlier and later years mention its use. \n", "Franz Babinger alludes to the possibility that the crescent was adopted from the Eastern Romans, noting that the crescent alone has a much older tradition also with Turkic tribes in the interior of Asia. Parsons considers this unlikely, as the star and crescent was not a widespread motif in the Eastern Roman Empire at the time of the Ottoman conquest.\n", "The crescent moon and star was a symbol used by the Ottoman Empire. Various states with Ottoman history have thus adopted this symbol into their present-day flags.\n\nSection::::Uses without socialist symbolism.:Symbol of animal relief.\n", "The official adoption of star and crescent as the Ottoman state symbol started during the reign of Mustafa III (1757–1774) and its use became well-established during Abdul Hamid I (1774–1789) and Selim III (1789–1807) periods. A \"\" (decree) from 1793 states that the ships in the Ottoman navy have that flag.\n\nMuhammad Ali, who became Pasha of Egypt in 1805, introduced the first national flag of Egypt, red with three white crescents, each accompanied by a white star. \n", "The white crescent with an eight-pointed star on a red field is depicted as the flag of a \"Turkish Man of War\" in Colton's \"Delineation of Flags of All Nations\" (1862). Steenbergen's \"\" of the same year shows a six-pointed star. A plate in \"Webster's Unabridged\" of 1882 shows the flag with an eight-pointed star labelled \"Turkey, Man of war\". The five-pointed star seems to have been present alongside these variants from at least 1857.\n", "Section::::Symbols.\n\nMany countries use symbols in their flags. There is no specific \"Symbol of Islam,\" just like there is not one Christian nor Hindu, Buddhist, Shinto (etc.) symbol. In some countries, a star inside a crescent moon is used as a symbol —but this was the Ottoman Empire's and later adopted much more widely in the Muslim world.\n\nSection::::Inscribed flags.\n", "While some Islamic organisations since the 1970s have embraced the crescent as their logo or emblem (e.g. \" Crescent International\" magazine, established 1980), Muslim publications tend to emphasize that the interpretation of the crescent, historically used on the banners of Muslim armies, as a \"religious symbol\" of Islam was an error made by the \"Christians of Europe\". The identification of the crescent as an \"Islamic symbol\" is mentioned by James Hastings as a \"common error\" to which \"even approved writers on Oriental subjects\" are prone as early as 1928.\n\nSection::::Heraldry.\n", "The crescent remains in use as astrological symbol and astronomical symbol representing the Moon. \n\nUse of a standalone crescent in flags is less common than the star and crescent combination. Crescents without stars are found in the South Carolina state flag (1861), the flag of the Maldives (1965), the \n\nflag of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (1981) and the flag of the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (c. 2002).\n\nNew Orleans is nicknamed \"the Crescent City\", and a crescent (or crescent and star) is used to represent the city in official emblems.\n", "While the crescent on its own is depicted as an emblem used on Islamic war flags from the medieval period, at least from the 13th century although it does not seem to have been in frequent use until the 14th or 15th century, the star and crescent in an Islamic context is more rare in the medieval period, but may occasionally be found in depictions of flags from the 14th century onward.\n\nSome Mughal era (17th century) round shields were decorated with a crescent or star and crescent.\n\nSection::::History.:Use in the Ottoman Empire.\n", "The same symbol was used in other national flags introduced during the 20th century, including the flags of Azerbaijan (1918, re-introduced 1991), Pakistan (1947), Malaysia (1948), Mauritania (1959), and the partially recognized states of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976) and Northern Cyprus (1983). The symbol also may represent flag of cities or emirates such as the emirate of Umm Al-Quwain.\n\nNational flags with a crescent alongside several stars:\n\nNational flags with a crescent only:\n\nSection::::Contemporary use.:Symbol of Islam.\n\nBy the mid 20th century, the symbol came to be re-interpreted as the symbol of Islam or the Muslim community.\n", "The Ottoman flag of 1844 with a white \"\"ay-yıldız\"\" (Turkish for \"crescent-star\") on a red background continues to be in use as the flag of the Republic of Turkey with minor modifications.\n\nOther Ottoman successor states using the star and crescent design in their flag are \n\nTunisia (1831), Libya (1951, re-introduced 2011) and Algeria (1958).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18492	How does a body-weight scale calculate my body fat %?	The scale has two contacts, one under each foot. A current is run through your body between the contacts and the scale measures the voltage needed to get to that current, which tells you the resistance of the body. Different types of tissue that make up your body have different resistances - muscle tissue is a pretty good conductor since it has a high water content, while fat is a bad conductor because it doesn't have any water. Based on the measured resistance, the scale estimates how much fat is in the body versus nonfat, which gets you to the total amount of water in the body, which gets you to the fat-free mass of the body, and then comparing the mass to the measured body weight gets the body fat percentage. There are a lot of points in there where the scale can make mistakes, so it's not a super accurate measurement. For example, if you're a little dehydrated, that'll throw off the measurement. So I'd take it with a grain of salt.	[ "Section::::Measurement techniques.:Anthropometric methods.:Skinfold methods.\n", "Section::::Measurement techniques.:Anthropometric methods.:Ultrasound.\n", "Body fat can be estimated from body mass index (BMI), a person's mass in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters; if weight is measured in pounds and height in inches, the result can be converted to BMI by multiplying by 703. There are a number of proposed formulae that relate body fat to BMI. These formulae are based on work by researchers published in peer-reviewed journals, but their correlation with body fat are only estimates; body fat cannot be deduced accurately from BMI.\n", "Section::::Measurement techniques.:Anthropometric methods.:Height and circumference methods.\n\nThere also exist formulas for estimating body fat percentage from an individual's weight and girth measurements. For example, the U.S. Navy circumference method compares abdomen or waist and hips measurements to neck measurement and height and other sites claim to estimate one's body fat percentage by a conversion from the body mass index. In the U.S. Navy the method is known as the \"rope and choke.\" There is limited information, however, on the validity of the \"rope and choke\" method because of its universal acceptance as inaccurate and easily falsified.\n", "There are several more complicated procedures that more accurately determine body fat percentage. Some, referred to as multicompartment models, can include DXA measurement of bone, plus independent measures of body water (using the dilution principle with isotopically labeled water) and body volume (either by water displacement or air plethysmography). Various other components may be independently measured, such as total body potassium.\n", "Section::::Measurement techniques.:Bioelectrical impedance analysis.\n", "Because most anthropometric formulas such as the Durnin-Womersley skinfold method, the Jackson-Pollock skinfold method, and the US Navy circumference method, actually estimate body density, not body fat percentage, the body fat percentage is obtained by applying a second formula, such as the Siri or Brozek described in the above section on density. Consequently, the body fat percentage calculated from skin folds or other anthropometric methods carries the cumulative error from the application of two separate statistical models.\n", "Body fat measurements are lower when measurements are taken shortly after consumption of a meal, causing a variation between highest and lowest readings of body fat percentage taken throughout the day of up to 4.2% of body fat.\n", "There are many other methods used to determine body fat percentage. Hydrostatic weighing, one of the most accurate methods of body fat calculation, involves weighing a person underwater. Two other simpler and less accurate methods have been used historically but are now not recommended. The first is the skinfold test, in which a pinch of skin is precisely measured to determine the thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer. The other is bioelectrical impedance analysis which uses electrical resistance. Bioelectrical impedance has not been shown to provide an advantage over BMI.\n", "A commonly used and simple one is the Mosteller formula:\n\nOther formulas for BSA in m include:\n\nA weight-based formula was proposed by Costeff and recently validated for the pediatric age group that does not include a square root, making it easier to use. It is [4W (kg) + 7]/[90 + W (kg)].\n\nSection::::Average values.\n\nAverage BSA for children of various ages, for men, and for women, can be estimated using statistical survey data and a BSA formula:\n", "The U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps also rely on the height and circumference method. For males, they measure the neck and waist just above the navel. Females are measured around the hips, waist, and neck. These measurements are then looked up in published tables, with the individual's height as an additional parameter. This method is used because it is a cheap and convenient way to implement a body fat test throughout an entire service.\n", "Body composition can also be measured using the skin fold test, which is performed using a tool called a caliper. It can be done in nine steps: \n\nBULLET::::1. Take measurements on the right side of the body.\n\nBULLET::::2. Mark client up.\n\nBULLET::::3. Pinch skin (KM) above mark\n\nBULLET::::4. Pull fat away from muscles\n\nBULLET::::5. Place caliper halfway between top and bottom of mark\n\nBULLET::::6. Allow caliper to settle (1–2 seconds)\n\nBULLET::::7. Take reading – repeat 15 seconds\n\nBULLET::::8. Add up total (4) – average\n\nBULLET::::9. Calculate body fat %\n", "Section::::Measurement techniques.:Near-infrared interactance.\n\nA beam of infra-red light is transmitted into a biceps. The light is reflected from the underlying muscle and absorbed by the fat. The method is safe, noninvasive, rapid and easy to use.\n\nSection::::Measurement techniques.:Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry.\n\nDual energy X-ray absorptiometry, or DXA (formerly DEXA), is a newer method for estimating body fat percentage, and determining body composition and bone mineral density.\n", "There is little scope for technician error as such, but factors such as eating, drinking and exercising must be controlled since hydration level is an important source of error in determining the flow of the electric current to estimate body fat. The instructions for use of instruments typically recommended not making measurements soon after drinking or eating or exercising, or when dehydrated. Instruments require details such as sex and age to be entered, and use formulae taking these into account; for example, men and women store fat differently around the abdomen and thigh region.\n", "Each (bare) foot may be placed on an electrode, with the current sent up one leg, across the abdomen and down the other leg. (For convenience, an instrument which must be stepped on will also measure weight.) Alternatively, an electrode may be held in each hand; calculation of fat percentage uses the weight, so that must be measured with scales and entered by the user. The two methods may give different percentages, without being inconsistent, as they measure fat in different parts of the body. More sophisticated instruments for domestic use are available with electrodes for both feet and hands.\n", "There exist various anthropometric methods for estimating body fat. The term \"anthropometric\" refers to measurements made of various parameters of the human body, such as circumferences of various body parts or thicknesses of skinfolds. Most of these methods are based on a statistical model. Some measurements are selected, and are applied to a population sample. For each individual in the sample, the method's measurements are recorded, and that individual's body density is also recorded, being determined by, for instance, under-water weighing, in combination with a multi-compartment body density model. From this data, a formula relating the body measurements to density is developed.\n", "A body fat meter is a widely available tool used to measure the percentage of fat in the human body. Different meters use various methods to determine the body fat to weight ratio. They tend to under-read body fat percentage.\n", "In males, mean percentage body fat ranged from 22.9% at age 16–19 years to 30.9% at age 60–79 years. In females, mean percentage body fat ranged from 32.0% at age 8–11 years to 42.4% at age 60–79 years.\n\nThe table below from the American Council on Exercise shows how average percentages differ according to the specified groups and categories:\n", "Section::::Typical body fat amounts.\n\nEpidemiologically, the percentage of body fat in an individual varies according to sex and age. Various theoretical approaches exist on the relationships between body fat percentage, health, athletic capacity, etc. Different authorities have consequently developed different recommendations for ideal body fat percentages.\n\nThis graph from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in the United States charts the average body fat percentages of Americans from samples from 1999–2004:\n", "Body Volume means the composition of a person and their body parts; each part of a person’s body (arms, legs, chest, etc.) has its own 3D shape, individual weight and measurement. An increase in the volume of fat and muscle normally corresponds with an increase or decrease of volume in that area of the body. BVI calculates a persons body fat composition from two images taken front and side on. A silhouette is extracted from these images and a 3D model created, from which detailed linear and volume measurements can be calculated. By comparing the 3D models to MRI data, BVI software is able to calculate fat distribution, and in particular visceral fat accumulated near the individual’s organs. The results will provide accurate measurements for waist to hip ratio, BMI, total body fat, visceral fat and BVI number.\n", "The skinfold estimation methods are based on a \"skinfold test\", also known as a \"pinch test\", whereby a pinch of skin is precisely measured by calipers, also known as a Plicometer, at several standardized points on the body to determine the subcutaneous fat layer thickness. These measurements are converted to an estimated body fat percentage by an equation. Some formulas require as few as three measurements, others as many as seven. The accuracy of these estimates is more dependent on a person's unique body fat distribution than on the number of sites measured. As well, it is of utmost importance to test in a precise location with a fixed pressure. Although it may not give an accurate reading of real body fat percentage, it is a reliable measure of body composition change over a period of time, provided the test is carried out by the same person with the same technique.\n", "However – contrary to the aforementioned internal and external cross-validation –, these formulae definitely proved unusable at least for adults and are presented here illustratively only.\n\nStill, the following formula designed for adults proved to be much more accurate at least for adults:\n\nOther indices may be used; the body adiposity index was said by its developers to give a direct estimate of body fat percentage, but statistical studies found this not to be so.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adipose tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Andreas Münzer\n\nBULLET::::- Body fat meter\n\nBULLET::::- Body water\n\nBULLET::::- Classification of obesity\n", "The ratio of the patient's height and waist measurement is multiplied by 20 before being subtracted from a number (shown in bold below) that adjusts for differences in gender and height: \n\nBULLET::::- RFM for adult males: 64 – 20 × (height / waist circumference)\n\nBULLET::::- RFM for adult females: 76 – 20 × (height / waist circumference)\n\nAlthough generally validated on a database of some 12,000 adults, RFM has not yet been evaluated in longitudinal studies of large populations to identify normal or abnormal RFM in relation to obesity-related health problems.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Body mass index (BMI)\n", "Methods using circumference have little acceptance outside the Department of Defense due to their negative reputation in comparison to other methods. The method's accuracy becomes an issue when comparing people with different body compositions, those with larger necks artificially generate lower body fat percentage calculations than those with smaller necks.\n\nSection::::Measurement techniques.:Anthropometric methods.:From BMI.\n", " The Withings Smart Body Analyzer is a smart scale that not only measures weight, but also calculates body mass index and fat mass, registers heart rate and indoor air quality/air temperature, and provides weather reports. The scale can store data for up to eight profiles at a time, recognizing users based on their weight. Measurements can be shared by text, email or social networking sites, such as Twitter.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18795	how do we know that we see like the same colors?	It’s actually assumed that we are different variants. We probably don’t see the same red but they are probably closely related, it’s not your red is my blue, more like your red is my burnt orange.	[ "Section::::Physiology of color perception.:Cone cells in the human eye.\n\nA range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.\n", "The characteristic colors are, from long to short wavelengths (and, correspondingly, from low to high frequency), red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived hue; the just-noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the blue-green and yellow wavelengths, to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure spectral colors are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable chromaticities can be quite high.\n", "Section::::Research.:Vision and colour theory.\n", "Primates are the only mammals with colour vision.\n\nThe Trichromatic theory was proposed in 1802 by Thomas Young. According to Young, the human visual system is able to create any colour through the collection of information from the three cones. The system will put together the information and systematize a new colour based on the amount of each hue that has been detected.\n\nSection::::Light modality.:Subliminal visual stimuli.\n", "In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a psychophysical approach is taken. Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them \"S\", \"M\", and \"L\". To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities (\"I\", \"I\", \"I\") for the \"S\", \"M\", and \"L\" lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their (\"I\", \"I\", \"I\") matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of \"S\", \"M\", \"L\" would have to be added with some intensity to the \"physical test color\", and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical.\n", "Color vision is how we perceive the objective color, which people, animals and machines are able to distinguish objects based on the different wavelengths of light reflected, transmitted, or emitted by the object. In humans, light is detected by the eye using two types of photoreceptors, cones and rods, which send signals to the visual cortex, which in turn processes those colors into a subjective perception. Color constancy is a process that allows the brain to recognize a familiar object as being a consistent color regardless of the amount or wavelengths of light reflecting from it at a given moment.\n", "The inverted spectrum thought experiment, originally developed by John Locke, invites us to imagine that we wake up one morning and find that for some unknown reason all the colors in the world have been inverted. Furthermore, we discover that no physical changes have occurred in our brains or bodies that would explain this phenomenon. Supporters of the existence of qualia argue that since we can imagine this happening without contradiction, it follows that we are imagining a change in a property that determines the way things look to us, but that has no physical basis. In more detail:\n", "Section::::Opponent process.\n\nThe color opponent process is a color theory that states that the human visual system interprets information about color by processing signals from cone and rod cells in an antagonistic manner. The three types of cone cells have some overlap in the wavelengths of light to which they respond, so it is more efficient for the visual system to record differences between the responses of cones, rather than each type of cone's individual response. The opponent color theory suggests that there are three opponent channels:\n\nBULLET::::- Red versus green.\n\nBULLET::::- Blue versus yellow\n", "Issac Newton (1642–1726/27) was the first to discover through experimentation, by isolating individual colors of the spectrum of light passing through a prism, that the visually perceived color of objects appeared due to the character of light the objects reflected, and that these divided colors could not be changed into any other color, which was contrary to scientific expectation of the day.\n\nSection::::Study.:Unconscious inference.\n", "Other examples of perceptual learning in the natural world include the ability to distinguish between relative pitches in music, identify tumors in x-rays, sort day-old chicks by gender, taste the subtle differences between beers or wines, identify faces as belonging to different races, detect the features that distinguish familiar faces, discriminate between two bird species (\"great blue crown heron\" and \"chipping sparrow\"), and attend selectively to the hue, saturation and brightness values that comprise a color definition.\n\nSection::::Brief history.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Vision.\n\nIn many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on the retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells captures information about the intensity, color, and position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina before the information is sent to the brain. In total, about 15 differing types of information are then forwarded to the brain proper via the optic nerve.\n", "The ability of the [[human eye]] to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells in the [[retina]] to light of different [[wavelengths]]. Humans are [[Trichromacy\|trichromatic]]—the retina contains three types of color receptor cells, or [[cone cell\|cones]]. One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that is perceived as blue or blue-violet, with wavelengths around 450 [[nanometre\|nm]]; cones of this type are sometimes called \"short-wavelength cones\", \"S cones\", or \"blue cones\". The other two types are closely related genetically and chemically: \"middle-wavelength cones\", \"M cones\", or \"green cones\" are most sensitive to light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 540 nm, while the \"long-wavelength cones\", \"L cones\", or \"red cones\", are most sensitive to light is perceived as greenish yellow, with wavelengths around 570 nm.\n", "When looking at a picture, people's brains are constantly making decisions about what object they are looking at, where they need to move their eyes next, and what they find to be the most salient aspects of the input stimulus. As these images hit the back of the retina, these stimuli are converted from varying wavelengths to a series of neural spikes called action potentials. These pattern of action potentials are different for different objects and different colors; we therefore say that the neurons are encoding objects and colors by varying their spike rates or temporal pattern. Now, if someone were to probe the brain by placing electrodes in the primary visual cortex, they may find what appears to be random electrical activity. These neurons are actually firing in response to the lower level features of visual input, possibly the edges of a picture frame. This highlights the crux of the neural decoding hypothesis: that it is possible to reconstruct a stimulus from the response of the ensemble of neurons that represent it. In other words, it is possible to look at spike train data and say that the person or animal being recorded is looking at a red ball.\n", "Section::::Wavelength and hue detection.\n\nIsaac Newton discovered that white light, after being split into its component colors when passed through a dispersive prism, could be recombined to make white light by passing them through a different prism. \n", "in some non-human species this polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.\n\nSection::::Physiology of color perception.:Theories.\n", "In the early 19th century, the concept of the visible spectrum became more definite, as light outside the visible range was discovered and characterized by William Herschel (infrared) and Johann Wilhelm Ritter (ultraviolet), Thomas Young, Thomas Johann Seebeck, and others.\n\nYoung was the first to measure the wavelengths of different colors of light, in 1802.\n\nThe connection between the visible spectrum and color vision was explored by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in the early 19th century. Their theory of color vision correctly proposed that the eye uses three distinct receptors to perceive color.\n\nSection::::Color perception across species.\n", "Newton, Goethe, and all other color theorists began by investigating light and colored bodies in order to find the cause of color. They should have started with an investigation of the effect, the given phenomenon, the changes in the eye, we can afterward investigate the external physical and chemical causes of those sensations.\n", "A popular theory in current research is \"weak-Whorfianism,' which is the theory that although there is a strong universal component to perception, cultural differences still have an impact. For example, a 1998 study found that while there was evidence of universal perception of color between speakers of Setswana and English, there were also marked differences between the two language groups.\n\nSection::::Evolved and learned CP.\n\nSection::::Evolved and learned CP.:Evolved CP.\n", "Vision in humans is due to a system that starts with rods and cones photoreceptors, passes through retinal ganglion cells and arrives in the brain visual cortex. Color vision is achieved through cone cells, each one able to distinguish between a continuous band of frequencies, retinal ganglion cells and the visual cortex.\n", "Besides the cones, which detect light entering the eye, the biological basis of the opponent theory involves two other types of cells: bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. Information from the cones is passed to the bipolar cells in the retina, which may be the cells in the opponent process that transform the information from cones. The information is then passed to ganglion cells, of which there are two major classes: magnocellular, or large-cell layers, and parvocellular, or small-cell layers. Parvocellular cells, or P cells, handle the majority of information about color and fall into two groups: one that processes information about differences between the firing of L and M cones, and one that processes differences between S cones and a combined signal from both L and M cones. The first subtype of cells is responsible for processing red–green differences, and the second process blue–yellow differences. P cells also transmit information about the intensity of light (how much of it there is) due to their receptive fields.\n", "Modulation of neural responses may correlate with phenomenal experiences. In contrast to the raw electrical responses that do not correlate with consciousness, the modulation of these responses by other stimuli correlates surprisingly well with an important aspect of consciousness: namely with the phenomenal experience of stimulus intensity (brightness, contrast). In the research group of Danko Nikolić it has been shown that some of the changes in the subjectively perceived brightness correlated with the modulation of firing rates while others correlated with the modulation of neural synchrony. An fMRI investigation suggested that these findings were strictly limited to the primary visual areas. This indicates that, in the primary visual areas, changes in firing rates and synchrony can be considered as neural correlates of qualia—at least for some type of qualia.\n", "According to the empirical framework, the visual system solves this problem by drawing on species and individual experience with retinal images that have signified different combinations of illuminance, reflectance, and transmittance in the past. Only those associations that led to appropriate behavior were retained through evolution and development, leading to a repertoire of neural associations and predispositions that ground color perception in the world.\n", "Color constancy works only if the incident illumination contains a range of wavelengths. The different cone cells of the eye register different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths of the light reflected by every object in the scene. From this information, the visual system attempts to determine the approximate composition of the illuminating light. This illumination is then \"discounted\" in order to obtain the object's \"true color\" or reflectance: the wavelengths of light the object reflects. This reflectance then largely determines the perceived color.\n\nSection::::Physiological basis.:Neural mechanism.\n", ", given depths at each point formula_13. Firstly the information needed to express one image in terms of the other is derived. This is called formula_14.\n\nA color difference function should be used to fairly measure the difference between colors. The color difference function is written \"cd\" in the following. The measure of the information needed to record the color matching between the two images is,\n", "Section::::Retinex theory.\n" ]	[ "We know we see the same colors.", "We see the same colors as other people," ]	[ "We assume the colors we see are slight variants. ", "We probably see close variations of colors to other people. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We know we see the same colors.", "We see the same colors as other people," ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "We assume the colors we see are slight variants. ", "We probably see close variations of colors to other people. " ]
2018-03111	Why do Executioners sterilize needles used for lethal injections?	In case there’s a last minute decision not to execute that person that day. If they already stabbed the person with a dirty needle and then the execution is called off at the very last second, and that person gets a blood born illness as a result of the dirty needle there could be legal trouble.	[ "The arm of the condemned person is swabbed with alcohol before the cannula is inserted. The needles and equipment used are sterilized. Questions have been raised about why these precautions against infection are performed despite the purpose of the injection being death. The several explanations include: cannulae are sterilized and have their quality heavily controlled during manufacture, so using sterile ones is a routine medical procedure. Secondly, the prisoner could receive a stay of execution after the cannulae have been inserted, as happened in the case of James Autry in October 1983 (he was eventually executed on March 14, 1984). Third, use of unsterilized equipment would be a hazard to the prison personnel in case of an accidental needle stick.\n", "Needle exchange programs were first established in 1981 in Amsterdam as a response from the injecting-drug community to an influx of hepatitis B. Spurred to urgency by the introduction of HIV/AIDS, needle syringe programs quickly became an integral component of public health across the developed world. These programs function by providing facilities in which people who use injecting drugs can receive sterile syringes and injection equipment. Preventing the transmission of blood-borne disease requires sterile syringes and injection equipment for each unique injection, which is necessarily predicated upon access and availability of these materials at no cost for those using them.\n", "Section::::Injection technology.\n\nWith more than sixteen billion injections administered annually worldwide, needles are the largest contributor to sharps waste. For this reason, many new technologies surrounding injections have been developed, mostly related to safety mechanisms. As these technologies have been developed, governments have attempted to make them commonplace to ensure sharps waste safety. In 2000, the Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act was passed, along with the 2001 Bloodborne Pathogens Standard.\n", "A new approach to reduce harm to IV drug users was recently started in Southern Nevada in 2017. Trac-B Exchange - Southern Nevada Harm Reduction Program was approved in early 2017 to help reduce the spread of HIV in \"People Who Inject Drugs\". In Nevada, the sharing of needles for drug injections has led to an increase in the spread of HIV and hepatitis B and C. In an effort to reduce the spread of blood borne pathogens, Southern Nevada installed vending machines to give access to sterile needles to those using them for drug injections. Individuals who use these vending machines are required to register with Trac-B and are allowed 2 boxes a week. The boxes contain sterile needles as well as other supplies necessary to reduce the risk of spreading blood borne pathogens. If this pilot program is successful in reducing the spread of bloodborne pathogens, we may see programs like this spread to other parts of the country.\n", "In countries where harm reduction programs are limited or non-existent, it is quite common for an IV users to use a single needle repeatedly or share with other users. It is also quite uncommon for a sterilizing agent to be used on needles and syringes. This creates a high risk population for the spread of bloodborne pathogens.\n", "Proper needle technique and hygiene is important to avoid skin irritation and injection-site infections. A new, sterile needle should be used each time, as needles get duller and more damaged with each use and reusing needles increases risk of infection. Needles should not be shared between people, as this increases risk of transmitting blood-borne pathogens. This can lead to infections and even lifelong disease.\n\nNeedles should be disposed of in sharps containers. This reduces the risk of accidental needle sticks and exposure to other people.\n\nSection::::Injection safety.\n", "Open burning of syringes, which is considered unsafe by the World Health Organization, is reported by half of the non-industrialized countries.\n\nAccording to one study, unsafe injections cause an estimated 1.3 million early deaths each year.\n\nTo improve injection safety, the WHO recommends:\n\nBULLET::::1. Changing the behavior of health care workers and patients\n\nBULLET::::2. Ensuring the availability of equipment and supplies\n\nBULLET::::3. Managing waste safely and appropriately\n\nA \"needle tract infection\" is an infection that occurs when pathogenic micro-organisms are seeded into the tissues of the body during an injection. Such infections are also referred to as \"needlestick infections\".\n", "BULLET::::- The few studies that specifically evaluated the effects of NEPs produced \"modest\" evidence of no impact on improper needle discards and injection frequency and \"weak\" evidence on lack of impact on numbers of drug users, high-risk user networks and crime trends.\n\nBULLET::::- Many NSPs do not operate on a strict one-for-one basis, increasing supply of both contaminated and sterile needles.\n", "Hypodermic needles are also used by untrained users in recreational intravenous drug use (e.g., injecting solutions of heroin and water). Before governments attained current levels of awareness about the spread of disease through shared needles, hypodermic syringes in many countries were available only by prescription. Thus, in order to limit the spread of blood-borne diseases such as hepatitis and HIV through shared injection equipment, many countries have needle exchange programs in most larger cities. In some countries, such programs are wholly or partially subsidized by the government. Blunted needles, manufactured without a sharp bevel and usually non-sterile, are used industrially for filling small containers or accurately applying small amounts of solvent or glue.\n", "On 28 May 2013, the Burnet Institute stated that it recommended 24-hour access to sterile injecting equipment in the Melbourne suburb of Footscray after the area's drug culture continued to grow after more than ten years of intense law enforcement efforts. The Institute's research concluded that public injecting behaviour is frequent in the area and injecting paraphernalia has been found in carparks, parks, footpaths and drives. Furthermore, people who inject drugs have broken into syringe disposal bins to reuse discarded equipment.\n\nSection::::International experience.:United Kingdom.\n", "More outreach programs for addiction treatment and infection prevention programs for injection drug users would be very beneficial. Public needle disposal and syringe service programs (SSPs) or needle exchange programs (NEPs) have also proven to reduce the number of needles discarded in public areas. According to the CDC, these programs are effective in the prevention of HIV, and they help reduce the risk of infection with hepatitis C virus. Additionally, in 2004, the Environmental Protection Agency came up with a number program options for safe disposal including:\n\nBULLET::::- Drop-off collection sites\n\nBULLET::::- Syringe exchange programs\n\nBULLET::::- Mail-back programs\n", "BULLET::::- One needle may be used as a guide, with the other needles placed along it to achieve a more precise position.\n\nBULLET::::- Sometimes, several passes may be needed to obtain enough cells for the intricate tests which the cytopathologists perform.\n\nAfter the needles are placed into the mass, cells are withdrawn by aspiration with a syringe and spread on a glass slide. The patient's vital signs are taken again, and the patient is removed to an observation area for about 3 to 5 hours.\n", "The 1950s also saw the rise and recognition of cross-contamination from used needles. This led to the development of the first fully disposable plastic syringe by New Zealand pharmacist Colin Murdoch in 1956. This period also marked a shift in interest from needle specifications to general sterility and safety. The 1980s saw the rise of the HIV epidemic and with it renewed concern over the safety of cross-contamination from used needles. New safety controls were designed on disposable needles to ensure the safety of medical workers in particular. These controls were implemented on the needles themselves, such as retractable needles, but also in the handling of used needles, particularly in the use of hard-surface disposal receptacles found in every medical office today.. \n", "The inoculation needle is sterilized using the aseptic technique. An open flame from an incinerator, a bunsen burner, or an alcohol burner is used to flame along the tip and the length of the needle that is to be in contact with the inoculum. For ease of manipulation it is common practice to hold the needle with the dominant hand as if handling a pencil. The needle will be flamed at a downward angle through the flame’s inner cone until it is red-hot. The downward angle will minimize the amount of microbial aerosols created.\n", "Newer models include a slide and lock safety device slid over the needle after use, which helps prevent accidental needlestick injury and reuse of used needles, which can transmit infectious disease such as HIV and viral hepatitis.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "A prominent method for addressing the issue of disease transmission among intravenous drug users are needle exchange programs (also known as syringe exchange programs, syringe service programs or needle-syringe programs), where people who inject drugs (PWID) can access sterile needles, syringes, and other paraphernalia. In addition to providing sterile devices used in drug injection, these programs often offer access to infectious disease testing, referrals for drug abuse or mental health treatment programs, and more. The idea behind harm reduction approaches is to slow disease transmission, such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B and C, and promote public health by reducing the practice of sharing used needles.\n", "Probably the most controversial decision taken by Morse is the yellow box program, which provides safe receptacles for used syringes and needles. This decision was described by William T. Breault, founder and head of the Main South Alliance for Public Safety, as a rogue decision taken in the wrong direction. Morse intended this program to be a common use for drug addicts and diabetics and floated the idea in 2005. This met with stiff opposition from people who felt that the program was enabling towards drug users. Opponents were also angry that community discussion was not undertaken when deciding the project.\n", "Chemical sterilization, also referred to as cold sterilization, can be used to sterilize instruments that cannot normally be disinfected through the other two processes described above. The items sterilized with cold sterilization are usually those that can be damaged by regular sterilization. Commonly, glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde are used in this process, but in different ways. When using the first type of disinfectant, the instruments are soaked in a 2-4% solution for at least 10 hours while a solution of 8% formaldehyde will sterilize the items in 24 hours or more. Chemical sterilization is generally more expensive than steam sterilization and therefore it is used for instruments that cannot be disinfected otherwise. After the instruments have been soaked in the chemical solutions, they are mandatory to be rinsed with sterile water which will remove the residues from the disinfectants. This is the reason why needles and syringes are not sterilized in this way, as the residues left by the chemical solution that has been used to disinfect them cannot be washed off with water and they may interfere with the administered treatment. Although formaldehyde is less expensive than glutaraldehydes, it is also more irritating to the eyes, skin and respiratory tract and is classified as a potential carcinogen.\n", "Since the full sanction of syringe exchange programs (SEP) by then Mayor Frank Jordan in 1993, the San Francisco Department of Public Health has been responsible for the management of syringe access and the proposal disposal of these devices in the city. This sanction, which was originally executed as a state of emergency to address the HIV epidemic, allowed SEPs to provide sterile syringes, take back used devices and operate as a service for health education to support individuals struggling with drug abuse. Since then, it was approximated that from July 1, 2017 to December 31, 2017, only 1,672,000 out of the 3,030,000 distributed needles (60%) were returned to the designated sites. In April 2018, acting Mayor Mark Farrell allocated $750,000 towards the removal of abandoned needles littering the streets of San Francisco. \n", "In South Africa, where three nuns Clara, Mary, and Hilde arrive at a plantation where they are to give aid. Clara who is very head-strong goes to great lengths to look after the family of a young rape victim, whose grandmother has died, and who is cared for by her older brother. She asks for help from the plantation owner Hallyday, who makes sexual advances on her. Eventually she gives in and allows Hallyday to have sex with her, if he agrees to help the family she looks after. She eventually discovers that the older brother in the family is re-using the plantation's needles, effectively spreading infections amongst the people who live and work there. Following this, three men break into the nuns' bedroom and rape them. The nuns leave the plantation soon after, but as the car pulls away, Clara gets out and walks back to the plantation, removing her habit as she goes.\n", "Although this is a new idea in the United States, it was tested in Europe over 20 years ago. In order to combat the AIDS epidemic that was spreading across Europe, France allowed pharmacies to dispense needles without a prescription and implemented needle exchange programs. In 1996, they began a pilot program of syringe vending machines, similar to a coin-operated vending machine. The first vending machines were placed in Marseille due to its high occurrence of AIDS caused by sharing of needles. The results of their study was published in 1999. They found that when the availability of syringes increased, more and more people began to purchase sterile needles. It also provided a discrete way for people to purchase needles without having to feel embarrassed going into a pharmacy. They theorized that with greater access to sterile needles, they would expect to see a reduction in bloodborne pathogen cases.\n", "BULLET::::- The Essure procedure is one such transluminal sterilization technique. In this procedure, polyethylene terephthalate fiber inserts are placed into the fallopian tubes, eventually inducing scarring and occlusion of the tubes. Following successful insertion and occlusional response, the Essure procedure is 99.74% effective based on five years of follow-up, with zero pregnancies reported in clinical trials.\n\nBULLET::::- Quinacrine has also been used for transluminal sterilization, but despite a multitude of clinical studies on the use of quinacrine and female sterilization, no randomized, controlled trials have been reported to date and there is some controversy over its use. See also mepacrine.\n", "BULLET::::- Nitrous Oxide (Laughing Gas). This will provide sedation and reduce anxiety for the patient, along with some mild analgesic effects.\n\nBULLET::::- Inhalation General Anesthesia. This will eliminate all pain and also all memory of any needle procedure. However, it is often regarded as a very extreme solution. It is not covered by insurance in most cases, and most physicians will not order it. It can be risky and expensive and may require a hospital stay.\n", "In general, surgical instruments and medications that enter an already aseptic part of the body (such as the bloodstream, or penetrating the skin) must be sterile. Examples of such instruments include scalpels, hypodermic needles, and artificial pacemakers. This is also essential in the manufacture of parenteral pharmaceuticals.\n\nPreparation of injectable medications and intravenous solutions for fluid replacement therapy requires not only sterility but also well-designed containers to prevent entry of adventitious agents after initial product sterilization.\n", "On occasion, difficulties inserting the intravenous needles have also occurred, sometimes taking over half an hour to find a suitable vein. Typically, the difficulty is found in convicts with diabetes or a history of intravenous drug use. Opponents argue that the insertion of intravenous lines that take excessive amounts of time are tantamount to being cruel and unusual punishment. In addition, opponents point to instances where the intravenous line has failed, or when adverse reactions to drugs or unnecessary delays happen during the process of execution.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16602	Why does heavy rain come down in "sheets"?	The sheets of rain are following the pattern of the guessing wind. As a gust passes through, it will move around the droplets of rain falling - blowing some ahead of it, and slowing down the fall of some by blowing them upwards into the air again. Once the first has passed the rain 'caught' by it will then all fall at once in a slightly heavier sheet.	[ "Section::::Singles.\n\nSection::::Singles.:\"30 Sexy\".\n", "Section::::In \"Heavy Rain\".\n", "When the Lighthouse Family released \"Raincloud\", they reached to #6 in the UK Singles Chart in October 1997. This meant that this was their second Top 10 hit and their first from their album \"Postcards From Heaven\". They were in the UK singles Chart for 7 weeks.\n", "The simplest sort of rain wear is a two layer sandwich. The outer layer is typically nylon or polyester and provides strength. The inner one is polyurethane (abbreviated: PU), and provides water resistance, at the cost of breathability.\n", "Section::::Motorsport.\n", "BULLET::::- Rain: precipitation that reaches the ground as liquid, often in a precipitation shaft.\n\nBULLET::::- Virga: precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n", "Section::::Non-ideal rough solid surfaces.:Cassie–Baxter model.:\"Petal effect\" vs. \"lotus effect\".\n", "An exception to this rain is in the Atlantic. Sometimes, a surge of dry air called the Saharan Air Layer (SAL) follows a tropical wave, leaving cloudless skies, as convection is capped by the dry layer inversion. Also, any dust in the SAL reflects sunlight, cooling the air below it.\n\nSection::::Atlantic.\n", "Section::::Parallel fail-over links.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "Hard Rain Falling\n\nHard Rain Falling is a 1966 crime novel written by Don Carpenter. The novel was Carpenter's first published book, and follows the adventures of Jack Levitt, an orphaned teenager living off his wits in the fleabag hotels and seedy pool halls of Portland, Oregon.\n", "Rain in Spain does not actually stay mainly in the plain; it falls mainly in the Green Spain. In Spanish, the phrase was translated as \"La lluvia en Sevilla es una maravilla\" (The rain in Seville is a miracle). The lyric about Hertford, Hereford, and Hampshire contains an implicature (but not an entailment) that hurricanes ever occur at all in these areas. This implicature is false as the only hurricane-force winds (≥ 64 knots) that do occur in these areas result from extratropical cyclones, which differ from hurricanes in their causes and dynamics.\n\nSection::::Translations.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n", "Asphalt roll roofing\n\nAsphalt roll roofing or membrane is a roofing material commonly used for buildings that feature a low sloped roof pitch in North America. The material is based on the same materials used in asphalt shingles; an organic felt or fiberglass mat, saturated with asphalt, and faced with granular stone aggregate. \n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Process.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Why Does It Always Rain on Me?\" – 4:27\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Village Man\" – 3:18\n\nAmerican EP\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Why Does It Always Rain on Me?\" – 4:27\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Village Man\" - 3:18\n\nBULLET::::3. \"The Urge for Going\" – 6:04\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Driftwood\" (live at the Link Café, Glasgow) – 4:07\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Slide Show\" (live at the Link Café, Glasgow) – 3:15\n\nAustralian single\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Why Does It Always Rain on Me?\" – 4:27\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Village Man\" – 3:18\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Driftwood\" (live at the Link Café, Glasgow) – 4:07\n", "Sheet erosion is common in recently plowed fields and bare ground where the substrate, typically soil, is not consolidated. The resulting loss of material by sheet erosion may result in the destruction of valuable topsoils. Tough grass hinders the development of sheet flow. The sheet erosion caused by a single rainstorm may account for the loss of up to hundred ton of small particles in an acre.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n", "BULLET::::- The particulates that rain dust carries are important for the formation of long-term soil counteracting, in large part, the effects of soil erosion. The amount of solids in rain dust have been estimated at 5.3 grams per m (in a study made in Montseny, Catalonia) in this location the dust provides 34% of the calcium needed by the holm oak. The amount of the deposition of dust particles is highly variable depending on the year.\n\nBULLET::::- Saharan dust significantly increases the pH of rain water. This may counteract the effects of acid rain.\n", "BULLET::::- The Scandinavian Mountains create a rain shadow for lowland areas east of the mountain chain and prevents the Oceanic climate from penetrating further east; thus Bergen and a place like Brekke in Sogn, west of the mountains, receive an annual percipitation of 2,250 mm and 3575 mm respectively, while Oslo receives only 760 mm, and Skjåk, a municipality situated in a deep valley, receives only 280 mm.\n\nSection::::Regions of notable rain shadow.:Africa.\n", "Came a traveler down the valley, asked if he could find a bed.\n\nYes, try the road, the kindly squatter said.\n\nThen, could you point me out the way to find a tavern or an Inn?\n\nQuite a little piece I reckon, tho I've never been!\n\nAnd, when the rain came down on the cabin floor,\n\nThe squatter only fiddled all the more.\n\nWhy don't you mend your roof, said the traveler bold.\n\nHow can I mend my cabin when the rain is wet and cold?\n\nSquatter pick a sunny morning when the air is dry and nice,\n", "When Travis began to perform this song at the 1999 Glastonbury Festival, after being sunny for several hours, it began to rain exactly when the first line was sung.\n\nIn a poll by listeners of Absolute Radio the song was ranked 39th on a list of the top 100 songs of the 1990s.\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n\nThe phrase does not appear in Shaw's original play \"Pygmalion\", on which \"My Fair Lady\" is based, but it is used in the 1938 film of the play. According to \"The Disciple and His Devil\", the biography of Gabriel Pascal by his wife Valerie, it was he who introduced the famous phonetic exercises \"The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain\" and \"In Hertford, Hereford, and Hampshire, hurricanes hardly ever happen\" into the script of the film, both of which were later used in the song in \"My Fair Lady\".\n", "In business, a rainmaker is a person who brings in new business and wins new accounts almost by magic, since it is often not readily apparent how this new business activity is caused. It means generating substantial new business or additional cash flow from sources sometimes outside established business channels, sometimes by connecting with people in non-traditional or hidden markets, and sometimes by prompting current clients to spend more money. A rainmaker is usually a key figure in the business or organization, not merely a salesperson, but a principal or executive who is usually highly regarded within the enterprise.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01071	How are pre-cooked, non-frozen, TV dinners stay unspoiled without refridgeration or preservatives?	They're cooked and packed in a clean environment. Then they are sealed in a pack that does two things: Protect them from any bacteria getting in to spoil the food. Prevent air from entering so any bacteria not killed by the cooking can't grow and spoil the food.	[ "Following this, the dinners are either covered with aluminum foil or paper, and the product is tightly packed with a partial vacuum created to ensure no evaporation takes place that can cause the food to dry out. Then the packaged dinners are placed in a refrigerated storage facility, transported by refrigerated truck, and stored in the grocer's freezer. TV dinners prepared with the aforementioned steps—that is, frozen and packaged properly—can remain in near-perfect condition for a long time, so long as they are stored at -18 °C during shipping and storage.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.\n", "The freezing process tends to degrade the taste of food and the meals are thus heavily processed with extra salt and fat to compensate. In addition, stabilizing the product for a long period typically means that companies will use partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for some items (typically dessert). Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are high in trans fats and are shown to adversely affect cardiovascular health. The dinners are almost always significantly less nutritious than fresh food and are formulated to remain edible after long periods of storage, thus often requiring preservatives such as butylated hydroxytoluene. There is, however, some variability between brands.\n", "Modern-day frozen dinners tend to come in microwave-safe containers. Product lines also tend to offer a larger variety of dinner types. These dinners, also known as microwave meals, can be purchased at most supermarkets. They are stored frozen. To prepare them, the plastic cover is removed or vented, and the meal is heated in a microwave oven for a few minutes. They are convenient since they essentially require no preparation time other than the heating, although some frozen dinners may require the preparer to briefly carry out an intermediate step (such as stirring mashed potatoes midway through the heating cycle) to ensure adequate heating and uniform consistency of component items.\n", "The term \"TV dinner\" was first used as part of a brand of packaged meals developed in 1953 by the company C.A. Swanson & Sons (the name in full was \"TV Brand Frozen Dinner\"). The original \"TV Dinner\" came in an aluminum tray and was heated in an oven. In the United States, the term is synonymous with any prepackaged meal or dish (\"dinner\") purchased frozen in a supermarket and heated at home.\n\nNow, most frozen food trays are made of a microwaveable and disposable material, usually plastic.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The food undergoes a process of cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen. After the food is placed on the conveyor belt, it is sprayed with liquid nitrogen that boils on contact with the freezing food. This method of flash-freezing fresh foods is used to retain natural quality of the food. When the food is chilled through cryogenic freezing, small ice crystals are formed throughout the food that, in theory, can preserve the food indefinitely if stored safely. Cryogenic freezing is widely used as it is a method for rapid freezing, requires almost no dehydration, excludes oxygen thus decreasing oxidative spoilage, and causes less damage to individual freezing pieces. Due to the fact that the cost of operating cryogenic freezing is high, it is commonly used for high value food products such as TV dinners, which is a $4.5 billion industry a year that is continuing to grow with the constant introduction of new technology.\n", "Unfrozen pre-cooked ready meals, which are merely chilled and require less time to reheat, are also popular and are sold by most supermarkets. Chilled ready meals are intended for immediate reheating and consumption. Although most can be frozen by the consumer after purchase, they can either be heated from frozen or may have to be fully defrosted before reheating.\n\nMany different varieties of frozen and chilled ready meals are now generally available in the UK, including \"gourmet\" recipes, organic and vegetarian dishes, traditional British and foreign cuisine, and smaller children's meals.\n\nSection::::Invention.\n", "The production process of TV dinners is highly automated and undergoes three major steps. Those steps are food preparation, tray loading, and freezing. During food preparation, vegetables and fruits are usually placed on a movable belt and washed, then are placed into a container to be steamed or boiled for 1–3 minutes. This process is referred to as blanching, and is used as a method to destroy enzymes in the food that can cause chemical changes negatively affecting overall flavor and color of the fruit and vegetables. As for meats, prior to cooking, they are trimmed of fat and cut into proper sizes. The fish is usually cleaned and cut into fillets, and poultry is usually washed thoroughly and dressed. Meats are then seasoned, placed on trays, and are cooked in an oven for a predetermined amount of time. After all the food is ready to be packaged, it is sent to the filling lines. The food is placed in its compartments as the trays pass under numerous filling machines; to ensure that every packaged dinner gets an equal amount of food, the filling devices are strictly regulated.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.\n", "Ruby stocked up on what she calls \"vintage dinners\" – frozen TV dinners that were taken off the market when health experts discovered that some of the additives were causing cancer. She still serves them on special occasions like Thanksgiving for her family.\n\nSection::::Biography.:Neighborhood.\n", "Each MRE weighs , depending on the menu. Since MREs contain water, they weigh more than freeze-dried meals providing equivalent calories.\n\nSection::::Requirements.:Resale status.\n\nAs a result of earlier unauthorized sales to civilians, the Department of Defense requires that \n\n\"U.S. Government Property, Commercial Resale is Unlawful\"\n", "BULLET::::- Pasteurized meals requiring refrigeration, such as ‘’Freshpet’’ products, are lightly cooked and then quickly sealed in a vacuum package. Then they are refrigerated until served. This type of dog food is extremely vulnerable to spoiling if not kept at a cool temperature and has a shelf life of 2–4 months, unopened.\n\nBULLET::::- Specialty ‘‘small batch’’ type feeds sold through specialty or online stores generally consist of some form of cooked meat, ground bone, pureed vegetables, taurine supplements, and other multivitamin supplements. Some pet owners use human vitamin supplements, and others use vitamin supplements specifically engineered for dogs.\n", "First put into service by the U.S. Space program, MREs featured specially designed meal pouches known as \"retort packages\". The pouches, made from multiple layers of flexible laminate, allowed for the sterile packaging of a wide variety of fully cooked, thermo stabilized (heat-treated) high caloric (1,300 on average) meals. They could be eaten cold, warmed by submersing in hot water, or through the use of a flameless ration heater, a meal component introduced by the military in 1992.\n", "Section::::Commercial cat food.:Dry food.\n\nDry food (8–10% moisture) is generally made by extrusion cooking under high heat and pressure. Fat may then be sprayed on the food to increase palatability, and other minor ingredients, such as heat-sensitive vitamins, which would be destroyed in the extrusion process, may be added. Dry food is most often packed in multi-wall paper bags, sometimes with a plastic film layer; similar bag styles with film laminates or coextrusions are also used.\n\nSection::::Commercial cat food.:Wet food.\n", "BULLET::::- Check expiration dates and follow the safe handling instructions printed on every package\n\nBULLET::::- Separate from non-packaged foods like produce\n\nBULLET::::- Wash hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds before and after handling the product\n\nBULLET::::- Cook to 74 °C (165 °F)\n\nBULLET::::- Wash all cooking supplies that contact the ground turkey\n\nBULLET::::- If there is a product recall, return it or dispose of it\n\nBULLET::::- Refrigerate leftovers right away\n\nSection::::Salmonella.\n", "Section::::History.:TV dinner brand.\n\nThe Swanson & Sons' TV dinner branded frozen meal, sold 5,000 units when it was first introduced in 1953; just one year later, the company had sold over 10,000,000 TV dinners. The company discontinued its successful butter and margarine business to concentrate on a poultry-based line of canned and frozen products. In April 1955, Swanson's 4,000 employees and 20 plants were acquired by the Campbell Soup Company. By 1956, the Swanson brothers were selling 13 million TV dinners annually.\n", "Many foods from the Russian space program are packaged in cans and tins. These are heated through electro-resistive (ohmic) methods, opened with a can-opener, and the food inside consumed directly. Russian soups are hydrated and consumed directly from their packages.\n", "TV dinner\n\nA TV dinner (also called prepackaged meal, ready-made meal, ready meal, frozen dinner, frozen meal and microwave meal) is a packaged frozen meal that usually comes portioned for an individual, but may also be a single dish intended to be shared. It requires very little preparation and may contain a number of separate elements that comprise a single-serving meal.\n", "Several smaller companies had conceived of frozen dinners earlier (see Invention section below), but the first to achieve success was Swanson. The first Swanson-brand TV Dinner was produced in the United States and consisted of a Thanksgiving meal of turkey, cornbread dressing, frozen peas and sweet potatoes packaged in a tray like those used at the time for airline food service. Each item was placed in its own compartment. The trays proved to be useful: the entire dinner could be removed from the outer packaging as a unit, the tray with its aluminum foil covering could be heated directly in the oven without any extra dishes, and one could eat the meal directly from the tray. The product was cooked for 25 minutes at and fit nicely on a TV tray table. The original TV Dinner sold for 98 cents, and had a production estimate of 5,000 dinners for the first year.\n", "In the United Kingdom, prepared frozen meals first became widely available in the late 1970s. Since then they have steadily grown in popularity with the increased ownership of home freezers and microwave ovens. Demographic trends such as the growth of smaller households have also influenced the sale of this and other types of convenience food. In 2003, the United Kingdom spent £5 million a day on ready meals, and was the largest consumer in Europe.\n", "The identity of the TV Dinner's inventor has been disputed. In one account, first publicized in 1996, retired Swanson executive Gerry Thomas said he conceived the idea after the company found itself with a huge surplus of frozen turkeys because of poor Thanksgiving sales. Thomas' version of events has been challenged by the \"Los Angeles Times\", members of the Swanson family and former Swanson employees. They credit the Swanson brothers with the invention.\n", "BULLET::::- Instant mashed potatoes have been through an industrial process of cooking, mashing and dehydrating to yield a packaged convenience food that can be reconstituted in the home in seconds by adding hot water and/or milk, producing a close approximation of mashed potatoes with very little expenditure of time and effort. A similar product is dehydrated shredded potatoes.\n\nSection::::Plant foods.:Dried vegetables.:V.\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable chips can be prepared by simply drying or by frying sliced vegetables.\n\nSection::::Plant foods.:Dried seeds.\n", "During operation, fully cooked meat or cheese logs arrive sealed in impermeable casings. The logs go through a casing sanitation step that involves being treated with a sanitizing liquid before the casings are removed from the logs. The logs then undergo a postlethality treatment by passing through an infrared pasteurization tunnel to kill pathogens on the logs. The logs are then mechanically transferred to slicers, sliced, and placed in sealed packages that are transferred out of the processing cell. The mechanical transfers decrease the risk of product contamination by reducing handling of product by personnel .\n", "There are two main packaging systems for dried pasta: cellophane bags which are moisture-proof, easy to use in automatic machines, but difficult to stack, and boxes which are easy to stack and print advertising, and protect the fragile pastas. In packaging line the product is first scaled, then sealed in the package, detected for open flap and metals, double-checked the weight and last packed in large cases.\n", "More common staples and condiments do not have a classification and are known simply by the item name:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shelf Stable Tortillas\" - Tortillas that have been heat treated and specially packaged in an oxygen-free nitrogen atmosphere to prevent the growth of mold.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Condiments\" - Liquid salt solution, oily pepper paste, mayonnaise, ketchup, and mustard.\n\nSection::::Consumer derivatives.\n", "Each MRE meal contains approximately 1,200 calories. They are prepared to be eaten within a twenty-one day period. Packaging requirements are strict in order to maintain health codes. For example, MREs are created to withstand parachute drops from 1,250 feet high. The packaging itself is made to survive a life shelf of three and a half years at 81 degrees Fahrenheit, nine months at 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and can even stay safe through short durations of −60 degrees Fahrenheit.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22552	How do linguists research pre-written languages like Proto-Indo European without any evidence?	tl;dr: It's a (very carefully-thought-out) educated guess. A little background first: Languages change over time, usually very slowly and in subtle ways. For example, some sounds are so similar that when someone is talking fast, you might not hear the difference and learn the "wrong" version. If enough people hear the other thing and teach their kids, the word changes in that village. Twenty miles away, they're still saying that word the way they always have, but they've changed some other word that your village didn't. Stick some wolves in the forest so no one travels that way, and eventually, with the two village never talking to each other, they start talking differently. The teenagers make up cool new slang. They start hearing an "accent" when they meet someone from the other village. The accent gets stronger as they keep changing without each other. Then, one day, their kids can't understand each other. They speak different languages. Now, to answer your question: Let's say they all start writing at the same time. So you know how they talk at that point. It hasn't been that long since village A and B were talking the same, but you can see some differences. If they both have the same word for something, they probably had the same word when they were together. If the word is different, but it's still pretty close, then you do have to guess at what it used to be. BUT we can make pretty good guesses. It's fairly likely that only one of them changed. Say village A says the word "fifth" and village B has the easier-to-say word "fith". Do you think village A added an extra sound to "fith" to make it harder to say? Or that village B simplified the word over time? Both are possible, but one answer makes a lot more sense, and matches what we see modern languages doing. Researchers do this with grammar too, not just words, and they have a lot more than just two languages/dialects to work with, all at different stages of "time spent apart".	[ "The comparative method follows the Neogrammarian rule: the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception. The method compares languages and uses the sound laws to find a common ancestor. For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English: \"piede\" and \"foot\", \"padre\" and \"father\", \"pesce\" and \"fish\". Since there is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can assume that these languages stem from a common parent language.\n", "In most cases, the ability to identify substrate influence in a language requires knowledge of the structure of the substrate language. This can be acquired in numerous ways:\n\nBULLET::::- The substrate language, or some later descendant of it, still survives in a part of its former range;\n\nBULLET::::- Written records of the substrate language may exist to various degree;\n\nBULLET::::- The substrate language itself may be unknown entirely, but it may have surviving close relatives that can be used a base of comparison.\n", "In the mid-1990s a group at Pennsylvania University computerised the comparative method and used a different IE database with 20 ancient languages. In the biological field several software programs were then developed which could have application to historical linguistics. In particular a group at the University of Auckland developed a method that gave controversially old dates for IE languages. A conference on \"Time-depth in Historical Linguistics\" was held in August 1999 at which many applications of quantitative methods were discussed. Subsequently many papers have been published on studies of various language groups as well as comparisons of the methods.\n", "The method of internal reconstruction is used to compare patterns within one dialect, without comparison with other dialects and languages, to try to arrive at an understanding of regularities operating at an earlier stage in that dialect. It has also been used to infer information about earlier stages of PIE than can be reached by the comparative method.\n\nUsing the method of mass comparison, the IE languages are sometimes hypothesized to be part of super-families such as Nostratic or Eurasiatic.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Preliminary work.\n", "The findings of historical linguistics are often used as a basis for hypotheses about the groupings and movements of peoples, particularly in the prehistoric period. In practice, however, it is often unclear how to integrate the linguistic evidence with the archaeological or genetic evidence. For example, there are numerous theories concerning the homeland and early movements of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, each with its own interpretation of the archaeological record.\n\nSection::::Sub-fields of study.\n\nSection::::Sub-fields of study.:Comparative linguistics.\n", "The concept of actually reconstructing an Indo-European proto-language was suggested by William Wotton in 1713, while showing, among others, that Icelandic (\"Teutonic\"), the Romance languages and Greek were related.\n\nIn 1741 Gottfried Hensel (1687–1767) published a language map of the world in his \"Synopsis Universae Philologiae\". He still believed that all languages were derived from Hebrew.\n", "The existence of proto-languages and the validity of the comparative method is verifiable in cases where the reconstruction can be matched to a known language, which may only be known as a shadow in the loanwords of another language. For example, Finnic languages such as Finnish have borrowed many words from an early stage of Germanic, and the shape of the loans matches the forms that have been reconstructed for Proto-Germanic. Finnish \"kuningas\" 'king' and \"kaunis\" 'beautiful' match the Germanic reconstructions \"kuningaz\" and \"skauniz\" ( German \"König\" 'king', \"schön\" 'beautiful').\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Problems with the tree model.:Additional models.\n", "An output of a quantitative historical linguistic analysis is normally a tree or a network diagram. This allows summary visualisation of the output data but is not the complete result. A tree is a connected acyclic graph, consisting of a set of vertices (also known as \"nodes\") and a set of edges (\"branches\") each of which connects a pair of vertices. An internal node represents a linguistic ancestor in a phylogenic tree or network. Each language is represented by a path, the paths showing the different states as it evolves. There is only one path between every pair of vertices. Unrooted trees plot the relationship between the input data without assumptions regarding their descent. A rooted tree explicitly identifies a common ancestor, often by specifying a direction of evolution or by including an \"outgroup\" that is known to be only distantly related to the set of languages being classified. Most trees are binary, that is a parent has two children. A tree can always be produced even though it is not always appropriate. A different sort of tree is that only based on language similarities / differences. In this case the internal nodes of the graph do not represent ancestors but are introduced to represent the conflict between the different splits (\"bipartitions\") in the data analysis. The \"phenetic distance\" is the sum of the weights (often represented as lengths) along the path between languages. Sometimes an additional assumption is made that these internal nodes do represent ancestors.\n", "The Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses are tentative identifications of the \"Urheimat\", or primary homeland, of the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European language. Such identifications attempt to be consistent with the glottochronology of the language tree and with the archaeology of those places and times. Identifications are made on the basis of how well, if at all, the projected migration routes and times of migration fit the distribution of Indo-European languages, and how closely the sociological model of the original society reconstructed from Proto-Indo-European lexical items fits the archaeological profile.\n", "Proto-languages can be verified in many historical instances, such as Latin. Although no longer a law, settlement-archaeology is known to be essentially valid for some cultures that straddle history and prehistory, such as the Celtic Iron Age (mainly Celtic) and Mycenaean civilization (mainly Greek). None of these models can be or have been completely rejected, and yet none alone are sufficient.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Problems with the neogrammarian hypothesis.\n", "The comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically attested languages are descended from a single proto-language by comparing lists of cognate terms. From them, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular sound changes can then be postulated, which allows the proto-language to be reconstructed. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established with chance similarities ruled out.\n", "Section::::Demonstrating genetic relationship.:Application.:Step 5, examine the reconstructed system typologically.\n\nIn the final step, the linguist checks to see how the proto-phonemes fit the known typological constraints. For example, a hypothetical system,\n", "In the present work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred Indo-European original language side by side with its really existent derived languages. Besides the advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, and thereby rendering easier his insight into the nature of particular Indo-European languages, there is, I think, another of no less importance gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian (Sanskrit).\n\nSection::::Demonstrating genetic relationship.\n", "In the late 20th century, linguists began using software intended for biological classification to classify languages. Programs and methods became increasingly sophisticated. In the early 21st century, the Computational Phylogenetics in Historical Linguistics (CPHL) project, a consortium of historical linguists, received funding from the National Science Foundation to study phylogenies. The Indo-European family is a major topic of study. As of January, 2012, they had collected and coded a \"screened\" database of \"22 phonological characters, 13 morphological characters, and 259 lexical characters,\" and an unscreened database of more. Wordlists of 24 Indo-European languages are included. Larger numbers of features and languages increase the precision, provided they meet certain criteria. Using specialized computer software, they test various phylogenetic hypotheses for their ability to account for the characters by genetic descent.\n", "Through comparative linguistics it is possible to reconstruct the vocabulary found in the proto-language, and in this way achieve knowledge of the cultural, technological and ecological context that the speakers inhabited. Such a context can then be compared with archaeological evidence. This vocabulary includes, in the case of PIE:\n\nBULLET::::- pastoralism, including domesticated cattle, horses, and dogs\n\nBULLET::::- agriculture and cereal cultivation, including technology commonly ascribed to late-Neolithic farming communities, e.g., the plow\n\nBULLET::::- a climate with winter snow\n\nBULLET::::- transportation by or across water\n\nBULLET::::- the solid wheel used for wagons, but not yet chariots with spoked wheels\n", "Combinatorial method (linguistics)\n\nThe combinatorial method is a method of linguistic analysis that is used to study texts which are written in an unknown language, and to study the language itself, where the unknown language has no obvious or proven well-understood close relatives, and where there are few bilingual texts which might otherwise have been used to help understand the language. It consists of three distinct analyses:\n\nBULLET::::- archaeological and antiquarian analysis,\n\nBULLET::::- formal-structural analysis, and\n\nBULLET::::- content and context analysis.\n", "The team then created a Markov chain Monte Carlo simulation to estimate and date the phylogenetic trees of the seven language families under examination. Five separate runs produced the same (unrooted) tree, with three sets of language families: an eastern grouping of Altaic, Inuit–Yupik, and Chukchi–Kamchatkan; a central and southern Asia grouping of Kartvelian and Dravidian; and a northern and western European grouping of Indo-European and Uralic. Two rootings were considered, using established age estimates for Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Chukchi–Kamchatkan as calibration. The first roots the tree to the midpoint of the branch leading to proto-Dravidian and yields an estimated origin for Eurasiatic of 14450 ± 1750 years ago. The second roots to tree to the proto-Kartvelian branch and yields 15610 ± 2290 years ago. Internal nodes have less certainty, but exceed chance expectations, and do not affect the top-level age estimate. The authors conclude \"All inferred ages must be treated with caution but our estimates are consistent with proposals linking the near concomitant spread of the language families that comprise this group to the retreat of glaciers in Eurasia at the end of the last ice age ∼15,000 years ago.\"\n", "Linguistics use the comparative method to study the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the method of internal reconstruction, which analyses the internal development of a single language over time. Ordinarily both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language, to discover the development of phonological, morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute hypothesized relationships between languages.\n", "Glottochronology enables absolute dates to be estimated. Shared cognates (cognates meaning to have common historical origin) are calculate divergence times. However the method was found to be later discredited due to the data being unreliable. Due to this historical linguists have trouble with exact age estimation when pinpointing the age of the Indo-European language family. It could range from 4000 BP to 40,000 BP, or anywhere in-between those dates according to Dixon sourced from the rise and fall of language, (Cambridge University Press). As seen in the article here.\n", "Reconstructions of the words and phenomes of ancient proto-languages such as Proto-Indo-European have been performed based on the observed analogues in present-day languages. Typically, these analyses are carried out manually using the \"comparative method\". First, words from different languages with a common etymology (cognates) are identified in the contemporary languages under study, analogous to the identification of orthologous biological sequences. Second, correspondences between individual sounds in the cognates are identified, a step similar to biological sequence alignment, although performed manually. Finally, likely ancestral sounds are hypothesised by manual inspection and various heuristics (such as the fact that most languages have both nasal and non-nasal vowels).\n", "Such attempts at recovering a sense of historical depth in PIE have been combined with efforts towards linking the history of the language with archaeology, notably with the Kurgan hypothesis. J. P. Mallory's 1989 \"In Search of the Indo-Europeans\" and 1997 \"Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture\" gives an overview of this. Purely linguistic research was bolstered by attempts to reconstruct the culture and mythology of the Proto-Indo-Europeans by scholars such as Georges Dumézil, as well as by archaeology (e. g. Marija Gimbutas, Colin Renfrew) and genetics (e. g. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza). These speculations about the \"realia\" of Proto-Indo-European culture are however not part of the field of comparative linguistics, but rather a sister-discipline.\n", "The combinatorial method was developed to replace the etymological method because the latter bases itself on circular reasoning, in which the assumed relationship purportedly proves the interpretation of the text and vice versa, thus being inadequate for scientific study or proof. While mainstream specialists in Etruscology have long since abandoned the etymological method in favour of the slow, rigorous work of the combinatorial method, the etymological method is still popular with amateurs wishing to prove a relationship between ancient texts and an existing language.\n\nSection::::Archaeological-antiquarian analysis.\n", "The comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically attested languages descend from a single proto-language by comparing lists of cognate terms. From them, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular sound changes can then be postulated, which allows the reconstruction of a proto-language. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established—with chance similarities ruled out.\n\nSection::::Demonstrating genetic relationship.:Terminology.\n", "BULLET::::- Linguistic reconstruction: Interpretations that are based on the reconstruction and identification of words (those cited *thus on this page, with a preceding asterisk) which formed part of the vocabulary of the Proto-Indo-European language. These are reconstructed on the basis of sounds, not meaning. Exactly what these terms may have referred to at the stage of Proto-Indo-European is therefore less certain. The technique of inferring culture from such reconstructions is known as linguistic palaeontology.\n\nWhat follows in this page are interpretations based only on the assumption of the Kurgan hypothesis of Indo-European origins, and are by no means universally accepted.\n", "The comparative method was formally developed in the 19th century and applied first to Indo-European languages. The existence of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had been inferred by comparative linguistics as early as 1640, while attempts at an Indo-European proto-language reconstruction date back as far as 1713. However, by the 19th century, still no consensus had been reached about the internal groups of the IE family.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22655	Why do burnt things turn black?	Everything has carbon in it. The process of burning something creates energy. What's left behind is unburnt carbon and unburnt carbon is black.	[ "Section::::Electroconductive carbon black production.\n\nCarbon black begins as a byproduct of what is referred to as partial oxidation, a process during which crude oil residues, such as vacuum residues from crude oil distillation or residues from the thermic cracking process, split due to the effects of the mixture of oxygen and water steam under high temperatures around 1,300 °C. \n", "BULLET::::- Soot – auxiliary fuel (coal, hydrocarbons, crude oil) combustion product, which is considered to be a hazardous substance with carcinogenic properties.\n", "Black carbon particles (a component of soot) originating from combustion processes have been known for some time to absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere, and pollution controls have been put into place to reduce their emissions and their effects.\n", "Section::::Pigment.\n\nCarbon black (Color Index International, PBK-7) is the name of a common black pigment, traditionally produced from charring organic materials such as wood or bone. It appears black because it reflects very little light in the visible part of the spectrum, with an albedo near zero. The actual albedo varies depending on the source material and method of production. It is known by a variety of names, each of which reflects a traditional method for producing carbon black:\n\nBULLET::::- Ivory black was traditionally produced by charring ivory or bones (see bone char).\n", "Section::::Bleaching chemical pulps.:Ozone.\n", "Partial oxidation of various raw materials always creates a gaseous mixture containing CO, CO2, H2O, H2, CH4 and H2S and COS formed from sulfurous compounds. Carbon black is formed as an undesired byproduct. The amount of carbon black grows as the injection's molecular weight increases. Methane gasification produces approx. 0.02% mass, crude oil residue gasification approx. 1-3% mass.\n", "Condensed aromatic ring structures indicate black carbon degradation in soil. Saprophytic fungi are being researched for their potential role in the degradation of black carbon.\n\nSection::::Policy options.\n\nMany countries have existing national laws to regulate black carbon emissions, including laws that address particulate emissions. Some examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- banning or regulating slash-and-burn clearing of forests and savannas;\n\nBULLET::::- requiring shore-based power/electrification of ships at port, regulating idling at terminals, and mandating fuel standards for ships seeking to dock at port;\n", "It was seen that particles from combustion or from residential coal usage can contain substantial amounts of brown carbon. This particulate matter appears light brown, and not black as would be expected for pure soot particles.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Influence on Earth's atmosphere.\n", "While the function of black carbon created by biomass burning in relation to the warming of air has as of now been known, the lesser-known part of brown carbon has recently been discovered.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Discovery.:Brown carbon aerosols.\n\nThe way light reflects off brown carbon causes the material to appear brown or yellow. In respect to soot carbon (as an aerosol called black carbon) these light reflecting particles are collectively called brown carbon, highlighting their optical properties.\n", "Prior to cooking, the iron atom is in a +2 oxidation state, and bound to a dioxygen molecule (O), with a red color. As cooking proceeds, it loses an electron, moving to a +3 oxidation state, and coordinating with a water molecule (HO), turning brown in the process.\n\nSearing raises the meat’s surface temperature to , yielding browning via different reactions: caramelization of sugars, and the Maillard reaction of amino acids. Raised to a high enough temperature, meat blackens from burning.\n\nSection::::Drying.\n", "Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively. A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector). \n\nSection::::Science.:Chemistry.\n\nSection::::Science.:Chemistry.:Pigments.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early years and formation (2001–2005).\n", "Blackening (cooking)\n\nBlackening is a cooking technique used in the preparation of fish and other foods. Often associated with Cajun cuisine, this technique was popularized by chef Paul Prudhomme. The food is dipped in melted butter and then sprinkled with a mixture of herbs and spices, usually some combination of thyme, oregano, chili pepper, peppercorns, salt, garlic powder and onion powder. It is then cooked in a very hot cast-iron skillet. The characteristic brown-black color of the crust results from a combination of browned milk solids from the butter and charred spices.\n", "The coatings and inks industries prefer grades of carbon black that are acid-oxidized. Acid is sprayed in high-temperature dryers during the manufacturing process to change the inherent surface chemistry of the black. The amount of chemically-bonded oxygen on the surface area of the black is increased to enhance performance characteristics.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Carcinogenicity.\n", "Section::::Bleaching chemical pulps.:Chelant wash.\n", "BULLET::::- At 200-300 °C, if oxygen has not been excluded, the carbonaceous residue may start to burn, in a highly exothermic reaction, often with no or little visible flame. Once carbon combustion starts, the temperature rises spontaneously, turning the residue into a glowing ember and releasing carbon dioxide and/or monoxide. At this stage, some of the nitrogen still remaining in the residue may be oxidized into nitrogen oxides like and . Sulfur and other elements like chlorine and arsenic may be oxidized and volatilized at this stage.\n", "Charring\n\nCharring is a chemical process of incomplete combustion of certain solids when subjected to high heat. Heat distillation removes water vapor and volatile organic compounds (syngas) from the matrix. The residual black carbon material is char, as distinguished from the lighter colored ash. By the action of heat, charring removes hydrogen and oxygen from the solid, so that the remaining char is composed primarily of carbon. Polymers like thermoset, or most solid organic compounds like wood or biological tissue, exhibit charring behaviour.\n\nCharring means partially burning so as to blacken the surface.\n", "Bleaching of wood pulp\n\nBleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing of wood pulp to lighten its color and whiten the pulp. The primary product of wood pulp is paper, for which whiteness (similar to, but distinct from brightness) is an important characteristic. These processes and chemistry are also applicable to the bleaching of non-wood pulps, such as those made from bamboo or kenaf.\n\nSection::::Paper brightness.\n", "Burning wood and fossil fuels in the absence of adequate airflow (such as in an enclosed furnace or stove), causes incomplete combustion of the oils in the wood, which are off-gassed as volatiles in the smoke. As the smoke rises through the chimney it cools, causing water, carbon, and volatiles to condense on the interior surfaces of the chimney flue. The black oily residue that builds up is referred to as creosote, which is similar in composition to the commercial products by the same name, but with a higher content of carbon black.\n", "Soot is composed of a complex mixture of organic compounds which are weakly absorbing in the visible spectral region and a highly absorbing black component which is variously called “elemental”, “graphitic” or “black carbon”. The term elemental carbon has been used in conjunction with thermal and wet chemical determinations and the term graphitic carbon suggests the presence of graphite-like micro-crystalline structures in soot as evidenced by Raman Spectroscopy. The term black carbon is used to imply that this soot component is primarily responsible for the absorption of visible light. The term black carbon is sometimes used as a synonym for both the elemental and graphitic component of soot. It can be measured using different types of devices based on absorption or dispersion of a light beam or derived from noise measurements.\n", "In terms of surface interactions, chromium oxide is polar. The oxygen atoms on the surface have a permanent dipole moment, and are therefore hydrophilic. This means that water will wet it, but oils or other lipids will not.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.:Cast iron.\n", "Delignification of chemical pulps is frequently composed of four or more discrete steps, with each step designated by a letter in the Table:\n", "Coal and soot or carbon black are informally called amorphous carbon. However, they are products of pyrolysis (the process of decomposing a substance by the action of heat), which does not produce true amorphous carbon under normal conditions.\n\nSection::::Nanocarbons.\n\nSection::::Nanocarbons.:Buckminsterfullerenes.\n", "Charcoal may be used as a source of carbon in chemical reactions. One example of this is the production of carbon disulphide through the reaction of sulfur vapors with hot charcoal. In that case the wood should be charred at high temperature to reduce the residual amounts of hydrogen and oxygen that lead to side reactions.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Purification and filtration.\n", "The brightness gains achieved in bleaching mechanical pulps are temporary since almost all of the lignin present in the wood is still present in the pulp. Exposure to air and light can produce new chromophores from this residual lignin. This is why newspaper yellows as it ages.\n\nyellowing also occurs due to the acidic sizing\n\nSection::::Bleaching of recycled pulp.\n\nHydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite are used to increase the brightness of deinked pulp. The bleaching methods are similar for mechanical pulp in which the goal is to make the fibers brighter.\n\nSection::::Bleaching chemical pulps.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02924	What is the origin of bands like KISS dressing the way they did?	Because in 1971 there were a zillion good bands trying to make it big in the rock and roll game. Not everyone could have enough raw talent to get noticed, so a little gimmick and stage presence went a long way to being memorable.	[ "Willmer \"Little Ax\" Broadnax was a lead singer in several important gospel quartets, most famously the Spirit of Memphis Quartet. When he died in 1994, it was discovered that he was female bodied.\n\nOther contemporary cross-dressing artists include J. S. G. Boggs.\n\nSection::::By country.:France.\n", "BULLET::::- Led Zeppelin also dressed in drag in one of the pics on \"Physical Graffiti\", they also hung out with drag queens.\n\nBULLET::::- Steven Tyler of Aerosmith is a known crossdresser. Aerosmith's song \"Dude Looks Like A Lady\" is about stumbling upon a transvestite\n\nBULLET::::- New York Dolls donned an androgynous wardrobe, wearing disheveled wigs, smudged lipstick, stilted platforms, painfully tight lurex/satin pants and crimpoline dresses.\n\nBULLET::::- Richie Stotts wore tutus and a naughty nurse costume during his stint in The Plasmatics, in order to keep up with the outrageousness of bandmate Wendy O. Williams\n", "BULLET::::- The Who's song \"I'm a Boy\" is about a young boy dressed as a girl.\n\nBULLET::::- The Bitch and Animal song \"Drag King Bar\" is about cross-dressing.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Be My Human Tonight\" by Norman Iceberg also talks about the concept.\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention wore dresses for the covers and center art of their third album \"We're Only in It for the Money\"\n\nBULLET::::- Queen cross-dressed in their video for the song, \"I Want to Break Free\".\n", "BULLET::::- Annie Lennox is seen dressed in a suit, tie, gloves, and cane in the music video for \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\".\n\nBULLET::::- The rock band Twisted Sister often dresses cross dressed on stages and photo shoots.\n\nBULLET::::- Philo Cramer from the band Fear wore a green dress when they infamously appeared on \"Saturday Night Live\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red Hot Chili Peppers frontman Anthony Kiedis has been known to crossdress on stage and, occasionally, in videos.\n\nBULLET::::- AC/DC's former singer Bon Scott dressed once to a school girl (as an opposite to Angus Young)\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:1971–1975: Early years.\n\nKiss trace their roots to Wicked Lester, a New York City-based rock band led by Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley. They recorded one album, which was shelved by Epic Records, and played a handful of live shows. Simmons and Stanley, feeling a new musical direction was needed, abandoned Wicked Lester in 1972 and began forming a new group.\n", "BULLET::::- Pete Burns, the lead singer of the new wave band Dead or Alive, cross-dressed in the band's music videos, performances, and in his appearances on TV. However, Burns is dismissive of the term \"cross-dressing\" to describe his style, as said in numerous television interviews and in his autobiography.\n\nBULLET::::- The late actor and singer Harris Glenn Milstead became known for his drag persona, Divine.\n\nBULLET::::- Prince, in his early career made androgynous fashion choices; he wore high-heeled shoes.\n\nBULLET::::- Marilyn Manson often wear androgynous costumes in their performances, music videos and public appearances.\n", "The band entered Bell Sound Studios in New York City on October 10, 1973, to begin recording their first album. On December 31, the band had their official industry premiere at the Academy of Music in New York City, opening for Blue Öyster Cult. It was at this concert that Simmons accidentally set his hair (which was coated in hairspray) ablaze for the first of many times while performing his fire-breathing routine.\n", "BULLET::::- Lou Reed wrote songs about / including \"T.V.'s\", with the earliest example being \"Sister Ray\" from the Velvet Underground's 1968 album \"White Light/White Heat\", and followed by Reed's solo album hit, the infamous \"Walk on the Wild Side\" from the Bowie-produced 1972 album \"Transformer\". This song was in reference to the T.V.'s who were a part of the Andy Warhol entourage: \"Sugar Plum Fairy\", \"Candy Darling\", and \"Jackie 'O'\".\n\nBULLET::::- U2 wore dresses on the \"Achtung Baby\" sleeve notes.\n", "Simmons said about the creation of the song: \"This song started out with a bass lick, much as 'Deuce' did. Once I had the meter down, I started writing rhyming words, but without a melody – so it was almost a rap. Then I talked the song through with the lick, and the melody just came naturally. The melody that came to me was the bass lick, so I just shadowed my melody with the lick on guitar.\"\n", "Kiss videography\n\nThe following is the filmography of the American rock band Kiss.\n\nSection::::Other appearances.\n\nIn 2010 Love theme from KISS appeared in the movie Somewhere, directed by Sofia Coppola.\n\nBULLET::::- Kiss in the 1998 \"Millennium\" episode \"...Thirteen Years Later\".\n\nBULLET::::- Kiss was also featured in the \"Family Guy\" episodes \"A Very Special Family Guy Freakin' Christmas\" and \"Road to Europe\".\n", "From 1982 to 1983, the new lineup of Kiss became Simmons (the Demon), Stanley (the Starchild), Eric Carr (the Fox) and Vincent (The Egyptian Warrior or the Wiz). This incarnation of Kiss was to be the last incarnation of the original make-up era.\n", "With their make-up and costumes, they took on the personae of comic book-style characters: the Starchild (Stanley), the Demon (Simmons), the Spaceman or Space Ace (Frehley), and the Catman (Criss). Due to creative differences, both Criss and Frehley had departed the group by 1982.\n", "Kiss was strongly influenced by Alice Cooper and the New York Dolls, while Gene Simmons states \"their musical heart and soul lies in England\". The Beatles and the trio of rock guitarists Jimmy Page, Eric Clapton and Jeff Beck were among the British acts he praised, with Simmons stating, \"I've ripped off so many English riffs, if the British influence wasn't there, we wouldn't be here. 'Rock and Roll All Nite' is a direct bastard child of Slade's 'Mama Weer All Crazee Now'\". In his book, \"Kiss and Make-Up\", Simmons wrote of the glam rock group Slade, \"... we liked the way they connected with the crowd and the way they wrote anthems ... we wanted that same energy, that same irresistible simplicity\".\n", "The concept for organized promotion teams in the music business can also be traced back to mid-1970s, when Starkey and Evans, two teenage KISS fans from Terre Haute, Indiana created the KISS ARMY as a group of fans determined to promote the KISS name. Although this could be more attributed to fan clubs, fans worked together outside of their homes, to promote KISS to other kids at school or while hanging out. This KISS army was quickly taken over by the band KISS itself and army recruits were offered limited edition merchandise and seating.\n", "BULLET::::- Placebo's frontman Brian Molko is androgynous and bisexual, often cross-dressing on and offstage.\n\nBULLET::::- Placebo's song Nancy Boy is about a sensitive boy who \"Does his makeup in his room\" and dresses like a girl.\n\nBULLET::::- IAMX (also Chris Corner) cross-dresses in his video for My Secret Friend along with Imogen Heap.\n\nBULLET::::- Verka Serduchka, Ukrainian male singer who always performs as a female.\n\nBULLET::::- Jeffree Star, male singer and Myspace celebrity, is almost always wearing women's clothes.\n", "During 1973-74 Stanley at times used an alternate make-up design the \"Bandit\" for select photo-shoots and live shows after Neil Bogart head of Casablanca records suggested to him that he use a design that was symmetrical with the rest of the band's faces. During this time he was also still using the Starchild makeup sometimes even using both designs at the same photo-shoots. In 1974 he stopped using the Bandit design permanently. Criss used a drastically different variation of his Catman makeup on the cover of their debut album dubbed the \"Pantomime Cat\" after Criss allowed the makeup artist at the shoot to use their own ideas instead of following the usual design. Carr was originally going to be the \"Hawk\" a design which Simmons recalled in his autobiography looked like Big Bird from Sesame Street. One photo of Carr wearing this proposed design exists today and one of a mannequin Stanley set up wearing the proposed makeup and outfit. Unlike the Bandit and Pantomime Cat, this alternate design was never used in any official capacity. The Hawk design was also considered for Vincent and Singer.\n", "In 1977 Marvel Comics published a magazine-format full-color comic book, titled \"A Marvel Comics Super Special!: Kiss\" presenting the band KISS as superheroes. It was the first in the Marvel Comics Super Special series which featured other musicians such as The Beatles. Blood from each band member was drawn by a registered nurse, witnessed by a notary public, and poured into the vats of red ink used for printing the comic at Marvel's Borden Ink plant in Depew, New York. Marvel also published a second KISS comic magazine, issue #5 in the \"Super Special\" series, in 1978, with much less fanfare.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2002, Kiss filmed a music video with the cast of the popular sitcom \"That '70s Show\" to announce that the show was going into syndication. The half-hour special showed behind the scenes of the making of the video. The half-hour special, called \"That '70s Kiss Show\", aired on VH1.\n\nBULLET::::- Gene Simmons makes a cameo appearance in the 2008 movie \"Detroit Metal City\" (a live action adaptation of the manga of the same name) as Jack ill Dark, a legendary Black metal guitarist from the United States.\n", "In early January 1973, the group added lead guitarist Ace Frehley. Frehley impressed the group with his first audition, although he showed up wearing two different colored sneakers, one red and one orange. A few weeks after Frehley joined, the classic lineup was solidified as the band to be named Kiss.\n", "In his book \"Sex Money Kiss\", Gene Simmons says Stanley was the driving force for KISS during the period in the 1980s when the band performed without makeup. Those years, Stanley noted, \"were fine for me. I found them very satisfying because I got a chance to be out there without makeup, which I craved at that point. I think it was easier for me \"[than Simmons]\" because my persona was one that wasn't really defined by the makeup… The makeup was just reinforcing what you were seeing and who I was.\"\n", "By mid-1975, Casablanca was almost bankrupt, and Kiss was in danger of losing their record contract. Both parties desperately needed a commercial breakthrough if they were to survive. That breakthrough came in an unlikely form: a \"double live\" album.\n\nSection::::History.:1975–1978: Rise to prominence.\n", "However, the upsurge of androgynous dressing for men really began after during the 1960s and 1970s. When the Rolling Stones played London's Hyde Park in 1969, Mick Jagger wore a white 'man's dress' designed by British designer Mr Fish. Mr Fish, also known as Michael Fish, was the most fashionable shirt-maker in London, the inventor of 'the Kipper tie', and a principal taste-maker of 'the Peacock revolution' in men's fashion. His creation for Mick Jagger was considered to be the epitome of the swinging 60s. From then on, the androgynous style was being adopted by many celebrities.\n", "Section::::In modern music.\n\nBULLET::::- Boy George\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arnold Layne\", the first released single by British psychedelic rock group Pink Floyd, is about a transvestite who steals women's clothes from washing lines. (The song was written by Syd Barrett who supposedly cross-dressed at a later point in his life when going through a mental breakdown.)\n\nBULLET::::- Nicky Wire, bassist of the Manic Street Preachers, has cross dressed throughout his career.\n\nBULLET::::- The Kinks' 1970 hit \"Lola\" is a song about an encounter with a transvestite.\n", "Jonathan Demme directed \"The Perfect Kiss\" video, which is unlike any other New Order clip. Set in the band's practice room, it simply depicts the band playing the song from beginning to end. According to Factory Records owner Tony Wilson, Demme was looking forward to filming dynamic shots of Stephen Morris behind the drum kit and was dismayed to find that the drums in the song were all programmed.\n\nThe video features a Joy Division poster for 'Unknown Pleasures' that can be prominently seen behind Bernard Sumner.\n", "However, the upsurge of androgynous dressing for men really began after during the 1960s and 1970s. When the Rolling Stones played London's Hyde Park in 1969, Mick Jagger wore a white 'man's dress' designed by British designer Mr Fish. Mr Fish, also known as Michael Fish, was the most fashionable shirt-maker in London, the inventor of 'the Kipper tie', and a principal taste-maker of 'the Peacock revolution' in men's fashion. His creation for Mick Jagger was considered to be the epitome of the swinging 60s. From then on, the androgynous style was being adopted by many celebrities.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04493	I've seen dates expressed as both B.C/A.D and B.C.E/C.E, if A.D is the year Jesus was born, what year B.C or A.D did B.C.E switch to C.E?	The year of the switch is the same in both naming conventions. It is just a shifting from a religious connotation with "Anno Domini" to a secular connotation with "Common Era".	[ "For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that \"B.C.E./C.E. …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D.\" Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西元 (\"xī yuán\", \"Western Era\"). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted 公元 (\"gōngyuán\", \"Common Era\") for all purposes domestic and foreign.\n\nSection::::No year zero: start and end of a century.\n", "In 2004, Richard Conn Henry, a professor of astronomy at Johns Hopkins University, proposed the adoption of a calendar known as Common-Civil-Calendar-and-Time (CCC&T), which he described as a modification to a proposal by Robert McClenon. Henry's original version had essentially the same structure given above, but inserted its leap week named \"Newton\" between June and July in the middle of the year. \n", "In 1999, a papyrus was discovered which gives the dates of astronomical phenomena in 24 BC in both the Egyptian and Roman calendars. From , Egypt had two calendars: the old Egyptian in which every year had 365 days and the new Alexandrian in which every fourth year had 366 days. Up to the date in both calendars was the same. The dates in the Alexandrian and Julian calendars are in one-to-one correspondence except for the period from 29 August in the year preceding a Julian leap year to the following 24 February. From a comparison of the astronomical data with the Egyptian and Roman dates, Alexander Jones concluded that the Egyptian astronomers (as opposed to travellers from Rome) used the correct Julian calendar.\n", "The solar part of the Revised Julian calendar was accepted by only some Orthodox churches. Those that did accept it, with hope for improved dialogue and negotiations with the western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, the Orthodox Churches of Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Poland (from 1924 to 2014; it is still permitted to use the Revised Julian calendar in parishes that want it), Bulgaria (in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (although some OCA parishes are permitted to use the Julian calendar). Thus these churches celebrate the Nativity on the same day that western Christians do, 25 December Gregorian until 2799.\n", "Because this Victorian cycle differed from the Alexandrian cycle in the dates of some of the Paschal Full Moons, and because it tried to respect the Roman custom of fixing Easter to the Sunday in the week of the 16th to the 22nd of the lunar month (rather than the 15th to the 21st as at Alexandria), by providing alternative \"Latin\" and \"Greek\" dates in some years, occasional differences in the date of Easter as fixed by Alexandrian rules continued. The Alexandrian rules were adopted in the West following the tables of Dionysius Exiguus in 525. From this time, therefore, all discrepancies between Alexandria and Rome as to the correct date for Easter cease, as both churches were using identical tables.\n", "A calendar similar to the Julian one, the Alexandrian calendar, is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, which is still the civil calendar of Ethiopia. Egypt converted from the Alexandrian calendar to Gregorian on 1 Thaut 1592/11 September 1875.\n", "Section::::History.:New year.\n\nWhen the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology:\n", "In 63BC, Judea became part of the Roman Empire and, around 6BC Jesus was born to a Jewish family in the town of Nazareth, as a consequence of which, worship of the god of Israel would come to spread through, and later dominate, the Western World. Later the Western calendar would be divided into Before Christ (BC) (meaning before Jesus was born) and Anno Domini (AD).\n", "The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still used, officially, by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts.\n\nSection::::CE and BCE.\n", "BULLET::::- C.E. (or CE) and B.C.E. (or BCE) – meaning \"Common Era\" and \"Before the Common Era\", numerically equivalent to AD and BC, respectively (in writing, \"AD\" \"precedes\" the year number, but \"CE\" \"follows\" the year: AD 1 = 1 CE.) The Latin equivalent \"vulgaris aera\" was used as early as 1615 by Johannes Kepler. The English abbreviations C.E. and B.C.E. were introduced in the 19th century by Jewish intellectuals, wishing to avoid the abbreviation for \"dominus\" \"lord\" in implicit reference to Christ. By the later 20th century, the abbreviations had come into wider usage by authors who wished to emphasize secularism.\n", "Dionysius did not use AD years to date any historical event. This began with the English cleric Bede (c. 672–735), who used AD years in his \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\" (731), popularizing the era. Bede also used a term similar to the English before Christ once, but that practice did not catch on until very much later. Bede did not sequentially number days of the month, weeks of the year, or months of the year. However, he did number many of the days of the week using a counting origin of one in Ecclesiastical Latin. Previous Christian histories used \"anno mundi\" (\"in the year of the world\") beginning on the first day of creation, or \"anno Adami\" (\"in the year of Adam\") beginning at the creation of Adam five days later (the sixth day of creation according to the Genesis creation narrative), used by Africanus, or \"anno Abrahami\" (\"in the year of Abraham\") beginning 3,412 years after Creation according to the Septuagint, used by Eusebius of Caesarea, all of which assigned \"one\" to the year beginning at Creation, or the creation of Adam, or the birth of Abraham, respectively. Bede continued this earlier tradition relative to the AD era.\n", "The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC. The historical evidence is too fragmentary to allow a definitive dating, but the date is estimated through two different approaches – one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus.\n\nSection::::Other eras.\n", "BULLET::::- 1/14 October 1924: Romania\n\nBULLET::::- 1/14 October 1928: Alexandria and Antioch\n\nBULLET::::- The Albanian Orthodox Church became autocephalous on 12 April 1937\n\nBULLET::::- 7/20 December 1968: Bulgaria\n", "Many local eras, such as the Era of Actium and the Spanish Era, were adopted for the Julian calendar or its local equivalent in the provinces and cities of the Roman Empire. Some of these were used for a considerable time. Perhaps the best known is the Era of Martyrs, sometimes also called \"Anno Diocletiani\" (after Diocletian), which was associated with the Alexandrian calendar and often used by the Alexandrian Christians to number their Easters during the 4th and 5th centuries, and continues to be used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches.\n", "Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:\n\nBULLET::::- In modern times, incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity.\n\nBULLET::::- The civil or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August (30 August in the year before a Julian leap year).\n\nBULLET::::- There were inaccuracies in the lists of consuls.\n", "BULLET::::- From Easter, starting in 754 AUC (AD 1). That \"mos gallicanus\" (French custom) bound to a moveable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus (r. 1180–1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered from England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite.\n\nWith these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101.\n\nSection::::Birth date of Jesus.\n", "The Julian calendar was also used in some Muslim countries. The Rumi calendar, the Julian calendar used in the later years of the Ottoman Empire, adopted an era derived from the lunar AH year equivalent to AD 1840, i.e., the effective Rumi epoch was AD 585. In recent years, some users of the Berber calendar have adopted an era starting in 950 BC, the approximate date that the Libyan pharaoh Sheshonq I came to power in Egypt.\n\nSection::::New Year's Day.\n", "The Alexandrian calendar adapted the Egyptian calendar by adding a 6th epagomenal day as the last day of the year in every fourth year, falling on 29 August preceding a Julian bissextile day. It was otherwise identical to the Egyptian calendar. The first leap day was in 22 BC, and they occurred every four years from the beginning, even though Roman leap days occurred every three years at this time (see Leap year error). This calendar influenced the structure of several other reformed calendars, such as those of the cities of Gaza and Ascalon in Palestine, Salamis in Cyprus, and the province of Arabia. It was adopted by the Coptic church and remains in use both as the liturgical calendar of the Coptic church and as the civil calendar of Ethiopia.\n", "BULLET::::- The birth date of Jesus is a less universally relevant epoch event than the approximate beginning of the Holocene.\n\nBULLET::::- The years BC/BCE are counted down when moving from past to future, making calculation of time spans difficult.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Anno Domini\" era has no year zero, with 1 BC followed immediately by AD 1, complicating the calculation of timespans further. This is equally true of the Common Era, its non-religious equivalent.\n", "BULLET::::- From 25 December 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the birth of Jesus. It was called \"Nativity style\" and had been spread by Bede together with the \"Anno Domini\" in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning of the Year of Grace from Christmas was used in France, England and most of western Europe (except Spain) until the 12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style), and in Germany until the second quarter of the 13th century.\n", "When this usage is encountered, the British adoption date is not necessarily intended. The 'start of year' change and the calendar system change were not always adopted concurrently. Similarly, civil and religious adoption may not have happened at the same time (or even at all). In the case of Eastern Europe, for example, all of these assumptions would be incorrect.\n\nSection::::Transposition of historical event dates and possible date conflicts.\n", "BULLET::::- In Spanish, common forms used for \"BC\" are aC and a. de C. (for \"antes de Cristo\", \"before Christ\"), with variations in punctuation and sometimes the use of J.C. (Jesucristo) instead of C. In scholarly writing, AEC is the equivalent of the English \"BCE\", \"antes de la Era Común\" or \"Before the Common Era\".\n\nBULLET::::- In Welsh, OC can be expanded to equivalents of both AD (\"Oed Crist\") and CE (\"Oes Cyffredin\"); for dates before the Common Era, CC (traditionally, \"Cyn Crist\") is used exclusively, as \"Cyn yr Oes Cyffredin\" would abbreviate to a mild obscenity.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Christian use and development of biblical chronology.\n\nThe early Church Father Eusebius (c. 260–340), attempting to place Christ in the chronology, put his birth in AM 5199, and this became the accepted date for the Western Church. As the year AM 6000 (800 CE) approached there was increasing fear that the end of the world was nigh, until the Venerable Bede made his own calculations and found that Christ's birth took place in AM 3592, allowing several more centuries to the end of time.\n", "The period thus arising of 7980 Julian years, is called the Julian period, and it has been found so useful, that the most competent authorities have not hesitated to declare that, through its employment, light and order were first introduced into chronology. We owe its invention or revival to Joseph Scaliger, who is said to have received it from the Greeks of Constantinople. The first year of the current Julian period, or that of which the number in each of the three subordinate cycles is 1, was the year 4713 BC, and the noon of the 1st of January of that year, for the meridian of Alexandria, is the chronological epoch, to which all historical eras are most readily and intelligibly referred, by computing the number of integer days intervening between that epoch and the noon (for Alexandria) of the day, which is reckoned to be the first of the particular era in question. The meridian of Alexandria is chosen as that to which Ptolemy refers the commencement of the era of Nabonassar, the basis of all his calculations.\n", "The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, used \"Anno Domini\" dating in his \"Ecclesiastical History of the English People\", completed in AD 731. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded \"Anno Domini\" as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but \"the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25\". On the continent of Europe, \"Anno Domini\" was introduced as the calendrical system of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing this calendar throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the calendar's global prevalence today.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00780	Why does an OS like Windows run on practically any hardware just by installing a universal image, but Android needs lots of porting and device specific changes to run?	Android is a very, very, very stripped down version of Linux. It's designed to run pretty much only on mobile devices, and includes the bare minimum of software required to run there. (They even tried removing the ext3 driver, but backed down after a massive outcry). So comparing Android to Windows is like comparing a handiman's tool bet to a full stocked carpetner's workshop. EDIT: For the curious, here is the bin directory on my phone, which is running Android 5.1.1: > 1\|u0_a202@kminilteatt:/ $ ls /system/bin ATFWD-daemon IPSecService PktRspTest StoreKeybox adb adsprpcd am androidshmservice apaservice app_process app_process32 applypatch appops appwidget at_distributor atrace audiod auditd bcc bintvoutservice blkid bmgr bootanimation bootchecker brctl bridgemgrd btnvtool bu bugreport cat ccm_gen_cert charger_monitor charon chcon chmod chown clatd clear cmp connfwexe content cp cplay cs curl dalvikvm dalvikvm32 date dd ddexe debuggerd dex2oat df dhcpcd diag_callback_client diag_dci_sample diag_klog diag_mdlog diag_qshrink4_daemon diag_socket_log diag_uart_log dmesg dnsmasq dpm drmdiagapp drmserver drsd du dumpstate dumpsys dun-server e2fsck ebtables edmaudit epmlogd fm_qsoc_patches fmconfig fmfactorytest fmfactorytestserver fsck.exfat fsck_msdos ftmdaemon getenforce getevent getprop getsebool grep gzip hci_qcomm_init hd hostapd hostapd_cli hvdcp icd id idmap ifconfig iftop ime immvibed ims_rtp_daemon imscmservice imsdatadaemon imsqmidaemon input insmod URL_1 installd insthk ioctl ionice ip ip6tables iptables irsc_util isdbtmmtest jackd jackservice keymaster_test keystore kill linker lmkd ln load_policy loc_launcher log logcat logd logwrapper lpm ls lsmod lsof macloader make_ext4fs mcDriverDaemon mcStarter md5 mdnsd media mediaserver mfgloader mkdir mkfs.exfat mknod mkswap mm-jpeg-dec-test mm-jpeg-enc-test mm-pp-daemon mm-qcamera-daemon mm-qjpeg-dec-test mm-qjpeg-enc-test mm-qomx-idec-test mm-qomx-ienc-test mm-vdec-omx-test mm-venc-omx-test720p mm-vidc-omx-test mm-video-driver-test mm-video-encdrv-test monkey mount mpdecision mtpd mv n_smux nandread ndc netcfg netd netmgrd netstat newfs_msdos nl_listener nohup notify npsmobex oatdump olsrd otp_server patchoat perfd ping ping6 pm port-bridge pppd prepare_param.sh printenv prlimit ps ptt_socket_app qmiproxy qmuxd qseecom_sample_client qseecom_security_test qseecomd racoon radish readlink reboot renice requestsync resetreason resize2fs restorecon rfs_access rild rm rmdir rmmod rmnetcli rmt_storage route run-as runcon samsungpowersoundplay sapd schedtest schedtop screencap screenrecord scs sdcard sdp_cryptod secure_storage_daemon URL_0 sendevent sensors.qcom sensorservice service servicemanager setenforce setprop setsebool settings setup_fs sh sleep smd smdexe ss_conn_daemon ssr_diag ssr_setup start stop subsystem_ramdump surfaceflinger svc swapoff swapon sync tc test_diag thermal-engine tima_dump_log time_daemon tinycap tinymix tinypcminfo tinyplay tlc_server toolbox top touch uiautomator umount uncrypt uptime usb_uicc_client usbhub usbhub_init vcsFPService vdc vmstat vold vpnclientd watchprops wcnss_service wdsdaemon wipe wlandutservice wm wpa_supplicant wvkprov	[ "Most of the drivers for mobile devices running the Android operating system are shipped in binary and are linked against a specific version of the Linux kernel. This makes it very hard to upgrade a kernel version because it may require reverse-engineering, reimplementing the proprietary device drivers as free software, creating and debugging wrappers, binary patching, or a combination of these steps, all of which implies that legacy devices will never get the latest Android version.\n\nSection::::Problems.\n\nThere are a number of reasons why binary blobs can be problematic.\n", "Android does not have a native X Window System by default, nor does it support the full set of standard GNU libraries. This made it difficult to port existing Linux applications or libraries to Android, until version r5 of the Android Native Development Kit brought support for applications written completely in C or C++. Libraries written in C may also be used in applications by injection of a small shim and usage of the JNI.\n", "The development process to make a new device compatible with the operating system consists of creating a phone-specific package using the codice_1 tool. For that, the use of the Linux kernel from the device's original manufacturer is often necessary. The source code of the original kernel is often made available by compliance with the requirements of the GPLv2 license, but some drivers necessary for the operation of the device may not be available, and must, therefore, be recreated.\n\nSection::::State of development.:Resources for development.\n", "Only the base Android operating system (including some applications) is open-source software, whereas most Android devices ship with a substantial amount of proprietary software, such as Google Mobile Services, which includes applications such as Google Play Store, Google Search, and Google Play Services a software layer that provides APIs for the integration with Google-provided services, among others. These applications must be licensed from Google by device makers, and can only be shipped on devices which meet its compatibility guidelines and other requirements. Custom, certified distributions of Android produced by manufacturers (such as TouchWiz and HTC Sense) may also replace certain stock Android apps with their own proprietary variants and add additional software not included in the stock Android operating system. There may also be \"binary blob\" drivers required for certain hardware components in the device.\n", "On tablets and smartphones, the situation is the opposite, with Unix-like operating systems dominating the market, including the iOS (BSD-derived), Android, Tizen, Sailfish and Ubuntu (all Linux-derived). Microsoft's Windows phone, Windows RT and Windows 10 are used on a much smaller number of tablets and smartphones. However, the majority of Unix-like operating systems dominant on handheld devices do not use the X11 desktop environments used by other Unix-like operating systems, relying instead on interfaces based on other technologies.\n\nSection::::Desktop environments for the X Window System.\n", "Those firmware packages are updated frequently, incorporate elements of Android functionality that haven't yet been officially released within a carrier-sanctioned firmware, and tend to have fewer limitations. CyanogenMod and OMFGB are examples of such firmware.\n", "Android is developed by Google until the latest changes and updates are ready to be released, at which point the source code is made available to the Android Open Source Project (AOSP), an open source initiative led by Google. The AOSP code can be found without modification on select devices, mainly the Nexus and Pixel series of devices. The source code is, in turn, customized and adapted by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to run on their hardware. Also, Android's source code does not contain the often proprietary device drivers that are needed for certain hardware components. As a result, most Android devices, including Google's own, ultimately ship with a combination of free and open source and proprietary software, with the software required for accessing Google services falling into the latter category.\n", "Unlike many other projects porting conventional Linux distributions to Android phones, PostmarketOS does not use the Android build system or userspace. Each phone has only one unique package, and flashable installation images are generated using the codice_1 tool. The project intends to support the mainline Linux kernel on all phones in the future, instead of the often outdated Android-specific fork, to reduce the potential for security exploits. A few devices can boot into the mainline kernel already.\n", " A pivotal difference between Android and the other Linux kernel-based operating systems is the C standard library: Android's libbionic is different in that it does not aim to support POSIX to the same extent as the other libraries. With the help of libhybris it is possible to run Android-only software on other Linux kernel based operating systems, as long as this software does not depend on subsystems found only in the Android-forked Linux kernel, such as binder, pmem, ashmem, etc. Whether software programmed for Linux can run on Android, depends entirely on the extent to which libbionic matches the API of the glibc.\n", "During the 2015 Build keynote, Microsoft announced a Universal Windows Platform bridge that would allow Android and iOS software to be ported to Windows 10 Mobile and published to the Windows Store. In August 2015, A version of the Microsoft Android bridge toolset was reported to be leaked and available on the internet along with its documentation. The leaked toolset required developers to register and use the WNS to send notification data to ported applications, and would not allow for Google Cloud Messaging to be used instead. Microsoft later discontinued the Android bridge project in favor of continuing support for iOS application porting instead.\n", "Device drivers are designed for particular Windows operating system versions, and device drivers for a previous version of Windows may not work correctly or at all with other versions. Because many device drivers run in kernel mode installing drivers for a previous operating system version may destabilise the Windows operating system. Migrating a computer to a higher version of a Windows operating system therefore requires that new device drivers are installed for all hardware components. Finding up to date device drivers and installing them for Windows 10 has introduced complications into the migration process. \n", "The source code for Android is open-source: it is developed in private by Google, with the source code released publicly when a new version of Android is released. Google publishes most of the code (including network and telephony stacks) under the non-copyleft Apache License version 2.0. which allows modification and redistribution. The license does not grant rights to the \"Android\" trademark, so device manufacturers and wireless carriers have to license it from Google under individual contracts. Associated Linux kernel changes are released under the copyleft GNU General Public License version 2, developed by the Open Handset Alliance, with the source code publicly available at all times. Typically, Google collaborates with a hardware manufacturer to produce a flagship device (part of the Nexus series) featuring the new version of Android, then makes the source code available after that device has been released. The only Android release which was not immediately made available as source code was the tablet-only 3.0 \"Honeycomb\" release. The reason, according to Andy Rubin in an official Android blog post, was because \"Honeycomb\" was rushed for production of the Motorola Xoom, and they did not want third parties creating a \"really bad user experience\" by attempting to put onto smartphones a version of Android intended for tablets.\n", "During the second quarter of 2013 79.3 percent of smartphones sold worldwide were running a version of Android, and the Linux kernel dominates smartphones. Hardware developers have an incentive to deliver Linux drivers for their hardware but, due to competition, no incentive to make these drivers free and open-source. Additional problems are the Android-specific augmentations to the Linux kernel which have not been accepted in mainline, such as the Atomic Display Framework (ADF). ADF is a feature of 3.10 AOSP kernels which provides a dma-buf-centric framework between Android's hwcomposer HAL and the kernel driver. ADF significantly overlaps with the DRM-KMS framework. ADF has not been accepted into mainline, but a different set of solutions addressing the same problems (known as atomic mode setting) is under development. Projects such as libhybris harness Android device drivers to run on Linux platforms other than Android.\n", "The main hardware platform for Android is the ARM architecture (ARMv7 and ARMv8-A architectures; formerly also ARMv5), with x86 and MIPS architectures also officially supported in later versions of Android, but MIPS support has since been deprecated and support was removed in NDK r17.\n\nUnofficial Android-x86 project used to provide support for the x86 and MIPS architectures ahead of the official support.\n", "During the 2015 Build keynote, Microsoft announced a collection of UWP \"bridges\" to allow Android and iOS apps to be ported to Windows 10 Mobile. Windows Bridge for Android (codenamed \"Astoria\") was a runtime environment that would allow for Android apps written in Java or C++ to run on Windows 10 Mobile and published to Windows Store. Kevin Gallo, technical lead of Windows Developer Platform, explained that the layer contained some limitations: Google Mobile Services and certain core APIs are not available, and apps that have \"deep integration into background tasks\", such as messaging software, would not run well in this environment. Windows Bridge for iOS (codenamed \"Islandwood\") is an open-source middleware toolkit that allows iOS apps developed in Objective-C to be ported to Windows 10 Mobile by using Visual Studio 2015 to convert the Xcode project into a Visual Studio project. An early build of Windows Bridge for iOS was released as open-source software under the MIT license on August 6, 2015, while the Android version was in closed beta.\n", "At Build, Microsoft had also announced an Android runtime environment for Windows 10 Mobile known as \"Astoria\", which would allow Android apps to run in an emulated environment with minimal changes, and have access to Microsoft platform APIs such as Bing Maps and Xbox Live as nearly drop-in replacements for equivalent Google Mobile Services. Google Mobile Services and certain core APIs would not be available, and apps with \"deep integration into background tasks\" were said to poorly support the environment.\n", "On December 5, 2008, Google announced the first Android Dev Phone, a SIM-unlocked and hardware-unlocked device that is designed for advanced developers. It was a modified version of HTC's Dream phone. While developers can use regular consumer devices to test and use their applications, some developers may choose a dedicated unlocked or no-contract device.\n", "Microsoft shipped in 2015 a free stand-alone emulator for Android, dubbed \"Visual Studio Emulator for Android\". The emulator supports installation of Google Play through a drag-and-drop interface. It can work in conjunction with Visual Studio, which supports cross-platform development, letting C++ developers create projects from templates for Android native-activity applications, or create high-performance shared libraries to include in other solutions. Its features include platform-specific IntelliSense, breakpoints, device deployment and emulation.\n\nSection::::Third-party development tools.:Xamarin.\n\nWith a C# shared codebase, developers can use Xamarin to write native iOS, Android, and Windows apps with native user interfaces and share code across multiple platforms.\n", "With the release of Android Oreo in 2017, Google began to require that devices shipped with new SoCs had Linux kernel version 4.4 or newer, for security reasons. Existing devices upgraded to Oreo, and new products launched with older SoCs, were exempt from this rule.\n\nSection::::Development.:Software stack.\n\nOn top of the Linux kernel, there are the middleware, libraries and APIs written in C, and application software running on an application framework which includes Java-compatible libraries. Development of the Linux kernel continues independently of Android's other source code projects.\n", "Android's source code is released by Google under an open source license, and its open nature has encouraged a large community of developers and enthusiasts to use the open-source code as a foundation for community-driven projects, which deliver updates to older devices, add new features for advanced users or bring Android to devices originally shipped with other operating systems. These community-developed releases often bring new features and updates to devices faster than through the official manufacturer/carrier channels, with a comparable level of quality; provide continued support for older devices that no longer receive official updates; or bring Android to devices that were officially released running other operating systems, such as the HP TouchPad. Community releases often come pre-rooted and contain modifications not provided by the original vendor, such as the ability to overclock or over/undervolt the device's processor. CyanogenMod was the most widely used community firmware, now discontinued and succeeded by LineageOS.\n", "On later Android devices, where a number of factors (including carrier practices, and custom software provided by device manufacturers that sit atop Android, such as HTC Sense and Samsung TouchWiz) led to fragmentation regarding the availability of newer versions of the OS for certain devices, the development and use of custom ROMs (which are usually based on the \"stock\" version of Android) have ultimately become an important, yet controversial aspect of the Android ecosystem. In August 2012, a group of users released an unofficial port of a later version of Android, 4.1 \"Jelly Bean\", for the Dream as a proof of concept. However, the port lacked key functionality, and had severe performance issues due to the phone's relatively weak hardware in comparison to the modern devices that 4.1 was designed for.\n", "Windows Phone 8 has limited support for developing and consuming Windows Runtime components through \"Windows Phone Runtime\". Many of the Windows Runtime APIs in Windows 8 that handle core operating system functions have been ported to Windows Phone 8. Support for developing native games using C++/CX and DirectX has been added, by request from the game development industry.\n", "More than 150 devices are supported, some of which are:\n\nBULLET::::- Google\n\nBULLET::::- Nexus 6P\n\nBULLET::::- Pixel\n\nBULLET::::- Pixel XL\n\nBULLET::::- Pixel 2\n\nBULLET::::- Pixel 2 XL\n\nBULLET::::- Lenovo/ZUK\n\nBULLET::::- Lenovo ZUK Z2[plus]\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus One\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 2\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus X\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 3T\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 5\n\nBULLET::::- OnePlus 5T\n\nBULLET::::- Motorola\n\nBULLET::::- Moto G5s Plus (sanders)\n\nBULLET::::- Moto G3 (osprey)\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy Trend Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S5\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S4\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S3\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S7\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S7 edge\n\nBULLET::::- Sony\n", "BULLET::::- External storage: Most Android devices include microSD card slots and can read microSD cards formatted with the FAT32, Ext3 or Ext4 file systems. To allow use of external storage media such as USB flash drives and USB HDDs, some Android devices are packaged with USB-OTG cables. Storage formatted with FAT32 is handled by the Linux Kernel vFAT driver, while 3rd party solutions are required to handle some other file systems such as NTFS, HFS Plus and exFAT.\n\nSection::::Hardware support.\n", "A new runtime environment known as the Android Runtime (ART), intended to replace the Dalvik virtual machine, was introduced as a technology preview in KitKat. ART is a cross-platform runtime which supports the x86, ARM, and MIPS architectures in both 32-bit and 64-bit environments. Unlike Dalvik, which uses just-in-time compilation (JIT), ART compiles apps upon installation, which are then run exclusively from the compiled version from then on. This technique removes the processing overhead associated with the JIT process, improving system performance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03856	Why does spit/saliva get stickier at times?	It is mostly to do with hydration, or in this case dehydration. For example when you exercise, the water loss in your body causes less available water for making spit. Same reason why if you don't hydrate yourself enough during/before sex, your semen is chunky or your vaginal lubrication is less	[ "Saliva consists of proteins (for example; mucins) that lubricate and protect both the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity. Mucins are the principal organic constituents of mucus, the slimy visco-elastic material that coats all mucosal surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Buffering\n\nIn general, the higher the saliva flow rate, the faster the clearance and the higher the buffer capacity, hence better protection from dental caries. Therefore, people with a slower rate of saliva secretion, combined with a low buffer capacity, have lessened salivary protection against microbes.\n\nBULLET::::- Pellicle formation\n", "BULLET::::- Steric hindrance of the desmoglein 1: The antibody caps off the site for intracellular binding to another keratinocyte.\n\nBULLET::::- Activation of an endocytic pathway: The antibody activates a pathway which causes an internalization of desmogleïn 1, which in turn causes a loss of adhesion.\n\nBULLET::::- Disruption of function: In this case, the antibody blocks the desmoglein 1 from being formed into a desmosome. This in turn causes a loss of adhesion with acantholysis as a result.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThe National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases describes it like this:\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nChew and Spit has not received much attention in the research industry regarding treatment, long term effects of chewing and spitting, and its associations with other behaviors and eating disorders. More research is needed on his topic to further understand the effect this behavior has on individuals physically and psychologically.\n", "BULLET::::- Some people develop soreness, redness and peeling on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet (plantar palmar syndrome). This may cause tingling, numbness, pain and dryness\n\nBULLET::::- Diarrhea happens to 6 out of 10 people (60%) – tell your doctor or nurse if it becomes severe, if you can't drink to replace the lost fluid, or if it carries on for more than 3 days.Your nurse may give you anti diarrhea medicine to take home with you after chemotherapy\n\nBULLET::::- A sore mouth (stomatitis) happens to 4 out of 10 people (40%)\n", "The Stickiness Factor refers to the specific content of a message that renders its impact memorable. Popular children's television programs such as \"Sesame Street\" and \"Blue's Clues\" pioneered the properties of the stickiness factor, thus enhancing effective retention of educational content as well as entertainment value.\n\nSection::::The three rules.:The Power of Context.\n", "BULLET::::- Dysphagia – difficulty swallowing and chewing, especially when eating dry foods. Food may stick to the tissues during eating.\n\nBULLET::::- The tongue may stick to the palate, causing a clicking noise during speech, or the lips may stick together.\n\nBULLET::::- Gloves or a dental mirror may stick to the tissues.\n\nBULLET::::- Fissured tongue with atrophy of the filiform papillae and a lobulated, erythematous appearance of the tongue.\n\nBULLET::::- Saliva cannot be \"milked\" (expressed) from the parotid duct.\n", "Sympathetic stimulation results in the release of norepinephrine. Norepinephrine binding to α-adrenergic receptors will cause an increase in intracellular calcium levels leading to more fluid vs. protein secretion. If norepinephrine binds β-adrenergic receptors, it will result in more protein or enzyme secretion vs. fluid secretion. Stimulation by norepinephrine initially decreases blood flow to the salivary glands due to constriction of blood vessels but this effect is overtaken by vasodilation caused by various local vasodilators.\n\nSaliva production may also be pharmacologically stimulated by so-called sialagogues. It can also be suppressed by so-called antisialagogues.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Spitting.\n", "BULLET::::- Sprue (celiac disease, or tropical sprue), secondary to nutritional deficiencies\n\nBULLET::::- Crohn’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Whipple disease\n\nBULLET::::- Glucagonoma syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Cowden disease\n\nBULLET::::- Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)\n\nBULLET::::- Carcinoid syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Kwashiorkor amyloidosis\n\nBULLET::::- Veganism and other specialized diets,\n\nBULLET::::- Poor hydration and low saliva in the mouth, which allows bacteria to grow more readily\n\nBULLET::::- Mechanical irritation or injury from burns, rough edges of teeth or dental appliances, or other trauma\n\nBULLET::::- Tongue piercing Glossitis can be caused by the constant irritation by the ornament and by colonization of Candida albicans in site and on the ornament\n", "BULLET::::- Interdental food packing – (food getting pushed down between teeth) - this can be caused by missing teeth, tilted, spaced or crowded teeth, or poorly contoured approximal dental fillings. Food debris becomes trapped, undergoes slow bacterial putrefaction and release of malodorous volatiles. Food packing can also cause a localized periodontal reaction, characterized by dental pain that is relieved by cleaning the area of food packing with interdental brush or floss.\n", "According to a recent cross sectional study the time taken for return of salivary pH to baseline levels after chewing arecanut containing mixtures is significantly longer in habitual users with OSF when compared to unaffected users.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nOral submucous fibrosis is clinically divided into three stages:\n\nBULLET::::- Stage 1: Stomatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Stage 2: Fibrosis\n\nBULLET::::- a- Early lesions, blanching of the oral mucosa\n\nBULLET::::- b- Older lesions, vertical and circular palpable fibrous bands in and around the mouth or lips, resulting in a mottled, marble-like appearance of the buccal mucosa\n\nBULLET::::- Stage 3: Sequelae of oral submucous fibrosis\n", "BULLET::::- Glossitis - some types of glossitis are caused by infections, e.g. median rhomboid glossitis (Candida species), \"strawberry tongue\" (seen in scarlet fever), and syphlitic glossitis (seen in tertiary syphilis).\n\nBULLET::::- Oral hairy leukoplakia (seen in people with immunosuppression, caused by Epstein-Barr virus)\n\nBULLET::::- Oral candidiasis can affect the tongue. Risk factors for oral candidiasis include antibiotic and corticosteroid use, and immunodeficiency (e.g. HIV), or diabetes mellitus).\n\nSection::::Acquired.:Traumatic.\n", "The cause and pathogenesis of this chronic condition are not very well understood. Several factors have been postulated:\n\nBULLET::::- Formation of a hard salivary calculus or sialolith by accumulation of calcium salts in the duct of the salivary gland (a process known as Sialolithiasis). This has been proposed as the most common cause for Küttner's tumor of the submandibular gland, with sialoliths observed in an appreciable proportion of cases. However, sialolith involvement may not be found in many cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormalities of the salivary gland ducts leading to excessive accumulation or retention of ductal secretions, which can excite chronic inflammations.\n", "BULLET::::- Bacterial sialadentitis is usually caused by ascending organisms from the oral cavity. Risk factors include reduced salivary flow rate.\n\nBULLET::::- Human immunodeficiency virus-associated salivary gland disease (HIV-SGD).\n\nSection::::Acquired.:Traumatic.\n\nBULLET::::- Mucocele — these are common and are caused by rupture of a salivary gland duct and mucin spillage into the surrounding tissues. Usually they are caused by trauma. Classically, a mucocele is blusish and fluctuant, and most commonly occurs on the lower lip.\n", "There are some places where spitting is a competitive sport, with or without a projectile in the mouth. For example, there is a Guinness World Record for cherry pit spitting and cricket spitting, and there are world championships in Kudu dung spitting.\n\nSection::::Gleeking.\n\nGleeking (also gleeting, geeking, gleeping, glitting, gleaking, glicking, glything, glanding, geezing, cobra spitting, venoming, lizard spitting, gland glop) is the projection of saliva from the sublingual gland upon compression by the tongue.\n", "The usual symptoms are pain and swelling of the affected salivary gland, both of which get worse when salivary flow is stimulated, e.g. with the sight, thought, smell or taste of food, or with hunger or chewing. This is often termed \"mealtime syndrome\". Inflammation or infection of the gland may develop as a result. Sialolithiasis may also develop because of the presence of existing chronic infection of the glands, dehydration (e.g. use of phenothiazines), Sjögren's syndrome and/or increased local levels of calcium, but in many instances the cause is idiopathic (unknown).\n", "BULLET::::- Tongue coating - food debris, desquamated epithelial cells and bacteria often form a visible tongue coating. This coating has been identified as a major contributing factor in bad breath (halitosis), which can be managed by brushing the tongue gently with a toothbrush or using special oral hygiene instruments such as tongue scrapers or mouth brushes.\n", "Section::::Signs and Symptoms.:Autoimmune.\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmune sialadenitis (i.e Sjogren’s syndrome) causes unilateral or bilateral painless swellings unless there is a secondary infection.\n\nSection::::Signs and Symptoms.:Infection.\n\nBULLET::::- The most common salivary gland infection is mumps. It is characterised by bilateral swelling of the parotid glands, however other major salivary glands may also be affected in around 10% of cases. The swelling persists for about a week, along with low grade fever and general malaise.\n\nBULLET::::- Recurrent parotitis of childhood is characterised by periods of pain and swelling in the parotid gland accompanied by a fever\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "There are two referential devices that can create cohesion:\n\nBULLET::::- Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition. Some examples: replacing \"the taxi driver\" with the pronoun \"he\" or \"two girls\" with \"they\". Another example can be found in formulaic sequences such as \"as stated previously\" or \"the aforementioned\".\n", "BULLET::::4. Movement of serum proteins, particularly albumin from the circulating blood into the abomasal lumen due to compromised intracellular junctions occur. The increased albumin decreases fluid absorption by the gut, causing diarrhoea. The loss of albumin also causes body fluids to collect in lower parts of the body such as under the jaw (bottle jaw) or in the abdomen (ascites).\n\nBULLET::::5. The increased abomasal pH also stimulates the production of gastrin and thus hypergastrinemia, which is closely associated with the inappetence. This parasite-associated drop in intake has been shown to be largely responsible for impaired weight gain.\n", "\"Associated with Bulimia:\" Parotid gland swelling is a common feature of self-induced vomiting. This swelling usually develops 3–4 days after the stopping of chronic excessive self-induced vomiting. The swelling is bilateral, with little tenderness. Causes are not well understood. Ideal treatment should be preventative and can involve medication that increases saliva production (sialagogues), anti-inflammatory medication and the application of hot packs. Occasionally pilocarpine can be used to help resolve the swelling.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Masseteric hypertrophy.\n", "Section::::In different media.:SPIT.\n", "Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which hydrolyses starch into maltose and dextrin. As a result, saliva allows digestion to occur before the food reaches the stomach.\n\nBULLET::::- Taste\n\nSaliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds through oral mucosa located on the tongue. These taste buds are found within foliate and circumvallate papillae, where minor salivary glands secrete saliva.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nA sialolithiasis (a salivary calculus or stone) may cause blockage of the ducts, most commonly the submandibular ducts, causing pain and swelling of the gland.\n", "Gleeking may occur spontaneously due to accidental tongue pressure on the sublingual gland while talking, eating, yawning, or cleaning the teeth. Gleeking can also be induced, for instance, by pressing the underside of the tongue upwards against the palate, then pushing the tongue forward while simultaneously moving the jaw slightly forward; or by yawning deeply and pressing the tongue against the palate. Practice is usually required to induce gleeking consistently, and induction is more likely to be successful under conditions of salivary stimulation.\n\nSection::::Spitting as a protection against evil.\n", "Section::::Potential threats.\n", "Oral manifestations of systematic disease are signs and symptoms of disease occurring elsewhere in the body detected in the oral cavity and oral secretions. High blood sugar can be detected by sampling saliva. Saliva sampling may be a non-invasive way to detect changes in the gut microbiome and changes in systemic disease. The association between the salivary microbiome and with Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome has been characterized. \"[S]aliva microbiome profiles correlate with those in the stool, despite the fact that the bacterial communities in the two locations differ greatly. Therefore, saliva may be a useful alternative to stool as an indicator of bacterial dysbiosis in systemic disease.\" Another example is tertiary syphilis, where changes to teeth can occur. Syphilis infection can be associated with longitudinal furrows of the tongue.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01859	When frozen water cracks the bottle that was holding it > did the ice do work and if so where does the energy come from?	The energy comes from the formation of the crystal structure. Yes it did work. minuscule work, but work. That energy comes about thermodynamic ally from these particles rearranging themselves Ice is also weird in that it is an expansion of its liquid state, for almost all other materials the solid form is smaller.	[ "Some applications use the thermal capacity of water or ice as cold storage; others use it as heat storage. It can serve either application; ice can be melted to store heat then refrozen to warm an environment which is below freezing (putting liquid water at 0°C in such an environment warms it much more than the same mass of ice at the same temperature, because the latent heat of freezing is extracted from it, which is why the phase change is relevant), or water can be frozen to \"store cold\" then melted to make an environment above freezing colder (and again, a given mass of ice at 0°C will provide more cooling than the same mass of water at the same temperature).\n", "The compressed ice was then transported to the University of Rochester where it was blasted by a pulse of laser light. The reaction created conditions like those inside of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune by heating up the ice thousands of degrees under a pressure a million times greater than the earth's atmosphere in only ten to 20 billionths of a second. The experiment concluded that the current in the conductive water was indeed carried by ions rather than electrons and thus pointed to the water being superionic. More recent experiments from the same LLNL/Rochester team used x-ray crystallography on laser-shocked water droplets to determine that the oxygen ions enter a face-centered-cubic phase, which was dubbed ice XVIII and reported in the journal \"Nature\" in May 2019.\n", "The Crosley Icyball was an example of a gas-absorption refrigerator, as can be found today in recreational vehicles or campervans. Unlike most refrigerators, the Icyball had no moving parts, and instead of operating continuously, was manually cycled. Typically it would be charged in the morning, and provide cooling throughout the heat of the day.\n", "The vertical style of drum is usually stationary, with the ice formed on the inner surface. The harvesting blade is motor driven around this surface, cracking it off. The horizontal style of drum is usually rotating, with the ice formed on the outer surface. As the drum rotates, a stationary blade cracks the ice from the surface\n", "Pure water is supercooled in a chiller to −2°C and released through a nozzle into a storage tank. On release it undergoes a phase transition forming small ice particles within 2.5% ice fraction. In the storage tank it is separated by the difference in density between ice and water. The cold water is supercooled and released again increasing the ice fraction in the storage tank.\n\nHowever a small crystal in the supercooled water or a nucleation cell on the surface may act as a seed for ice crystals and block the generator.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold chain\n\nBULLET::::- Fishing industry\n", "The surface tension can be defined in terms of force or energy. The surface tension of a liquid is the ratio of the change in the energy of the liquid, and the change in the surface area of the liquid (that led to the change in energy). It can be defined as formula_20. This work W is interpreted as the potential energy.\n", "Combinations of dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) and reducing agents such as magnesium, aluminium and boron follow the same chemical reaction as with traditional thermite mixtures, producing metal oxides and carbon. Despite the very low temperature of a dry ice thermite mixture, such a system is capable of being ignited with a flame. When the ingredients are finely divided, confined in a pipe and armed like a traditional explosive, this cryo-thermite is detonatable and a portion of the carbon liberated in the reaction emerges in the form of diamond.\n", "A \"dry ice bomb\" is a balloon-like device using dry ice in a sealed container such as a plastic bottle. Water is usually added to accelerate the sublimation of the dry ice. As the dry ice sublimes, pressure increases, causing the bottle to burst causing a loud noise that can be avoided when a #3 rubber stopper replaces the screw-on cap to make a water rocket with a two-liter bottle.\n", "For example, consider the elements \"B\" (with parent \"F\") and its left child \"D\" (with right child \"C\"). When the certificate [\"B\"\"D\"] on the edge \"BD\" fails, the tree will be rotated around this edge. Thus in this case the resulting structure has \"D\" in place of \"B\", \"C\" becomes a child of \"B\" instead of\"D\", and there are three certificate changes [BD] replaced with [DB], [DC] replaced with [BC] and [FB] replaced with [FD]. Everything else stays the same.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n\nThis kinetic data structure is:\n", "Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and refreezing when the pressure is reduced. Many sources state that \"regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice, with a heavy weight attached to it. The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally, permitting the wire to pass through the entire block. The wire's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved, so the ice block will remain solid even after wire passes completely through.\" This experiment is possible for ice at −10 °C or cooler, and while essentially valid, the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex. \n", "Experimental Machinist Douglas Goncz connected three ultracapacitor packs on an electric hub equipped recumbent bicycle in series/parallel with a 4PDT toggle switch in 2007 and described the resulting MObile Experimental Physics Educational Demonstrator (MOEPED) and its 19 kJ \"electric flywheel\" in a newsgroup posting to the moderated newsgroup sci.physics.research dated 11/9 of that year titled \"MOEPED Update\" and in other newsgroup threads under the keyword \"MOEPED\". In parallel, the packs were a regenerative brake; in series, they were a boost source. The vehicle remained in use so equipped until 2010. It was surplus disposed in 2013.\n\nSection::::Use in motor sport.:Races.\n", "Icyball\n\nIcyball was a name given to two early refrigerators, one made by Australian Sir Edward Hallstrom in 1923, and the other design patented by David Forbes Keith of Toronto, Ontario, Canada (filed 1927, granted 1929), and manufactured by American Powel Crosley Jr., who bought the rights to the device. Both devices were unusual in design in that they did not require the use of electricity for cooling. They ran for a day on a cup of kerosene, allowing rural users lacking electricity the benefits of refrigeration.\n\nSection::::Operation (Crosley Icyball).\n", "The failure of an O-ring seal was determined to be the cause of the Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" disaster on January 28, 1986. A crucial factor was cold weather prior to the launch. This was famously demonstrated on television by Caltech physics professor Richard Feynman, when he placed a small O-ring into ice-cold water, and subsequently showed its loss of flexibility before an investigative committee.\n", "BULLET::::- Ice cubes placed in a glass of warm water crack by thermal shock as the exterior surface increases in temperature much faster than the interior. The outer layer expands as it warms, while the interior remains largely unchanged. This rapid change in volume between different layers creates stresses in the ice that build until the force exceeds the strength of the ice, and a crack forms, sometimes with enough force to shoot ice shards out of the container.\n", "By the 1760s (or earlier) German artisans had invented a so-called \"pulse hammer\" (\"Pulshammer\"). In 1767 Benjamin Franklin visited Germany, saw a pulse hammer, and in 1768, improved it. Franklin's pulse hammer consisted of two glass bulbs connected by a U-shaped tube; one of the bulbs was partially filled with water in equilibrium with its vapor. Holding the partially filled bulb in one's hand would cause the water to flow into the empty bulb. In 1872, the Italian physicist and engineer Enrico Bernardi combined three Franklin tubes to build a simple heat motor that was powered by evaporation in a way similar to the drinking bird.\n", "For portable earthbound applications, the heat exchanger for cooling the liquid can be very low-tech, consisting simply of a container for holding ice, and an electric pump to circulate water from the container through the tubing. The return water is cooled by the melting ice and again pumped through the tubes. Regulation of flow is done by varying pump speed or using an adjustable flow valve. Ice storage can be achieved using a belt-pack, a backpack, or a duffel bag, depending on the length of time needed for the cooling system to operate between refilling the ice storage.\n", "Thus the application of carb heat is manifested as a reduction in engine power, up to 15 percent. If ice has built up, there will then be a gradual increase in power as the air passage is freed up by the melting ice. The amount of power regained is an indication of the severity of ice buildup.\n", "For more than 150 years, absorption chillers have been used to make ice. This ice can be stored and used as an \"ice battery\" for cooling when the sun is not shining, as it was in the 1995 Hotel New Otani Tokyo in Japan. Mathematical models are available in the public domain for ice-based thermal energy storage performance calculations.\n\nSection::::Other.\n", "In 2009, the Discovery Channel program \"MythBusters\" episode 115 tested the properties of pykrete and the myths behind it. First, the program's hosts, Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman compared the mechanical properties of common ice, pykrete, and a new material specially created for the show, dubbed \"super pykrete\", using newspapers instead of woodpulp. Both versions of pykrete indeed proved to be much stronger than the chunk of ice, withstanding hundreds of pounds of weight. The super pykrete was much stronger than the original version.\n", "The drinking bird was patented in the US in 1945 and 1946 by two different inventors.\n\nSection::::History.:Wally Minto's contribution.\n\nWally Minto experimented with different working fluids. With the working fluids he used, he got the required temperature difference down, enabling the engine - for example - to run on solar power.\n\nBased on the working fluid, his improved wheel is also known as \"Freon Power Wheel\". Popular Science reported about in its March 1976 issue.\n\nSection::::History.:Examples.\n", "Dry ice bombs are commonly made from a container such as a plastic bottle, water and dry ice. The bottle is filled about one quarter full of water. Chunks of dry ice are added and the container is shut tightly. As the solid carbon dioxide warms, it sublimates to gas. With limited room for the gas to expand, the pressure in the bottle increases. Bombs typically rupture within 30 seconds to 30 minutes, dependent largely on the temperature of the air outside the bottle. A dry ice bomb may develop frost on its exterior prior to explosion. After explosion, it appears to have shattered, with the overall shape of the device intact.\n", "Ice XVI is the least dense (0.81 g/cm) experimentally obtained crystalline form of ice. It is topologically equivalent to the empty structure of sII clathrate hydrates. It was first obtained in 2014 by removing gas molecules from a neon clathrate under vacuum at temperatures below 147 K. The resulting empty water frame, ice XVI, is thermodynamically unstable at the experimental conditions, yet it can be preserved at cryogenic temperatures. Above 145–147 K at positive pressures ice XVI transforms into the stacking-faulty Ice I and further into ordinary Ice I . Theoretical studies predict Ice XVI to be thermodynamically stable at negative pressures (that is under tension). \n", "No independent tests of any WHE model have been reported, but an indication comes from information published regarding the test waste heat recovery system for Bent Glass Design of Hatboro, PA. The system was described as providing up to 10 kW electrical output using a WHE-25 model engine and \"will convert over 500,000 BTUs of exhaust heat from the customer's glass manufacturing furnaces into electric power.\" A heat flow rate 500,000 BTU/hr equals 146.5 kW.\n\nformula_1\n", "Frozen carbonated drink\n\nA frozen carbonated drink or frozen carbonated beverage (FCB) is a mixture of flavored sugar syrup, carbon dioxide, and water that is frozen by a custom machine creating a drink comprising a fine slush of suspended ice crystals, with liquid. The final ice crystal concentration changes from 10% to 50%. It dispenses on a type of soft drink and a trade mark of each company producing FCB. Some common FCBs are the Slurpee, the ICEE, and the Froster and also known as Fizzy Slush Machines.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The eutectic sodium-potassium (NaK) alloy was used as a coolant in the SNAP-10A. The NaK was circulated through the core and thermoelectric converters by a liquid metal direct current conduction-type pump. The thermoelectric converters (identified as the long white \"apron\") are doped silicon germanium materials, thermally coupled, but electrically isolated from the NaK heat transfer medium. The temperature difference between the NaK on one side of the thermoelectric converter and the cold of space on the other created an electric potential and usable electricity.\n\nSection::::SNAPSHOT mission.\n\nSection::::SNAPSHOT mission.:Launch and Orbital Operation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12825	Why does it take over a decade to become a U.S. citizen?	As an immigration lawyer, there's a few different things that go into this. As a matter of law, you can apply to become a citizen 5 years after you get your green card (or 3 years if you got your green card through marriage to a U.S. citizen). The current processing times for a citizenship application are roughly 8-12 months, so the quickest possible path to citizenship would take around 4 years, while for most people it would take around 6 years since they got the green card. However, there are some requirements for citizenship which make applying for citizenship not something that people always want to do. First, it's expensive. Currently, the cost of a citizenship application (N-400) is $725. Some people are eligible for fee waivers if they don't earn enough money, but many people don't know about the existence of those fee waivers. $725 is a lot of money to a working class immigrant. Second, and most importantly, you have to (1) learn English well enough to pass an English test, and (2) study American history and politics well enough to pass a fairly basic civics test. For many low-income immigrants, they simply do not have the free time to take English classes or to study for the civics. These people may learn English organically over the course of a decade or more, and only then decide to try to apply for citizenship. Third, sometimes there are weird hurdles that may arise because of a previous arrest or something minor that would not jeopardize the green card but could prevent citizenship. Those people may have to wait longer, or may not be able to apply for citizenship at all. Sometimes applications also just fall through the cracks and are essentially lost at USCIS, and people may have to wait 2-3 years or even file a lawsuit in order to get the government to process their application. Fourth, many people who say that the "citizenship process" took them more than a decade are not actually talking about the citizenship process; they're talking about the whole time it took them to immigrate to the United States in the first place all the way to becoming a citizen. But the United States has two different processes; immigrating to the United States and becoming a permanent resident (getting your green card) and becoming a citizen. The former can take years and years. The latter generally takes the time I described above (counting processing time, four years for those who got a green card through a marriage to a US citizen and six years for everyone else). Finally, many people with green cards view becoming U.S. citizens as something they are particularly interested in taking a lot of time to do. They have almost all the same rights as citizens, but they may plan to return to their home country later in life and don't care about being a citizen. Or they may be from a country where you can't be a dual citizen, so they don't want to give up their original nationality. And never underestimate the power of inertia, procrastination, or laziness. So many people say "Yeah, I'll file the paperwork next year" and then ten years go by. Tl;dr version: It can take less than 4 years in the shortest period of time, takes 6 years for most people, but many immigrants either can't afford to file for citizenship, don't want to, or end up with some bureaucratic problem that causes a huge delay.	[ "Section::::Naturalized citizenship.:Strong demand.\n", "As a practical matter, renunciation of U.S. citizenship became markedly more difficult in 2014, meaning that even accidental Americans who were aware of their U.S. citizenship status and wanted to rid themselves of it faced obstacles: in addition to the cost of making the required tax filings with the IRS, the State Department raised the fee for renunciation to US$2,350, roughly twenty times the fee charged by other high-income countries, and wait times for renunciation appointments at some U.S consulates grew to ten months or longer.\n\nSection::::Giving up U.S. citizenship.:Expatriation tax.\n", "In 1990, the U.S. State Department adopted new regulations which presume that an individual does not intend to give up citizenship when performing one of the above potentially expatriating acts. If asked, the individual can always answer that they did not intend to give it up; this is sufficient to retain their citizenship. Hence, the U.S. effectively allows citizens to acquire new citizenships while remaining a U.S. citizen, becoming a dual citizen.\n", "Most U.S. citizens do not experience major delays either. While U.S. citizens have to file I-130 applications for their spouses/minor children, they do not have to wait for immigrant visas. If the process takes too long, they can apply for K visas. Even without having to wait for an immigrant visa, the entire process typically takes at least one year and often as much as three years. This is caused by USCIS (6-10mo), NVC (1-4mo), and Consular (1-6mo) processing times.\n\nUnder current law it is only permanent residents whose spouses/minor children must wait many years to be admitted.\n\nSection::::Legislation.\n", "To become a naturalized United States citizen, one must be at least eighteen years of age at the time of filing, a legal permanent resident (or non-citizen national) of the United States, and have had a status of a legal permanent resident in the United States for five years before they apply. (This 5-year requirement is reduced to three years if they (a) acquired legal permanent resident status, (b) have been married to and living with a citizen for the past three years and (c) the spouse has been a U.S. citizen for at least three years prior to the applicant applying for naturalization.) They must have been physically present for at least 30 months of 60 months prior to the date of filing their application. Also during those 60 months if the legal permanent resident was outside of the U.S. for a continuous period of 6 months or more they are disqualified from naturalizing (certain exceptions apply for those continuous periods of six months to 1 year).\n", "According to a senior fellow at the Migration Policy Institute, \"citizenship is a very, very valuable commodity\". However, one study suggested legal residents eligible for citizenship, but who don't apply, tend to have low incomes (41 percent), do not speak English well (60 percent), or have low levels of education (25 percent). There is strong demand for citizenship based on the number of applications filed. From 1920 to 1940, the number of immigrants to the United States who became citizens numbered about 200,000 each year; there was a spike after World War II, and then the level reduced to about 150,000 per year until resuming to the 200,000 level beginning about 1980. In the mid-1990s to 2009, the levels rose to about 500,000 per year with considerable variation. In 1996, more than one million people became citizens through naturalization. In 1997, there were 1.41 million applications filed; in 2006, 1.38 million. The number of naturalized citizens in the United States rose from 6.5 million in the mid-1990s to 11 million in 2002. By 2003, the pool of immigrants eligible to become naturalized citizens was 8 million, and of these, 2.7 million lived in California. In 2003, the number of new citizens from naturalization was 463,204. In 2007, the number was 702,589. In 2007, 1.38 million people applied for citizenship creating a backlog. In 2008, applications decreased to 525,786.\n", "BULLET::::- The time it takes to complete the process differs between countries and programs, and this can also be delayed by the time it takes the applicant to submit all the necessary documentation. For example, the time to citizenship for Cyprus is as little as 90 days, while Malta and Antigua and Barbuda take between three and six months. To qualify for citizenship in Canada, the applicant has to be physically present for four years in a six-year period\n", "USCIS focuses on two key points on the immigrant's journey towards civic integration: when they first become permanent residents and when they are ready to begin the formal naturalization process. A lawful permanent resident is eligible to become a citizen of the United States after holding the Permanent Resident Card for at least five continuous years, with no trips out of the United States lasting 180 days or more. If, however, the lawful permanent resident marries a U.S. citizen, eligibility for U.S. citizenship is shortened to three years so long as the resident has been living with the spouse continuously for at least three years and the spouse has been a resident for at least three years.\n", "There has been controversy about the agency in charge of citizenship. The USCIS has been criticized as being a \"notoriously surly, inattentive bureaucracy\" with long backlogs in which \"would-be citizens spent years waiting for paperwork\". Rules made by Congress and the federal government regarding citizenship are highly technical and often confusing, and the agency is forced to cope with enforcement within a complex regulatory milieu. There have been instances in which applicants for citizenship have been deported on technicalities. One Pennsylvania doctor and his wife, both from the Philippines, who applied for citizenship, and one Mr. Darnell from Canada who was married to an American with two children from this marriage, ran afoul of legal technicalities and faced deportation. \"The New York Times\" reported that \"Mr. Darnell discovered that a 10-year-old conviction for domestic violence involving a former girlfriend, even though it had been reduced to a misdemeanor and erased from his public record, made him ineligible to become a citizen—or even to continue living in the United States.\" Overworked federal examiners under pressure to make \"quick decisions\" as well as \"weed out security risks\" have been described as preferring \"to err on the side of rejection\". In 2000, 399,670 applications were denied (about of all applications); in 2007, 89,683 applications for naturalization were denied, about 12% of those presented.\n", "BULLET::::- Freedom to enter and leave the United States. United States citizens have the right to enter and leave the United States freely. Certain non-citizens, such as permanent residents, have similar rights. Unlike permanent residents, U.S. citizens do not have an obligation to maintain residence in the U.S. – they can leave for any length of time and return freely at any time.\n", "As a result of these court rulings and policy changes, performance of a potentially expatriating act no longer creates a risk of unintentional loss of U.S. citizenship. Instead, an individual who commits a potentially expatriating act may decide whether to retain or relinquish U.S. citizenship. In the latter case, the individual may apply to the State Department for a Certificate of Loss of Nationality (CLN). Between 2010 and 2015, obtaining a CLN began to become a difficult process with high barriers, including nearly year-long waitlists for appointments and the world's most expensive administrative fee, as well as complicated tax treatment. Legal scholars state that such barriers may constitute a breach of the United States' obligations under international law, and foreign legislatures have called upon the U.S. government to eliminate the fees, taxes, and other requirements, particularly with regard to accidental Americans who have few genuine links to the United States.\n", "The agency in charge of admitting new citizens is the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, commonly abbreviated as USCIS. It is a bureau of the Department of Homeland Security. It offers web-based services. The agency depends on application fees for revenue; in 2009, with a struggling economy, applications were down sharply, and consequently there was much less revenue to upgrade and streamline services. There was speculation that if the administration of president Barack Obama passed immigration reform measures, then the agency could face a \"welcome but overwhelming surge of Americans-in-waiting\" and longer processing times for citizenship applications. The USCIS has made efforts to digitize records. A USCIS website says the \"U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) is committed to offering the best possible service to you, our customer\" and which says \"With our focus on customer service, we offer you a variety of services both before and after you file your case.\" The website allowed applicants to estimate the length of time required to process specific types of cases, to check application status, and to access a customer guide. The USCIS processes cases in the order they're received.\n", "Aliens in the United States staying for more than thirty days are generally required to register with the Federal government pursuant to the Smith Act and carry proof of registration at all times; for permanent residents, the proof of registration comes in the form of a Permanent Residence Card (\"Green card\") while, for other aliens, this can be in the form of either an Employment Authorization Document (EAD) or the I-94 card together with a valid passport.\n\nSection::::Europe.\n\nSection::::Europe.:European Union.\n", "Under the current system, immediate family members (spouse, child, and dependent mother and father), have priority status for green cards and generally wait 6 months to a year to have their green card application approved. For non-immediate family members, the process may take up to 10 years. Paperwork is processed on a first-come, first-served basis, so new applications may go untouched for several months. To address the issue of slow processing times, USCIS has made a policy allowing applicants to submit the I-130 and I-485 forms at the same time. This has reduced the processing time. Another delay in the process comes when applications have mistakes. In these cases papers are sent back to the applicant, further delaying the process. Currently the largest issue creating long wait times is not processing time, but rather immigrant visa quotas set by Congress.\n", "BULLET::::- Persons obtaining legal permanent resident status by fiscal year\n\nSection::::Contemporary immigration.\n", "The United States Internal Revenue Service has excluded some regulations such as Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT) from tax treaties that protect double taxation. In its current format even if US citizens are paying income taxes at a rate of 56%, far above the maximum US marginal tax rate, the citizen can be subject to US taxes because the calculation of the AMT does not allow full deduction for taxes paid to a foreign country. Other regulations such as the post date of foreign mailed tax returns are not recognized and can result in penalties for late filing if they arrive at the IRS later than the filing date. However, the filing date for overseas citizens has a two-month automatic extension to June 15.\n", "Naturalization numbers have ranged from about 500,000 to just over 1,000,000 per year since the early 1990s, with peak years in 1996 and 2008 each around 1,040,000. These numbers add up to more than the number of visas issued in those years because as many as 2.7 million of those who were granted amnesty by IRCA in 1986 have converted or will convert to citizenship. In general, immigrants become eligible for citizenship after five years of residence. Many do not immediately apply, or do not pass the test on the first attempt. This means that the counts for visas and the counts for naturalization will always remain out of step, though in the long run the naturalizations add up to somewhat less than the visas.\n", "Section::::Application process.:Green card lottery.\n\nEach year, around 50,000 immigrant visas are made available through the Diversity Visa (DV) program, also known as the Green Card Lottery to people who were born in countries with low rates of immigration to the United States (fewer than 50,000 immigrants in the past five years). Applicants can only qualify by country of chargeability, not by citizenship. Anyone who is selected under this lottery will be given the opportunity to apply for permanent residence. They can also file for their spouse and any unmarried children under the age of 21.\n", "BULLET::::- Transmission of U.S. citizenship to children born abroad. Generally, children born to two U.S. citizen parents abroad are automatically U.S. citizens at birth. When the parents are one U.S. citizen and one non-U.S. citizen, certain conditions about the U.S. citizen's parent's length of time spent in the U.S. need to be met. See United States nationality law for more details. Non-citizen U.S. nationals also have a similar benefit (transmission of non-citizen U.S. nationality to children born abroad).\n\nBULLET::::- Protection from deportation. Naturalized U.S. citizens are no longer considered aliens and cannot be placed into deportation proceedings.\n", "Applications for permanent resident cards (green cards) were decided by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) until 2003 when the INS was abolished and replaced by the current Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The whole process may take several years, depending on the type of immigrant category and the country of chargeability. An immigrant usually has to go through a three-step process to get permanent residency:\n", "United States law requires that an individual appear in person before a consular officer at a U.S. embassy or consulate outside the United States and sign an oath or affirmation that the individual intends to renounce U.S. citizenship. Exceptions to this rule are permitted in times of war and under special circumstances. During the expatriation procedure, the individual must complete several documents and demonstrate in an interview with a consular officer that the renunciation is voluntary and intentional. Depending on the embassy or consulate, the individual is often required to appear in person two times and conduct two separate interviews with consular officers over the course of several months.\n", "Section::::Application process.:Application process for family-sponsored visa for both parents and for children.:Improving the application process in obtaining a green card.:Quota system challenges.\n\nLong wait times are a symptom of another issue—quotas preventing immigrants from receiving immigrant visas. Georgia's \"Augusta Chronicle\" in 2006 stated that an estimated two million people are on waiting lists in anticipation to become legal and permanent residents of the United States. Immigrants need visas to get off of these waiting lists, and Congress would need to change immigration law in order to accommodate them with legal status.\n", "Section::::Today.:North America.:United States.:Fee for renunciation of U.S. citizenship.\n\nIn 2015, the fee for renunciation of U.S. citizenship was raised by 422%. It went from US$450 to $2,350 and is the highest fee for the renunciation of a citizenship worldwide.\n\nSection::::Today.:North America.:Canada.\n", "For persons born between December 24, 1952 and November 14, 1986, a person is a U.S. citizen if all of the following are true:\n\nBULLET::::1. The person's parents were married at the time of birth\n\nBULLET::::2. One of the person's parents was a U.S. citizen when the person was born\n\nBULLET::::3. The citizen parent lived at least ten years in the United States before the child's birth;\n\nBULLET::::4. A minimum of 5 of these 10 years in the United States were after the citizen parent's 14th birthday.\n", "The Department of State's \"Visa Bulletin,\" issued every month, gives the priority date for those petition beneficiaries currently entitled to apply for immigrant status through immigrant visas or adjustment of status. There is no annual quota for the spouses, unmarried children, and parents of U.S. citizens, so there is no waiting period for these applicants—just the required processing time. However, all other family-based categories have significant backlogs, even with a U.S. citizen petitioner.\n" ]	[ "The United States citizenship process takes over a decade.", "It takes over a decade to become a US citizen." ]	[ "When people say decade they actually mean the whole time it takes them to immigrate from start to finish.", "The actual process of becoming a US citizen doesn't actually take 10 years, in most cases it takes 6 years. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The United States citizenship process takes over a decade.", "It takes over a decade to become a US citizen." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When people say decade they actually mean the whole time it takes them to immigrate from start to finish.", "The actual process of becoming a US citizen doesn't actually take 10 years, in most cases it takes 6 years. " ]
2018-10253	Why when people get older they get this blue circle around their pupils?	It's not around their pupils. It's in the cornea, which is the first thing your finger touches if you decide to poke yourself right in the middle of your eye. It's called arcus senilus. It's above the iris, which surrounds the pupils. Over the course of your life, your body likes to put cholesterol in all sorts of places its not meant to go. It's just a fact of life. It occurs slowly over time. In your eyes, as you age it's thought that the blood vessels become more leaky over time, and these special carrier vessels full of cholesterol called "Low density lipoprotein" will exit and get stuck in the cornea, usually in the very bottom or very top layer. These deposits can be found elsewhere in the eye as well. Because your sight is through your pupil, the small hole in the middle of the iris, this halo/ring won't affect your eyesight. Low density lipoproteins or LDLs are also involved in another disease that takes a long time to happen called cardiovascular disease. It's what causes the majority of heart attacks. It's when LDL/cholesterol gets stuck in the walls of your arteries and can't get back out again. In both arcus senilus and cardiovascular disease, being young and having very high LDL, less specifically cholesterol, can cause the ring and heart attacks.	[ "Arcus senilis\n\nArcus senilis is an old age syndrome where there is a white, grey, or blue opaque ring in the corneal margin (peripheral corneal opacity), or white ring in front of the periphery of the iris. It is present at birth but then fades; however, it is quite commonly present in the elderly. It can also appear earlier in life as a result of hypercholesterolemia. Arcus senilis can be confused with the limbus sign, which reflects calcium rather than lipid deposits.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In a male child, from 2 months upwards, an aversion to light and nystagmus may lead to the suspicion of a case of blue cone monochromacy, but it does not provide sufficient indications to establish the form of the condition. To identify a case of BCM, it is necessary to reconstruct the family history, with the condition linked to the transmission of the X chromosome if there are other cases in the family.\n\nThe electroretinogram (ERG), can demonstrate the loss of cone function with retained rod function.\n", "Light is transmitted to the retina through the lens. In humans, the amount of light transmitted by the lens is age-dependent. In young children, more than 65% of blue light is transmitted. This transmission rate decreases over time; at age 25, only 20% of blue light is transmitted to the retina. The decreased transmission of blue light occurs as our eyes’ lens naturally yellows and absorbs more blue light over time, thus preventing blue light from reaching the retina. As a result of this natural process, younger people are more susceptible to the effects of blue light.\n", "There are a variety of characteristics which indicate that an individual may have phacolytic glaucoma. Within older people, the lens of the eye may appear to be yellow and lose its transparency (becomes cloudy). Once the protein begins to seep into the lens, permanent damage to the lens may be caused as the precipitate in lens impairs vision.\n", "Cherry hemangioma\n\nCherry angiomas, also known as Campbell De Morgan spots or senile angiomas, are cherry red papules on the skin. They are a harmless benign tumor, containing an abnormal proliferation of blood vessels, and have no relationship to cancer. They are the most common kind of angioma, and increase with age, occurring in nearly all adults over 30 years. \n\nCampbell de Morgan is the nineteenth-century British surgeon who first described them.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "AR pupils are extremely uncommon in the developed world. There is continued interest in the underlying pathophysiology, but the scarcity of cases makes ongoing research difficult.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::2. Kidney transplant is also an option. Treatment plans seem to be limited, as there is a large focus on the prevention of papillorenal syndrome and its implications. People with congenital optic nerve abnormalities should seek ophthalmologists regularly and use protective lenses. If abnormalities are present, a follow up with a nephrologist should be achieved to monitor renal function and blood pressure. Since the disease is believed to be caused by \"Pax2\" mutations and is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, family members may be at risk and relatives should be tested for possible features. About half of those diagnosed with the disease have an affected parent, so genetic counseling is recommended.\n", "A lack of sleep and mental fatigue can cause paleness of the skin, allowing the blood underneath the skin to become more visible and appear more blue or darker.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Age.\n\nDark circles are likely to become more noticeable and permanent with age. This is because as people get older, their skin loses collagen, becoming thinner and more translucent. Circles may also gradually begin to appear darker in one eye than the other as a result of some habitual facial expressions, such as an uneven smile.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Sun Exposure.\n", "BULLET::::- Like other muscles of the body, those that control the eyes are also weak, and about 40% of affected children have strabismus or “lazy eye.”\n\nBULLET::::- Approximately one third of the affected children have anatomical heart defects. The most common is atrial septal defect--a hole between the two upper chambers of the heart. This defect typically does not cause symptoms of heart failure early in life, but can become problematic later in childhood.\n", "BULLET::::- Pigmentary changes in the retina – In addition to the pigmented cells in the iris (the colored part of the eye), there are pigmented cells beneath the retina. As these cells break down and release their pigment, dark clumps of released pigment and later, areas that are less pigmented may appear\n\nBULLET::::- Exudative changes: hemorrhages in the eye, hard exudates, subretinal/sub-RPE/intraretinal fluid\n", "Tonic pupils are fairly common – they are seen in roughly 1 out of every 500 people. A patient with anisocoria (one pupil bigger than the other) whose pupil does not react to light (does not constrict when exposed to bright light) most likely has Adie syndrome – idiopathic degeneration of the ciliary ganglion.\n\nSection::::Diseases.:Adie tonic pupil.:Physiology.\n", "Primary juvenile glaucoma is a neonate or juvenile abnormality where ocular hypertension is evident at birth or shortly thereafter and is caused by abnormalities in the anterior chamber angle development that blocks the outflow of the aqueous humor.\n\nUveitic glaucoma is due to uveitis, the swelling and inflammation of the uvea, the middle layer of the eye. The uvea provides most of the blood supply to the retina. Increased eye pressure in uveitis can result from the inflammation itself or from the steroids used to treat it.\n\nSection::::Screening.\n", "Late in the course of Adie syndrome, the pupil becomes small (as all pupils do with old age). It will still be “fixed” (it will not constrict to bright light) and it will continue to show abnormal, tonic constriction with attempted near vision.\n\nSection::::Diseases.:Light-near dissociation.\n\nIn some neurological disorders, the pupil does not react to light, but it does react to accommodation. This is called “light-near dissociation”.\n\nIn Adie syndrome, damage involving the ciliary ganglion manifests light-near dissociation and a tonically dilated pupil (usually unilateral).\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nNo particular risk factors have been conclusively identified; however, there have been a few reports that demonstrate an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance in some families. Therefore, a family history of optic pits may be a possible risk factor.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Associated retinal changes.\n", "Phacolysis is evident, more commonly, within elderly people as a result of cataracts that have developed over time. There are other factors which contribute to the development of phacolysis in seniors. This is clearly indicated through the increase of intraocular pressure, which usually occurs when anterior flow faces obstruction of the anterior flow to the aqueous humor. Essentially, the eye requires a photosynthetic pigment which allows for light to become chemical energy. Within seniors this pigment overtime splits with the oxygen to thereby generate phacolysis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Buphthalmos\n\nBuphthalmos (plural: buphthalmoses) is enlargement of the eyeball and is most commonly seen in infants and young children. It is sometimes referred to as buphthalmia (plural buphthalmias). It usually appears in the newborn period or the first 3 months of life. and in most cases indicates the presence of congenital (infantile) glaucoma, which is a disorder in which elevated pressures within the eye lead to structural eye damage and vision loss.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Although most recognized for its correlation with the onset of glaucoma, the malformation is not limited to the eye, as Axenfeld syndrome when associated with the PITX2 genetic mutation usually presents congenital malformations of the face, teeth, and skeletal system.\n\nThe most characteristic feature affecting the eye is a distinct corneal posterior arcuate ring, known as an \"embryotoxon\". The iris is commonly adherent to the Schwalbe's line (posterior surface of the cornea).\n\nDiagnosis\n", "Prominent blood vessels (telangiectasia) over the white (sclera) of the eyes usually occur by the age of 5–8 years, but sometimes appear later or not at all. The absence of telangiectasia does not exclude the diagnosis of A–T. Potentially a cosmetic problem, the ocular telangiectasia do not bleed or itch, though they are sometimes misdiagnosed as chronic conjunctivitis. It is their constant nature, not changing with time, weather or emotion, that marks them as different from other visible blood vessels. Telangiectasia can also appear on sun-exposed areas of skin, especially the face and ears. They occur in the bladder as a late complication of chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, have been seen deep inside the brain of older people with A–T, and occasionally arise in the liver and lungs.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nClinical exam may reveal sectoral paresis of the iris sphincter or vermiform iris movements. The tonic pupil may become smaller (miotic) over time which is referred to as \"little old Adie's\". Testing with low dose (1/8%) pilocarpine may constrict the tonic pupil due to cholinergic denervation supersensitivity. A normal pupil will not constrict with the dilute dose of pilocarpine. CT scans and MRI scans may be useful in the diagnostic testing of focal hypoactive reflexes.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "One study found that the majority of capillaries in cherry hemangiomas are fenestrated and stain for carbonic anhydrase activity.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nCherry angiomas appear spontaneously in many people in middle age but can also, less commonly, occur in young people. They can also occur in an aggressive eruptive manner in any age. The underlying cause for the development of cherry angiomas is not understood.\n\nCherry angioma may occur through two different mechanisms: angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels), and vasculogenesis (the formation of totally new vessels, which usually occurs during embryonic and fetal development).\n", "Tadpole pupil symptoms occur in episodes. Episodes are generally brief and less than 5 minutes, however, some episodes have been reported to last anywhere from 3 to 15 minutes. The episodes can occur multiple times a day for days, weeks, or months.\n\nStudies show that a majority of those experiencing tadpole pupil are younger women from an age range of 24 to 48 years old, with no apparent health problems. Although women generally have the tadpole pupil, men are not unaffected by this disease and some have been reported to experience the symptoms.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Sometimes there is flushing on the affected side of the face due to dilation of blood vessels under the skin. The pupil's light reflex is maintained as this is controlled via the parasympathetic nervous system.\n\nIn children, Horner's syndrome sometimes leads to heterochromia, a difference in eye color between the two eyes. This happens because a lack of sympathetic stimulation in childhood interferes with melanin pigmentation of the melanocytes in the superficial stroma of the iris.\n\nIn veterinary medicine, signs can include partial closure of the third eyelid, or nictitating membrane.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Loewenfeld’s theory is now generally accepted. It explains the defining features of a tonic pupil:\n\nTonic pupils are usually due to \"Adie syndrome\", but other diseases can denervate the ciliary ganglion. Peripheral neuropathies (such as diabetic neuropathy) occasionally produce tonic pupils. Herpes zoster virus can attack the ciliary ganglion. Trauma to the orbit can damage the short ciliary nerves. Anything that denervates the ciliary ganglion will produce a tonic pupil due to aberrant nerve regeneration.\n\nSection::::Diseases.:Adie syndrome.\n", "Within the retina, the accumulation of AGEs in the drusen and Bruch's membrane has been associated with age, and has also been observed at a higher level among patients with age-related macular degeneration. This is manifested by the thickening of the Bruch's membrane. Furthermore, it has been observed that AGE levels increase with age within the lamina cribrosa, and the products of the Maillard reaction have been observed there, as well.\n", "Rubeosis iridis\n\nRubeosis iridis, is a medical condition of the iris of the eye in which new abnormal blood vessels (formed by neovascularization) are found on the surface of the iris.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThis condition is often associated with diabetes in advanced proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Other conditions causing rubeosis iridis include central retinal vein occlusion, ocular ischemic syndrome, and chronic retinal detachment.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n" ]	[ "People get a blue circle around their pupils when they get older.", "People get a blue circle around their pupil as they get older." ]	[ "People get a blue circle around their corneas when they get older.", "The circle is around their cornea." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People get a blue circle around their pupils when they get older.", "People get a blue circle around their pupil as they get older." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "People get a blue circle around their corneas when they get older.", "The circle is around their cornea." ]
2018-22244	Why is ice often associated with slowness in games?	I'm guessing you've never been somewhere cold. Yes, becoming cold can make you lethargic. Your body is using energy to try and heat itself so you can become exhausted just trying to walk while very cold. Not to mention colds impact on circulation which can make it hard to use your limbs and slow you. The effects of hypothermia on the mind as well, making thinking difficult and, once more, slowing you down.	[ "The game levels alternate between large ice blocks and little ice pieces. The levels with the little pieces are actually easier, since one can walk left or right over them without falling in the water.\n", "Despite the name, ice appears only in a fraction of the game's levels, and cannot be broken by any means. The game was so named because it was thought that its combination of simple objectives, intense action, and intellectually challenging design would make it appeal equally to casual gamers, hardcore gamers, and even non-gamers, and thus serve as a social icebreaker.\n", "A player hides a bottle for another person to come across. When the iced person sees the bottle, they must drop to one knee and chug the entire Ice. Other players who see the icer hide the Ice are exempt from drinking the ice. If the first person to touch the ice (the 'iced') fails to drink the whole bottle, the iced person cannot ice someone else for at least 24 hours.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Batman and Harley Quinn\", one of the waitresses in the restaurant Harley Quinn worked for a time makes a cameo, wearing an exotic version of Ice's costume.\n\nSection::::In other media.:Video games.\n\nIce appears as a non-player character in \"DC Universe Online\".\n\nSection::::In other media.:Merchandise.\n\nBULLET::::- At Toy Fair 2007, Mattel announced Fire and Ice action figures would be released as part of the \"Justice League Unlimited\" line.\n", "BULLET::::- The term \"Zamboni\" got a further boost in popular recognition from the 1992 Winter Olympics, when skater Laëtitia Hubert fell so many times she was nicknamed the \"Human Zamboni\", and the usage of the term \"Zamboni\" in its general sense subsequently expanded by an order of magnitude.\n\nBULLET::::- In video game Plants vs Zombies features a zombie opponent called Zomboni (portmanteau of Zombie and Zamboni) which rides a Zamboni to crush plants and resurface the lawn to prevents player to put plants.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Icing\" is also used, albeit less frequently, in basketball. In late-game situations with a player shooting free throws, it is not uncommon for the opposing team to take a timeout. This is commonly referred to as \"icing the shooter\".\n", "BULLET::::- Iceman's levels most closely resemble flight-sim games similar to Star Wars: Rogue Squadron as he continuously rides on his trademark ice slide. Iceman creates an icy path in front of him, flying through the air while shooting his ice beam and ice projectiles. Iceman's attacks are an Ice Beam, which cools off fires and damages foes; Frost Shield, which will cancel any damage he takes while it is \"up\"; and Hailstorm, which is his main attack, hurling several balls of ice at targets. Iceman will heal automatically as long as he doesn't incur damage for an amount of time. The player must keep up a quick speed when sliding, as slowing down too much will knock Iceman off the slide.\n", "An Ice block occurs when the iced is already carrying a bottle of Ice on their person, or is in reach of one without taking a step. If this happens, the icer (challenger) must drop and chug both Ices, the original presented Ice and the new blocking Ice.\n\nSection::::Popularity.\n\nIcing, which was described by \"The New York Times\" in June 2010 as \"the nation's biggest viral drinking game\", grew in popularity shortly after the appearance of the website BrosIcingBros.com in May 2010. \n", "BULLET::::- Ice appears in \"Mad\" where she tries to appeal to Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman about being called \"Super Friends\".\n\nBULLET::::- Clare Grant voiced Ice in the \"Robot Chicken DC Comics Special\". She appears outside the museum at the time when Mr. Freeze, Captain Cold, Icicle II, and one of the Chillblaines were each planning to steal the Blue Star of Egypt. Before Ice can take on the villains, the museum collapses due to the ice villains having demolished some load-bearing walls.\n\nBULLET::::- Ice appears in \"\".\n\nSection::::In other media.:Films.\n", "BULLET::::- On January 16, 2013, in honor of Frank Zamboni's 112th birthday, Google published a Google Doodle dedicated to him. The doodle is a game where the player can clean the surface of a virtual ice rink using an ice resurfacer.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2016 superhero movie \"Deadpool\", the titular character uses a Zamboni to run over a heavily injured opponent as an act of vengeance.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- How does an ice-resurfacing machine work?\n\nBULLET::::- Zamboni Google Doodle\n\nBULLET::::- Zamboni Driver Explains The Art Of Making Ice Video produced by \"Wisconsin Public Television\"\n", "BULLET::::- Shortened floors (1.3) : This change was introduced in order to make gameplay over the 1000th floor barrier more difficult. In \"Icy Tower\" versions prior to 1.3 a sufficiently skilled player was able to casually climb as much as several thousand floors, even at the fastest rate of the downward movement of the screen. This was undesirable, as replays from such games often lasted several minutes or more.\n", "The player controls Kickle to solve a series of puzzles that take place on frozen islands. The goal of each level is to collect the red Dream Bags. There are several types of deadly enemies. Kickle can use his freezing breath ability to turn some enemies into ice to create walkways on water or to defeat other enemies. He can also create a pillar of ice in front of him to act as a block.\n\nSection::::Regional differences.\n\nBULLET::::- The Japanese version tends to have more enemies present in the various levels.\n", "BULLET::::- Lunk (voiced by Billy West) − The unbelievably slow Lunk makes other members of the permanently chilled-out Frosticon tribe seem positively energetic. Lunk might not be the brainiest, or the most graceful when waddling along ice balancing on his stubby hands, but that thick ice exoskeleton makes this Mixel incredibly durable. And one sneeze from Lunk can istantly freeze a Nixel in an ice cube.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Mixels.:Fang Gang.\n", "After the player has jumped on all the pieces on the screen, they all turn back to white and one can jump on them again. When all the 15 ice blocks required for building the Igloo are gathered, the player has to get back to the shore and get inside it, thus proceeding to the next level. On every level the enemies and the ice blocks move slightly faster than in the previous level making the game more difficult.\n", "The wicked Ice Queen has murdered the good king and placed the kingdom under a terrible spell of forever winter. The young prince of the now frozen realm ascends the Ice Palace to collect the scattered and hidden pieces of his father's crown that can be used to vanquish the forces of evil. Once the whole crown is found, the Ice Queen can be destroyed.\n", "Because the \"Metroid\" series awards players for completing the game with a faster time, groups of player were inspired to discuss techniques on message boards such as GameFAQs and to capture and post video of full playthroughs. Despite internet limitations in the early 2000s, the ability to share video footage of \"Metroid\" runs allowed speedrunners to collaborate and learn from one another. It was during online discussions of \"Metroid Prime\" that the term \"sequence breaking\" was first widely used.\n\nSection::::\"Super Mario\" series.\n", "BULLET::::3. If a player has not yet melded, the discard pile is frozen.\n", "One of the original leagues was the Robertson League, named after its founder, John Robertson, who adapted Spongee hockey and made sure that there is no contact involved. In spongee hockey, icing occurs only the last three minutes of the game unless the winning team is shorthanded and is ahead by less than 5 goals.\n\nSection::::Differences from ice hockey.:Team composition.\n\nEach team can have a maximum of six people playing at a time. You can play in multiples of six, five, four, three or two.\n", "Ice (comics)\n\nIce (Tora Olafsdotter) is a fictional character, a comic book superheroine in publications from DC Comics.\n\nSection::::Publication history.\n\nCreated by Keith Giffen, J. M. DeMatteis, and Kevin Maguire, she first appeared in \"Justice League International\" #12 (April 1988).\n", "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "In addition to being a proficient hand-to-hand combatant, Ice can project in various forms quantities of ice and snow through her hands just enough to down an opponent. She can create platforms of ice upon which she can skate. Before her initial demise, she was powered-up mysteriously (later revealed to be the result of the Overmaster). She was able to generate larger amounts of ice and snow, and gained super strength and the ability to fly. After her resurrection in \"Birds of Prey\", Ice's powers seem incredibly destructive, expelling people from the building she's in as she awakens with bright white eyes, and conjuring a massive icy figure before her as well as controlling the weather to some degree, by causing the beginning of a blizzard far stronger than those known in that area.\n", "The boss of the ice themed level, Itamor, was changed from a large cat robot to an ice monster type robot. In the game, Ristar must grab hot dishes of food, and throw it in Itamor's mouth. In Japan, it was considered clever to use \"hot food\" to defeat a cat, due to a Japanese cultural reference regarding a \"cat-tongue\" not liking hot food. In English-speaking regions, that reference is non-existent, so it was changed to a \"cold ice monster\" being defeated by being melted by \"hot food\".\n", "December 1993 saw the release of id Software's \"Doom\". Among some of its major features, like at that time unparalleled graphics, LAN- and Internet-based multiplayer support, and user modification possibilities, it also gave the players the ability to record demo files of their playthrough. This particular feature was first picked up by Christina “Strunoph” Norman in January 1994 when she launched the \"LMP Hall of Fame\" website.\n", "Also in 2012, she set the Guinness World Records for the “longest marathon on a motion sensing dance game” and the “longest marathon on a dance/rhythm game” playing \"Dance Central 2\" with a Kinect motion sensor for 24 hours.\n", "Frostbite (video game)\n\nFrostbite is a 1983 action game designed by Steve Cartwright for the Atari 2600, and published by Activision in 1983. The game combines elements of \"Frogger\" and \"Q*bert\" in an arctic setting. The object of \"Frostbite\" is to help Frostbite Bailey build igloos by jumping on floating blocks of ice, while trying to avoid deadly hazards like clams, snow geese, Alaskan king crabs, polar bears, and the rapidly dropping temperature.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03689	When you’re sick with the cough, do you cough in your sleep or does it completely stop?	It typically stops completely. We undergo a thing called sleep paralysis in which our bodies are typically incapable of moving in response to stimuli, which prevents the irritants that cause coughing from working.	[ "While there are many causes of chronic cough, it is generally not essential for an extensive evaluation of multiple causes of cough to be made since the clinical pattern is usually sufficiently apparent that the diagnosis can be made by the clinical presentation, i.e., a repetitive harsh barking cough that is absent once asleep. Those familiar with this disorder readily recognize it without much in the way of testing.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSuccessful treatments have involved a few reports utilizing hypnosis, but suggestion therapy has been most extensively used. \n", "Cough may also be caused by conditions affecting the lung tissue such as bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, interstitial lung diseases and sarcoidosis. Coughing can also be triggered by benign or malignant lung tumors or mediastinal masses. Through irritation of the nerve, diseases of the external auditory canal (wax, for example) can also cause cough. Cardiovascular diseases associated with cough are heart failure, pulmonary infarction and aortic aneurysm. Nocturnal cough is associated with heart failure, as the heart does not compensate for the increased volume shift to the pulmonary circulation, in turn causing pulmonary edema and resultant cough. Other causes of nocturnal cough include asthma, post-nasal drip and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Another cause of cough occurring preferentially in supine position is recurrent aspiration.\n", "A cough can be classified by its duration, character, quality, and timing. The duration can be either acute (of sudden onset) if it is present less than three weeks, subacute if it is present between three or eight weeks, and chronic when lasting longer than eight weeks. A cough can be non-productive (dry) or productive (when sputum is coughed up). It may occur only at night (then called \"nocturnal cough\"), during both night and day, or just during the day.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nHabit cough is characterized by a harsh barking cough, and becomes persistent for weeks to months. The cough's hallmarks are severe frequency, often a cough every 2–3 seconds, and the lack of other symptoms such as fever. The child can have trouble falling asleep but once asleep will not cough. Absence once asleep is considered a essential.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The reflex is impaired in the person whose abdominals and respiratory muscles are weak. This problem can be caused by disease condition that lead to muscle weakness or paralysis, by prolonged inactivity, or as outcome of surgery involving these muscles. Bed rest interferes with the expansion of the chest and limits the amount of air that can be taken into the lungs in preparation for coughing, making the cough weak and ineffective. This reflex may also be impaired by damage to the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve which relays the afferent branch of the reflex arc. This nerve is most commonly damaged by swallowing a foreign object, such as a chicken bone, resulting in it being lodged in the piriform recess (in the laryngopharynx) or by surgical removal of said object.\n", "The coughing episodes are also episodic, progressively severe and eventually nocturnal. They are initiated by a “ticking sensation” deep in the throat or more typically behind the suprasternal notch. This sensation then causes the patient to cough. The cough is therefore a ‘normal’ response to this ticking sensation rather than an uncontrolled muscular contraction of the diaphragm or intercostal muscles. The coughing episodes can be severe with incontinence, vomiting, visual phosphenes (“seeing stars”), and post-tussive headache. These episodes typically progress from mild to severe over the years and eventually will awaken the patient from sleep. In between episodes, the patient is normal and respiratory examination does not reveal reactive airways disease (asthma) or allergies. The coughing episodes can be triggered by loud or prolonged talking, exercise or the choking episodes described above.\n", "After a respiratory tract infection has cleared, the person may be left with a postinfectious cough. This typically is a dry, non-productive cough that produces no phlegm. Symptoms may include a tightness in the chest, and a tickle in the throat. This cough may often persist for weeks after an illness. The cause of the cough may be inflammation similar to that observed in repetitive stress disorders such as carpal tunnel syndrome. The repetition of coughing produces inflammation which produces discomfort, which in turn produces more coughing. Postinfectious cough typically does not respond to conventional cough treatments. Treatment consists of any anti-inflammatory medicine (such as ipratropium) to treat the inflammation, and a cough suppressant to reduce frequency of the cough until inflammation clears. Inflammation may increase sensitivity to other existing issues such as allergies, and treatment of other causes of coughs (such as use of an air purifier or allergy medicines) may help speed recovery. A bronchodilator, which helps open up the airways, may also help treat this type of cough.\n", "Coughing is a mechanism of the body that is essential to normal physiological function of clearing the throat which involves a reflex of the afferent sensory limb, central processing centre of the brain and the efferent limb. In conjunction to the components of the body that are involved, sensory receptors are also used. These receptors include rapidly adapting receptors which respond to mechanical stimuli, slowly adapting receptors and nociceptors which respond to chemical stimuli such as hormones in the body. To start the reflex, the afferent impulses are transmitted to the medulla of the brain this involves the stimulus which is then interpreted. The efferent impulses are then triggered by the medulla causing the signal to travel down the larynx and bronchial tree. This then triggers a cascade of events that involve the intercostal muscles, abdominal wall, diaphragm and pelvic floor which in conjunction together create the reflex known as coughing.\n", "Viral and bacterial causes of canine cough are spread through airborne droplets produced by sneezing and coughing. These agents also spread through contact with contaminated surfaces. Symptoms begin after a several day incubation period post-exposure, and in most cases will clear up on their own. However, in young puppies or immunocompromised animals, mixed or secondary infections can progress to lower respiratory infections such as pneumonia.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "Viral infections such as canine parainfluenza or canine coronavirus are only spread for roughly one week following recovery; however, respiratory infections involving \"B. bronchiseptica\" can be transmissible for several weeks longer. While there was early evidence to suggest that \"B. bronchiseptica\" could be shed for many months post-infection, a more recent report places detectable nasal and pharyngeal levels of \"B. bronchiseptica\" in 45.6% of all clinically healthy dogs. This has potentially expanded the vector from currently or recently infected dogs to half the dog population as carriers. To put the relative levels of shedding bacteria into perspective, a study analyzing the shedding kinetics of \"B. bronchiseptica\" presents the highest levels of bacterial shedding one week post-exposure, with an order of magnitude decrease in shedding observed every week. This projection places negligible levels of shedding to be expected six weeks post-exposure (or approximately five weeks post-onset of symptoms). Dogs which had been administered intranasal vaccine four weeks prior to virulent \"B. bronchiseptica\" challenge displayed little to no bacterial shedding within three weeks of exposure to the virulent strain.\n", "Dogs will typically recover from kennel cough within a few weeks. However, secondary infections could lead to complications that could do more harm than the disease itself. Several opportunistic invaders have been recovered from the respiratory tracts of dogs with kennel cough, including \"Streptococcus\", \"Pasteurella\", \"Pseudomonas\", and various coliform bacteria. These bacteria have the potential to cause pneumonia or sepsis, which drastically increase the severity of the disease. These complications are evident in thoracic radiographic examinations. Findings will be mild in animals affected only by kennel cough, while those with complications may have evidence of segmental atelectasis and other severe side effects.\n", "Pertussis is caused by the bacterium \"Bordetella pertussis\". It is an airborne disease which spreads easily through the coughs and sneezes of an infected person. People are infectious from the start of symptoms until about three weeks into the coughing fits. Those treated with antibiotics are no longer infectious after five days. Diagnosis is by collecting a sample from the back of the nose and throat. This sample can then be tested by either culture or by polymerase chain reaction.\n", "A cough can be the result of a respiratory tract infection such as the common cold, acute bronchitis, pneumonia, pertussis, or tuberculosis. In the vast majority of cases, acute coughs, i.e. coughs shorter than 3 weeks, are due to the common cold. In people with a normal chest X-ray, tuberculosis is a rare finding. Pertussis is increasingly being recognised as a cause of troublesome coughing in adults.\n", "A foreign body can sometimes be suspected, for example if the cough started suddenly when the patient was eating. Rarely, sutures left behind inside the airway branches can cause coughing. A cough can be triggered by dryness from mouth breathing or recurrent aspiration of food into the windpipe in people with swallowing difficulties.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor.\n", "Although kennel cough is considered to be a multifactorial infection, there are two main forms. The first is more mild and is caused by \"B. bronchiseptica\" and canine parainfluenza virus infections, without complications from canine distemper virus (CDV) or canine adenovirus (CAV). This form occurs most regularly in autumn, and can be distinguished by symptoms such as a retching cough and vomiting. The second form has a more complex combination of causative organisms including CDV and CAV. It typically occurs in dogs that have not been vaccinated and it is not seasonal. Symptoms are more severe than the first form, and may include rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and fever in addition to a hacking cough.\n", "Later that night (some contemporary accounts refer to the time as the morning of the following day), a similar incident was also reported by a young mother living close by. She was awakened by the sound of her daughter coughing but found herself unable to leave her bed.\n", "Frequent coughing usually indicates the presence of a disease. Many viruses and bacteria benefit, from an evolutionary perspective, by causing the host to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, irregular coughing is caused by a respiratory tract infection but can also be triggered by choking, smoking, air pollution, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, post-nasal drip, chronic bronchitis, lung tumors, heart failure and medications such as ACE inhibitors.\n", "BULLET::::- Appearing during expiration: The sounds show up exclusively on expiration and are interrupted during inspiration.\n\nBULLET::::- Unawareness of the problem: Patients usually sleep normally despite the sounds and the effort to breath. However, bed partners and entourage are on one hand disturbed by the emitted noises during their sleep and on the other hand concerned about the pathological meaning of the disease. The latter highlights the importance of reassuring entourage about the benignity of the disease.\n\nBULLET::::- No predisposing factors: No clear predisposing factors or aetiology have been demonstrated.\n", "The incubation period is 5–7 days (with a range of 3–10). Symptoms can include a harsh, dry cough, retching, sneezing, snorting, gagging or vomiting in response to light pressing of the trachea or after excitement or exercise. The presence of a fever varies from case to case.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Types.\n", "Chronic cough is long-term coughing, sometimes defined as more than several weeks or months. The term can be used to describe the different causes related to coughing, the 3 main ones being; upper airway cough syndrome, asthma and gastroesophageal reflux disease. It occurs in the upper airway of the respiratory system. Generally, a cough lasts around 1–2 weeks, however, chronic cough can persist for an extended period of time defined as 6 weeks or longer. People with chronic cough often experience more than one cause present. Due to the nature of the syndrome the treatments that are used are similar however there is a subsequent number of treatments available.\n", "People with pertussis are infectious from the beginning of the catarrhal stage (a runny nose, sneezing, low-grade fever, symptoms of the common cold) through the third week after the onset of paroxysms (multiple, rapid coughs) or until 5 days after the start of effective antimicrobial treatment.\n\nEffective treatments of the cough associated with this condition have not been developed.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Pneumonia has been a common disease throughout human history. The word is from Greek πνεύμων (pneúmōn) meaning \"lung\". The symptoms were described by Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BC): \"Peripneumonia, and pleuritic affections, are to be thus observed: If the fever be acute, and if there be pains on either side, or in both, and if expiration be if cough be present, and the sputa expectorated be of a blond or livid color, or likewise thin, frothy, and florid, or having any other character different from the common... When pneumonia is at its height, the case is beyond remedy if he is not purged, and it is bad if he has dyspnoea, and urine that is thin and acrid, and if sweats come out about the neck and head, for such sweats are bad, as proceeding from the suffocation, rales, and the violence of the disease which is obtaining the upper hand.\" However, Hippocrates referred to pneumonia as a disease \"named by the ancients\". He also reported the results of surgical drainage of empyemas. Maimonides (1135–1204 AD) observed: \"The basic symptoms that occur in pneumonia and that are never lacking are as follows: acute fever, sticking pleuritic pain in the side, short rapid breaths, serrated pulse and cough.\" This clinical description is quite similar to those found in modern textbooks, and it reflected the extent of medical knowledge through the Middle Ages into the 19th century.\n", "Most bacteria enter the lungs via small aspirations of organisms residing in the throat or nose. Half of normal people have these small aspirations during sleep. While the throat always contains bacteria, potentially infectious ones reside there only at certain times and under certain conditions. A minority of types of bacteria such as \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\" and \"Legionella pneumophila\" reach the lungs via contaminated airborne droplets. Bacteria can spread also via the blood. Once in the lungs, bacteria may invade the spaces between cells and between alveoli, where the macrophages and neutrophils (defensive white blood cells) attempt to inactivate the bacteria. The neutrophils also release cytokines, causing a general activation of the immune system. This leads to the fever, chills, and fatigue common in bacterial pneumonia. The neutrophils, bacteria, and fluid from surrounding blood vessels fill the alveoli, resulting in the consolidation seen on chest X-ray.\n", "Croup is characterized by a \"barking\" cough, stridor, hoarseness, and difficulty breathing which usually worsens at night. The \"barking\" cough is often described as resembling the call of a seal or sea lion. The stridor is worsened by agitation or crying, and if it can be heard at rest, it may indicate critical narrowing of the airways. As croup worsens, stridor may decrease considerably.\n\nOther symptoms include fever, coryza (symptoms typical of the common cold), and indrawing of the chest wall–known as Hoover's sign. Drooling or a very sick appearance indicate other medical conditions, such as epiglottitis.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Some cases of chronic cough may be attributed to a sensory neuropathic disorder. Treatment for neurogenic cough may include the use of certain neuralgia medications. Coughing may occur in tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome, although it should be distinguished from throat-clearing in this disorder.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Other.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01263	When you make chocolate chip cookies, how do the chocolate chips manage to keep shape rather than just melting into the dough?	They do melt. Chocolate for cooking generally has more cocoa butter so it's thicker and doesn't flow as well when it's melted. On top of that, the dough around the chocolate keeps fairly close to the original shape. There is some intermixing of the chocolate and the dough; that's why you can't pull them out without some cookie coming with it.	[ "To decorate a cookie with glaze, an outline is piped just inside the edge of the cookie. Then the design is filled by piping a line of glaze back and forth across the cookie, while staying within the boundaries of the outline.\n\nThe glaze must be applied quickly because royal icing crusts quickly, but it needs to be moist enough for the piped lines to melt into each, so that the design is smooth.\n", "Chocolate chip cookies are commonly made with white sugar; brown sugar; flour; a small portion of salt; eggs; a leavening agent such as baking powder; a fat, typically butter or shortening; vanilla extract; and semi-sweet chocolate pieces. Some recipes also include milk or nuts (such as chopped walnuts) in the dough.\n", "Depending on the ratio of ingredients and mixing and cooking times, some recipes are optimized to produce a softer, chewy style cookie while others will produce a crunchy/crispy style. Regardless of ingredients, the procedure for making the cookie is fairly consistent in all recipes: First, the sugars and fat are creamed, usually with a wooden spoon or electric mixer. Next, the eggs and vanilla extract are added followed by the flour and leavening agent. Depending on the additional flavoring, its addition to the mix will be determined by the type used: peanut butter will be added with the wet ingredients while cocoa powder would be added with the dry ingredients. The titular ingredient, chocolate chips, as well as nuts are typically mixed in towards the end of the process to minimize breakage, just before the cookies are scooped and positioned on a cookie sheet. Most cookie dough is baked, although some eat the dough as is, or use it as an addition to vanilla ice cream to make chocolate chip cookie dough ice cream.\n", "BULLET::::- \"No-bake cookies\" are made by mixing a filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted confectionery binder, shaping into cookies or bars, and allowing to cool or harden. Oatmeal clusters and Rum balls are no-bake cookies.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pressed cookies\" are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck is an example of a pressed cookie.\n", "The texture of a chocolate chip cookie is largely dependent on its fat composition and the type of fat used. A study done by Kansas State University showed that carbohydrate based fat-replacers were more likely to bind more water, leaving less water available to aid in the spread of the cookie while baking. This resulted in softer, more cake-like cookies with less spread.\n\nSection::::Composition and variants.:Common variants.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"M&M cookie\", or \"party cookie\", replaces the chocolate chips with M&M's. This recipe originally used shortening as the fat, but has been updated to use butter.\n", "Chocolate chips can also be melted and used in sauces and other recipes. The chips melt best at temperatures between . The melting process starts at , when the cocoa butter starts melting in the chips. The cooking temperature must never exceed for milk chocolate and white chocolate, or for dark chocolate, or the chocolate will burn.\n", "To make springerle, very cold, stiff dough is rolled thin and pressed into a mold, or impressed by a specialized, carved rolling pin. The dough is unmolded and then left to dry for about 24 hours before being baked at a low temperature on greased, anise-dusted baking sheets. The drying period allows time for the pattern in the top of the cookie to set, so that the cookie has a \"pop-up\" effect from leavening, producing the characteristic \"foot\" along the edges, below the molded surface.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Refrigerator cookies\" (also known as \"icebox cookies\") are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to make the raw dough even stiffer before cutting and baking. The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking. Pinwheel cookies and those made by Pillsbury are representative.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rolled cookies\" are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a cookie cutter. Gingerbread men are an example.\n", "A typical modern recipe for 12 cakes requires about 200 g of flour, 100 g of butter or margarine, 50 g of sugar, 1 beaten egg, 1 teaspoon of baking powder, 2 tablespoons of milk, 150 g of dried fruit such as currants, raisins, candied orange peel, etc., and a pinch of nutmeg and mixed spices. Usually, flour and butter are first mixed until the mixture resembles breadcrumbs; then the other ingredients are added to create a stiff dough, which is dropped from a spoon to a baking tray or roughly formed with two forks. The cakes (optionally sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon) are baked for about 15 minutes at 200 °C, retaining an uneven form and contour.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"shortening method\", also known as the \"biscuit method\", is used for biscuits and sometimes scones. This method cuts solid fat (whether lard, butter, or vegetable shortening) into flour and other dry ingredients using a food processor, pastry blender, or two hand-held forks. The layering from this process gives rise and adds flakiness as the folds of fat melt during baking. This technique is said to produce \"shortened\" cakes and breads, regardless of whether or not the chosen fat is vegetable shortening.\n\nSection::::Dough consistency.\n", "Another method of making springerle is to not chill the dough at all. Commonly, after mixing all the ingredients together, one would cover a surface with flour, and use a regular rolling pin (also covered in flour) to roll out the dough to about half-an-inch of thickness. Flour would be spread over the top surface of the rolled-out dough, and also on the specialized Springerle rolling pin. One would whack the Springerle rolling pin against one's hand a few times, to dislodge any flour caked into the designs on it, and then proceed to carefully but firmly roll out the molds. One uses a knife to cut out the small, rectangular cookies (often 2x1 inches), and place them on a wooden board to dry overnight (or for at least twelve hours). As this process is repeated, the dough gets more brittle due to the added flour and doesn't hold the molds as well. Therefore, it is important to roll the dough out in small batches (instead of all at once), to keep the moisture in so the cookies hold together. Anise seed is sprinkled on the baking sheets just before putting them in the oven (about ten minutes is usually sufficient, but the cooking time also depends on thickness). 1-2 teaspoons of anise extract can also be added to the dough to increase the taste (which is rather like licorice), and the amount of cookies varies on the thickness. The usual recipe with 4 eggs and 3-4 cups of flour can yield anywhere from 60-144 cookies, depending on thickness and the experience of the maker.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Name\": ChocolateChipRatio\n\nBULLET::::- \"Context\": You are baking chocolate chip cookies in small batches for family and friends\n\nBULLET::::- \"Consider these patterns first\": SugarRatio, FlourRatio, EggRatio\n\nBULLET::::- \"Problem\": Determine the optimum ratio of chocolate chips to cookie dough\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solution\": Observe that most people consider chocolate to be the best part of the chocolate chip cookie. Also observe that too much chocolate may prevent the cookie from holding together, decreasing its appeal. Since you are cooking in small batches, cost is not a consideration. Therefore, use the maximum amount of chocolate chips that results in a really sturdy cookie.\n", "For the designer, while variable thicknesses are possible, a process called stop rotation is required. This process is limited in that only one side of the mold may be thicker than the others. After the mold is rotated and all the surfaces are sufficiently coated with the melt-flow, the rotation stops and the melt-flow is allowed to pool at the bottom of the mold cavity.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Filled cookies\" are made from a rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit or confectionery filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled cookie.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Molded cookies\" are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies. Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller cookies.\n", "The other half of the dough is spread in the same manner to form the top of the pie. It is wrapped around the rolling pin and unrolled onto the rest of the pie. The overlapping layers of dough are joined by rolling them in to a rim. To ease the tricky transfer onto the baking hearth the pie may be sprinkled with polenta as a release agent before it is flipped over.\n", "The mechanism used for this process is known as a planer. The size of the planer is determined by the largest workpiece that can be machined on it. The cutting tools are usually carbide tipped or made of high speed steel and resemble those used in facing and turning.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "When the icing may crust faster than a design can be filled, the design can be blocked off first into smaller sections. To block off the design, cookie decorators pipe the outline of the cookie as usual, but then section it off in smaller sections, filling them in one at a time. Empty nooks and crannies that the decorating tip didn't pipe into can be filled by carefully dragging a toothpick through the icing into any empty spaces.\n", "Doughs with higher fat content have a lesser water content, develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs; these doughs are often called \"short\" by bakers. This category includes many cookie and pie crust doughs, such as shortcrust pastry.\n\nIn many parts of central India, people use the quick method of making an instant roasted dough ball or baati. In countries in the Sahel region of Africa, dough balls called aiysh or biya are made from sorghum or millet, and are ground and boiled.\n", "In a large greased baking dish, individual sheets are layered one by one with small amounts of filling and sunflower oil or/and melted butter between them. After half of the sheets are placed in the pan, a large portion of the filling is spooned onto the leaves and is then covered with the remaining sheets and filling in the same manner. The pastry is then baked at 200–250 °C. In some recipes, just before the banitsa is finished, a glass of lemonade or sparkling water is poured into the tray, and the baking continues for several more minutes.\n", "Founded and co-owned by Constance McDonald and Pamela Weekes, the bakery initially opened to serve a variety of fresh-baked artisanal breads. The bakery has since become notable for its 6-ounce chocolate chip walnut cookies.\n\nMcDonald and Weekes developed the signature cookie recipe while training for an Ironman Triathlon. They discovered they needed a large number of calories to offset the rigors of training and decided on a traditional chocolate chip cookie, but much bigger. The 6-ounce chocolate chip walnut cookie served the purpose and ultimately became a signature item in their bakery. The cookie has spawned copycats.\n", "Mässmogge are produced largely by hand in a complicated process. The candy mass, made of sugar, glucose and water, is warmed to 134 degrees Celsius, agitated in order to become airy and white, colored and folded into a striped, layered paste. The filling, consisting of roasted and ground hazelnuts with some fat and sugar, is then spread over the candy mass. The paste is wrapped into a roll, which is drawn out by a machine to a length of about , and separated into the individual Mässmogge. The whole process must take no more than 25 minutes, in order to keep the candy mass warm and malleable.\n", "Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast (such as baking powder or baking soda), and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more; these may be based on a batter or a dough.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n\nTechniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product.\n", "The compo itself can now be made by pouring the combined contents above onto 600-700 grammes of whiting in a bowl. Stir the initial hot mixture with a wooden spoon.\n\nRub talcum powder on your hands (to prevent sticking), then work the mixture by hand until it has the consistency of glazing putty.\n\nWork the compo into conveniently-sized flat cakes, then wrap them well in kitchen cling-film (Saran wrap). Compo will keep in a freezer for a month. Defrost the compo completely before placing it in a bain marie to soften it ready for moulding. \n", "Although convenient, melted chocolate chips are not always recommended as a substitute for baking chocolate. Because most chocolate chips are designed to retain their shape when baking, they contain less cocoa butter than baking chocolate, and so can be more difficult to work with melted.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n\nChocolate chips are popular as a baking ingredient in the United States. Originating in the US, the chocolate chip cookie is widely available many parts of the world. Nestlé and the Hershey Company are among the top producers of chocolate chips.\n", "While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, which are cooked directly on a griddle. Fried dough foods are also common in many cultures.\n\nPancakes, waffles, some kinds of bar cookies such as brownies, and many cakes and quick breads (including muffins and the like) are often made with a semi-liquid batter of flour and liquid that is poured into the final shape, rather than a solid dough. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network.\n" ]	[ "Chocolate chips don't melt.", "Chocolate chips within chocolate chip cookies don't melt and hold their shape." ]	[ "They do melt. They just hold their shape because it is thick.", "Chocolate chips inside of chocolate chip cookies do melt and for the most part don't hold their shape, which is why when cookies are broken apart, the chocolate chips break with the cookies." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Chocolate chips don't melt.", "Chocolate chips within chocolate chip cookies don't melt and hold their shape." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They do melt. They just hold their shape because it is thick.", "Chocolate chips inside of chocolate chip cookies do melt and for the most part don't hold their shape, which is why when cookies are broken apart, the chocolate chips break with the cookies." ]
2018-08960	why, even though in a class all kids get the same amount of gym time, is it enough for some kids to stay in shape while not enough for others?	Gym time alone isn't enough for anyone. Genetics, nutrition, and exercise outside of class all play a big factor. Most kids these days are lucky to have one of those three in their favor.	[ "Ontario, Canada has a similar procedure in place. On October 6, 2005 the Ontario Ministry of Education (OME) implemented a Daily Physical Activity policy in elementary schools, grades 1–8. It requires that all students in grades 1 to 8, including those with special needs, be provided with opportunities to participate in a minimum of twenty minutes of sustained moderate to vigorous physical activity each school day during instructional time. There are many factors that contribute to the ease of implementing and sustaining a quality program, including the involvement of the administration, parents, and community. However, it ultimately comes down to the willingness of the physical education teacher(s) to do their best no matter the situation.\n", "Although more prevalent in countries of high income, physical inactivity is an international issue that is correlated with an obesity epidemic and negative physical, psychological, and academic consequences in children.\n\nA high quality physical education programs consists of these attributes:\n\nBULLET::::- Physical education teachers are certified\n\nBULLET::::- Students in elementary school have physical education class for a minimum of 150 minutes per week, while students in high school have it for at least 225 minutes per week\n\nBULLET::::- Concrete and achievable standards for students to meet (often for high school graduation)\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "According to scientists Joachim Tiedemann and Elfriede Billmann-Mahecha, there was a big-fish-little-pond effect. Children were more likely to have their teacher write a letter of recommendation if the remainder of their primary school class was not too bright. They stated, \n\nSection::::\"Great equaliser\" or \"breeding ground of privilege\"?:Are children with immigration backgrounds discriminated against?\n\nAccording to the same study, they are not. The researchers stated, \n\nSection::::\"Great equaliser\" or \"breeding ground of privilege\"?:Do gymnasia help working-class students catch up with their middle-class peers?\n", "Section::::In sports.\n\nIt has been inferred the Pareto principle applies to athletic training, where roughly 20% of the exercises and habits have 80% of the impact and the trainee should not focus so much on a varied training. This does not necessarily mean that having a healthy diet or going to the gym are not important, but they are not as significant as the key activities. It is also important to note this 80/20 rule has yet to be scientifically tested in controlled studies with regards to athletic training.\n", "funk-influenced R&B acts such as Prince and Ready for the World as major influences on its sound. Each member draws from different types of music for inspiration, with drummer Matt McGinley saying \"there aren’t many [types of music] we agree on.\" McCoy cites 1970s blue-eyed soul group Hall & Oates as his biggest musical influence.\n", "According to a Portuguese study, children with sedentary lifestyles have nine times poorer motor coordination than active children of the same age. They also have worsened bone density, strength, and flexibility. In the long term, they are more likely to use tobacco, alcohol, and drugs than their active peers.\n", "A lack of physical activity is one of the main causes for obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other physical health issues among children and adolescents.\n\nThere is a direct correlation between active participation in physical activity and the health of school age children, therefore a lack of physical education would cause a lack in physical activity in children, leading to worse health.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Psychological.\n", "Section::::Part One: In theory.:Continuity is Genetic and Change is Environmental.\n\nSchool performance is influenced by the same genes across life span and dramatic fluctuations in performance are likely to be caused by environment, not biology. Even though it’s likely that emerging biotechnology will make it possible to have predictive genetic information relevant to learning, the predictions can never reach full accuracy because of environmental factors.\n\nSection::::Part One: In theory.:Genes are Generalists and Environments are Specialists.\n", "At least one study evaluating teaching styles and learning styles, however, has found that congruent groups have no significant differences in achievement from incongruent groups. Furthermore, learning style in this study varied by demography, specifically by age, suggesting a change in learning style as one gets older and acquires more experience. While significant age differences did occur, as well as no experimental manipulation of classroom assignment, the findings do call into question the aim of congruent teaching–learning styles in the classroom.\n", "Outside of school, children often fail to engage in physical activity due to lack of physical literacy, inadequate sleep, the increasing attractiveness of rival pastimes such as video games, and parents that do not play their part. It is important that parents allow their children the full opportunity to participate in both formal and informal sports and promote healthy physical activity levels. Also, in achievement-oriented populations such as those seen in China, there is an increased emphasis on academic results which also detracts from physical activity time.\n", "Sanford's Theory of Challenge and Support states that for optimal student developmental growth in a college environment, challenges they experience must be met with supports that can sufficiently tolerate the stress of the challenge itself. Nevitt Sanford, a psychologist, was a scholar who theorized about the process college students would encounter throughout their college development. He addressed the relationship between the student and their college environment. Sanford proposed three developmental conditions: readiness, challenge, and support.\n", "Early motor skills and development have also shown to be related to physical activity and performance later in life. Children who have more proficient motor skills early on are more inclined to being physically active, and thus tend to perform well in sports and have better fitness levels. Early motor proficiency has a positive correlation to childhood physical activity and fitness levels, while less proficiency in motor skills results in a tendency to partake in a more sedentary lifestyle.\n\nA 2015 meta-analysis demonstrated that high intensity training improved stamina more than lower intensity endurance training.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Cardiovascular system.\n", "The ideas that led to the development of staffing theory came primarily from Roger Barker and Paul Gump, who were researchers stationed at the University of Kansas. Barker and Gump paved the road for what is now known as ecological psychology, as well as developing concepts such as behavior settings and synomorphy. In Barker and Gump's 1964 work, \"Big School, Small School\", the two researchers examined environmental factors as well as students' behaviors in multiple schools in northeast Kansas. More specifically, Barker and Gump were interested in whether the size of high schools had a significant effect on students' participation in and satisfaction with school activities. They started their investigation by calculating population (P) and the number of behavioral settings, or differentiation (D) values for each school. Some examples of the types of behavior settings are classes, halls, gymnasiums, administrator's offices, and lunch rooms. The data they collected had one primary interpretation: as P increases, so too does D, but not as fast. In other words, as population increases, the P/D ratio becomes smaller. These findings contradict the idea that big schools offer more opportunities for students.\n", "Zero Hour is a before-school physical education class first implemented by Naperville Central High School. In the state of Illinois this program is known as Learning Readiness PE. (LRPE). It was based on research indicating that students who are physically fit are more academically alert and experience growth in brain cells or enhancement in brain development. NCHS pairs a PE class that incorporates cardiovascular exercise, core strength training, cross lateral movements, and literacy and math strategies with literacy and math classes that utilize movement to enhance learning and improve achievement.\n", "OTs work with children, families and schools to develop strategies for helping children manage pain, stiffness and tiredness, which may sometimes limit their ability to participate in school related activities. A balanced plan will allow children to get enough activity that they do not stiffen up, but also enough rest that they do not tire. For example, a plan might be worked out with a teacher so a child will be allowed to stand and stretch during prolonged sitting, perform modified gym activities or take rest breaks during gym classes. Other common management strategies taught by OTs include waking up early before school and taking a hot bath and then doing exercises to reduce stiffness and pain throughout the day. Using proper body movements when performing activities helps reduce strain on joints and thereby decrease pain and stiffness. OTs can also teach children how to relax their muscles.\n", "Reduce class size: This allows teacher extra one on one time with students. Often a class of 20-30 students proves to be more effective than double or triple that in general physical education classes.\n\nUse peer tutors: Peers can be rained in how to provide specific skill feedback as well as modify activities so the student has higher success. This can be effective when class size cannot be reduced.\n", "The \"Childhood Obesity Foundation\", a Canadian initiative, has invented the 5-2-1-0 mnemonic to remember the national lifestyle recommendations. This consists of 5 servings or more of vegetables and fruit per day, no more than 2 hours of screen time a day, 1 hour of physical activity or more per day, and 0 sugary drinks.\n", "Overweight children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Fitness.\n\nIndividuals can increase fitness following increases in physical activity levels. Increases in muscle size from resistance training is primarily determined by diet and testosterone. This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population. Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life.\n", "Lack of physical education\n\nLack of physical education is the inadequacy of the provision and effectiveness of exercise and physical activity within modern education.\n\nWhen physical education fails to meet its goals of providing students with the knowledge base, life habits, and mindset necessary to be physically active throughout their lifetime, it can lead children to adopt a sedentary lifestyle. According to a 2010 study by the WHO, 81% of children aged 11–17 worldwide did not meet the minimum recommended exercise guidelines of 60 minutes daily.\n", "Freshmen are assigned gym classes all four marking periods, but 10th, 11th, and 12th graders can select which gym activity they want to participate in. During the 4th marking period, students have a series of Physical Fitness Tests, to see if they qualify for the National Physical Fitness Award or the Presidential Physical Fitness Award.\n\nSection::::Classrooms for the future grant.\n", "Average school performance doesn’t change the fact that half of the students will fall above and the other half below the average. Seeing those scoring below average as ‘failing’ wastes resources on approaches that have little or no effect. Instead of making pupils identical, the diversity should be embraced after providing a certain level of common education.\n\nSection::::Part One: In theory.:The Abnormal is Normal.\n", "Studies have been done in how physical education can help improve academic achievement. In a 2007 article, researchers found a profound gain in English Arts standardized testing test scores among students who had 56 hours of physical education in a year, compared to those who had 28 hours of physical education a year.\n", "One program the United States has adopted to decrease obesity are before-school exercise programs with elementary aged children. One in particular consists of reaching 100 miles before the end of the school year. Each milestone of 25 miles the child will earn a check mark on a tee-shirt. They will then be rewarded at 100 miles with a trophy and an announcement over the school loudspeaker. Walking is supervised by teachers and done around school grounds or inside the school. This is a great way for a child to improve health, concentration, confidence and happiness.\n", "It has been shown that for beginners, multiple-set training offers minimal benefits over single-set training with respect to either strength gain or muscle mass increase, but for the experienced athlete multiple-set systems are required for optimal progress. However, one study shows that for leg muscles, three sets are more effective than one set.\n\nBeginning weight-trainers are in the process of training the neurological aspects of strength, the ability of the brain to generate a rate of neuronal action potentials that will produce a muscular contraction that is close to the maximum of the muscle's potential.\n" ]	[ "Gym time in school is enough to ensure that a student stays in shape." ]	[ "There are other factors that determine a student physique outside of school such as their genetics, nutrition and physical activity outside of school." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Gym time in school is enough to ensure that a student stays in shape." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There are other factors that determine a student physique outside of school such as their genetics, nutrition and physical activity outside of school." ]
2018-21563	Why do plants etiolate with lack of sunlight?	most plants also have some extra energy stored up somewhere so they can do that, even if they don’t have sunlight at the moment.	[ "Many of the genes involved in this process are conserved across all the plants studied. Sometimes though, despite genetic conservation, the mechanism of action turns out to be different. For example, rice is a short-day plant, while \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" is a long-day plant. Both plants have the proteins \"CO\" and \"FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT)\", but, in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", \"CO\" enhances \"FT\" production, while in rice, the \"CO\" homolog represses \"FT\" production, resulting in completely opposite downstream effects.\n\nSection::::Evolution of plant morphology.:Factors influencing floral diversity.:Theories of flower evolution.\n", "Plants can avoid overheating by minimising the amount of sunlight absorbed and by enhancing the cooling effects of wind and transpiration. Plants can reduce light absorption using reflective leaf hairs, scales, and waxes. These features are so common in warm dry regions that these habitats can be seen to form a ‘silvery landscape’ as the light scatters off the canopies. Some species, such as \"Macroptilium purpureum\", can move their leaves throughout the day so that they are always orientated to avoid the sun (\"paraheliotropism\"). Knowledge of these mechanisms has been key to breeding for heat stress tolerance in agricultural plants.\n", "Excess light occurs at the top of canopies and on open ground when cloud cover is low and the sun's zenith angle is low, typically this occurs in the tropics and at high altitudes. Excess light incident on a leaf can result in photoinhibition and photodestruction. Plants adapted to high light environments have a range of adaptations to avoid or dissipate the excess light energy, as well as mechanisms that reduce the amount of injury caused.\n\nSection::::Plants.:Temperature.\n", "\"Cryptantha affinis\" physiology appears to be influenced by nutrients of Deer excretions. Increased photosynthesis and higher plant nitrogen levels have been observed in habitats frequented by mule deer, antelope, and Eelk. Higher nutrients appear to increase growth and reproduction in wet years. In dry years survival is increased by the shading of \"Cryptantha\" by the presence of large shrubs. Although shading increases survival in dry years, in wet years growth and reproduction seem to be reduced even when nutrient levels in the soil are high.\n", "Many genes in the flowering time pathway are conserved across all plants studied to date. However, this does not mean that the mechanism of action is similarly conserved. For example, the monocot rice accelerates its flowering in short-day conditions, while \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", a eudicot, responds to long-day conditions. In both plants, the proteins \"CO\" and \"FT\" are present but in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" \"CO\" enhances \"FT\" production, while in rice the \"CO\" homolog represses \"FT\" production, resulting in completely opposite downstream effects.\n\nSection::::Evolution of plant morphology.:Evolution of flowers.:Theories of flower evolution.\n", "Weather events influence biological processes on short time scales. For instance, as the Sun rises above the horizon in the morning, light levels become sufficient for the process of photosynthesis to take place in plant leaves. Later on, during the day, air temperature and humidity may induce the partial or total closure of the stomata, a typical response of many plants to limit the loss of water through transpiration. More generally, the daily evolution of meteorological variables controls the circadian rhythm of plants and animals alike.\n", "Although most plants grow towards light, many tropical vines, such as \"Monstera deliciosa\" and a number of other members of the family Araceae, such as members of the genus \"Philodendron\", initially grow \"away\" from light; this is a dramatic example of sciophilous growth, which helps them locate a tree trunk, which they then climb to regions of brighter light. The upper shoots and leaves of such a Philodendron grow as typical light-loving, \"photophilic\" plants once they break out into full sunshine.\n\nSection::::Trees.\n", "Plants make use of the phytochrome system to sense day length or photoperiod. This fact is utilized by florists and greenhouse gardeners to control and even induce flowering out of season, such as the \"Poinsettia\".\n\nSection::::Environmental physiology.\n", "Some plants have a photoperiod (phototropism) requirement for a certain number of hours of daylight before they will grow, flower, or produce fruit. Without this, they will not complete their life cycle and will not produce fruit and seeds. So, seeds brought from the temperate zones may not perform as expected, or at all in the tropics. Some plants are genetically keyed to only start producing when a certain number of hours of daylight is reached, the same number of hours as is found in their native habitat. With the shorter daylight hours experienced in the tropics, that switch never gets thrown.\n", "Except for some parasitic plants, all plants need sunlight to survive. However, in general, more sunlight does not always make it easier for plants to survive. In direct sunlight, plants face desiccation and exposure to UV rays, and must expend energy producing pigments to block UV light, and waxy coatings to prevent water loss.\n", "Section::::In plants.\n\nThermogenesis occurs in the flowers of many plants in the Araceae family as well as in cycad cones. In addition, the sacred lotus (\"Nelumbo nucifera\") is able to thermoregulate itself, remaining on average 20 °C (36 °F) above air temperature while flowering. Heat is produced by breaking down the starch that was stored in their roots, which requires the consumption of oxygen at a rate approaching that of a flying hummingbird.\n", "Light has profound effects on the development of plants. The most striking effects of light are observed when a germinating seedling emerges from the soil and is exposed to light for the first time.\n", "Many plants exhibit certain phenomena at specific times of the day; for example, certain flowers open only in the mornings. Plants keep track of the time of day with a circadian clock. This internal clock is synchronized with solar time every day using sunlight, temperature, and other cues, similar to the biological clocks present in other organisms. The internal clock coupled with the ability to perceive light also allows plants to measure the time of the day and so determine the season of the year. This is how many plants know when to flower (see photoperiodism). The seeds of many plants sprout only after they are exposed to light. This response is carried out by phytochrome signalling. Plants are also able to sense the quality of light and respond appropriately. For example, in low light conditions, plants produce more photosynthetic pigments. If the light is very bright or if the levels of harmful ultraviolet radiation increase, plants produce more of their protective pigments that act as sunscreens.\n", "Shade responses display varying strength along a continuum. Most plants are neither extreme shade avoiders or tolerators, but possess a combination of the two strategies; this helps adapt them to their environment. However, the ability to perceive and respond to shade plays a very important role in all plants: they are sessile by nature and access to photosynthetically active radiation is essential for plant nutrition and growth.\n", "Much emphasis is placed on photoperiod when discussing plant development. However, it is the number of hours of darkness that affects a plant’s response to day length.\n\nIn general, a “short-day” is one in which the photoperiod is no more than 12 hours. A “long-day” is one in which the photoperiod is no less than 14 hours. Short-day plants are those that flower when the day length is less than a critical duration. Long-day plants are those that only flower when the photoperiod is greater than a critical duration. Day-neutral plants are those that flower regardless of photoperiod.\n", "Some long-day facultative plants are:\n\nBULLET::::- Pea (\"Pisum sativum)\n\nBULLET::::- Barley (\"Hordeum vulgare\")\n\nBULLET::::- Lettuce (\"Lactuca sativa\")\n\nBULLET::::- Wheat (\"Triticum aestivum\")\n\nSection::::Plants.:Short-day plants.\n\nShort-day plants flower when the night lengths exceed their critical photoperiod. They cannot flower under short nights or if a pulse of artificial light is shone on the plant for several minutes during the night; they require a continuous period of darkness before floral development can begin. Natural nighttime light, such as moonlight or lightning, is not of sufficient brightness or duration to interrupt flowering.\n", "Section::::Light-independent reactions.:Carbon concentrating mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Light-independent reactions.:Carbon concentrating mechanisms.:On land.\n\nIn hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the concentration in the leaves under these conditions.\n", "A second mechanism, CAM photosynthesis, temporally separates photosynthesis from the action of RuBisCO. RuBisCO only operates during the day, when stomata are sealed and is provided by the breakdown of the chemical malate. More is then harvested from the atmosphere when stomata open, during the cool, moist nights, reducing water loss.\n\nSection::::Evolution of photosynthetic pathways.:Evolutionary record.\n", "Light is the essential \"plant food\"; everything else provided in cultivating a plant serves the purpose of helping it absorb and use the light. As the plant grows larger, it requires an increasing amount of light. There is no substitute for light: if the amount of light received by the plant is insufficient, the plant will stretch, and / or growth will slow to a halt.\n", "If a mature plant becomes shaded, shade avoidance also often prompts changes in reproductive strategies. Plants may flower early, as it is unlikely that growing more structures will result in profitable nutrient gain in the short term. In \"Arabidopsis\", early flowering is linked to overall lower reproductive success due to lower seed production, smaller fruit, and lower germination rate of seeds, although germination success is also dependent on genetic variation between individuals.\n\nSection::::Adult response.:Pathway.\n", "In a still, windless environment, the areas under the leaves or spines where transpiration takes place form a small localised environment that is more saturated with water vapour than normal. If this concentration of water vapour is maintained, the external water vapour potential gradient near the stomata is reduced, thus, reducing transpiration. In a windier situation, this localisation is blown away and so the external water vapour gradient remains low, which makes the loss of water vapour from plant stomata easier. Spines and hairs trap a layer of moisture and slows air movement over tissues.\n\nSection::::Morphological adaptations.:Reflective features.\n", "Another floral feature that has been a subject of natural selection is flowering time. Some plants flower early in their life cycle, others require a period of vernalization before flowering. This outcome is based on factors like temperature, light intensity, presence of pollinators and other environmental signals: genes like \"CONSTANS (CO)\", \"Flowering Locus C\" (\"FLC\") and \"FRIGIDA\" regulate integration of environmental signals into the pathway for flower development. Variations in these loci have been associated with flowering time variations between plants. For example, \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" ecotypes that grow in the cold, temperate regions require prolonged vernalization before they flower, while the tropical varieties, and the most common lab strains, don't. This variation is due to mutations in the \"FLC\" and \"FRIGIDA\" genes, rendering them non-functional.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:CAM mechanism.\n\nStomata closure not only restricts the movement of water out of the plant, another consequence of the phenomenon is that carbon dioxide influx or intake into the plant is also reduced. As photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide as a substrate to produce sugar for growth, it is vital that the plant has a very efficient photosynthesis system which maximises the utilisation of the little carbon dioxide the plant gets.\n", "Plants uses energy from the sunlight to carry on photosynthesis. The possibility of sunlight to reach a microsite is another distinguishing characteristic which creates differences between microsites. There are some areas that the sunlight doesn’t reach which creates a different environmental condition than those that the sun reaches thus making some plants to have more fitness than others.\n\nSection::::Microsite features.:Availability of nutrients.\n", "Plants can avoid the full impact of low temperature by altering their microclimate. For example, \"Raoulia\" plants found in the uplands of New Zealand are said to resemble ‘vegetable sheep’ as they form tight cushion-like clumps to insulate the most vulnerable plant parts and shield them from cooling winds. The same principle has been applied in agriculture by using plastic mulch to insulate the growing points of crops in cool climates in order to boost plant growth.\n\nSection::::Plants.:Water.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03668	for people who work with image manipulation: Why the color red produces the most JPEG artifact when compressing? And how to avoid it?	It's probably not the color, but the type of data being compressed. JPEG doesn't do so well with text or solid blocks of color because it's really easy to notice the artifacts in areas that are supposed to be very clean. It's fundamentally a lossy type of compression, so you should only really use it for the types of images where you won't notice the artifacts(high visual noise images). These days you should probably just use PNG instead.	[ "Many JPEG files embed an ICC color profile (color space). Commonly used color profiles include sRGB and Adobe RGB. Because these color spaces use a non-linear transformation, the dynamic range of an 8-bit JPEG file is about 11 stops; see gamma curve.\n\nSection::::Syntax and structure.\n", "Many of the options in the JPEG standard are not commonly used, and as mentioned above, most image software uses the simpler JFIF format when creating a JPEG file, which among other things specifies the encoding method. Here is a brief description of one of the more common methods of encoding when applied to an input that has 24 bits per pixel (eight each of red, green, and blue). This particular option is a lossy data compression method.\n\nSection::::JPEG codec example.:Encoding.:Color space transformation.\n", "This is the decompressed subimage. In general, the decompression process may produce values outside the original input range of formula_2. If this occurs, the decoder needs to clip the output values so as to keep them within that range to prevent overflow when storing the decompressed image with the original bit depth.\n\nThe decompressed subimage can be compared to the original subimage (also see images to the right) by taking the difference (original − uncompressed) results in the following error values:\n\nwith an average absolute error of about 5 values per pixels (i.e., formula_59).\n", "BULLET::::- ICER in its current form does compress monochrome images better than colour images due to its origins as an internal NASA Deep Space Network file format.\n\nBULLET::::- ICER is subject to less than 1% overshoot when byte and quality quotas are in effect. On the other hand, JPEG2000 codecs are typically designed never to overshoot their byte quotas.\n\nSection::::When should one use ICER or ICER 3D.\n", "The error is most noticeable in the bottom-left corner where the bottom-left pixel becomes darker than the pixel to its immediate right.\n\nSection::::JPEG codec example.:Required precision.\n\nThe encoding description in the JPEG standard does not fix the precision needed for the output compressed image. However, the JPEG standard (and the similar MPEG standards) includes some precision requirements for the \"de\"coding, including all parts of the decoding process (variable length decoding, inverse DCT, dequantization, renormalization of outputs); the output from the reference algorithm must not exceed:\n\nBULLET::::- a maximum of one bit of difference for each pixel component\n", "BULLET::::- low mean square error over each 8×8-pixel block\n\nBULLET::::- very low mean error over each 8×8-pixel block\n\nBULLET::::- very low mean square error over the whole image\n\nBULLET::::- extremely low mean error over the whole image\n", "Section::::Transcoding and editing.:Editing of lossy files.\n\nBy modifying the compressed data directly without decoding and re-encoding, some editing of lossily compressed files without degradation of quality is possible. Editing which reduces the file size as if it had been compressed to a greater degree, but without more loss than this, is sometimes also possible.\n\nSection::::Transcoding and editing.:Editing of lossy files.:JPEG.\n\nThe primary programs for lossless editing of JPEGs are codice_1, and the derived codice_2 (which also preserves Exif information), and Jpegcrop (which provides a Windows interface).\n\nThese allow the image to be\n\nBULLET::::- cropped\n\nBULLET::::- rotated, flipped, and flopped, or\n", "The transformation into the color model enables the next usual step, which is to reduce the spatial resolution of the Cb and Cr components (called \"downsampling\" or \"chroma subsampling\"). The ratios at which the downsampling is ordinarily done for JPEG images are (no downsampling), (reduction by a factor of 2 in the horizontal direction), or (most commonly) (reduction by a factor of 2 in both the horizontal and vertical directions). For the rest of the compression process, Y', Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner.\n\nSection::::JPEG codec example.:Encoding.:Block splitting.\n", "JPEG compression artifacts blend well into photographs with detailed non-uniform textures, allowing higher compression ratios. Notice how a higher compression ratio first affects the high-frequency textures in the upper-left corner of the image, and how the contrasting lines become more fuzzy. The very high compression ratio severely affects the quality of the image, although the overall colors and image form are still recognizable. However, the precision of colors suffer less (for a human eye) than the precision of contours (based on luminance). This justifies the fact that images should be first transformed in a color model separating the luminance from the chromatic information, before subsampling the chromatic planes (which may also use lower quality quantization) in order to preserve the precision of the luminance plane with more information bits.\n", "Once all the samples are predicted, the differences between the samples can be obtained and entropy-coded in a lossless fashion using Huffman coding or arithmetic coding. \n\nTypically, compressions using lossless operation mode can achieve around 2:1 compression ratio for color images. This mode is quite popular in the medical imaging field, and defined as an option in DNG standard, but otherwise it is not very widely used because of complexity of doing arithmetics on 10, 12 or 14bpp values on typical embedded 32-bit processor and a little resulting gain in space.\n\nSection::::JPEG-LS.\n", "The problem is now to find the optimal packet length for all code blocks which minimizes the overall distortion in a way that the generated target bitrate equals the demanded bit rate.\n", "BULLET::::- By compressing an image, you can reduce transmission time/costs at the expense of CPU time to perform the compression and decompression. Depending on the compression method, this may also involve the tradeoff of a loss in image quality.\n", "Color interpretation of a JFIF image may be improved by embedding an ICC profile, colorspace metadata, or an sRGB tag, and using an application that interprets this information.\n\nSection::::File format structure.\n", "The compression method is usually lossy, meaning that some original image information is lost and cannot be restored, possibly affecting image quality. There is an optional lossless mode defined in the JPEG standard. However, this mode is not widely supported in products.\n", "The best image quality at a given compression rate (or bit rate) is the main goal of image compression, however, there are other important properties of image compression schemes:\n", "With this in mind, the sequence from earlier becomes:\n\nFrom here, frequency calculations are made based on occurrences of the coefficients. In our example block, most of the quantized coefficients are small numbers that are not preceded immediately by a zero coefficient. These more-frequent cases will be represented by shorter code words.\n\nSection::::JPEG codec example.:Compression ratio and artifacts.\n", "Section::::Loss due to format change.\n\nLike any resampling operation, changing image size and bit depth are lossy in all cases of downsampling, such as 30-bit to 24-bit or 24-bit to 8-bit palette-based images. While increasing bit depth is usually lossless, increasing image size can introduce aliasing or other undesired artifacts.\n\nSection::::RAW images.\n", "A particular conversion to is specified in the JFIF standard, and should be performed for the resulting JPEG file to have maximum compatibility. However, some JPEG implementations in \"highest quality\" mode do not apply this step and instead keep the color information in the RGB color model, where the image is stored in separate channels for red, green and blue brightness components. This results in less efficient compression, and would not likely be used when file size is especially important.\n\nSection::::JPEG codec example.:Encoding.:Downsampling.\n", "Some compression algorithms, such as those used in PNG file format, are lossless, which means no information is lost when the file is saved. By contrast, the JPEG file format uses a lossy compression algorithm by which the greater the compression, the more information is lost, ultimately reducing image quality or detail that can not be restored. JPEG uses knowledge of the way the human brain and eyes perceive color to make this loss of detail less noticeable.\n\nSection::::Image editor features.\n", "JPEG JFIF images are widely used on the Web. The amount of compression can be adjusted to achieve the desired trade-off between file size and visual quality.\n\nSection::::Utilities.\n\nThe following utility programs are shipped together with libjpeg:\n\nBULLET::::- cjpeg and djpeg: for performing conversions between JPEG and some other popular image file formats.\n\nBULLET::::- rdjpgcom and wrjpgcom: for inserting and extracting textual comments in JPEG files.\n\nBULLET::::- jpegtran: for transformation of existing JPEG files.\n\nSection::::Utilities.:jpegtran.\n", "When a camera saves a raw file it defers most of this processing; typically the only processing performed is the removal of defective pixels (the DNG specification requires that defective pixels be removed before creating the file). Some camera manufacturers do additional processing before saving raw files; for example, Nikon has been criticized by astrophotographers for applying noise reduction before saving the raw file.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_49 is defined as above, for the integers formula_7.\n\nBULLET::::- formula_51 is the reconstructed approximate coefficient at coordinates formula_14\n\nBULLET::::- formula_53 is the reconstructed pixel value at coordinates formula_12\n\nRounding the output to integer values (since the original had integer values) results in an image with values (still shifted down by 128)\n\nand adding 128 to each entry\n", "Section::::JPEG-LS.:LOCO-I algorithm.\n\nPrior to encoding, there are two essential steps to be done in the modeling stage: decorrelation (prediction) and error modeling.\n\nSection::::JPEG-LS.:LOCO-I algorithm.:Decorrelation/prediction.\n", "BULLET::::- RunLengthDecode a simple compression method for streams with repetitive data using the run-length encoding algorithm and the image-specific filters\n\nBULLET::::- DCTDecode a lossy filter based on the JPEG standard\n\nBULLET::::- CCITTFaxDecode a lossless bi-level (black/white) filter based on the Group 3 or Group 4 CCITT (ITU-T) fax compression standard defined in ITU-T T.4 and T.6\n\nBULLET::::- JBIG2Decode a lossy or lossless bi-level (black/white) filter based on the JBIG2 standard, introduced in PDF 1.4\n\nBULLET::::- JPXDecode a lossy or lossless filter based on the JPEG 2000 standard, introduced in PDF 1.5\n", "Document scans are often processed using OCR technology to create editable and searchable files. Most scanners use ISIS or TWAIN device drivers to scan documents into TIFF format so that the scanned pages can be fed into a document management system that will handle the archiving and retrieval of the scanned pages. Lossy JPEG compression, which is very efficient for pictures, is undesirable for text documents, as slanted straight edges take on a jagged appearance, and solid black (or other color) text on a light background compresses well with lossless compression formats.\n" ]	[ "Red produces the most artifacts during JPEG image compression.", "Certain color produces the most artifacts in a JPEG." ]	[ "Text or solid blocks of colors produces the most artifacts, not a specific type of color.", "JPEG doesn't do well in general and will always have some artifacts. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Red produces the most artifacts during JPEG image compression.", "Certain color produces the most artifacts in a JPEG." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Text or solid blocks of colors produces the most artifacts, not a specific type of color.", "JPEG doesn't do well in general and will always have some artifacts. " ]
2018-04482	How do GPS apps like Google Maps know so accurately what traffic is like and where road work is happening?	Google location tracking. More than a couple of people on a road, stationary, and it's a reasonable bet that the traffic is stationary. Google's location service is on so many phones nowadays it can be used to reliably track traffic information.	[ "BULLET::::- INRIX uses its network of over 175 million vehicles and devices to gather speed data from mobile phones, trucks, delivery vans, and other fleet vehicles equipped with GPS locator devices including smart phones and Ford SYNC and Toyota Entune and much of Europe, South America, and Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- Google Traffic works by crowdsourcing the GPS information from phone users. By calculating the speed of users along a stretch of road, Google is able to generate a live traffic map. Its subsidiary, Waze, also allows users to report directly via a smartphone app.\n", "BULLET::::- \"TomTom Traffic 8.0\" (November 2014): TomTom included real-time weather information in their routing algorithms, and warns users in areas of bad weather. Also, version 8.0 now incorporates in their real-time traffic information road closures that are reported via the online Map Share Reporter tool.\n\nSection::::Services.:IQ Routes.\n\nIQ Routes, developed by TomTom and available since spring 2008 on the TomTom Go 730 and Go 930, uses anonymous travel time data accumulated by users of TomTom satnav devices. Newer TomTom devices use this data to take into account the time and day when determining the fastest route.\n", "Here also works in the field of automated vehicles, with the recent provision of its HD Map data for manufacturers in testing their vehicles. The highly accurate mapped data of private test tracks provides these cars with a highly accurate navigation system to complement data collected from on-board sensors. Much like existing map data is collected for consumer driving, the same LiDAR technology is used to map these private test tracks along with the roads that are used for public testing. HD Map data is also highly accurate, with accuracy to a level of 10 to 20 centimetres, and the collection of lane geometry is also part of the data collection task. Here makes approximately 2.7 million changes to its global map database every day.\n", "Big data operation: DiDi is building a cloud platform to integrate anonymized data from sensors on vehicles, static information and real-time events from roads with anonymized platform data including pick-up and drop-off, trips and carrying capacity information. This data allows platform supply and demand to be balanced efficiently, and enables mitigation tactics for traffic congestion.\n", "BULLET::::- Service information on the cameras and traffic jams\n\nBULLET::::- Pedestrian and Vehicle Routes\n\nBULLET::::- Find points of interest\n\nBULLET::::- View information on nearby objects\n\nBULLET::::- Universal personal account on the site\n\nBULLET::::- Find the coordinates\n\nBULLET::::- The route to the intersection\n\nBULLET::::- Weather on the ground\n\nBULLET::::- Report on the route\n\nBULLET::::- 3D and night mode decoupling navigation\n\nBULLET::::- Notification of a location by SMS\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n\n/ref\n\nSection::::Instructional video.\n", "In Nov 2010, the Land Transport Authority announced the release of the Location Table for Singapore. Quantum Inventions offers a traffic data service based on this location table and includes traffic incidents information, traffic speeds, parking availability, weather, road closures, etc. Various brands of GPS systems using the Galactio software provide these dynamic data in the navigation system.\n\nSection::::TMC services in operation.:Slovakia.\n\nThere are two RDS-TMC services running in Slovakia.\n", "BULLET::::- NAVTEQ provides data used in a wide range of applications, including automotive navigation systems for many car makers. Most clients use Navteq to provide traffic reports in major metropolitan areas throughout North America. NAVTEQ partners with third-party agencies and companies to provide its services for portable GPS devices made by Garmin, Lowrance, NDrive and web-based applications such as Yahoo! Maps, Bing Maps, and Nokia Maps. XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio use NAVTEQ data to show traffic information on navigation systems.\n", "According to Consumer Reports, the data may be transmitted through Bluetooth, FM, or XM. \n\nIn 2006, Clear Channel made a deal with BMW to supply traffic data for the carmaker's navigation units. \n\nAccording to GPS Review, the suppliers of traffic data to the navigation units get their own data from \"road sensors, local departments of transportation, data collected from operators of large fleets of vehicles, and other manual sources such as traffic helicopters and listening to police scanners.\" \n", "Google Maps provides a route planner, allowing users to find available directions through driving, public transportation, walking, or biking. Google has partnered globally with over 800 public transportation providers to adopt General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS), making the data available to third parties.\n\nSection::::Functionality.:Traffic conditions.\n\nIn 2007, Google began offering traffic data as a colored overlay on top of roads and motorways to represent the speed of traffic. Crowdsourcing is used to obtain the GPS-determined locations of a large number of cellphone users, from which live traffic maps are produced.\n", "The Oregon Department of Transportation used Iteris Freeway Performance Measurement software in Central Oregon to use mobile phone data to monitor and predict traffic problems associated with the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017. In May, the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development signed a $2 million contract with Arcadis, Iteris, and Alliance Transportation Group to help prepare the state for vehicular automation. Iteris evaluated the necessity to keep nearly a dozen traffic signals in Columbus, Nebraska, in 2017.\n\nSection::::Products and services.:Agriculture and weather.\n", "Waze collects map data, travel times and traffic information from users and transmits it to the Waze server, at no cost to Waze. Waze users (\"Wazers\") can report accidents, traffic jams, speed and police traps, and, from the online map editor, can update roads, landmarks, house numbers, etc. Waze sends anonymous information, including users' speed and location, back to its database to improve the service as a whole.\n", "\"BASt\", the German Federal Highway Research Institute, releases location tables. In version 5.1 all major access roads leading to football arenas that were used in the World Championship in 2006 were added. The current version is 10.1 and contains 44,233 location codes.\n\nSection::::TMC services in operation.:Greece.\n", "The primary algorithm used by the Ministry is known as the McMaster algorithm, designed by Professor Fred Hall of McMaster University, in Hamilton, Ontario. Incident Detection algorithms have also been widely used throughout the COMPASS-enabled area.\n", "BULLET::::1. Inform users about their current location on request and automatically.\n\nBULLET::::2. Users can record their own points of interest and be alerted when they approach them.\n\nBULLET::::3. Users can record their own routes and be guided by the app when they walk one of the recorded routes.\n\nBULLET::::4. Once the necessary Open Street Map data has been downloaded and imported into the app, MyWay can announce street intersections and public points of interest as the user approaches them.\n", "Urban Engines has developed a new type of database, which maps objects in motion, called a “Space/Time Engine”, and currently has deals with cities like, Washington D.C., São Paulo and Singapore as well as delivery and logistics companies.\n\nThe company also released a commuter app with “mixed-mode routing,” which evaluates different modes of transportation – walking, driving, public transit, and Uber – to give users the quickest routes. The app is built on Urban Engines own proprietary mapping system.\n\nSection::::History and funding.\n", "BULLET::::- TriMet (Transit agency for Portland, Oregon)\n\nBULLET::::- Ordnance Survey (National Mapping Agency of the UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Institut Géographique National (National Mapping Agency of France)\n\nBULLET::::- GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility)\n\nBULLET::::- World Bank\n\nBULLET::::- Global Earthquake Model\n\nBULLET::::- GMOS (Global Mercury Observation System)\n\nBULLET::::- FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)\n\nBULLET::::- New York City Department of Information Technology and Telecommunications\n\nBULLET::::- TeamSurv\n\nBULLET::::- ITU (International Telecommunication Union)\n\nSection::::Architecture.\n", "In June 2006, GEWI Europe GmbH & Co. KG released the first TISA certified TMC Location Table for Singapore. Its Singapore company, GEWI Asia Pacific Pte. Ltd. offered the service. The latest location table version 1.3, updated and certified in March 2014, includes the Marina Coastal Expressway, more than 150 car park locations within the Central Business District and downtown areas. GEWI's traffic services are available on several models of Smartphones, PAPAGO!, Garmin and TomTom navigation devices, Honda and Toyota in-car navigation systems.\n", "A traffic monitoring service that uses multiple sources to provide traffic information. The service does this by combining data from:\n\nBULLET::::- traditional sources: governmental/third-party data such as induction loops in the roads, cameras and traffic surveillance\n\nBULLET::::- new sources: traffic flow of millions of anonymous mobile phone users\n", "BULLET::::- GPS based methods. An increasing number of vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle satnav/GPS (satellite navigation) systems that have two-way communication with a traffic data provider. Position readings from these vehicles are used to compute vehicle speeds. Modern methods may not use dedicated hardware but instead Smartphone based solutions using so called Telematics 2.0 approaches.\n", "BULLET::::- October 2002, plus traffic information delivery capabilities, \"inter Premium Club\" was released. By sharing the traffic information collected from the Inter-equipped vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- September 2003, also provides information on normal roads VICS information not provided \"Floating Car Data\", and automobile manufacturers the world's first commercialized.\n\nBULLET::::- June 2004 Achieved a membership of 100,000.\n\nBULLET::::- October 2004 \"Inter Navi Information by Lane\" and \"Inter Navi Weather\" function was added.\n\nBULLET::::- March 2005 Achieved a number of members 200,000.\n\nBULLET::::- May 2005 WEB services for members in, with the VICS data InterNavi Advisor \"departure time\" began offering work.\n", "The sources of which data can be collected to create a model are a key choice to the model and algorithms. Data can be collected through non embedded traffic monitoring devices as loop detectors. Those devices can register the number of vehicles passed in an interval giving the occupancy. Other sources are literally embedded into vehicles and collect position or other vehicle behavior during its full trip. Such devices can be wireless sensors like Global positioning system (GPS), floating car data (FCD) and mobile phones. These data can eventually be collected in real-time.\n\nSection::::Traffic Flow Models.\n", "GPS data are usually much more accurate even though they usually are, because of privacy concerns, much harder to acquire. Massive amounts of GPS data describing human mobility are produced, for example, by on-board GPS devices on private vehicles. The GPS device automatically turns on when the vehicle starts, and the sequence of GPS points the device produces every few seconds forms a detailed mobility trajectory of the vehicle. Some recent scientific studies compared the mobility patterns emerged from mobile phone data with those emerged from GPS data.\n", "Section::::Enterprise services.:Here Traffic Analytics.\n\nIn July 2015, Here launched Here Traffic Analytics, which helps companies to plan for the effects of traffic on projects such as road construction. With the giant silo of data available, Here has made current and retrospective data available for business customers to be constructed, tailored and extracted to the customers' requirements. Giving such granular control over the data allows for customers to use this data for the purposes they require, and the amount of detail and control needed for projects.\n\nSection::::Enterprise services.:Here Mobile SDK and Here Data Lens.\n", "Additionally, crowdsourcing from 100 million drivers is being used by INRIX to collect users' driving times to provide better GPS routing and real-time traffic updates.\n\nSection::::Crowdsourcers.:Demographics.\n", "BULLET::::- Passenger Information: Real-time passenger information systems use predictions based on AVL input to show the expected arrival and departure times of public transport services.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07050	Why is it a natural human instinct to flail your arms and legs around when jumping freely from a distance, such as a diving board or cliff diving?	By rotating your arms you push your body the opposite direction, serving to try to keep your body upright. Note that people instinctively rotate their arms in the direction their torso is tilting as they fall, it isn't random flailing.	[ "The tilting is done by the arms, which are outstretched to the sides just before the twist. When one arm is moved up and the other is moved down (like turning a big steering wheel), the body reacts by tilting to the side, which then begins the twisting rotation. At the completion of the required number of twist rotations, the arm motion is reversed (the steering wheel is turned back), which removes the body's tilt and stops the twisting rotation.\n", "An alternative explanation is that the moving arms have precession torque on them which set the body into twisting rotation. Moving the arms back produces opposite torque which stops the twisting rotation.\n\nSection::::Mechanics of diving.:Entry.\n", "Section::::Physiological response.:Circulatory responses.:Arrhythmias.\n", "As the diver leaves the board, the total angular momentum vector is horizontal, pointing directly to the left for a forward dive for example. For twisting rotation to exist, it is necessary to tilt the body sideways after takeoff, so that there is now a small component of this horizontal angular momentum vector along the body's long axis. The tilt can be seen in the photo.\n", "Since the tucked shape is the most compact, it gives the most control over rotational speed, and dives in this position are easier to perform. Dives in the straight position are hardest, since there is almost no scope for altering the speed, so the angular momentum must be created at take-off with a very high degree of accuracy. (A small amount of control is available by moving the position of the arms and by a slight hollowing of the back).\n", "The diving reflex is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals, such as seals, otters, dolphins, and muskrats, and exists as a lesser response in other animals, including adult humans, babies up to 6 months old (see Infant swimming), and diving birds, such as ducks and penguins.\n", "Section::::Physiological response.\n", "The opening of the body for the entry does not stop the rotation, but merely slows it down. The vertical entry achieved by expert divers is largely an illusion created by starting the entry slightly short of vertical, so that the legs are vertical as they disappear beneath the surface. A small amount of additional tuning is available by 'entry save' techniques, whereby underwater movements of the upper body and arms against the viscosity of the water affect the position of the legs.\n\nSection::::Mechanics of diving.:Twisting.\n", "BULLET::::- A non-conscious reaction is seen in the human proprioceptive reflex, or righting reflex—in the event that the body tilts in any direction, the person will cock their head back to level the eyes against the horizon. This is seen even in infants as soon as they gain control of their neck muscles. This control comes from the cerebellum, the part of the brain affecting balance.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n", "Dives with multiple twists and somersaults are some of the most spectacular movements, as well as the most challenging to perform.\n\nThe rules state that twisting 'must not be generated manifestly on take-off'. Consequently, divers must use some of the somersaulting angular momentum to generate twisting movements. The physics of twisting can be explained by looking at the components of the angular momentum vector.\n", "BULLET::::- free – indicates a twisting dive, and a combination of other positions. In the transition between two positions the diver may for example bend their legs or curve at the waist, and points will not be deducted for doing so.\n\nThese positions are referred to by the letters A, B, C and D respectively.\n\nAdditionally, some dives can be started in a flying position. The body is kept straight with the arms extended to the side, and the regular dive position is assumed at about half the dive.\n", "Before joining the cliff diving circuit, Iffland worked as an acrobatic trampolining and diving entertainer on cruise ships in the Mediterranean and Caribbean and trained at a theme park in Lyon, France, where she eventually attained dive heights of 20 metres (66 feet).\n\nSection::::Cliff diving.\n\nIn 2015, Iffland was granted a wildcard entry to compete in the opening event of the 2016 Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series. \n\nCompetitors dive from heights of 20 metres and reach speeds of 85 km/h.\n\nSection::::Cliff diving.:2016 world series.\n", "Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same direction their dive was rotating to pull their legs into a more vertical position. Apart from aesthetic considerations, it is important from a safety point of view that divers reinforce the habit of rolling in the direction of rotation, especially for forward and inward entries. Back injuries hyperextention are caused by attempting to re-surface in the opposite direction. Diving from the higher levels increases the danger and likelihood of such injuries.\n\nSection::::By country.\n\nSection::::By country.:Canada.\n", "The arms must be beside the body for feet-first dives, which are typically competed only on the 1m springboard and only at fairly low levels of 3m springboard, and extended forwards in line for \"head-first\" dives, which are much more common competitively. It used to be common for the hands to be interlocked with the fingers extended towards the water, but a different technique has become favoured during the last few decades. Now the usual practice is for one hand to grasp the other with palms down to strike the water with a flat surface. This creates a vacuum between the hands, arms and head which, with a vertical entry, will pull down and under any splash until deep enough to have minimal effect on the surface of the water (the so-called \"rip entry\").\n", "For Group 6 – Armstand – the dive number has either three or four digits: Three digits for dives without twist and four for dives with twists.\n\nIn non-twisting armstand dives, the second digit indicates the direction of rotation (0 = no rotation, 1 = forward, 2 = backward, 3 = reverse, 4 = inward) and the third digit indicates the number of half-somersaults. Inward-rotating armstand dives have never been performed, and are generally regarded as physically impossible.\n\nFor example:\n\nBULLET::::- 600A – armstand dive straight\n\nBULLET::::- 612B – armstand forward somersault pike\n", "There are six \"groups\" into which dives are classified: \"Forward, Back, Inward, Reverse, Twist,\" and \"Armstand\". The latter applies only to Platform competitions, whereas the other five apply to both Springboard and Platform.\n\nBULLET::::- in the Forward Group (Group 1), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates forward\n\nBULLET::::- in the Back Group (2), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates backward\n\nBULLET::::- in the Reverse Group (3), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates backward\n", "Handstands are performed in many athletic activities, including acro dance, cheerleading, circus, yoga, calisthenics, and gymnastics. Some variation of a handstand is performed on every gymnastic apparatus, and many tumbling skills pass through a handstand position during their execution. Breakdancers incorporate handstands in freezes and kicks. Armstand dives—a category found in competitive platform diving—are dives that begin with a handstand. Swimmers perform underwater handstands as a game, with their heads, arms, and bodies underwater with their legs and feet extended above the surface, often having contests with the winner being the person who can remain in an underwater handstand the longest.\n", "This reflex occurs in slightly older infants (starts between 6 to 7 months and become fully mature by 1 year of age) when the child is held upright and the baby’s body is rotated quickly to face forward (as in falling). The baby will extend their arms forward as if to break a fall, even though this reflex appears long before the baby walks.\n\nSection::::Unintegrated reflexes.\n", "Initially, diving as a sport began by jumping from \"great heights\". Then it was exclusively practiced by gymnasts as they found it exciting with a low probability of injury. It then evolved into \"diving in the air\" with water as the safety landing base. Efforts by Thomas Ralph to name the sport \"springing\" were not realized, as the term \"diving\" was by then firmly rooted. It soon became a sporting event pursued by many enthusiasts. In the early years of the sport, finding suitable places to jump was an issue, and people started jumping from any high place – in Europe and the United States they started jumping from bridges, then diving head first into the water. This evolved into \"fancy diving\" in Europe, and, particularly in Germany and Sweden, as a gymnastic act. The sport further improved with gymnastic acts being performed during the diving process, and was then given the names \"springboard diving\" and \"high fancy diving\", which were events in the Olympics of 1908 and 1912. The first diving event as a sport, however, was in 1889 in Scotland with a diving height of . Today, in Latin America, diving by professionals from heights of or more is a common occurrence.\n", "A slab of meat occasionally appears at the top of the elevator's range of motion. Picking it up allows the player to throw it, distracting any wolves on/near its trajectory and causing them to let go of their balloons and crash to the ground for bonus points. Stray balloons and dropped fruits can also be shot for extra points. \n", "The swimming reflex involves placing an infant face down in a pool of water. The infant will begin to paddle and kick in a swimming motion. The reflex disappears between 4–6 months. Despite the infant displaying a normal response by paddling and kicking, placing them in water can be a very risky procedure. Infants can swallow a large amount of water while performing this task, therefore caregivers should proceed with caution. It is advisable to postpone swimming lessons for infants until they are at least three months old, because infants submerged in water can die from water intoxication.\n\nSection::::Babkin reflex.\n", "and the moment of inertia is larger when the body has an increased radius, the speed of rotation may be increased by moving the body into a compact shape, and reduced by opening out into a straight position.\n", "The righting reflex is not exclusive to humans. A well-known righting reflex in cats allows them to land on their feet after a fall. As a cat falls, it turns its head, rotates its spine, aligns its hindquarters, and arches its back to minimize injury. The cat reaches free fall to accomplish this, which is much lower than that of humans, and they are able to hit the ground in a relaxed body form to prevent serious injury.\n", "BULLET::::- in the Inward Group (4), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates forward\n\nBULLET::::- any dive incorporating an axial twisting movement is in the Twist group (5).\n\nBULLET::::- any dive commencing from a handstand is in the Armstand group (6). (Only on platform)\n\nSection::::Dive groups.:Dive positions.\n\nDuring the flight of the dive, one of four positions is assumed:\n\nBULLET::::- straight – with no bend at the knees or hips (the hardest of the four)\n", "Several cases are possible for an upright diver at the surface. This attitude is stable only when the centre of buoyancy is nearer the head then the centre of gravity, and on the same vertical line. Otherwise the diver will tend to rotate forwards or backwards until the centre of buoyancy is directly above the centre of gravity.\n" ]	[ "It is a natural human instinct to flail your arms and legs around when jumping freely from a distance, such as a diving board or cliff diving.", "A human instinct is to flail the arms and legs around when jumping off a high point." ]	[ "When falling, people instinctively rotate their arms in the direction their torso is tilting as they fall, it is not random flailing.", "The instinct is not to randomly flail - the instinct is to rotate the arms in the direction the torso is tilting to keep the body upright." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is a natural human instinct to flail your arms and legs around when jumping freely from a distance, such as a diving board or cliff diving.", "A human instinct is to flail the arms and legs around when jumping off a high point." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When falling, people instinctively rotate their arms in the direction their torso is tilting as they fall, it is not random flailing.", "The instinct is not to randomly flail - the instinct is to rotate the arms in the direction the torso is tilting to keep the body upright." ]
2018-00743	How do humans maintains constant body temperature of 98.6°F when we have no fur and such thin skin compared to other Mammals?	Imagine your body is a car, the car has a combustion engine that burns its gas to produce Kinetic Energy to move the car's wheels among other thing. The thing about burning fuel is that it produces this other thing besides Kinetic Energy. Namely heat, sound and light. This causes the car to heat up. You eat food, your body turns that into energy, which in turn also creates heat. Your body likes to stay at 98.6 because it evolved to work best at that Internal Temperature. If it gets below that, it burns more food, if it gets higher it burns less. Hair in general is a form of insulation. But humans are such active creatures that we naturally lost the need to have a form of insulation. Its because our bodies burn so quickly. Some other mammals don't have this feature though so they require this insulation to maintain the needed body temperature. You will notice that the smaller a mammal is the less thick a coat it seems to have. Compare a Hamster to a Water Buffalo to see what I mean.	[ "The environment can have major influences on human physiology. Environmental effects on human physiology are numerous; one of the most carefully studied effects is the alterations in thermoregulation in the body due to outside stresses. This is necessary because in order for enzymes to function, blood to flow, and for various body organs to operate, temperature must remain at consistent, balanced levels.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Humans.:Thermoregulation.\n\nTo achieve this, the body alters three main things to achieve a constant, normal body temperature:\n\nBULLET::::- Heat transfer to the epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of evaporation\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of heat production\n", "In warm environments, birds and mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to maximize heat loss:\n\nBULLET::::1. Behavioural adaptations like living in burrows during the day and being nocturnal\n\nBULLET::::2. Evaporative cooling by perspiration and panting\n\nBULLET::::3. Storing fat reserves in one place (e.g., camel's hump) to avoid its insulating effect\n\nBULLET::::4. Elongated, often vascularized extremities to conduct body heat to the air\n\nSection::::Vertebrates.:In humans.\n", "Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body, unlike that of the animals they hunt, to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans, unlike other animals that catch prey, remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them.\n", "The Inuit have more blood flowing into their extremities, and at a hotter temperature, than people living in warmer climates. A 1960 study on the Alacaluf Indians shows that they have a resting metabolic rate 150 to 200 percent higher than the white controls used. Lapps do not have an increase in metabolic rate when sleeping, unlike non-acclimated people. Australian aborigines undergo a similar process, where the body cools but the metabolic rate does not increase.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Heat.\n", "Thermoregulation in humans\n\nAs in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n", "Insulation is the \"cheapest\" way to maintain a fairly constant body temperature, without consuming energy to produce more body heat. Therefore, the possession of hair or fur would be good evidence of homeothermy, but would not be such strong evidence of a high metabolic rate.\n\nSection::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Erect limbs.\n", "Endotherms control body temperature by internal homeostatic mechanisms. In mammals, two separate homeostatic mechanisms are involved in thermoregulation—one mechanism increases body temperature, while the other decreases it. The presence of two separate mechanisms provides a very high degree of control. This is important because the core temperature of mammals can be controlled to be as close as possible to the optimum temperature for enzyme activity.\n", "P.E. Wheeler of the Department of Biology at Liverpool Polytechnic said quadrupedal savannah mammals of similar volume to humans have body hair to keep warm while only larger quadrupedal savannah mammals lack body hair, because their body volume itself is enough to keep them warm. Therefore, Wheeler said humans who should have body hair based on predictions of body volume alone for savannah mammals evolved no body hair after evolving bipedalism which he said reduced the amount of body area exposed to the sun by 40%, reducing the solar warming effect on the human body.\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Core temperature.\n\nMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Heat.\n\nThe only mechanism the human body has to cool itself is by sweat evaporation. Sweating occurs when the ambient air temperatures is above 28 °C (82 °F) and the body fails to return to the normal internal temperature. The evaporation of the sweat helps cool the blood beneath the skin. It is limited by the amount of water available in the body, which can cause dehydration.\n", "Humans adapted to heat early on. In Africa, the climate selected for traits that helped us stay cool. Also, we had physiological mechanisms that reduced the rate of metabolism and that modified the sensitivity of sweat glands to provide an adequate amount for cooldown without the individual becoming dehydrated . \n", "Some animals living in cold environments maintain their body temperature by preventing heat loss. Their fur grows more densely to increase the amount of insulation. Some animals are regionally heterothermic and are able to allow their less insulated extremities to cool to temperatures much lower than their core temperature—nearly to . This minimizes heat loss through less insulated body parts, like the legs, feet (or hooves), and nose.\n\nSection::::Behavioral temperature regulation.:Hibernation, estivation and daily torpor.\n", "Although homeothermy lends advantages such as increased activity levels, small mammals and birds maintaining an internal body temperature spend up to 100 times more energy in low ambient temperatures compared to ectotherms. To cope with this challenge, these animals maintain a much lower body temperature, staying just over ambient temperature rather than at normal operating temperature. This reduction in body temperature and metabolic rate allows the prolonged survival of animals capable of entering torpid states.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n", "Cats conserve heat by reducing the flow of blood to their skin and lose heat by evaporation through their mouths. Cats have minimal ability to sweat, with glands located primarily in their paw pads, and pant for heat relief only at very high temperatures (but may also pant when stressed). A cat's body temperature does not vary throughout the day; this is part of cats' general lack of circadian rhythms and may reflect their tendency to be active both during the day and at night.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Water conservation.\n", "BULLET::::- Many arctic birds and mammals can change their heat dissipation and metabolic rate in response to changes in temperature, as different populations of the same species display different averages depending on their current climate.\n\nBULLET::::- In arctic foxes (\"Alopex lagopus),\" starvation experiments indicate that the body mass in the arctic fox is regulated according to a seasonally changing set point and not by the availability of food. The basic metabolic rate varies seasonally being lower in winter than summer. The fur thickness can increase 140% from summer to winter.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Warm-bloodedness.\n\n\"Warm-bloodedness\" is a complex and rather ambiguous term, because it includes some or all of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Endothermy, the ability to generate heat internally rather than via behaviors such as basking or muscular activity.\n\nBULLET::::- Homeothermy, maintaining a fairly constant body temperature. Most enzymes have an optimum operating temperature; efficiency drops rapidly outside the preferred range. A homeothermic organism needs only to possess enzymes that function well in a small range of temperatures.\n", "Occasionally the temperature of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use in measuring body temperature. More often the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla, ear or groin.\n\nSome animals undergo one of various forms of dormancy where the thermoregulation process temporarily allows the body temperature to drop, thereby conserving energy. Examples include hibernating bears and torpor in bats.\n\nSection::::Classification of animals by thermal characteristics.\n\nSection::::Classification of animals by thermal characteristics.:Endothermy vs. ectothermy.\n", "As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body’s core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body’s “thermostat.” This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Endothermy.\n\nNearly all mammals are endothermic (\"warm-blooded\"). Most mammals also have hair to help keep them warm. Like birds, mammals can forage or hunt in weather and climates too cold for ectothermic (\"cold-blooded\") reptiles and insects. Endothermy requires plenty of food energy, so mammals eat more food per unit of body weight than most reptiles. Small insectivorous mammals eat prodigious amounts for their size. A rare exception, the naked mole-rat produces little metabolic heat, so it is considered an operational poikilotherm. Birds are also endothermic, so endothermy is not unique to mammals.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Species lifespan.\n", "Coat color may influence the ability to retain heat, depending on how much light is reflected. Mammals with a darker colored coat can absorb more heat from solar radiation, and stay warmer, and some smaller mammals, such as voles, have darker fur in the winter. The white, pigmentless fur of arctic mammals, such as the polar bear, may reflect more solar radiation directly onto the skin.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Reproductive system.\n", "BULLET::::- Tachymetabolism, maintaining a high metabolic rate, particularly when at rest. This requires a fairly high and stable body temperature because of the Q effect: biochemical processes run about half as fast if an animal's temperature drops by 10 °C.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.\n\nWhen humans are exposed to certain climates for extended periods of time, physiological changes occur to help the individual adapt to hot or cold climates. This helps the body conserve energy.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Cold.\n", "Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atwater system\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical energy\n\nBULLET::::- Food chain\n\nBULLET::::- Food composition\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by food energy intake\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition facts label\n\nBULLET::::- Table of food nutrients\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Thus, the higher surface area-to-volume ratio of smaller animals in hot and dry climates facilitates heat loss through the skin and helps cool the body. It is important to note that when analyzing Bergmann's Rule in the field that groups of populations being studied are of different thermal environments, and also have been separated long enough to genetically differentiate in response to these thermal conditions.\n", "Cats are able to tolerate quite high temperatures: Humans generally start to feel uncomfortable when their skin temperature passes about , but cats show no discomfort until their skin reaches around , and can tolerate temperatures of up to if they have access to water.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Temperature regulation.\n" ]	[ "Humans need fur or thin skin to maintain constant body temperatures of approximately 98 degrees. " ]	[ "The human body is able to burn the food it consumes and convert that into the energy it needs to maintain constant body temperature." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans need fur or thin skin to maintain constant body temperatures of approximately 98 degrees. ", "Humans need fur or thin skin to maintain constant body temperatures of approximately 98 degrees. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The human body is able to burn the food it consumes and convert that into the energy it needs to maintain constant body temperature.", "The human body is able to burn the food it consumes and convert that into the energy it needs to maintain constant body temperature." ]
2018-15935	why do our mouths water so much before we vomit?	Vomiting is a deliberate response by the body that evolved as a purging mechanism to remove toxins or foreign bodies from the stomach and oesophagus. Since stomach contents are highly acidic, vomiting can be quite harmful for the throat, mouth and teeth and salivating helps to reduce this by diluting and rinsing. Saliva is also weakly alkaline, which helps to neutralise acid. [source]( URL_0 ) Basically saliva helps prevent your throat from burning because of stomach acid	[ "BULLET::::- Intrathoracic pressure lowers (by inspiration against a closed glottis), coupled with an increase in abdominal pressure as the abdominal muscles contract, propels stomach contents into the esophagus as the lower esophageal sphincter relaxes. The stomach itself does not contract in the process of vomiting except for at the angular notch, nor is there any retroperistalsis in the esophagus.\n\nBULLET::::- Vomiting is ordinarily preceded by retching.\n\nBULLET::::- Vomiting also initiates an SNS response causing both sweating and increased heart rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Increased salivation to protect tooth enamel from stomach acids. (Excessive vomiting leads to dental erosion). This is part of the PNS output.\n\nBULLET::::- The body takes a deep breath to avoid aspirating vomit.\n\nBULLET::::- Retroperistalsis starts from the middle of the small intestine and sweeps up digestive tract contents into the stomach, through the relaxed pyloric sphincter.\n", "During vomiting, the propulsion of food up the esophagus and out the mouth comes from contraction of the abdominal muscles; peristalsis does not reverse in the esophagus.\n\nSection::::Human physiology.:Small intestine.\n", "Signals from any of these pathways then travel to the brainstem, activating several structures including the nucleus of the solitary tract, the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, and central pattern generator. These structures go on to signal various downstream effects of nausea and vomiting. The body's motor muscle responses involve halting the muscles of the gastrointestinal tract, and in fact causing reversed propulsion of gastric contents towards the mouth while increasing abdominal muscle contraction. Autonomic effects involve increased salivation and the sensation of feeling faint that often occurs with nausea and vomiting.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Contents.\n\nGastric secretions and likewise vomit are highly acidic. Recent food intake appears in the gastric vomit. Irrespective of the content, vomit tends to be malodorous.\n", "As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth. It also has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as immunoglobulin A. This is seen to be key in preventing infections of the salivary glands, importantly that of parotitis.\n", "Every day, seven liters of fluid are secreted by the digestive system. This fluid is composed of four primary components: ions, digestive enzymes, mucus, and bile. About half of these fluids are secreted by the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver, which compose the accessory organs and glands of the digestive system. The rest of the fluid is secreted by the GI epithelial cells.\n\nSection::::Secretion.:Ions.\n", "Section::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.\n\nThe patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be divided into two distinct patterns, peristalsis and segmentation. Occurring between meals, the migrating motor complex is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes.\n\nThis cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.\n\nSection::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.:Peristalsis.\n", "Saliva contains digestive enzymes called amylase, and lingual lipase, secreted by the salivary glands and serous glands on the tongue. The enzymes start to break down the food in the mouth. Chewing, in which the food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus to enter the stomach. In the stomach the gastric phase of digestion takes place. The food is further broken down by mixing with gastric acid until it passes into the duodenum, in the third intestinal phase of digestion, where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Digestion is helped by the chewing of food carried out by the muscles of mastication, the tongue, and the teeth, and also by the contractions of peristalsis, and segmentation. Gastric acid, and the production of mucus in the stomach, are essential for the continuation of digestion.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nThe function of the omasum is not completely understood. During the second contraction phase of the reticulum, the reticule-omasal sphincter opens for a few seconds allowing a small volume of finely dispersed and well-fermented ingesta enters the omasum.\n", "In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.\n\nSection::::Human digestion process.:Neural and biochemical control mechanisms.\n\nDifferent phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.\n", "Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.\n", "BULLET::::- The chemoreceptor trigger zone at the base of the fourth ventricle has numerous dopamine D receptors, serotonin 5-HT receptors, opioid receptors, acetylcholine receptors, and receptors for substance P. Stimulation of different receptors are involved in different pathways leading to emesis, in the final common pathway substance P appears involved.\n\nBULLET::::- The vestibular system, which sends information to the brain via cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve), plays a major role in motion sickness, and is rich in muscarinic receptors and histamine H receptors.\n", "BULLET::::- Mucin: The stomach has a priority to destroy the bacteria and viruses using its highly acidic environment but also has a duty to protect its own lining from its acid. The way that the stomach achieves this is by secreting mucin and bicarbonate via its mucous cells, and also by having a rapid cell turn-over.\n", "The largest component of secreted fluids is ions and water, which are first secreted and then reabsorbed along the tract. The ions secreted primarily consist of H, K, Cl, HCO and Na. Water follows the movement of these ions. The GI tract accomplishes this ion pumping using a system of proteins that are capable of active transport, facilitated diffusion and open channel ion movement. The arrangement of these proteins on the apical and basolateral sides of the epithelium determines the net movement of ions and water in the tract.\n", "The neurotransmitters that regulate vomiting are poorly understood, but inhibitors of dopamine, histamine, and serotonin are all used to suppress vomiting, suggesting that these play a role in the initiation or maintenance of a vomiting cycle. Vasopressin and neurokinin may also participate.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Phases.\n", "BULLET::::- The cranial nerve X (vagus nerve) is activated when the pharynx is irritated, leading to a gag reflex.\n\nBULLET::::- The vagal and enteric nervous system inputs transmit information regarding the state of the gastrointestinal system. Irritation of the GI mucosa by chemotherapy, radiation, distention, or acute infectious gastroenteritis activates the 5-HT receptors of these inputs.\n\nBULLET::::- The CNS mediates vomiting that arises from psychiatric disorders and stress from higher brain centers.\n\nThe vomiting act encompasses three types of outputs initiated by the chemoreceptor trigger zone: Motor, parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and sympathetic nervous system (SNS). They are as follows:\n", "The vomiting act has two phases. In the retching phase, the abdominal muscles undergo a few rounds of coordinated contractions together with the diaphragm and the muscles used in respiratory inspiration. For this reason, an individual may confuse this phase with an episode of violent hiccups. In this retching phase, nothing has yet been expelled. In the next phase, also termed the expulsive phase, intense pressure is formed in the stomach brought about by enormous shifts in both the diaphragm and the abdomen. These shifts are, in essence, vigorous contractions of these muscles that last for extended periods of time - much longer than a normal period of muscular contraction. The pressure is then suddenly released when the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes resulting in the expulsion of gastric contents. Individuals who do not regularly exercise their abdominal muscles may experience pain in those muscles for a few days. The relief of pressure and the release of endorphins into the bloodstream after the expulsion causes the vomiter to feel better.\n", "Within this network, central inhibitory connections play a major role, producing a rostrocaudal inhibition that parallels the rostrocaudal anatomy of the swallowing tract. Thus, when the neurons controlling the proximal parts of the tract are active, those that command more distal parts are inhibited. Apart from the type of connection between the neurons, intrinsic properties of the neurons, especially those of NTS neurons, probably also contribute to the shaping and timing of the swallowing pattern.\n", "Receptors on the floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain represent a chemoreceptor trigger zone, known as the area postrema, stimulation of which can lead to vomiting. The area postrema is a circumventricular organ and as such lies outside the blood–brain barrier; it can therefore be stimulated by blood-borne drugs that can stimulate vomiting or inhibit it.\n\nThere are various sources of input to the vomiting center:\n", "BULLET::::4. the trachea, or windpipe\n\nThese lead down into the lower respiratory tract. A critical junction between the respiratory and digestive systems is the epiglottis, a cartilage flap which shuts during swallowing to prevent aspiration. The epiglottis is normally open to support respiration and shuts during swallowing to prevent food and fluids from entering the trachea, activating the gag reflex or initiates the choking mechanism.\n\nSection::::Function.:Central nervous system.\n", "Section::::In humans.:Phases.:Esophageal phase.\n\n12) Esophageal peristalsis\n", "It is in most animals a normal and voluntary process unlike the complex vomiting reflex in response to toxins. Honey is produced by a process of regurgitation by honey bees, which is stored in the beehive as a primary food source.\n\nSection::::Humans.\n\nIn humans it can be voluntary or involuntary, the latter being due to a small number of disorders. Regurgitation of a person's meals following ingestion is known as rumination syndrome, an uncommon and often misdiagnosed motility disorder that affects eating. It may be a symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).\n", "In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It also contains rennin in case of infants and toddlers. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nThe production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic.\n\nThe saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more fluid-like.\n\nSympathetic stimulation of saliva is to facilitate respiration, whereas parasympathetic stimulation is to facilitate digestion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02099	Why must roller coaster loops be clothoid and not circular?	When you're falling, you accelerate towards the ground at ~~32~~ 9.8 meters per second squared. Those loops make you feel weightless, but to do that they need to counter your acceleration. It needs to accelerate upward. When you travel up one of those loops, as you reach the top the radius of the loop gets larger. That means you accelerate upward just fast enough to counteract the acceleration from gravity. Gravity pulls you down, the loop pushes you up. They cancel each other out and you feel weightless. If it was a circle, you wouldn't accelerate at the right speed. When you go down the loop, the same thing happens in reverse	[ "Most roller coaster loops are not circular in shape. A commonly used shape is the clothoid loop, which resembles an inverted tear drop and allows for less intense G-forces throughout the element for the rider. The use of this shape was pioneered in 1976 on The New Revolution at Six Flags Magic Mountain, by Werner Stengel of leading coaster engineering firm Ing.-Büro Stengel GmbH.\n", "The next attempt at building a looping roller coaster was in 1901 when Edwin Prescott built the \"Loop the Loop\" at Coney Island. This ride used the modern teardrop-shaped loop and a steel structure, however more people wanted to watch the attraction, rather than ride. No more roller coasters with vertical loops were built until 1976 when The New Revolution opened at Six Flags Magic Mountain. Its success depended largely on its clothoid-based (rather than circular) loop. The loop became a phenomenon, and many parks hastened to build roller coasters featuring them.\n", "The generic roller coaster vertical loop is the most basic of roller coaster inversions. Specifically, the loop refers to a continuously upward-sloping section of track that eventually results in a complete 360 degree circle. At the top-most piece of the loop, riders are completely inverted. Typically, these loops are not actually \"circles\" but more of a teardrop shape, with the top of the loop being a tighter arc. This shape makes the loop more comfortable for riders than a true circle shape would be.\n\nSection::::Inverting elements.:Zero-gravity roll.\n", "Obviously this \"gentling\" runs somewhat contrary to the coaster's \"raison d'être\". Schwarzkopf-designed roller coasters often feature near-circular loops (in case of Thriller even without any reduction of curvature between two almost perfectly circular loops) resulting in intense rides—a trademark for the designer.\n", "It can be built in two versions, the \"Spiral Version\" and the \"Loop Version\" (also called the \"Looper\"). The Loop's dimensions are 8 feet long by 3 feet wide by 3 feet tall. The Spiral's dimensions are 5 feet long by 3 feet wide by 3 feet tall.\n", "Later attempts to build a looping roller coaster were carried out during the late 19th century with the \"Flip Flap Railway\" at Sea Lion Park. The ride was designed with a completely circular loop (rather than the teardrop shape used by many modern looping roller coasters), and caused neck injuries due to the intense G-forces pulled with the tight radius of the loop.\n", "In 2000, a modern looping wooden roller coaster was built, the Son of Beast at Kings Island. Although the ride itself was made of wood, the loop was supported with steel structure. Due to maintenance issues however, the loop was removed at the end of the 2006 season. The loop was not the cause of the ride's issues, but was removed as a precautionary measure. It is the only successful installation of a loop on a wooden roller coaster. Due to an unrelated issue in 2009, Son of Beast was closed until 2012, when King's Island announced that it would be removed.\n", "A similar ride debuted in 2004 when the first two Gerstlauer Spinning Coasters opened: \"Fairly Odd Coaster\" (formerly \"Timberland Twister\") at Nickelodeon Universe inside the Mall of America, and \"Spinning Dragons\" at Worlds of Fun. These coasters have twisted track layouts similar to Maurer Söhne's Xtended SC, but the seats on Gerstlauer Spinning Coasters face towards each other, as with the Virginia Reel.\n", "Section::::Ride experience.\n\nLoop the Loop was an improvement in terms of ride comfort over previous looping coasters such as Lina Beecher's Flip Flap Railway and earlier centrifugal railways. This was primarily because Loop the Loop incorporated a more elliptical design, thereby reducing the g-forces which riders experienced on more circular roller coaster loops (which could be up to 12 g on the Flip Flap Railway). Loop the Loop also had rubber wheels to improve the ride comfort along with safety rails. Nevertheless, many riders still experienced discomfort.\n", "The Suspended Looping Coaster is similar in design to other inverted roller coasters, however unlike the four-across seating found on Bolliger & Mabillard (B&M) inverted roller coasters, Vekoma SLC's use two-across seating.\n\nSection::::Installations.\n\nThere are at least 41 different installations across the world which have been located at 47 different theme parks.\n\nYet-to-be-named 689m Standards are set to open in Al Zawra'a Dream Park in Iraq and Energylandia in Poland in 2015.\n\nSection::::Installations.:Mind Eraser.\n", "After their success with the Racer at Kings Island, the Philadelphia Toboggan Company (PTC) constructed another 9 roller coasters over the next decade. About half were small family coasters, two were racing coasters similar to the Racer, and two were out and back coasters with custom designs. One of these, Screamin' Eagle at Six Flags St. Louis, was the last coaster designed by John Allen before his retirement. After these coasters, PTC stopped producing roller coasters, but continues to produce wooden roller coaster trains as Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters. Their distinctive rectangular cars are widely used on wooden coasters around the world.\n", "This element, known as a roll over on roller coasters built by Vekoma, is an inversion featuring two half loop halves, connected by two opposite-facing half inline twists. This inversion can be found on the most Vekoma SLCs.\n\nSection::::Inverting elements.:Sea serpent roll.\n", "Suspended Looping Coaster\n\nThe Suspended Looping Coaster (or referred as SLCs by coaster enthusiasts) is a model of steel inverted roller coaster built by Vekoma. There are at least 39 different installations across the world. The minimum rider height requirement is .\n\nSection::::History.\n", "On Wing Coasters designed by Bolliger & Mabillard, keyhole elements are common. These elements feature both head chopper and foot chopper effects. The train seats riders in pairs on both sides of the track and passes through the center of an object, giving the illusion that the train and its passengers have just enough clearance to fit.\n\nSection::::Common elements.:Helix.\n\nA helix is a banked spiral, generally exceeding 360°. Helixes can spiral upwards or downwards.\n\nSection::::Common elements.:Launch track.\n", "The non-inverting loop is a variety of loop that, when coming up, twists similar to a heartline roll, leaving riders completely right-side-up when at the top of the loop. Some roller coasters with this element include Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit at Universal Studios Florida, Shock at Rainbow MagicLand, at Six Flags Discovery Kingdom, Flying Aces at Ferrari World, Soaring with Dragon at Hefei Water Theme Park, DC Rivals Hypercoaster at Warner Bros. Movie World and Tempesto at Busch Gardens Williamsburg.\n\nSection::::Inverting elements.:Norwegian loop.\n", "The traditional \"pirate ship\" style thrill ride often utilizes this type of restraint, as does the Troika.\n\nSection::::Common elements.:Drive tire.\n", "A junior Immelmann loop is similar to a normal Immelmann loop, except riders are not inverted and only roll to 90 degrees instead of 180 degrees. The element first appeared on Black Mamba at Phantasialand.\n\nSection::::Non-inverting track elements.:Overbanked turn.\n", "The corkscrew was the first modern-day inversion element to be featured on a roller coaster. It debuted with the release of Corkscrew, a roller coaster designed by Arrow Dynamics that opened in 1975 at Knott's Berry Farm. Due to its success, the element became a staple of many steel, inverting roller coasters for more than a decade. A variation of the element was created by Bolliger & Mabillard, which the company refers to as a \"flat spin\". Flat spins snap riders quickly through the inversion at varying speeds, whereas a typical corkscrew element rotates riders at a slower, constant speed.\n", "Drive tires are also used to power other types of amusement rides, such as ferris wheels, Pirate Ships, and other spinning rides. The Olympia Looping traveling roller coaster at Barth, Alpina Bahn and Mindbender at Galaxyland at the West Edmonton Mall also feature a drive tire instead of a chain on their lift hill.\n", "An inclined loop, also known as an oblique loop, is a 360° loop that has been tilted at an angle. It is not entered vertically, like a vertical loop, or horizontally like a helix. Instead, it is usually entered at an angle between 45° and 80°. Inclined loops can be found on B&M stand-up roller coasters, B&M Wing Coasters, and B&M Floorless Coasters. Examples include: Rougarou at Cedar Point; Green Lantern at Six Flags Great Adventure; Riddler's Revenge at Six Flags Magic Mountain; and The Swarm at Thorpe Park.\n\nSection::::Inverting elements.:Inline twist.\n", "TOGO's model would be the only somewhat successful design. Six of these were made and were successful in small parks due to its small footprint. The ride inverts riders three times through three Heartline Roll elements and utilizes a special near-vertical lift hill. The lift hill would be prone to down time for maintenance and the Ultra Twister owned by Six Flags had its lift hill modified by Premier Rides to a less steep angle when it was moved to Six Flags Astroworld.\n", "The concept to add inversions to the inverted roller coaster was first developed by Jim Wintrode, general manager of Six Flags Great America, in the 1990s. Wintrode worked with Walter Bolliger and Claude Mabillard – from Swiss roller coaster manufacturer Bolliger & Mabillard – along with engineer Robert Mampe to develop which opened at Six Flags Great America in 1992. Dutch amusement ride manufacturer Vekoma developed a similar concept shortly after, and the model became known as the Suspended Looping Coaster (SLC). Their first installation was El Condor at Six Flags Holland which debuted in 1994.\n", "BULLET::::- Looping/ Suspended Polyp — Originally designed by Wieland Schwarzkopf (son of Anton Schwarzkopf), the Looping Polyp was similar to the Monster, but featured cars that could flip over as well as spin (similar to a Mondial Shake ride). The cars were also suspended below the crosses, rather than above. The prototype, \"Sound Factory\", built for German showman Kinzler in 1997, was the only Looping Polyp ever built, as the ride was plagued by mechanical issues and was pulled out of service just a couple years later. Around the 2008/2009 season, Gerstlauer of Germany replaced the original looping cars with spinning cars for showman Aigner, who currently travels the ride around to various German Funfairs under the name \"Parkour\". As of March 2017, Gerstlauer still offers the Suspended Polyp.\n", "Loop the Loop was designed and built in 1901 by Edward A. Green and Edwin Prescott on Young's Million Dollar Pier in Atlantic City, New Jersey. It was the goal of Green and Prescott to create a looping coaster which would not be subject to the same extreme g-forces which plagued Lina Beecher's earlier Flip Flap Railway on Coney Island, New York.\n", "Twist Coaster Robin\n\nSection::::Description.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15569	What is the rest 69g of banana's mass if there is 8g of protein, 7g of fat and 16 of carbohydrates in 100g?	Seriously, most of the rest of the mass is water and other metabolic products that don't amount to much mass in comparison. Most of EVERYTHING living is water. Cells are basically bags of water with some stuff dissolved in it.	[ "Section::::Nutrition.\n\nRaw bananas (not including the peel) are 75% water, 23% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat. A 100-gram reference serving supplies 89 Calories, 31% of the US recommended Daily Value (DV) of vitamin B, and moderate amounts of vitamin C, manganese and dietary fiber, with no other micronutrients in significant content (see table).\n\nSection::::Nutrition.:Potassium.\n", "Section::::Song.\n\nThe song portrays a fictional account of the incident played in the form of a country song. With each verse, the song gets faster too, as Chapin explained in the live recording, \"build up intensity and excitement.\" During the chorus, Chapin sings the phrase \"thirty-thousand pounds\" followed by Big John Wallace singing the bass line \"of bananas.\" During concerts, the audience was encouraged to shout this refrain.\n\nSection::::Song.:Content.\n", "100 grams of raw feijoa provides 55 calories and is 13% carbohydrates, 8% sugars, and 1% each of fat and protein. The raw fruit is an excellent source of vitamin C, providing 40% of the daily value, but supplies no other nutrients in significant amount.\n\nSection::::Consumption.:Food uses.\n", "The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called \"hands\"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers, or commercially as a \"banana stem\", and can weigh . Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or \"finger\") average , of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right).\n", "Before her retirement, Florence Isabirye Muranga was a Professor of Nutrition and Biochemistry in the Department of Food Technology and Nutrition at Makerere University. She has special interest in the nutritional value of the banana fruit, particularity the variety called \"matooke\". She has published widely and extensively regarding her research on the subject.\n\nSection::::Banana research.\n", "The glider can digest low nutrient foliage, specifically eucalypt leaf matter, which contains a variety of phenolic and terpenoid compounds and a high concentration of lignified fibre. Animals can digest about 50–60% of the leaf during its passage through the gut. The gut has a specialized caecum that contains a population of bacteria that ferment food residues that remain undigested in the small intestine. For a population in a eucalypt forest near Maryborough, Queensland, it has been calculated that their daily energy intake is about 1130 kJ, which is provided by about of dry matter daily.\n", "Section::::Personnel.\n\nCredits for \"Flying Microtonal Banana\" adapted from liner notes.\n\nKing Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Cavanagh – drum kit , bongos , percussion\n\nBULLET::::- Cook Craig – microtonal guitar , microtonal bass guitar\n\nBULLET::::- Ambrose Kenny-Smith – microtonal harmonica , vocals , piano , synthesizer\n\nBULLET::::- Stu Mackenzie – microtonal guitar , microtonal bass guitar , zurna , vocals , percussion\n\nBULLET::::- Eric Moore – drum kit , bongos\n\nBULLET::::- Lucas Skinner – microtonal bass guitar\n\nBULLET::::- Joey Walker – microtonal guitar , microtonal bass guitar , vocals\n\nProduction\n\nBULLET::::- Stu Mackenzie – recording\n", "During the drying process of mango, there are some nutritional values which are still retained and lost. 100 gram of dried mango contains about 314 calories, in which carbohydrates are the main source of calories, followed by protein and fat. Dried mango has 20% daily-value of Vitamin A and notable content of Vitamin B, D, and E. However, most of the vitamin C in the mango is lost during the process of dehydration; it carries only 2% of daily value. Minerals such as calcium, iron, and phosphorus can be found in dried mango.\n", "There is a lot of variance with the exclusively beef \"Big Mac\": the Australian version of the Big Mac has 22% fewer Calories than the Canadian version, and is 8% lighter than the version sold in Mexico.\n", "Section::::Virology.\n\nThis bacteriophage has a [+] circular single-stranded DNA genome of 5386 nucleotides encoding 11 proteins. Of these 11 genes, only 8 are essential to viral morphogenesis. The GC-content is 44% and 95% of nucleotides belong to coding genes.\n", "Banana covers the largest plantation area in the municipality with a total of 2,123.30 hectares and has a total of 940,531,500.00 metric tons per year as of December 31, 2013 data. This Lacatan banana variety is being sold to the local market and transported to Cities like Manila, Cebu, Iloilo and Cagayan de Oro via Davao City.\n", "The 616 mature microRNAs and 3919 long non-codingRNAs sequences were identified in the genome of pigeon pea.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n\nPigeon peas contain high levels of protein and the important amino acids methionine, lysine, and tryptophan.\n\nThe following table indicates completeness of nutritional profile of various amino acids within mature seeds of pigeon pea.\n", "Since panela is a relatively cheap, locally produced food, many farmers in Colombia, especially peasants, obtain the majority of their caloric intake from it. In many cases panela and small amounts of rice and plantain are the only foods available, due to the scarcity and high prices of other products rich in proteins, such as meat and milk. This phenomenon causes a high rate of kwashiorkor type malnutrition in children. The Colombian government tries to alleviate this situation by providing soy-derived flour to the poor as a source of protein.\n", "Section::::Use of plant components.:Plantain leaves.\n", "The following plants are known to contain far greater concentrations of mucilage than is typically found in most plants:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aloe vera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Basella alba\" (Malabar spinach)\n\nBULLET::::- Cactus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chondrus crispus\" (Irish moss)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Corchorus\" (jute plant)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dioscorea polystachya\" (nagaimo, Chinese yam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Drosera\" (sundews)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Drosophyllum lusitanicum\"\n\nBULLET::::- Fenugreek\n\nBULLET::::- Flax seeds\n\nBULLET::::- Kelp\n\nBULLET::::- Liquorice root\n\nBULLET::::- Marshmallow\n\nBULLET::::- Mallow\n\nBULLET::::- Mullein\n\nBULLET::::- Okra\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parthenium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pinguicula\" (butterwort)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psyllium\" seed husks\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salvia hispanica\" (chia) seed\n\nBULLET::::- \"Talinum triangulare\" (waterleaf)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ulmus rubra\" bark (slippery elm)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plantago major\" (greater plantain)\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The nutritional value of banana peel depends on the stage of maturity and the cultivar; for example plantain peels contain less fibre than dessert banana peels, and lignin content increases with ripening (from 7 to 15% dry matter). On average, banana peels contain 6-9% dry matter of protein and 20-30% fibre (measured as NDF). Green plantain peels contain 40% starch that is transformed into sugars after ripening. Green banana peels contain much less starch (about 15%) when green than plantain peels, while ripe banana peels contain up to 30% free sugars.\n", "If Bananaman needs extra power, bananas can be eaten for strength boosts, provided by his faithful pet crow; if he does not have enough strength to shatter an ice block, for example, after eating another banana, he will have enough. If he eats lots of bananas in one sitting, he quickly becomes obese in his transformation; if he eats bananas that are not full, he transforms with extra weight in the lower part of his body. \n", "Section::::Use of plant components.:Plantain shoot.\n", "Banana paper\n\nBanana paper can refer to two different kinds of paper:\n\nBULLET::::- paper made from the bark of the banana plant, which is primarily used in art\n\nBULLET::::- paper made from banana fiber obtained, through an industrial process, from stems and the non-utilizable fruits; this paper can be either hand or machine made.\n\nThe banana agricultural industry processes of bananas every year (with planted). As a result of pulling apart the banana bunches from the main stem, there are leftover stems which contain 5% of fiber useful for the manufacture of paper.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::1. The four-carbon acid transported from mesophyll cells may be malate, as above, or aspartate.\n\nBULLET::::2. The three-carbon acid transported back from bundle-sheath cells may be pyruvate, as above, or alanine.\n\nBULLET::::3. The enzyme that catalyses decarboxylation in bundle-sheath cells differs. In maize and sugarcane, the enzyme is NADP-malic enzyme; in millet, it is NAD-malic enzyme; and, in \"Panicum maximum\", it is PEP carboxykinase.\n\nSection::::Kranz leaf anatomy.\n", "Section::::Genomics.\n\nThe \"V. carteri\" genome consists of 138 million base pairs and contains ~14,520 protein-coding genes. Like many other multicellular organisms, this alga has a genome rich in introns; approximately 82% of the genome is non-coding. The \"V. carteri\" genome has a GC content of approximately 55.3%. \n", "An average plantain has about 220 calories and is a good source of potassium and dietary fiber. The sap from the fruit peel, as well as the entire plant, can stain clothing and hands, and can be very difficult to remove.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy.\n", "The pulp of a carob pod is about 48–56% sugars and 18% cellulose and hemicellulose. Some differences in sugar (sucrose) content are seen between wild and cultivated carob trees: ~531 g/kg dry weight in cultivated varieties and ~437 g/kg in wild varieties. On the other hand, fructose and glucose levels do not differ between cultivated carob and wild ones. The embryo (20-25% of the seed's weight) is rich in proteins (50%). The \"testa\", or seed coat (30–33% of the seed's weight), consists of cellulose, lignin, and tannin.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Syrup and drinks.\n", "The dose uptake from ingested material is defined as committed dose, and in the case of the overall effect on the human body of the radioactive content of a banana, it will be the \"committed effective dose\". This is typically given as the net dose over a period of 50 years resulting from the intake of radioactive material.\n", "Animal feed and glue manufacturing\n\nBanana flour is used as animal feed in various parts of the world. In particular, it is used as an ingredient in milk replacers for calves. Dynasty Banana Flour Manufacturing and Trading in the Philippines and Taj Agro Products in India export banana flour worldwide for use in livestock feeds (where it acts as a coagulant) and for use in glue production, mainly plywood glue.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13242	Why do some say that systemd is against the "Unix philosophy"?	In an ELI5 sense, the Unix Philosophy can be summed up by the idea that a piece of software should do one thing and do it well. systemd does lots of things and some argue it does some of them poorly. It's a single piece of software that is meant to be a replacement for many smaller pieces of software and some argue that it's the wrong approach for a system that was based on Unix.	[ "In an August 2014 article published in \"InfoWorld\", Paul Venezia wrote about the systemd controversy and attributed the controversy to violation of the Unix philosophy, and to \"enormous egos who firmly believe they can do no wrong\". The article also characterizes the architecture of systemd as similar to that of svchost.exe, a critical system component in Microsoft Windows with a broad functional scope.\n", "In 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership.\n\nSection::::History.\n\n\"Unix-like\" systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Many proprietary versions, such as Idris (1978), UNOS (1982), Coherent (1983), and UniFlex (1985), aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX.\n", "In 1983 DIAB independently developed the first UNIX-compatible machine, DIAB DS90 based on the Motorola 68000 CPU. D-NIX here made its appearance, based on a UNIX System V license from AT&T. DIAB was however an industrial automation company, and needed a real-time operating system, so the company replaced the AT&T-supplied UNIX kernel with their own in-house developed, yet compatible real-time variant. This kernel was originally a Z80 kernel called \"OS8\".\n", "In a September 2014 ZDNet interview, prominent Linux kernel developer Theodore Ts'o expressed his opinion that the dispute over systemd's centralized design philosophy, more than technical concerns, indicates a dangerous general trend toward uniformizing the Linux ecosystem, alienating and marginalizing parts of the open-source community, and leaving little room for alternative projects. He cited similarities with the attitude he found in the GNOME project toward non-standard configurations. On social media, Ts'o also later compared the attitudes of Sievers and his co-developer, Lennart Poettering, to that of GNOME's developers.\n", "The design of systemd has ignited controversy within the free-software community. Critics regard systemd as overly complex and suffering from continued feature creep, arguing that its architecture violates the Unix philosophy. There is also concern that it forms a system of interlocked dependencies, thereby giving distribution maintainers little choice but to adopt systemd as more user-space software comes to depend on its components.\n", "In March 2014 Eric S. Raymond opined that systemd's design goals were prone to mission creep and software bloat. In April 2014, Linus Torvalds expressed reservations about the attitude of Kay Sievers, a key systemd developer, toward users and bug reports in regard to modifications to the Linux kernel submitted by Sievers. In late April 2014 a campaign to boycott systemd was launched, with a Web site listing various reasons against its adoption.\n", "Section::::Criticism.\n\nIn a 1981 article entitled \"The truth about Unix: \"The user interface is horrid\"\" published in \"Datamation\", Don Norman criticized the design philosophy of Unix for its lack of concern for the user interface. Writing from his background in cognitive science and from the perspective of the then-current philosophy of cognitive engineering, he focused on how end users comprehend and form a personal cognitive model of systems--or, in the case of Unix, fail to understand, with the result that disastrous mistakes (such as losing an hour's worth of work) are all too easy.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cognitive engineering\n", "Around 2001, Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the symbolic price of one dollar. There have been some activities to make Linux POSIX-compliant, with Josey having prepared a list of differences between the POSIX standard and the Linux Standard Base specification, but in August 2005, this project was shut down because of missing interest at the LSB work group.\n\nSection::::Compatibility layers.\n\nSome non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with variable degrees of Unix-like functionality.\n", "For example, at a mid-1980s Usenix conference, many AT&T staff had buttons which read \"System V: Consider it Standard\" and a number of major vendors were promoting products based on System V. On the other hand, System V did not yet have TCP/IP networking built in and BSD 4.2 did; vendors of engineering workstations were nearly all using BSD and posters that said \"4.2 V\" were available.\n\nA group of vendors formed the X/Open standards group in 1984, with the aim of forming compatible open systems. They chose to base their system on Unix.\n", "However Negus believes that in three crucial respects USL's actions – in continuing to release a source code product to its partners, in working to define industry standards such as POSIX, and in making decisions on the direction of Unix based on technical merit not corporate advantage – paved the way for the rise of a Unix-like entity such as the Linux operating system, and that this beneficial historical role has been obscured by the SCO–Linux controversies.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- History of Unix\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- History and Timeline from The Open Group\n", "In a 2012 interview, Slackware's lead Patrick Volkerding expressed reservations about the systemd architecture, stating his belief that its design was contrary to the Unix philosophy of interconnected utilities with narrowly defined functionalities. , Slackware does not support or use systemd, but Volkerding has not ruled out the possibility of switching to it.\n\nIn January 2013, Lennart Poettering attempted to address concerns about systemd in a blog post called \"The Biggest Myths\".\n", "Solaris 2.5.1 was also registered as UNIX 95 compliant on the PReP PowerPC platform in 1996, but the product was withdrawn before more than a few dozen copies had been sold.\n\nSection::::Compliance.:Currently registered UNIX systems.:z/OS.\n\nIBM z/OS 1.2 and higher is registered as UNIX 95 compliant.\n\nz/OS 1.9, released on September 28, 2007, and subsequent releases \"better align\" with UNIX 03.\n\nSection::::Compliance.:Previously registered UNIX systems.\n\nSection::::Compliance.:Previously registered UNIX systems.:Reliant UNIX.\n\nThe last Reliant UNIX versions were registered as UNIX 95 compliant (XPG4 hard branding).\n\nSection::::Compliance.:Previously registered UNIX systems.:Xinuos.\n\nUnixWare 7.1.3 is registered as UNIX 95 compliant.\n", "In 1987, Ted Uhlemann started SDF on an Apple IIe microcomputer running \"Magic City Micro-BBS\" under ProDOS. The system was run as a \"Japanese Anime SIG\" known as the SDF-1. In 1989, Uhlemann and Stephen Jones operated SDF very briefly as a DragCit Citadel BBS before attempting to use an Intel x86 UNIX clone called Coherent.\n", "By 1993, most commercial vendors changed their variants of Unix to be based on System V with many BSD features added. The creation of the Common Open Software Environment (COSE) initiative that year, by the major players in Unix, marked the end of the most notorious phase of the Unix wars, and was followed by the merger of UI and OSF in 1994. The new combined entity retained the OSF name and stopped work on OSF/1. By that time the only vendor using it was Digital Equipment Corporation, which continued its own development, rebranding their product Digital UNIX in early 1995.\n", "The name \"systemd\" adheres to the Unix convention of naming daemons by appending the letter \"d.\" It also plays on the term \"System D\", which refers to a person's ability to adapt quickly and improvise to solve problems.\n\nSection::::Design.\n\nLennart Poettering and Kay Sievers, the software engineers working for Red Hat who initially developed systemd, sought to surpass the efficiency of the init daemon in several ways. They wanted to improve the software framework for expressing dependencies, to allow more processing to be done concurrently or in parallel during system booting, and to reduce the computational overhead of the shell.\n", "In May 2011 Fedora became the first major Linux distribution to enable systemd by default.\n\nBetween October 2013 and February 2014, a long debate among the Debian Technical Committee occurred on the Debian mailing list, discussing which init system to use as the default in Debian 8 \"jessie\", and culminating in a decision in favor of systemd. The debate was widely publicized and in the wake of the decision the debate continues on the Debian mailing list. In February 2014, after Debian's decision was made, Mark Shuttleworth announced on his blog that Ubuntu would follow in implementing systemd.\n", "In the 1980s and 1990s, a variety of SVR4 versions of Unix were available commercially for the x86 PC platform. However, the market for commercial Unix on PCs declined after Linux and BSD became widely available. In late 1994, Eric S. Raymond discontinued his \"PC-clone UNIX Software Buyer's Guide\" on USENET, stating, \"The reason I am dropping this is that I run Linux now, and I no longer find the SVr4 market interesting or significant.\"\n", "These systemslargely commercial in naturehave been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name. Most such systems are commercial derivatives of the System V code base in one form or another, although Apple macOS 10.5 and later is a BSD variant that has been certified, and a few other systems (such as IBM z/OS) earned the trademark through a POSIX compatibility layer and are not otherwise inherently Unix systems. Many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition.\n\nSection::::Categories.:Functional UNIX.\n", "The Unix philosophy, originated by Ken Thompson, is a set of cultural norms and philosophical approaches to minimalist, modular software development. It is based on the experience of leading developers of the Unix operating system. Early Unix developers were important in bringing the concepts of modularity and reusability into software engineering practice, spawning a \"software tools\" movement. Over time, the leading developers of Unix (and programs that ran on it) established a set of cultural norms for developing software; these norms became as important and influential as the technology of Unix itself; this has been termed the \"Unix philosophy.\"\n", "USL continued the publication of an early Unix standard, the System V Interface Definition (SVID). Moreover, the SVID became one of the bases for the more important, vendor-independent POSIX standard for Unix, which System V Release 4 releases also conformed to, as well as the later Single UNIX Specification.\n\nUSL produced many books documenting various aspects of Unix System V. \n\nUSL also provided some training and consulting services for Unix systems.\n\nSection::::Other software work.\n", "SEL had a proprietary operating system called Real Time Monitor (RTM) which, although extremely fast, had limited user interface. It supported a console for command entry, and would support up to 16 users via the ALIM interface. When the SEL 32 systems were introduced, SEL created another operating system called MPX-32 which supported multiprocessing and multiple users. Later, in the early 1980s, SEL adopted the Unix operating system. As \"Gould CSD\" (Computer System Division) then introduced the UTX-32 Unix-based OS that included both BSD and System V characteristics. At a time when there was a \"religious war\" between BSD and System V advocates, Gould developed this \"dual universe\" system that contained nearly all of the features of both BSD 4.2 and System V.4. The user made the selection of which environment would be used by setting a few shell variables. (However, clever programmers soon discovered that by customizing search paths, they could mix utilities, system calls and libraries from both environments.) A special secure version, designated UTX-32S, was one of the first Unix based systems to receive NSA's C2 security level certification.\n", "Starting with the 8th Edition, versions of Research Unix had a close relationship to BSD. This began by using 4.1cBSD as the basis for the 8th Edition. In a Usenet post from 2000, Dennis Ritchie described these later versions of Research Unix as being closer to BSD than they were to UNIX System V, which also included some BSD code:\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n\nIn 2002, Caldera International released Unix V1-7 and 32V as FOSS under a permissive BSD-like software license.\n", "From a purist perspective, SELinux provides a hybrid of concepts and capabilities drawn from mandatory access controls, mandatory integrity controls, role-based access control (RBAC), and type enforcement architecture.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe earliest work directed toward standardizing an approach providing mandatory and discretionary access controls (MAC and DAC) within a UNIX (more precisely, POSIX) computing environment can be attributed to the National Security Agency's Trusted UNIX (TRUSIX) Working Group, which met from 1987 to 1991 and published one Rainbow Book (#020A), and produced a formal model and associated evaluation evidence prototype (#020B) that was ultimately unpublished.\n", "Pieper acknowledged that similar Unix efforts had failed in the past, but said that the presence of Novell's PC presence and marketing experience as well as the interest of Intel would make the difference this time.\n\nIndeed, Pieper had aspirations to be another Bill Gates: \"I want to be in the same position.\"\n", "Next USL engaged in an especially arduous effort into trying to satisfy the requirements of the National Computer Security Center's Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (\"Orange Book\") to the B2 level. This manifested itself in System V Release 4.1 ES (Enhanced Security), which also included generally useful features such as support for dynamic loading of kernel modules.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22571	Why protein interact with other protein ?	More or less, they don’t. They float around until they collide with something that fits. In the phosphorylation of serine it’s almost certainly a two step process. First the protein would randomly bind a serine molecule, then it would randomly bind with an ATP molecule and phosphorylate the serine.	[ "In cases of known protein–protein interactions, other questions arise. Genetic diseases (e.g., cystic fibrosis) are known to be caused by misfolded or mutated proteins, and there is a desire to understand what, if any, anomalous protein–protein interactions a given mutation can cause. In the distant future, proteins may be designed to perform biological functions, and a determination of the potential interactions of such proteins will be essential.\n\nFor any given set of proteins, the following questions may be of interest, from the point of view of technology or natural history:\n\nBULLET::::- Do these proteins bind \"in vivo\"?\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nThe biological roles of most proteins, as characterized by which other macromolecules they interact with, are known at best incompletely. Even those proteins that participate in a well-studied biological process (e.g., the Krebs cycle) may have unexpected interaction partners or functions which are unrelated to that process.\n", "Proteins rarely act alone as their functions tend to be regulated. Many molecular processes within a cell are carried out by molecular machines that are built from a large number of protein components organized by their PPIs. These interactions make up the so-called interactomics of the organism, while aberrant PPIs are the basis of multiple aggregation-related diseases, such as Creutzfeldt–Jakob, Alzheimer's diseases, and may lead to cancer.\n", "Section::::Aggregate localization.:Mammalian cells.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Muscle contraction.\n\nPhysiology of muscle contraction involves several interactions. Myosin filaments act as molecular motors and by binding to actin enables filament sliding. Furthermore, members of the skeletal muscle lipid droplet-associated proteins family associate with other proteins, as activator of adipose triglyceride lipase and its coactivator comparative gene identification-58, to regulate lipolysis in skeletal muscle.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "These protein functions have been recognized:\n\nBULLET::::1. Enzymes, which catalyze all of the reactions of metabolism\n\nBULLET::::2. Structural proteins, such as tubulin, or collagen\n\nBULLET::::3. Regulatory proteins, such as transcription factors or cyclins that regulate the cell cycle\n\nBULLET::::4. Signaling molecules or their receptors such as some hormones and their receptors\n\nBULLET::::5. Defensive proteins, which can include everything from antibodies of the immune system, to toxins (e.g., dendrotoxins of snakes), to proteins that include unusual amino acids like canavanine\n", "If a protein can form a stable well-folded structure on its own (without any other associated protein) \"in vivo\", then the complexes formed by such proteins are termed \"non-obligate protein complexes\". However, some proteins can't be found to create a stable well-folded structure alone, but can be found as a part of a protein complex which stabilizes the constituent proteins. Such protein complexes are called \"obligate protein complexes\".\n\nSection::::Types of protein complexes.:Transient vs permanent/stable protein complex.\n", "The mechanism for unfolding of globular proteins is necessarily general, but somewhat dependent on the amino acid sequence. Long sequences of alternating glycine and alanine have been shown to inhibit substrate unfolding, decreasing the efficiency of proteasomal degradation; this results in the release of partially degraded byproducts, possibly due to the decoupling of the ATP hydrolysis and unfolding steps. Such glycine-alanine repeats are also found in nature, for example in silk fibroin; in particular, certain Epstein–Barr virus gene products bearing this sequence can stall the proteasome, helping the virus propagate by preventing antigen presentation on the major histocompatibility complex.\n", "Elsewhere in the body, uncoupling protein activities are known to affect the temperature in micro-environments. This is believed to affect other proteins' activity in these regions, though work is still required to determine the true consequences of uncoupling-induced temperature gradients within cells.\n\nSection::::In mammals.:Role in ATP concentrations.\n", "There are also examples of proteins that do not decidedly fit either category, such as chaperone proteins.These proteins aid in the folding of other proteins, a seemingly regulatory role. Yet these same proteins also aid in the movement of their chaperoned proteins across membranes, and have now been implicated in immune responses (see Hsp60) and in the apoptotic pathway (see Hsp70).\n", "Protein aggregation can occur due to a variety of causes. There are four classes that these causes can be categorized into, which are detailed below.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Mutations.\n\nMutations that occur in the DNA sequence may or may not affect the amino acid sequence of the protein. When the sequence is affected, a different amino acid may change the interactions between the side chains that affect the folding of the protein. This can lead to exposed hydrophobic regions of the protein that aggregate with the same misfolded/unfolded protein or a different protein.\n", "BULLET::::- Rigid linkers may be formed of large, cyclic proline residues, which can be helpful when highly specific spacing between domains must be maintained.\n\nBULLET::::- In vivo cleavable linkers are unique in that they are designed to allow the release of one or more fused domains under certain reaction conditions, such as a specific pH gradient, or when coming in contact with another biomolecule in the cell.\n\nSection::::Natural occurrence.\n", "Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction. Some proteins, such as insulin, are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant tissues. Others are membrane proteins that act as receptors whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell. Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an effector domain within the cell, which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a conformational change detected by other proteins within the cell.\n", "Section::::Maintaining Long-Term Changes.:Local Protein Synthesis.\n", "Uncoupling proteins play a role in normal physiology, as in cold exposure or hibernation, because the energy is used to generate heat (see thermogenesis) instead of producing ATP. Some plants species use the heat generated by uncoupling proteins for special purposes. Skunk cabbage, for example, keeps the temperature of its spikes as much as 20° higher than the environment, spreading odor and attracting insects that fertilize the flowers. However, other substances, such as 2,4-dinitrophenol and carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone, also serve the same uncoupling function. Salicylic acid is also an uncoupling agent (chiefly in plants) and will decrease production of ATP and increase body temperature if taken in extreme excess. Uncoupling proteins are increased by thyroid hormone, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and leptin.\n", "Section::::Applications and examples of designed proteins.:Design for affinity.\n\nProtein–protein interactions are involved in most biotic processes. Many of the hardest-to-treat diseases, such as Alzheimer's, many forms of cancer (e.g., TP53), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection involve protein–protein interactions. Thus, to treat such diseases, it is desirable to design protein or protein-like therapeutics that bind one of the partners of the interaction and, thus, disrupt the disease-causing interaction. This requires designing protein-therapeutics for \"affinity\" toward its partner.\n", "Protein complex formation sometimes serves to activate or inhibit one or more of the complex members and in this way, protein complex formation can be similar to phosphorylation. Individual proteins can participate in the formation of a variety of different protein complexes. Different complexes perform different functions, and the same complex can perform very different functions that depend on a variety of factors. Some of these factors are:\n\nBULLET::::- Which cellular compartment the complex exists in when it is contained\n\nBULLET::::- Which stage in the cell cycle the complexes are present\n\nBULLET::::- The nutritional status of the cell\n\nBULLET::::- Others\n", "Section::::Protein–DNA interactions.\n\nProtein–DNA interactions occur when a protein binds a molecule of DNA, often to regulate the biological function of DNA, usually the expression of a gene. Among the proteins that bind to DNA are transcription factors that activate or repress gene expression by binding to DNA motifs and histones that form part of the structure of DNA and bind to it less specifically. Also proteins that repair DNA such as uracil-DNA glycosylase interact closely with it.\n", "Section::::The protein degradation process.\n\nSection::::The protein degradation process.:Ubiquitination and targeting.\n", "Section::::The protein degradation process.:Proteolysis.\n", "Section::::Protein–RNA interactions.:Zinc fingers.\n", "Section::::Biochemistry.\n\nSection::::Biochemistry.:Proteins.\n\nWhile all protein molecules begin as simple unbranched chains of amino acids, once completed they assume highly specific three-dimensional shapes. That ultimate shape, known as tertiary structure, is the folded shape that possesses a minimum of free energy. It is a protein's tertiary, folded structure that makes it capable of performing its biological function. In fact, shape changes in proteins are the primary cause of several neurodegenerative diseases, including those caused by prions and amyloid (i.e. mad cow disease, kuru, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease). \n", "Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones. In prokaryotes, multiple types of proteins are involved. The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are therefore largely independent of the base sequence. Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation, phosphorylation and acetylation. These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription. Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group (HMG) proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. Biophysical studies show that these architectural HMG proteins bind, bend and loop DNA to perform its biological functions. These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that form chromosomes.\n", "Section::::In mammals.:Maintaining concentration of reactive oxygen species.\n", "Gene sharing is a fairly common occurrence and is most often seen in enzymes taking on a various subfunctions such as signal transduction and transcriptional regulation. The most noteworthy example of gene sharing is in the how in crystallins, the proteins responsible for transparency and diffraction in the eye lens, has also been found to serve a metabolic enzyme in other tissue.\n\nSection::::Escape from adaptive conflict.\n" ]	[ "proteins incteract wth other proteins.", "Protein can interact with other proteins." ]	[ "They don't interact with other proteins.", "Protein does not interact with other proteins." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "proteins incteract wth other proteins.", "Protein can interact with other proteins." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They don't interact with other proteins.", "Protein does not interact with other proteins." ]
2018-21081	are viruses alive? all viruses inherently carry diseases?	Viruses are not quite alive. They don’t reproduce on their own (that is, outside of a host cell), and they don’t have their own metabolisms (the systems that process nutrients and turn them into chemicals the virus can use). Everything comes from the host cell. But once a virus gets in a host cell, it can start replicating and making more viruses. So viruses are kind of like seeds. Keep them out of the dirt and nothing happens. But they have the potential for life and growth if you put them in the ground and give them some water and nutrients from the soil. Viruses don’t carry disease; they cause it. Diseases are the body’s reaction to having a virus come in and start using your cells as virus-making factories. Not all viruses make our bodies freak out and attack them though. Some viruses have evolved along with humans to use our bodies as breeding grounds without causing any damage to us and we coexist peacefully and don’t even know we’re carrying all those little viruses around inside us. And there are some viruses that cause disease in animals but not humans and vice versa.	[ "BULLET::::- \"White clover mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"White spot syndrome virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"White sucker hepatitis B virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"White-eye coronavirus HKU16\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"White-tufted-ear marmoset simian foamy virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly associated Guatemala alphasatellite 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly associated Guatemala alphasatellite 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly associated Puerto Rico alphasatellite 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly-associated begomovirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly-associated begomovirus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly-associated begomovirus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly-associated begomovirus 4\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly-associated begomovirus 6\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitefly-associated begomovirus 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whitewater Arroyo mammarenavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wigeon coronavirus HKU20\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Vitis latent virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild cucumber mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild melon banding virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild onion symptomless virus\"\n", "Section::::Microbiology.:Dormant and latent infections.\n\nSome viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses.\n\nSection::::Microbiology.:Host range.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Passion fruit mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Passion fruit woodiness virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Passion fruit yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Passionfruit leaf distortion virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Passionfruit severe leaf distortion virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pasteurella virus F108\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patois orthobunyavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pavonia mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pavonia yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea early-browning virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea enation mosaic virus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea enation mosaic virus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea green mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea leaf distortion virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea mild mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea necrotic yellow dwarf alphasatellite 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea necrotic yellow dwarf alphasatellite 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea necrotic yellow dwarf virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pea seed-borne mosaic virus\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Senecio yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Senegalvirus marseillevirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Senna leaf curl virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Seoul orthohantavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sepik virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Serinus canaria polyomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Serra do Navio mammarenavirus \"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Serra do Navio orthobunyavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Serratia virus BF\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Serratia virus CHI14\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Serratia virus IME250\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Serratia virus MAM1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sesbania mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sewage derived gemycircularvirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sewage derived gemycircularvirus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sewage derived gemycircularvirus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sewage derived gemycircularvirus 4\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sewage derived gemycircularvirus 5\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sewage derived gemygorvirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sewage derived gemykibivirus 1\"\n", "The evolution of viruses, which often occurs in concert with the evolution of their hosts, is studied in the field of viral evolution.\n\nWhile viruses reproduce and evolve, they do not engage in metabolism, do not move, and depend on a host cell for reproduction. The often-debated question of whether they are alive or not is a matter of definition that does not affect the biological reality of viruses.\n\nSection::::Viral diseases and host defenses.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Vernonia yellow vein virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Verticillium dahliae chrysovirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vesicular exanthema of swine virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespertilionid gammaherpesvirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus Aphrodite1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus CTXphi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus Ceto\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus JSF10\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus K139\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus KSF1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus KVP40\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus Kappa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus MAR\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus MAR10\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus SSP002\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus Thalassa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VC8\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VCY\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VFJ\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VGJ\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VHML\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VP2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VP4B\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VP5\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Triticum aestivum WIS2 virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Triticum mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Triumfetta yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trivittatus orthobunyavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trocara virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tropical soda apple mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tsukamurella virus TIN2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tsukamurella virus TIN3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tsukamurella virus TIN4\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber aestivum betaendornavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuber aestivum virus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuberose mild mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuberose mild mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuhoko pararubulavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuhoko pararubulavirus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuhoko pararubulavirus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tula orthohantavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tulare apple mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tulip breaking virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tulip mild mottle mosaic ophiovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tulip mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tulip virus X\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tunisvirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tupaia narmovirus\"\n", "Viruses are important pathogens of livestock. Diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease and bluetongue are caused by viruses. Companion animals such as cats, dogs, and horses, if not vaccinated, are susceptible to serious viral infections. Canine parvovirus is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in pups. Like all invertebrates, the honey bee is susceptible to many viral infections. Most viruses co-exist harmlessly in their host and cause no signs or symptoms of disease.\n\nSection::::Infection in other species.:Plant viruses.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lycianthes yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lycopersicon esculentum ToRTL1 virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lycoris mild mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lygus lineolaris virus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lymantria dispar iflavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lymantria dispar multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lymantria xylina nucleopolyhedrovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lymphocystis disease virus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lymphocystis disease virus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lymphocystis disease virus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lymphocytic choriomeningitis mammarenavirus\"\n\nSection::::M.\n\nBULLET::::- \"MPoko orthobunyavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macaca fascicularis polyomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macaca mulatta polyomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine betaherpesvirus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine betaherpesvirus 8\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine betaherpesvirus 9\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine gammaherpesvirus 10\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine gammaherpesvirus 11\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine gammaherpesvirus 12\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macacine gammaherpesvirus 4\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Antheraea pernyi nucleopolyhedrovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antheraea semotivirus Tamy\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthoxanthum latent blanching virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthriscus yellows virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthurium mosaic-associated chrysovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anticarsia gemmatalis multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aotine betaherpesvirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apanteles crassicornis bracovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apanteles fumiferanae bracovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphid lethal paralysis virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphodius tasmaniae entomopoxvirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apium virus Y\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aplysia abyssovirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apoi virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apple chlorotic leaf spot virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apple dimple fruit viroid\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apple latent spherical virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apple mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apple scar skin viroid\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apple stem grooving virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apple stem pitting virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apricot latent ringspot virus\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tomato aspermy virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato black ring virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato blistering mosaic tymovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato bright yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato bright yellow mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato brown rugose fruit virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato bushy stunt virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato chino La Paz virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato chlorosis virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato chlorotic dwarf viroid\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato chlorotic leaf distortion virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato chlorotic mottle Guyane virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato chlorotic mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato chlorotic spot tospovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato common mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato curly stunt virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato dwarf leaf virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tomato enation leaf curl virus\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cardamom bushy dwarf alphasatellite\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardamom bushy dwarf virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardamom mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardiochiles nigriceps bracovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardioderma cor polyomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardiospermum yellow leaf curl betasatellite\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardiovirus A\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardiovirus B\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cardiovirus C\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carey Island virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caribou associated gemykrogvirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation Italian ringspot virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation cryptic virus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation etched ring virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation latent virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation necrotic fleck virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation ringspot virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnation vein mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnivore amdoparvovirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnivore amdoparvovirus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnivore amdoparvovirus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnivore amdoparvovirus 4\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Raspberry bushy dwarf virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Raspberry leaf blotch emaravirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Raspberry leaf mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Raspberry ringspot virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rat associated gemycircularvirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rat associated porprismacovirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rattail cactus necrosis-associated virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rattus norvegicus polyomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rattus norvegicus polyomavirus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Raven circovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Recovirus A\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red clover cryptic virus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red clover mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red clover necrotic mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red clover vein mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Redbud yellow ringspot-associated emaravirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Redspotted grouper nervous necrosis virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rehmannia mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reptile sunshinevirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reptilian ferlavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reptilian orthoreovirus\"\n", "The viruses of vertebrates are informally distinguished between those that primarily cause infections of humans and those that infect other animals. The two fields of study are called medical (or clinical) virology and veterinary virology respectively. Although not the first viruses to be discovered and characterised, those that cause infections of humans are the most studied. Different viruses can infect all the organs and tissues of the body and the outcomes range from mild or no symptoms, to life-threatening diseases. Humans cannot be infected by plant or insect viruses, but they are susceptible to infections with viruses from other vertebrates. These are called viral zoonoses or zoonotic infections. Examples include, rabies, yellow fever and pappataci fever.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Olive latent virus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Olive latent virus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Olive latent virus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Olive leaf yellowing-associated virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Olive mild mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oliveros mammarenavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Omegapapillomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Omikronpapillomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onion yellow dwarf virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ononis yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onyong-nyong virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operophtera brumata entomopoxvirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Operophtera brumata nucleopolyhedrovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophiostoma mitovirus 3a\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophiostoma mitovirus 4\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophiostoma mitovirus 5\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophiostoma mitovirus 6\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophiostoma partitivirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Opium poppy mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Opuntia chlorotic ringspot virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Opuntia virus X\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orchid fleck dichorhavirus\"\n", "The human virome is a part of our bodies and will not always cause harm. Many latent and asymptomatic viruses are present in the human body all the time. Viruses infect all life forms; therefore the bacterial, plant, and animal cells and material in our gut also carry viruses. When viruses cause harm by infecting the cells in the body, a symptomatic disease may develop. Contrary to common belief, harmful viruses may be in the minority compared to benign viruses in the human body. It is much harder to identify viruses than it is to identify bacteria, therefore our understanding of benign viruses in the human body is very rudimentary.\n", "Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, influenza, chickenpox, and cold sores. Many serious diseases such as rabies, Ebola virus disease, AIDS (HIV), avian influenza, and SARS are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of virulence. Other diseases are under investigation to discover if they have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome. There is controversy over whether the bornavirus, previously thought to cause neurological diseases in horses, could be responsible for psychiatric illnesses in humans.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lettuce big-vein associated varicosavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce chlorosis virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce infectious yellows virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce necrotic leaf curl virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce necrotic yellows cytorhabdovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce ring necrosis ophiovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce speckles mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce virus X\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lettuce yellow mottle cytorhabdovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leucania separata nucleopolyhedrovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus 1A4\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus LN03\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus LN04\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus LN12\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus LN25\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus LN34\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus LN6B\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus LNTR3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus Lmd1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus Ln8\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus Ln9\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leuconostoc virus P793\"\n", "Viruses are by far the most abundant biological entities on Earth and they outnumber all the others put together. They infect all types of cellular life including animals, plants, bacteria and fungi. Different types of viruses can infect only a limited range of hosts and many are species-specific. Some, such as smallpox virus for example, can infect only one species—in this case humans, and are said to have a narrow host range. Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range. The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals, and most viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans. The host range of some bacteriophages is limited to a single strain of bacteria and they can be used to trace the source of outbreaks of infections by a method called phage typing.\n", "BULLET::::- Class \"Insthoviricetes\"\n\nBULLET::::- Order \"Articulavirales\"\n\nBULLET::::- Family \"Amnoonviridae\"—includes Taastrup virus\n\nBULLET::::- Family \"Orthomyxoviridae\"—includes Influenza viruses\n\nBULLET::::- Unassigned genera:\n\nBULLET::::- Genus \"Deltavirus\" — includes Hepatitis D virus\n\nSection::::Host range.\n\nViruses of the families \"Arenaviridae\", \"Orthomyxoviridae\", \"Paramyxoviridae\", and \"Pneumoviridae\" are able to infect vertebrates. Viruses of the families \"Bunyaviridae\" and \"Rhabdoviridae\" are able to infect vertebrates, arthropods, and plants. Viruses of the genus \"Tenuivirus\" only infect plants. A few viruses known to infect humans include Marburg virus, Ebola, measles, mumps, rabies, and influenza.\n\nSection::::Genome.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cactus mild mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cactus virus 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cactus virus X\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cadicivirus A\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cadicivirus B\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caenorhabditis elegans Cer1 virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caenorhabditis elegans Cer13 virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cafeteria roenbergensis virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cafeteriavirus-dependent mavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cajanus cajan Panzee virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caladenia virus A\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calanthe mild mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cali mammarenavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calibrachoa mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"California encephalitis orthobunyavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"California reptarenavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caligus caligrhavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calla lily chlorotic spot orthotospovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calla lily latent virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callistephus mottle virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callitrichine gammaherpesvirus 3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Calopogonium yellow vein virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Camel associated drosmacovirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Camel associated drosmacovirus2\"\n", "Since Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1892 article describing a non-bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants, and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898, about 5,000 virus species have been described in detail, although there are millions of types. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity. The study of viruses is known as virology, a sub-speciality of microbiology.\n", "There is one additional virus (Hepatitis D virus) which has not yet been assigned to a family but is clearly distinct from the other families infecting humans.\n\nThere is one family and one genus of viruses known to infect humans that have not been associated with disease: the family \"Anelloviridae\" and the genus \"Dependovirus\". Both of these taxa are non-enveloped single-stranded DNA viruses.\n\nSection::::Structural characteristics.:Pragmatic rules.\n\nAmong the human infecting families there are a number of rules that may assist physicians and medical microbiologists/virologists.\n", "As microbiology, molecular biology and virology developed, non-cellular reproducing agents were discovered, such as viruses and viroids. Whether these are considered alive has been a matter of debate; viruses lack characteristics of life such as cell membranes, metabolism and the ability to grow or respond to their environments. Viruses can still be classed into \"species\" based on their biology and genetics, but many aspects of such a classification remain controversial.\n\nIn May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VP585\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VP882\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus ValKK3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus Vf33\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VfO3K6\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus VpV262\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus fs1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus fs2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus nt1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus pTD1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus pVp1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vibrio virus phi3\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vicia cryptic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vicia cryptic virus M\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vicia faba alphaendornavirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vicugna pacos polyomavirus 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vigna yellow mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vinca leaf curl virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Viper retrovirus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Visna-maedi virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Voandzeia necrotic mosaic virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Volepox virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Volvox carteri Lueckenbuesser virus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Volvox carteri Osser virus\"\n" ]	[ "Viruses inherently carry disease." ]	[ "Viruses don't carry disease, they cause it." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Viruses inherently carry disease." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Viruses don't carry disease, they cause it." ]
2018-00861	Why do people snore when they're sleeping but not while they're awake?	My uneducated guess would be that it probably has something to do with the relaxation of facial/throat muscles while sleeping, the breathing pattern changing, and the different postures people sleep in as opposed to waking time	[ "Set point of ventilation is different in wakefulness and sleep. pCO2 is higher and ventilation is lower in sleep. Sleep onset in normal subjects is not immediate, but oscillates between arousal, stage I and II sleep before steady NREM sleep is obtained. So falling asleep results in decreased ventilation and a higher pCO2, above the wakefulness set point. On wakefulness, this constitutes an error signal which provokes hyperventilation until the wakefulness set point is reached. When the subject falls asleep, ventilation decreases and pCO2 rises, resulting in hypoventilation or even apnea. These oscillations continue until steady state sleep is obtained. The medulla oblongata controls our respiration.\n", "As the muscle tone of the body ordinarily relaxes during sleep, and the airway at the throat is composed of walls of soft tissue, which can collapse, it is not surprising that breathing can be obstructed during sleep. Although a minor degree of OSA is considered to be within the bounds of normal sleep, and many individuals experience episodes of OSA at some point in life, a small percentage of people have chronic, severe OSA.\n", "There are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, is much more rare and has to do with the part of the brain that regulates breathing. The signal from the brain to the lungs is disrupted, resulting in pauses in breathing. \n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative medicine.\n\nAmong the natural remedies are exercises to increase the muscle tone of the upper airway, and one medical practitioner noting anecdotally that professional singers seldom snore, but there have been no medical studies to fully link the two.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Airway resistance increases by about 230% during NREM sleep. Elastic and flow resistive properties of the lung do not change during NREM sleep. The increase in resistance comes primarily from the upper airway in the retroepiglottic region. Tonic activity of the pharyngeal dilator muscles of the upper airway decreases during the NREM sleep, contributing to the increased resistance, which is reflected in increased esophageal pressure swings during sleep. The other ventilatory muscles compensate for the increased resistance, and so the airflow decreases much less than the increase in resistance.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Arterial blood gases.\n", "Polysomnography in diagnosing OSA characterizes the pauses in breathing. As in central apnea, pauses are followed by a relative decrease in blood oxygen and an increase in the blood carbon dioxide. Whereas in central sleep apnea the body's motions of breathing stop, in OSA the chest not only continues to make the movements of inhalation, but the movements typically become even more pronounced. Monitors for airflow at the nose and mouth demonstrate that efforts to breathe are not only present but that they are often exaggerated. The chest muscles and diaphragm contract and the entire body may thrash and struggle.\n", "While sleeping, a normal individual is \"at rest\" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant. Any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide (even if tiny) strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe.\n", "The term \"sleep-disordered breathing\" is commonly used in the U.S. to describe the full range of breathing problems during sleep in which not enough air reaches the lungs (hypopnea and apnea). Sleep-disordered breathing is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, high blood pressure, arrhythmias, diabetes, and sleep deprived driving accidents. When high blood pressure is caused by OSA, it is distinctive in that, unlike most cases of high blood pressure (so-called essential hypertension), the readings do \"not\" drop significantly when the individual is sleeping. Stroke is associated with obstructive sleep apnea.\n", "Section::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Effect of arousals.\n\nArousals cause return of airway resistance and airflow to near awake values. Refer arousals in NREM sleep.\n\nSection::::Sleep and Breathing in High Altitudes.\n", "In a study of 19 healthy adults, the minute ventilation in NREM sleep was 7.18 ± 0.39(SEM) liters/minute compared to 7.66 ± 0.34 liters/minute when awake.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions.\n\nRib cage contribution to ventilation increases during NREM sleep, mostly by lateral movement, and is detected by an increase in EMG amplitude during breathing. Diaphragm activity is little increased or unchanged and abdominal muscle activity is slightly increased during these sleep stages.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Upper airway resistance.\n", "In pure central sleep apnea or Cheyne–Stokes respiration, the brain's respiratory control centers are imbalanced during sleep. Blood levels of carbon dioxide, and the neurological feedback mechanism that monitors them, do not react quickly enough to maintain an even respiratory rate, with the entire system cycling between apnea and hyperpnea, even during wakefulness. The sleeper stops breathing and then starts again. There is no effort made to breathe during the pause in breathing: there are no chest movements and no struggling. After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster (hyperpnea) for a period of time, a compensatory mechanism to blow off retained waste gases and absorb more oxygen.\n", "Section::::History.:The Walsingham Union workhouse.\n", "Snoring is a condition characterized by noisy breathing during sleep. Usually, any medical condition where the airway is blocked during sleeping, like obstructive sleep apnea, may give rise to snoring. Snoring, when not associated with an obstructive phenomenon is known as primary snoring. Apart from the specific condition of obstructive sleep apnea, other causes of snoring include alcohol intake prior to sleeping, stuffy nose, sinusitis, obesity, long tongue or uvula, large tonsil or adenoid, smaller lower jaw, deviated nasal septum, asthma, smoking and sleeping on one's back. Primary snoring is also known as \"simple\" or \"benign\" snoring, and is not associated with sleep apnea.\n", "In a study of 19 healthy adults, the minute ventilation in REM sleep was 6.46 +/- 0.29(SEM) liters/minute compared to 7.66 +/- 0.34 liters/minute when awake.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Sleep apnea.\n", "Snoring is a common finding in people with this syndrome. Snoring is the turbulent sound of air moving through the back of the mouth, nose, and throat. Although not everyone who snores is experiencing difficulty breathing, snoring in combination with other risk factors has been found to be highly predictive of OSA. The loudness of the snoring is not indicative of the severity of obstruction, however. If the upper airways are tremendously obstructed, there may not be enough air movement to make much sound. Even the loudest snoring does not mean that an individual has sleep apnea syndrome. The sign that is most suggestive of sleep apneas occurs when snoring \"stops\".\n", "When breathing is paused, carbon dioxide builds up in the bloodstream. Chemoreceptors in the blood stream note the high carbon dioxide levels. The brain is signaled to awaken the person, which clears the airway and allows breathing to resume. Breathing normally will restore oxygen levels and the person will fall asleep again. This carbon dioxide build-up may be due to the decrease of output of the brainstem regulating the chest wall or pharyngeal muscles, which causes the pharynx to collapse. People with sleep apnea experience reduced or no slow-wave sleep and spend less time in REM sleep.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Sleep-disordered breathing (abnormal sleep and breathing or sleep-related breathing disorders).\n\nSection::::Sleep-disordered breathing (abnormal sleep and breathing or sleep-related breathing disorders).:Primary snoring.\n", "In a healthy person during sleep, breathing is regular so oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant: After exhalation, the blood level of oxygen decreases and that of carbon dioxide increases. Exchange of gases with a lungful of fresh air is necessary to replenish oxygen and rid the bloodstream of built-up carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in the body (called chemoreceptors) send nerve impulses to the brain, which then signals for reflexive opening of the larynx (enlarging the opening between the vocal cords) and movements of the rib cage muscles and diaphragm. These muscles expand the thorax (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it. In the absence of central apnea, any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide, even if small, strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe; the respiratory drive is so strong that even conscious efforts to hold one's breath do not overcome it.\n", "Upper airway resistance is expected to be highest during REM sleep because of atonia of the pharyngeal dilator muscles and partial airway collapse. Many studies have shown this, but not all. Some have shown unchanged airway resistance during REM sleep, others have shown it to increase to NREM levels.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Arterial blood gases.\n\nHypoxemia due to hypoventilation is noted in REM sleep but this is less well studied than NREM sleep. These changes are equal to or greater than NREM sleep\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Pulmonary arterial pressure.\n\nPulmonary arterial pressure fluctuates with respiration and rises during REM sleep.\n", "However, because the diaphragm is largely driven by the autonomous system, it is relatively spared of non-REM inhibition. As such, the suction pressures it generates stay the same. This narrows the upper airway during sleep, increasing resistance and making airflow through the upper airway turbulent and noisy. For example, one way to determine whether a person is sleeping is to listen to their breathing - once the person falls asleep, their breathing becomes noticeably louder. Not surprisingly, the increased tendency of the upper airway to collapse during breathing in sleep can lead to snoring, a vibration of the tissues in the upper airway. This problem is exacerbated in overweight people when sleeping on the back, as extra fat tissue may weigh down on the airway, closing it. This can lead to sleep apnea.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleeping on one's back, which may result in the tongue dropping to the back of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Statistics on snoring are often contradictory, but at least 30% of adults and perhaps as many as 50% of people in some demographics snore. One survey of 5,713 American residents identified habitual snoring in 24% of men and 13.8% of women, rising to 60% of men and 40% of women aged 60 to 65 years; this suggests an increased susceptibility to snoring with age.\n", "Section::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Ventilation.\n\nBreathing is remarkably regular, both in amplitude and frequency in steady NREM sleep. Steady NREM sleep has the lowest indices of variability of all sleep stages. Minute ventilation decreases by 13% in steady stage II sleep and by 15% in steady slow wave sleep (Stage III and Stage IV sleep). Mean inspiratory flow is decreased but inspiratory duration and respiratory cycle duration are unchanged, resulting in an overall decreased tidal volume.\n", "BULLET::::- Increased soft tissue around the airway (sometimes due to obesity)\n\nBULLET::::- Structural features that give rise to a narrowed airway.\n\nSome adults with OSA are obese. Obese adults show an increase in pharyngeal tissue which cause respiratory obstruction during sleep. Adults with normal body mass indices (BMIs) often have decreased muscle tone causing airway collapse and sleep apnea. Sleeping on the supine position is also a risk factor for OSA. The supine sleeping position generates mandibular retraction and tongue collapse which constitutes an anatomical basis for respiratory obstruction during sleep.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01684	How do our bodies acclimate to hot/cold temperatures?	Our brains have a "thermostat" (this is one of the jobs of the hypothalamus) to maintain a constant body temperature. It controls heating/cooling functions like sweating, shivering, and keeping blood circulation closer to our core to conserve heat or circulating it to our extremities to cool off by dissipating heat. As other posters have mentioned, humans can generate some heat by increasing metabolism in specialized fat cells (brown adipose tissue), but it is not the main way we adult humans regulate our body temperature (part of the reason the paper u/Salted_One linked to is a big deal is that we didn't know adult humans used that mechanism until recently – we thought it was just lots of non-human animals and human infants). This thermostat's set point can be changed. It's most obvious when you have a fever and shiver even though your temperature is high.	[ "Section::::Controls of variables.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Core temperature.\n\nMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.\n", "1. The majority of studies have actually been examining developmental acclimation. That is, rather than acclimating an adult individual and testing, they suggest that developmental switches triggered by particular temperatures result in a different mechanism of acclimation. More recently, it has been found that adult acclimation and developmental acclimation lead to support for different hypotheses.\n\n2. Most studies have included stressful temperatures. Acclimation to those temperatures may decrease fitness in an individual.\n", "Section::::Control system.\n\nThe core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus. As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).\n\nSection::::In hot conditions.\n", "Animals acclimatize in many ways. Sheep grow very thick wool in cold, damp climates. Fish are able to adjust only gradually to changes in water temperature and quality. Tropical fish sold at pet stores are often kept in acclimatization bags until this process is complete. Lowe & Vance (1995) were able to show that lizards acclimated to warm temperatures could maintain a higher running speed at warmer temperatures than lizards that were not acclimated to warm conditions.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Animals.:Humans.\n", "The environment can have major influences on human physiology. Environmental effects on human physiology are numerous; one of the most carefully studied effects is the alterations in thermoregulation in the body due to outside stresses. This is necessary because in order for enzymes to function, blood to flow, and for various body organs to operate, temperature must remain at consistent, balanced levels.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Humans.:Thermoregulation.\n\nTo achieve this, the body alters three main things to achieve a constant, normal body temperature:\n\nBULLET::::- Heat transfer to the epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of evaporation\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of heat production\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Biochemical.\n", "There are many factors which influence the strength of the response. People who live or regularly work in cold environments show an increased response. Through acclimatization tropical residents can develop an increased response which is indistinguishable from arctic residents. The role of genetic factors is not clear because it is difficult to differentiate between adaptation and acclimatization.\n", "In order to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions, there are several strategies organisms use to acclimate. In response to changes in temperature, organisms can change the biochemistry of cell membranes making them more fluid in cold temperatures and less fluid in warm temperatures by increasing the number of membrane proteins. Organisms may also express specific proteins called heat shock proteins that may act as molecular chaperones and help the cell maintain function under periods of extreme stress. It has been shown that organisms which are acclimated to high or low temperatures display relatively high resting levels of heat shock proteins so that when they are exposed to even more extreme temperatures the proteins are readily available. Expression of heat shock proteins and regulation of membrane fluidity are just two of many biochemical methods organisms use to acclimate to novel environments.\n", "Thermoregulation, in combination with seasonal acclimation, describes the major mechanisms of how ectotherms (\"T. carnifex\" included) cope with the changing temperatures existing in their environments. This regulation is most often achieved through behavioral thermoregulation. They are thermoconformers, which means they will acclimate to their surrounding environmental temperatures. Because of this, there is an increase in the time allotted for thermoregulation.\n\nSection::::Thermoregulation and metabolism.:Development and morphological changes and thermoregulation.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.\n\nWhen humans are exposed to certain climates for extended periods of time, physiological changes occur to help the individual adapt to hot or cold climates. This helps the body conserve energy.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Cold.\n", "As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body’s core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body’s “thermostat.” This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature.\n", "Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atwater system\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical energy\n\nBULLET::::- Food chain\n\nBULLET::::- Food composition\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by food energy intake\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition facts label\n\nBULLET::::- Table of food nutrients\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Morphological.\n\nOrganisms are able to change several characteristics relating to their morphology in order to maintain performance in novel environments. For example, birds often increase their organ size to increase their metabolism. This can take the form of an increase in the mass of nutritional organs or heat-producing organs, like the pectorals (with the latter being more consistent across species).\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "Section::::Adaptive immune system.:Immunological memory.\n\nWhen B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This is \"adaptive\" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.\n\nSection::::Physiological regulation.\n", "Origins of heat and cold adaptations can be explained by climatic adaptation. This can be traced back to the body’s responses to differing environments immediately after leaving Africa, such as extreme cold, humid heat, desert conditions, and high altitudes. Ambient air temperature affects how much energy investment the human body must make. The temperature that requires the least amount of energy investment is 21 °C (69.8 °F). The body controls its temperature through the hypothalamus. Thermoreceptors in the skin send signals to the hypothalamus, which indicate when vasodilation and vasoconstriction should occur.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Cold.\n", "Another study examined the functional efficacy of immune cells in participants scoring low and high on hardiness. This study examined in vitro proliferation of lymphocytes in response to invading microorganisms (antigens and mitogens), a process believed to mimic the series of events that occurs in vivo following stimulation by invading microorganisms. Results showed that participants scoring high on hardiness had significantly higher mean antigen- and mitogen-induced proliferative responses.\n", "Section::::Thermoregulation and metabolism.:Description of adaptations involved in temperature regulation.:Regulation of metabolism related to temperature regulation.\n", "Thermoregulation in humans\n\nAs in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n", "Acclimatization or acclimatisation (also called acclimation or acclimatation) is the process in which an individual organism adjusts to a change in its environment (such as a change in altitude, temperature, humidity, photoperiod, or pH), allowing it to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions. Acclimatization occurs in a short period of time (hours to weeks), and within the organism's lifetime (compared to adaptation, which is a development that takes place over many generations). This may be a discrete occurrence (for example, when mountaineers acclimate to high altitude over hours or days) or may instead represent part of a periodic cycle, such as a mammal shedding heavy winter fur in favor of a lighter summer coat. Organisms can adjust their morphological, behavioral, physical, and/or biochemical traits in response to changes in their environment. While the capacity to acclimate to novel environments has been well documented in thousands of species, researchers still know very little about how and why organisms acclimate the way that they do.\n", "The North American red squirrel (\"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\") has experienced an increase in average temperature over this last decade of almost 2 °C. This increase in temperature has caused an increase in abundance of white spruce cones, the main food source for winter and spring reproduction. In response, the mean lifetime parturition date of this species has advanced by 18 days. Food abundance showed a significant effect on the breeding date with individual females, indicating a high amount of phenotypic plasticity in this trait.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acclimation\n\nBULLET::::- Allometric engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Baldwin effect\n\nBULLET::::- Beneficial acclimation hypothesis\n\nBULLET::::- Developmental biology\n", "Section::::Thermoregulation and metabolism.:Description of adaptations involved in temperature regulation.:Physiological changes to blood flow or respiration that alter heat exchange.\n", "The neural activation mechanisms involved in the regulation of body temperature are largely undefined. It is known that sympathetic pathways are involved in increasing heat production and reducing heat loss and are activated by neurons in the rostal medullary raphe (RMR). These neurons were identified as playing an important role in the elevation of body temperature during both cold exposure and induced fever by observation that hyperpolarization prior to exposure to these conditions inhibits the elevation of body temperature in response.\n\nSection::::Role in thermoregulation.:Febrile response.\n", "BULLET::::2. Increasing body size to more easily maintain core body temperature (warm-blooded animals in cold climates tend to be larger than similar species in warmer climates (see Bergmann's Rule))\n\nBULLET::::3. Having the ability to store energy as fat for metabolism\n\nBULLET::::4. Have shortened extremities\n\nBULLET::::5. Have countercurrent blood flow in extremities – this is where the warm arterial blood travelling to the limb passes the cooler venous blood from the limb and heat is exchanged warming the venous blood and cooling the arterial (e.g., Arctic wolf or penguins)\n", "Section::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to fever.\n\nFever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.\n\nSection::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to biofeedback.\n\nSome monks are known to practice Tummo, biofeedback meditation techniques, that allow them to raise their body temperatures substantially.\n\nSection::::Low body temperature increases lifespan.\n", "Dormancy of various kinds is expressed in white spruce (Romberger 1963). White spruce, like many woody plants in temperate and cooler regions, requires exposure to low temperature for a period of weeks before it can resume normal growth and development. This “chilling requirement” for white spruce is satisfied by uninterrupted exposure to temperatures below 7 °C for 4 to 8 weeks, depending on physiological condition (Nienstaedt 1966, 1967).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10723	How do cordyceps supplements work?	> How exactly is my body responding to them? Most likely by being slightly poorer. Unless a doctor says you need very specific supplements because your body has a hard time absorbing or creating certain nutrients, or because your lifestyle or location make it difficult to acquire them, you get all the nutrients you need through a balanced diet, and the supplements just wind up in your urine as excess. It's especially curious that they are referred to as cordyceps "supplements", as opposed to say, fungi-based vitamin whatever supplements, or simply medicinal fungi. To call them cordyceps supplements is just odd, as I'd be very surprised to learn that these parasitic fungi are a class of nutrient that we can have a shortage of. It may not be doing you any harm, but it's probably not doing you enough good to justify the cost either. You are very likely being suckered.	[ "The latex also contains a number of chemicals, including taspine. Oligomeric proanthocyanidins, another kind of chemical contained in the latex, have been investigated for the treatment of HIV-associated diarrhea under the name crofelemer. In January 2013, crofelemer, under the trade name Mytesi, was approved by the FDA for the treatment of non-infectious diarrhea in HIV+ patients.\n", "Section::::Related algorithms.\n", "A variety of pharmacological effects of extracts or chemical compounds isolated from different species of \"Cistanche\" have been reported in \"in vitro\" studies or in rodent models. The chemical constituents which may be responsible for these effects include acteoside, echinacoside, and cistanosides (A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H). These effects have not been demonstrated in humans.\n\nSome of these effects include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cistanche tubulosa\" extract \"exhibits hypocholesterolemic activity in diet-induced hypercholesterolemia mice.\"\n", "It was initially developed by Napo Pharmaceuticals, which licensed it to Glenmark Pharmaceuticals in 140 emerging markets and to Salix Pharmaceuticals in the US, EU and some other markets. A Phase III clinical trial for diarrhoea in HIV patients was completed in 2012, and the drug was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 31 December 2012.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "In 2006, The Lacassane Company became the parent company of \"Louisiana Native Seed Company\", that provides ecospecies such as Little Bluestem, Brownseed Paspalum, Florida Paspalum, Switchgrass, Partridge Pea, and Eastern Gamagrass and has consultants with experience in Agricultural science and botany. The Louisiana Native Seed Company is listed as a provider for the United States Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service.\n\nSection::::Current.:The Lacassane Club.\n", "Section::::Medical uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Drinks: People made a tea out of the leaves or drink the sweet water in which the seeds have been boiled as a beverage.\n\nBULLET::::- Medicine: \"C. edulis\" can regulate gastric secretion. A study showed that the consumption of the plant enhances the production of erythrocytes and is therefore used as a remedy for anemia.\n\nSection::::Use.:Forage.\n", "Section::::Product.\n", "Kaolin and zeolite activate the coagulation cascade, and have been used as the active component of hemostatic dressings (for example, in QuikClot).\n\nSection::::Types.:Inorganic.:Styptics.\n\nStyptics cause hemostasis by contracting blood vessels.\n", "In 2012, Crioestaminal received its first patent for a technology based on cord blood stem cells. The invention is a formulation containing a gel and cord blood stem cells that can be used to treat chronic wounds in diabetic patients. The investigation was led by Lino Ferreira, a scientist from the Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular da Universidade de Coimbra.\n", "The substance can inhibit the resorption of other drugs, as well as fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and folate, from the gut. Resulting lower blood levels can be clinically problematic with immunosuppressant and antiepileptic drugs.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n\nAdverse effects include gastrointestinal problems such as constipation, as well as vitamin and calcium deficiency. Vitamin K deficiency sometimes causes gastrointestinal bleeding.\n\nSection::::Chemistry and mechanism of action.\n", "BULLET::::- : bromelain (juice). Now EC 3.4.22.32 (stem bromelain) and EC 3.4.22.33 (fruit bromelain)\n\nBULLET::::- : chymopapain\n\nBULLET::::- : asclepain\n\nBULLET::::- : clostripain\n\nBULLET::::- : yeast proteinase B. Now EC 3.4.21.48, cerevisin\n\nBULLET::::- : streptopain\n\nBULLET::::- : insulinase. Now EC 3.4.24.56, insulysin\n\nBULLET::::- : gamma-glutamyl hydrolase. Now EC 3.4.19.9, γ-glutamyl hydrolase\n\nBULLET::::- : Deleted entry: staphylococcal cysteine proteinase\n\nBULLET::::- : actinidain\n\nBULLET::::- : cathepsin L\n\nBULLET::::- : cathepsin H\n\nBULLET::::- : Transferred entry: calpain. Now EC 3.4.22.53, calpain-2\n\nBULLET::::- : Transferred entry: prolyl endopeptidase (thiol-dependent). Now EC 3.4.21.26, prolyl oligopeptidase\n\nBULLET::::- : Transferred entry: endo-oligopeptidase. Now EC 3.4.24.15, thimet oligopeptidase\n", "In the United States, DHEA is sold as an over-the-counter supplement, and medication, called prasterone.\n\nSection::::Biological function.\n\nSection::::Biological function.:As an androgen.\n", "Conjugated linoleic acid\n\nConjugated linoleic acids (CLA) are a family of at least 28 isomers of linoleic acid found mostly in the meat and dairy products derived from ruminants. CLAs can be either cis- or trans-fats and the double bonds of CLAs are conjugated and separated by a single bond between them.\n\nCLA is marketed as a dietary supplement on the basis of its supposed health benefits.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe biological activity of CLA was noted by researchers in 1979 who found it to inhibit chemically induced cancer in mice and research on its biological activity has continued.\n", "Section::::Pharmaceutical applications.\n\nSo far, no pharmaceuticals in the North or South American markets are based on \"Cecropia\" species. However, scientists in Brazil have been studying the preparation of pharmaceutical products containing mainly \"C. glaziovii\" extracts. The preparation of pellets by extrusion-spheronization and polymeric nanoparticles has been reported.\n\nSection::::Selected species.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia concolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia glaziovii\" – red cecropia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia hololeuca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia insignis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia longipes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia lyratiloba\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia maxima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia maxonii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia multiflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia myrtluca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia obtusifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia pachystachya\" – Ambay pumpwood, \"ambay\" (= \"C. adenopus\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cecropia palmata\"\n", "Combretastatin\n\nCombretastatin is a dihydrostilbenoid found in \"Combretum caffrum\".\n\nSection::::As a class.\n\nCombretastatins are a class of natural phenols. A variety of different natural combretastatin molecules are present in the bark of \"Combretum caffrum\", commonly known as South African Bush Willow. Despite having a similar name, combretastatins are unrelated to statins, a family of cholesterol lowering drugs.\n\nSection::::Natural combretastatins.\n", "Section::::Bodies.\n", "Cordite RDB was later found to become unstable if stored too long.\n\nSection::::Formulations.:Cordite SC.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n", " Amongst the earliest uses of biotechnology in pharmaceutical manufacturing is the use of recombinant DNA technology to modify \"Escherichia coli\" bacteria to produce human insulin, which was performed at Genentech in 1978. Prior to the development of this technique, insulin was extracted from the pancreas glands of cattle, pigs, and other farm animals. While generally efficacious in the treatment of diabetes, animal-derived insulin is not indistinguishable from human insulin, and may therefore produce allergic reactions. Genentech researchers produced artificial genes for each of the two protein chains that comprise the insulin molecule. The artificial genes were \"then inserted... into plasmids... among a group of genes that\" are activated by lactose. Thus, the insulin-producing genes were also activated by lactose. The recombinant plasmids were inserted into \"Escherichia coli\" bacteria, which were \"induced to produce 100,000 molecules of either chain A or chain B human insulin.\" The two protein chains were then combined to produce insulin molecules.\n", "The \"Dr. Gourmet Diet for Coumadin Users\" was published in 2009 by Harlan Bros. Productions. The book contains six weeks worth of recipes for meals, shopping lists, recipe nutrition facts, and ingredient and cooking tips that allow Coumadin users to follow a healthy diet. \n", "The latex of \"C. lechleri\" is traditionally used in South American medicine for the treatment of diarrhoea, wounds, inflammations, tumours, insect bites, and other conditions. A number of chemicals were isolated in the late 1980s and 1990s and tested in cellular and animal models, for example identifying taspine as a cicatrizant (wound healing promoter). Immunomodulatory, antioxidative, antiproliferative and mutagenic effects of dragon's blood and its components also received some attention from the scientific community. The purified proanthocyanidin fraction was first described in 1994 under the name SP-303 as an antiviral substance, but a study testing it for the treatment of herpes simplex was not successful. In 1999 the drug was reported to improve the symptoms of cholera toxin induced diarrhoea in mice.\n", "Section::::Products.\n\nCerelac baby cereals are available in 4 stages\n\nStage 1: (At 6–7 months old) is formulated for babies from 6 months onwards and is available in variants of CERELAC Wheat, CERELAC Rice and CERELAC Maize. This can be given to the baby as a baby’s first food during the 6th month as these cereals are gelatin free and can be easily digested.\n\nStage 2: (7–8 months old,) can also be fed to infants from 6 months onwards and is available in CERELAC Banana and CERELAC Honey.\n", "The role in fertility and reproductive diseases of dairy cattle highlights that organic forms of Zn are retained better than inorganic sources and so may provide greater benefit in disease prevention, notably mastitis and lameness\n\nSection::::Role and source of minerals.:Sources of essential minerals.\n", "Section::::Medical applications.:Other medical applications.\n\nChelation in the intestinal tract is a cause of numerous interactions between drugs and metal ions (also known as \"minerals\" in nutrition). As examples, antibiotic drugs of the tetracycline and quinolone families are chelators of Fe, Ca, and Mg ions.\n\nEDTA, which binds to calcium, is used to alleviate the hypercalcimia that often results from band keratopathy. The calcium may then be removed from the cornea, allowing for some increase in clarity of vision for the patient.\n\nSection::::Industrial and agricultural applications.\n\nSection::::Industrial and agricultural applications.:Catalysis.\n" ]	[ "Cordyceps supplements work for the bodies benefit. ", "Cordyceps supplements work." ]	[ "Cordyceps supplements probably do not work for the bodies benefit. ", "Cordyceps supplements do nothing if you are eating a balanced diet because you get the nutrition you need. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cordyceps supplements work for the bodies benefit. ", "Cordyceps supplements work." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cordyceps supplements probably do not work for the bodies benefit. ", "Cordyceps supplements do nothing if you are eating a balanced diet because you get the nutrition you need. " ]
2018-00831	Does Diet Coke still have the ability to make you put on weight?	The comments here belie a general misunderstanding (very common on reddit) of why people put on weight. Background: Humans are naturally predisposed to obesity because, as a species, we evolved to put on weight in times of plenty. Well, there's plenty around us all the time now, in terms of cheap and freely available delicious calories that require no physical effort to attain. How do we put on weight? Appetite and satiety (how hungry you are and to what degree a meal suppresses that hunger) are the primary drivers of excess weight gain. This is why, for instance, all of the genetic associations we've documented with obesity are linked to genes related to appetite and/or satiety signalling. Do genetic factors alter calories in/calories out from a thermodynamic perspective? No. Do they alter calories in/calories out from a behavioural perspective - that is, increasing the number of calories going in by making you desire more food at every meal? Yes. People like to think they exercise absolute free will in terms of food choices. The reality is that every decision we make is the product of a [huge number of interacting internal (ie, biological) and external (ie, environmental) factors]( URL_0 ), of which the degree of appetite and satiety are primary components. Think how hard it would be to maintain weight if the 1000kcal meal you ate every night only provided an equivalent of 500kcal of satiation. These 'indirect effects' that promote weight gain can't be discarded because they are indirect; they are extremely powerful. For instance, people on reddit often like to excuse obese people who have 'medical causes' of obesity. How does a medical cause of obesity, like Prader-Willi syndrome, result in obesity? Because it makes the patient extremely hungry, not because it somehow disrupts human thermodynamics. To answer your question: There is [evidence]( URL_1 ) that artificial sweeteners reduce satiety and thus promote higher calorie intake through a number of mechanisms, including direct modulation of hypothalamic signalling and indirect effects on the gut microbiota and the brain-gut axis. Do they themselves contain calories? No. Do they promote intake of more calories (relative to water)? Probably. Are they worse than sugar-sweetened drinks? Not sure; probably equally as bad. Drink anything sweetened (sugar or not) in moderation. Source: PhD in molecular mechanisms underpinning obesity risk and related metabolic comorbidities. Edit: structure, spelling and bits	[ "The widespread, though not universal, agreement that the newest formulations taste much more \"normal\" (sugar-like) than the older diet soft drinks have prompted some producers, such as Jones Soda, to abandon the \"diet\" label entirely in favor of \"sugar-free\", implying that the taste is good enough to drink even when not trying to lose weight. (This idea was first floated by Diet Coke in 1984, with the tagline, \"Just For the Taste of It.\")\n", "Sugar-sweetened drinks have also been speculated to cause weight gain in adults. In one study, overweight individuals consumed a daily supplement of sucrose-sweetened or artificially sweetened drinks or foods for a 10-week period. Most of the supplement was in the form of soft drinks. Individuals in the sucrose group gained 1.6 kg, and individuals in the artificial-sweetener group lost 1.0 kg. A two-week study had participants supplement their diet with sugar-sweetened soft drinks, artificially sweetened soft drinks, or neither. Although the participants gained the most weight when consuming the sugar-sweetened drinks, some of the differences were unreliable: the differences between men who consumed sugar-sweetened drinks or no drinks was not statistically significant.\n", "Aspartame, commonly known by the brand name NutraSweet, is one of the most commonly used artificial sweeteners. The 1982 introduction of aspartame-sweetened Diet Coke accelerated this trend. Today, at least in the United States, \"diet\" is nearly synonymous with the use of aspartame in beverages.\n\nSection::::Sweetening.:Cyclamates.\n", "Changing the food energy intake from one food will not necessarily change a person's overall food energy intake or cause a person to lose weight. One study at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, reported by Sharon Fowler at the ADA annual meeting, actually suggested the opposite, where consumption of diet drinks correlated with weight gain. While Fowler did suggest that the undelivered expected calories from diet drinks may stimulate the appetite, the correlation does not prove that consumption of diet drinks caused the weight gain. The ADA has yet to issue an updated policy concerning diet drinks.\n", "Section::::Market.:Weight management.\n\nWith increased worries about obesity and its implications on health, combined with consumer demand for convenience goods, consumer demand has increased for easy weight loss methods that can be easily integrated into daily lifestyles. Functional beverages are striving to market themselves as such, by adding ingredients that are claimed to promote weight loss.\n\nFor example:\n\nBULLET::::- Nestlé and The Coca-Cola Company have partnered to produce Enviga, which they describe as a \"calorie-burning beverage\".\n", "Numerous reviews have concluded that outcomes from weight gain and non-nutritive sweetener usage remain inconsistent and inconclusive. A 2010 review of epidemiological studies concluded there is a possible association between consumption of artificially sweetened beverages and weight gain in children, but the quality of the studies was weak and no clear cause and effect relationship could be determined. A 2016 review reported findings with no significant association between body weight and non-nutritive sweetener consumption, while a 2017 review did not find evidence supporting the use of non-nutritive sweeteners for weight loss.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Metabolic disorder.\n", "The World Health Organization has advised reducing intake of free sugars, such as monosaccharides and disaccharides that are added to beverages by manufacturers, cooks, or consumers. Studies have supported WHO's guidance as well. A 2006 clinical trial found that when over weight or obese adults replaced caloric beverages with water or noncaloric beverages for 6 months, they averaged weight losses of 2–2.5%. In addition, The Obesity Society recommends minimizing children's intake of sugar-sweetened beverages.\n", "Many of these experiments examined the influence of sugar-sweetened soft drinks on weight gain in children and adolescents. In one experiment, adolescents replaced sugar-sweetened soft drinks in their diet with artificially sweetened soft drinks that were sent to their homes over 25 weeks. Compared with children in a control group, children who received the artificially sweetened drinks saw a smaller increase in their BMI (by −0.14 kg/m), but this effect was only statistically significant among the heaviest children (who saw a benefit of −0.75 kg/m). In another study, an educational program encouraged schoolchildren to consume fewer soft drinks. During the school year, the prevalence of obesity decreased among children in the program by 0.2%, compared to a 7.5% increase among children in the control group. Another study, published in Pediatrics in 2013, concluded that for children from the age of 2 to 5, their risk of obesity increased by 43% if they were regular soft drink consumers as opposed to those who rarely or never consumed them.\n", "The cost of sugar in the US started to rise in the late 1970s and into the 1980s due to government-imposed tariffs, prompting soft drink manufacturers to switch to high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) as a cheaper alternative to sugar. (Diet drinks were not included, because they have long been flavored with artificial sweeteners; the switch from saccharin to aspartame around the same time was an unrelated move.) By the mid-1980s, all of the major soft drink brands switched to HFCS for their North American products, with the original formula of Coca-Cola being one of the last holdouts. In most countries, sugar is still used rather than HFCS.\n", "Diet Coke does not use a modified form of the Coca-Cola recipe, but instead an entirely different formula based on the Tab formula. The controversial New Coke, introduced in 1985, used a version of the Diet Coke recipe that contained high fructose corn syrup and had a slightly different balance of ingredients. In 2005, the company introduced Coca-Cola Zero (renamed \"Coca-Cola Zero Sugar\" in 2017), a sugar-free more closely based on original Coca-Cola.\n", "By the early 1990s, a wide array of companies had their own diet refreshments on supermarket shelves. Tab made a comeback during the late 1990s after new studies demonstrated that saccharin is not an important factor in the risk of cancer. Nevertheless, The Coca-Cola Company has maintained its 1984 reformulation, replacing some of the saccharin in Tab with NutraSweet.\n", "Obesity is also a global public and health policy concern, with the percentage of overweight and obese people in many developed and middle income countries rising rapidly. Consumption of added sugar in sugar-sweetened beverages has been positively correlated with high calorie intake, and through it, with excess weight and obesity. The addition of one sugar-sweetened beverage per day to the normal US diet can amount to 15 pounds of weight gain over the course of 1 year. Added sugar is a common feature of many processed and convenience foods such as breakfast cereals, chocolate, ice cream, cookies, yogurts and drinks produced by retailers. The ubiquity of sugar-sweetened beverages and their appeal to younger consumers has made their consumption a subject of particular concern by public health professionals. In both the United States and the United Kingdom, sugar sweetened drinks are the top calorie source in teenager's diets.\n", "Initially launched in Argentina in 2013, Coca-Cola Life is made with a mix of stevia and sugar as its sweeteners. Pepsi has also released a variant of their cola sweetened with stevia and sugar, called Pepsi Next.\n\nSection::::Amount of artificial sweeteners in diet soft drinks.\n\nThe table below displays milligrams of sweetener in an 8-ounce (≈237 ml) serving of bottled or canned soft drink as provided by the manufacturers. To determine the amount in a 12-ounce (≈355 ml) can, multiply these numbers by 1.5. Fountain drinks may contain different sweeteners or different amounts of the same sweeteners.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.\n", "The Cambridge Diet is categorized as a very-low-calorie diet, and as a fad diet. Most of the meal replacement products sold as part of the diet are manufactured in the UK and include shakes, meal replacement bars, soups and smoothies.\n", "The most commonly distributed version of Diet Coke (and the majority of beverages that contain artificial sweeteners) relies on aspartame, which has been suggested to pose health concerns. Aspartame is one of the most intensively scrutinized food additives.\n\nCoca-Cola has now released Diet Coke sweetened with sucralose (under the brand name Splenda), although it is not as common.\n", "A can of Diet Pepsi Free can be seen beside Marty's alarm clock towards the beginning of the movie when Doc (Christopher Lloyd) calls him to remind him to meet him at the mall. The can is also seen toward the end of the movie when Marty wakes up in the morning at his house in 1985.\n", "In 2018, in an effort to be more appealing to millennials, Diet Coke was packaged in a taller, more slender can (of the same volume) and introduced four new flavors.\n\nSection::::Sales.\n\nDiet Coke and Diet Pepsi have capitalized on the markets of people who require low sugar regimens, such as diabetics and people concerned with calorie intake. In the UK, a 330 ml can of Diet Coke contains around 1.3 kilocalories (5 kilojoules) compared to 142 kilocalories (595 kJ) for a regular can of Coca-Cola.\n\nSection::::Sweeteners.\n", "In an independent study by researchers with the Framingham Heart Study in Massachusetts, consumption of any kind of soft drink correlated with increased incidence of metabolic syndrome. Of the 9,000 males and females studied, these drinkers were at 48% higher risk for metabolic syndrome, which involves weight gain and elevated blood sugar. No significant difference in these findings was observed between sugary and diet soft drinks. The researchers surmised that diet drinkers were less likely to consume healthy foods, and that drinking diet beverages flavored with artificial sweeteners more than likely increases cravings for sugar-flavored sweets.\n", "Diet Pepsi\n\nDiet Pepsi is a no-calorie carbonated cola soft drink produced by PepsiCo, introduced in 1964 as a variant of Pepsi with no sugar. First test marketed in 1963 under the name Patio Diet Cola, it was re-branded as \"Diet Pepsi\" the following year, becoming the first diet cola to be distributed on a national scale in the United States. \n", "Between 1975 and 2016, the worldwide prevalence of obesity nearly tripled. According to the World Health Organization, in 2016, more than 1.9 billion of adults, 18 years and older, were overweight. Of these, over 650 million (34%) were obese. Over 340 million children and adolescents aged 5–19 were overweight or obese in 2016. The obesity rate is forecasted to rise to 42% by 2030. Every year, the United States spends an estimated $190 billion on obesity related conditions, or 21% of all United States health care costs.\n", "The process of making a diet version of a food usually requires finding an acceptable low-food-energy substitute for some high-food-energy ingredient. This can be as simple as replacing some or all of the food's sugar with a sugar substitute as is common with diet soft drinks such as Coca-Cola (for example Diet Coke). In some snacks, the food may be baked instead of fried thus reducing the food energy. In other cases, low-fat ingredients may be used as replacements.\n", "The process of making a diet version of a food usually requires finding an acceptable low-food-energy substitute for some high-food-energy ingredient. This can be as simple as replacing some or all of the food's sugar with a sugar substitute as is common with diet soft drinks such as Coca-Cola (for example Diet Coke). In some snacks, the food may be baked instead of fried thus reducing the food energy. In other cases, low-fat ingredients may be used as replacements.\n", "According to a study by the National Center for Health Statistics, about one-fifth of the US population ages 2 years and over consumed diet drinks on a given day in 2009‒2010, and 11% consumed 16 fluid oz. of diet drinks or more. Overall, the percentage consuming diet drinks was higher among females compared with males. The percentage consuming diet drinks was similar for females and males at all ages except among 12- to 19-year-olds, where a higher percentage of females than males consumed diet drinks. A higher percentage of non-Hispanic white people consumed diet drinks compared with non-Hispanic black and Hispanic people. The study included calorie-free and low-calorie versions of soft drinks, fruit drinks, energy drinks, sports drinks, and carbonated water.\n", "According to the Coca-Cola Company, \"[t]he sweetener blend used for Diet Coke/Coca-Cola Light is formulated for each country based on consumer preference.\" In countries in which cyclamates are not banned (as they were in the US in 1970), Diet Coke or Coca-Cola Light may be sweetened with a blend containing aspartame, cyclamates, and acesulfame potassium.\n\nSection::::Brand portfolio.\n\nSection::::Brand portfolio.:Product timeline.\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 – Diet Coke is introduced, becoming the largest-selling low-calorie soft drink in America.\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 – Diet Coke is introduced in the UK.\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – Diet Cherry Coke is introduced in American markets.\n", "From 1977 to 2002, Americans doubled their consumption of sweetened beverages—a trend that was paralleled by doubling the prevalence of obesity. The consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with weight and obesity, and changes in consumption can help predict changes in weight.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04643	The difference between straw and hay	Hay is food for animals. It's grasses/grains that have their seeds and stuff on them. Straw is just plant stocks that has no meaningful nutritional value that's used for bedding. It's the leftovers from collecting grain.	[ "Oat, barley, and wheat plant materials are occasionally cut green and made into hay for animal fodder; however they are more usually used in the form of straw, a harvest byproduct where the stems and dead leaves are baled after the grain has been harvested and threshed. Straw is used mainly for animal bedding. Although straw is also used as fodder, particularly as a source of dietary fiber, it has lower nutritional value than hay.\n", "Straw is usually gathered and stored in a straw bale, which is a bale, or bundle, of straw tightly bound with twine or wire. Straw bales may be square, rectangular, or round, and can be very large, depending on the type of baler used.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nCurrent and historic uses of straw include:\n\nBULLET::::- Animal feed\n", "Section::::Baling.:Haylage.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Straw mulch\" or \"field hay\" or \"salt hay\" are lightweight and normally sold in compressed bales. They have an unkempt look and are used in vegetable gardens and as a winter covering. They are biodegradable and neutral in pH. They have good moisture retention and weed controlling properties but also are more likely to be contaminated with weed seeds. Salt hay is less likely to have weed seeds than field hay. Straw mulch is also available in various colors.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Organic mulches.:Cardboard / newspaper.\n", "BULLET::::- Basketry\n\nBULLET::::- Bee skeps and linen baskets are made from coiled and bound together continuous lengths of straw. The technique is known as lip work.\n\nBULLET::::- Bedding: humans or livestock\n\nBULLET::::- The straw-filled mattress, also known as a palliasse, is still used in many parts of the world.\n\nBULLET::::- It is commonly used as bedding for ruminants and horses. It may be used as bedding and food for small animals, but this often leads to injuries to mouth, nose and eyes as straw is quite sharp.\n\nBULLET::::- Biofuels\n", "BULLET::::- Construction material:\n\nBULLET::::- In many parts of the world, straw is used to bind clay and concrete. A mixture of clay and straw, known as cob, can be used as a building material. There are many recipes for making cob.\n", "The word \"corn\", used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the plant \"Zea mays\", the most important crop in the U.S., originally named \"Indian corn\" by the earliest settlers; wheat, rye, barley, oats, etc. came to be collectively referred to as \"grain\". Other notable farm related vocabulary additions were the new meanings assumed by \"barn\" (not only a building for hay and grain storage, but also for housing livestock) and \"team\" (not just the horses, but also the vehicle along with them), as well as, in various periods, the terms \"range, (corn) crib, truck, elevator, sharecropping\" and \"feedlot.\"\n", "On many farms, the basic composting ingredients are animal manure generated on the farm and bedding. Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials. Non-traditional bedding materials are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard. The amount of manure composted on a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather conditions. Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting. Swine manure, which is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed with straw or similar raw materials. Poultry manure also must be blended with carbonaceous materials - those low in nitrogen preferred, such as sawdust or straw.\n", "Section::::Haylage.\n\nHaylage refers to high dry matter silage of around 40% to 60%. Horse haylage is usually 60% to 70% dry matter, made in small bales or larger bales.\n", "BULLET::::- Paperbraids: made from different paper strands from Viscose from different Plants (Swiss Paglinastraw), (Silkpaper, Rice paper),\n\nBULLET::::- Sisal/ Parasisal (2x2 woven sisal),\n\nBULLET::::- Seagrass (Xian),\n\nBULLET::::- Visca straw: an artificial straw made by spinning viscose in a flat filament capable of being braided, woven, or knitted and used especially for women's hats,\n", "Commonly used plants for hay include mixtures of grasses such as ryegrass (\"Lolium\" species), timothy, brome, fescue, Bermuda grass, orchard grass, and other species, depending on region. Hay may also include legumes, such as alfalfa (lucerne) and clovers (red, white and subterranean). Legumes in hay are ideally cut pre-bloom. Other pasture forbs are also sometimes a part of the mix, though these plants are not necessarily desired as certain forbs are toxic to some animals.\n", "Straw is a soft, dry stalks containing small grains such as barley, oats, rice, rye, and wheat. Straw is easy to handle and available in most agricultural areas. When deciding to use straw, is imperative to make sure that the straw is not palatable. To do this, the seed must be checked to ensure it is not available for consumption. Straw has excellent absorbency and is unlikely to mold.\n", "BULLET::::- Heavy gauge straw rope is coiled and sewn tightly together to make archery targets. This is no longer done entirely by hand, but is partially mechanised. Sometimes a paper or plastic target is set up in front of straw bales, which serve to support the target and provide a safe backdrop.\n\nBULLET::::- Thatching\n\nBULLET::::- Thatching uses straw, reed or similar materials to make a waterproof, lightweight roof with good insulation properties. Straw for this purpose (often wheat straw) is grown specially and harvested using a reaper-binder.\n\nSection::::Health and safety.\n", "Sugar cane and bamboo (sometimes called \"cane\" in the southern United States) should not be confused with rattan cane.\n", "BULLET::::- Many thousands of women and children in England (primarily in the Luton district of Bedfordshire), and large numbers in the United States (mostly Massachusetts), were employed in plaiting straw for making hats. By the late 19th century, vast quantities of plaits were being imported to England from Canton in China, and in the United States most of the straw plait was imported.\n\nBULLET::::- A fiber analogous to straw is obtained from the plant \"Carludovica palmata\", and is used to make Panama hats.\n\nBULLET::::- Traditional Japanese rain protection consisted of a straw hat and a mino cape.\n\nBULLET::::- Horticulture\n", "Another method is using description instead of a single word. For example, languages like Russian and Ukrainian have borrowed words \"Kuraga\" and \"Uruk\" from Turkic languages. While both fruits are now known to the Western world, there are still no terms for them in English. English speakers have to use \"dried apricot without core\" and \"dried apricot with core\" instead.\n", "Hay\n\nHay is grass, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut and dried to be stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for large grazing animals raised as livestock, such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. However, it is also fed to smaller domesticated animals such as rabbits and guinea pigs. Even pigs may be fed hay, but they do not digest it as efficiently as herbivores.\n", "Section::::Food items with tannins.\n\nSection::::Food items with tannins.:Accessory fruits.\n\nStrawberries contain both hydrolyzable and condensed tannins.\n\nSection::::Food items with tannins.:Berries.\n\nMost berries, such as cranberries, and blueberries, contain both hydrolyzable and condensed tannins.\n\nSection::::Food items with tannins.:Nuts.\n\nNuts that can be consumed raw, such as hazelnuts, walnuts, and pecans, contain high amounts of tannins. Almonds have a lower content. Tannin concentration in the crude extract of these nuts did not directly translate to the same relationships for the condensed fraction.\n\nSection::::Food items with tannins.:Herbs and spices.\n\nCloves, tarragon, cumin, thyme, vanilla, and cinnamon all contain tannins.\n\nSection::::Food items with tannins.:Legumes.\n", "Candles, Snow & Mistletoe\n", "Many species of grass are grown as pasture for foraging or as fodder for prescribed livestock feeds, particularly in the case of cattle, horses, and sheep. Such grasses may be cut and stored for later feeding, especially for the winter, in the form of bales of hay or straw, or in silos as silage. Straw (and sometimes hay) may also be used as bedding for animals.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Industry.\n", "BULLET::::- Toquilla straw: flexible and durable fiber, which is often made into hats in Ecuador, but popularly known as Panama hats.\n\nBULLET::::- Buntal/ Parabuntal straw: from unopened Palm leaves or stems of the Buri Palm,\n\nBULLET::::- Baku straw: 1x1 woven, made from the young stalks of the Talipot palm from Malabar and Ceylon,\n\nBULLET::::- Braided hemp,\n\nBULLET::::- Raffia,\n\nBULLET::::- Shantung straw: made from high performance paper which is rolled into a yarn to imitate straw, historically it was made of buntal\n\nBULLET::::- Toyo straw: cellophane coated Washi,\n\nBULLET::::- Bangora straw: made from a lower grade of Washi,\n", "BULLET::::- other straw fibers that are mostly used in Asian conical hats are made from different palms (Corypha, Rattan, Trachycarpus, Phoenix), grasses Cane, Bamboo and rice straw (Kasa (hat))\n\nBULLET::::- Chip straw: from White pine, Lombardy poplar, or English willow, has historically been used, but has become less common.\n\nSection::::Manufacture.\n", "BULLET::::- Rope made from straw was used by thatchers, in the packaging industry and even in iron foundries.\n\nBULLET::::- Shoes\n\nBULLET::::- Koreans wear jipsin, sandals made of straw.\n\nBULLET::::- In some parts of Germany like Black Forest and Hunsrück people wear straw shoes at home or at carnival.\n\nBULLET::::- Targets\n", "Many of these terms date back to the earliest herbalists and botanists, including Theophrastus. Thus, they usually have Greek or Latin roots. These terms have been modified and added to over the years, and different authorities may not always use them the same way.\n\nThis page has two parts: The first deals with general plant terms, and the second with specific plant structures or parts.\n\nSection::::General plant terms.\n\nBULLET::::- Abaxial – located on the side facing away from the axis.\n\nBULLET::::- Adaxial – located on the side facing towards the axis.\n\nBULLET::::- Dehiscent – opening at maturity\n", "Oats are bought and sold and yields on the basis of a bushel equal to or ) in the United States, and a bushel equal to or ) in Canada. \"Bright oats\" were sold on the basis of a bushel equal to or ) in the United States.\n\nYields range from on marginal land, to on high-producing land. The average production is 100 bushels per acre, or 3.5 tonnes per hectare. Straw yields are variable, ranging from one to three tonnes per hectare, mainly due to available nutrients and the variety used (some are short-strawed, meant specifically for straight combining).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22045	How would an employer or school be able to see what I do on my webcam?	At some point you installed or they installed stuff into your computer. Often this is “to manage” or “to secure” or something. This software can also turn on your web cam and send the video and audio back to them. On many computers they can do this without any visible way for you to tell it’s going on. This happens because they setup the software with lots of “privileges” like it was the boss. So all the other software in your computer lets it do whatever it wants. They’re all like “secret security service software, let us through” and suddenly they can access everything. A post it note or sticker over the webcam can make it so they can’t see you. Best to assume that they can always hear you.	[ "Webcams may be installed at places such as childcare centres, offices, shops and private areas to monitor security and general activity.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Commerce.\n\nWebcams have been used for augmented reality experiences online. One such function has the webcam act as a \"magic mirror\" to allow an online shopper to view a virtual item on themselves. The Webcam Social Shopper is one example of software that utilizes the webcam in this manner.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Videocalling and videoconferencing.\n", "Section::::Effects on modern society.\n", "Webcams can be used as security cameras. Software is available to allow PC-connected cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected. These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, or uploaded to the Internet. In one well-publicised case, a computer e-mailed images of the burglar during the theft of the computer, enabling the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar's face even after the computer had been stolen.\n\nUnauthorized access of webcams can present significant privacy issues (see \"Privacy\" section below).\n", "In a motion seeking to examine Cafiero's computer, excerpts of emails between her and Amanda Wuest, District Desktop Technician, about the surreptitious webcams were cited in which the technician emailed Cafiero: \"This is awesome. It's like a little LMSD soap opera\", and Cafiero replied, \"I know, I love it\". Her lawyer, Charles Mandracchia of the law firm Mandracchia & McWhirk LLC, said she had only turned the webcam system on when requested to do so by school officials.\n", "The most popular use of webcams is the establishment of video links, permitting computers to act as videophones or videoconference stations. Other popular uses include security surveillance, computer vision, video broadcasting, and for recording social videos.\n\nThe video streams provided by webcams can be used for a number of purposes, each using appropriate software:\n\nSection::::Uses.:Health care.\n\nMost modern webcams are capable of capturing arterial pulse rate by the use of a simple algorithmic trick. Researchers claim that this method is accurate to ±5 bpm.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Video monitoring.\n", "Section::::Legal issues.:Incidents.\n", "YouTube is a popular website hosting many videos made using webcams. News websites such as the BBC also produce professional live news videos using webcams rather than traditional cameras.\n\nWebcams can also encourage telecommuting, enabling people to work from home via the Internet, rather than traveling to their office.\n\nThe popularity of webcams among teenagers with Internet access has raised concern about the use of webcams for cyber-bullying. Webcam recordings of teenagers, including underage teenagers, are frequently posted on popular Web forums and imageboards such as 4chan.\n\nSection::::Descriptive names and terminology.\n", "Webcams and webcasting have enabled creation of virtual classrooms and virtual learning environment. Webcams are also being used to counter plagiarism and other forms of academic dishonesty that might occur in an e-learning environment.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Computers, tablets and mobile devices.\n", "Most models use simple, focal-free optics (fixed focus, factory-set for the usual distance from the monitor to which it is fastened to the user) or manual focus.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Compression.\n\nDigital video streams are represented by huge amounts of data, burdening its transmission (from the image sensor, where the data is continuously created) and storage alike.\n\nMost if not all cheap webcams come with built-it ASIC to do video compression in real-time.\n", "Special software can use the video stream from a webcam to assist or enhance a user's control of applications and games. Video features, including faces, shapes, models and colors can be observed and tracked to produce a corresponding form of control. For example, the position of a single light source can be tracked and used to emulate a mouse pointer, a head-mounted light would enable hands-free computing and would greatly improve computer accessibility. This can be applied to games, providing additional control, improved interactivity and immersiveness.\n", "The report criticized Perbix for reacting negatively on September 11, 2009, when Frazier told him a teacher had requested that his webcam be disabled, with Perbix writing to Frazier: \"teachers should not even be allowed to cover the cameras as they do now ... theft track ... does not record video, only a snapshot every 15 minutes. Is someone afraid that we are spying on them?\" Jason Hilt, district Supervisor of Instructional Technology, when he learned that TheftTrack could be activated without police involvement, taped over his camera and shared his concern about remote webcam activation with Frazier and Director of Curriculum Services Steve Barbato.\n", "The British intelligence agency Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)'s secret mass surveillance program Optic Nerve and National Security Agency (NSA) were reported to be indiscriminately collecting still images from Yahoo webcam streams from millions of mostly innocent Yahoo webcam users from 2008 to 2010, among other things creating a database for facial recognition for future use. Optic Nerve took a still image from the webcam stream every 5 minutes.\n", "Typical use of the various technologies described above include calling or conferencing on a one-on-one, one-to-many or many-to-many basis for personal, business, educational, deaf Video Relay Service and tele-medical, diagnostic and rehabilitative use or services. New services utilizing videocalling and videoconferencing, such as teachers and psychologists conducting online sessions, personal videocalls to inmates incarcerated in penitentiaries, and videoconferencing to resolve airline engineering issues at maintenance facilities, are being created or evolving on an ongoing basis.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Action camera\n\nBULLET::::- Camera phone\n\nBULLET::::- Camfecting\n\nBULLET::::- Camgirling\n\nBULLET::::- CCTV\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of webcam software\n\nBULLET::::- Document camera\n\nBULLET::::- IP camera\n", "In the 2010 \"Robbins v. Lower Merion School District\" \"WebcamGate\" case, plaintiffs charged that two suburban Philadelphia high schools secretly spied on students - by surreptitiously remotely activating iSight webcams embedded in school-issued MacBook laptops the students were using at home — and thereby infringed on their privacy rights. School authorities admitted to secretly snapping over 66,000 photographs, including shots of students in the privacy of their bedrooms, including some with teenagers in various state of undress. The school board involved quickly disabled their laptop spyware program after parents filed lawsuits against the board and various individuals.\n", "Perbix had previously praised Theft Track, the name of the feature that lets administrators remotely photograph potential thieves if a computer is reported stolen, noting in a YouTube video he produced that: It’s an excellent feature. Yes, we have used it, and yes, it has gleaned some results for us. But it, in and of itself, is just a fantastic feature for trying to—especially when you’re in a school environment and you have a lot of laptops and you’re worried about, you know, laptops getting up and missing. I’ve actually had some laptops we thought were stolen which actually were still in a classroom, because they were misplaced, and by the time we found out they were back, I had to turn the tracking off. And I had, you know, a good twenty snapshots of the teacher and students using the machines in the classroom.\n", "In January 2005, some search engine queries were published in an online forum which allow anyone to find thousands of Panasonic- and Axis high-end web cameras, provided that they have a web-based interface for remote viewing. Many such cameras are running on default configuration, which does not require any password login or IP address verification, making them viewable by anyone.\n", "One of the most widely reported-on webcam sites was JenniCam, created in 1996, which allowed Internet users to observe the life of its namesake constantly, in the same vein as the reality TV series \"Big Brother\", launched four years later. Other cameras are mounted overlooking bridges, public squares, and other public places, their output made available on a public web page in accordance with the original concept of a \"webcam\". Aggregator websites have also been created, providing thousands of live video streams or up-to-date still pictures, allowing users to find live video streams based on location or other criteria.\n", "In December 2011, Russia announced that 290,000 Webcams would be installed in 90,000 polling stations to monitor the 2012 Russian presidential election.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Video clips and stills.\n\nWebcams can be used to take video clips and still pictures. Various software tools in wide use can be employed for this, such as PicMaster (for use with Windows operating systems), Photo Booth (Mac), or Cheese (with Unix systems). For a more complete list see Comparison of webcam software.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Input control devices.\n", "Webcams typically include a lens, an image sensor, support electronics, and may also include one or even two microphones for sound.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Image sensor.\n", "Cameras such as Apple's older external iSight cameras include lens covers to thwart this. Some webcams have built-in hardwired LED indicators that light up whenever the camera is active, sometimes only in video mode. However, it is possible for malware to circumvent the indicator and activate the camera surrepticiously, as researchers demonstrated in the case of a MacBook's built-in camera in 2013.\n", "UK Fashion Retailer, Banana Flame, was the first retailer to integrate the Plug and Play version of the virtual dressing room software. According to Matthew Szymczyk, CEO of Zugara, the new version of the Webcam Social Shopper can be integrated by a retailer in less than a day. Banana Flame deployed the software to offer a virtual dressing room for online shoppers to \"try on\" the clothes virtually on Banana Flame's website.\n", "BULLET::::- iSight\n\nBULLET::::- List of webcameras and videophones\n\nBULLET::::- Optic Nerve (GCHQ)\n\nBULLET::::- Pan tilt zoom camera\n\nBULLET::::- QuickCam\n\nBULLET::::- Trail Camera - special outdoor Digital Camera that operates on batteries and saves motion detected images to SDcard\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Mulbach, Lothar; Bocker, Martin; Prussog, Angela. \"Telepresence in Videocommunications: A Study on Stereoscopy and Individual Eye Contact\", \"Human Factors\", June 1995, Vol.37, No.2, p. 290, , Gale Document Number: GALE\|A18253819. Accessed December 23, 2011 via General Science eCollection (subscription).\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early development.\n\nFirst developed in 1991, a webcam was pointed at the Trojan Room coffee pot in the Cambridge University Computer Science Department (initially operating over a local network instead of the web). The camera was finally switched off on August 22, 2001. The final image captured by the camera can still be viewed at its homepage. In 2004, the oldest webcam still operating was FogCam at San Francisco State University, which had been running continuously since 1994.\n\nSection::::History.:Connectix QuickCam.\n", "Another workplace option is called a \"camgirl mansion\", which is a place that provides equipment and broadcast rooms where multiple camgirls can live and share expenses, but without a studio owner.\n\nVarious support websites supply general information about business strategies, upcoming conferences, tips for performance, and reviews of studio equipment. Support sites also give advice about how to protect privacy, discourage piracy, avoid Internet security lapses, and how to prevent financial scams.\n\nConferences and industry trade shows can also aid cam models by allowing cam models to network and meet others in the profession on a personal level.\n\nSection::::Legal issues.\n", "Various companies sell sliding lens covers and stickers that allow users to retrofit a computer or smartphone to close access to the camera lens as needed. One such company reported having sold more than 250,000 such items from 2013 to 2016. However, any opaque material will work. Prominent users include former FBI director James Comey.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04102	Why is it easier to whistle with wet lips than when your lips are dry?	When your lips are moist they are more more flexible. You need flexible surfaces in order to make noise.	[ "It also prominently features in the score of the movie \"Twisted Nerve\", composed by Bernard Herrmann, which was later used in Quentin Tarantino's \"Kill Bill\".\n", "Many expert musical palatal whistlers will substantially alter the position of the tongue to ensure a good quality tone. Venetian gondoliers are famous for moving the tongue while they whistle in a way that can look like singing. A good example of a palatal whistler is Luke Janssen, winner of the 2009 world whistling competition.\n\nFinger whistling is harder to control but achieves a piercing volume. In Boito's opera \"Mefistofele\" the title character uses it to express his defiance of the Almighty.\n", "Vocal learning is essential in a dolphin calf’s signature whistle development. It is an animal’s ability to imitate vocalizations from other animals of the same species, and eventually produce its own sounds. Social interaction plays a significant role in vocal learning. Although vocal learning is often associated with aggressive behavior in some animals, this is not the case in dolphins. Rather, vocal learning strengthens social bonds, such as those between mother-calf pairs and alliance partners.\n\nSection::::Group interaction.\n\nSection::::Group interaction.:Within groups.\n", "There are a few different techniques of how to produce whistle speech, the choice of which is dependent on practical concerns. Bilabial and labiodental techniques are common for short and medium distance discussions (in a market, in the noise of a room, or for hunting); whereas the tongue retroflexed, one or two fingers introduced in the mouth, a blow concentrated at the junction between two fingers or the lower lip pulled while breathing in air are techniques used to reach high levels of power for long distance speaking. Each place has its favorite trend that depends on the most common use of the village and on the personal preferences of each whistler. Whistling with a leaf or a flute is often related to courtship or poetic expression (reported in the Kickapoo language in Mexico and in the Hmong and Akha cultures in Asia).\n", "Whistling can also be produced by blowing air through enclosed, cupped hands or through an external instrument, such as a whistle or even a blade of grass or leaf.\n\nSection::::Competitions.\n", "Pucker whistling is the most common form in much Western music. Typically, the tongue tip is lowered, often placed behind the lower teeth, and pitch altered by varying the position of the tongue. Although varying the degree of pucker will change the pitch of a pucker whistle, expert pucker whistlers will generally only make small variations to the degree of pucker, due to its tendency to affect purity of tone. Pucker whistling can be done by either only blowing out or blowing in and out alternately. In the 'only blow out' method, a consistent tone is achieved, but a negligible pause has to be taken to breathe in. In the alternating method there is no problem of breathlessness or interruption as breath is taken when one whistles breathing in, but a disadvantage is that many times, the consistency of tone is not maintained, and it fluctuates.\n", "The steady flow from a circular orifice can be converted to an oscillatory flow by adding a downstream plate with a circular hole aligned with the orifice. Small perturbations in the flow feedback to the orifice to cause a variable volumetric flow rate through the downstream hole because of the symmetry of the feedback.\n", "The video combines live action with animation elements and shows Tiz interacting with a crew of animated animal friends and enjoying several activities with them such as getting their nails done, and trying out clothing.\n\nIdolator gave the video a positive review: \"Katy springs to life from street art. From there, the blond bombshell indulges in a little choreography with her girls, goes for a stroll with a crew of cartoon characters and gets her nails done. It deftly combines the live action and animation elements, and is guaranteed to put a smile on your face.\"\n", "A female bottlenose dolphin, Phoenix, understood at least 34 whistles.\n\nWhistles created a system of 2-way communication. By having separate whistles for object and action, Herman could reorder commands without fresh teaching (take hoop to ball). Successful communication was shown when Herman used new combinations, and the dolphin understood and did what he asked without further training 80-90% of the time.\n", "BULLET::::- Whistle Pops\n\nBULLET::::- Whistle register\n\nBULLET::::- Whistled language\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Stekelenburg, A.V. van. \"Whistling in Antiquity\", \"Akroterion\", vol. 45, pp. 65–74 (2000).\n\nBULLET::::- Kahn, Ric. \"Finally, whistling is cool again\", \"Boston Globe\", August 27, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Alexandra Petri. \"Not just anyone can whistle, at the 2013 International Whistling Convention\", \"Washington Post\" (April 29, 2013).\n\nBULLET::::- Casey, Liam. \"Toronto whistler blows past the competition at international contest\", \"Toronto Star\" (May 3, 2013).\n\nBULLET::::- Lesson by Toronto whistler on how to do Palate Whistling\n\nBULLET::::- International Whistlers Museum in Louisburg, North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Whistlers Association (IWA)\n", "Whistling techniques do not require the vibration of the vocal cords: they produce a shock effect of the compressed air stream inside the cavity of the mouth and/or of the hands. When the jaws are fixed by a finger, the size of the hole is stable. The air stream expelled makes vibrations at the edge of the mouth. The faster the air stream is expelled, the higher is the noise inside the cavities. If the hole (mouth) and the cavity (intra-oral volume) are well matched, the resonance is tuned, and the whistle is projected more loudly. The frequency of this bioacoustical phenomenon is modulated by the morphing of the resonating cavity that can be, to a certain extent,\n", "Tiz said in an interview that she wrote the song about a darker period in her life where she felt like nothing was going her way, but her brother was there to tell her to chin up, keep moving, and never give up. It was cowritten with Kinetics & One Love, songwriter Emily Warren and was produced by J.R. Rotem and co-produced by Teal Douville.\n", "The physiology of the whistle register is the least understood of the vocal registers. Unlike other types of vocal production, it is difficult to film the vocal cords while they are operating in this manner as the epiglottis closes down over the larynx and the resonating chamber assumes its smallest dimensions. It is known that when producing pitches in this register, vibration occurs only in some anterior portion of the vocal folds. This shorter vibrating length naturally allows for easier production of high pitches.\n", "Most whistle languages, of which there are several hundred, are based on tonal languages.\n\nOnly the tone of the speech is saved in the whistle, while aspects as articulation and phonation are eliminated. These are replaced by other features such as stress and rhythmical variations. However, some languages, like that of the Zezuru who speak a Shona-derived dialect, include articulation so that consonants interrupt the flow of the whistle. A similar language is the Tsonga whistle language used in the highlands in the Southern parts of Mozambique. This should not be confused with the whistled sibilants of Shona.\n", "Similar to vocal learning, bottlenose dolphins demonstrate vocal copying. Bottlenose dolphins repeat another dolphin’s signature whistle back in order to address that particular dolphin individually. Unlike other animals, dolphins do not display this behavior in aggressive situations. Humans and dolphins are the only known species to use vocal copying in cooperative contexts. Although this behavior is rare, dolphins with close relationships are more likely to demonstrate vocal copying. Also, bottlenose dolphins are capable of producing almost perfect copies of another dolphin’s whistle. Any differences in the repeated whistle could be deliberate, reinforcing the idea that the dolphins individually address close relatives.\n", "Mate attraction and territory defense have also been seen as possible contributors to vocal learning evolution. Studies on this topic point out that while both vocal learners and non-learners use vocalizations to attract mates or defend territories, there is one key difference: variability. Vocal learners can produce a more varied arrangement of vocalizations and frequencies, which studies show may be more preferred by females. For example, Caldwell observed that male Atlantic bottlenose dolphins may initiate a challenge by facing another dolphin, opening its mouth, thereby exposing its teeth, or arching its back slightly and holding its head downward. This behavior is more along the lines of visual communication but still may or may not be accompanied by vocalizations such as burst-pulsed sounds. The burst-pulsed sounds, which are more complex and varied than the whistles, are often utilized to convey excitement, dominance or aggression such as when they are competing for the same piece of food. The dolphins also produce these forceful sounds when in the presence of other individuals moving towards the same prey. On the sexual side, Caldwell saw that dolphins may solicit a sexual response from another by swimming in front of it, looking back, and rolling on its side to display the genital region. These observations provide yet another example of visual communication where dolphins exhibit different postures and non-vocal behaviors to communicate with others that also may or may not be accompanied by vocalizations. Sexual selection for greater variability, and thus in turn vocal learning, may then be a major driving force for the evolution of vocal learning.\n", "BULLET::::- Soft Mouth It is desired that a springer deliver game with a soft mouth, meaning he does not puncture it with his teeth. The game should always be \"fit for the table\". If a springer damages the bird, it may be hard mouthed. This is a serious fault, but it can be difficult to determine whether it may have been genetic or caused by poor training methods. It is usually wise to avoid breeding any springer that is hard mouthed.\n", "The sound field may be similar to that created by oscillatory flow from a pipe, except for presence of the supersonic jet structure which can strongly modify the directivity. The original equation of Hartmann is shown below.\n", "All the water in the world gushes form your mouth;\n\nIt is this,\n\nThis moment,\n\nThis fearless twisting,\n\nWho have closed eyes to all\n\nAnd turned your face from fear!\n\n/poem\n\npoem\n\nBULLET::::- The butterfly's wing\n\nOnly your voice \n\nHas survived\n\nOf all the sounds in the world\n\nHere \n\nWhere bloody winged birds\n\nHave formed my sky.\n\nI cross from the plain of your voice,\n\nHeadlong and dancing,\n\nThe fairies of alphabet,\n\nDancing in a dialect which has ravished me.\n\nThey have made me thirstier for that clear naked spring,\n\nThat shadowy meadow,\n", "In continental Africa, speech may be conveyed by a whistle or other musical instrument, most famously the \"talking drums\". However, while drums may be used by griots singing praise songs or for inter-village communication, and other instruments may be used on the radio for station identification jingles, for regular conversation at a distance whistled speech is used. As two people approach each other, one may even switch from whistled to spoken speech in mid-sentence.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Wilson, et al., in their study of human whistling (see below), pointed out the importance of including the symmetry or asymmetry of the unstable flow in addition to the feedback classes listed below. Because of the close relationship of flow symmetry to the sound field generated, their concept was included here as part of the sound source description (monopole -symmetric and dipole - asymmetric).\n\nSection::::Types.:The monopole whistle.\n", "BULLET::::- The song is also heard in the 1988 film \"Splash, Too\", the sequel to the 1984 film \"Splash\" during a scene when Allen and Madison fix up their new home that Allen's brother Freddie got for them after he sold his apartment and afterwards Madison whistles the song as well while making breakfast.\n\nBULLET::::- A reference to the song was made in the first episode of \"DuckTales\"; at one point, Scrooge McDuck tells an employee \"There'll be no whistling while you work!\"\n", "Section::::By spectators.\n", "BULLET::::- A children's parody version of the song often uses lyrics such as \"\"Hitler is a jerk, Mussolini is a weenie.\"\" (Or in a more vulgar vein, \"...Mussolini \"bit\" his weenie, now it doesn't squirt (or \"work\" in another version)!\" or \"...Mussolini chopped his weenie, now it doesn't work!\" ) Several variants are cited in Iona and Peter Opie's survey, \"The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren.\" One variant is \"\"Whistle While You Work. Hitler is a jerk, Mussolini is a meanie and the Japs are worse.\"\"\n", "Whistled speech may be very central and highly valued in a culture. Shouting is very rare in Sochiapam Chinantec. Men in that culture are subject to being fined if they do not handle whistle-speech well enough to perform certain town jobs. They may whistle for fun in situations where spoken speech could easily be heard.\n\nIn Sochiapam, Oaxaca, and other places in Mexico, and reportedly in West Africa as well, whistled speech is men's language: although women may understand it, they do not use it.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09961	How do psychiatrists decide what antidepressants to prescribe?	A LOT of medicine is trial and error. But the initial choices can be influenced by things like age and what other meds a patient is already on.	[ "The risk factors for treatment resistant depression are: the duration of the episode of depression, severity of the episode, if bipolar, lack of improvement in symptoms within the first couple of treatment weeks, anxious or avoidant and borderline comorbidity and old age. Treatment resistant depression is best handled with a combination of conventional antidepressant together with atypical antipsychotics. Another approach is to try different antidepressants. It's inconclusive which approach is superior. Treatment resistant depression can be misdiagnosed if subtherapeutic doses of antidepressants is the case, patient nonadherence, intolerable adverse effects or their thyroid disease or other conditions is misdiagnosed as depression.\n", "To find the most effective antidepressant medication with minimal side-effects, the dosages can be adjusted, and if necessary, combinations of different classes of antidepressants can be tried. Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50–75%, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to improvement. Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 16 to 20 weeks after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to one year of continuation is recommended. People with chronic depression may need to take medication indefinitely to avoid relapse.\n", "Numerous companies that invent and develop antipsychotic medications provided use of their medications and furnished funding for the project. Companies did not participate in the production of the guidelines. \n", "Section::::Limitations and strategies.:Augmentation and combination.\n\nFor a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association guidelines suggest augmentation, or adding a drug from a different class. These include lithium and thyroid augmentation, dopamine agonists, sex steroids, NRIs, glucocorticoid-specific agents, or the newer anticonvulsants.\n", "[researchers] reviewed 31 antidepressant efficacy trials to identify the primary exclusion criteria used in determining eligibility for participation. Their findings suggest that patients in current antidepressant trials represent only a minority of patients treated in routine clinical practice for depression. Excluding potential clinical trial subjects with certain profiles means that the ability to generalize the results of antidepressant efficacy trials lacks empirical support, according to the authors.\n\nSection::::In argumentation.\n", "Section::::Limitations and strategies.\n", "Following a declination or total extinction in response to a previously therapeutic dose of an antidepressant, the issue is clinically addressed as stemming from tolerance development. Several strategies are available, such as exploring drug options from a different drug class used to treat depression. The patient can also choose to switch to another SSRI (or MAOI, if applicable) while maintaining proportionate dose. If tolerance develops in a drug from the same class, the clinician may recommend a regular cycle consisting of all effective treatments within the SSRI or MAOI classes, in order to minimize transitional side effects while maximizing therapeutic efficacy.\n", "BULLET::::- Psychotic depression. In this indication it is a common practice for the psychiatrist to prescribe a combination of an atypical antipsychotic and an antidepressant as this practice is best supported by the evidence.\n\nBULLET::::- Treatment-resistant (and not necessarily psychotic) major depression as an adjunct to standard antidepressant therapy.\n\nThey are not recommended for dementia or insomnia unless other treatments have not worked. They are not recommended in children unless other treatments are not effective or unless the child has psychosis.\n", "‘funded by a pharmaceutical company (Servier) and two of its authors are employees of that company’, which may bias the results. The study authors’ note: \"emotional blunting is reported by nearly half of depressed patients on antidepressants and that it appears to be common to all monoaminergic antidepressants not only SSRIs\". Additionally, they note: \"The OQuESA scores are highly correlated with the HAD depression score; emotional blunting cannot be described simply as a side-effect of antidepressant, but also as a symptom of depression...More emotional blunting is associated with a poorer quality of remission...\"\n\nSection::::Medication.:Augmentation.\n", "Once a product is deemed cost-effective, a price negotiated (or applied in the case of a pricing model) and any risk-sharing agreement negotiated, the drug is placed on a drug list or formulary. Prescribers may choose drugs on the list for their patients, subject to any conditions or patient criteria.\n\nSection::::Formulary management.\n", "There is no agreed treatment protocol. In most reported cases of ORS the attempted treatment was antidepressants, followed by antipsychotics and various psychotherapies. Little data are available regarding the efficacy of these treatments in ORS, but some suggest that psychotherapy yields the highest rate of response to treatment, and that antidepressants are more efficacious than antipsychotics (response rates 78%, 55% and 33% respectively). According to one review, 43% of cases which showed overall improvement required more than one treatment approach, and in only 31% did the first administered treatment lead to some improvement.\n", "Section::::1998 SmithKline Beecham position paper.\n\nIn October 1998 the neurosciences division of SmithKline Beecham's Central Medical Affairs (CMAT) department distributed a position paper, \"Seroxat/Paxil Adolescent Depression: Position piece on the phase III clinical studies\", that discussed studies 329 and 377. The latter was a 12-week trial, comparing paroxetine and placebo in teenagers, conducted from 1995 to 1998.\n", "Several tools exist to help physicians decide when to deprescribe and what medications can be added to a pharmaceutical regimen. The Beers Criteria and the STOPP/START criteria help identify medications that have the highest risk of adverse drug events (ADE) and drug-drug interactions. The Medication appropriateness tool for comorbid health conditions during dementia (MATCH-D) is the only tool available specifically for people with dementia, and also cautions against polypharmacy and complex medication regimens.\n", "Section::::Family history.\n\nMany psychiatric disorders have a genetic component and the biological family history is thus relevant. Clinical experience also suggests that a response to treatment may have a genetic component as well. Thus a patient who presents with clinical depression whose mother also suffered from the same disorder and responded well to fluoxetine would indicate that this drug would be more likely to help in the patient's disorder.\n", "To obtain statistically significant results the FDA had to combine the results of 295 trials of 11 antidepressants for psychiatric indications. As suicidal ideation and behavior in clinical trials are rare, the results for any drug taken separately usually do not reach statistical significance.\n", "SSRIs are the primary medications prescribed, owing to their relatively mild side-effects, and because they are less toxic in overdose than other antidepressants. People who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another antidepressant, and this results in improvement in almost 50% of cases. Another option is to switch to the atypical antidepressant bupropion. Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs. However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first-line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents.\n", "The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor. The guidelines recommended that antidepressant treatment be considered for:\n\nBULLET::::- People with a history of moderate or severe depression,\n\nBULLET::::- Those with mild depression that has been present for a long period,\n\nBULLET::::- As a second-line treatment for mild depression that persists after other interventions,\n\nBULLET::::- As a first-line treatment for moderate or severe depression.\n", "Section::::Inquiries in the United Kingdom.:May 2003 GlaxoSmithKline briefing paper.\n\nIn February 2003 the MHRA's Committee on the Safety of Medicines (CSM) set up an Expert Working Group to investigate SSRIs and safety. In preparation for its first meeting, the MHRA met GSK on 21 May 2003 to make sure that GSK had supplied all information relevant to paroxetine and safety, and to discuss Jofre's second \"Panorama\" programme.\n", "Khantizan proposes that substances are not randomly chosen, but are specifically selected for their effects. For example, using stimulants such as nicotine or amphetamines can be used to combat the sedation that can be caused by higher doses of certain types of antipsychotic medication. Conversely, some people taking medications with a stimulant effect such as the SNRI antidepressants Effexor (venlafaxine) or Wellbutrin (bupropion) may seek out benzodiazepines or opioid narcotics to counter the anxiety and insomnia that such medications sometimes evoke.\n", "The guidelines further note that antidepressant treatment should be used in combination with psychosocial interventions in most cases, should be continued for at least six months to reduce the risk of relapse, and that SSRIs are typically better tolerated than other antidepressants.\n", "Like schedule 4 substances, the price of many Schedule substances are subsidized through the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), some of which may require an authority. In addition, in some states, all drugs on schedule 8 require a doctor to have an S8 permit before prescribing treatment. For example, in NSW the prescribing of Schedule 8 CNS stimulant medication (e.g., methylphenidate, dexamfetamine) requires authorisation from the NSW Ministry of Health (Pharmaceutical Services) and is generally restricted to specialists, such as paediatricians and psychiatrists. A GP (General Practitioner) cannot initiate the treatment, although they can prescribe in very limited circumstances, e.g. co-prescribing on behalf of the specialist; and in rural areas, if the patient has been diagnosed with ADHD, a GP may apply for the authority to prescribe. Patients who may require Schedule 8 CNS stimulant medication should be referred to a specialist for assessment. \n", "Common antidepressants:\n\nBULLET::::- Fluoxetine (Prozac), SSRI\n\nBULLET::::- Paroxetine (Paxil, Seroxat), SSRI\n\nBULLET::::- Citalopram (Celexa), SSRI\n\nBULLET::::- Escitalopram (Lexapro), SSRI\n\nBULLET::::- Sertraline (Zoloft), SSRI\n\nBULLET::::- Duloxetine (Cymbalta), SNRI\n\nBULLET::::- Venlafaxine (Effexor), SNRI\n\nBULLET::::- Bupropion (Wellbutrin), NDRI\n\nBULLET::::- Mirtazapine (Remeron), NaSSA\n\nBULLET::::- Isocarboxazid (Marplan), MAOI\n\nBULLET::::- Phenelzine (Nardil), MAOI\n\nBULLET::::- Tranylcypromine (Parnate), MAOI\n\nBULLET::::- Amitriptyline (Elavil), TCA\n\nSection::::Types.:Antipsychotics.\n", "A doctor is seeking an anti-depressant for a newly diagnosed patient. Suppose that, of the available anti-depressant drugs, the probability that any particular drug will be effective for a particular patient is p=0.6. What is the probability that the first drug found to be effective for this patient is the first drug tried, the second drug tried, and so on? What is the expected number of drugs that will be tried to find one that is effective?\n", "To find the most effective pharmaceutical drug treatment, the dosages of medications must often be adjusted, different combinations of antidepressants tried, or antidepressants changed. Response rates to the first agent administered may be as low as 50%. It may take anywhere from three to eight weeks after the start of medication before its therapeutic effects can be fully discovered. Patients are generally advised not to stop taking an antidepressant suddenly and to continue its use for at least four months to prevent the chance of recurrence.\n", "Section::::Limitations and strategies.:Switching antidepressants.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03956	Does an elevated heart rate from playing intense video games count as cardio?	Elevating your heart rate by itself isn't necessarily helpful. It's in conjunction with other aspects of exercise that it benefits you. Simply raising the heart rate alone puts stress upon the heart. Similarly, simply raising the heart rate via medications is not necessarily beneficial but can even be counterproductive. As an example, as muscles consume ATP during exercise, they release adenosine, which relaxes arteries. Without the exercise, those arteries don't relax, and your heart has to work harder just to do the same amount of work, without an improvement in efficiency.	[ "According to an article on interactive video games in physical education, many of these types of games are not just animated exercise. Many have different assessments and scores based on performance of skills. Some have heart rate monitors and estimate caloric expenditure. Others are designed with enhancing motor abilities in mind. Abilities such as balance, hand-eye coordination, agility and core strength are a few of the motor skills enhanced. These engaging and interactive games have the ability to teach kids about the some physiological functions of the body. One example is that these games can help show kids how their heart reacts to different activities by using the heart rate monitor within the game.\n", "Section::::Electrical.\n", "Many news outlets have reported how playing \"DDR\" can be good aerobic exercise; some regular players have reported weight loss of 10–50 pounds (5–20 kg). In one example, a player found that including \"DDR\" in her day-to-day life resulted in a loss of . Some other examples would be Matthew Keene's account of losing upwards of and Yashar Esfandi's claim of losing in four months through incorporation of \"DDR\". Although the quantity of calories burned by playing \"DDR\" have not been scientifically measured, the amount of active movement required to play implies that \"DDR\" provides at least some degree of healthy exercise.\n", "Aerobic condition is usually achieved through cardiovascular exercise such as running, swimming, aerobics, etc. A stronger heart does not pump more blood by beating faster but by beating more efficiently. Trained endurance athletes can have resting heart rates as low as the reported 28 beats per minute in people such as Miguel Indurain or 32 beats per minute of Lance Armstrong, both of whom were professional cyclists at the highest level.\n\nSection::::Cardiovascular conditioning.\n\nAerobic conditioning trains the heart to be more effective at pumping blood around the body, it does this in a multitude of ways:\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Cardiovascular fitness.:Cardiovascular disease.\n\nA 2015 meta-analysis comparing HIIT to moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) in people with coronary artery disease found that HIIT leads to greater improvements in VO max but that MICT leads to greater reductions in body weight and heart rate. A 2014 meta-analysis found that the cardiorespiratory fitness, as measured by VO max, of individuals with lifestyle-induced chronic cardiovascular or metabolic diseases (including high blood pressure, obesity, heart failure, coronary artery disease, or metabolic syndrome) who completed a HIIT exercise program was nearly double that of individuals who completed a MICT exercise program.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Metabolic effects.\n", "An independent study conducted by the University of Salford found that vigorboarding resulted in an average increase in heart rate of 227% and a 535% increase in energy expenditure. The study also concluded that vigorboarding results in a 233% greater energy expenditure (407kcal/hr) than walking at 3 mph (174.5kcal/hr).\n\nIn its conclusion, the authors of the university study went on to say, 'Vigorboarding may be a useful alternative to increasing physical activity levels and energy expenditure, especially for individuals that do not wish to participate in the usual sports or activities performed by adolescents.'.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Freeline skates\n\nBULLET::::- Skateboard\n", "Section::::Cardistry-Con.\n", "On December 18, 2008, Héctor Rodriguez, of California, USA, scored a world record 95,350 points. Rodriguez beat the 23-year-old record of 95,040 points set on June 30, 1985 by Kelly Kobashigawa, of Los Angeles, during Twin Galaxies' 1985 Video Game Masters Tournament in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.\n", "Understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and other categories of conditioning requires a review of changes that occur with increased aerobic, or anaerobic capacity. As aerobic/anaerobic capacity increases, general metabolism rises, muscle metabolism is enhanced, haemoglobin rises, buffers in the bloodstream increase, venous return is improved, stroke volume is improved, and the blood bed becomes more able to adapt readily to varying demands. Each of these results of cardiovascular fitness/cardiorespiratory conditioning will have a direct positive effect on muscular endurance, and an indirect effect on strength and flexibility.\n", "Exercise testing, commonly performed on a treadmill or stationary bicycle, can help to diagnose CPVT. During the test, those with CPVT often experience ectopic beats, which may progress to bidirectional and then polymorphic ventricular tachycardia as the intensity of exercise increases. Some of those suspected of having CPVT, such as young children, may not be able to perform an exercise tolerance test. In these cases, alternative forms of testing include adrenaline provocation testing, during which adrenaline is infused into a vein at gradually increasing doses under close supervision and ECG monitoring. Additionally, long term or Holter ECG monitoring can be performed, although this form of testing is less likely to detect an arrhythmia. Invasive electrophysiological studies do not provide useful information to help diagnose CPVT or to assess the risk of life-threatening arrhythmias.\n", "Gibala's group published a less intense version of their regimen in a 2011 paper in \"Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise\". This was intended as a gentler option for sedentary people who had done no exercise for over a year. It included 3 minutes of warm-up, 10 repetitions of 60-second bursts at 60% peak power (80–95% of heart rate reserve) each followed by 60 seconds of recovery, and then a 5-minute cool-down.\n\nSection::::Branch.:Zuniga regimen.\n", "A 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that HIIT training and traditional endurance training both lead to significantly improved cardiovascular fitness in healthy adults ages 18–45 but greater improvements in VO max were seen in those participating in the HIIT exercise regimen. Another analysis also found that HIIT regimens of one month or longer effectively improve cardiovascular fitness in adolescents and lead to moderate improvements in body composition. Furthermore, a separate systematic review and meta-analysis of seven small randomized controlled trials found that HIIT (defined as four intervals of four minutes at 85–95% of max heart rate with three-minute intervals at 60–70% of max heart rate) was more effective than moderate-intensity continuous training at improving blood vessel function and markers of blood vessel health.\n", "Cardiooncology\n\nCardiooncology or Cardiovascular Oncology (also \"Cardioncology\") is an interdisciplinary field of medicine by which are studied the molecular and clinical alterations in cardiovascular system during the different methods of treatment of cancer specially chemo- and targeted therapy.\n", "Rhythm games have been used for health purposes. For example, research has found that dancing games dramatically increase energy expenditure over that of traditional video games, and that they burn more calories than walking on a treadmill. Scientists have further suggested that, due to the large amount of time children spend playing video games and watching television, games that involve physical activity could be used to combat obesity. Studies have found that playing \"Dance Dance Revolution\" can provide an aerobic workout, in terms of a sufficiently intense heart rate, but not the minimum levels of VO2 max. Based on successful preliminary studies, West Virginia, which has one of the highest rates of obesity and its attendant diseases in the US, introduced \"Dance Dance Revolution\" into its schools' physical education classes. According to \"The New York Times\", more than \"several hundred schools in at least 10 states\" have used \"Dance Dance Revolution\" (along with \"In the Groove\") in their curricula. Plans have been made to increase the number into the thousands in an effort to mitigate the country's obesity epidemic. Arnold Schwarzenegger, former Governor of California, was a noted proponent of the game's use in schools. In Japan, celebrities reported losing weight after playing \"Dance Dance Revolution\", which drove sales of the game's home console version. Bemani's testers also found themselves losing weight while working on the game. There is further anecdotal evidence that these games aid weight loss, though the University of Michigan Health System has cautioned that dance games and other exergames should only be a starting point towards traditional sports, which are more effective. Dance games have also been used in rehabilitation and fall-prevention programs for elderly patients, using customised, slower versions of existing games and mats. Researchers have further experimented with prototypes of games allowing wider and more realistic stepping than the tapping actions found in commercial dance games.\n", "Falling from a height, walking into ghosts or taking damage from other hazards will cause the screen to flash red and increase the rate of your heartbeat, which is heard in-game. Running for too long will make you tired and also increase the rate of your heartbeat.\n", "Apart from \"Saint Seiya\", many popular anime, manga and tokusatsu series has been made into Carddass, the most famous ones being \"Bleach\", \"Toriko\", \"Hunter x Hunter\", \"Digimon\", \"Dr. Slump\", \"Dragon Ball\", \"Kinnikuman\", \"Gin Tama\", \"Black Butler\", \"Code Geass\", \"Soul Eater\", \"Fullmetal Alchemist\", \"Gundam\", \"Kamen Rider\", \"Naruto\", \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\", \"One Piece\", \"Revolutionary Girl Utena\", \"YuYu Hakusho\", \"Ranma ½\", \"Sailor Moon\", \"InuYasha\", \"Slam Dunk\", \"Konjiki no Gash Bell!!\", \"Rurouni Kenshin\", \"Ultraman\", and \"Yu-Gi-Oh!\" (the Carddass game is based on Toei's anime and is not to be confused with Konami's card game). \n", "Section::::Career.:MicroCSP.\n", "Fitness Boxing comes with charts that determines estimated fitness age and calorie burn based on the height and weight of the player. The game will periodically request the player to update their height and weight. The routine, length and intensity of daily workouts can be adjusted by the player at any time.\n", "Aerobic exercise\n\nAerobic exercise (also known as cardio) is physical exercise of low to high intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process. \"Aerobic\" means \"relating to, involving, or requiring free oxygen\", and refers to the use of oxygen to adequately meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism. Generally, light-to-moderate intensity activities that are sufficiently supported by aerobic metabolism can be performed for extended periods of time. What is generally called aerobic exercise might be better termed \"solely aerobic\", because it is designed to be low-intensity enough so that all carbohydrates are aerobically turned into energy.\n", "It is part of both Nintendo's Touch! Generations brand and the \"Personal Trainer\" series. It is one of only two Nintendo DS titles to support Mii characters, the other being the Japan-only \"Tomodachi Collection\".\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\n\"Personal Trainer: Walking\" allows up to four users to track their walking, jogging or running activities through a series of graphs, charts and statistics, as well as set goals for themselves. The game is packaged with two infrared pedometers that communicate to the game the user's walking data. Additional pedometers will be sold separately.\n", "According to a study published in the Journal of Physical Activity and Health, the aerobics portion of \"Wii Fit\" was not sufficient to maintain a heart rate of the recommended intensity (known in sports physiology as a target heart rate) for maintaining cardiorespiratory fitness.\n", "In 2008 the gym name changed to Sport Science Lab (SSL) and was located at San Juan Capistrano, California. Under Sports Science Lab, Marinovich's unique training system was called the Neuromuscular Intensification System. At some point between 2008–2010 Marinovich stopped being associated with SSL.\n", "The P.I. is based on the ratio between average oxygen consumption (VO) and average heart rate as a percentage of maximum heart rate during exercise. Further formula_1, where METs is calories used per hour divided by weight in kilograms. More specifically, this formula is used to calculate the P.I.:\n\nformula_2\n\nAs can be seen from the above formula, the P.I. is heavily dependent on the calculation of maximum heart rate. Technogym equipment calculates maximum heart rate as 220 minus age. Thus the calculated P.I. of an individual will drop year by year even if the performance itself does not change.\n", "In July 2018, a study published by LSU's Pennington Biomedical Research Center shows that some video games can decrease or control obesity, lower the blood pressure and cholesterol in children if followed with proper coaching and a step tracker.\n\nSection::::Public concern and formal study.:General critiques on addiction research.\n", "To date, Mitchell has a single publicly witnessed \"Donkey Kong\" high score of 933,900 from 2004. In August 2018, Mitchell recorded himself playing on an arcade cabinet and scored 1,047,500 on a Twitch live stream.\n\nSection::::Career.:Notable scores.\n" ]	[ "Elevating your heart rate alone is cardio.", "Raising the heart rate by playing video games is enough to be considered cardio. " ]	[ "Cardio is more than just an elevated heart rate. The excercise has many more effects than just increasing your heart rate that contribute to the benefits that cardio provides.", "Raising the heart rate is simply not enough to count as cardio. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Elevating your heart rate alone is cardio.", "Raising the heart rate by playing video games is enough to be considered cardio. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cardio is more than just an elevated heart rate. The excercise has many more effects than just increasing your heart rate that contribute to the benefits that cardio provides.", "Raising the heart rate is simply not enough to count as cardio. " ]
2018-18645	What makes volcanoes erupt and explode so violently?	TL;DR: It's not 'lava flowing up' that does it. It's gas, under tremendous pressure due to crazy amounts of heat and pressure from below. [The (original) Mythbusters makes an excellent analogy with their hot water heater experiments]( URL_0 ). They basically disable all of the safeties on a standard water heater and pump up its temperature to the boiling point until the pressure builds and builds as the water converts from liquid to gas. Then the water heater erupts in absolutely spectacular fashion. (Skip to 1:30 to see it) They figured out 335 pounds per square inch is the magic pressure point for the heater to blow. Now, translate this to a volcano under certain circumstances and pretend you have a MASSIVE plug of solid rock above this gigantic bubble of gas that's created within this special type of explosive volcano. Basalt - volcanic rock - weighs a pound for roughly every fourteen inch by one inch by one inch block. So jam a chimney that's a couple thousand feet thick above this bubble of crazy pressure gas, and you have way more than the pressure that this water heater gets in the video. Keep adding more and more gas pressure over time as the area continues to heat up from the lava that's below it and it gets hotter and hotter... ...and when it fails, it's going to fail. Incredibly, gigantically and horribly, lifting all that rock in a truly gigantic explosion. Not all volcanoes produce gas like this, and not all of them have giant plugs that prevent the pressure from being released more gradually. Explosive ones are rare... but by golly when they go, they REALLY go.	[ "Magmatic eruptions produce juvenile clasts during explosive decompression from gas release. They range in intensity from the relatively small lava fountains on Hawaii to catastrophic Ultra-Plinian eruption columns more than high, bigger than the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 that buried Pompeii.\n\nSection::::Magmatic eruptions.:Hawaiian.\n", "Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength. On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions, which are characterized by lava fountains and fluid lava flows, which are typically not very dangerous. On the other extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent, and highly dangerous explosive events. Volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style, and frequently display many different types, both passive and explosive, even in the span of a single eruptive cycle. Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak, either. Some volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure eruptions. Notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start from rift zones, and some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along fracture zones. Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the chamber before climbing upward—a process estimated to take several thousands of years. But Columbia University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica's Irazú Volcano in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the mantle over just a few months.\n", "Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian eruptions) are a type of volcanic eruption, named for the historical eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD that buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and, specifically, for its chronicler Pliny the Younger. The process powering Plinian eruptions starts in the magma chamber, where dissolved volatile gases are stored in the magma. The gases vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the magma conduit. These bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size (about 75% of the total volume of the magma conduit) they explode. The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated magma up, forming an eruptive column. Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas contents of the column, and low-strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of the eruption, forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster.\n", "Molten rock (either magma or lava) near the atmosphere releases high-temperature volcanic gas (400 °C). \n\nIn explosive volcanic eruptions, the sudden release of gases from magma may cause rapid movements of the molten rock. When the magma encounters water, seawater, lake water or groundwater, it can be rapidly fragmented. The rapid expansion of gases is the driving mechanism of most explosive volcanic eruptions. However, a significant portion of volcanic gas release occurs during quasi-continuous quiescent phases of active volcanism.\n\nSection::::Low-temperature volcanic gases and hydrothermal systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Supervolcano\n\nBULLET::::- Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt\n\nBULLET::::- Volcanic arc\n\nBULLET::::- Volcanic Explosivity Index\n\nBULLET::::- Volcanic winter\n\nBULLET::::- Year Without a Summer\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Newhall, Christopher G., Dzurisin, Daniel (1988); Historical unrest at large calderas of the world, USGS Bulletin 1855, p. 1108 \n\nBULLET::::- Siebert L., and Simkin T. (2002–). Volcanoes of the World: an Illustrated Catalog of Holocene Volcanoes and their Eruptions. Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program, Digital Information Series, GVP-3, (http://www.volcano.si.edu/).\n\nBULLET::::- United States Geological Survey; Cascades Volcano Observatory, Vancouver, Washington; Index to CVO online volcanoes\n", "Timeline of volcanism on Earth\n\nThis timeline of volcanism on Earth is a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission around the Quaternary period.\n", "BULLET::::- The strongest types of eruptions, with a VEI of 8, are so-called \"Ultra-Plinian\" eruptions, such as the one at Lake Toba 74 thousand years ago, which put out 2800 times the material erupted by Mount St. Helens in 1980.\n\nBULLET::::- Hekla in Iceland, an example of basaltic Plinian volcanism being its 1947–48 eruption. The past 800 years have been a pattern of violent initial eruptions of pumice followed by prolonged extrusion of basaltic lava from the lower part of the volcano.\n", "Phreatic eruptions (or steam-blast eruptions) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of steam. When cold ground or surface water come into contact with hot rock or magma it superheats and explodes, fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of steam, water, ash, volcanic bombs, and volcanic blocks. The distinguishing feature of phreatic explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit; no new magma is erupted. Because they are driven by the cracking of rock strata under pressure, phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption; if the rock face is strong enough to withstand the explosive force, outright eruptions may not occur, although cracks in the rock will probably develop and weaken it, furthering future eruptions.\n", "Short eruptions can end in less than a day, but longer events can continue for several days or months. The longer eruptions begin with production of clouds of volcanic ash, sometimes with pyroclastic surges. The amount of magma erupted can be so large that it depletes the magma chamber below, causing the top of the volcano to collapse, resulting in a caldera. Fine ash and pulverized pumice can deposit over large areas. Plinian eruptions are often accompanied by loud noises, such as those generated by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. The sudden discharge of electrical charges accumulated in the air around the ascending column of volcanic ashes also often causes lightning strikes as depicted by the English geologist George Julius Poulett Scrope in his painting of 1822.\n", "Initial Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short-lived explosions, lasting a few minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of volcanic bombs and blocks. These eruptions wear down the lava dome holding the magma down, and it disintegrates, leading to much more quiet and continuous eruptions. Thus an early sign of future Vulcanian activity is lava dome growth, and its collapse generates an outpouring of pyroclastic material down the volcano's slope.\n", "In explosive eruptions, the eruption of magma is driven by the rapid release of pressure, often involving the explosion of gas previously dissolved within the material. The most famous and destructive historical eruptions are mainly of this type. An eruptive phase can consist of a single eruption, or a sequence of several eruptions spread over several days, weeks or months. Explosive eruptions usually involve thick, highly viscous, silicic or felsic magma, high in volatiles like water vapor and carbon dioxide. Pyroclastic materials are the primary product, typically in the form of tuff. Eruptions the size of that at Lake Toba 74,000 years ago, at least , or the Yellowstone eruption 620,000 years ago, around , occur worldwide every 50,000 to 100,000 years.\n", "Phreatomagmatic eruption\n\nPhreatomagmatic eruptions are volcanic eruptions resulting from interaction between magma and water. They differ from exclusively magmatic eruptions and phreatic eruptions. Unlike phreatic eruptions, the products of phreatomagmatic eruptions contain juvenile (magmatic) clasts. It is common for a large explosive eruption to have magmatic and phreatomagmatic components.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n", "BULLET::::- Kiloannum (ka), is a unit of time equal to one thousand years. Megaannum (Ma), is a unit of time equal to one million years, one can assume that \"ago\" is implied.\n\nSection::::Notes.:Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI).\n\nSection::::Notes.:Volcanic dimming.\n", "There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions, and some scientists believe that fuel-coolant reactions may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal contraction. Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by propagating stress waves, widening cracks and increasing surface area that ultimately leads to rapid cooling and explosive contraction-driven eruptions.\n\nSection::::Phreatomagmatic eruptions.:Surtseyan.\n", "Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian, followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest eruptions are called \"Ultra-Plinian.\" Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types.\n\nSection::::Eruption mechanisms.\n\nVolcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions\n", "However the most dangerous eruptive feature are the pyroclastic flows generated by material collapse, which move down the side of the mountain at extreme speeds of up to per hour and with the ability to extend the reach of the eruption hundreds of kilometers. The ejection of hot material from the volcano's summit melts snowbanks and ice deposits on the volcano, which mixes with tephra to form lahars, fast moving mudslides with the consistency of wet concrete that move at the speed of a river rapid.\n\nMajor Plinian eruptive events include:\n", "There are three different types of eruptions. The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward. Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma, the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The third eruptive type is the phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma; these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of existing rock.\n", "Often a precursor of future volcanic activity, phreatic eruptions are generally weak, although there have been exceptions. Some phreatic events may be triggered by earthquake activity, another volcanic precursor, and they may also travel along dike lines. Phreatic eruptions form base surges, lahars, avalanches, and volcanic block \"rain.\" They may also release deadly toxic gas able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption.\n\nVolcanoes known to exhibit phreatic activity include:\n\nBULLET::::- Mount St. Helens, which exhibited phreatic activity just prior to its catastrophic 1980 eruption (which was itself Plinian).\n\nBULLET::::- Taal Volcano, Philippines, 1965.\n", "The largest and most prominent shield volcano chain in the world is the Hawaiian Islands, a chain of hotspot volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiian volcanoes are characterized by frequent rift eruptions, their large size (thousands of km in volume), and their rough, decentralized shape. Rift zones are a prominent feature on these volcanoes, and account for their seemingly random volcanic structure. They are fueled by the movement of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot, and form a long chain of volcanoes, atolls, and seamounts long with a total volume of over . The chain contains at least 43 major volcanoes, and Meiji Seamount at its terminus near the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench is 85 million years old. The volcanoes follow a distinct evolutionary pattern of growth and death.\n", "BULLET::::- Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90 ka; last eruption was more than of tephra.\n\nBULLET::::- Sierra La Primavera volcanic complex (size: 11 km wide), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 95 ka; of Tala Tuff.\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 120 ka; of tephra.\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 140 ka; of tephra.\n\nBULLET::::- Puy de Sancy, Massif Central, central France; it is part of an ancient stratovolcano which has been inactive for about 220,000 years.\n\nBULLET::::- Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 233 ka; more than of tephra.\n", "BULLET::::- June 11, 2009, Sarychev Peak (?), Kuril Islands, 400 tons of tephra, VEI 4\n\nBULLET::::- June 12–15, 1991 (eruptive climax), Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 11,000 ±0.5 tons of tephra, VEI 6\n\nBULLET::::- Global cooling: 0.5 °C,\n\nBULLET::::- March 28, 1982, El Chichón, Mexico, 2,300 tons of tephra, VEI 5\n\nBULLET::::- October 10, 1974, Volcán de Fuego, Guatemala, 400 tons of tephra, VEI 4\n\nBULLET::::- February 18, 1963, Mount Agung, Lesser Sunda Islands, 100 tons of lava, more than 1,000 tons of tephra, VEI 5\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Hemisphere cooling: 0.3 °C,\n", "BULLET::::- McDermitt volcanic field, or Orevada rift volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon, nearby are: McDermitt, Trout Creek Mountains, Bilk Creek Mountains, Steens Mountain, Jordan Meadow Mountain (6,816 ft), Long Ridge, Trout Creek, and Whitehorse Creek.\n\nBULLET::::- Emmons Lake stratovolcano (caldera size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, was formed through six eruptions. Mount Emmons, Mount Hague, and Double Crater are post-caldera cones.\n", "Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kilauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in \"populated areas\" appear many times: so Santorini, six times and Yellowstone hotspot, twenty-one times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too.\n\nIn addition to the events listed below, are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula, which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward.\n\nSection::::Large Quaternary eruptions.\n", "Plinian eruptions are similar to both Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions, except that rather than creating discrete explosive events, Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns. They are also similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in that both eruptive types produce sustained eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as the magma surrounding them.\n", "The sudden release of pressure causes the gases in the magma to suddenly froth and create volcanic ash and pumice, which is then ejected through the volcanic vent to create the signature eruption column commonly associated with explosive eruptions. The size and duration of the column depends on the volume of magma being released and how much pressure the magma was under.\n\nSection::::Stages of an explosive eruption.:Types of explosive eruption.\n\nBULLET::::1. Vulcanian eruption\n\nBULLET::::2. Peléan eruption\n\nBULLET::::3. Plinian eruption\n\nBULLET::::4. Phreatomagmatic eruption and Phreatic eruption\n\nBULLET::::1. Surtseyan eruption\n\nBULLET::::- Consequences:\n\nBULLET::::- Eruption column\n\nBULLET::::- Pyroclastic flow\n\nBULLET::::- Pyroclastic fall\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14769	How do they come up with thousands of puzzles for puzzle games?	Usually by finding a theme that can be varied a bit in multiple ways and then building suites of related puzzles, which also lets them implement difficulty curves. Also, there have been countless puzzles already invented, some very classic. You can get a lot of your work done by researching.	[ "The game has no pause feature or motion controls, and there is no formal tutorial. Hidden between the puzzles are a few ciphers—incomprehensible text to be decoded through substitution cipher and other methods. The endless mode unlocks when the 100 puzzles are complete, and features a series of randomly generated levels.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\n\"Hundreds\" is a puzzle game developed and published by Semi Secret Software: Adam Saltsman of \"Canabalt\", Greg Wohlwend of \"Puzzlejuice\", composer Scott Morgan (also known as Loscil), and developer Eric Johnson.\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 \"Hink Pink Monsters\" by Mike Thaler, illustrated by Fred Winkowski 0-590-40697-3\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 \"Mr. Banana Head at Home\" written & illustrated by Mike Thaler\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 \"Riddle King's Giant book of Jokes, Riddles & Activities\" written & illustrated by Mike Thaler\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 \"Riddle King's Jumbo book of Jokes Riddles & Activities\" written & illustrated by Mike Thaler\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 \"Riddle King's Super book of Jokes Riddles & Activities\" written & illustrated by Mike Thaler\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 Software: \"Minescape Riddle Magic\" by Mike Thaler, software designer Janet Pullen apple\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Emperor’s New Clothes\", narrated by Joan Collins\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Snow Queen\", narrated by Joanna Lumley\n\nBULLET::::- \"Little Claus and Big Claus\", narrated by Michael Caine\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Little Mermaid\", narrated by David Walliams\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thumbelina\", narrated by Charlotte Rampling\n\nBULLET::::- \"It's Quite True!\", narrated by Paul McKenna\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Nightingale\", narrated by Michael Ball\n\nSection::::Games.\n\nKILOO has created games licensed from brands and companies such as:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maya the Bee and Friends\" for mobile – 2006\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" for mobile – 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Happy Tree Friends\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whac-a-mole\" for iPhone\n\nBULLET::::- \"Commodore 64\" for iPhone\n", "The most memorable puzzle in the TDC line has been \"LOST\". Based on the incredibly popular hit TV show on ABC, the \"LOST\" puzzles consist of four 1000 piece puzzles with secret information about the show hidden inside. In 2011, and in keeping with the \"gimmicks\", TDC added a line of Major League Baseball mini puzzles (which include tweezers) and pennant shaped jigsaw puzzles suitable for framing.\n\nSection::::History.:AWARDS.\n\n2000 Make Your Own Opoly: Hobby Outlook Educational Item of the Year Award\n\n2007 \"Fat Brain Award\"\n", "BULLET::::- Memorable Events/Puzzles: A puzzle that used an interactive Virtual Earth map to locate items hidden on campus (two members of the organizing team had to fly an airplane over the Microsoft campus with a high-resolution digital camera to get the level of detail down to 3cm per pixel, allowing each puzzle answer to indicate a 6-foot square region where an item was hidden). A puzzle that had you build a quinoa-powered analog computer that produced a phone number.\n", "In 2018, the company released a time management game — Cooking Diary. On March 19, 2019 Cooking Diary won \"People's Choice Award\" at the 15th International Mobile Gaming Awards.\n\nThe game is available on two platforms: Apple AppStore and Google Play.\n\nSection::::Games.:Ravenhill.\n\nIn 2018, the company released a hidden object game — Ravenhill: Hidden Mystery.\n\nThe game is available on Apple AppStore and Google Play.\n\nSection::::Games.:Riddleside.\n\nIn 2019, the company released a match-3 project - Riddleside: Fading Legacy.\n\nThe game is available on Apple AppStore.\n\nSection::::Games.:Manastorm.\n", "The games programmed by the users include such games as 4D Tic-Tac-Toe, FreeCell, Rubik's Cube, Teeko, Mancala, Alice Chess, Chess960, Hexagonal chess, Star Trek Tridimensional Chess and Sokoban. Besides various games and puzzles, there are also educational ZRFs, such as the cellular automata Game of Life, a calculator, and some Turing machine simulations.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\n\"Zillions of Games\" can be used for the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Playing any of the games or puzzles that come with it.\n\nBULLET::::- Playing any of the free games and puzzles that have been programmed for it by users.\n", "BULLET::::- Lonpos puzzles have a digital version on Nintendo WiiWare and the Apple App Store.\n\nSection::::Product.:Lonpos puzzles.\n\nLonpos has designed and published a puzzle series which includes the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Rectangular puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Pyramid puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Colorful Cabin puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Crazy Cone puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Cosmic Creature puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Crazy Chain puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Crazy Collect puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Cubic Code puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Clever Choice puzzle series\n\nBULLET::::- Lonpos Coco Cross puzzle series\n\nSection::::Other names.\n\nEducational toy company Educational Insights sells Lonpos under the name \"Kanoodle\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Conjurer\" (2009) - Programmed by Mystery Studio, developed by FreezeTag\n\nBULLET::::- \"Murder, She Wrote\" (2009) - Programmed by Mystery Studio, developed by Legacy Interactive\n\nBULLET::::- \"CSI: New York\" (2008) - Programmed by Mystery Studio, developed by Legacy Interactive, published by UbiSoft\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lavender's Botanicals\" (2008) - Developed by Mystery Studio, published by uClick\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lost Cases of Sherlock Holmes\" (2008) - Programmed by Mystery Studio, developed by Legacy Interactive, published by uClick\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brain Spa\" (2007) Programmed by Mystery Studio, developed by Legacy Interactive, published by UbiSoft\n\nBULLET::::- \"Breaking News\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cathy's Caribbean Club\" (2007)\n", "Not long after it came to market in late 1998, users of \"Zillions of Games\" began to program new games and puzzles for it, creating many of them themselves. Two large collections of Zillions Rules Files (ZRFs) soon began to appear. One was at the \"Zillions-of-Games\" website, and the other was at the \"Chess Variant Pages\" website. The former collected together every kind of ZRF, whereas the latter focused on ZRFs for chess variants. As of November 2017, the ZILLIONS interface had 2,577 ZRF's, created by 462 ZRF authors, and the Chess Variant Pages collection had 794 ZRF's of chess variants.\n", "\"Games\" has had two rather large contest series in the past that have since been discontinued. The first contest was a scavenger hunt that ran in yearly installments; items in the hunt were usually not rare but difficult to determine what exactly was needed (requiring some puzzle solving or research) or hard to acquire. Winners were determined based on the most objects collected and fitting the requirements. A second long-running contest was \"Calculatrivia\", where a long equation, of approximately 40 variables, was given, and each variable was associated with a clue that resulted in some numerical value. The clues were usually straightforward to interpret, but the required information would take considerable research effort to identify. When all variables were accounted for, the equation was to be worked out, and the final value mailed into \"Games\" along with a list of the individual values.\n", "BULLET::::- Participants: 35 teams, 275 players\n\nBULLET::::- Hosted by: TLA (Bruce Leban, Dan Westreich, Gordon Dow, Jason Woolever, Matthew Kotler, Roy Leban, Sam Sherry, Sarita James, Scott Ruthfield, and Shannon Talbott)\n\nBULLET::::- Won by: Killer Bees\n\nBULLET::::- Awards: Gold, silver and bronze medals\n\nBULLET::::- Memorable Events/Puzzles: This first hunt was a three-day hunt, running Friday afternoon to Sunday night. The event was three rounds (Bronze, Silver, Gold). Killer Bees won the Gold round, the Silver Round, and the hunt. United Farm Workers won the Bronze round.\n\nSection::::Puzzlehunt II: Age of Puzzles (April 1-2, 2000).\n", "BULLET::::- 2009-2011 - \"The Sims 3 (Made by The Sims Studio Subsidiary of Maxis)\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 – \"Darkspore\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – \"SimCity\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 - \"The Sims 4 (Made by The Sims Studio Subsidiary of Maxis)\n\nBULLET::::- 2017-2019 – \"The Sims Mobile\"(In May 2019,the game was transferred to Firemonkeys Studios.)\n\nPublisher\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – \"A-Train\" – Artdink\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 – \"El-Fish\" – AnimaTek\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 – \"\" – Firstlight\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 – \"SimHealth\" – Thinking Tools\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 - \"Klik & Play\" - Europress\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 – \"SimTower: The Vertical Empire\" – OPeNBooK\n", "CGE has released Codenames Gadget, a mobile app to randomly generate layouts of agents.\n\nSection::::Success.\n\nThe game reached the 17th (out of more than 84000) position in the BoardGameGeek ranking of games of all time, and first position in the BGG party games ranking.br\n\nIt won the 2016 Spiel des Jahres (Game of the year), the most prestigious game award worldwide.\n\n\"Codenames Duet\" won a Golden Geek award for the best two player game of 2017.\n", "mFortune Casino features only original games created by the Intouch Games team of designers, coders, developers and testers. The list of games is added to every 4-6 weeks on average. \n", "In 2004 42 Entertainment produced \"I Love Bees\", the prequel to the Xbox game \"Halo 2\". Other projects followed in 2005, such as (client in parentheses) \"Hex 168\" (Microsoft Gaming Studios/Xbox 360), \"MSN Found\" (Windows Live Search) and \"Last Call Poker\" (Activision’s GUN). In 2006, the company created \"Dead Man’s Tale\", an interactive game for Windows Messenger and Disney’s \"Pirates of the Caribbean\".\n", "In May 2014, three new single-player tagging games were added to the Metadata Games suite from the British Library in order to enable public users to explore and tag the British Library’s collection of over one million public domain images, which the Library posted on Flickr Commons in 2013.\n", "Though metapuzzles have existed in some form for many Mystery Hunts, the structure regarding how the puzzles combine into metapuzzles and how puzzles are released varies. For example, in the 2006 Hunt, \"antepuzzles\" provided access to new rounds, whose answers were derived from pieces of information attached to the round puzzles, but otherwise irrelevant to them (for example, the colors in which the puzzle titles were printed); in the 2009 Hunt, apart from the shorter introductory rounds, each main round had a unique structure and way of releasing new puzzles. In some Hunts, such as 1999's and 2008's, solvers are not told which sets of puzzles must be combined to create metapuzzles; figuring out the correct groupings is part of the puzzle.\n", "In July 2012, Black Forest Games started a Kickstarter campaign for a new installment of \"The Great Giana Sisters\" tentatively titled \"Project Giana\" stating, \"Project Giana is the grandchild of The Great Giana Sisters.\" The game features music from \"The Great Giana Sisters\" original composer Chris Hülsbeck and the Swedish \"SID metal\" band Machinae Supremacy. \"Giana Sisters: Twisted Dreams\" was released on October 23, 2012 for PC with later releases on Xbox Live Arcade, PlayStation Network, Nintendo eShop, and possibly Ouya.\n\nSection::::Games developed.:\"Giana Sisters: Dream Runners\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Giant Book of Whodunit Puzzles and Giant Book of Puzzles for Young Einsteins\" (2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pocket Puzzlers: Whodunits\" (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Little Giant Book of Math Puzzles\" (2000)\n\n36 Cube\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Incredible Machine\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"World of Goo\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bridge Craft Story\"\n\nSection::::Algorithmic.\n\nBULLET::::- \"SpaceChem\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"KOHCTPYKTOP: Engineer of the People\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Codex of Alchemical Engineering\"\n\nBULLET::::- Manufactoria\n\nBULLET::::- \"Human Resource Machine\"\n\nBULLET::::- 7 Billion Humans\n\nSection::::Multiple puzzle types.\n\nBULLET::::- \"3 in Three\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Azada\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Big Brain Academy\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blue Toad Murder Files\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Castle of Dr. Brain\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dr. Brain series\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Castles (video game)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Castle Breakout\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Machinarium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"MILO\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Professor Layton\" series\n\nBULLET::::- Puzzle Agent 1 & 2\n\nBULLET::::- \"Puzzle Panic\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Smart Games Challenge\" series\n\nBULLET::::- \"The 7th Guest\"\n", "Once a player has successfully demonstrated a device that completes the goals of the puzzle, they are ranked with all other players based on three factors: the speed of the device, the cost of the device, and the total area that the device takes. Player can then attempt alternate solutions that improve in any of these areas. Completed devices can be exported into an animated GIF to be shared on social media.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" shows the number = \"1\" in the calculator.\n\nThe result of multiple Easter eggs may be calculated; for example: \"\" will return \"43\".\n\nSection::::Search engine.:Image search.\n\nBULLET::::- A Google image search for \"\" starts a game of \"Breakout\", using the gallery of image results as bricks. Once the bricks are destroyed, a random phrase is automatically searched, the player will add the extra ball, and the game will restart.\n\nSection::::Google Maps and Google Earth.\n", "The current editorial team includes Jennifer Orehowsky, with help from Kappa Publishing editor Karen Powell. Graphic designers include Kevin Boone. Former \"Games\" Editor-at-Large Thomas L. McDonald handles the review department.\n\nSection::::World of Puzzles.\n", "The base game features 1000 Sudoku puzzles grouped by difficulty, as well as various modes, customizable grids and multiplayer. 200 more puzzles are available for download from the Go! Sudoku official website, and players can add their own custom backgrounds to the games.\n\nSection::::Bugs.\n" ]	[ "Puzzle games only use new puzzles. " ]	[ "Puzzle games use puzzles that have already been invented as well as new puzzles. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Puzzle games only use new puzzles. ", "Puzzle games only use new puzzles. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Puzzle games use puzzles that have already been invented as well as new puzzles. ", "Puzzle games use puzzles that have already been invented as well as new puzzles. " ]
2018-04766	Since cuts and abrasions are easily infected, why do many military's require that men stay clean-shaven?	It was originally meant to make sure your gas-mask had an airtight seal on your face, or so I was told in the military.	[ "Armies may also require males to maintain clean-shaven faces as facial hair can prevent an air-tight seal between the face and breathing or safety equipment, such as a pilot's oxygen mask, a diver's mask, or a soldier's gas mask.\n\nSection::::Other reasons.:In sport.\n", "Those with skin conditions such as pseudofolliculitis barbae or severe acne are allowed to maintain short facial hair with the permission of a doctor or medic, but no shaping is allowed, only trimming with an electric razor, or approved regular razor. 1/8 - 1/4 of an inch (3.2 mm) is usually the standard for this condition.\n\nSection::::Americas.:United States.:Exceptions for religious accommodation.\n", "The militaries of the United States, Russia, and several other countries have welcomed their recruits by giving them haircuts using hair clippers with no guard attached. As of 2011, shaved heads continued to be standard haircuts in the United States Air Force, United States Marine Corps, United States Army, and the United States Coast Guard during basic/recruit training – upon graduation from training, grooming restrictions are relaxed in accordance with each service's regulations. In Greece, this practice was abolished on June 25, 1982, when the military started allowing recruits to have up to 4 cm of hair. Before then, the regulation haircut in the Greek army for recruits was \"en hro\" (an archaic phrase for \"shaved to the bone\").\n", "On 10 November 1970, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Elmo Zumwalt explicitly authorized beards for active duty Naval personnel, in his Z-gram number 57, \"Elimination of Demeaning or Abrasive Regulation,\" although his position was that they were already implicitly allowed based on policy changes made by his predecessor, Thomas H. Moorer:\n", "Religious laws and traditions regarding grooming have made both hair and beards visible religious symbols for many faith groups, including Sikhs for whom \"Kesh,\" \"unshorn hair,\" is one of the \"Five Ks\"—5 compulsory \"articles of faith\" for baptized Sikhs. Other faith groups, including Judaism and Islam, include certain groups that believe shaving is permitted and other groups that believe it is not. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is an example of a faith group that takes the opposite approach, strongly encouraging some or all of its members to shave. In some cases shaving is mandated for some members, including those engaging in their missionary service, or studying or working at the church-sponsored Brigham Young University.\n", "A close-cropped or completely shaven haircut is common in military organizations. In field environments, soldiers are susceptible to infestation of lice, ticks, and fleas. In addition, short hair is also more difficult for an enemy to grab hold of in hand-to-hand combat, and short hair makes fitting gas masks and helmets easier.\n", "Section::::Europe.:Norway.\n\nThe Royal Guard is required to be clean-shaven. Most operative personnel are not allowed to wear beards (so as not to interfere with gas masks) unless:\n\nBULLET::::- The soldier obtains express permission to grow his beard from a high-ranking officer.\n\nBULLET::::- The soldier already has a beard upon his enlistment and requests to continue growing it or maintain it at its present length.\n\nAlthough, in the enduring operations in Afghanistan, many soldiers have grown full beards\n\nSection::::Europe.:Russia.\n", "The motivation for the regulation prohibiting beard is that it interferes with the gas-mask and makes it difficult to achieve a perfect air-tight fit. Shorter beard and gun grease or ointment is one remedy but will increase the time for the application of the gas-mask which in turn will put bearded personnel at increased risk of exposure.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Turkey.\n\nAll Turkish Armed Forces personnel are required to be clean-shaven at all times.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Ukraine.\n", "However, for many other religiously observant Jews, even such compromises are unacceptable—because for them the prohibition is \"non-negotiable\". They base their beliefs on the ruling of rabbis such as the \"Tzemach Tzedek\", a past leader of the Chabad movement, who wrote that \"any means of removing hair from a man's face is forbidden.\" That is the position taken by Menachem Stern—that he is \"strictly prohibited from shaving or removing\" his facial hair \"in any manner.\" In his original application for the chaplaincy, he wrote that \"by not trimming my beard, I represent the unadulterated view of the holy Torah, the way we believe a person should live.\"\n", "Many observant Jews follow opinions by religious authorities who do not see beards as an absolute religious requirement, and at least one Orthodox rabbi, Shmuel Felzenberg, from the community known as Chabad—a group for whom beards are normally considered required—made the decision to shave (a very difficult decision for him, he admits) in order to serve as a military chaplain after discussing the matter with the rabbi he considers his teacher and mentor. Even though he says that shaving—even with the approval of his teacher—\"was ultimately a strong, bitter pill to swallow\", he does it in order to be \"afforded the opportunity to serve.\" However, he says he uses an electric razor, the approach to shaving that is least objectionable in terms of Jewish law (rather than a razor, which all rabbinic authorities agree is prohibited based on traditional Jewish law), and \"from the moment\" he goes on leave to \"the moment\" he must return to duty, he does not shave.\n", "BULLET::::- Gauntlet Gloves (): White Gauntlet Gloves served to protect the hands while destroying obstacles.\n\nBULLET::::- Beard (): Since the pionniers were the first to mount combat assaults, their life expectancy was very minimal. Accordingly, from that principle, they reserved the right, when deploying to combat, to not shave and would come back bearded when they survived. The wearing of the beard became mandatory in the French Foreign Legion in 1844.\n", "1. Those demeaning or abrasive regulations generally referred to in the fleet as \"Mickey Mouse\" or \"Chicken\" regs have, in my judgment, done almost as much to cause dissatisfaction among our personnel as have extended family separation and low pay scales. I desire to eliminate many of the most abrasive policies, standardize others which are inconsistently enforced, and provide some general guidance which reflects my conviction that if we are to place the importance and responsibility of \"the person\" in proper perspective in the more efficient Navy we are seeking, the worth and personal dignity of the individual must be forcefully reaffirmed. The policy changes below are effective immediately and will be amplified by more detailed implementing directives to be issued separately.br\n", "Section::::Asia.:Lebanon.\n\nBeards are not allowed in the Lebanese Armed Forces. Only trimmed moustaches that don't pass the upper lip are permitted.\n\nSection::::Asia.:Pakistan.\n\nBeards are permitted in Pakistan Army. They are allowed only on special request is approved. The requests are generally for religious reasons or for health reasons, such as acne or skin allergy. Once the form has been approved applicant is not allowed to shave back. There is a special allowance for bigger moustaches but they must be neat and trimmed.\n\nSection::::Asia.:Nepal.\n", "Excluding limited exemptions for religious accommodation, the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps have policies that prohibit beards on the basis of hygiene and the necessity of a good seal for chemical weapon protective masks. The official position is that uniform personal appearance and grooming contribute to discipline and a sense of camaraderie.\n\nAll branches of the U.S. Military currently prohibit beards for a vast majority of recruits, although some mustaches are still allowed, based on policies that were initiated during the period of World War I.\n", "In the Serbian Armed Forces neatly trimmed mustaches are the only facial hair permitted, remaining of the face must be cleanly shaved in every occasion except when legitimate reasons prevent it (e.g. winter field operations, war operations), but soldiers do have to shave the first chance that situation permits. Priests of any denomination are allowed to have beards if their religion requires it, but it still has to be trimmed and well groomed.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Sweden.\n", "As his division prepared to ship out, Mattis called in \"experts on the Middle East\" for \"cultural sensitivity training\". He constantly toured the battlefield to tell stories of Marines who were able to show \"discretion in moments of high pressure\". As an apparent example, he encouraged his Marines to grow moustaches to look more like the people they were working with.\n", "A shaved head continues to be commonplace in the United States military. There have been traditions spawned from shaving a service member's head. Most notable is the tradition of shaving one's head when a service member enters the Mediterranean Sea by ship for the first time, known as \"Med Head\".\n\nSection::::Contexts.:Prison and punishment.\n\nPrisoners commonly have their heads shaven, to prevent the spread of lice, but may also be used as a demeaning measure.\n\nHaving the head shaved can be a punishment prescribed in law.\n", "Hair styles in military organisations usually follow civilian fashions, but sometimes certain features are associated with soldiers. In the late 19th century, the ornate beards and moustaches worn by the officers of the day, which complemented their rank and age, were also worn by socially equivalent civilians. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the \"high and tight\" haircut often distinguished low-ranking soldiers, particularly infantrymen, or, in the United States, Marines and Soldiers of all ranks. The principal purpose, however, of the \"high and tight\" is to prevent lice and promote general hygiene. Modern regulations against beards also ensure a good seal is made around the face when using a gas mask.\n", "Mustaches are generally allowed in both the military and police forces (except for those undergoing basic training), so long as they are well-groomed. U.S. Army regulations, for example, require that a mustaches be \"neatly trimmed, tapered, and tidy\", and that \"no portion of the mustache will cover the upper lip line, extend sideways beyond a vertical line drawn upward from the corners of the mouth...or extend above a parallel line at the lowest portion of the nose.\"\n", "Some military spokespersons have cited concerns that beards might interfere with gas masks, but those in favor of beards have challenged those concerns, and some experts note that the application of vaseline to the beard can provide the mask's required seal. In one case, before being allowed to deploy to the First Gulf War, Jewish Chaplain Jacob Goldstein (an army reservist who has been granted a waiver to wear a beard) had to prove that he could don his mask safely and securely within the same 8-second time period given to others—and Goldstein (who says \"the mask issue is bogus\") showed that he could. Gas masks do vary from one nation to another, and it has been reported that even masks manufactured in Israel, a nation where they are routinely distributed to citizens, may not work properly for men with facial hair. While special \"beard-friendly\" masks that cover the entire head of the wearer are manufactured there, a reported shortage has driven that nation's Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi to rule that ultra-orthodox Jews can shave or trim their beards in order to ensure that their masks fit, and urged them to carry scissors with them so that they can shave quickly in the event of a chemical or biological gas attack.\n", "According to Professor Penny Jolly, who has studied \"social trends in appearance,\" beards \"were eliminated in the US military in WWI due to the need to wear gas masks. Razors were issued in GI kits, so men could shave themselves on the battlefield.\" However, the link between the requirement to shave and the use of gas masks has been called only one of \"several theories.\" Other theories include the fact that the massive build-up of the military for WWI brought with it many men from rural areas, and this \"sudden concentration of recruits in crowded army induction centers brought with it disease, including head lice. Remedial action was taken by immediately shaving the faces and cutting the hair of all inductees upon their arrival.\"\n", "Section::::Oceania.\n\nSection::::Oceania.:Australia.\n\nBeards are normally not allowed in the Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force, however, neatly trimmed moustaches and sideburns are allowed. Regulations apply, however. The moustache can not be grown past the top lip. The sideburns are not to be past the point where the bottom of the ear connects to the facial skin. In some circumstances though such as medical or religious reasons, beards may be permitted. Exceptions to this rule however are assault pioneers and special forces that are on missions.\n", "Prior to the 1980s — and from the time of Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Elmo Zumwalt's \"Z-grams\" numbers 57 and 70, in early November 1970 and late January 1971 respectively, permitting their presence on all United States Navy personnel until the timeframe of Ronald Reagan's presidency — the United States Armed Forces allowed beards while in uniform. However, due to a change in regulations, the U.S. Armed Forces rescinded permission for beards in uniform, except for those who commenced their service in the military before 1986. As the beard is a requirement according to the Rehat Maryada, the current regulation has created a regulatory barrier that has kept observant Sikh men from serving in the United States Armed Forces in large numbers. \n", "The wearing of beards by Assault Pioneers has also been a traditional practice at various times in infantry battalions of British and Commonwealth armies, such as those of Australia and Canada. This tradition began in the French Army (possibly in Napoleonic times) and was one of the dress practices adopted by the British after their defeat of Napoleon in 1815 (along with the Foot Guards bearskin headdress). In the Australian and Canadian armies, on special occasions some battalions may still parade a ceremonial detachment of assault pioneers in historical uniforms wearing leather aprons, gauntlets and gaiters, and carrying the various tools of their trade such as felling axes, crosscut saws, hatchets and billhooks, picks and shovels.\n", "Beards to a certain length were traditionally permitted in the Iraqi security forces, however, a ban was brought into effect in April 2012 due to public associations between beards and certain sectarian militias in Iraq. As a result of the change Iraqi soldiers and police must now be clean shaven.\n\nUnder the rule of Saddam Hussein, beards were not allowed in the army and in military service, only a mustache.\n\nSection::::Asia.:Israel.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11554	If things expand when they're hot, than why does water expand when frozen?	Water also expands as it get hotter. However, due to an odd quirk of physics, the liquid form of water at 0 C takes up less space than the solid form. This is not true for most substances, water is one of the few exceptions.	[ "Absorption or desorption of water (or other solvents) can change the size of many common materials; many organic materials change size much more due to this effect than due to thermal expansion. Common plastics exposed to water can, in the long term, expand by many percent.\n\nSection::::Coefficient of thermal expansion.\n", "Liquids in general, expand on heating. However water is an exception to this general behaviour: below 4 °C it contracts on heating. For higher temperature it shows the normal positive thermal expansion. The thermal expansion of liquids is usually higher than in solids because of weak intermolecular forces present in liquids.\n\nThermal expansion of solids usually shows little dependence on temperature, except at low temperatures, whereas liquids expand at different rates at different temperatures.\n\nSection::::Expansion in liquids.:Apparent and absolute expansion of a liquid.\n", "Section::::Expansion.\n\nSome substances, such as water and bismuth, expand when frozen.\n\nSection::::Freezing of living organisms.\n", "The expansion of liquids is usually measured in a container. When a liquid expands in a vessel, the vessel expands along with the liquid. Hence the observed increase in volume of the liquid level is not actual increase in its volume. The expansion of the liquid relative to the container is called its \"apparent expansion\", while the actual expansion of the liquid is called \"real expansion\" or \"absolute expansion\". The ratio of apparent increase in volume of the liquid per unit rise of temperature to the original volume is called its \"coefficient of apparent expansion\".\n", "Section::::Examples and applications.\n\nThe expansion and contraction of materials must be considered when designing large structures, when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected.\n", "The volume of a quantity of liquid is fixed by its temperature and pressure. Liquids generally expand when heated, and contract when cooled. Water between 0 °C and 4 °C is a notable exception.\n", "Measurement of the expansion of a liquid must account for the expansion of the container as well. For example, when a flask with a long narrow stem, containing enough liquid to partially fill the stem itself, is placed in a heat bath, the height of the liquid column in the stem will initially drop, followed immediately by a rise of that height until the whole system of flask, liquid and heat bath has warmed through. The initial drop in the height of the liquid column is not due to an initial contraction of the liquid, but rather to the expansion of the flask as it contacts the heat bath first. Soon after, the liquid in the flask is heated by the flask itself and begins to expand. Since liquids typically have a greater expansion over solids, the expansion of the liquid in the flask eventually exceeds that of the flask, causing the level of liquid in the flask to rise. A direct measurement of the height of the liquid column is a measurement of the apparent expansion of the liquid. The absolute expansion of the liquid is the apparent expansion corrected for the expansion of the containing vessel.\n", "Thermal expansion can have a noticeable effect on gasoline stored in above-ground storage tanks, which can cause gasoline pumps to dispense gasoline which may be more compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in winter, or less compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in summer.\n\nHeat-induced expansion has to be taken into account in most areas of engineering. A few examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- Metal-framed windows need rubber spacers.\n", "Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at a standard pressure of 1 atm, water is a liquid between . Increasing the pressure slightly lowers the melting point, which is about at 600 atm and at 2100 atm. This effect is relevant, for example, to ice skating, to the buried lakes of Antarctica, and to the movement of glaciers. (At pressures higher than 2100 atm the melting point rapidly increases again, and ice takes several exotic forms that do not exist at lower pressures.)\n", "Section::::Overview.:Factors affecting thermal expansion.\n\nUnlike gases or liquids, solid materials tend to keep their shape when undergoing thermal expansion.\n", "A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges; this is usually called negative thermal expansion, rather than \"thermal contraction\". For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 °C and then becomes negative below this temperature; this means that water has a maximum density at this temperature, and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather. Also, fairly pure silicon has a negative coefficient of thermal expansion for temperatures between about 18 and 120 kelvins.\n", "When liquid water is cooled, its temperature falls steadily until it drops just below the line of freezing point at 0 °C. The temperature then remains constant at the freezing point while the water crystallizes. Once the water is completely frozen, its temperature continues to fall.\n", "Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at \"higher\" temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: For some pressures higher than , water freezes at a temperature \"below\" 0 °C, as shown in the phase diagram below. The melting of ice under high pressures is thought to contribute to the movement of glaciers.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nThere are many potential applications for materials with controlled thermal expansion properties, as thermal expansion causes many problems in engineering, and indeed in everyday life. One simple example of a thermal expansion problem is the tendency of dental fillings to expand by an amount different from the teeth, for example when drinking a hot drink, causing toothache. If dental fillings were made of a composite material containing a mixture of materials with positive and negative thermal expansion then the overall expansion could be precisely tailored to that of tooth enamel.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "However, even with this definition it is not clear whether \"freezing\" refers to the point at which water forms a visible surface layer of ice; the point at which the entire volume of water becomes a solid block of ice; or when the water reaches . A quantity of water can be at and not be ice; after enough heat has been removed to reach more heat must be removed before the water changes to solid state (ice), so water can be liquid or solid at .\n", "BULLET::::- If the pressure is kept constant (for instance, at the ambient atmospheric pressure), and the sample is allowed to expand, the expansion generates work as the force from the pressure displaces the enclosure or the surrounding fluid. That work must come from the heat energy provided. The specific heat thus obtained is said to be measured at constant pressure (or isobaric), and is often denoted formula_20, formula_21, formula_22, etc.\n", "Most materials that are fluid at common temperatures expand when they are heated, becoming less dense. Correspondingly, they become denser when they are cooled. At the heat source of a system of natural circulation, the heated fluid becomes lighter than the fluid surrounding it, and thus rises. At the heat sink, the nearby fluid becomes denser as it cools, and is drawn downward by gravity. Together, these effects create a flow of fluid from the heat source to the heat sink and back again. \n", "Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday. It occurs only for substances such as ice, that have the property of expanding upon freezing, for the melting points of those substances decrease with the increasing external pressure. The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 °C for each additional atm of pressure applied. For example, a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at −4 °C.\n\nSection::::Surface melting.\n", "For small and equal rises in temperature, the increase in volume (real expansion) of a liquid is equal to the sum of the apparent increase in volume (apparent expansion) of the liquid and the increase in volume of the containing vessel. Thus a liquid has \"two\" coefficients of expansion.\n", "BULLET::::3. When a liquid boils it turns into a gas. The resulting gas takes up far more space than the liquid did.\n", "Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal, atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as CO, propane, and other similar industrial gases have boiling temperatures, at atmospheric pressure, far below room temperature. In the case of water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressurized chamber of water is heated far beyond the standard . That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, is capable of holding \"liquid\" water at very high temperatures.\n", "In crustaceans, it has been proposed that the explanation for the increase in size with depth is similar to that for the increase in size with latitude (Bergmann's rule): both trends involve increasing size with decreasing temperature. The trend with latitude has been observed in some of the same groups, both in comparisons of related species as well as within widely distributed species. Decreasing temperature is thought to result in increased cell size and increased life span (the latter also being associated with delayed sexual maturity), both of which lead to an increase in maximum body size (continued growth throughout life is characteristic of crustaceans). In Arctic and Antarctic seas where there is a reduced vertical temperature gradient, there is also a reduced trend towards increased body size with depth, arguing against hydrostatic pressure being an important parameter.\n", "Not all volumetric expansion is caused by the pressure of the freezing water; it can be caused by stresses in water that remains unfrozen. When ice growth induces stresses in the pore water that breaks the rock, the result is called hydrofracture. Hydrofracturing is favoured by large interconnected pores or large hydraulic gradients in the rock. If there are small pores, a very quick freezing of water in parts of the rock may expel water, and if the water is expelled faster than it can migrate, pressure may rise, fracturing the rock.\n", "A supersolid skin that is elastic, hydrophobic, thermally more stable covers both water and ice. The skins of water and ice are characterized by an identical H-O stretching phonons of 3450 cm^-1. Neither the case of liquid forms on ice nor ice layer covers water, but the supersolid skin slipperizes ice and toughens the water skin\n\nHydrogen bond (O:H-O) relaxation under compression. Compression shortens and stiffens the O:H nonbond and simultaneously lengthens and softens the H-O covalent bond, and negative pressure effect oppositely \n\nMelting point is proportional to the cohesive energy of the covalent bond. Therefore, compression lower the Tm.\n", "This quantity may be convenient for materials that are commonly measured by volume rather than mass, as is often the case in engineering and other technical disciplines. The volumetric heat capacity often varies with temperature, and is different for each state of matter. While the substance is undergoing a phase transition, such as melting or boiling, its volumetric heat capacity is technically infinite, because the heat goes into changing its state rather than raising its temperature. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05469	Are tea and coffee metabolized the same way water and dry herbs/beans would be separately? Does the water undergo a chemical change when it steeps/brews? About what percent of the initial water is metabolized by the body normally?	Tea and coffee are not metabolized in the same way that the dry herbs or beans would be because only some of the substances in the herbs/beans are leeched out into the water. The water doesn't undergo a chemical change but rather dissolves chemicals from within the brewed substance. The body doesn't really metabolize water, it metabolizes the substances carried within the water.	[ "Tea also contains theanine and the stimulant caffeine at about 3% of its dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per 8 oz (250 ml) cup depending on type, brand and brewing method. Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline. Dry tea has more caffeine by weight than dry coffee; nevertheless, more dry coffee than dry tea is used in typical drink preparations, which results in a cup of brewed tea containing significantly less caffeine than a cup of coffee of the same size.\n", "Tea leaves can be processed in different ways resulting in a drink which appears and tastes different. Chinese yellow and green tea are steamed, roasted and dried; Oolong tea is semi-oxidised and appears green-black and black teas are fully oxidised.\n\nAround the world, people refer to other herbal infusions as \"teas\"; it is also argued that these were popular long before the \"Camellia sinensis\" shrub was used for tea making. Leaves, flowers, roots or bark can be used to make a herbal infusion and can be bought fresh, dried or powdered.\n\nSection::::In culture.\n\nSection::::In culture.:Places to drink.\n", "Caffeine can also be extracted from coffee beans and tea leaves using a direct organic extraction. The beans or leaves can be soaked in ethyl acetate which favorably dissolves the caffeine, leaving a majority of the coffee or tea flavor remaining in the initial sample.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Multistage countercurrent continuous processes.\n", "Caffeine constitutes about 3% of tea's dry weight, translating to between and per 8-oz (250-ml) cup depending on the type, brand, and brewing method. A study found that the caffeine content of of black tea ranged from , while the caffeine content of of green tea ranged from , reflecting a significant difference. Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline, which are stimulants, and xanthines similar to caffeine.\n", "In general, dark-roast coffee has very slightly less caffeine than lighter roasts because the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean by a small amount.\n\nSection::::Products.:Beverages.:Tea.\n\nTea contains more caffeine than coffee by dry weight. A typical serving, however, contains much less, since less of the product is used as compared to an equivalent serving of coffee. Also contributing to caffeine content are growing conditions, processing techniques, and other variables. Thus, teas contain varying amounts of caffeine.\n", "Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, \"gyokuro\", for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like \"lapsang souchong\", which has very little.\n\nSection::::Products.:Beverages.:Soft drinks and energy drinks.\n", "There is distinctive chemistry within the Theaceae family. Sometimes, single crystals of calcium oxalate are present in Theaceous plants. Ellagic acid and common polyphenols including flavonols, flavones and proanthocyanins are widely distributed throughout the family. Gallic acid and catechins only occur in \"Camellia\" sect. \"Thea (C. sinensis, C. taliensis\" and \"C. irrawadiensis\".) Caffeine and its precursors theobromine and theophylline are only found in sect. \"Thea\" and are not found in other species of \"Camellia\" or other Theaceae. Caffeine content in the tea bush makes up 2.5-4% of the leaf's dry weight, and this high content of catechins and caffeine in the tea bush is the result of artificial selection by humans for these characters. Triterpenes and their glycosides (saponins) are found widely throughout the family in the seeds, leaves, wood and bark. Plants in this family are also known to accumulate aluminum and fluoride.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n\nAccording to a 2007 study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, the composition of cannabis tea is affected by criterion including, but not limited to, the duration of time over which the cannabis is steeped, the volume of tea prepared, and the period of time for which the tea is stored before consumption. The study mentions the ways in which levels of THC and THCA impact variability of composition by changing the bioactivity of the beverage. Therefore, cannabis teas that include less bioactive cannabinoids, \"based on HPLC peak area\" will demonstrate varying compositions.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "In addition to CO process extraction, tea may be also decaffeinated using a hot water treatment. Optimal conditions are met by controlling water temperature, extraction time, and ratio of leaf to water, where higher temperatures at or over 100 °C, moderate extraction time of 3 minutes, and a 1:20 water to leaf weight per volume ratio removed 83% caffeine content and preserved 95% of total catechins. Catechins, a type of flavanols, contribute to the flavor of the tea and have been shown to increase the suppression of mutagens that may lead to cancer.\n", "Extraction depends in subtle and complex ways on brewing method. Simplest is directly mixing the grounds and water, as in cupping, press pot, and vacuum brewing. Note that in Turkish coffee, the grounds are very finely ground and not removed from the water – this yields essentially 100% extraction of the solubles (over-extraction by Western standards), and suspension of the remaining insoluble parts of the grounds in the water. Significantly more complicated is brewing via soaking a column of grounds, as in filter, espresso, or percolation – in this case the water soaks and moves through the column of grounds, and (if there is water on top, as in espresso or percolation), a gradient develops over the column.\n", "Because the ground coffee beans in cold-brewed coffee never come into contact with heated water, the process of leaching flavor from the beans produces a chemical profile different from conventional brewing methods. Coffee beans contain a number of constituent parts that are more soluble at higher temperatures, such as caffeine, oils and fatty acids. Brewing at a lower temperature results in lower acidity and lower caffeine content when brewed in equal volume. It is around 65 to 70 percent less acidic than hot drip coffee or espresso, per part. Although less caffeine is extracted with the cold brew method, a higher coffee-to-water ratio is often used, between 2 and 2 1/2 times. This may compensate for this difference in solubility, resulting in a brew with equal, if not more, caffeine (although this is unlikely).\n", "Tea may also be decaffeinated, usually by using processes analogous to the direct method or the CO process, as described above. The process of oxidizing tea leaves to create black tea (\"red\" in Chinese tea culture) or oolong tea leaves from green leaves does not affect the amount of caffeine in the tea, though tea-plant subspecies (i.e., \"Camellia sinensis sinensis\" vs. \"Camellia sinensis assamica\") may differ in natural caffeine content. Younger leaves and buds contain more caffeine per weight than older leaves and stems. Although the CO process is favorable because it is convenient, nonexplosive, and nontoxic, a comparison between regular and decaffeinated green teas using supercritical carbon dioxide showed that most volatile, nonpolar compounds (such as linalool and phenylacetaldehyde), green and floral flavor compounds (such as hexanal and (\"E\")-2-hexenal), and some unknown compounds disappeared or decreased after decaffeination.\n", "The term herbal tea refers to drinks not made from \"Camellia sinensis\": infusions of fruit, leaves, or other parts of the plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile, or rooibos. These are sometimes called \"tisanes\" or \"herbal infusions\" to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Coffee-leaf tea is an herbal tea prepared from the leaves of the coffee plant (either \"Coffea robusta\" or \"Coffea arabica\"). These leaves, after being roasted, can be ground up or crumpled, then brewed or steeped in hot water in a form similar to tea. The resulting beverage is similar in taste to green tea, but with less caffeine content than either regular tea or coffee. Coffee leaves closely resemble the leaves and stalks of Paraguay tea (\"Ilex paraguariensis\"). In some regions, such as Sumatra and Ethiopia, only the leaves are taken from the coffee plant and the berries are left on the bush.\n", "BULLET::::- coffee bean tea, a tisane made from the seeds of the coffee plant\n\nBULLET::::- Cerasse, bitter Jamaican herb\n\nBULLET::::- Citrus peel, including bergamot, lemon and orange peel\n\nBULLET::::- Dandelion coffee\n\nBULLET::::- Dill tea\n\nBULLET::::- Dried lime tea, made from dried limes, is popular in western Asia\n\nBULLET::::- Echinacea tea\n\nBULLET::::- Elderberry\n\nBULLET::::- European Mistletoe (\"Viscum album\"), (steep in cold water for 2–6 hours)\n\nBULLET::::- Essiac tea, blended herbal tea\n\nBULLET::::- Fennel\n\nBULLET::::- Gentian\n\nBULLET::::- Ginger root, can be made into herbal tea, known in the Philippines as \"salabat\"\n", "Certain processes during normal production might help to decrease the caffeine content directly, or simply lower the rate at which it is released throughout each infusion. Several instances in China where this is evident is in many cooked pu-erh teas, as well as more heavily fired Wuyi Mountain oolongs; commonly referred to as 'zhonghuo' (mid-fired) or 'zuhuo' (high-fired).\n\nA generally accepted statistic is that a cup of normal black (or red) tea contains 40–50 mg of caffeine, roughly half the content of a cup of coffee.\n", "Assuming a generation of 12 years, Chinese small leaf tea is estimated to have diverged from Assam tea around 22,000 years ago while Chinese Assam tea and Indian Assam tea diverged 2,800 years ago. The divergence of Chinese small leaf tea and Assam tea would correspond to the last glacial maximum.\n", "The company's teas fall into seven categories: Green, Black, Oolong, Herbal Infusion, Decaffeinated, Flavored, and Tea Master’s. All of the teas are hand-blended at its facility in Camarillo, California. The Chai Tea Latte, one of the chain's most popular drinks, was first served in 1998. In March 2014, the company introduced its Tea Granita beverage in two flavors, Pear Berry and Passion Fruit.\n\nDavid DeCandia, the company's master tea blender, is responsible for sourcing, development and internal education on tea.\n\nSection::::Products.:CBTL single-serve system.\n", "Herbal teas, or tisanes, are the resultant liquid of extracting herbs into water, though they are made in a few different ways. Infusions are hot water extracts of herbs, such as chamomile or mint, through steeping. Decoctions are the long-term boiled extracts, usually of harder substances like roots or bark. Maceration is the cold infusion of plants with high mucilage-content, such as sage or thyme. To make macerates, plants are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left to stand for 7 to 12 hours (depending on herb used). For most macerates, 10 hours is used.\n", "Wet pile fermented pu'er has higher levels of caffeine and much higher levels of gallic acid compared with traditionally aged raw pu'er. Additionally, traditionally aged pu'er has higher levels of the antioxidant and carcinogen-trapping epigallocatechin gallate as well as (+)-catechin, (–)-epicatechin, (–)-epigallocatechin, gallocatechin gallate, and epicatechin gallate than wet pile fermented pu'er. Finally, wet pile fermented puer has much lower total levels for all catechins than traditional pu'er and other teas except for black tea which also has low total catechins.\n\nSection::::Processing.:Pressing.\n", "Section::::Preparation.:Green tea.\n\nIn regions of the world that prefer mild beverages, such as the Far East, green tea is steeped in water around . Regions such as North Africa or Central Asia prefer a bitter tea, and hotter water is used. In Morocco, green tea is steeped in boiling water for 15 minutes.\n\nThe container in which green tea is steeped is often warmed beforehand to prevent premature cooling. High-quality green and white teas can have new water added as many as five or more times, depending on variety, at increasingly higher temperatures.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Oolong tea.\n", "Jay Isais, Coffee Bean's senior director of coffee, oversees the quality of the blending and roasting of all the company's beans. A founding member of the Roasters' Guild, he joined Coffee Bean in 2000. He is one of approximately 400 licensed Q graders worldwide, passing an exam of sensory tests administered by the Specialty Coffee Association of America's CQI division.\n\nSection::::Products.:Teas.\n", "A subtler issue is \"which\" solubles are dissolved – this depends on solubility of different substances at different temperatures, changes over the course of extraction (different substances are extracted during the first 1% of extraction than in the period from 19% extraction to 20% extraction), and is primarily affected by \"temperature.\"\n", "A widely used ceremonial method of steeping oolongs in Taiwan and China is called gongfucha. This method uses a small steeping vessel, such as a gaiwan or Yixing clay teapot, with more tea than usual for the amount of water used. Multiple short steeps of 20 seconds to 1 minute are performed; the tea is often served in one- to two-ounce tasting cups.\n\nSection::::Caffeine.\n\nOolong generally contains caffeine, although the caffeine content in tea will vary based on terroir, when the leaf is plucked, and the production processes.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese tea culture\n\nBULLET::::- List of Chinese teas\n", "Pu'er teas are often collectively classified in Western tea markets as post-fermentation, and in Eastern markets as black teas, but there is general confusion due to improper use of the terms \"oxidation\" and \"fermentation\". Typically black tea is termed \"fully fermented\", which is incorrect as the process used to create black tea is oxidation and does not involve microbial activity. Black teas are fully oxidized, green teas are unoxidized, and Oolong teas are partially oxidized to varying degrees.\n\nAll pu'er teas undergo some oxidation during sun drying and then become either:\n" ]	[ "Water is metabolized by the body." ]	[ "Water is not metabolized by the body, it metabolizes the substances within the water." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Water is metabolized by the body." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Water is not metabolized by the body, it metabolizes the substances within the water." ]
2018-00035	Why do printers make the paper warm?	Laser printers work by charging certain areas of an image drum so that toner sticks to them. > After the toner sticks to the paper, it goes through a heating element which melts the toner particles and fuses them to the paper. ~~The laser used to charge the drum also heats it up. When the paper rolls over the drum, some of the heat transfers to it.~~	[ "There are several types of thermal printers, among them and marketed at present time as \"Tattoo transfer copiers\", there are two main types made by different manufactures: Thermo-head type and Heat lamp type\n\nSection::::Thermo-head type.\n\nThe black parts on the original sheet, once scanned, make the copier activate the heating elements that produce some chemical reactions on the \"thermo-sensitive\" copy paper that darkens its surface\n", "Process: A special \"heat sensitized\" paper is fed into the copier in direct contact to the original. There is a strong lamp within the machine that heats both original and the \"heat sensitized\" copy paper. Due to its absorption of heat strokes of black colour areas in the original are hotter than the white areas which reflect light and do not become so hot. These black areas of the original being hot and pressed against the copy paper, make areas with \"heat-sensitive\" substrate in contact with them to become darker.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Process: A special \"thermo-sensitive\" paper is fed into the copier at the same time but in indirect contact to the original. The thermo-sensitive paper is actually feed between the thermal head and the platen. The copier, while scanning the original, sends an electric current to some selected heating elements of the thermal head, which generate heat. The heated elements correspond to the black areas of the original and, being pressed against the copy paper, make the areas they touch on the \"thermo-sensitive\" substrate, to become darker.\n\nSection::::Heating lamp type.\n", "A thermal printer comprises these key components:\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal head: generates heat; prints on paper\n\nBULLET::::- Platen: a rubber roller that feeds paper\n\nBULLET::::- Spring: applies pressure to the thermal head, causing it to contact the thermosensitive paper\n", "The ink must be heated, and a large portion of the printing mechanism must be kept at or near the ink's melting point during use. When the printer is in \"sleep mode\", most units keep a small pool of each color wax within the printhead heated to a temperature just above the ink's \"freeze point\". According to the Xerox service manual, this consumes about 50 watts.\n", "Texas Instruments invented the thermal print head in 1965, and the Silent 700, a computer terminal with a thermal printer, was released in the market in 1969. The Silent 700 was the first thermal print system that printed on thermal paper. During the 1970s, Hewlett-Packard integrated thermal paper printers into the design of its HP9800 series desktop computers, and integrated it into the top of the 2600-series CRT terminals as well as in plotters.\n", "BULLET::::- Thermal Transparencies - They have a layer of silver salt / silver halide. When any part of it is heated it becomes dark brown\n\nBULLET::::- Heat shield for silk-screen printing. These screens have a special emulsion. When heated, the emulsion is burned revealing silk screen.\n\nBULLET::::- Paper Masters for alcohol copiers. Of great use today in the tattoo technique. Each master has 4 sheets\n\nBULLET::::- The top sheet is white. This is the layer where the image will be transferred.\n", "Thermal paper\n\nThermal paper, can be referred as Audit roll, is a special fine paper that is coated with a material formulated to change color when exposed to heat. It is used in thermal printers and particularly in inexpensive or lightweight devices such as adding machines, cash registers, and credit card terminals.\n", "Section::::Variants.:Tektronix/Xerox solid-ink printers.\n", "Thermal copier\n\nA thermal copier or thermocopier (used as a Tattoo transfer copier) is a kind of photocopier based on the effect of heat. The original sheet feeds in conjunction with the \"thermo-sensitive\" paper, generating a copy on its specially treated surface. The black parts on the original sheet, once scanned, make the copier activate the heating elements that produce some chemical reactions on the \"thermo-sensitive\" copy paper that darkens its surface. After the process, a stable black-and-white image is obtained on the cooled film or paper.\n", "Thermal printing\n\nThermal printing (or direct thermal printing) is a digital printing process which produces a printed image by selectively heating coated thermochromic paper, or thermal paper as it is commonly known, when the paper passes over the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. Two-color direct thermal printers can print both black and an additional color (often red) by applying heat at two different temperatures.\n\nThermal transfer printing is a very different method that uses a heat-sensitive ribbon instead of heat-sensitive paper, but uses similar thermal print heads.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, thermal transfer, laser printing, electrophotography, and, to a lesser extent, ink jet printing began to take away industrial and warehouse barcode applications due to better durability. Direct thermal made a strong comeback with point of sale receipts (gasoline pumps, cash registers, rental car receipts, etc.).\n\nDuring 1998, Nintendo used thermal paper technology for their Game Boy Printer.\n\nIn 2006, NCR Corporation's Systemedia division introduced two-sided thermal printing technology, called \"2ST\".\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n\nFour different types of imaging chemicals are used in thermally sensitive papers: leuco dyes, developers, sensitizers and stabilizers.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.:Leuco Dyes.\n", "So-called \"solid ink\" or \"phaser\" printers were developed by Tektronix and later by Xerox (who acquired Tektronix's printer division). Printers like the Xerox Phaser 8400 uses rectangular solid-state ink blocks (similar in consistency to candle wax), which are loaded into a system similar to a stapler magazine in the top of the printer. The ink blocks are melted, and the ink is transferred onto a rotating oil-coated print drum using a piezo inkjet head. The paper then passes over the print drum, at which time the image is transferred, or transfixed, to the page. This system is similar to water-based inkjets, provided that the ink has low viscosity at the jetting temperature 60 °C (140 °F). Printout properties are similar to those mentioned above, although these printers can be configured to produce extremely high-quality results and are far more economical, as they only use the ink needed for the printout, rather than an entire ribbon panel. Costs of upkeep and ink are comparable to color laser printers, while \"standby\" power usage can be very high, about 200 W.\n", "Thermographic printing\n\nThermographic printing refers to two types of printing, both of which rely on heat to create the letters or images on a sheet of paper. \n\nThe simplest type of thermography is where the paper has been coated with a material that changes colour on heating. This is called thermal printing and was used in older model fax machines and is used in most shop till receipt printers. This is called direct thermal.\n\nMore complex is thermal transfer printing that melts print off a ribbon and onto the sheet of paper.\n\nSection::::Thermography as raised print process.\n", "Section::::Variants.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Color thermal printers.\n", "This heat is why press temperature control systems are required to allow for the precise control of temperature within the printing unit. The most popular systems use vibrator cooling, in which coolant is pumped through hollow core vibrator rollers in the inker. This type of system has been in use in high speed web presses for many years. The technology has been refined and is now being applied to sheetfed equipment as well. Almost all sheetfed press manufacturers offer hollow core ink vibrators which can then accept the after-market temperature control systems.\n", "A thermal transfer printer contains a ribbon cartridge that uses a wax ink. When the heating elements in the print head heat up, they melt the wax and transfer it to the paper, thus the need for the paper to be really smooth. This also means that the ribbon cannot be reused after the head runs over it, since the wax transfers off the ribbon to the paper.\n", "BULLET::::- Melted wax (“phaser”) printers, where solid ink is heated to the melting point and is applied on the print medium where it immediately solidifies.\n\nBULLET::::- Dye-sublimation printers, where a solid ink (dye) is converted to a gaseous state (sublimation) and applied on the print medium, where it immediately solidifies.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n", "Thermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat-sensitive paper. Monochrome thermal printers are used in cash registers, ATMs, gasoline dispensers and some older inexpensive fax machines. Colours can be achieved with special papers and different temperatures and heating rates for different colours; these coloured sheets are not required in black-and-white output. One example is Zink (a portmanteau of \"zero ink\").\n\nSection::::Technology.:Obsolete and special-purpose printing technologies.\n\nThe following technologies are either obsolete, or limited to special applications though most were, at one time, in widespread use.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Obsolete and special-purpose printing technologies.:Impact printers.\n", "In the early 2000s, Polaroid developed the Zink \"zero-ink\" technology. The paper is used in compact photo printers. It has several layers: a backing layer with optional pressure sensitive adhesive, heat-sensitive layers with cyan, magenta and yellow pigments in colorless form, and overcoat. Zink technology allows the printing of full-color images in a single pass without requiring ink cartridges.\n\nThe color addressing is achieved by controlling the heat pulse length and intensity.\n", "Section::::Web-fed offset.:Coldset web offset.\n\nThis is also a subset of web offset printing, typically used for lower quality print output. It is typical of newspaper production. In this process, the ink dries by absorption into the underlying paper. A typical coldset configuration is often a series of vertically arranged print units and peripherals. As newspapers seek new markets, which often imply higher quality (more gloss, more contrast), they may add a heatset tower (with a dryer) or use UV (ultraviolet) based inks which \"cure\" on the surface by polymerisation rather than by evaporation or absorption.\n\nSection::::Sheet-fed vs. web-fed.\n", "Printing text on the thermal printer is as easy as writing to the device:\n\nCommands are sent as binary. This will cause the paper in the thermal printer to be cut:\n\nSection::::Interface.:Interface Examples.:Printer status.\n", "Solid ink\n\nSolid ink is a technology used in computer printers and multifunction devices originally credited with creation by Tektronix in 1986.\n\nAfter Xerox acquired the Tektronix Color Printing and Imaging Division in 2000, the solid ink technology became part of the Xerox line of office printing and imaging products. Early offerings focused on the graphic arts industry. However, to forestall a legal battle with Dataproducts Corporation, Tektronix ended up paying royalties to Dataproducts for the use of the technology due to the latter holding patents, purchased from Exxon, on aspects of solid-ink printing. \n", "Vivid, enduring HP Vivera inks were introduced with the HP Deskjet 6540 in 2004, offering breakthrough printing speeds of up to 30 ppm in black-and-white, and 20 ppm in color.\n\nHP all-in-one inkjet printers under the Deskjet brand exist, starting with the HP Deskjet F380 printer/scanner/copier, introduced in 2006, using HP Vivera inks, and offering print speeds of 20 ppm in black-and-white, and 14 ppm in color.\n", "On the other hand, thermal transfer printers use heat to transfer ink from ribbon onto the label for a permanent print. Some thermal transfer printers are also capable of direct thermal printing. Using a PVC vinyl can increase the longevity of the label life as seen in pipe markers and industrial safety labels found in much of the market place today.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13405	Airbnb and New York city legal issues?	Un-hosted short-term rentals are flatly illegal in NYC. Violations can very quickly accrue thousands of dollars in fines. You can legally rent on AirBnB in NYC only if you remain in the unit with your guests.	[ "In an effort to crack down on illegal hotel operators, Rivera introduced a bill in June 2018 to require short-term rental companies such as Airbnb to report host data to the city. The bill passed the Council 45–0 and was signed into law by Mayor Bill de Blasio on August 6, 2018. Airbnb is suing to block the legislation from being implemented.\n\nRivera has also introduced bills to protect bike lanes from being blocked by construction, mandate reporting on the state of small businesses in New York City neighborhoods, and strengthen sexual harassment policies for public and private employers.\n", "Vantage led the LaGuardia Gateway Partners consortium bid to operate and redevelop LaGuardia Airport's Terminal B. On May 28, 2015, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey voted to move forward on the Central Terminal Building Redevelopment Project, announcing LaGuardia Gateway Partners as preferred proposer.\n\nSection::::Airports.\n\nVantage provides management services to various airports owned by Vantage or via a consortium:\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- LaGuardia Airport, Queens, New York\n\nBULLET::::- responsible for operations and redevelopment of Central Terminal B\n\nBULLET::::- Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Fort St. John Airport, Fort St. John, British Columbia\n", "In the summer of 2016, at the request of three members of the United States Senate, the Federal Trade Commission began investigating how Airbnb affected housing costs. In October 2016, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo signed a bill charging Airbnb fines for violations of local housing laws. The New York Times reported that these events were related and part of a \"plan that the hotel association started in early 2016 to thwart Airbnb\".\n\nIn January 2017, Airbnb led a $13 million investment in restaurant reservation-booking app, Resy, along with serial entrepreneurs Gary Vaynerchuk, Ben Leventhal and Mike Montero.\n", "San Francisco-based technology companies such as Airbnb are actively involved in city politics to advance their interests in the city. In response to Airbnb's impact on the housing market in San Francisco, housing activists have called for restrictions on the company's listing practices to limit the number of short-term rentals in the city. Airbnb spent more than $8 million to defeat a single proposition in San Francisco that would restrict the number of rentals in San Francisco. In September, Airbnb began the process to sue the City of San Francisco to retaliate against new regulations.\n\nSection::::By neighborhood.\n", "In San Francisco, the issue led to protests in November 2015.\n\nSeveral studies found that rental prices in many areas increased due to Airbnb, as landlords kept properties off the longer-term rental market and instead get higher rental rates for short-term housing via Airbnb. Landlords have been accused of illegally evicting tenants in order to convert properties into Airbnb listings.\n\nA study published in 2017 found that increasing Airbnb listings in a given neighborhood by 10% leads to a 0.42% increase in rents and a 0.76% increase in house prices. \n", "In 2017, travel blogger Asher Fergusson analyzed 1,021 incidents of negative experiences reported by guests. He found that there are ways for hosts to use fake information to circumvent Airbnb's background checks. He noted several reported incidents including last minute cancellations, moldy or rodent-infested lodging, theft, invasion of privacy, and even rape and murder. Airbnb responded that the 1,021 incidents are statistically insignificant compared to 260 million check-ins at the time and that the company tries to remedy any problems.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Delisting of West Bank settlements.\n", "A study found that on Manhattan's Lower East Side, full time listings earned hosts an average of two to three times the median average rent.\n\nA study by the University of Massachusetts Boston Department of Economics found that with every 12 Airbnb listings per census tract, asking rents increased by 0.4%.\n\nSimilar concerns have been raised in other parts of the world such as Scotland, where, in 2017, an increase in Airbnb listings alarmed the local community.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Negative guest experiences.\n", "In 2013, Porter Airlines approached the City of Toronto with a proposal to add Bombardier CS100 jets to those allowed to operate at the airport. The jets would require an extension of the runways, and would require an amendment of the tripartite agreement, which specifically bans non-emergency use by jets. Toronto City Council chose to initiate studies with the Port Authority on the proposal. In November 2015, the newly-elected Government of Canada notified Ports Toronto that it would not sign any agreement to allow jets. The City and Ports Toronto ended their studies of the proposal.\n", "Proposals were due on January 31, 2012. Patrick Foye, executive director of the Port Authority, said, \"It's got a quaint, nostalgic but unacceptable kind of 1940s, 1950s feel that's just not acceptable.\" The Port Authority was seeking a private company to develop and operate the replacement terminal with private funds, similar to how Delta operates the other terminals at the airport. However, in January 2014, Governor Andrew Cuomo announced a plan for the state to oversee construction of the long-stalled new terminal project instead of the proposed public-private partnership.\n\nSection::::History.:Reconstruction.:Reconstruction work.\n", "In June 2018, the New York State Legislature approved a law for the AirTrain LaGuardia project. This allowed the PANYNJ to start acquiring public land for the AirTrain's route, as well as for environmental impact studies to be conducted. Under the plan, the AirTrain would start construction in 2020 and be complete by 2022. The Port Authority subsequently began environmental studies for three possible routings of the AirTrain, as well as the no-build alternative. Some residents and environmental groups opposed the project, and so they requested results from the environmental study upon its completion. Environmental groups worried that the AirTrain's construction would pollute Flushing Bay, which had just been cleaned at that point. A subsequent proposal to route the AirTrain over the waterfront was also met with opposition. Cuomo announced in May 2019 that the MTA would partially pay for the AirTrain's construction.\n", "In January 2017, the PANYNJ released its 10-year capital plan that included AirTrain LaGuardia funding. Construction is projected to start in 2019, with passenger service in 2023. On February 6, 2017, the PANYNJ announced that it had opened a four-week-long request for proposals. The firm that is awarded the RFP would design three AirTrain stations—two inside the airport's new terminals and one at Willets Point—as well as plan the right of way from Willets Point to the airport. In May 2017, WSP USA was hired to design the AirTrain. The PANYNJ awarded another $55 million to the project in November 2017, bringing the total funds allocated for planning to $75 million. In April 2018, the Port Authority ruled out the possibility of routing the AirTrain along Grand Central Parkway, after consultation with residents of nearby East Elmhurst who opposed such a routing. The other options for routing the AirTrain included either placing it on a promenade adjacent to Flushing Bay, or over the bay itself. \n", "In May 2017, two community groups began the first organized opposition to the tower's development, claiming that the building's zoning lot was illegal and could not encompass the additional development rights from the Lincoln Towers. Local New York City Council member Helen Rosenthal and Manhattan Borough President Gale Brewer endorsed the effort and a formal challenge was filed with the New York City Department of Buildings on May 15th. In June, the Department of Buildings halted new permit issuance for the site until the challenge could be reviewed and ruled on. \n", "For E-ZPass subscribers who replenish their accounts with a major credit card, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey offers an E-ZPass option to pay for parking at three Port Authority airports—John F. Kennedy, LaGuardia, and Newark Liberty—through a program known as E-ZPass Plus. This program is also available in New York at Albany International Airport in Albany; Syracuse Hancock International Airport in Syracuse; and the parking lots at the New York State Fair when the fair is in progress; as well as in Atlantic City, New Jersey, at Atlantic City International Airport, the New York Avenue Parking Garage, and the Atlantic City Surface Lot.\n", "Ferry implementation required permission from several entities. Before the ferry could start service, the NYCDOT was required to approve a new transportation mode within its service area. Additionally, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation and United States Army Corps of Engineers (CoE) was supposed to give NYC Ferry permission to use of the landings, with the United States Coast Guard advising the CoE's approval of a permit as well as monitoring the design of vessels. In addition, the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation had to allow ferries to use the landing at Gantry Plaza State Park, and the Roosevelt Island Operating Corporation was consulted so they could give permission for the Roosevelt Island landing to be built. By September 2016, the Gantry Plaza landing had been approved.\n", "In September 2018, The Tourism Business Council of South Africa (TBCSA) council called for the government to regulate Airbnb rental sites as they pose a threat to the viability of conventional lodging providers such as hotels. This sentiment was also echored by the CEO of SA Tourism Sisa Ntshona who pointed out Airbnb, Uber, and Lyf as the new face of the sharing economy but suggested for fairness between these new players and conventional service providers. \n\nSection::::In the media.\n", "Short term rental properties place the responsibility of following zoning and municipal requirements onto residents using short term rental services like Airbnb. This leads to illegal short term rentals that violate many of these codes. Fire codes, safety codes, workers' benefits, and transient occupancy taxes are often avoided by illegal short term rentals.\n", "Taxicabs serving the airport are licensed by New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission. The fares within New York City are metered. Uniformed taxi dispatchers are available to assist passengers before they start the rides. The airport is accessible directly from Grand Central Parkway. New York City's limousine services, which are also licensed by the Taxi & Limousine Commission, offer various rates ranging from $40 to $150 from LGA to Manhattan (excluding tips and tolls) in a sedan or limousine.\n", "In April 2019 Airbnb rescinded its 2018 decision to remove listings by Jewish homeowners in Judea and Samaria in settlement of a lawsuit brought by Shurat Hadin lawsuit.\n\nSection::::Award.\n\nIn 2012, Nitsana Darshan-Leitner, Director of Shurat HaDin, received the Moskowitz Prize for Zionism for fighting Israel's war on terror in courtrooms.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Air Canada abandoned its legal actions in the Federal Court, but pursued a judicial review of TPA's plans to open the airport to other airlines. The action was heard in Federal Court in July 2010, and the Court dismissed Air Canada's claims against the TPA's decisions of December 2009 and April 2010 with respect to the airport slot allocations.\n\nSection::::Lawsuits.:2006 TPA vs. Community Air lawsuit.\n", "BULLET::::- In March 2010, Sense Networks released CabSense. The iPhone/Android phone app uses location data collected from the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission to predict which corners in New York City are best for finding and hailing a cab at any given hour of any given day of the week.\n\nBULLET::::- Carmel released its Mobile App in 2012, allowing customers to order car service in all of New York City. The app complies with all state rules and has won the Taxi and Limousine Commission's approval.\n", "In 2012, the New York Empire State Development Corporation issued a request for proposals (RFP) to develop an area of underutilized land at Belmont Park. In January 2013, the New York Cosmos delivered a response with the above plan. \n\nIn November 2015, the ESDC asked all bidders to revise and re-submit their proposals. The Cosmos revised their plan to remove one parcel of land. The project was one of four competing proposals still awaiting a determination from the Empire State Development Corporation.\n\nOn December 9, 2016, the Empire State Development Corporation officially withdrew the RFP, rejecting all four plans.\n", "In 1994, the terminal was declared a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, which prevented its demolition. In 2005, the National Park Service listed it on the National Register of Historic Places. The boarding gates were demolished following the construction of Terminal 5, which is occupied by JetBlue Airways. In April 2015, \"The Wall Street Journal\" reported that JetBlue and its partner, a hotel developer, were negotiating for the rights to turn the head house into a hotel. In July 2015, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo confirmed that the Saarinen building would be converted into a new on-site hotel for the airport's passengers.\n", "As of 2014, about 1% of flights to the Port Authority-controlled airports use the Next Generation Air Transportation System, which relies on the Global Positioning System instead of radar.\n\nSection::::Major commercial airports.\n\nSection::::Major commercial airports.:John F. Kennedy International Airport.\n", "At that point, Donald Trump reached an option agreement with Penn Central to purchase the Commodore. Trump, however, did not have the $250,000 necessary to secure the option. Nevertheless, Trump's father, Fred Trump, had a long time political connection through the Brooklyn Democratic machine to then-Mayor Abraham Beame. Despite the city being in the midst of the worst fiscal crisis in its history, Beame's deputy mayor, Stanley Friedman, pushed through a 40-year, $400 million tax abatement on the property. Asked by city officials to supply a copy of the agreement with Penn Central, Trump sent the option agreement paperwork minus the signatures. The abatement moved forward as if the agreement had been signed and as if Trump had paid to secure the option. Trump was then able to convince the Hyatt hotel chain to partner with the Trump Organization and purchase the Commodore.\n", "To deal with delays, takeoff and landing scheduling caps have been imposed on certain urban airports at various times since 1968, including Washington Reagan National, Chicago O'Hare, and the three New York airports. Other short-term measures have been taken, including minor procedural changes, use of military airspace on peak travel days, and appointment of a \"New York Airspace Czar\" (Director for the New York Area Program Integration Office). The New York/New Jersey/Philadelphia airspace is being \"redesigned\" incrementally, with completion estimated in 2012. The Bush Administration announced plans to auction some takeoff and landing slots at the New York airports, but plans were canceled by the Obama administration.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11025	How do fibre optic cables bend?	Same reason a piece of paper can flop around but a tree trunk can't. The thinner you draw a material, the less stress you concentrate on a bend radius. For a thick material to bend, the outside must expand while the inside compresses. Thicker cross sections require more intense expansion/compression to achieve the same radius. In optical fiber, the glass has been drawn to just a few hundred micrometers or less, dramatically reducing that stress. The bulk of the cable is polymer jacketing material to protect the glass.	[ "Fiber cable can be very flexible, but traditional fiber's loss increases greatly if the fiber is bent with a radius smaller than around 30 mm. This creates a problem when the cable is bent around corners or wound around a spool, making FTTX installations more complicated. \"Bendable fibers\", targeted towards easier installation in home environments, have been standardized as ITU-T G.657. This type of fiber can be bent with a radius as low as 7.5 mm without adverse impact. Even more bendable fibers have been developed.\n", "Bendable fiber may also be resistant to fiber hacking, in which the signal in a fiber is surreptitiously monitored by bending the fiber and detecting the leakage.\n\nAnother important feature of cable is cable's ability to withstand horizontally applied force. It is technically called max tensile strength defining how much force can be applied to the cable during the installation period.\n", "In a two-point bend configuration, a coated fiber is bent in a U-shape and placed between the grooves of two faceplates, which are brought together until the fiber breaks. The stress in the fiber in this configuration is given by\n\nwhere is the distance between the faceplates. The coefficient 1.198 is a geometric constant associated with this configuration.\n", "The thickness of the coating is taken into account when calculating the stress that the fiber experiences under different bend configurations. When a coated fiber is wrapped around a mandrel, the stress experienced by the fiber is given by\n\nwhere is the fiber’s Young’s modulus, is the diameter of the mandrel, is the diameter of the cladding and is the diameter of the coating. \n", "BULLET::::- For wire connection strips (AVL = Adernverbindungsleisten) several pairs of wires (10 = AVL10 or 20 = AVL20) are inserted, the strip is then closed with a lid and pressed together with a hydraulic press, which ensures the connection.\n\nSection::::Splicing of glass fibers.\n", "Bend radius\n\nBend radius, which is measured to the inside curvature, is the maximum radius one can bend a pipe, tube, sheet, cable or hose without kinking it, damaging it, or shortening its life. The \"smaller\" the bend radius, the \"greater\" is the material flexibility (as the radius of curvature \"decreases\", the curvature \"increases\"). The diagram below illustrates a cable with a seven-centimeter bend radius.\n\nThe \"minimum bend radius\" is the radius below which an object such as a cable should not be bent.\n\nSection::::Fiber optics.\n", "Fiber-optic cables are spliced using a special arc-splicer, with installation cables connected at their ends to respective \"pigtails\" - short individual fibers with fiber-optic connectors at one end. The splicer precisely adjusts the light-guiding cores of the two ends of the glass fibers to be spliced. The adjustment is done fully automatically in modern devices, whereas in older models this is carried out manually by means of micrometer screws and microscope. An experienced splicer can precisely position the fiber ends within a few seconds. Subsequently, the fibers are fused together (welded) with an electric arc. Since no additional material is added, such as gas welding or soldering, this is called a \"fusion splice\".\n", "BULLET::::- Sufficient strain-margin to protect the optical fibres at the extremes of the overhead line operating window: low night-time or winter temperatures cause the host conductor to shrink, high day-time or summer temperatures cause expansion. The optical cable design must allow the fibres to continue to transmit data across the whole daily and seasonal temperature range. Strong winds and built up layers of ice will cause conductors to stretch even more, requiring high levels of strain margin in the fibre optic cable design.\n", "An optical fibre usually consists of a core, a cladding, and a protective coating. Before pulling a fibre, its coating is removed (i.e., the fibre is stripped). The ends of the bare fibre are fixed onto movable \"translation\" stages on the machine. The middle of the fibre (between the stages) is then heated with a flame or a laser beam; at the same time, the translation stages move in opposite directions. The glass melts and the fibre is elongated, while its diameter decreases.\n", "The minimum bend radius is of particular importance in the handling of fiber-optic cables, which are often used in telecommunications. The minimum bending radius will vary with different cable designs. The manufacturer should specify the minimum radius to which the cable may safely be bent during installation, and for the long term. The former is somewhat larger than the latter. The minimum bend radius is in general also a function of tensile stresses, \"e.g.,\" during installation, while being bent around a sheave while the fiber or cable is under tension. If no minimum bend radius is specified, one is usually safe in assuming a minimum long-term low-stress radius not less than 15 times the cable diameter, or 2 inches.\n", "A general cleaving strategy that is employed is known as the scribe-and-tension strategy or the scribe-and-break strategy. This process involves introduction of a crack in the fiber, generally by means of cutting tool made from a material such as diamond, sapphire, or tungsten carbide, followed by the application of tensile stress in the vicinity of the crack. However, the specific implementations of the cleaving vary and result in cleaves of different qualities.\n", "Section::::Research areas.\n\nSection::::Research areas.:Transmission technology and fiber optics.\n", "These fiber optic coating layers are applied during the fiber draw, at speeds approaching . Fiber optic coatings are applied using one of two methods: \"wet-on-dry\" and \"wet-on-wet\". In wet-on-dry, the fiber passes through a primary coating application, which is then UV cured—then through the secondary coating application, which is subsequently cured. In wet-on-wet, the fiber passes through both the primary and secondary coating applications, then goes to UV curing.\n", "Section::::Bend stiffeners.\n", "Outer insulation is typically polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or low smoke zero halogen (LS0H).\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Bending radius.\n\nMost Category 5 cables can be bent at any radius exceeding approximately four times the outside diameter of the cable.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Maximum cable segment length.\n", "Section::::Classification.:Armored Fiber Patch Cord.\n\nArmored fiber optic patch cord uses flexible stainless steel tube inside the outer jacket as the armor to protect the fiber glass inside. \n\nIt retains all the features of standard patch cord, but is much stronger. It will not get damaged even if stepped by an adult and they are rodent-resistant.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Bend Insensitive Fiber Optic Patch Cord.\n\nBend insensitive fiber patch cord is widely used in FTTH. The fiber is not sensitive to stress and bending. Singlemode bend insensitive fibers include G657A1, G657A2, G657B2, and G657B3.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Mode Conditioning Patch Cord.\n", "To keep the fibers as straight as possible, most high-performance optical cables use a form of armour that resists tight bending. This is normally a helical winding, similar to BX cable, or a series of straight fibers running parallel to the core. Since the armour is fairly large, the cables normally carry a number of fibers inside. The resulting armoured bundle is then surrounded in an environmental cladding, typically plastic. The bundle is about the size of a conventional power cable found on an electrical appliance, but much less flexible.\n\nSection::::Background.:Fiber to the home.\n", "BULLET::::- waveguides when electromagnetic waves are transmitted;\n\nBULLET::::- optical fibers when light signals are transmitted.\n\nSection::::Power Cables.\n\nTelecommunications power cable products, as described in Telcordia GR-347, consist of a stranded copper conductor used in AC/DC circuits up to 600 V that are insulated with non-halogen, limited smoke, polyolefin materials that are heat-resistant, moisture-resistant, and flame-retardant. These cables are provided as either Class B (standard) or Class I (flexible) products.\n", "Section::::Cable and membrane structures.:Cables.\n\nCables can be of mild steel, high strength steel (drawn carbon steel), stainless steel, polyester or aramid fibres. Structural cables are made of a series of small strands twisted or bound together to form a much larger cable. Steel cables are either spiral strand, where circular rods are twisted together and \"glued\" using a polymer, or locked coil strand, where individual interlocking steel strands form the cable (often with a spiral strand core).\n", "Due to their high attenuation of light, the effective range of plastic optical cables is limited to . They can temporarily fail or be permanently damaged if tightly bent. Although less commonly available and more expensive than plastic optical fiber (POF) cables, glass or silica optical fibers have lower losses and can extend the range of the TOSLINK system.\n\nOptical cables are not susceptible to electrical problems such as ground loops and RF interference.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Section::::Parts and variations.\n\nSection::::Parts and variations.:Housing.\n\nThe original, standard Bowden cable housing consists of a close-wound helix of round or square steel wire. This makes a flexible housing but causes the length to change as the housing flexes. Because on the inside of the bend the turns of a close-wound helix can't get any closer together, the bending causes the turns to separate on the outside of the bend, and so at the centerline of the housing, there must also be an increase of length with increasing bend.\n", "Certain implementations may apply the tensile force uniformly across the cross section of the fiber whereas others might bend the fiber around a curved surface causing excessive tensile stress on the outside of the bend. The introduction of the crack in the fiber may also be generated in different ways; the crack may be introduced at a single point on the circumference or it may be generated all along the circumference of the fiber prior to the application of the tensile force. The circumferential introduction of the crack often allows fibers of considerably large diameters to be cleaved while maintaining high quality of the cleave.\n", "Section::::Parameters.:Last mile.\n", "Section::::Process description.:Forming processes.:Mandrel wrapping.\n\nSheets of prepreg material are wrapped around a steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are typically batch cured by vacuum bagging and hanging in an oven. After cure, the cello and mandrel are removed leaving a hollow carbon tube. This process creates strong and robust hollow carbon tubes.\n\nSection::::Process description.:Forming processes.:Wet layup.\n", "Electrical cables \n\nTo make cables, two or more filaments are twisted together a number of times. During the process, a cable’s torsion and straightness are monitored. The cable can be fine-tuned for a certain application by combining different filament strengths, diameters or the number of twists, or by preforming. Fiber Reinforced Composites \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04462	Why are Smartphones vertically oriented screens by default and design, yet all other forms of screens and displays are all designed horizontal?	Have you ever tried holding your phone horizontally with one hand to use it?	[ "In 2017, several manufacturers began to release smartphones with displays taller than the conventional 16:9 aspect ratio used by the majority of devices, and diagonal screen sizes often around 6 inches. However, in these cases, the sizes of the devices are more compact than 16:9 aspect ratio devices with equivalent diagonal screen sizes.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Origins.\n\nIn tracing the 10 earliest devices in the history of the phablet concept, \"PC Magazine\" called the 1993 AT&T EO 440, \"the first true phablet\", followed by the following devices:\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 HTC Advantage (5.0 inch screen)\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 Nokia N810WiMAX Edition (4.13\" screen)\n", "One of the main characteristics of phones is the screen. Depending on the device's type and design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of , but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.\n", "One of the main characteristics of smartphones is the screen. Depending on the device's design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of , but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.\n", "New trends for smartphone displays began to emerge in 2017, with both LG and Samsung releasing flagship smartphones utilizing displays with taller aspect ratios than the common ratio. These designs allow the display to have a larger diameter, but with a slimmer width than 16:9 displays with an equivalent screen size. Another trend popularized that year were displays that contained tab-like cut-outs at their top-centre—colloquially known as a \"notch\"—to contain the front-facing camera, and sometimes other sensors typically located along the top bezel of a device. These designs allow for \"edge-to-edge\" displays that take up nearly the entire height of the device, with little to no bezel along the top. This design characteristic was popularized by the Essential Phone (which featured a circular tab for its camera) and iPhone X (which used a wider tab to contain a camera and facial scanning system). In 2018, the first smartphones featuring fingerprint readers embedded within OLED displays were announced, followed in 2019 by an implementation using an ultrasonic sensor on the Samsung Galaxy S10.\n", "The positional advantages or disadvantages of various locations depend on different cultures and languages (e.g., left to right vs. right to left). Some locations have become established, such as having toolbars at the top of a screen or webpage. Some designers have argued that commonly used features (e.g., a print button) should be much more visually prominent than very rarely used features. Some features cannot be seen, but there is a convention that if the user places the mouse cursor in a certain area, then a toolbar or function option will become visible. In general, because of the smaller screen of mobile devices, controls are often not placed right in the centre of the screen, because that is where the user views content or text.\n", "By the mid-2010s, almost all smartphones were touchscreen-only, and Android and iPhone smartphones dominated the market.\n\nSection::::History.:Developments in the 2010s.\n\nIn the early 2010s, larger smartphones with screen sizes of at least 5.5 inches diagonal, dubbed \"phablets\", began to achieve popularity, with Samsung's Galaxy Note series gaining notably wide adoption. In 2019, 4.7-inches to 5.5 inches have become the industry standard size, with most companies abandoning smaller, under 4.7-inch displays.\n", "Screen sizes are measured in diagonal inches; feature phones generally have screen sizes below 3.5 inches. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called \"phablets.\" Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and \"edge-to-edge\" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.\n", "Current phablets typically have a diagonal display measurement between and , assuming a aspect ratio. In comparison, most flagship smartphones released in 2016 have a screen size of around , with larger versions of mainstream flagships (such as iPhone 7 Plus, Pixel XL, and Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge) using displays. \"PhoneArena\" argued that the S7 Edge was not a phablet, as it has a narrow and compact build with a physical footprint more in line with the smaller-screened Nexus 5X, due primarily to its use of a display with curved edges.\n", "Other companies have publicly expressed interest in the concept, or have received patents on designs (such as hinge implementations and overall designs) relating to foldable phones. Motorola Mobility announced plans to produce a horizontal folding smartphone reminiscent of clamshell feature phones. \n", "The size of a computer monitor is given as the diagonal measurement of its display area, usually in inches. Wider aspect ratios result in smaller overall area, given the same diagonal.\n\nSection::::Smartphones.\n\nUntil 2010, smartphones used different aspect ratios, including 3:2 and 5:3. Since then, most smartphone manufacturers have switched to using 16:9 widescreen displays, driven at least partly by the growing popularity of HD video using the same aspect ratio.\n", "At the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show, Samsung presented \"Youm\"—concept prototypes for smartphones that incorporated flexible displays. One prototype had a screen curved along the right edge of the phone, while the other had a screen curved around the bottom of the phone. Samsung explained that the additional \"strip\" could be used to display additional information alongside apps, such as notifications or a news ticker. \n", "Since 2017, a number of smartphones have been released using 18:9 or even wider aspect ratios (such as 18.5:9 or 19.5:9); such displays are expected to appear on increasingly more phones. Reasons for this trend include the ability for manufacturers to use a nominally larger display without increasing the width of the phone, as well as the 18:9 ratio being well-suited for VR applications and the proposed Univisium film format.\n\nSection::::TVs.\n", "BULLET::::- The videotape format war between Betamax and VHS, when VHS became the de facto video tape standard.\n\nBULLET::::- The desktop metaphor introduced by Xerox's Alto became the dominant design in PC operating systems.\n\nBULLET::::- A review of the Samsung Z5 MP3 player articulated the Apple/iPod dominant design, David Pogue, \"Almost iPod, but in the End a Samsung\", \"The New York Times\", March 9, 2006. \n\nBULLET::::- Many industry examples are included in Utterback's book \"Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation\" (see references below)\n", "The development of thin, flexible OLED displays enabled the possibility for new designs and form factors. During its Consumer Electronics Show keynote in 2013, Samsung presented several concepts—codenamed Youm—for smartphones incorporating flexible displays. One such concept was a smartphone that could fold outward into a single, uninterrupted tablet-sized display. The first Youm concept to make it to a production model—the Galaxy Note Edge—was a device with a portion of the screen that sloped over the right-hand bezel.\n", "A peculiar coding error never addressed nor corrected on LG's VX9700 chassis, there is a longstanding software texting bug using \"complete-the-word\" mode. When the user tilts the phone sideways, transitioning the screen from vertical to horizontal mode, the phone unintentionally reverts user control, back to Abc mode, from the \"complete-the-word\" mode.\n\nSection::::Specs.\n\nLG Dare specifications\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Prada (KE850)\n\nBULLET::::- LG Vu\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Dare by LG\n\nBULLET::::- LG Dare (Verizon Wireless)\n\nBULLET::::- LG Dare Updates\n\nBULLET::::- LG VX9700 looks to be Verizon's Prada-like touchscreen phone\n", "Section::::History.:Curved screen vs. flat.\n", "On February 25, 2019, Sony launched their latest flagship device, the Xperia 1, with the world's first 21:9 ultra-wide 4K HDR-enabled OLED (6.5\") display in a smartphone. They have trademarked the name \"CinemaWide\" for use in their latest ultra-wide Xperia devices. It is not the first mobile device to use a 21:9 aspect ratio display; that recognition belongs to the LG New Chocolate, released in 2009. It has a 4\" TFT display with 345 x 800 pixels and 217 ppi density. The recently-launched Samsung Galaxy Fold smartphone/tablet folding hybrid, with its 4.6\" Super AMOLED cover display, and the Xperia 10 and 10 Plus are among the first modern devices with ultra-wide displays, with other smartphone manufacturers expected to follow suit after. Motorola introduced a 21:9 smartphone in May 2019, the Motorola One Vision, with a 6.3\" hole-punch 1080p LCD display.\n", "This technology was first introduced by Nokia in 2009 on the N86, and more widely adopted with its next generation AMOLED Symbian phones in 2010 (the Nokia N8, C7, C6-01 and E7). It became a standard feature on most Nokia Lumia Windows Phones in 2013, paired with the Nokia Glance Screen app. The feature has since become more widely available on Android handsets including Huawei (Mate 10 Pro, P20 Pro), Motorola (Moto X, Z, G), LG (G5, G6, G7, V30, V35, V40), Samsung (Galaxy A7(2017, 2018), S7, S8, S9, S10, Note 7/FE/8/9) and the Google Pixel 2, Pixel 3, Pixel 3a.\n", "In October 2013, Samsung released the first ever curved display smartphone called the Galaxy-Round. Samsung also introduced the \"Roll Effect\" where when the phone's screen is off and is rolled, it displays basic information like time or battery percentage. While it is possible to curve LCD screens, analysts say OLED screens provide better technical benefits.\n", "Screen sizes are measured in diagonal inches. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called \"phablets\". Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and \"edge-to-edge\" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.\n", "In late 2014, Flat 2.0 made use of subtle gradients and shadows to serve a better user experience to end users. Designers adapted Flat 2.0 as it was a challenge to present interactions with core flat design previously.\n\nIn 2016, most of the major mobile operating systems had adapted flat UI designs, including BlackBerry 10 OS, Samsung Electronics/Linux Foundation Tizen OS, KDE Plasma 5, and most Android OEMs such as Samsung Experience, LG UX, and Huawei EMUI.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "BULLET::::- The license and terms of service box of LG Mobile Support Tool 1.8.9.0 can easily exceed the height of the screen (768px), with no way to scroll down to the 'OK' button. If the display is wide enough, then one remedy is to use the display OSD, or the computer's video adapter software (if available) to temporarily rotate the visible display output sideways 90° or 270° to reach those buttons.\n", "BULLET::::- Power: Power minimization typically involves distributing the locations of cell components so as to reduce the overall power consumption, alleviate hot spots, and smooth temperature gradients.\n\nBULLET::::- A secondary objective is placement runtime minimization.\n\nSection::::Basic techniques.\n\nPlacement is divided into global placement and detailed placement. Global placement introduces dramatic changes by distributing all the instances to appropriate locations in the global scale with minor overlaps allowed. Detailed placement shifts each instance to nearby legal location with very moderate layout change. Placement and overall design quality is most dependent on the global placement performance.\n", "A version of the slider form factor, the side slider or QWERTY slider, uses vertical access of the keyboard on the bottom segment. The side slider form factor is primarily used to facilitate faster access to the keyboard with both thumbs. The Motorola Photon Q, Danger Hiptop, Sony Mylo, and HTC Touch Pro are four primary examples.\n\nSome unusual sliders have also been made, such as the Nokia 7280 modelled like a lipstick, or the Samsung SGH-F520 from 2007 which slides two ways with a QWERTY keyboard.\n", "Several manufacturers, including Samsung, LG and Kyocera had made attempted as recently as 2010 to create a dual-screen smartphone. However, they proved unsuccessful, as their second screens were located within a difficult-to -access clam-shell design The Siam 7x, however, placed the second screen on the outside, using a black and white E Ink Corporation screen to conserve power. A similar design was created by Yotaphone but its parent company targeted this phone to European, Asian and Middle-Eastern markets. The Siam 7x was the first dual-screen phone designed for the North American market.\n" ]	[ "Smartphones should be oriented horizontally like other screens." ]	[ "It is harder to use a horizontally oriented screen so phones go with vertical. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Smartphones should be oriented horizontally like other screens." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is harder to use a horizontally oriented screen so phones go with vertical. " ]
2018-04186	If an oven and bulb are connected in parallel, why is that the oven get more current?	If it had higher resistance it would get less current. It has lower resistance so it gets more current.	[ "When the bulb's filament is heated white-hot, electrons are boiled off its surface and into the vacuum inside the bulb. If the extra electrode (also called a \"plate\" or \"anode\") is made more positive than the hot filament, a direct current flows through the vacuum. And since the extra electrode is cold and the filament is hot, this current can only flow from the filament to the electrode, not the other way. So, alternating current (AC) signals can be converted into DC, or rectified. Hammer noted the rectifier effect when he added the third electrode to a heated filament light bulb.\n", "As the Wehnelt bias voltage increases, the tip's emitting area (and along with it, the beam diameter and beam current) will decrease until it becomes so small that the beam is \"pinched\" off. In normal operation, the bias is typically set slightly more positive than the pinch bias, and determined by a balance between desired beam quality and beam current.\n", "Usually, a transformer is placed between the lines and consumption. When a high-voltage, low-intensity current in the primary circuit (before the transformer) is converted into a low-voltage, high-intensity current in the secondary circuit (after the transformer), the equivalent resistance of the secondary circuit becomes higher and transmission losses are reduced in proportion.\n\nDuring the War of Currents, AC installations could use transformers to reduce line losses by Joule heating, at the cost of higher voltage in the transmission lines, compared to DC installations.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The line to neutral voltage is half the line-to-line voltage. Lighting and small appliances requiring less than 1800 watts may be connected between a line wire and the neutral. Higher wattage appliances, such as cooking equipment, space heating, water heaters, clothes dryers, air conditioners and electric vehicle charging equipment are connected across the two line conductors. This means that (for the supply of the same amount of power) the current is halved. Hence, smaller conductors may be used than would be needed if the appliances were designed to be supplied by the lower voltage.\n", "In the case of modern North American split-phase power, the supply wires from two opposite single-phase circuit breakers are used to supply 240 V AC for high power devices. In modern circuits, these two wires are grouped together, and for each 240 V device a dedicated circuit is installed, usually with the two circuit breakers ganged together to operate simultaneously.\n", "which corresponds to the current-phase relation\n\nformula_17.\n\nIf and , the minima of the Josephson energy occur at formula_13, where formula_19. Note, that the ground state of such a Josephson junction is doubly degenerate because formula_20.\n\nAnother example is the junction with the Josephson energy similar to conventional one, but shifted along formula_2-axis, for example formula_22,\n\nand the corresponding current-phase relation\n\nformula_23.\n\nIn this case the ground state is formula_24 and it is not degenerate.\n", "In contrast, changes in the input voltage or capacitance have no effect on discharge time, although they do have an effect on current density. As flash duration decreases, the electrical energy becomes concentrated into shorter pulses, so the current density will increase. Compensating for this usually requires lowering the capacitance as pulse duration decreases, and then raising the voltage proportionately in order to maintain a high enough energy-level. However, as pulse duration decreases, so does the \"explosion energy\" rating of the lamp, so the energy level must also be decreased to avoid destroying the lamp.\n", "When high voltage is applied to the gap, a spark forms across the bottom of the wires where they are nearest each other, rapidly changing to an electric arc. Air breaks down at about 30 kV/cm, depending on humidity, temperature, etc. Apart from the anode and cathode voltage drops, the arc behaves almost as a short circuit, drawing as much current as the electrical power supply can deliver, and the heavy load dramatically reduces the voltage across the gap.\n", "The bulb's \"turn on\" voltage \"V\" is higher than its \"turn off\" voltage \"V\". This property, called hysteresis, allows the bulb to function as an oscillator. Hysteresis is due to the bulb's negative resistance, the fall in voltage with increasing current after breakdown, which is a property of all gas discharge lamps.\n", "An AFCI does not detect high line voltage due to an open neutral in a multiwire branch circuit. A multiwire branch circuit has both energized wires of a 120-240 V split phase service. If the neutral is broken, devices connected from a 120 V leg to the neutral may experience excess voltage, up to twice normal.\n", "The supply voltage \"V\" must be greater than the bulb breakdown voltage \"V\" or the bulb can never conduct. Most small neon lamps have breakdown voltages between 80 and 150 volts. If the supply voltage is close to the breakdown voltage, the capacitor voltage will be in the \"tail\" of its exponential curve by the time it reaches \"V\", so the frequency will depend sensitively on the breakdown threshold and supply voltage levels, causing variations in frequency. Therefore, the supply voltage is usually made significantly higher than the bulb firing voltage. This also makes the charging more linear, and the sawtooth wave more triangular.\n", "In 1944 (after Hewlett's design), J. K. Clapp modified Meacham's circuit to use a vacuum tube phase inverter instead of a transformer to drive the bridge. A modified Meacham oscillator uses Clapp's phase inverter but substitutes a diode limiter for the tungsten lamp.\n\nSection::::Background.:Hewlett's oscillator.\n", "BULLET::::- If R is too small, the load line will cross the \"IV\" curve between \"c\" and \"d\". In this region the current through R is too large; once the bulb has turned on, the current through R will be large enough to keep it conducting without current from the capacitor, and the voltage across the bulb will never fall to \"V\" so the bulb will never turn off.\n\nSmall neon bulbs will typically oscillate with values of \"R\" between 500kΩ and 20MΩ.\n", "Section::::Ballasts.\n\nIn the older style (but still most popular) \"choke ballast\", each end of the lamp has its own cathode and anode, however, once the lamp has started, the plasma flows from one end of the lamp to the other, with each end acting as a single cathode or anode. The starter is a plasma switch itself, and temporarily connects the cathode on one end of the lamp to the anode on the other end of the lamp, causing the lamp ends to heat up quickly, or \"preheat\". Many F71 lamps are still called \"pre-heat bi-pin\" for this reason.\n", "In class-AB operation, each device operates the same way as in class B over half the waveform, but also conducts a small amount on the other half. As a result, the region where both devices simultaneously are nearly off (the \"dead zone\") is reduced. The result is that when the waveforms from the two devices are combined, the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated altogether. The exact choice of quiescent current (the standing current through both devices when there is no signal) makes a large difference to the level of distortion (and to the risk of thermal runaway, that may damage the devices). Often, bias voltage applied to set this quiescent current must be adjusted with the temperature of the output transistors. (For example, in the circuit shown at right, the diodes would be mounted physically close to the output transistors, and specified to have a matched temperature coefficient.) Another approach (often used with thermally tracking bias voltages) is to include small value resistors in series with the emitters.\n", "Given \"b\"\"a\"+\"c\", the shape of the curve is determined by the relative sizes of \"a\" and \"c\". If \"a\"<\"c\" then the curve has the form of two loops that cross each other at ±\"d\". If \"a\"=\"c\" then the curve decomposes into a circle of radius \"b\" and an oval of Booth. If \"a\"\"c\" then the curve does not cross the \"x\"-axis at all and consists of two flattened ovals.\n\nSection::::Watt's linkage.\n", "Some circuits and elements exhibiting negative resistance can also act in a similar way: negative impedance converters (NIC), neon lamps, tunnel diodes (e.g., a diode with an \"N\"-shaped current–voltage characteristic in the first quadrant), etc. In the last case, an oscillating input will cause the diode to move from one rising leg of the \"N\" to the other and back again as the input crosses the rising and falling switching thresholds.\n", "Formerly, three light bulbs were connected between the generator terminals and the system terminals (or more generally, to the terminals of instrument transformers connected to generator and system). As the generator speed changes, the lights will flicker at the beat frequency proportional to the difference between generator frequency and system frequency. When the voltage at the generator is opposite to the system voltage (either ahead or behind in phase), the lamps will be bright. When the voltage at the generator matches the system voltage, the lights will be dark. At that instant, the circuit breaker connecting the generator to the system may be closed and the generator will then stay in synchronism with the system.\n", "Consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and a 12-volt automotive battery. If a wire joins the battery to one bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, then back to the battery in one continuous loop, the bulbs are said to be in series. If each bulb is wired to the battery in a separate loop, the bulbs are said to be in parallel. If the four light bulbs are connected in series, the same amperage flows through all of them and the voltage drop is 3-volts across each bulb, which may not be sufficient to make them glow. If the light bulbs are connected in parallel, the currents through the light bulbs combine to form the current in the battery, while the voltage drop is 12-volts across each bulb and they all glow.\n", "Many powered devices have an auxiliary power connector for an optional external power supply. Depending on the design, some, none, or all of the device's power can be supplied from the auxiliary port, with the auxiliary port also sometimes acting as backup power in case PoE-supplied power fails.\n\nSection::::Power management features and integration.\n", "Within the device, the very small electric heating element heats a bimetallic strip. After some time, the bimetallic strip bends to open a set of switch contacts, thus interrupting the electric current to the heating element. At the same time, another (more robust) set of spring-loaded switch contacts, mounted in parallel with the former, also open, cutting off the heavy current to the \"burner\". Both the small heating element and the \"burner\" now begin to cool off. At some point the bimetallic strip will be sufficiently straight to trigger both sets of switch contacts to close, thus causing both the small heating element and the \"burner\" to recommence the above heating cycle.\n", "In other types of mercury-arc valve, the arc is ignited just once when the valve is first energised, and thereafter remains permanently established, alternating between the main anode(s) and a low-power \"auxiliary anode\" or \"keep-alive circuit\". Moreover, control grids are required in order to adjust the timing of the start of conduction.\n", "BULLET::::- Less stress on the power distribution network. Synchronous circuits tend to draw a large amount of current right at the clock edge and shortly thereafter. The number of nodes switching (and thence, amount of current drawn) drops off rapidly after the clock edge, reaching zero just before the next clock edge. In an asynchronous circuit, the switching times of the nodes are not correlated in this manner, so the current draw tends to be more uniform and less bursty.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "A hand boiler functions similar to the \"drinking bird\" toy: The upper and lower bulbs of the device are at different temperatures, and therefore the vapor pressure in the two bulbs is different. Since the lower bulb is warmer, the vapor pressure in it is higher. The difference in vapor pressure forces the liquid from the lower bulb to the upper bulb. Thus:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere:br\n\nformula_2 = the height of the column of fluid above the fluid's level in the lower bulbbr\n", "To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a 'coiled coil'. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as 'double-coil bulbs'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually , and the filament diameter is . The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source, while reducing the evaporation so that the filament will last longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05313	When I’m at work, at a pool. I look into the water and the black lines that mark the lanes will have what appears to be a blue halo on one side and an orange halo on the other, why does this happen?	I suspect this is a kind of chromatic aberration. Water can act like a lens, and lenses bend short wavelength light (blue) more than long wavelength light (red/orange). My guess as to why this only shows up near the black lines is that everywhere else in the pool is pretty uniform, so these effects cancel out. The black lines aren't reflecting much light, so the distortion near them is evident.	[ "Speckle patterns typically occur in diffuse reflections of monochromatic light such as laser light. Such reflections may occur on materials such as paper, white paint, rough surfaces, or in media with a large number of scattering particles in space, such as airborne dust or in cloudy liquids.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n", "BULLET::::- A functional explanation of MEs has been posited in the form of an error-correcting device (ECD) whose purpose is to maintain an accurate internal representation of the external world. Consistent pairings of color and oriented lines are not found frequently in natural environments, thus consistent pairing may indicate pathology of the eye. An ECD might compensate for such pathology by adjusting the appropriate neurons to a neutral point in adaptation to orientation contingent color.\n", "The color of these two bands of light will vary depending on where the particle and liquid match in refractive index, the location of λo. If the match is near the blue end of the spectrum then the Becke' Line moving into the particle will contain nearly all of the visible wavelengths except blue and will appear as a pale yellow. The Becke` Line moving out will appear a very dark blue. If the match is near the red end of the spectrum then the Becke` Line moving into the particle will appear dark red and the Becke` Line moving out will appear pale blue. If the λo is near the middle of the visible wavelengths then the Becke` Line moving into the particle will be orange and the Becke` Line moving out will be sky blue. The colors seen (see Chart 1) can be used to very precisely determine the refractive index of the unknown or confirm the identity of the unknown, as in the case of asbestos identification. Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at http://microlabgallery.com/gallery-dsbecke.aspx. The presence of two colors helps to bracket the wavelength at which the refractive index matches for the two materials.\n", "BULLET::::- Haloclines, or strong, vertical salinity gradients. For instance where fresh water enters the sea, the fresh water floats over the denser saline water and may not mix immediately. Sometimes visual effects, such as shimmering and reflection, occur at the boundary between the layers, because the refractive indices differ.\n", "Sampaolesi line\n\nSampaolesi line is a sign which may be observed during a clinical eye examination. During gonioscopy (where the structures of the eye's anterior segment are examined), if an abundance of brown pigment is seen at or anterior to Schwalbe's line, a Sampaolesi line is said to be present. The presence of a Sampaolesi line can signify pigment dispersion syndrome or pseudoexfoliation syndrome.\n\nGonioscopy is performed during eye examinations, which involves placing a mirrored lens on the patient's cornea in order to visualise the angle of the anterior chamber of the eye.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Idiopathic\n\nBULLET::::- Pigment Dispersion Syndrome\n", "If light of low coherence (i.e., made up of many wavelengths) is used, a speckle pattern will not normally be observed, because the speckle patterns produced by individual wavelengths have different dimensions and will normally average one another out. However, speckle patterns can be observed in polychromatic light in some conditions.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Subjective speckles.\n", "Although the effects of both are similar, they can occur under different conditions. Targets under separate lighting conditions have been shown to exhibit either the color spreading effect or the illusory contour effect. This suggests that they are in fact two different effects.\n", ", ARL scientists developed a diffraction-free light beam, also called Bessel beam illumination. In a paper published February 10, 2012, the team outlined their feasibility study of virtual ghost imaging using the Bessel beam, to address adverse conditions with limited visibility, such as cloudy water, jungle foliage, or around corners. Bessel beams produce concentric-circle patterns. When the beam is blocked or obscured along its trajectory, the original pattern eventually reforms to create a clear picture.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Imaging with very low light levels.\n", "On either side of the \"saddle\" formed by the isogyres, birefringent rings of colour run concentrically around two eye like shapes called \"melanotopes\". The closest bands are circles, but further out they become pear shaped with the narrow part pointing to the saddle. The larger bands surrounding the saddle and both melanotopes are figure 8 shaped.\n\nA Michel-Levy Chart is often used in conjunction with the interference pattern to determine useful information that aids in the identification of minerals.\n", "Disappearing line: The patient may report that they see one line, then the lines switch and they can only see the other line. This is the case in an alternating deviation, where there is always one eye suppressing, however the fixing eye is switching.\n\nBroken line: If a line has a break in it, this means that there is a scotoma somewhere on the retina.\n\nSection::::Results.:Normal binocular single vision (BSV).\n\nIn a patient with normal binocular functions, the expected results would be a cross with the light where the two lines intersect.\n\nSection::::Results.:Microtropia.\n", "The fluorescein dye also reappears in the patient urine, causing the urine to appear darker, and sometimes orange. It can also cause discolouration of the saliva.\n\nFluorescein angiography is one of several health care applications of this dye, all of which have a risk of severe adverse effects. See fluorescein safety in health care applications. Fluorescein angiography does not involve the use of ionizing radiation.\n\nFluorescein angiography was pioneered by German ophthalmologist Achim Wessing, who published his findings in 1969.\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n", "BULLET::::- Angiography is a process of photographing/recording vascular flow within the retina and surrounding tissue by injecting a fluorescent dye into the blood stream. This dye fluoresces a different colour when light from a specific wavelength (excitation colour) reaches it. Barrier filters then only allow the autoflourescent wavelengths of light to be photographed. Using this method a sequence of photographs can be produced that show the movement, and pooling of blood over time (“Phases”) as the dye passes though the retina and choroid.\n", "between the discs (or in this case, tape coloured strips of paper across pairs of cylinders)\n\nand view the reflections through an open gap.\n\nThe result is a complex pattern of stripes of alternating colour, as\n\nshown below, seen more clearly in the simulated version below that.\n\nFigures 5 and 6 show the \"basins of attraction\" for each\n\nimpact parameter, \"b\", that is, for a given value of \"b\", through which gap\n\ndoes the particle exit? The \"basin boundaries\" form a Cantor set and\n\nrepresent members of the stable manifold: trajectories that, once started, never\n\nexit the system.\n", "A fluorescein strip containing 10% fluorescein is applied topically to the affected area and is examined with a cobalt blue filter. At this point, the fluorescein appears green in color. Any changes in color or surface of the fluorescence area indicate the presence of corneal leakage.\n\nSection::::Results of the test.\n\nIf the fluorescein strip turns pale upon application to the corneal surface, the person tests positive for the corneal deformity he/ she is being tested for. The change in the color of the fluorescein strip is due to dilution of fluorescein caused by the aqueous leakage in the cornea.\n", "Similar colored fringing around highlights may also be caused by lens flare. Colored fringing around highlights or dark regions may be due to the receptors for different colors having differing dynamic range or sensitivity – therefore preserving detail in one or two color channels, while \"blowing out\" or failing to register, in the other channel or channels. On digital cameras, the particular demosaicing algorithm is likely to affect the apparent degree of this problem. Another cause of this fringing is chromatic aberration in the very small microlenses used to collect more light for each CCD pixel; since these lenses are tuned to correctly focus green light, the incorrect focusing of red and blue results in purple fringing around highlights. This is a uniform problem across the frame, and is more of a problem in CCDs with a very small pixel pitch such as those used in compact cameras. Some cameras, such as the Panasonic Lumix series and newer Nikon and Sony DSLRs, feature a processing step specifically designed to remove it.\n", "More recently, the term has been applied to the work of Ian Nunn, a Canadian computer scientist and artist who has done extensive work in the application of interference pigments and films to 2-dimensional painting surfaces. These special effect pigments, such as ChromaFlair, exhibit strong directional spectral reflectance and colour shifting with the angle of view. In Nunn's work, the viewer moves while the painting remains stationary. Elements in the picture change colour, appear and disappear as both the angle of viewing and the angle of illumination change.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- With Optic Coherence Tomography: OCT of the retinal layer yields different results for PPMS and RRMS\n", "There are many different ways of detecting 7DHC levels in blood plasma, one way is using the Liebermann–Burchard (LB) reagent. This is a simple colorimetric assay developed with the intention of use for large scale screening. When treated with the LB reagent, SLOS samples turn pink immediately and gradually become blue; normal blood samples are initially colorless and develop a faint blue color. Although this method has limitations and is not used to give a definitive diagnosis, it has appeal in that it is a much faster method than using cell cultures.\n", "Section::::Nature of white dots.:Suspected etiology.\n\nOne cause of the White Dot Syndromes as suggested by Gass involves viral or infectious agents. Specifically pertaining to the ‘AZOOR complex,’ Gass has postulated that a virus may enter the retina at the optic head and the infection may spread from one photoreceptor to another. Some unexplained features include the development of more than one disease in the same patient and the majority of cases occurring in females.\n", "BULLET::::- Haidinger's brush is a very subtle bowtie or hourglass shaped pattern that is seen when viewing a field with a component of blue light that is plane or circularly polarized. It's easier to see if the polarisation is rotating with respect to the observer's eye, although some observers can see it in the natural polarisation of sky light. If the light is all blue, it will appear as a dark shadow; if the light is full spectrum, it will appear yellow. It is due to the preferential absorption of blue polarized light by pigment molecules in the fovea.\n", "The disordered pattern produced by speckle has been used in quantum simulations with cold atoms. The randomly-distributed regions of bright and dark light act as an analog of disorder in solid-state systems, and are used to investigate localization phenomena.\n\nSection::::Reduction.\n\nSpeckle is considered to be a problem in laser based display systems like the Laser TV. Speckle is usually quantified by the speckle contrast. Speckle contrast reduction is essentially the creation of many independent speckle patterns, so that they average out on the retina/detector. This can be achieved by,\n\nBULLET::::- Angle diversity: illumination from different angles\n", "BULLET::::- Surface water loss\n\nBULLET::::- Limitations of use in acidic waters\n\nDepending on the environment, water flows possess certain factors that can affect how a dye performs. Natural fluorescence in a water flow can interfere with certain dyes. The presence of organic material, other chemicals, and sunlight can affect the intensity of dyes.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Water tracing.\n\nTypical applications of water flow tracing include:\n\nBULLET::::- Plumbing/piping tracing\n\nBULLET::::- Leak detection\n\nBULLET::::- Checking for illegal tapping\n\nBULLET::::- Pollution studies\n\nBULLET::::- Natural waterflow analysis (rivers, lakes, ocean currents, cave waterflows, karst studies, groundwater filtration, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- Sewer and stormwater drainage analysis\n", "BULLET::::- Neoplasm – Melanomas can also be very lightly pigmented, and a lighter colored iris may be a rare manifestation of metastatic disease to the eye.\n\nBULLET::::- Parry–Romberg syndrome – due to tissue loss.\n\nHeterochromia has also been observed in those with Duane syndrome.\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic iritis\n\nBULLET::::- Juvenile xanthogranuloma\n\nBULLET::::- Leukemia and lymphoma\n\nSection::::Classification.:Central heterochromia.\n", "Variations in refractive index cause the light from the target to refract as it passes through the fluid, which causes a distortion of the pattern in the image seen by the camera. Pattern matching algorithms can measure this distortion and calculate a qualitative density field of the flow.\n", "The most basic example is horizontal dense lines vs. vertical lines (half-pitch 0.35 λ/NA), where the former requires a North-South dipole illumination while the latter requires an East-West dipole illumination. If both types are used (also known as cross-quadrupole C-Quad), the inappropriate dipole degrades the image of the respective line orientation. Larger pitches up to λ/NA can have both horizontal and vertical lines accommodated by quadrupole or QUASAR illumination, but diagonally spaced features and elbow features are degraded.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15932	why are plastics straws worse than plastic cups?	Straws are small and thin. Because or their shape they might not be able to be handled by some recycling facilities as they'd clog the machines. So some facilities just sort out all the straws and send them to the dump. They are also small enough to be eaten by various animals, which of course causes issues.	[ "BULLET::::- Polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable plastic, require 68% fewer fossil fuel resources to produce than plastic and are compostable but require very specific conditions to break down fully\n\nBULLET::::- Wheat stem drink straws are made from the stem of the wheat plant. They are typically 3-5 mm in diameter, which is the same diameter as commercially available plastic stir sticks and cocktail straws. They are available in five inch and seven and one half inch lengths.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.\n", "Microplastics pollution are a concern if plastic waste is improperly dumped. If plastic straws are improperly disposed of, they can be transported via water into soil ecosystems, and others, where they break down into smaller, more hazardous pieces than the original plastic straw.\n", "Environmental groups have encouraged consumers to object to \"forced\" inclusion of plastic straws with food service. Campaigns advocate providing a non-plastic straw to consumers who request one, especially as some people have disabilities that prevent sipping from the rim. Pro-environment critics say that plastic straw bans are insufficient to address the issue of plastic waste and are mostly symbolic. People with disabilities worry that banning plastic straws will make less accessible and many argue that alternatives to plastic straws (metal, paper, glass etc.) aren't good enough alternatives to plastics as they can be choking hazards, have allergy risks and be inflexible.\n", "Plastic straw use is a controversial topic among four sides, the consumer, corporations, policy makers, and environmentalists. To further explore the views of all four of these groups we will introduce each opposition. \n", "BULLET::::- An Edible and Compostable straw made by SORBOS. They are aromatized and flavoured.\n\nSection::::Types.:Materials.\n\nBULLET::::- Bamboo straws\n\nBULLET::::- Polystyrene straws\n\nBULLET::::- Polypropylene is becoming favored over polystyrene for manufacturing plastic drinking straws as polystyrene is brittle and tends to crack easily. Polystyrene is also denser than water, causing straws to sink when placed into beverages. Polypropylene straws, by contrast, are much more durable and do not sink.\n", "The choice between paper cups and plastic cups has to do with the life of the item after use. A paper cup may biodegrade faster than a Styrofoam cup or a plastic cup. In general cardboard or paper takes one to three months for biodegradation, as the majority of the content, up to 95%, is made with wood chips. A plastic cup can take up to 90 years to biodegrade, depending on the type of plastic.\n", "Plastic cups are often used for gatherings where it would be inconvenient to wash dishes afterward, due to factors such as location or number of guests. Plastic cups can be used for storing most liquids, but hot liquids may melt or warp the material.\n\nSection::::Environmental issues.\n\nMost plastic cups are designed for single uses and then disposal or recycling. A life cycle inventory of a comparison of paper and plastic shows environmental effects of both with no clear winner.\n\nProduction of of plastic cup emits of green house gases.\n", "BULLET::::- They are bad conductors of electricity.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages and limitations.\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics may be degraded under the action of direct sunlight which reduces their mechanical strength.\n\nBULLET::::- Many plastics are flammable unless treated.\n\nBULLET::::- High embodied energy content\n\nBULLET::::- Low modulus of elasticity: makes them unsuitable for load-bearing applications.\n\nBULLET::::- Thermoplastics are subject to creep and soften at moderate temperatures.\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal expansion for most plastics is high: adequate thermal movement has to be allowed in detailing.\n\nBULLET::::- Many types of plastics are not biodegradable thus cause pollution when they accumulate.\n\nSection::::Products.\n", "The 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic pollution (which does include plastic straws) are, from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh,\n\nPlastic straws account only for a tiny portion (0.022%) of plastic waste emitted in the oceans each year. Despite that, numerous campaigns in the 2010s have led to companies considering a switch to paper straws and countries imposing bans on plastic straws. \n", "Various independent restaurants have also stopped using plastic straws.\n\nStarbucks announced conversion by 2020 to no-straw lids for all cold drinks except for frappucinos, which will be served with straws made from paper or other sustainable materials.\n", "BULLET::::- Silicone is a newer material used in drinking straws. Silicone straws are marketed for their freezability, invulnerability to cracking or peeling, and insulation for hot and cold drinks. One company in the US is currently manufacturing these straws.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal straws, popular among campers, are made from stainless steel, aluminum, and even titanium - carry-cases with straw cleaning-brushes are available\n\nBULLET::::- Paper has been used and is used more frequently, as unrecycled plastic waste from straws has been seen to be a problem.\n", "Paper cups may be lined with wax or plastic to prevent leakage. The Anthora paper cup designed by Leslie Buck for the Sherri Cup Company in 1963 is recognized as an iconic part of New York City daily life. Unfortunately, the plastic-lined cups, although accepted by a few composting facilities, produce plastic fragments and contaminate the ecosystems where they are processed. Once the plastic contaminates the environment, it has not shown to biodegrade, and after a lot of accumulation it will be nearly impossible to clean up.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Bamboo.\n", "BULLET::::- Tin straws\n\nBULLET::::- Straw straws\n\nBULLET::::- Paper straws\n\nBULLET::::- Pasta straws\n\nBULLET::::- Silicone straws\n\nBULLET::::- BPA-free straws\n", "Starting in 2019, a ban of plastic straws will go into effect in the City of Vancouver, due to a vote in May 2018 that included banning other single-use items. In March 2019, Starbucks Canada announced that they will be debuting strawless lids for cold drinks across Toronto as a part of their global environmental aspirations.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Plastic straw bans and proposals.:European Union.\n\nIn May 2018, the European Union proposed a ban on single-use plastics including straws, cotton buds, cutlery, balloon sticks and drink stirrers.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Plastic straw bans and proposals.:United Kingdom.\n", "Straws are typically made from polypropylene, mixed with colorants and plasticizers, and do not biodegrade in the environment, according to advocacy group \"For A Strawless Ocean\". Since the material is strong it can however be reused or recycled into other products. Waste straws in Uganda are collected from beer and soft drink depots, cleaned, and woven into mats for picnics and prayers or joined to form bags.\n\nAlternatives to plastic straws, some reusable, exist, although not always readily available:\n\nBULLET::::- Bamboo straws\n\nBULLET::::- Glass straws\n\nBULLET::::- Metal straws\n\nBULLET::::- Stainless steel straws - cases with straw cleaning-brushes are available\n", "Plastic has replaced traditional materials like wood, paperboard, and metal for the manufacture of containers because of its price, moldability/formability, durability and light weight. Alternatives such as cotton bags, cardboard boxes and aluminum cans often have larger ecological footprints because these use up more energy and water to manufacture and transport than their plastic equivalents.\n\nSection::::Trade groups.\n\nIn the U.S., the industry is represented by the Society of the Plastics Industry, Closure & Container Manufacturers Association, Flexible Packaging Association, and others.\n\nSection::::Global market.\n", "The most easily machined types of metals include aluminum, brass, and softer metals. As materials get harder, denser and stronger, such as steel, stainless steel, titanium, and exotic alloys, they become much harder to machine and take much longer, thus being less manufacturable. Most types of plastic are easy to machine, although additions of fiberglass or carbon fiber can reduce the machinability. Plastics that are particularly soft and gummy may have machinability problems of their own.\n\nSection::::For CNC machining.:Material form.\n", "In 2015, Williamstown, Massachusetts banned straws that are not recyclable or compostable as part of its Article 42 polystyrene regulations.\n", "BULLET::::- The risks of degrading plastic affecting the soil content and food crops. With many types of plastic, when the sun degrades the plastic, causing it to become brittle, the estrogenic chemicals (that is, chemicals replicating female hormones) which would cause the plastic to retain flexibility have been released into the surrounding environment.\n\nBULLET::::- If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not properly maintained, it can result in clogging or bioclogging.\n", "Section::::Pollution.\n\nThe manufacturing of paper cups contributes to water pollution when chemicals such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide and reduced sulfides enter waterways. The manufacturing of foam cups contributes to air pollution when pentane is released into the air. The plastic content in plastic-coated paper cups contributes to the plastic pollution problem, when cups are disposed as litter.\n\nSection::::Recycling and other environmental measures.\n\nThe curbside recycling of polypropylene containers has slowly increased in some developed countries, but is still rather limited.\n", "There are a lot of factors that can influence the type of aseptic container chosen for a product. The following factors may influence the choice of packaging material for aseptically processed products: functional properties of the plastic polymer (gas and water vapor barrier properties, chemical inertness, and flavor and odor absorption or scalping), potential interactions between plastic polymer and food product, desired shelf life, economical costs, mechanical characteristics of the packaging material (molding properties, material handling characteristics, and compatibility with packaging and sterilization methods), shipping and handling conditions (toughness, compression), compliance with regulation, and targeted consumer group.\n", "Section::::Environmental impact.:Voluntary conversions.\n\nAfter consideration of a ban in the UK, in 2018, after a two month trial of paper straws at a number of outlets in the UK, McDonald's announced they would be switching to paper straws for all locations in the United Kingdom and Ireland. and testing the switch in U.S. locations in June 2018.\n\nA month after the Vancouver ban passed (but before it took effect) Canada's second-largest fast food chain, A&W announced they would have plastic straws fully phased out by January 2019 in all of their locations.\n", "Plastic drinking straw production contributes a small amount to petroleum consumption, and the used straws become a small part of global plastic pollution when discarded, most after a single use. One anti-straw advocacy group has estimated that about 500 million straws are used daily in the United States alone – an average 1.6 straws per capita per day. This statistic has been criticized as inaccurate, because it was approximated by Milo Cress, who was 9 years old at the time, after surveying straw manufacturers. This figure has been widely cited by major news organizations. In 2017 the market research firm Fredonia Group estimated the number to be 390 million. \n", "On April 19, 2018, ahead of Earth Day, a proposal to phase out single-use plastics was announced during the meeting of the Commonwealth Heads of Government. This will include plastic drinking straws, which cannot be recycled and contribute to ocean deterioration, damaging ecosystems and wildlife. It is estimated that as of 2018, about 23 million straws are used and discarded daily in the UK. Plastic straws will be banned in England from April 2020. However, there will be exemptions for those who require plastic straws due to disability.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Plastic straw bans and proposals.:United States.\n", "On this hypothesis, more \"plastic\" or malleable individuals are more susceptible than others to environmental influences in a for-better-and-for-worse manner. That is, susceptible to both the adverse developmental sequelae associated with negative environments and the positive developmental consequences of supportive ones. Less susceptible individuals, in contrast, are less affected by rearing conditions, be they presumptively supportive or undermining of well being (see Figure 2, an adaptation of Bakermans-Kranenburg and Van IJzendoorn's (2007) Figure 1).\n\nSection::::Theoretical background.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01464	Purple dye for fabrics used to be extremely rare, to the point that it was mostly worn only by royalty. Why didn't people just mix red and blue dye?	Because blue was rare as well, how often do you see a blue flower?	[ "In the Middle Ages, those who dyed blue fabric and red fabric were members of different guilds, and were forbidden to dye any other colors than those of their own guild. Most purple fabric was made by the dyers who worked with red, and who used dye from madder or cochineal, so Medieval violet colors were inclined toward red.\n", "From the Middle Ages onward, purple and violet dyes for the clothing of common people were often made from the blackberry or other red fruit of the genus rubus, or from the mulberry. All of these dyes were more reddish than bluish, and faded easily with washing and exposure to sunlight.\n", "A popular new dye which arrived in Europe from the New World during the Renaissance was made from the wood of the logwood tree (H\"aematoxylum campechianum\"), which grew in Spanish Mexico. Depending on the different minerals added to the dye, it produced a blue, red, black or, with the addition of alum, a purple color, It made a good color, but, like earlier dyes, it did not resist sunlight or washing.\n", "Orcein, or \"purple moss\", was another common purple dye. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Hebrews, and was made from a Mediterranean lichen called archil or dyer's moss (Roccella tinctoria), combined with an ammoniac, usually urine. Orcein began to achieve popularity again in the 19th century, when violet and purple became the color of demi-mourning, worn after a widow or widower had worn black for a certain time, before he or she returned to wearing ordinary colors.\n", "In the 18th century, purple was still worn on occasion by Catherine the Great and other rulers, by bishops and, in lighter shades, by members of the aristocracy, but rarely by ordinary people, because of its high cost. But in the 19th century, that changed.\n", "During the Middle Ages, artists usually made purple by combining red and blue pigments; most often blue azurite or lapis-lazuili with red ochre, cinnabar, or minium. They also combined lake colors made by mixing dye with powder; using woad or indigo dye for the blue, and dye made from cochineal for the red.\n", "In 1464, Pope Paul II decreed that cardinals should no longer wear Tyrian purple, and instead wear scarlet, from kermes and alum, since the dye from Byzantium was no longer available. Bishops and archbishops, of a lower status than cardinals, were assigned the color purple, but not the rich Tyrian purple. They wore cloth dyed first with the less expensive indigo blue, then overlaid with red made from kermes dye.\n", "The production of \"Murex\" purple for the Byzantine court came to an abrupt end with the sack of Constantinople in 1204, the critical episode of the Fourth Crusade. David Jacoby concludes that \"no Byzantine emperor nor any Latin ruler in former Byzantine territories could muster the financial resources required for the pursuit of murex purple production. On the other hand, murex fishing and dyeing with genuine purple are attested for Egypt in the tenth to 13th centuries.\" By contrast, Jacoby finds that there are no mentions of purple fishing or dyeing, nor trade in the colorant in any Western source, even in the Frankish Levant. The European West turned instead to vermilion provided by the insect \"Kermes vermilio\", known as \"grana\", or crimson.\n", "In the Roman Empire, the color Tyrian purple, produced with an extremely expensive Mediterranean mollusk extract, was in principle reserved for the imperial court. The use of this dye was extended to various dignitaries, such as members of the Roman senate, who wore stripes of Tyrian purple on their white togas, for whom the term purpuratus was coined as a high aulic distinction.\n", "The tone of Tyrian purple displayed above is that tone of Tyrian purple which was the color of \"clotted blood\", which was considered the tone having the most prestige in ancient Greece and Rome, as recorded by Pliny the Elder. However, the actual tone varied depending on how the dye was formulated. Lesser royal houses that wanted to economize could mix Tyrian purple dye with the much less expensive indigo to create a color closer to violet.\n\nSection::::Historical development of purple.:Han purple: Ancient China.\n", "The actual color of Tyrian purple seems to have varied from a reddish to a bluish purple. According to the Roman writer Vitruvius, (1st century BC), the murex coming from northern waters, probably murex brandaris, produced a more bluish color than those of the south, probably murex trunculus. The most valued shades were said to be those closer to the color of dried blood, as seen in the mosaics of the robes of the Emperor Justinian in Ravenna. The chemical composition of the dye from the murex is close to that of the dye from indigo, and indigo was sometimes used to make a counterfeit Tyrian purple, a crime which was severely punished. What seems to have mattered about Tyrian purple was not its color, but its luster, richness, its resistance to weather and light, and its high price.\n", "The process of making the dye was long, difficult and expensive. Thousands of the tiny snails had to be found, their shells cracked, the snail removed. Mountains of empty shells have been found at the ancient sites of Sidon and Tyre. The snails were left to soak, then a tiny gland was removed and the juice extracted and put in a basin, which was placed in the sunlight. There a remarkable transformation took place. In the sunlight the juice turned white, then yellow-green, then green, then violet, then a red which turned darker and darker. The process had to be stopped at exactly the right time to obtain the desired color, which could range from a bright crimson to a dark purple, the color of dried blood. Then either wool, linen or silk would be dyed. The exact hue varied between crimson and violet, but it was always rich, bright and lasting.\n", "BULLET::::- Han purple was the first synthetic purple pigment, invented in China in about 700 BC. It was used in wall paintings and pottery and other applications. In color, it was very close to indigo, which had a similar chemical structure. Han purple was very unstable, and sometimes was the result of the chemical breakdown of Han blue.\n", "A similar dye, \"Tyrian purple\", which is purple-red in color, was made from a related species of marine snail, \"Murex brandaris\". This dye (alternatively known as \"imperial purple\", see purple) was also prohibitively expensive.\n", "The middle class could usually afford to dye their wool colours like blue and green. The wealthy could afford to add elaborate designs to their clothing as well as dying it red and black, expensive colours for the time. Purple was also considered a colour of royalty and was reserved for kings or religious figures such as the pope.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- England\n\nBULLET::::- 1100–1200 in fashion\n\nBULLET::::- 1200–1300 in fashion\n\nBULLET::::- 1300–1400 in fashion\n\nBULLET::::- Anglo-Saxon dress\n\nBULLET::::- History of clothing and textiles\n\nBULLET::::- Early Middle Ages\n\nBULLET::::- High Middle Ages\n\nBULLET::::- Early medieval European dress\n\nBULLET::::- Anglo-Saxon brooches\n", "At the time, all dyes used for colouring cloth were natural substances, many of which were expensive and labour-intensive to extract—and many lacked stability, or fastness. The colour purple, which had been a mark of aristocracy and prestige since ancient times, was especially expensive and difficult to produce, as the dye used, known as Tyrian purple, was made from the glandular mucus of certain molluscs. Its extraction was variable and complicated, and so Perkin and his brother realised that they had discovered a possible substitute whose production could be commercially successful.\n", "The colour-fast (non-fading) dye was an item of luxury trade, prized by Romans, who used it to colour ceremonial robes. Used as a dye, the color shifts from blue (peak absorption at 590 nm, which is yellow-orange) to reddish-purple (peak absorption at 520 nm, which is green). It is believed that the intensity of the purple hue improved rather than faded as the dyed cloth aged. Vitruvius mentions the production of Tyrian purple from shellfish. In his \"History of Animals\", Aristotle described the shellfish from which Tyrian purple was obtained and the process of extracting the tissue that produced the dye. Pliny the Elder described the production of Tyrian purple in his \"Natural History\":\n", "Section::::In science and nature.:Dyes.\n\nThe most famous purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea snail called the murex, found around the Mediterranean. (See history section above).\n", "Imperial purple was a luxury dye obtained from sea snails, used to colour cloth. Its production was extremely expensive, so the dye was used as a status symbol by the Ancient Romans e.g. a purple stripe on the togas of Roman magistrates. By the Byzantine period the colour had become associated with the emperors, and sumptuary laws restricted its use by anyone except the imperial household. Purple was thus seen as an imperial colour.\n", "In 1909, Harvard anthropologist Zelia Nuttall compiled an intensive comparative study on the historical production of the purple dye produced from the carnivorous murex snail, source of the royal purple dye valued higher than gold in the ancient Near East and ancient Mexico. Not only did the people of ancient Mexico use the same methods of production as the Phoenicians, they also valued murex-dyed cloth above all others, as it appeared in codices as the attire of nobility. \"Nuttall noted that the Mexican murex-dyed cloth bore a \"disagreeable … strong fishy smell, which appears to be as lasting as the color itself.\" Likewise, the ancient Egyptian \"Papyrus of Anastasi\" laments: \"The hands of the dyer reek like rotting fish ...\" So pervasive was this stench that the Talmud specifically granted women the right to divorce any husband who became a dyer after marriage.\n", "In ancient China, purple was obtained not through the Mediterranean mollusc, but purple gromwell. The dye obtained did not easily adhere to fabrics, making purple fabrics expensive. Purple became a fashionable color in the state of Qi (齊) because its ruler developed a preference for it. As a result, the price of a purple spoke of fabric was in excess of five times that of a plain spoke. His minister, Guan Zhong (管仲), eventually convinced him to relinquish this preference.\n", "Through the early Christian era, the rulers of the Byzantine Empire continued the use of purple as the imperial color, for diplomatic gifts, and even for imperial documents and the pages of the Bible. Gospel manuscripts were written in gold lettering on parchment that was colored Tyrian purple.\n", "BULLET::::- Purple was a popular color introduced into Japanese dress during the Heian period (794–1185). The dye was made from the root of the alkanet plant (\"Anchusa officinalis\"), also known as \"murasaki\" in Japanese. At about the same time, Japanese painters began to use a pigment made from the same plant.\n\nBULLET::::- In Thailand, widows in mourning wear the color purple. Purple is also associated with Saturday on the Thai solar calendar.\n\nSection::::In culture and society.:Engineering.\n", "Han purple is a type of artificial pigment found in China between 500 BC and AD 220. It was used in the decoration of the Terracotta Army.\n\nSection::::Historical development of purple.:Royal purple: 17th century.\n\nThe color royal purple is shown at right.\n\nThis tone of purple is bluer than the ancient Tyrian purple.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"royal purple\" as a color name in English was in 1661.\n\nIn 1990, \"royal purple\" was formulated as one of the Crayola crayon colors.\n\nSection::::Historical development of purple.:Mauveine: 1860s–1890s.\n", "Section::::Royal blue.\n\nThe Phoenicians also made an indigo dye, sometimes referred to as \"royal blue\" or \"hyacinth purple\", which was made from a closely related species of marine snail.\n\nThe Phoenicians established an ancillary production facility on the Iles Purpuraires at Mogador, in Morocco. The sea snail harvested at this western Moroccan dye production facility was \"Hexaplex trunculus\" (mentioned above) also known by the older name \"Murex trunculus\".\n\nThis second species of dye murex is found today on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa (Spain and Portugal, Morocco, and the Canary Islands).\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[ "Red and blue dyes were commonly available in the past." ]	[ "Blue dyes were rare in the past." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Red and blue dyes were commonly available in the past." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Blue dyes were rare in the past." ]
2018-02385	How are psychiatric medications developed, if their mechanisms of action is often unknown?	A lot of the time they are discovered by accident. In other words they don’t usually intend to create psychiatric medicine, but find that certain other drugs just so happen to have beneficial effects for mental health.	[ "In 1989, the U.S Department of Defense was directed to create the Psychopharmacology Demonstration Project (PDP). By 1997, ten psychologists were trained in psychopharmacology and granted the ability to prescribe psychiatric medications.\n", "Psychiatric medications are prescription medications, requiring a prescription from a physician, such as a psychiatrist, or a psychiatric nurse practitioner, PMHNP, before they can be obtained. Some U.S. states and territories, following the creation of the prescriptive authority for psychologists movement, have granted prescriptive privileges to clinical psychologists who have undergone additional specialised education and training in medical psychology. In addition to the familiar dosage in pill form, psychiatric medications are evolving into more novel methods of drug delivery. New technologies include transdermal, transmucosal, inhalation, and suppository supplements.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Drugs such as opium, alcohol, and certain plants have been used for millennia by humans to ease suffering or change awareness, but until the modern scientific era knowledge of how the substances actually \"worked\" was quite limited, most pharmacological knowledge being more a series of observation than a coherent model. The first half of the 20th century saw psychology and psychiatry as largely phenomenological, in that behaviors or themes which were observed in patients could often be correlated to a limited variety of factors such as childhood experience, inherited tendencies, or injury to specific brain areas. Models of mental function and dysfunction were based on such observations. Indeed, the behavioral branch of psychology dispensed altogether with what actually happened inside the brain, regarding most mental dysfunction as what could be dubbed as \"software\" errors. In the same era, the nervous system was progressively being studied at the microscopic and chemical level, but there was virtually no mutual benefit with clinical fields—until several developments after World War II began to bring them together. Neuropsychopharmacology may be regarded to have begun in the earlier 1950s with the discovery of drugs such as MAO inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, thorazine and lithium which showed some clinical specificity for mental illnesses such as depression and schizophrenia. Until that time, treatments that actually targeted these complex illnesses were practically non-existent. The prominent methods which \"could\" directly affect brain circuitry and neurotransmitter levels were the prefrontal lobotomy, and electroconvulsive therapy, the latter of which was conducted without muscle relaxants and both of which often caused the patient great physical and psychological injury.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSeveral significant psychiatric drugs were developed in the mid-20th century. In 1948, lithium was first used as a psychiatric medicine. One of the most important discoveries was chlorpromazine, an antipsychotic that was first given to a patient in 1952. In the same decade, Julius Axelrod carried out research into the interaction of neurotransmitters, which provided a foundation for the development of further drugs. The popularity of these drugs have increased significantly since then, with millions prescribed annually.\n", "BULLET::::- 1247 – Bethlehem Royal Hospital in Bishopsgate outside the wall of London, one of the most famous old psychiatric hospitals was founded as a priory of the Order of St. Mary of Bethlem to collect alms for Crusaders; after the English government secularized it, it started admitting mental patients by 1377 (c. 1403), becoming known as Bedlam Hospital; in 1547 it was acquired by the City of London, operating until 1948; it is now part of the British NHS Foundation Trust.\n\nBULLET::::- 1266–1308 Duns Scotus\n", "In the 1950s the first modern antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs were developed: chlorpromazine (Thorazine), which was one of the first widely used antipsychotic medications to be developed, and iproniazid, which was one of the first antidepressants developed. The research on some of these drugs helped to formulate the monoamine and catecholamine theories, which alluded to the fact that chemical imbalances provide the basis for mental health disorders. New research points to the concept of neuronal plasticity, specifically mentioning that mental health disorders may involve a neurophysiological problem that inhibits neuronal plasticity.\n\nSection::::Diagnostics.\n", "Psychiatric pharmacy\n\nPsychiatric pharmacy, also known as mental health pharmacy, is the area of clinical pharmacy specializing in the treatment of people with psychiatric illnesses through the use of psychotropic medications. It is a branch of neuropsychiatric pharmacy, which includes neurologic pharmacy.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Aaron B. Lerner et al. of Yale University isolated the hormone melatonin, which was found to regulate the circadian rhythm.\n\nBULLET::::- 1960s\n\nAaron T. Beck developed cognitive therapy.\n\nBULLET::::- 1960\n\nThe first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide, under the trade name \"Librium\" was introduced.\n\nBULLET::::- 1961\n\nProfessor of psychiatry Thomas Szasz publishes The Myth of Mental Illness.\n\nBULLET::::- 1963\n\nUnited States president John F. Kennedy introduced legislation delegating the National Institute of Mental Health to administer Community Mental Health Centers for those being discharged from state psychiatric hospitals.\n\nBULLET::::- 1964\n", "American physician Benjamin Rush became one of the earliest advocates of humane treatment for the mentally ill with the publication of \"Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon Diseases of the Mind\", the first American textbook on psychiatry.\n\nBULLET::::- 1821\n\nThe element lithium was first isolated from lithium oxide and described by English chemist William Thomas Brande.\n\nBULLET::::- 1841\n\nWhat became the Royal College of Psychiatrists, then known as the \"Association of Medical Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane\", was founded in England, receiving a royal charter in 1926.\n\nBULLET::::- 1844\n", "BULLET::::- c. 451 – Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople: his followers dedicated themselves to the sick and became physicians of great repute. They brought the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen, and influenced the approach to physical and mental disorders in Persia and Arabia\n\nSection::::Seventh century.\n", "Psychopharmacology studies a wide range of substances with various types of psychoactive properties. The professional and commercial fields of pharmacology and psychopharmacology do not typically focus on psychedelic or recreational drugs, and so the majority of studies are conducted on psychiatric medication. While studies are conducted on all psychoactive drugs by both fields, psychopharmacology focuses on psychoactive and chemical interactions within the brain. Physicians who research psychiatric medications are psychopharmacologists, specialists in the field of psychopharmacology.\n\nSection::::Adverse and withdrawal effects.\n", "Timeline of psychiatry\n\nThis is a timeline of the modern development of psychiatry. Related information can be found in the Timeline of psychology and Timeline of psychotherapy articles.\n\nSection::::Early history of psychiatry.\n\nBULLET::::- 1550 BCE\n\nThe Ebers papyrus, one of the most important medical papyri of\n\nBULLET::::- 6th century BCE\n\n600 B.C., many cities had temples to Asklepios known as an Asklepieion that provided cures for psychosomatic illnesses\n\nBULLET::::- 4th century BCE\n\nGreek physician Hippocrates theorized that physiological abnormalities may be the root of mental disorders.\n\nBULLET::::- 280 BCE\n", "The clinician then attempts to obtain a clear description of these problems. When did they start? How did they start, suddenly, slowly or in fits and starts? Have they fluctuated over time? What does the patient describe as the essential features of the complaints? Having developed a hypothesis of what may be the diagnosis, the clinician next looks at symptoms that might confirm this hypothesis or lead them to consider another possibility. Much of the mental process for the clinician is involved in this process of hypothesis testing to arrive at a diagnostic formulation that will form the basis of a management plan. The severity of each complaint is assessed and this may include probing questions on sensitive issues such as suicidal thoughts or sexual difficulties.\n", "The EEG patterns of new psychoactive drugs predicted their clinical activity. By the 1960s, EEG analysis of psychoactive drugs was a feature of the NIMH Early Clinical Drug Evaluation (ECDEU) program that evaluated and identified new psychiatric treatments. Proposed psychoactive drugs developed in chemical laboratories were first tested in animals and then tested in man. The changes in the EEG became the basis for a classification of new drugs.\n", "BULLET::::- c. 50 – Aulus Cornelius Celsus died, leaving \"De Medicina\", a medical encyclopedia; Book 3 covers mental diseases. The term insania, insanity, was first used by him. The methods of treatment included bleeding, frightening the patient, emetics, enemas, total darkness, and decoctions of poppy or henbane, and pleasant ones such as music therapy, travel, sport, reading aloud, and massage. He was aware of the importance of the doctor-patient relationship.\n", "Whitaker begins by reviewing the discovery of antipsychotics, benzodiazepines and antidepressants. These were discovered as side effects during research for antihistamines (specifically promethazine), gram negative antibiotics (specifically mephenesin) and the anti-tuberculosis agents isoniazid and iproniazid respectively. The psychiatric mechanisms of action of these drugs were not known at the time and these were initially called major tranquilizers (now typical antipsychotics) due to their induction of \"euphoric quietude\"; minor tranquilizers (now benzodiazepines) and psychic energizers (now antidepressants) due to patients \"dancing in the wards.\" These compounds were developed during a period of growth for the pharmaceutical industry bolstered by the 1951 Durham-Humphrey Amendment, giving physicians monopolistic prescribing rights thus aligning the interests of physicians and pharmaceutical companies. This also followed the industry's development of \"magic bullets\" that treat people with, for example, diabetes, which according to Whitaker provided an analogy to sell the idea of these drugs to the public. It was not until many years later, after the mechanisms of these drugs were determined, that the serotonergic hypothesis of depression and dopaminergic hypothesis of schizophrenia were developed to fall in line with the drug's mechanisms. According to Whitaker's analysis of the primary literature, lower levels of serotonin and higher levels of dopamine \"have proved to be true in patients WITH prior exposure to antidepressants or antipsychotics (ie as homeostatic mechanisms) but NOT in patients without prior exposure.\"\n", "As experts in pharmacotherapy, psychiatric pharmacists are trained to assure that patients suffering from mental illness are treated with the most appropriate medications for their conditions. They provide a variety of services aimed at making sure that patients are treated safely, that side effects are minimized (if not eliminated), and that pharmacologic treatments are efficacious at controlling or halting disease progression.\n\nSection::::Scope of practice.:Comprehensive medication management.\n", "The College of Psychiatric and Neurologic Pharmacists (CPNP) is a professional organization that represents psychiatric pharmacists within the United States. CPNP credits two key pharmacists with developing clinical psychiatric pharmacy as a specialty: Dr. Glen Stimmel, PharmD, BCPP and Dr. R. Lee Evans, PharmD, FASHP, BCPP. Dr. Stimmel would later become a founding member of CPNP, as well as serve as its president. Dr. Matthew Fuller PharmD, BCPP, FASHP, CPNP Foundation President 2006-2007, has recognized Dr. Stimmel as the “Father of Psychiatric Pharmacy.\" The specialty of psychiatric pharmacy was recognized by the Board of Pharmacy Specialties (BPS) in 1992.\n\nSection::::Practitioners.\n", "Prior to the introduction of these agents, the management of mental disorders in America relied mainly on \"psychoanalytic\" methods said to be deriving from a \"Freudian\" understanding of the subject area. Apparently, there was great resistance to the use of medicine in the treatment of mental disorders prior to the 1950s. It is, however, known that various other agents including amphetamine and opium have documented use in the history of treating depression, and that barbiturates, lithium salts, bromide salts, various anticholinergic alkaloids, as well as opium, were all used in the history of the treatment of schizophrenia.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The psychopharmacological era began in earnest in 1949, with an article published by John Cade about the observed antimanic action of lithium in Australia. Intrigued by these findings Schou, who in the meantime had joined the Psychiatric Research Institute of Aarhus University, confirmed these findings in a double-blind placebo-controlled study with his co-workers.\n", "Timeline of psychology\n\nThis article is a general timeline of psychology. A.\n\nSection::::Ancient history – BCE.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1550 BCE – The Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 600 BCE – Many cities in Greece had temples to Asklepios that provided cures for psychosomatic illnesses.\n\nBULLET::::- 540–475 Heraclitus\n\nBULLET::::- c. 500 Alcmaeon - suggested theory of humors as regulating human behavior (similar to Empedocles' elements)\n\nBULLET::::- 500–428 Anaxagoras\n", "Greek physician and philosopher Herophilus studied the nervous system and distinguished between sensory nerves and motor nerves.\n\nBULLET::::- 250 BCE\n\nGreek anatomist Erasistratus studied the brain and distinguished between the cerebrum and cerebellum.\n\nBULLET::::- 9th century\n\nThe first bimaristan was built in Baghdad, followed by several others throughout the Arab world. By the 13th century, they had become large, complex, and divided into several different specialized units. A number of these hospitals contained wards for mentally ill patients.\n\nBULLET::::- 11th century\n", "Section::::The ‘elements’ of a new system.:Röschlaub and the general theory of disturbance and disorder.\n\nThrough Röschlaub’s writings, mainly between 1795 and 1806, Brown’s conception of life was brought out: as a potential in us that is brought into action and reality as a result of the workings of the actual (excitants or stimulants) on us, and of the living principle as a receptive potentiality (‘excitability’, or the capacity to be impinged upon) and pro-active (‘excitement’, or the capacity to respond to impingements), that is, as a dynamic power.\n", "Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as \"psychic energizers\" and lithium. Benzodiazepines gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity. Advances in neuroscience and genetics led to new research agendas. Cognitive behavioral therapy was developed. Through the 1990s, new SSRI antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world.\n", "Timeline of psychotherapy\n\nThis article is a compiled timeline of psychotherapy. A more general description of the development of the subject of psychology can be found in the History of psychology article. For related overviews see the Timeline of psychology and Timeline of psychiatry articles.\n\nSection::::Antiquity.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1550 BCE – Ancient Egyptians codified their knowledge of psychiatry, medicine, and surgery in the Ebers Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The former mentioned dementia and depression, while the latter gave detailed instructions for various neurosurgical procedures. The power of magic (suggestion) was recognized as complementary to medicine.\n" ]	[ "Psychiatric drugs are developed on purpose. " ]	[ "Psychiatric drugs are not developed, but psychiatric drugs are often other drugs that are later found to work for mental health." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Psychiatric drugs are developed on purpose. ", "Psychiatric drugs are developed on purpose. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Psychiatric drugs are not developed, but psychiatric drugs are often other drugs that are later found to work for mental health.", "Psychiatric drugs are not developed, but psychiatric drugs are often other drugs that are later found to work for mental health." ]
2018-00892	how did language begin?	Nobody knows. There are conjectures, with ridiculous names (like the "dingdong theory" and the "bow-wow theory"), but they're complete guesses and are probably almost as ridiculous as their names. We do know how languages develop and change over time, so we can actually trace it back through earlier versions and even try to reconstruct long-dead languages: for example, English must have descended from a language that linguists call "Proto-Germanic" (a language which also gave us modern German, Dutch and the Scandinavian languages), and Proto-Germanic must itself have descended from a language we call "Proto-Indo-European" (which is the common ancestor of nearly all European languages and several languages spoken in India). We think Proto-Indo-European must have been spoken around 6,000 to 4,000 years ago somewhere in the region around the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. And there the trail goes cold: we have no idea where Proto-Indo-European comes from. And PIE was a fully-developed language, just as sophisticated and as expressive as modern English is. Some linguists have made guesses as to how, in general, a complete grammar (the rules governing how individual words can be combined to mean something) might have developed -- this is far too complex, but if you're interested in languages, I can recommend The Unfolding of Language by Guy Deutscher. But Deutscher says in his book that he has to start with a rudimentary language consisting of words for things (i.e. nouns) and words for actions (verbs). How we got from grunts to nouns and verbs, he can't say. It's tempting to suggest that we just pointed to a thing, made a sound, and that was the word for it. But is that really how it happened? Not a clue, but it's unlikely: languages aren't designed, they evolve, and without a language how can you communicate the idea: "Whatever sound I make when I point to something, that's its name"? Vervet monkey are an example of a species that use different calls for different things: specifically, different alarm calls for different types of predator, so that other vervets know whether they should climb a tree or take cover under something. But while that's a language in the sense of a system of communication, it's still nothing like human language: it has no grammar, and vervets can't combine the calls in innovative ways to communicate new ideas. Presumably simply calls evolved into words, but... we don't know how. TL;DR: Nobody has the faintest idea, but please let us know if you invent a time machine because this is one question we'd love to have answered.	[ "History contains a number of anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment. The first such tale was told by Herodotus (\"Histories\" 2.2). He relates that Pharaoh Psammetichus (probably Psammetichus I, 7th century BC) had two children raised by a shepherd, with the instructions that no one should speak to them, but that the shepherd should feed and care for them while listening to determine their first words. When one of the children cried \"bekos\" with outstretched arms the shepherd concluded that the word was Phrygian, because that was the sound of the Phrygian word for \"bread\". From this, Psammetichus concluded that the first language was Phrygian. King James V of Scotland is said to have tried a similar experiment; his children were supposed to have spoken Hebrew.\n", "Section::::Language origin hypotheses.:Self-domesticated ape theory.\n", "Section::::Language origin hypotheses.:Tool-use associated sound in the evolution of language.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:In religion and mythology.\n\nThe search for the origin of language has a long history rooted in mythology. Most mythologies do not credit humans with the invention of language but speak of a divine language predating human language. Mystical languages used to communicate with animals or spirits, such as the language of the birds, are also common, and were of particular interest during the Renaissance.\n", "BULLET::::2. Language was derived from gesture.\n", "Mythical origins of language\n\nThere have been many accounts of the origin of language in the world's mythologies and other stories pertaining to the origin of language, the development of language and the reasons behind the diversity in languages today.\n", "Those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as Michael Tomasello, see it developing from the cognitively controlled aspects of primate communication, these being mostly gestural as opposed to vocal. Where vocal precursors are concerned, many continuity theorists envisage language evolving from early human capacities for song.\n", "Section::::Language origin hypotheses.:Problems of reliability and deception.:The gossip and grooming hypothesis.\n", "Section::::Speech and language for communication.\n\nA distinction can be drawn between speech and language. Language is not necessarily spoken: it might alternatively be written or signed. Speech is among a number of different methods of encoding and transmitting linguistic information, albeit arguably the most natural one.\n", "Section::::Discovering the origin of language.\n", "BULLET::::- Referential vocal signals\n\nBULLET::::- Imitation as a rational, intentional system\n\nBULLET::::- Voluntary control over signal production as evidence of intentional communication\n\nBULLET::::- Number representation\n\nSection::::Cognitive development and language.:Theory of mind.\n", "Based on computer simulations used to evaluate that evolution of language that resulted in showing three stages in the evolution of syntax, Neanderthals are thought to have been in stage 2, showing they had something more evolved than proto-language but not quite as complex as the language of modern humans.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary timeline.:\"Homo sapiens\".\n\nAnatomically modern humans begin to appear in the fossil record in Ethiopia some 200,000 years ago.\n", "An Iroquois story tells of the god Taryenyawagon (\"Holder of the Heavens\") guiding his people on a journey and directing them to settle in different places whence their languages changed.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary timeline.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary timeline.:Primate communication.\n", "In Ancient Greece there was a myth which told that for ages men had lived without law under the rule of Zeus and speaking one language, gifted to them by the god and goddess of ingenuity, Philarios and Philarion. The god Hermes brought diversity in speech and along with it separation into nations and discord ensued. Zeus then resigned his position, yielding it to the first king of men, Phoroneus.\n\nIn Norse mythology, the faculty of speech is a gift from the third son of Borr, Vé, who gave also hearing and sight.\n\nSection::::Africa.\n", "In the mythology of the Yuki, indigenous people of California, a creator, accompanied by Coyote creates language as he creates the tribes in various localities. He lays sticks which will transform into people upon daybreak.\n\nSection::::Americas.:Amazonas, Brazil.\n\nThe Ticuna people of the Upper Amazon tell that all the peoples were once a single tribe, speaking the same language until two hummingbird eggs were eaten, it is not told by whom. Subsequently the tribe split into groups and dispersed far and wide.\n\nSection::::Europe.\n", "However, scholarly interest in the question of the origin of language has only gradually been rekindled from the 1950s on (and then controversially) with ideas such as universal grammar, mass comparison and glottochronology.\n\nThe \"origin of language\" as a subject in its own right emerged from studies in neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics and human evolution. The \"Linguistic Bibliography\" introduced \"Origin of language\" as a separate heading in 1988, as a sub-topic of psycholinguistics. Dedicated research institutes of evolutionary linguistics are a recent phenomenon, emerging only in the 1990s.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Abiogenesis\n\nBULLET::::- Biolinguistics\n\nBULLET::::- Bow-wow theory\n\nBULLET::::- Digital infinity\n", "In the Old Testament, the Book of Genesis (11) says that God prevented the Tower of Babel from being completed through a miracle that made its construction workers start speaking different languages. After this, they migrated to other regions, grouped together according to which of the newly created languages they spoke, explaining the origins of languages and nations outside of the fertile crescent.\n\nSection::::History.:Historical experiments.\n", "Section::::Language origin hypotheses.\n\nSection::::Language origin hypotheses.:Early speculations.\n\n In 1861, historical linguist Max Müller published a list of speculative theories concerning the origins of spoken language:\n\nBULLET::::- Bow-wow. The \"bow-wow\" or \"cuckoo\" theory, which Müller attributed to the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder, saw early words as imitations of the cries of beasts and birds.\n\nBULLET::::- Pooh-pooh. The \"pooh-pooh\" theory saw the first words as emotional interjections and exclamations triggered by pain, pleasure, surprise, etc.\n", "Myths regarding the origins of language and languages are generally subsumed or footnoted into larger creation myths, although there are differences. Some tales say a creator endowed language from the beginning, others count language among later gifts, or curses.\n\nSection::::Hebrew Bible.\n\nThe Hebrew Bible attributes the origin of language per se to humans, with Adam being asked to name the creatures that God had created.\n\nOne of the most well known examples in the West is the Tower of Babel passage from Genesis. \n", "The origin of language and its evolutionary emergence in the human species have been subjects of speculation for several centuries. The topic is difficult to study because of the lack of direct evidence. Consequently, scholars wishing to study the origins of language must draw inferences from other kinds of evidence such as the fossil record, archaeological evidence, contemporary language diversity, studies of language acquisition, and comparisons between human language and systems of communication existing among animals (particularly other primates). Many argue that the origins of language probably relate closely to the origins of modern human behavior, but there is little agreement about the implications and directionality of this connection.\n", "According to the recent African origins hypothesis, from around 60,000 – 50,000 years ago a group of humans left Africa and began migrating to occupy the rest of the world, carrying language and symbolic culture with them.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary timeline.:The descended larynx.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary timeline.:Phonemic diversity.\n", "Section::::Language origin hypotheses.:Problems of reliability and deception.:The 'mother tongues' hypothesis.\n", "The Broca's and Wernicke's areas in the primate brain are responsible for controlling the muscles of the face, tongue, mouth, and larynx, as well as recognizing sounds. Primates are known to make \"vocal calls\", and these calls are generated by circuits in the brainstem and limbic system.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12685	what causes throbbing pain?	The injury caused damage the body responds to damage by sending more blood which causes swelling the swelling stretches everything and that puts more pressure on the nerve endings that detected pressure. Under normal conditions your pulse pushes outward on your body as it travels. Because the area is already stretched from the inflammation the nerve endings that normally wouldn’t detect the slight expansion from your pulse are now being triggered after every beat of your heart	[ "Response to motor-level stimulation is often not immediately but its effect is long-lasting. Due to the lack of immediate effect, treatment times are typically longer and are conducted for 45 minutes or longer. The mechanism of action may be attributed to the production of rhythmic motor contractions that activate the endogenous opiate mechanisms of analgesia. This level of electroanalgesia is most often used in patients with deep, throbbing, or chronic pain.\n\nSection::::Electroanalgesia.:Noxious-level stimulation.\n", "Section::::History.:2012 season.\n", "Section::::History.:2011 season.\n", "Section::::Common palpable sites.:Head and neck.\n", "Section::::History.:2010 season.\n", "Section::::Themes.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pulsus tardus et parvus\", also \"pulsus parvus et tardus\", slow-rising pulse and anacrotic pulse, is weak (parvus), and late (tardus) relative to its expected characteristics. It is caused by a stiffened aortic valve that makes it progressively harder to open, thus requiring increased generation of blood pressure in the left ventricle. It is seen in aortic valve stenosis.\n", "Section::::Nocturnal hypertension.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The regulation of vascular tone in the endothelium of blood vessels is mediated by purinergic signalling. A decreased concentration of oxygen releases ATP from erythrocytes, triggering a propagated calcium wave in the endothelial layer of blood vessels and a subsequent production of nitric oxide that results in vasodilation.\n", "A seven-disc DVD set, titled \"TGV\", was issued in 2007. The set contains old and new footage of the band. \"TGV\" came packaged in a deluxe box with a 64-page book, all designed by Christopherson.\n", "Advanced disease may present with signs of right-sided heart failure such as parasternal heave, jugular venous distension, hepatomegaly, ascites and/or pulmonary hypertension, the latter often presenting with a loud P.\n\nAlmost all signs increase with exercise and pregnancy.\n\nOther peripheral signs include:\n\nBULLET::::- Malar flush - due to back pressure and buildup of carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2 is a natural vasodilator.\n\nBULLET::::- Atrial fibrillation - irregular pulse and loss of 'a' wave in jugular venous pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Left parasternal heave - presence of right ventricular hypertrophy due to pulmonary hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- Tapping apex beat that is not displaced\n", "Section::::Chris Carter and the establishment of Throbbing Gristle: 1975–.\n", "Section::::Related diseases.:Migraine headaches.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nClaudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse. The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats.\n\nPressure waves generated by the heart in systole move the arterial walls. Forward movement of blood occurs when the boundaries are pliable and compliant. These properties form enough to create a palpable pressure wave.\n", "Section::::Venous return.\n\nAs venous return increases, the pressure in the superior and inferior vena cava increase. This results in an increase in the pressure of the right atrium, which stimulates the atrial stretch receptors (low pressure receptor zones). These receptors in turn signal the medullary control centers to increase the heart rate (Tachycardia). Unusually, this tachycardia is mediated by increased sympathetic activity to the sinoatrial node (SAN) with no fall in parasympathetic activity.\n", "Section::::History and Legacy.\n\nGate control theory asserts that activation of nerves which do not transmit pain signals, called nonnociceptive fibers, can interfere with signals from pain fibers, thereby inhibiting pain. Afferent pain-receptive nerves, those that bring signals to the brain, comprise at least two kinds of fibers - a fast, relatively thick, myelinated \"Aδ\" fiber that carries messages quickly with intense pain, and a small, unmyelinated, slow \"C\" fiber that carries the longer-term throbbing and chronic pain. Large-diameter Aβ fibers are nonnociceptive (do not transmit pain stimuli) and inhibit the effects of firing by Aδ and C fibers.\n", "When the heart ejects stroke volume to the arteries, it takes a certain transit time until the blood volume reaches the periphery. This pulse transit time (PTT) indirectly depends on blood pressure. This circumstance can be used for the noninvasive detection of blood pressure changes.\n\nSection::::Pulse Decomposition Analysis.\n", "Protein tyrosine phosphorylation of capillary endothelial cells plays an important role in their proliferation. This phosphorylation can form new blood vessels.\n\nSection::::Function.:Regulation of ion channels in nerve transmission.\n", "This phenomenon can be a sign of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy or of many other types of heart disease (see list below). Other causes include digitalis toxicity, induction of anesthesia, placement of surgical instrumentation into the thorax or as a benign, temporary phenomenon.\n", "Section::::Electrolocation.:Active electrolocation.\n", "Pain receptors are known as nociceptors. Two main types of nociceptors exist, A-fiber nociceptors and C-fiber nociceptors. A-fiber receptors are myelinated and conduct currents rapidly. They are mainly used to conduct fast and sharp types of pain. Conversely, C-fiber receptors are unmyelinated and slowly transmit. These receptors conduct slow, burning, diffuse pain.\n", "Section::::Functions and mechanisms.:Types of monitoring devices.\n", "Section::::Insulin.\n\n\"Main Article:\" Insulin Oscillation\n\nOscillations of intracellular calcium concentration in beta cells within the pancreas produces a basal pulsatile secretion of insulin form the pancreas. Secretion pulses emanating form free beta cells not located within an islet of Lagerhans has been observed to be highly variable (2 to 10 minutes). Beta cells within an islet, however, become synchronized via electrical coupling resulting from gap junctions, and osculate more regularly (3 to 6 minutes). ATP signalling has also been proposed as a method of coordination between beta cells.\n", "Blood hammer\n\nThe blood hammer phenomenon is a sudden increase of the upstream blood pressure in a blood vessel (especially artery or arteriole) when the bloodstream is abruptly blocked by vessel obstruction. The term \"blood-hammer\" was introduced in cerebral hemodynamics by analogy with the hydraulic expression \"water hammer\", already used in vascular physiology to designate an arterial pulse variety, the \"water-hammer pulse\". Complete understanding of the relationship between mechanical parameters in vascular occlusions is a critical issue, which can play an important role in the future diagnosis, understanding and treatment of vascular diseases.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04188	How does the body determine if a sickness you have is worth making a fever or not?	Your brain has something called the Hypothalamus and that thing has a region called regio preaoptica. This region gets all the temperature information of your body, 30% of the Neurons/Nerves there are sensing heat, 5% do the same with cold. The rest is not attached to registering either (insensitive). The normal body temperature regarding the periphery and the central body are now calculated by comparing these cold/heat sensors to the insensitive ones which means a misbalance here would result either in a state of frosting or a rise in temperature (fever) — > Pyrogenes are misbalancing our normal body temperature by effecting our regio praeoptica in a complex process. Pyrogenes can be Bacteria, Virus, mushrooms.	[ "Consider a village where all villagers are either healthy or have a fever and only the village doctor can determine whether each has a fever. The doctor diagnoses fever by asking patients how they feel. The villagers may only answer that they feel normal, dizzy, or cold.\n", "Despite all this, diagnosis may only be suggested by the therapy chosen. When a patient recovers after discontinuing medication it likely was drug fever, when antibiotics or antimycotics work it probably was infection. Empirical therapeutic trials should be used in those patients in which other techniques have failed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n\nIn 1961 Petersdorf and Beeson suggested the following criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F) on several occasions\n\nBULLET::::- Persisting without diagnosis for at least 3 weeks\n\nBULLET::::- At least 1 week's investigation in hospital\n\nA new definition which includes the outpatient setting (which reflects current medical practice) is broader, stipulating:\n", "A wide range for normal temperatures has been found. Central temperatures, such as rectal temperatures, are more accurate than peripheral temperatures.\n\nFever is generally agreed to be present if the elevated temperature is caused by a raised set point and:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal) is at or over\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the mouth (oral) is at or over\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature under the arm (axillary) or in the ear (tympanic) is at or over\n", "Continuous fever\n\nContinuous fever is a type or pattern of fever in which temperature does not touch the baseline and remains above normal throughout the day. The variation between maximum and minimum temperature in 24 hours is less than 1°C (1.5°F). It usually occurs due to some infectious disease. Diagnosis of continuous fever is usually based on the clinical signs and symptoms but some biological tests, chest X-ray and CT scan are also used. Typhoid fever is an example of continuous fever and it shows a characteristic step-ladder pattern, a step-wise increase in temperature with a high plateau.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "A temperature \"setpoint\" is the level at which the body attempts to maintain its temperature. When the setpoint is raised, the result is a fever. Most fevers are caused by infectious disease and can be lowered, if desired, with antipyretic medications.\n\nAn early morning temperature higher than or a late afternoon temperature higher than is normally considered a fever, assuming that the temperature is elevated due to a change in the hypothalamus's setpoint. Lower thresholds are sometimes appropriate for elderly people. The normal daily temperature variation is typically , but can be greater among people recovering from a fever.\n", "Serologic testing looks for the antibodies that the body produces against the streptococcal infection including antistreptolysin-O and antideoxyribonuclease B. It takes the body 2–3 weeks to make these antibodies so this type of testing is not useful for diagnosing a current infection. However, it is useful when assessing a person who may have one of the complications from a previous streptococcal infection.\n", "In the prologue, WICKED soldiers arrive and try to take Newt's sister, Lizzy. However, Newt and Lizzy's parents put up a fight and, as a result, are killed. Since Newt is now an orphan, they take him along with Lizzy as a control subject.\n\nSection::::Plot.:Main plot.\n", "Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever. For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5 °C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such as \"Beauveria bassiana\" and \"Metarhizium acridum\". Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasite \"Ascosphaera apis\".\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhoades, R. and Pflanzer, R. Human physiology, third edition, chapter 27 \"Regulation of body temperature\", p. 820 \"Clinical focus: pathogenesis of fever\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever and Taking Your Child's Temperature\n", "Fever is an important feature for the diagnosis of disease in domestic animals. The body temperature of animals, which is taken rectally, is different from one species to another. For example, a horse is said to have a fever above (). In species that allow the body to have a wide range of \"normal\" temperatures, such as camels, it is sometimes difficult to determine a febrile stage.\n", "BULLET::::- Aged individuals—the burden of tolerating infection will exist for a short time which reduces the actuarial future benefits of clearing an infection compared to the costs of its removal. This change favors reduced or no deployment of fever.\n\nBULLET::::- When internal resources are limited (such as in winter), and the ability to afford high expenditure on increased metabolism is reduced. This increases the risks of activating fever relative to its potential benefit, and animals are less likely to use fever to fight infections.\n\nBULLET::::- Late Pregnancy\n\nSection::::Antioxidants.\n", "To counter this, Francesco Torti, who first systematically studied the effect of cinchona in the treatment of malaria, wrote a book which he titled \"Therapeutice Specialis ad Febres Periodicas Perniciosas\".\n\nSection::::Tree of fevers.\n", "Presently, there is no specific way to test for chronic signs and symptoms associated with Chikungunya fever although nonspecific laboratory findings such as C reactive protein and elevated cytokines can correlate with disease activity.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "\"This established patient has had a fever with sore/scratchy throat and severe headache for the past three days. He has had a little nausea but no vomiting. He said his pain is relieved with cold drinks and ibuprofen.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nBULLET::::- Most \"Coccidioides\" infections have an incubation period from one to four weeks and resolve without specific therapy; few clinical trials have assessed outcomes in less-severe disease.\n\nBULLET::::- Commonly used indicators to judge the severity of illness include:\n\nBULLET::::- Continuous fever for longer than 1 month\n\nBULLET::::- Body-weight loss of more than 10%\n\nBULLET::::- Intense night sweats that persist for more than 3 weeks\n\nBULLET::::- Infiltrates that involve more than half of one lung or portions of both lungs\n\nBULLET::::- Prominent or persistent hilar adenopathy\n\nBULLET::::- Anticoccidioidal complement fixation IgG titers of 1:16 or higher\n", "BULLET::::- Factitious disease\n\nBULLET::::- Fire-eater’s lung\n\nBULLET::::- Fraudulent fever\n\nBULLET::::- Gaucher’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Hamman–Rich syndrome (acute interstitial pneumonia)\n\nBULLET::::- Hashimoto’s encephalopathy\n\nBULLET::::- Hematomas\n\nBULLET::::- Hemoglobinopathies\n\nBULLET::::- Hypersensitivity pneumonitis\n\nBULLET::::- Hypertriglyceridemia\n\nBULLET::::- Hypothalamic hypopituitarism\n\nBULLET::::- Idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus\n\nBULLET::::- Inflammatory pseudotumor\n\nBULLET::::- Kikuchi’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Linear IgA dermatosis\n\nBULLET::::- Laennec's cirrhosis\n\nBULLET::::- Mesenteric fibromatosis\n\nBULLET::::- Metal fume fever\n\nBULLET::::- Milk protein allergy\n\nBULLET::::- Myotonic dystrophy\n\nBULLET::::- Nonbacterial osteitis\n\nBULLET::::- Organic dust toxic syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Panniculitis\n\nBULLET::::- POEMS (polyneuropathy, organomegaly, endocrinopathy, monoclonal protein, skin changes)\n\nBULLET::::- Polymer fume fever\n\nBULLET::::- Post–cardiac injury syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Postmyocardial infarction syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Primary biliary cirrhosis\n", "Intermittent fever\n\nIntermittent fever is a type or pattern of fever in which there is an interval where temperature is elevated for several hours followed by an interval when temperature drops back to normal. This type of fever usually occurs during the course of an infectious disease. Diagnosis of intermittent fever is frequently based on the clinical history but some biological tests like complete blood count and blood culture are also used. In addition radiological investigations like chest X-ray, abdominal ultrasonography can also be used in establishing diagnosis. \n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Unless the patient is acutely ill, no therapy should be started before the cause has been found. This is because non-specific therapy is rarely effective and mostly delays diagnosis. An exception is made for neutropenic patients in which delay could lead to serious complications. After blood cultures are taken this condition is aggressively treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics. Antibiotics are adjusted according to the results of the cultures taken.\n\nHIV-infected persons with pyrexia and hypoxia will be started on medication for possible \"Pneumocystis jirovecii\" infection. Therapy is adjusted after a diagnosis is made.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Other investigations may be needed. Ultrasound may show cholelithiasis, echocardiography may be needed in suspected endocarditis and a CT-scan may show infection or malignancy of internal organs. Another technique is Gallium-67 scanning which seems to visualize chronic infections more effectively. Invasive techniques (biopsy and laparotomy for pathological and bacteriological examination) may be required before a definite diagnosis is possible.\n\nPositron emission tomography using radioactively labelled fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) has been reported to have a sensitivity of 84% and a specificity of 86% for localizing the source of fever of unknown origin.\n", "Section::::Setting.\n", "Diagnosis is usually based on serology (looking for an antibody response) rather than looking for the organism itself. Serology allows the detection of chronic infection by the appearance of high levels of the antibody against the virulent form of the bacterium. Molecular detection of bacterial DNA is increasingly used. Culture is technically difficult and not routinely available in most microbiology laboratories.\n", "Protection is offered by Q-Vax, a whole-cell, inactivated vaccine developed by an Australian vaccine manufacturing company, CSL Limited. The intradermal vaccination is composed of killed \"C. burnetii\" organisms. Skin and blood tests should be done before vaccination to identify pre-existing immunity, because vaccinating people who already have an immunity can result in a severe local reaction. After a single dose of vaccine, protective immunity lasts for many years. Revaccination is not generally required. Annual screening is typically recommended.\n", "BULLET::::- In the first week, the body temperature rises slowly, and fever fluctuations are seen with relative bradycardia (Faget sign), malaise, headache, and cough. A bloody nose (epistaxis) is seen in a quarter of cases, and abdominal pain is also possible. A decrease in the number of circulating white blood cells (leukopenia) occurs with eosinopenia and relative lymphocytosis; blood cultures are positive for \"Salmonella enterica\" subsp. \"enterica\" or \"S. paratyphi\". The Widal test is usually negative in the first week.\n", "Far East scarlet-like fever usually becomes apparent five to 10 days after exposure and typically lasts one to three weeks without treatment. In complex cases or those involving immunocompromised patients, antibiotics may be necessary for resolution; ampicillin, aminoglycosides, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, or a cephalosporin may all be effective.\n\nThe recently described syndrome \"Izumi-fever\" has been linked to infection with \"Y. pseudotuberculosis\".\n", "Here are the known causes of FUO.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Neoplasm.\n\nAlthough most neoplasms can present with fever, malignant lymphoma is by far the most common diagnosis of FUO among the neoplasms. In some cases the fever even precedes lymphadenopathy detectable by physical examination.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Miscellaneous conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- ADEM (acute disseminated encephalomyelitis)\n\nBULLET::::- Adrenal insufficiency\n\nBULLET::::- Aneurysm\n\nBULLET::::- Anomalous thoracic duct\n\nBULLET::::- Aortic dissection\n\nBULLET::::- Aortic-enteral fistula\n\nBULLET::::- Aseptic meningitis (Mollaret’s syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Atrial myxoma\n\nBULLET::::- Brewer’s yeast ingestion\n\nBULLET::::- Caroli disease\n\nBULLET::::- Cholesterol emboli\n\nBULLET::::- Complex partial status epilepticus\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclic neutropenia\n\nBULLET::::- Drug fever\n\nBULLET::::- Erdheim–Chester disease\n\nBULLET::::- Extrinsic allergic alveolitis\n", "BULLET::::- Pel–Ebstein fever: A specific kind of fever associated with Hodgkin's lymphoma, being high for one week and low for the next week and so on. However, there is some debate as to whether this pattern truly exists.\n\nA neutropenic fever, also called febrile neutropenia, is a fever in the absence of normal immune system function. Because of the lack of infection-fighting neutrophils, a bacterial infection can spread rapidly; this fever is, therefore, usually considered to require urgent medical attention. This kind of fever is more commonly seen in people receiving immune-suppressing chemotherapy than in apparently healthy people.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21196	How does a massive site like flickr transfer everything to new owners?	Usually you'd expect the infrastructure to be part of the buyout, i.e. flickr servers become smugmug servers. Its quite possible that the servers (and storage) are rented, rather than owned, in which case the new company takes over the bills and the access to the servers.	[ "On May 7, 2015, Yahoo! overhauled the site, adding a revamped Camera Roll, a new way to upload photos and upgraded the site's apps. The new Uploadr application was made available for Macs, Windows and mobile devices.\n\nIn early May 2019, SmugMug announced the migration of Flickr data - 100+ million accounts and billions of photos and videos - from former owner Yahoo's servers to Amazon Web Services (AWS) in a planned 12-hour transition on May 22.\n\nSection::::History.:Corporate changes.\n", "In October 1995, the company purchased the Bettmann Archive collection, which included the pre-1983 photo library of United Press International and its predecessor photo agencies, Acme and INP, the photo arm of the International News Service. Prior to acquiring the Bettmann Archive, Corbis represented roughly 500,000 images, a total that increased exponentially when the Bettmann drawings, artworks, news photographs, and other illustrations were added to the company's portfolio. In all the Bettmann Archive contained 16 million images. The archive was stored 220 feet underground in a refrigerated cave in the Iron Mountain storage facility,\n", "There are many ways to access the content stored in a CMS. Depending on the CMS vendor they offer either an Application programming interface (API), Web services, rebuilding a record by writing SQL queries, XML exports, or through the web interface.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Material remains layout\" includes the objects and documents like photographs, letters, or messages. Items are presented with dates and locations of the relationship, and annotations by their anonymous donors. Due to physical constraints, older exhibits may be archived and transferred to the virtual part of the museum.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Virtual web museum\" enables the registered visitors to become donors through uploading their images and documents. Donors can decide whether to open their personal collections for viewing by other users of the museum.\n", "Flickr has entered into partnerships with many third parties. Flickr had a partnership with the Picnik online photo-editing application that included a reduced-feature version of Picnik built into Flickr as a default photo editor. On April 5, 2012, Flickr replaced Picnik with Aviary as its default photo editor. In addition to using commercial mapping data, Flickr now uses OpenStreetMap mapping for various cities; this began with Beijing during the run-up to the 2008 Olympic games. , this is used for Baghdad, Beijing, Kabul, Sydney and Tokyo. OpenStreetMap data is collected by volunteers and is available under the Open Database License. Flickr offers printing of various forms of merchandise, including business cards, photo books, stationery, personalized credit cards and large-size prints from companies such as Moo, Blurb, Tiny Prints, Capital One, Imagekind, and QOOP. The Flickr partnership with Getty Images to sell stock photos from users is under review as of early 2014.\n", "In 1986, Ted Turner purchased MGM/UA, but later resold the company except for its film library, which included the pre-May 1986 MGM film and television library and the pre-1950 Warner Bros. film library (which the latter was sold to Associated Artists Productions in 1956, and got acquired by United Artists in 1958). After that library was acquired by Turner, UIP (through MGM/UA) signed a deal to continue distributing the pre-May 1986 MGM and pre-1950 Warner Bros. film libraries for theatrical release.\n", "In 1994, the partnership was diluted by selling 20% of it to the von Holzbrinck Publishing Group, a German holding company. In 1997, the Holzbrinck Group withdrew with its 20%, the name \"Voyager,\" and half of the CD-ROM rights. Robert Stein took the other half of the CD-ROM rights and the Toolkit rights. This left the Criterion Collection in the possession of three of the original partners: Aleen Stein (1/3), the Becker family (1/3), and the Turell family (1/3).\n\nSection::::Releases.\n\nSection::::Releases.:Laserdiscs.\n\nBULLET::::- De Italia\n\nBULLET::::- The Great Quake of '89 (in partnership with ABC News Interactive)\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 - The Rank Group announces that it has agreed to sell Deluxe Film to MacAndrews & Forbes Holdings Inc. The sale includes all worldwide business units within the Deluxe Film group. EFILM is now wholly owned by Deluxe.\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 - EFILM receives a technical achievement award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for their creation of the Digital Color Separation process for archival of motion pictures.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nThe photos represented in the series as belonging to the \"Fallon Photo Library\" are in fact taken from the holdings of Britain's largest picture library, the Hulton Picture Collection, which originated as the photographic archive of \"Picture Post\" magazine (1938–57). At least two of Bert Hardy's photos, for example, appear in the series, including his view of a panda \"taking a picture\" of Hardy's son Michael. The Hulton Picture Collection was acquired by Getty Images in 1996.\n", "Several museums and archives post images released under a \"no known restrictions\" license, which was first made available on January 16, 2008. According to Flickr, the goal of the license is to \"firstly show you hidden treasures in the world's public photography archives, and secondly to show how your input and knowledge can help make these collections even richer.\" Participants include the National Museum of Denmark, Powerhouse Museum, George Eastman Museum, Library of Congress, Nationaal Archief, National Archives and Records Administration, National Library of Scotland, State Library of New South Wales, and Smithsonian Institution.\n", "Section::::History.:Immutep acquisition.\n", "In 1996, the Hulton Picture Collection was bought by Getty Images for £8.6 million. Getty now owns the rights to some 15 million photographs from the British press archives dating back to the 19th century.\n\nIn 2000, Getty embarked on a large project to digitise the photo archive, and launched a dedicated website in 2001. A data migration programme began in 2003 and the Hulton Archive was transferred to the main Getty Images website; the Hulton Archive is still available today as a featured resource within the vast Getty holdings.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "In December 1997 Pica became part-owned by OCLC, and this was further consolidated in January 2002, at which time OCLC PICA also became responsible for all of OCLC's activities in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. At the time, OCLC held 60% of the shares in OCLC PICA, while the Pica foundation held 40%. In 2005 OCLC PICA acquired Sisis Information Systems of Germany and the Fretwell-Downing Informatics Group (developer of the VDX interlibrary loan software) of the UK. In 2007, OCLC acquired the remaining shares of OCLC PICA to become the sole shareholder of OCLC PICA.\n", "Dr. Zeus uses the technology simply to get rich. By travelling far into prehistory, the company creates its own immortal cyborg agents, who then have the mission of preserving cultural artifacts and other valuable items for sale in the 24th century. Usually these items are hidden in safe places, but in the case of extinct species, for instance, they are kept in secret Company caches run by the cyborgs. In the 24th century the Company then 'finds' the long-lost objects and sells them.\n", "The main photographic archive had been used in evidence at the Nuremberg Trials and was shipped to the United States \"around the time of the Berlin Airlift\" (1948–1949). On June 25, 1951, the Attorney General, acting pursuant to the Trading with the Enemy Act 1917, 50 U.S.C.App. § 1–33, vested in himself all rights in the photographs and photographic images \"to be held, used, administered, liquidated, sold, or otherwise dealt with in the interest of and for the benefit of the United States.\" The archive was later transferred to the United States National Archives.\n", "The company also operated kiosks under the name \"moviecube,\" a California company which it acquired.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nFounded in 2002, The New Release focused primarily on the grocery channel. The first kiosks were installed in Houston, HEB locations, with later expansion into Dallas, Kroger locations. Acquired by NCR in 2009, its kiosks eventually became the property of Redbox when Redbox acquired all of NCR's DVD rental kiosks in 2012.\n\nSection::::Promotions.\n", "In 2010, the company purchased a 45,000-foot warehouse in Bridgeport, Connecticut, where it plans to store and digitize film collections.The company recently added a public component to its work with a retail store, The Archive, which sells Film Chest videos and other carefully curated titles, as well as hundreds of vinyl record rarities and a screening room. The store also stocks posters, T-shirts and movie ephemera. \n\nSection::::Select titles.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Bat\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Brain That Wouldn't Die\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Bucket of Blood\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carnival Magic\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Decoy\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dementia 13\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"His Girl Friday\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hollow Triumph\"\n", "Section::::History.:As an independent company.\n\nIn 1996 IMDb was incorporated in the United Kingdom, becoming the Internet Movie Database Ltd. Founder Col. Needham became the primary owner as well as the figurehead. General revenue for site operations was generated through advertising, licensing and partnerships.\n\nSection::::History.:As Amazon.com subsidiary (1998–present).\n", "In June 1999, the company acquired the French news photo agency Sygma, adding 40 million additional images to the company's collection, and expanding Corbis's portfolio beyond 65 million images. The archive is today stored in a preservation and access facility outside Paris.\n\nIn 2000, Bill Gates purchased the rights through Corbis to an image that they had renamed Bliss. The image was taken in the Los Carneros American Viticultural Area of Sonoma County in California. The photo was taken by photographer Charles O'Rear in 1996. In 2001, Microsoft used the image as the default wallpaper for the desktop of Windows XP.\n", "BULLET::::- Rosika Schwimmer Papers, Manuscripts and Archives Division, The New York Public Library, New York, NY\n\nBULLET::::- Schwimmer Family Papers, Manuscripts and Archives Division, The New York Public Library, New York, NY\n\nBULLET::::- Digital images of Rosika Schwimmer from the Schwimmer-Lloyd Collection, Manuscripts and Archives Division, The New York Public Library, New York, NY\n\nBULLET::::- Rosika Schwimmer Papers, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford, CA\n\nBULLET::::- Schwimmer-Lloyd Collection, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA\n\nBULLET::::- Rosika Schwimmer Papers, Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, PA\n", "Flickr\n\nFlickr (pronounced \"flicker\") is an image hosting service and video hosting service. It was created by Ludicorp in 2004. It has changed ownership several times and has been owned by SmugMug since April 20, 2018.\n", "In 2003, Amazon.com formed a sales alliance with Ritz Interactive, Inc., in a deal to broaden the online retail giant's selection of camera products and accessories.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nToday, \"Beate Uhse\" operates in the three business units \"Retail\", \"Mail Order\" and \"Wholesale\". The \"Entertainment\" division was sold to \"tmc Content Group AG\" in September 2016.\n", "Flickr offers users the ability to either release their images under certain common usage licenses or label them as \"all rights reserved\". The licensing options primarily include the Creative Commons 2.0 attribution-based and minor content-control licenses – although jurisdiction and version-specific licenses cannot be selected. As with \"tags\", the site allows easy searching of only those images that fall under a specific license.\n", "The images a photographer uploads to Flickr go into their sequential \"photostream\", the basis of a Flickr account. All photostreams can be displayed as a justified view, a slide show, a \"detail\" view or a datestamped archive. Clicking on a photostream image opens it in the interactive \"photopage\" alongside data, comments and facilities for embedding images on external sites.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21726	What causes everyone to have different fingerprints? Is it from DNA only or some outside reason? If it is from DNA, would a kids fingerprints resemble that of the parents at all since they partially share DNA.	People don't all have different fingerprints, at least to the limit of our ability to distinguish them. They just are likely to be rare enough that only one person in about 100,000 or so will share a print, meaning it is strong supporting evidence in a trial. It is not however absolute evidence identifying someone 100%.	[ "Section::::Fingerprint verification.:Patterns.\n\nThe three basic patterns of fingerprint ridges are the arch, loop, and whorl:\n\nBULLET::::- arch: The ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center forming an arc, and then exit the other side of the finger.\n\nBULLET::::- loop: The ridges enter from one side of a finger, form a curve, and then exit on that same side.\n\nBULLET::::- whorl: Ridges form circularly around a central point on the finger.\n\nScientists have found that family members often share the same general fingerprint patterns, leading to the belief that these patterns are inherited.\n\nSection::::Fingerprint verification.:Minutiae features.\n", "Since the late nineteenth century, fingerprint identification methods have been used by police agencies around the world to identify suspected criminals as well as the victims of crime. The basis of the traditional fingerprinting technique is simple. The skin on the palmar surface of the hands and feet forms ridges, so-called papillary ridges, in patterns that are unique to each individual and which do not change over time. Even identical twins (who share their DNA) do not have identical fingerprints. The best way to render latent fingerprints visible, so that they can be photographed, can be complex and may depend, for example, on the type of surfaces on which they have been left. It is generally necessary to use a ‘developer’, usually a powder or chemical reagent, to produce a high degree of visual contrast between the ridge patterns and the surface on which a fingerprint has been deposited.\n", "Monozygotic twins are genetically nearly identical and they are always the same sex unless there has been a mutation during development. The children of monozygotic twins test genetically as half-siblings (or full siblings, if a pair of monozygotic twins reproduces with another pair or with the same person), rather than first cousins. Identical twins do not have the same fingerprints however, because even within the confines of the womb, the fetuses touch different parts of their environment, giving rise to small variations in their corresponding prints and thus making them unique.\n", "When a dysfunctional family gathers for Thanksgiving at their New England home, past demons reveal themselves as one son returns for the first time in three years.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Julianne Moore as Mia\n\nBULLET::::- Roy Scheider as Hal\n\nBULLET::::- Hope Davis as Margaret\n\nBULLET::::- Blythe Danner as Lena\n\nBULLET::::- Noah Wyle as Warren\n\nBULLET::::- Laurel Holloman as Leigh\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Vartan as Jake\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Bauer as Jerry\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSet in New England, the film was shot in Andover, Bethel, and Waterville, Maine (Colby College).\n", "Fingerprint identification, known as dactyloscopy, or hand print identification, is the process of comparing two instances of friction ridge skin impressions (see Minutiae), from human fingers or toes, or even the palm of the hand or sole of the foot, to determine whether these impressions could have come from the same individual. The flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever exactly alike in every detail; even two impressions recorded immediately after each other from the same hand may be slightly different. Fingerprint identification, also referred to as individualization, involves an expert, or an expert computer system operating under threshold scoring rules, determining whether two friction ridge impressions are likely to have originated from the same finger or palm (or toe or sole).\n", "The validity of forensic fingerprint evidence has been challenged by academics, judges and the media. In the United States fingerprint examiners have not developed uniform standards for the identification of an individual based on matching fingerprints. In some countries where fingerprints are also used in criminal investigations, fingerprint examiners are required to match a number of \"identification points\" before a match is accepted. In England 16 identification points are required and in France 12, to match two fingerprints and identify an individual. Point-counting methods have been challenged by some fingerprint examiners because they focus solely on the location of particular characteristics in fingerprints that are to be matched. Fingerprint examiners may also uphold the \"one dissimilarity doctrine\", which holds that if there is one dissimilarity between two fingerprints, the fingerprints are not from the same finger. Furthermore academics have argued that the error rate in matching fingerprints has not been adequately studied. And it has been argued that fingerprint evidence has no secure statistical foundation. Research has been conducted into whether experts can objectively focus on feature information in fingerprints without being misled by extraneous information, such as context. \n", "A fingerprint is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of partial fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Moisture and grease on a finger result in fingerprints on surfaces such as glass or metal. Deliberate impressions of entire fingerprints can be obtained by ink or other substances transferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a smooth surface such as paper. Fingerprint records normally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, although fingerprint cards also typically record portions of lower joint areas of the fingers.\n", "Fingerprints found at the scene were matched to Speck.\n", "A fingerprint is formed on any opaque surface and is the impression of the friction ridges on the finger of a human. The matching of two fingerprints is among the most widely used and most reliable biometric techniques. Fingerprint matching only considers the obvious features of a fingerprint. \n", "BULLET::::- Noonan syndrome: increased frequency of whorls on fingertips; and the axial triradius t, as in Turner syndrome, is more often in position t' or t\" than in controls. Increased incidence of the single transverse palmar crease.\n\nBULLET::::- Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome): excess of arches on fingertips and single transverse palmar creases in 60% of patients. Additionally, the hallucal fibular arches tend to form \"S\" patterns.\n\nBULLET::::- Trisomy 18 (Edward's syndrome): 6–10 arches on fingertips and single transverse palmar creases in 30% of patients.\n", "Features of fingerprint ridges, called \"minutiae\", include:\n\nBULLET::::- ridge ending: The abrupt end of a ridge\n\nBULLET::::- bifurcation: A single ridge dividing in two\n\nBULLET::::- short or independent ridge: A ridge that commences, travels a short distance and then ends\n\nBULLET::::- island or dot: A single small ridge inside a short ridge or ridge ending that is not connected to all other ridges\n\nBULLET::::- lake or ridge enclosure: A single ridge that bifurcates and reunites shortly afterward to continue as a single ridge\n\nBULLET::::- spur: A bifurcation with a short ridge branching off a longer ridge\n", "In a Royal Institution paper in 1888 and three books (\"Finger Prints\", 1892; \"Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints\", 1893; and \"Fingerprint Directories\", 1895), Galton estimated the probability of two persons having the same fingerprint and studied the heritability and racial differences in fingerprints. He wrote about the technique (inadvertently sparking a controversy between Herschel and Faulds that was to last until 1917), identifying common pattern in fingerprints and devising a classification system that survives to this day.\n", "The Myth of Fingerprints\n\nThe Myth of Fingerprints is a 1997 American film drama written and directed by Bart Freundlich. It stars Blythe Danner, Roy Scheider, Noah Wyle, and Julianne Moore (who later married Freundlich).\n\nThe film is named after the song \"All Around the World or the Myth of Fingerprints\" by Paul Simon, featured on his 1986 album \"Graceland\". The song is concerned with dispelling the \"myth\" that people are different the world over: \"I've seen them all, and, man, they're all the same.\"\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Exemplar prints, or known prints, is the name given to fingerprints deliberately collected from a subject, whether for purposes of enrollment in a system or when under arrest for a suspected criminal offense. During criminal arrests, a set of exemplar prints will normally include one print taken from each finger that has been rolled from one edge of the nail to the other, plain (or slap) impressions of each of the four fingers of each hand, and plain impressions of each thumb. Exemplar prints can be collected using live scan or by using ink on paper cards.\n\nSection::::Fingerprinting techniques.:Latent.\n", "Although organisms within a species share very similar genes, similar environments and similar developmental history, each individual organism can develop differences due to noise in signaling and signal interpretation. This developmental noise may help individuals gain the ability to adapt to the environment and contribute to their unique patterns of development. Human fingerprints provide a well-known example; the fingerprints differ even between genetically identical human twins.\n\nSection::::Use of noise in biology.\n", "In the Henry Classification System there are three basic fingerprint patterns: loop, whorl, and arch, which constitute 60–65 percent, 30–35 percent, and 5 percent of all fingerprints respectively. There are also more complex classification systems that break down patterns even further, into plain arches or tented arches, and into loops that may be radial or ulnar, depending on the side of the hand toward which the tail points. Ulnar loops start on the pinky-side of the finger, the side closer to the ulna, the lower arm bone. Radial loops start on the thumb-side of the finger, the side closer to the radius. Whorls may also have sub-group classifications including plain whorls, accidental whorls, double loop whorls, peacock's eye, composite, and central pocket loop whorls.\n", "Since the elasticity of skin decreases with age, many senior citizens have fingerprints that are difficult to capture. The ridges get thicker; the height between the top of the ridge and the bottom of the furrow gets narrow, so there is less prominence.\n", "A very rare medical condition, adermatoglyphia, is characterized by the absence of fingerprints. Affected persons have completely smooth fingertips, palms, toes and soles, but no other medical signs or symptoms. A 2011 study indicated that adermatoglyphia is caused by the improper expression of the protein SMARCAD1. The condition has been called \"immigration delay disease\" by the researchers describing it, because the congenital lack of fingerprints causes delays when affected persons attempt to prove their identity while traveling. Only five families with this condition have been described as of 2011.\n", "Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin with a description of his method, but, too old and ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology. Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book \"Finger Prints\". He had calculated that the chance of a \"false positive\" (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion.\n", "Fingerprints can be captured as graphical ridge and valley patterns. Because of their uniqueness and permanence, fingerprints emerged as the most widely used biometric identifier in the 2000s. Automated fingerprint verification systems were developed to meet the needs of law enforcement and their use became more widespread in civilian applications. Despite being deployed more widely, reliable automated fingerprint verification remained a challenge and was extensively researched in the context of pattern recognition and image processing. The uniqueness of a fingerprint can be established by the overall pattern of ridges and valleys, or the logical ridge dicontinuities known as minutiae. In the 2000s minutiae features were considered the most discriminating and reliable feature of a fingerprint. Therefore the recognition of minutiae features became the most common basis for automated fingerprint verification. The most widely used minutiae features used for automated fingerprint verification were the ridge ending and the ridge bifurcation.\n", "June 30, 2008: Ronald Taverner is still on the houseboat with his father and cousin and his girlfriend Sarah Fieldman. We learn that he is suffering from amnesia. His father, Tab, brings him below deck to show him something. Down there is his twin brother-Roland Taverner, he is tied up to a chair. Tab tells him that Ronald kidnapped his own brother to hide him up at the lake for several days. His father tells him that he doesn’t remember it because he hit his head, which caused memory loss and he instructs him to keep taking the injections. His brother Roland was drafted in the Iraqi War and was sent home to work for the U.P.U. (Urban Pacification Unit) Level 2 and uncovered a conspiracy and if the government found him, they would get the information out of him.\n", "Although fingerprint characteristics were studied as far back as the mid-1600s, the use of fingerprints as a means of identification did not occur until the mid-19th century. In roughly 1859, Sir William James Herschel discovered that fingerprints remain stable over time and are unique across individuals; as Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in Jungipoor, India, in 1877 he was the first to institute the use of fingerprints and handprints as a means of identification, signing legal documents, and authenticating transactions. The fingerprint records collected at this time were used for one-to-one verification only; as a means in which records would be logically filed and searched had not yet been invented.\n", "Section::::Familial traits.\n", "Section::::Impact of DNA fingerprinting.\n", "In 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin, explaining a system for classifying fingerprints, asking for his assistance in their development. Darwin was unable to assist Dr. Faulds, but agreed to forward the letter to his cousin, Sir Francis Galton. Dr. Henry Faulds and Sir Francis Galton did not engage in much correspondence, but in the following decade, they devised very similar fingerprint classification systems. It is unclear whom to credit for the classification system. However, we do know that Dr. Henry Faulds was the first European to publish the notion of scientific use of fingerprints in the identification of criminals. In 1892, Sir Francis Galton published his highly influential book, \"Finger Prints\" in which he described his classification system that include three main fingerprint patterns - loops, whorls and arches.\n" ]	[ "Everyone has different fingerprints.", "Everyone has a different fingerprint." ]	[ "Everyone does not have different fingerprints; however a person's fingerprints are so rare that only approximately one person in about 100,000 will share a print.", "Not everyone has a different fingerprint, identical fingerprints just tend to be very rare. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Everyone has different fingerprints.", "Everyone has a different fingerprint." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Everyone does not have different fingerprints; however a person's fingerprints are so rare that only approximately one person in about 100,000 will share a print.", "Not everyone has a different fingerprint, identical fingerprints just tend to be very rare. " ]
2018-05965	How does the condition of a company affect its stock price?	The stock price reflects investors' beliefs in the company's future ability to turn a profit. If it's doing great, this increases. If it's a disaster, this decreases.	[ "BULLET::::- \"A Dichotomy between Ownership and Management\". The company’s shares are listed on stock exchanges, and their performance is scrutinized by the financial community. Postponement of a single important shipment can affect a quarterly result. In the small and mid-sized companies the owners typically are the major shareholders, often members of the same family. Their shares are not traded publicly and fluctuations in their financial performance are more easily coped with.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Complicated Business Processes\". Flexibility and Responsiveness are in jeopardy. Customer complaints, for instance, are difficult to resolve in a straightforward manner.\n", "Another example of the impact of volume on the accuracy of market capitalization is when a company has little or no trading activity and the market price is simply the price at which the most recent trade took place, which could be days or weeks ago. This occurs when there are no buyers willing to purchase the securities at the price being offered by the sellers and there are no sellers willing to sell at the price the buyers are willing to pay. While this is rare when the company is traded on a major stock exchange, it is not uncommon when shares are traded over-the-counter (OTC). Since individual buyers and sellers need to incorporate news about the company into their purchasing decisions, a security with an imbalance of buyers or sellers may not feel the full effect of recent news.\n", "The asset pricing formula can be used on a market aggregate level as well. The resulting graph shows at what times the S&P 500 Composite was overpriced and at what times it was under-priced relative to the capital structure substitution theory equilibrium. In times when the market is under-priced, corporate buyback programs will allow companies to drive up earnings-per-share, and generate extra demand in the stock market.\n\nSection::::Fundamental criteria (fair value).:Price earnings to growth (PEG) ratio.\n", "Section::::Determining factors.\n\nMorningstar uses five factors to determine when something is a value stock, namely:\n\nBULLET::::- price/prospective earnings\n\nBULLET::::- price/book\n\nBULLET::::- price/sales\n\nBULLET::::- price/cash flow\n\nBULLET::::- dividend yield\n", "There are many different ways to value stocks. The key is to take each approach into account while formulating an overall opinion of the stock. If the valuation of a company is lower or higher than other similar stocks, then the next step would be to determine the reasons.\n\nSection::::Fundamental criteria (fair value).:Earnings per share (EPS).\n", "BULLET::::8. The company's trailing 3-years earnings has risen over the past 10 years.\n\nBULLET::::9. The company's credit rating is AAA, AA, or A, or even better, there is no rating because there is no debt at all.\n\nBULLET::::10. The company did not have a loss during the last recession.\n\nBULLET::::11. The PEG ratio is less than 1.\n", "BULLET::::- Factual cost of stock-based compensation of company’s employees that does not show in the company’s income statement is subtracted from cash flows. It is determined as the difference between the amount the company could have received by selling the shares at market prices and the amount it received from selling shares to employees (the actual process of stock-based compensation could be much more complicated than the one described here, but its economic consequences are still the same).\n", "BULLET::::1. The company's earning history is stable.\n\nBULLET::::2. The company does not specialize in high-technology that can become obsolete overnight.\n\nBULLET::::3. The company is not in the middle of some financial scandal.\n\nBULLET::::4. The company's low PE ratio is not due to profits realized from capital gains.\n\nBULLET::::5. The company's low PE ratio is not due to a major decline in profitability.\n\nBULLET::::6. The company's PE ratio is below its average PE ratio for the last 10 years.\n\nBULLET::::7. The company is selling at a price below its tangible asset value.\n", "Section::::Components.\n\nThe stock issues are:\n\nBULLET::::- Significance: This answers the \"why\" of debate. All advantages and disadvantages to the status quo (resulting from inherency) and of the plan (resulting from solvency) are evaluated under significance. A common equivocation is to confuse \"significance\" with the word \"significantly\" that appears in many resolutions. Significance is derived from calculating between advantages and disadvantages, whereas significant policy changes are determined by how much the policy itself changed (rather than how good or bad the effects are).\n", "Section::::Fundamental criteria (fair value).:Capital structure substitution - asset pricing formula.\n\nThe capital structure substitution theory (CSS) describes the relationship between earnings, stock price and capital structure of public companies. The equilibrium condition of the CSS theory can be easily rearranged to an asset pricing formula:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- P is the current market price of public company x\n\nBULLET::::- E is the earnings-per-share of company x\n\nBULLET::::- R is the nominal interest rate on corporate bonds of company x\n\nBULLET::::- T is the corporate tax rate\n", "The price of a stock fluctuates fundamentally due to the theory of supply and demand. Like all commodities in the market, the price of a stock is sensitive to demand. However, there are many factors that influence the demand for a particular stock. The fields of fundamental analysis and technical analysis attempt to understand market conditions that lead to price changes, or even predict future price levels. A recent study shows that customer satisfaction, as measured by the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI), is significantly correlated to the market value of a stock. Stock price may be influenced by analysts' business forecast for the company and outlooks for the company's general market segment. Stocks can also fluctuate greatly due to pump and dump scams.\n", "BULLET::::- Non-recurring Adjustments. The subject company's financial statements may be affected by events that are not expected to recur, such as the purchase or sale of assets, a lawsuit, or an unusually large revenue or expense. These non-recurring items are adjusted so that the financial statements will better reflect the management's expectations of future performance.\n", "However, if the subject company is privately owned, its value must be adjusted for lack of marketability. This is usually represented by a discount, or a percentage reduction in the value of the company when compared to its publicly traded counterparts. This reflects the higher risk associated with holding stock in a private company. The difference in value can be quantified by applying a discount for lack of marketability. This discount is determined by studying prices paid for shares of ownership in private companies that eventually offer their stock in a public offering. Alternatively, the lack of marketability can be assessed by comparing the prices paid for restricted shares to fully marketable shares of stock of public companies.\n", "The most common source of data regarding control premiums is the Control Premium Study, published annually by Mergerstat since 1972. Mergerstat compiles data regarding publicly announced mergers, acquisitions and divestitures involving 10% or more of the equity interests in public companies, where the purchase price is $1 million or more and at least one of the parties to the transaction is a U.S. entity. Mergerstat defines the \"control premium\" as the percentage difference between the acquisition price and the share price of the freely traded public shares five days prior to the announcement of the M&A transaction.\n", "BULLET::::4. Loans made by the company.\n\nBULLET::::5. Collection or decrease in constant pesos of credit extended (excluding interest on).\n\nThe classification should be further to better reflect the essence of the transaction, based on the most important economic activity of the company.\n\nSection::::Mechanism for processing.\n\nBe part of the net profit or loss, or before extraordinary items or of the resources generated or used in the operation were presented before and after extraordinary items.\n", "BULLET::::- Influence the share price: If the price of a stock is too high or too low, the liquidity of the stock suffers. Stocks priced too high will not be affordable to all investors and stocks priced too low may be delisted. Corporate actions such as stock splits or reverse stock splits increase or decrease the number of outstanding shares to decrease or increase the stock price respectively. Buybacks are another example of influencing the stock price where a corporation buys back shares from the market in an attempt to reduce the number of outstanding shares thereby increasing the price.\n", "Section::::Fundamental criteria (fair value).:Approximate valuation approaches.:Implied growth models.:Imputed growth acceleration ratio.\n\nSubsequently, one can divide this imputed growth estimate by recent historical growth rates. If the resulting ratio is greater than one, it implies that the stock would need to experience accelerated growth relative to its prior recent historical growth to justify its current P/E (higher values suggest potential overvaluation). If the resulting ratio is less than one, it implies that either the market expects growth to slow for this stock or that the stock could sustain its current P/E with lower than historical growth (lower values suggest potential undervaluation).\n", "Section::::Specialised cases.\n\nIn the below cases, depending on context, Real options valuation techniques are also sometimes employed, if not preferred; for further discussion here see Business valuation #Option pricing approaches, Corporate finance #Valuing flexibility.\n\nSection::::Specialised cases.:Valuation of a suffering company.\n\nWhen valuing \"distressed securities\", various adjustments are typically made to the valuation result; this would be true whether market-, income-, or asset-based. These adjustments consider\n\nBULLET::::- Lack of marketability discount of shares\n\nBULLET::::- Control premium or lack of control discount\n\nBULLET::::- Excess or restricted cash\n\nBULLET::::- Other non-operating assets and liabilities\n\nBULLET::::- Above- or below-market leases\n", "Forward P/Es reflect the future growth of the company into the future. Forward P/Es are computed by taking the current stock price divided by the sum of the EPS estimates for the next four quarters, or for the EPS estimate for next calendar or fiscal year or two.\n\nP/Es change constantly. If there is a large price change in a stock, or if the earnings (EPS) estimates change, the ratio is recomputed.\n\nSection::::Fundamental criteria (fair value).:Growth rate.\n", "Even though the board of directors runs the company, the shareholder has some impact on the company's policy, as the shareholders elect the board of directors. Each shareholder typically has a percentage of votes equal to the percentage of shares he or she owns. So as long as the shareholders agree that the management (agent) are performing poorly they can select a new board of directors which can then hire a new management team. In practice, however, genuinely contested board elections are rare. Board candidates are usually nominated by insiders or by the board of the directors themselves, and a considerable amount of stock is held or voted by insiders.\n", "Historical P/Es are computed by taking the current price divided by the sum of the EPS for the last four quarters, or for the previous year. Historical trends of the P/E should also be considered by viewing a chart of its historical P/E over the last several years (one can find this on most finance sites like Yahoo Finance). Specifically consider what range the P/E has traded in so as to determine whether the current P/E is high or low versus its historical average.\n", "Section::::Defining stock.\n", "Stocks with low price-to-sales ratio outperform the market and stocks with high price-to-sales ratios.\n\nSection::::Fundamental anomalies.:Low Price-to-Earnings (P/E).\n\nThe stocks with low price-to-earnings ratio are likely generate more returns and outperform the market, because they are usually undervalued due to investors becoming pessimistic after a bad previous performance or negative news regarding the stock.\n\nThe stocks with high price-to-earnings ratios tend to underperform than the index due to an overvaluation of the asset.\n\nSection::::Fundamental anomalies.:Volatility puzzle.\n\nIn an efficient market with fully rational investors volatility should not be high, because prices would change only if new relevant information arises.\n", "Stock valuation\n\nIn financial markets, stock valuation is the method of calculating theoretical values of companies and their stocks. The main use of these methods is to predict future market prices, or more generally, potential market prices, and thus to profit from price movement – stocks that are judged \"undervalued\" (with respect to their theoretical value) are bought, while stocks that are judged \"overvalued\" are sold, in the expectation that undervalued stocks will overall rise in value, while overvalued stocks will generally decrease in value.\n", "Under International Financial Reporting Standards, diluted earnings per share is calculated by adjusting the earnings and number of shares for the effects of dilutive options and other dilutive potential common stock. Dilutive potential common stock includes:\n\nBULLET::::- convertible debt\n\nBULLET::::- convertible preferred stock\n\nBULLET::::- share warrants\n\nBULLET::::- share options\n\nBULLET::::- share rights\n\nBULLET::::- Employee stock purchase plans\n\nBULLET::::- contractual rights to purchase shares\n\nBULLET::::- contingent issuance contracts or agreement\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Accretion/dilution analysis\n\nBULLET::::- Dilutive security\n\nBULLET::::- P/E ratio\n\nBULLET::::- Whisper number\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- European banks’ earnings announcements, video\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13091	Why is our address arranged as is whereas to get to an address you have to read it backwards as you go along?	Because by the time it's almost at the point of delivery and in the posties hand, it's the top part of the address that's most relevant.	[ "Similar to Belgium and most other European countries, the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (postcode and town for domestic mail or country for cross border (international) mail.)\n\nSpatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line.\n", "In most of the world, addresses are written in order from most specific to general, i.e. finest to coarsest information, starting with the addressee and ending with the largest geographical unit. For example:\n\nIn English-speaking countries, the postal code usually comes last. In much of Europe, the code precedes the town name, thus: \"1010 Lausanne\". Sometimes, the country code is placed in front of the postal code: \"CH-1010 Lausanne\".\n", "If a house number is provided, it is written on the same line as the street name; a house name is written on the previous line. When addresses are written inline, line breaks are replaced by commas. Conventions on the placing of house numbers differ: either before or after the street name. Similarly, there are differences in the placement of postal codes: in the UK, they are written on a separate line at the end of the address; in Australia, Canada and the United States, they usually appear immediately after the state or province, on the same line; in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany and The Netherlands they appear before the city, on the same line.\n", "Postal codes are in the format \"### ##\" (i.e. 158 00 = Prague 58) or \"CZ-#####\" (especially for international sendings). At pre-printed Czech postcards and envelopes, the postal code is filled into frames at separate last row. If the envelope doesn't have pre-printed rows and frames, the postal code should be before the town (or post office) name.\n\nOn private letters, the first line is usually constituted by a courtesy title (pan, paní, slečna, žák…) For private mails addressed to the workplace, the order is (name + company), while in official mails it is (company + name).\n", "The convention is that the addressee's information is written on the bottom right portion of the letter. The sender's information is written either on the top left portion of the letter or on the top reverse side of the letter (except for parcel packages).\n\nThe internal post letters, parcels and postal money transfers are written in the Bulgarian Cyrillic while the international postal letters and parcels are written in the Latin script (usually in English due to its global usage) with Hindu-Arabic numerals.\n", "The most widespread format, shown above, gives on the last line the recipient's five-digit post code (with a single space between the third and fourth digits) and the name of the town or village that is the base of a post office, in capital letters and separated from the postcode by two spaces. When sending mail abroad, or when sending mail from abroad to Greece, Hellenic Post recommends the following format:\n", "Spatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line.\n", "BULLET::::- Sub-building information, such as apartment numbers, is rarely used - a name on the post box is usually the only method of identification of an addressee within a building.\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Greece.\n\nHellenic Post recommends the following format for Greek addresses:\n", "Example of common address with building entrance and apartment number\n\nOr\n\nA seven digit postal code for all addresses was introduced in 2013 which can cover an entire locality for a small town or village. In bigger cities postal areas are divided along streets and neighbourhoods.\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Italy.\n\nAn internal address, in Italy, must be composed of three to five rows.\n\nUp to six rows can be used if the mail is sent abroad:\n\nLine ordering may not be changed.\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Japan.\n", "The format of a return address is similar. Though some style manuals recommend using a comma between the city and state name when typesetting addresses in other contexts, for optimal automatic character recognition, the Post Office does not recommend this when addressing mail. The official recommendation is to use all upper case block letters with proper formats and abbreviations, and leave out all punctuation except for the hyphen in the ZIP+4 code. If the address is unusually formatted or illegible enough, it will require hand-processing, delaying that particular item. The USPS publishes the entirety of their postal addressing standards.\n", "Example: Josef Novák, Brněnská 2256/16, 123 07 Jitrnice\n\nHow to correctly label the consignment\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Denmark.\n\nIn Denmark, apartment buildings will usually have two or three apartments per floor. Thus, if the addressee lives in an apartment, the address should contain the floor they live on, and a side (\"t.v.\", \"mf.\" or \"t.h.\", meaning \"to the left\", \"in the middle\" and \"to the right\", respectively) or an alphanumeric character (1, 2, 3... or A, B, C...= starting from left seen from the top most step just before the floor).\n", "The police replied \"We often get the wrong (address), but while we are here we will have a look around anyway\", and the police proceeded with the search, despite clearly having doubts of the address being incorrect.\n", "The first line, \"Recipient (Person or Entity)\", is the legal recipient of the item being sent. The Recipient's name must be marked on the mail box in order for the item to be delivered.\n\nFlat or floor number is not part of Norwegian postal addresses.\n", "One form of address fraud involves using one's old address as a current address to receive mail. It is committing by deliberately failing to report an address change and using the old address on legal documents.\n\nAnother involves the representation of a communal mail box as one's own address where one resides in order to take advantage of benefits available to those residing in its location.\n\nSection::::Motives for address fraud.\n\nThe crime is often associated with identity theft, taking place in about one-third of identity theft cases.\n", "In common with the rest of the English-speaking world, addresses in Australia put the street number—which may be a range—before the street name, and the placename before the postcode. Unlike addresses in most other comparable places, the city is not included in the address, but rather a much more fine-grained locality is used, usually referred to in Australia as a suburb or locality – although these words are understood in a different way than in other countries. Because the suburb or town serves to locate the street or delivery type, the postcode serves only as routing information rather than to distinguish previous other parts of an address. As an example, there are around 8000 localities in Victoria (cf. List of localities in Victoria (Australia) and List of Melbourne suburbs), yet around 700 unique geographic postcodes. For certain large volume receivers or post offices, the \"locality\" may be an institution or street name. It is always considered incorrect to include the city or metropolis name in an address (unless this happens to be the name of the suburb), and doing so may delay delivery.\n", "BULLET::::- Pos Malaysia allows usage of P.O. Box for both residential and business addresses. Whenever a P.O. Box address is used, its respective postcode and post office/mail centre must be written on the \"last\" line of an address. If both postcodes are present (original and P.O. Box), mail will be sent to the P.O. Box on its first attempt.\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Mexico.\n\nCorreos de México recommends the following formats:\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Netherlands.\n\nIn the Netherlands, the address is generally formatted as follows:\n", "Back in San Francisco, a letter addressed to Martin is returned stamped \"Address Unknown\". A puzzled Max tells Heinrich that he had not resumed writing to his father. The reaction on Heinrich's face indicates that it was he who sent the letters.\n\nSection::::Academy Award nominations.\n\nMorris Stoloff and Ernst Toch were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score, while Lionel Banks, Walter Holscher and Joseph Kish were nominated for Best Art Direction.\n", "BULLET::::- The postal code consists of two capital letters (LV) and four digits separated with a hyphen.\n\nBULLET::::- For cross-border mail after the postal code you need to indicate the country of destination in block letters.\n\nFurther references: Latvijas Pasts\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Macau.\n", "BULLET::::- Traditionally, only the United States Postal Service (USPS) has been permitted to deliver to a P.O. Box. For this reason the recipient may choose to insert their physical (aka street) address as line two, expanding the complete address to four lines. Providing both allows a sender to ship via the USPS or via a private carrier. Some USPS facilities allow a user of a P.O. box to use the street address of the postal facility with the P.O. box number in the place of a suite number, in which case the user may receive packages from private carriers.\n", "While it is most common for the To: and From: information in the letter to be the same as the \"envelope\" values, such is not always the case. For example, on electronic mailing lists, the information seen in the \"From:\" header will come from the person who sent the email to the list, while the bounce address will be set to that of the mailing list software, so problems delivering the mailing list messages can be handled correctly. \n", "In e-mail programs autocomplete is typically used to fill in the e-mail addresses of the intended recipients. Generally, there are a small number of frequently used e-mail addresses, hence it is relatively easy to use autocomplete to select among them. Like web addresses, e-mail addresses are often long, hence typing them completely is inconvenient.\n\nFor instance, Microsoft Outlook Express will find addresses based on the name that is used in the address book. Google's Gmail will find addresses by any string that occurs in the address or stored name.\n\nSection::::Usage by software.:In search engines.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1968 movie \"Yours, Mine and Ours\", Frank, played by Henry Fonda, is on a date with a younger free-love hippie. The date is interrupted by Helen, played by Lucille Ball. While Frank and Helen commiserate over the problems they have with their respective children, the hippie says, \"Why don't you drop me off at the exit, then you two can play post office!\"\n", "As in the US, the state/territory is crucial information as many placenames are reused in different states/territories; it is usually separated from the suburb with two spaces and abbreviated. In printed matter, the postcode follows after two spaces; in handwritten matter, the postcode should be written in the boxes provided.\n\nIn addition to PO Boxes, other delivery types (which are typically abbreviated) may include:\n\nAustralian Post Addressing Guidelines\n", "To solve this problem, the X.400 address scheme included several redundant fields that could be used to help deliver the message. For instance, there were separate fields for first and last name, as well as initials. The server was identified with multiple fields, including a company or organization name, as well as the country. The idea was that an address with a misspelt name of the company, for instance, would still contain enough information, the person's name and country, for the message to be properly routed.\n", "Section::::By continent.:North America.:Street Addressing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24525	Why does liquid stick to the glass you’re pouring from, instead of pouring out directly?	Not all liquids do this, but liquids like water are what we call polar substances. This means that the actual molecules have a positively charged end and a negatively charged end. When one of these ends comes in contact with the side of the container it induces the opposite charge in the container which causes the liquid to stick to the container. This is the same reason surface tension exists. It can also depend on the viscosity of the liquid. Liquids thinner than water generally won't do this, but it's easier for the liquid to cling to the container than it does to form water droplets and a system will always seek the easiest option according to the Principle of Minimum Energy, a restatement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.	[ "The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the surface tension of water. This property partially explains the \"tears of wine\" phenomenon. When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass. As the wine's ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases and the thin film \"beads up\" and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.:Flammability.\n", "The secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup can be seen by sprinkling heavy particles such as sugar, sand, rice or tea leaves into the water and then setting the water in circular motion by stirring with a hand or spoon. The boundary layer spirals inward and sweeps the heavier solids into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. With water circulating in a bowl or cup, the primary flow is purely circular and might be expected to fling heavy particles outward to the perimeter. Instead, heavy particles can be seen to congregate in the center as a result of the secondary flow along the floor.\n", "We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere to glass at all. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube was made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have \"negative\" surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.\n", "Capillary thinning and breakup of complex fluids can be studied using different configurations. Historically, mainly three types of free-surface conformations have been employed in experiments: statically-unstable liquid bridges, dripping from a nozzle under gravity and continuous jets. Even though the initial evolution of the capillary instability is affected by the type of conformation used, each configurations capture the same phenomenon at the last stages close to breakup, where thinning dynamics is dominated by fluid properties exclusively.\n", "Section::::Static interfaces.:Energy consideration.\n\nA deep property of capillary surfaces is the surface energy that is imparted by surface tension:\n\nwhere formula_38 is the area of the surface being considered, and the total energy is the summation of all energies. Note that \"every\" interface imparts energy. For example, if there are two different fluids (say liquid and gas) inside a solid container with gravity and other energy potentials absent, the energy of the system is\n", "The effect is a consequence of the fact that alcohol has a lower surface tension than water. If alcohol is mixed with water inhomogeneously, a region with a lower concentration of alcohol will pull on the surrounding fluid more strongly than a region with a higher alcohol concentration. The result is that the liquid tends to flow away from regions with higher alcohol concentration. This can be easily and strikingly demonstrated by spreading a thin film of water on a smooth surface and then allowing a drop of alcohol to fall on the center of the film. The liquid will rush out of the region where the drop of alcohol fell.\n", "Section::::Kelvin equation.:Dependence on contact angle.\n", "Section::::Non-uniform pore effects.\n\nSection::::Non-uniform pore effects.:Odd pore geometries.\n", "Generally, the cause of concentration polarization is the ability of a membrane to transport some species more readily than the other(s) (which is the membrane permselectivity): the retained species are concentrated at the upstream membrane surface while the concentration of transported species decreases. Thus, concentration polarization phenomenon is inherent to all types of membrane separation processes. In the cases of gas separations, pervaporation, membrane distillation, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, and microfiltration separations, the concentration profile has a higher level of solute nearest to the upstream membrane surface compared with the more or less well mixed bulk fluid far from the membrane surface. In the case of dialysis and electrodialysis, the concentrations of selectively transported dissolved species are reduced at the upstream membrane surface compared to the bulk solution. \n", "Section::::Real-world applications and problems.\n\nSection::::Real-world applications and problems.:Atomic-force microscopy.\n", "Section::::Design and operation.:Concentration polarisation.\n\nConcentration polarisation describes the accumulation of the species being retained close to the surface of the membrane which reduces separation capabilities. It occurs because the particles are convected towards the membrane with the solvent and its magnitude is the balance between this convection caused by solvent flux and the particle transport away from the membrane due to the concentration gradient (predominantly caused by diffusion.) Although concentration polarisation is easily reversible, it can lead to fouling of the membrane.\n\nSection::::Design and operation.:Spiral wound module.\n", "The requirements for a self-cleaning hydrophobic surface are a very high static water contact angle θ, the condition often quoted is θ160°, and a very low roll-off angle, i.e. the minimum inclination angle necessary for a droplet to roll off the surface.\n\nSection::::Self-cleaning surfaces.\n", "For cross-flow processes, the deposition of material will continue until the forces of the binding cake to the membrane will be balanced by the forces of the fluid. At this point, cross-flow filtration will reach a steady-state condition , and thus, the flux will remain constant with time. Therefore, this configuration will demand less periodic cleaning.\n\nSection::::Fouling.\n\nFouling can be defined as the potential deposition and accumulation of constituents in the feed stream on the membrane.\n", "This can be demonstrated at home. Partly fill a circular bowl or cup with water and sprinkle a little sand, rice or sugar into the water. Set the water in circular motion with a hand or spoon. The secondary flow will quickly sweep the solid particles into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. The primary flow (the vortex) might be expected to sweep the solid particles to the perimeter of the bowl or cup, but instead the secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup sweeps the particles toward the center.\n", "In CaBER experiments, a small amount of sample is placed between two measurement plates, forming an initial cylindrical configuration. The plates are then rapidly separated over a short predefined distance: the imposed step strain generates an “hour-glass” shaped liquid bridge. The necked sample subsequently thins and eventually breaks under the action of capillary forces.\n\nDuring the surface-tension-driven thinning process, the evolution of the mid-filament diameter (D(t)) is monitored via a laser micrometre.\n", "Separation of components (\"e.g.\" water and ethanol) is based on a difference in transport rate of individual components through the membrane. This transport mechanism can be described using the solution-diffusion model, based on the rate/ degree of dissolution of a component into the membrane and its velocity of transport (expressed in terms of diffusivity) through the membrane, which will be different for each component and membrane type leading to separation.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "On a surface that is rough or contaminated, there will also be contact angle hysteresis, but now the local equilibrium contact angle (the Young equation is now only locally valid) may vary from place to place on the surface. According to the Young–Dupré equation, this means that the adhesion energy varies locally – thus, the liquid has to overcome local energy barriers in order to wet the surface. One consequence of these barriers is contact angle hysteresis: the extent of wetting, and therefore the observed contact angle (averaged along the contact line), depends on whether the liquid is advancing or receding on the surface.\n", "Liquids can have free surfaces at which they interface with gases, or with a vacuum. In general, the lack of the ability to sustain a shear stress entails that free surfaces rapidly adjust towards an equilibrium. However, on small length scales, there is an important balancing force from surface tension.\n\nSection::::Liquids (fluids with free surfaces).:Capillary action.\n", "Round slightly spiral threaded connections are possible on tubular ends of glass items. Such glass threading can face the inside or the outside. In use, glass threading is screwed into or onto non-glass threaded material such as plastic. Glass vials typically have outer threaded glass openings onto which caps can be screwed on. Bottles and jars in which chemicals are sold, transported, and stored usually have threaded openings facing the outside and matching non-glass caps or lids.\n\nSection::::Connections.:Hose connections.\n", "The glass transition temperature in thin films is also affected by this phenomenon. Exposure to the free surface enhances the cooperative segmental mobility which reduces T. This can be detrimental in applications like nano electronics, where polymer thin films are used.\n", "Fill line\n\nA fill line is a marking on drinkware indicating the volume of liquid held by the glass. Many countries mandate fill lines on glasses used commercially as a consumer protection measure.\n\nSection::::European Union and Switzerland.\n", "Section::::Capillary adhesion.\n\nSection::::Capillary adhesion.:Bridging effects.\n", "where:\n\nThis occurs because as the size of the homogeneous domains become very small compared to the size of the drop, the differences in contact angles along different homogeneous regions becomes indistinguishable from the average of the contact angles.\n\nThe observed contact angle is given by the following formula:\n\nwhere:\n\nIf the polymer is made out of only two different monomers, it is possible use the above equation to determine the composition of the polymer simply by measuring the contact angle of a drop of liquid placed on it:\n\nwhere:\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics of polymer surfaces.:Surface Coverage.\n", "The surface charge of endothelial cells at points of diffusivity can determine which type of molecule can diffuse through the capillary walls. If the surface is hydrophilic, it will allow water and charged molecules to pass through. If it is hydrophobic, non-charged and lipophilic molecules will be able to diffuse through. These intermolecular screening forces are also known as Van der Waals forces, which is determined by the Keesom, Debye and London Dispersion forces. The lipid bilayer of an endothelial cell membrane is a hydrophobic surface. The non-polar lipids lead to a very high electrical resistivity, given by:\n\nformula_2\n\nWhere:\n", "BULLET::::2. A number of obvious peaks and troughs are present. These peaks indicate that the atoms pack around each other in 'shells' of nearest neighbors. Typically the 1st peak in \"g(r)\" is the strongest feature. This is due to the relatively strong chemical bonding and repulsion effects felt between neighboring atoms in the 1st shell.\n\nBULLET::::3. The attenuation of the peaks at increasing radial distances from the center indicates the decreasing degree of order from the center particle. This illustrates vividly the absence of \"long-range order\" in liquids and glasses.\n" ]	[ "Liquids stick to the container you pour from instead of pouring out directly." ]	[ "Not all liquids do this." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Liquids stick to the container you pour from instead of pouring out directly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Not all liquids do this." ]
2018-07288	All about Modern Deserts- How did they form? Why are they so prevalent? Should we fear their expansion?	Deserts are a result of weather patterns. When there is no moisture in the air, it seldom rains. Where there are large chunks of land where the prevailing winds are not over oceans, deserts form.	[ "The world's most noted deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert.\n", "The conversion of productive drylands to desert conditions, known as desertification, can occur from a variety of causes. One is human intervention, including intensive agricultural tillage or overgrazing in areas that cannot support such exploitation. Climatic shifts such as global warming or the Milankovitch cycle (which drives glacials and interglacials) also affect the pattern of deserts on Earth.\n\nSection::::Ecoregions.\n\nThe World Wide Fund for Nature highlights a number of desert ecoregions that have a high degree of biodiversity and endemism:\n\nBULLET::::- The Nama Karoo of Namibia has the world's richest desert fauna.\n", "Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is now the western United States, where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran, where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir.\n", "Polar deserts such as McMurdo Dry Valleys remain ice-free because of the dry katabatic winds that flow downhill from the surrounding mountains. Former desert areas presently in non-arid environments, such as the Sandhills in Nebraska, are known as paleodeserts. In the Köppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as \"BWh\" (hot desert) or \"BWk\" (temperate desert). In the Thornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would be classified as arid megathermal climates.\n\nSection::::Physical geography.:Weathering processes.\n", "In some parts of the world, deserts are created by a rain shadow effect. Orographic lift occurs as air masses rise to pass over high ground. In the process they cool and lose much of their moisture by precipitation on the windward slope of the mountain range. When they descend on the leeward side, they warm and their capacity to hold moisture increases so an area with relatively little precipitation occurs. The Taklamakan Desert is an example, lying in the rain shadow of the Himalayas and receiving less than precipitation annually.\n", "Desert geomorphology or the geomorphology of arid and semi-arid lands shares many landsforms and processes with more humid regions. One distinctive feature is the sparse or lacking vegetation cover, which influences fluvial and slope processes, related to wind and salt activity. Early work on desert geomorphology was done by Western explorers of the colonies of their respective countries in Africa (French West Africa, German South West Africa, Western Egypt), in frontier regions of their own countries (American West, Australian Outback) or in the deserts of foreign countries such as the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire and China. Since the 1970s desert geomorphology in Earth has served to find analogues to Martian landscapes.\n", "Deserts have been defined and classified in a number of ways, generally combining total precipitation, number of days on which this falls, temperature, and humidity, and sometimes additional factors. For example, Phoenix, Arizona, receives less than of precipitation per year, and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert because of its aridity-adapted plants. The North Slope of Alaska's Brooks Range also receives less than of precipitation per year and is often classified as a cold desert. Other regions of the world have cold deserts, including areas of the Himalayas and other high-altitude areas in other parts of the world. Polar deserts cover much of the ice-free areas of the Arctic and Antarctic. A non-technical definition is that deserts are those parts of the Earth's surface that have insufficient vegetation cover to support a human population.\n", "Desert is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low amount of precipitation, defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than per year, or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. In the Köppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as \"BWh\" (hot desert) or \"BWk\" (temperate desert). In the Thornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would be classified as arid megathermal climates.\n\nSection::::Types of rangeland.:Tundra.\n", "Section::::Human relations.\n\nHumans have long made use of deserts as places to live, and more recently have started to exploit them for minerals and energy capture. Deserts play a significant role in human culture with an extensive literature.\n\nSection::::Human relations.:History.\n", "Many people think of deserts as consisting of extensive areas of billowing sand dunes because that is the way they are often depicted on TV and in films, but deserts do not always look like this. Across the world, around 20% of desert is sand, varying from only 2% in North America to 30% in Australia and over 45% in Central Asia. Where sand does occur, it is usually in large quantities in the form of sand sheets or extensive areas of dunes.\n", "Section::::Distribution.\n\nSection::::Distribution.:Geographical distribution.\n\nTropical deserts are located in both continental interiors and coastal areas between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Representative deserts include the Sahara Desert in North Africa, the Australian Desert, Arabian Desert and Syrian Desert in Western Asia, the Kalahari Desert in Southern Africa, Sonoran Desert in the United States and Mexico, Mojave Desert in the United States, Thar Desert in India and Pakistan, Dasht-e Margo and Registan Desert in Afghanistan and Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Loot in Iran.\n\nSection::::Distribution.:Controlling factor.\n", "Section::::Origin and development.:Dune field.\n\nIf the coast has dune fields, then flooding creates many smaller pools between the crests of the dunes. In some parts of the world, these lakes can also form in inland deserts, filled by rain or a rising water table from underground aquifers.\n\nFor example, large parts of the Empty Quarter in Saudi Arabia and the southern UAE consist of patterns of high drifting barchan dunes alternating with sabkha salt flats. In some places, the sabkha connect to form long accessible corridors into the desert.\n", "It has been observed in Great Salt Lake, Fallen Leaf Lake, Lake Cochise, the Mojave Desert, Mono Lake, Owens Lake, Pyramid Lake, San Luis Lake, Silver Lake, Summer Lake, Tulare Lake and Walker Lake.\n", "Desert planet\n\nA desert planet, also known as a dry planet, an arid planet, or a Dune planet, is a theoretical type of terrestrial planet with a surface consistency similar to Earth's hot deserts.\n", "The desert is completely barren, but in the late spring the melting snows of the surrounding mountains feed streams, which have been altered by human activity to create oases with mild microclimates and supporting intensive agriculture.\n\nOn the northern edge of the basin, these oases occur in small valleys before the gravels.\n\nOn the southern edge, they occur in alluvial fans on the edge of the sand zone.\n\nIsolated alluvial fan oases also occur in the gravel deserts of the Turpan Depression to the east of the Taklamakan.\n", "BULLET::::- White Sands, unusual gypsum dune field in New Mexico\n\nSection::::Western arid regions of North America.\n", "2012\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nA number of running research projects in Jordan found that the erosion of the main agricultural soil, the Terra Rossa, took place at the end of the last Ice Age and during the Younger Dryas. It seems therefore that erosion of the today intensively used soils was limited during historical periods, and not connected with desertification. \n", "It is common to find areas where a layer of pebbles is left after wind and water removes the lighter gravels and sand, and the pebbles are cemented together with desert varnish, causing landforms called desert pavement that are impenetrable to many species. Unlike in the Arizona Upland where trees are common, they are mostly absent, except along watercourses and areas where water collects after rain.\n", "Pans are widespread in southern and western Australia, southern Africa and the high plains of the United States deserts. The factors responsible for pans include a vegetation-free surface and low humidity, a low water table and poorly consolidated sediment, and a huge amount of fine-grained sandstone and shale. Feedback mechanisms also play a significant role in the process of enlarging the pan; salts are left as water accumulates in depressions, which inhibits sedimentation due to weather and the growth of vegetation in the future. This affects both erosional processes and depositional processes in pans.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Landforms.:Yardangs.\n", "Nabkhas are common features in landscapes that are undergoing desertification. In North America, a characteristic sign of desertification is the spread of mesquites (\"Prosopis\" spp.) into the habitat. Mesquites rapidly accumulate windblown sand, forming nabkhas. In northern China, nabkhas were present on grasslands before they were converted to agriculture, but this conversion accelerated their development and they are a common feature of abandoned farm fields in the region. They are indicators of soil erosion there.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "List of deserts\n\nThis is a list of deserts sorted by the region of the world in which the desert is located.\n\nSection::::Afro-Eurasia.\n\nSection::::Afro-Eurasia.:Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- Kalahari Desert – a desert covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia and South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Karoo Desert - a desert covering parts of southern South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Namib Desert – a desert in present-day Namibia\n\nBULLET::::- Danakil Desert – a desert lying in the Afar Triangle and covering northeastern Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, southern Djibouti and northwesternmost Somalia\n", "BULLET::::- The Chihuahuan desert and Central Mexican matorral are the richest deserts in the Neotropics.\n\nBULLET::::- The Carnarvon xeric shrublands of Australia are a regional center for endemism.\n\nBULLET::::- The Sonoran and Baja deserts of Mexico are unusual desert communities dominated by giant columnar cacti.\n\nBULLET::::- Madagascar spiny forests\n\nBULLET::::- Atacama desert\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Deserts\n\nBULLET::::- Hydric\n\nBULLET::::- Mesic\n\nBULLET::::- Rain shadow\n\nBULLET::::- Sagebrush steppe\n\nBULLET::::- Shrub-steppe\n\nBULLET::::- Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands\n\nBULLET::::- Xeriscaping — gardening or landscaping in xeric environments\n\nBULLET::::- Xerocoles — animals adapted to xeric environments\n\nBULLET::::- Xerophytes — plants adapted to xeric environments\n", "Deserts and xeric shrublands\n\nDeserts and xeric shrublands are a habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area.\n\nEcoregions in this habitat type vary greatly in the amount of annual rainfall they receive, usually less than annually. Generally evaporation exceeds rainfall in these ecoregions. Temperature variability is also diverse in these lands. Many deserts, such as the Sahara, are hot year-round but others, such as Asia's Gobi, become quite cold in winter.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24381	How is water ( H2O ) able to dissapate heat so quickly and efficiently?	Heat is quickly transferred through contact, water is a liquid and gets in small spaces that solids otherwise wouldn’t. It then evaporates away from the heated object which works in the same way as sweat, and takes heat with it, cooling the object.	[ "Section::::Theory and process.\n\nIn the method used by CWT, the water improves the heating process and contributes hydrogen to the reactions.\n", "Section::::Physical properties.:Water, ice, and vapor.:Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion.\n\nWater has a very high specific heat capacity of 4.1814 J/(g·K) at 25 °C – the second highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has accumulated in the oceans.\n", "Section::::Wood.\n\nAs fossil fuels, burning wood causes greenhouse effect gases. However, wood is a renewable source of energy. A sustainable heat system would be to use solar heat in the summer, and the minimum of wood in the winter, thanks to maximum insulation.\n\nSection::::Electric water heaters.\n", "The most basic solar thermal models are the direct-gain type, in which the potable water is directly sent into the collector. Many such systems are said to use \"integrated collector storage\" (ICS), as direct-gain systems typically have storage integrated within the collector. Heating water directly is inherently more efficient than heating it indirectly via heat exchangers, but such systems offer very limited freeze protection (if any), can easily heat water to temperatures unsafe for domestic use, and ICS systems suffer from severe heat loss on cold nights and cold, cloudy days.\n", "The most usually used (also the most efficient) method is cooling by thermal diffusion. Most abundantly used working fluid is n-butanol; during last years water is also encountered in this use.\n", "The energy loss due to the electrical resistance is not entirely lost. The voltage drop due to resistivity is associated with the conversion the electrical energy to heat energy through a process known as Joule heating. Much of this heat energy is carried away with the reactant water supply and lost to the environment, however a small portion of this energy is then recaptured as heat energy in the electrolysis process. The amount of heat energy that can be recaptured is dependent on many aspects of system operation and cell design.\n", "Repeated cycles of converting kinetic energy to potential energy, and subsequent loss of this potential energy via optical pumping, allow the atoms to reach temperatures orders of magnitude below those available through simple Doppler cooling.\n\nThe technique is named after Sisyphus, a figure in the Greek mythology, who was doomed, for all eternity, to roll a stone up a mountain only to have it roll down again whenever he got near the summit.\n", "Many of water's anomalous properties are due to very strong hydrogen bonding. Over the superheated temperature range the hydrogen bonds break, changing the properties more than usually expected by increasing temperature alone. Water becomes less polar and behaves more like an organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol. Solubility of organic materials and gases increases by several orders of magnitude and the water itself can act as a solvent, reagent, and catalyst in industrial and analytical applications, including extraction, chemical reactions and cleaning.\n\nSection::::Change of properties with temperature.\n", "Section::::Chemical and physical properties.:Electrical conductivity and electrolysis.\n\nPure water has a low electrical conductivity, which increases with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as common salt.\n\nLiquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).\n\nSection::::Chemical and physical properties.:Mechanical properties.\n", "The use of water allows the use of the flame ionisation detector (FID), which gives mass sensitive output for nearly all organic compounds.\n\nThe maximum temperature is limited to that at which the stationary phase is stable. C18 bonded phases which are common in HPLC seem to be stable at temperatures up to 200 °C, far above that of pure silica, and polymeric styrene–divinylbenzene phases offer similar temperature stability.\n\nWater is also compatible with use of an ultraviolet detector down to a wavelength of 190 nm.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Pressurized water reactor\n\nBULLET::::- Steam cracking\n\nBULLET::::- Supercritical carbon dioxide\n\nBULLET::::- Superheated steam\n", "BULLET::::- A low temperature (T°), thermal agitation allow mostly the water molecules to be excited as hydrogen and oxygen levels required higher thermal agitation to be significantly populated (on the arbitrary diagram, 3 levels can be populated for water vs 1 for the oxygen/hydrogen subsystem),\n", "Thus superheated water can be used to process many organic compounds with significant environmental benefits compared to the use of conventional organic solvents.\n\nSection::::Solubility.:Salts.\n\nDespite the reduction in relative permittivity, many salts remain soluble in superheated water until the critical point is approached. Sodium chloride, for example, dissolves at 37 wt% at 300 °C\n\nAs the critical point is approached, solubility drops markedly to a few ppm, and salts are hardly soluble in supercritical water. Some salts show a reduction in solubility with temperature, but this behaviour is less common.\n\nSection::::Solubility.:Gases.\n", "The main reason for the effectiveness of heat pipes is the evaporation and condensation of the working fluid. The heat of vaporization greatly exceeds the specific heat capacity. Using water as an example, the energy needed to evaporate one gram of water is 540 times the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that same one gram of water by 1 °C. Almost all of that energy is rapidly transferred to the \"cold\" end when the fluid condenses there, making a very effective heat transfer system with no moving parts.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Production of hydrogen from water is energy intensive. Potential electrical energy supplies include hydropower, wind turbines, or photovoltaic cells. Usually, the electricity consumed is more valuable than the hydrogen produced so this method has not been widely used. In contrast with low-temperature electrolysis, high-temperature electrolysis (HTE) of water converts more of the initial heat energy into chemical energy (hydrogen), potentially doubling efficiency to about 50%. Because some of the energy in HTE is supplied in the form of heat, less of the energy must be converted twice (from heat to electricity, and then to chemical form), and so the process is more efficient.\n", "Evaporative cooling is also the last cooling step in order to reach the ultra-low temperatures required for Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC). Here, so-called forced evaporative cooling is used to selectively remove high-energetic (\"hot\") atoms from an atom cloud until the remaining cloud is cooled below the BEC transition temperature. For a cloud of 1 million alkali atoms, this temperature is about 1μK.\n", "Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water than on frozen water, where the movement of molecules is more restricted. Dielectric heating of liquid water is also temperature-dependent: At 0 °C, dielectric loss is greatest at a field frequency of about 10 GHz, and for higher water temperatures at higher field frequencies.\n", "The most basic solar thermal models are the direct-gain type, in which the potable water is directly sent into the collector. Many such systems are said to use \"integrated collector storage\" (ICS), as direct-gain systems typically have storage integrated within the collector. Heating water directly is inherently more efficient than heating it indirectly via heat exchangers, but such systems offer very limited freeze protection (if any), can easily heat water to temperatures unsafe for domestic use, and ICS systems suffer from severe heat loss on cold nights and cold, cloudy days.\n", "High-temperature electrolysis\n\nHigh-temperature electrolysis (also HTE or steam electrolysis) is a technology for producing hydrogen from water at high temperatures.\n\nSection::::Efficiency.\n\nHigh temperature electrolysis is more efficient economically than traditional room-temperature electrolysis because some of the energy is supplied as heat, which is cheaper than electricity, and also because the electrolysis reaction is more efficient at higher temperatures. In fact, at 2500 °C, electrical input is unnecessary because water breaks down to hydrogen and oxygen through thermolysis. Such temperatures are impractical; proposed HTE systems operate between 100 °C and 850 °C.\n", "The specific enthalpy of fusion (more commonly known as latent heat) of water is 333.55 kJ/kg at 0 °C: the same amount of energy is required to melt ice as to warm ice from −160 °C up to its melting point or to heat the same amount of water by about 80 °C. Of common substances, only that of ammonia is higher. This property confers resistance to melting on the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before and since the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was and still is in common use for retarding food spoilage.\n", "BULLET::::- However, for true energy calculations in some specific cases, the higher heating value is correct. This is particularly relevant for natural gas, whose high hydrogen content produces much water, when it is burned in condensing boilers and power plants with flue-gas condensation that condense the water vapor produced by combustion, recovering heat which would otherwise be wasted.\n\nSection::::Usage of terms.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ice bath\" method: The reference junction block is immersed in a semi-frozen bath of distilled water at atmospheric pressure. The precise temperature of the melting point phase transition acts as a natural thermostat, fixing formula_6 to 0 °C.\n", "When ice melts, it absorbs as much energy as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C. During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C. While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the \"heat of fusion\".\n", "A variety of companies have started using water borne oscillations technology to prevent biofouling. Without the use of chemicals, this type of technology has helped in providing a low-pressure drop in heat exchangers.\n\nSection::::In nature.\n\nSection::::In nature.:Humans.\n", "Pure water is a fairly good insulator since it has a low autoionization, K = 1.0×10 at room temperature and thus pure water conducts current poorly, 0.055 µS·cm. Unless a very large potential is applied to cause an increase in the autoionization of water the electrolysis of pure water proceeds very slowly limited by the overall conductivity.\n", "In thermolysis, water molecules split into their atomic components hydrogen and oxygen. For example, at 2200 °C about three percent of all HO are dissociated into various combinations of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, mostly H, H, O, O, and OH. Other reaction products like HO or HO remain minor. At the very high temperature of 3000 °C more than half of the water molecules are decomposed, but at ambient temperatures only one molecule in 100 trillion dissociates by the effect of heat. The high temperatures and material constraints have limited the applications of this approach.\n\nSection::::Thermal decomposition of water.:Nuclear-thermal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09470	Why do tinted windows almost look like a grid when you wear sunglasses?	Polarization. Simply put: Sunglasses with polarized lenses align the light in one direction. The tint is an imperfect film that has certain polarizing effects on light as well. When you have the shades on, you’re able to see the alignment of the tinted application. Try this with cheap shades. You won’t see anything. Any sunglasses with polarized lenses will show off other polarized items. Even the aftermarket screen protectors on some phones are polarized, you’ll see the pattern as well.	[ "BULLET::::- Reflected Color under an Angle - as a reflected light source is reflected from the glazing under a shallow angle, some anti-reflective coatings may cause the reflected color to shift. Therefore, in picture framing, a stable color under a wide viewing angle is desirable.\n", "BULLET::::- Malta— The Malta Transport Authority Permits VLT of 70% on Front Side windows. Tint on the windscreen – a band across the top is permitted with a depth of no more than 100mm of the depth of the windscreen. 30% on the rear and side windows.\n", "Their popularity with police officers in the United States has earned them the nickname \"cop shades\". The two most popular styles for these are dual lenses set in metal frames (which are often confused with Aviators), and \"Wraparound\" (a single, smooth, semi-circular lens that covers both eyes and much of the same area of the face covered by protective goggles, combined with a minimal plastic frame and single piece of plastic serving as a nosepad). Wraparound sunglasses are also quite popular in the world of extreme sports.\n", "BULLET::::- Light Transmission - the lower the light reflection and light absorption, the higher the light transmission, and therefore, the visibility of the objects displayed behind the glazing.\n", "In binoculars with roof prisms the light path is split into two paths that reflect on either side of the roof prism ridge. One half of the light reflects from roof surface 1 to roof surface 2. The other half of the light reflects from roof surface 2 to roof surface 1. This causes the light to become partially polarized (due to a phenomenon called Brewster's angle). During subsequent reflections the direction of this polarization vector is changed but it is changed differently for each path in a manner similar to a Foucault pendulum. When the light following the two paths is recombined the polarization vectors of each path do not coincide. The angle between the two polarization vectors is called the \"phase shift\", or the geometric phase, or the Berry phase. This interference between the two paths with different geometric phase results in a varying intensity distribution in the image reducing apparent contrast and resolution compared to a porro prism erecting system. These unwanted interference effects can be suppressed by vapor depositing a special dielectric coating known as a \"phase-correction coating\" or \"P-coating\" on the roof surfaces of the roof prism. This coating corrects for the difference in geometric phase between the two paths so both have effectively the same phase shift and no interference degrades the image.\n", "Another type of smart sunglasses uses adaptive polarization filtering (ADF). ADF-type smart sunglasses can change their polarization filtering characteristics at runtime. For example, ADF-type smart sunglasses can change from horizontal polarization filtering to vertical polarization filtering at the touch of a button.\n\nThe lenses of smart sunglasses can be manufactured out of multiple adaptive cells, therefore different parts of the lens can exhibit different optical properties. For example the top of the lens can be electronically configured to have different polarization filter characteristics and different opacity than the lower part of the lens.\n\nSection::::Human Computer Interface (HCI) control input.\n", "BULLET::::- Intensity of Reflected Color - intensity of reflected color can be measured by its relative distance from the color neutral zone (i.e. white). Due to the variability of industrial processes, some producers design their anti-reflective coatings to have more intense colors so that the statistical deviation of outcomes falls within a specific color (green or blue, etc.). The tighter a manufacturer's control of its processes, the closer the design can be to the color neutral zone, without crossing over from a designated color.\n", "\"Factory tint\", done at the time of manufacture is generally not an applied film, but instead is done by dyeing the inside of the glass with a darkened pigment, an electrical process known as \"deep dipping.\" The pigment gives the glass a tint, but doesn't provide UV ray protection or heat rejection like most window films do. The average VLT of factory tint is between 15%-26%.\n\nSection::::Regulations for automotive use.:Regulation by country.\n", "The glass used for this purpose is typically whiter in colour than the clear glasses used for other applications.\n\nThis glass can be laminated or toughened depending on the depth of the pattern to produce a safety glass.\n\nSection::::Float glass.\n", "Some models have polarized lenses, made of Polaroid polarized plastic sheeting, to reduce glare caused by light reflected from non-metallic surfaces such as water (see Brewster's angle for how this works) as well as by polarized diffuse sky radiation (skylight). This can be especially useful to see beneath the surface of the water when fishing.\n", "The color of the mirror coating is independent of the tint of the lenses. It is determined by the thickness and structure of the layer.\n", "BULLET::::- Malaysia— The Transport Minister Datuk Seri Liow Tiong Lai launched the Malaysian Vehicle Tint Film Standardisation Mechanism, MS2669 on all window tinting on newly-registered vehicles starting January 1, 2018. Current permissible VLT levels are 70% for the front windscreen, 50% for front side windows and 30% for rear side windows and rear screen.\n", "BULLET::::- bloom surrounding objects in front of glare\n\nSunglasses are often worn to reduce glare; polarized sunglasses are designed to reduce glare caused by light reflected from non-metallic surfaces such as water, glossy printed matter or painted surfaces. An anti-reflective treatment on eyeglasses reduces the glare at night and glare from inside lights and computer screens that is caused by light bouncing off the lens. Some types of eyeglasses can reduce glare that occurs because of the imperfections on the surface of the eye.\n\nLight field measurements can be taken to reduce glare with digital post-processing.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "Common types of glazing that are used in architectural applications include clear and tinted float glass, tempered glass, and laminated glass as well as a variety of coated glasses, all of which can be glazed singly or as double, or even triple, glazing units. Ordinary clear glass has a slight green tinge but special colorless glasses are offered by several manufacturers.\n", "BULLET::::- Australia— In New South Wales, the Roads and Traffic Authority permits VLT of 35% on windows other than the windscreen. Tint on the windscreen – a band across the top is permitted with a depth of no more than 10% of the depth of the windscreen. An exception to the side & rear window tinting regulations applies to cars tinted before 1 August 1994.\n\nBULLET::::- Belarus— Any kind of window tint is illegal. An exception is made for factory tint in vehicles purchased before 1 April 2006. Also exempt are vehicles of cash collectors, KGB and certain officials.\n", "The exact nature of the coating determines the appearance of the coated optic; common AR coatings on eyeglasses and photographic lenses often look somewhat bluish (since they reflect slightly more blue light than other visible wavelengths), though green and pink-tinged coatings are also used.\n", "Double- or triple-layer insulated glass can be used in place of ordinary single panes in a window divided by muntins, though this reduces the effectiveness of the insulation. Other insulating glass arrangements include insertion of a decorative grid of simulated metal, wooden or plastic muntins sandwiched between two large panels of glass, sometimes adding another grid of simulated wood muntins facing the interior to produce a more convincing divided light appearance.\n\nSection::::In furniture.\n\nIn furniture, a \"muntin\" is the central vertical member of the framework of a piece of furniture, the outside members being called \"stiles\".\n", "Section::::Fashion (alphabetically).:Wrap-around.\n\nWrap-arounds are a style of sunglasses characterized by being strongly curved, to wrap around the face. They may have a single curved semi-circular lens that covers both eyes and much of the same area of the face covered by protective goggles, usually with a minimal plastic frame and single piece of plastic serving as a nosepiece. Glasses described as wraparound may alternatively have two lenses, but again with a strongly curved frame.\n", "Binoculars using either a Schmidt–Pechan roof prism or an Abbe–Koenig roof prism benefit from phase coatings. Porro prism binoculars do not split beams and therefore they do not require any phase coatings.\n\nSection::::Optical coatings.:Metallic mirror coatings.\n", "BULLET::::- Interference UV Blockers are usually built into anti-reflective interference thin film stacks, and focus on maximizing the UV \"reflection\" below the visible light boundary. Industrially-available sol-gel processes offer up to 84% UV block, while magnetron-sputtered AR/UV-Blocking layers can block up to ~92% with no adverse effects on the transmission or absorption of visible light.\n", "Lenses of fixed tint are graded according to the optical density of the tint; in the UK sunglasses must be labelled and show the filter category number. Lenses with light transmission less than 75% are unsuitable for night driving, and lenses with light transmission less than 8% (category 4) are unsuitable for driving at any time; they should by UK law be labelled 'Not suitable for driving and road use'. Yellow tinted lenses are also not recommended for night use. Due to the light levels within the car, filter category 2 lenses which transmit between 18% and 43% of light are recommended for daytime driving. Polarised lenses normally have a fixed tint, and can reduce reflected glare more than non-polarised lenses of the same density, particularly on wet roads.\n", "The thinnest glass was in a band at the edge of the disk, with the glass becoming thicker and more opaque toward the center. Known as a bullseye, the thicker center area around the pontil mark was used for less expensive windows. In order to fill large window spaces with the best glass, many small diamond shapes would be cut from the edge of the disk and these would be mounted in a lead lattice work and fitted into the window frame. \n", "The international glass code is based on U.S. military standard MIL-G-174, and is a six-digit number specifying the glass according to its refractive index \"n\" at the Fraunhofer d- (or D-) line, 589.3 nm, and its Abbe number \"V\" also taken at that line. The resulting glass code is the value of \"n\"-1 rounded to three digits, followed by \"V\" rounded to three digits, with all decimal points ignored. For example, BK7 has \"n\" = 1.5168 and \"V\" = 64.17, giving a six-digit glass code of 517642.\n", "Graduated lenses, with the bottom part lighter than the top, can make it easier to see the controls within the car. All sunglasses should be marked as meeting the standard for the region where sold. An anti-reflection coating is recommended, and a hard coating to protect the lenses from scratches. Sunglasses with deep side arms can block side, or peripheral, vision and are not recommended for driving.\n", "The standard type of anti-glare filter consists of a coating that reduces the reflection from a glass or plastic surface. These are manufactured from polycarbonate or acrylic plastic. An older variety of anti-glare filter used a mesh filter that had the appearance of a nylon screen. Although effective, a mesh filter also caused degradation of the image quality.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03264	How do astronomers find planets beyond our solar system and so far away?	There are a few ways: One way to make sense of the gravitational interaction between a planet and a star is to imagine a game of tug-of-war. On one side, you have the star - a massive object with a really powerful gravitational field. On the other side, you have the planet, much smaller, with a whole lot less gravity. We know who wins this game - the star. That's why planets orbit stars and not the other way around. But even though the planet is small, it still has some gravitational force. It still has an effect on its host star, even if that effect is much less pronounced than the one the star has on the planet. The planet's gravity causes the star to 'wobble'�around a little bit. As you might imagine, the bigger the planet, the bigger the effect it has on its star. Small planets, like Earth, make their stars only wobble a tiny bit. Bigger planets, like Jupiter, have a much stronger effect. DIGGING INTO THE DOPPLER DATA Wobbling stars are great for finding exoplanets, but how do we see the wobbling stars? The method used is one called 'Doppler shift'�. It's named after the physicist who figured it out about 150 years ago. Energy - sound, radio waves, heat, and light - moves in waves. Those waves can be stretched and squeezed, based on the movement of the object that's producing them. You may not know it, but you've probably experienced the Doppler effect before. Have you ever noticed how the sound of an ambulance passing you on the street gets higher in pitch as it gets close to you, and then lower in pitch as it speeds away? The reason is because when an object that emits energy (like an ambulance speaker or a massive, burning star) moves closer to you, the waves bunch up and squish together. And when the object is moving away, the waves stretch out. Those changes in the wavelength change how we perceive the energy that we're seeing or listening to. As sound waves scrunch together, they sound higher in pitch. And when visible light waves scrunch together, they look more blue in color. When sound waves stretch out, they sound lower in pitch. And when visible light waves stretch out, they make an object look more reddish. This change in color is called 'redshift', and scientists can use it to see if an object in the sky is moving towards us or farther away.	[ "Lemonick describes the diverse methods with which astronomers work to try to find Earth-like planets. Some evaluate images of clumps of stars, tens of thousands of them together, in order to pick up slight reductions in brightness caused by planets passing in front of their host stars, some examine individual stars for planetary gravitation influences, and others focus on stars considerably smaller than the Earth's sun to pick up more easily detectable planetary information.\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n", "HATNet Project is a set of northern telescopes in Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory, Arizona and Mauna Kea Observatories, HI, and southern telescopes around the globe, in Africa, Australia, and South America, under the HATSouth branch of the project. These are small aperture telescopes, just like KELT, and look at a wide field which allows them to scan a large area of the sky for possible transiting planets. I addition, their multitude and spread around the world allows for 24/7 observation of the sky so that more short-period transits can be caught.\n", "Most planets that have been discovered are within a couple of AU from their host star because the most used methods (radial-velocity and transit) require observation of several orbits to confirm that the planet exists and there has only been enough time since these methods were first used to cover small separations. Some planets with larger orbits have been discovered by direct imaging but there is a middle range of distances, roughly equivalent to the Solar System's gas giant region, which is largely unexplored. Direct imaging equipment for exploring that region was installed on two large telescopes that began operation in 2014, e.g. Gemini Planet Imager and VLT-SPHERE. The microlensing method has detected a few planets in the 1–10 AU range.\n", "The planets detected through direct imaging currently fall into two categories. First, planets are found around stars more massive than the Sun which are young enough to have protoplanetary disks. The second category consists of possible sub-brown dwarfs found around very dim stars, or brown dwarfs which are at least 100 AU away from their parent stars.\n\nPlanetary-mass objects not gravitationally bound to a star are found through direct imaging as well.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Direct imaging.:Early discoveries.\n", "Specially designed direct-imaging instruments such as Gemini Planet Imager, VLT-SPHERE, and SCExAO will image dozens of gas giants, but the vast majority of known extrasolar planets have only been detected through indirect methods. The following are the indirect methods that have proven useful:\n\nSection::::Detection methods.:Indirect methods.\n\nBULLET::::- Transit method\n\nBULLET::::- Radial velocity or Doppler method\n\nBULLET::::- Transit timing variation (TTV)\n\nBULLET::::- Transit duration variation (TDV)\n\nBULLET::::- Gravitational microlensing\n\nBULLET::::- Astrometry\n\nBULLET::::- Pulsar timing\n\nBULLET::::- Variable star timing (pulsation frequency)\n\nBULLET::::- Reflection/emission modulations\n\nBULLET::::- Relativistic beaming\n\nBULLET::::- Ellipsoidal variations\n\nBULLET::::- Polarimetry\n\nBULLET::::- Circumstellar disks\n\nSection::::Orbital parameters.\n", "The main advantage of the transit method is that the size of the planet can be determined from the lightcurve. When combined with the radial-velocity method (which determines the planet's mass), one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the planet's physical structure. The planets that have been studied by both methods are by far the best-characterized of all known exoplanets.\n", "Recently the OGLE team, in cooperation with scientists mostly from USA, New Zealand and Japan, proved that small, Earth-like planets can exist in great distance from stars around which they revolve despite there being other stars near them.\n\nSection::::Planets discovered.\n\nAt least seventeen planets have so far been discovered by the OGLE project. Eight of the planets were discovered by the transit method and six by the gravitational microlensing method.\n\nPlanets are shown in the order of discovery. Planets in multiple-planet systems are highlighted in yellow. Please note that list below may not be complete.\n", "Section::::Established detection methods.:Transit photometry.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Transit photometry.:Technique, advantages, and disadvantages.\n", "If a planet cannot be detected through at least one of the other detection methods, it can be confirmed by determining if the possibility of a Kepler candidate being a real planet is significantly larger than any false-positive scenarios combined. One of the first methods was to see if other telescopes can see the transit as well. The first planet confirmed through this method was Kepler-22b which was also observed with a Spitzer space telescope in addition to analyzing any other false-positive possibilities. Such confirmation is costly, as small planets can generally be detected only with space telescopes.\n", "Section::::Established detection methods.:Transit photometry.:History.\n", "BULLET::::- The Extrasolar Planet Observations and Characterization (EPOCh) mission used the Deep Impact high-resolution camera in 2008 to better characterize known giant extrasolar planets orbiting other stars and to search for additional planets in the same system. The Principal Investigator was L. Drake Deming of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.\n", "Most confirmed extrasolar planets have been found using space-based telescopes (as of 01/2015). Many of the detection methods can work more effectively with space-based telescopes that avoid atmospheric haze and turbulence. COROT (2007-2012) and Kepler were space missions dedicated to searching for extrasolar planets using transits. COROT discovered about 30 new exoplanets. \n", "Unlike most other methods, which have detection bias towards planets with small (or for resolved imaging, large) orbits, the microlensing method is most sensitive to detecting planets around 1-10 astronomical units away from Sun-like stars.\n", "Not all the planet candidates go through this process. Circumbinary planets do not show strictly periodic transits, and have to be inspected through other methods. In addition, third-party researchers use different data-processing methods, or even search planet candidates from the unprocessed light curve data. As a consequence, those planets may be missing KOI designation.\n\nSection::::Planet finding process.:Confirming planet candidates.\n\nOnce suitable candidates have been found from Kepler data, it is necessary to rule out false positives with follow-up tests.\n", "Other possible exoplanets to have been directly imaged include GQ Lupi b, AB Pictoris b, and SCR 1845 b. As of March 2006, none have been confirmed as planets; instead, they might themselves be small brown dwarfs.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Direct imaging.:Imaging instruments.\n", "Because very young stars (such as T Tauri stars) are usually variable, Pan-STARRS should discover a large number of these and improve our understanding of them. It is also expected that Pan-STARRS may discover a large number of extrasolar planets by observing their transits across their parent stars, as well as gravitational microlensing events.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nThe observatories continuously monitor the sky, taking a set of images approximately once per minute, gathering up to 100 gigabytes of data per night. By using the transit method, data collected from WASP can be used to measure the brightness of each star in each image, and small dips in brightness caused by large planets passing in front of their parent stars can be searched for.\n\nOne of the main purpose of WASP was to revolutionize the understanding of planet formation, paving the way for future space missions searching for 'Earth'-like worlds.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Special occurrence.\n\nSection::::Special occurrence.:Eclipsing binary stars.\n\nFrom time to time, the project will observe eclipsing binary stars. Essentially these are stars that orbit each other. Much as a planet can interrupt the brightness of a star, another star can too. There is a noticeable difference on the light curves. It will appear as a large transit (a large dip) and a smaller transit (a smaller dip).\n\nSection::::Special occurrence.:Multiplanet systems.\n", "Instead, astronomers have generally had to resort to indirect methods to detect extrasolar planets. As of 2016, several different indirect methods have yielded success.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.\n\nThe following methods have at least once proved successful for discovering a new planet or detecting an already discovered planet:\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Radial velocity.\n", "BULLET::::- To determine how many Earth-size and larger planets there are in or near the habitable zone (often called \"Goldilocks planets\") of a wide variety of spectral types of stars.\n\nBULLET::::- To determine the range of size and shape of the orbits of these planets.\n\nBULLET::::- To estimate how many planets there are in multiple-star systems.\n\nBULLET::::- To determine the range of orbit size, brightness, size, mass and density of short-period giant planets.\n\nBULLET::::- To identify additional members of each discovered planetary system using other techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- Determine the properties of those stars that harbor planetary systems.\n", "Transit-timing variation can also be used to find a planet's mass.\n\nSection::::Physical parameters.:Radius, density, and bulk composition.\n\nPrior to recent results from the \"Kepler\" space observatory, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are most easily detected. However, the planets detected by \"Kepler\" are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.\n", "Usually, Kepler candidates are imaged individually with more-advanced ground-based telescopes in order to resolve any background objects which could contaminate the brightness signature of the transit signal. Another method to rule out planet candidates is astrometry for which Kepler can collect good data even though doing so was not a design goal. While Kepler cannot detect planetary-mass objects with this method, it can be used to determine if the transit was caused by a stellar-mass object.\n\nSection::::Planet finding process.:Confirming planet candidates.:Through other detection methods.\n", "Sometimes observations at multiple wavelengths are needed to rule out the planet being a brown dwarf. Direct imaging can be used to accurately measure the planet's orbit around the star. Unlike the majority of other methods, direct imaging works better with planets with face-on orbits rather than edge-on orbits, as a planet in a face-on orbit is observable during the entirety of the planet's orbit, while planets with edge-on orbits are most easily observable during their period of largest apparent separation from the parent star.\n", "Because of their close proximity to their parent star, hot Neptunes have a much greater rate and chance of transiting their star as seen from a farther outlying point, than planets of the same mass in larger orbits. This increases the chances of discovering them by transit-based observation methods.\n", "The transit of celestial objects is one of the few key phenomena used today for the study of exoplanetary systems. Today, transit photometry is the leading form of exoplanet discovery. As exoplanets move in front of its host stars there is a dimming in the luminosity of its host star that can be measured. Larger planets make the dip in luminosity more noticeable and easier to detect. Followup observations are often done to ensure it is a planet through other methods of detecting exoplanets. \n\nThere are currently (December 2018) 2345 planets confirmed with Kepler light curves for stellar host.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01411	How can freezing have a "burning" effect?	From a feeling point of view, they both set off nerves and can be intense enough to not be able to tell the difference. From a damage point of view they both damage cells and can cause similar looking injuries even though the cause is different. Under a microscope burnt and frozen cells look different but at the scale the human eye can see, a patch if destroyed cells can look the same as an entirely different patch of destroyed cells.	[ "The form of injury is freezing of the skin, a type of frostbite. It is highly advised for those who suffer from frostbite to seek medical attention.\n\nIn rare cases aerosol-induced burns can be severe enough to necessitate skin grafting.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Freezer burn\n\nFreezer burn is a condition that occurs when frozen food has been damaged by dehydration and oxidation, due to air reaching the food. It is generally caused by food not being securely wrapped in air-tight packaging.\n\nFreezer burn appears as grayish-brown leathery spots on frozen food, and occurs when air reaches the food's surface and dries the product. Color changes result from chemical changes in the food's pigment. Freezer burn does not make the food unsafe; it merely causes dry spots in foods. The food remains usable and edible, but removing the freezer burns will improve the taste.\n", "Section::::Cause and effects.\n", "Dusty: \n", "A person can cause frostbite by accidental prolonged contact, using an aerosol on one place for too long. This is often done with deodorants, but other products such as asthma inhalers are also common causes of injury. Injuries are especially common with younger children who \"try it out\" not knowing all the possible dermatological effects. In rarer cases aerosol burns are reported to have been caused by air fresheners and other compressed aerosol canisters exploding.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Intentional and Abuse.\n", "Depending on the duration of exposure aerosol-induced frostbite can vary in depth. Most injuries of this type only affect the epidermis, the outermost layer of skin. However, if contact with the aerosol is prolonged the skin will freeze further and deeper layers of tissue will be affected, causing a more serious burn that reaches the dermis, destroys nerves, and increases the risk of infection and scarring . When the skin thaws, pain and severe discomfort can occur in the affected area. There may be a smell of aerosol products such as deodorant around the affected area, the injury may itch or be painful, the skin may freeze and become hardened, blisters may form on the area, and the flesh can become red and swollen.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Yu Guo (Xu Dai).\n", "Fire and Ice\n\nFire and Ice may refer to:\n\nSection::::Books and literature.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fire and Ice\" (poem), a 1920 poem by Robert Frost\n\nBULLET::::- Fire and Ice (Jensen novel), novel by Johannes V. Jensen\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fire and Ice\" (Warriors), a 2003 novel in the Warriors series by Erin Hunter\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fire & Ice\" (manga), by Yasuda Tsuyoshi\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fire and Ice\", a 1976 biography of Revlon founder Charles Revson by Andrew Tobias\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fire and Ice: The Korean War, 1950–1953\", a 2000 book by Michael J. Varhola\n", "Josh:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Holly McFeeture\" - Holly McFeeture is an Ohio woman, who poisoned her fiancée Matthew Podolak with antifreeze and staged it as a suicide in July 2006 and got away with it for 6 years.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Marjorie Diehl-Armstrong\" - Marjorie Diehl-Armstrong is a woman planning the murder of her father, but fails and kills her hitman trying to rob a bank with a grenade bomb neck and shooting her boyfriend and puts his body in the freezer in August 2003.\n", "They act on the four elements of what is known as the \"fire tetrahedron:\" the disparate components that combine to create the chemical reaction underlying any fire. \n\nThese four means of fire extinction are:\n\nBULLET::::1. Reduction or isolation of fuel\n\nBULLET::::2. Reduction or isolation of oxygen\n\nBULLET::::3. Reduction of heat\n\nBULLET::::4. Inhibiting the chain reaction of the above components\n", "The second Melter can mentally agitate the molecules in solid matter so that it loses cohesion, thereby melting the object in question. Christopher has not been shown to be able to produce actual fire. He has melted bullets while they are in the air, and can even melt people with fatal effects.\n\nSection::::Other versions.\n\nSection::::Other versions.:Heroes Reborn.\n\nIn the Heroes Reborn universe created by Franklin Richards, Bruno Horgan/Melter appeared as a member of Loki's Masters of Evil.\n\nSection::::Other versions.:Marvel Cinematic Universe.\n", "Section::::Cold War era and 1990s.:Memoirs of Yrjö Leino (By Finnish government, under Soviet pressure).\n", "In many research labs, the use of asbestos gloves is required when operating the furnace as it can reach very hot temperatures. The use of face masks is also recommended at higher temperatures to ensure safety of researchers and junior lab members . It is also recommended that researchers performing LOI procedure remove all jewelry and watches as they are great conductors of heat. When removing samples at high temperatures, these accessories can easily heat up and result in burns . \n\nSection::::Other Uses.\n", "Freezer Burn (novel)\n\nFreezer Burn is a 1999 crime novel by American writer Joe R. Lansdale.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n", "Cold Fire\n\nCold Fire may refer to:\n\nBurning process\n\nBULLET::::- Cold Fire (2016), a wildfire that burned in Yolo County, California\n\nBULLET::::- Cold fire (Noongar fire type), a fire type used by Noongar people\n\nEntertainment\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cold Fire\" (Koontz novel), a 1991 novel by Dean Koont\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cold Fire\" (Pierce novel), a 2002 novel by Tamora Pierce\n\nBULLET::::- , a 1995 episode of \"Star Trek: Voyager\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cold Fire\" (song), a 1993 song by Rush from the album \"Counterparts\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\", a 2000 direct-to-video film in \"The Land Before Time\" franchise\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The condition is primarily caused by sublimation. Water evaporates at all temperatures, even from the surface of solid ice. If air adjacent to ice is cold enough and the air is dry enough, the ice does not melt and water molecules go directly from solid phase (ice) to gaseous phase (vapor) without going through a liquid phase. When the constantly vibrating water molecules in foods stored in a freezer migrate to the surface, crystals of ice outside the solid food are formed, and some water molecules escape into the air by sublimation. The parts of meat which are deprived of moisture become dry and shrivelled, appearing \"burnt\". In meats, air can cause fats to oxidize. \n", "The heat absorbed by the boiling liquid on tissues produces a deep and rapid chill, but since the boiling point is well above the freezing point of water, it presents no danger of frostbite. The vapor is flammable and narcotic, which requires care.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Brothers Karamazov\"\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Browning, including \"My Last Duchess\" and \"Pippa Passes\" (inspired in a wood near Dulwich)\n\nBULLET::::- Cedar, including a colloquial American meaning, juniper\n", "Aerosol burn\n\nAn aerosol burn is an injury to the skin caused by the pressurized gas within an aerosol spray cooling quickly, with the sudden drop in temperature sufficient to cause frostbite to the applied area. Medical studies have noted an increase of this practice, known as \"frosting\", in pediatric and teenage patients.\n\nAdiabatic expansion causes the gas (with a low boiling temperature) to rapidly cool on exit from the aerosol applier. According to controlled laboratory experiments, the gas from a typical deodorant spray can reduce skin temperature by up to sixty degrees Celsius.\n", "At temperatures greater than , proteins begin losing their three-dimensional shape and start breaking down. This results in cell and tissue damage. Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin. They include disruption of the skin's sensation, ability to prevent water loss through evaporation, and ability to control body temperature. Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium.\n", "BULLET::::- Linseed oil and Danish oil in a confined space (such as a pile of oil-soaked rags left out in an uncovered container, especially if rags afterward used with anti-moisture solvent to clean up the oil) can oxidize leading to a buildup of heat and thus ignition.\n\nBULLET::::- Coal can ignite spontaneously when exposed to oxygen, which causes it to react and heat up when there is insufficient ventilation for cooling.\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrite oxidation is often the cause of coal spontaneous ignition in old mine tailings.\n", "Section::::Electrical arcing.\n\nInvestigators distinguish between electrical arcing and copper that melted due to the high temperatures of the fire. The term \"electrical arcing\", in fire investigation, often refers to \"melted copper that indicates that electrical arcing occurred\". \"Melted copper\" generally refers not to copper that is currently melted, but to \"previously melted, resolidified copper\". NFPA 921 and \"Kirk's Fire Investigation\" give some guidelines and illustrations on distinguishing between electrical arcing and other melted copper; however, these strict guidelines occasion much debate.\n", "Meats and vegetables stored in a manual-defrost freezer will last longer than those stored in automatic-defrost freezers. This is because the temperature of a manual defrost freezer remains closer to while the temperature of automatic defrost freezers fluctuates, and because automatic-defrost freezers have drier air, thus the rate of sublimation increases.\n\nFood with freezer burn, though dried and wrinkled, is safe to eat. However, food afflicted with freezer burn may have an unpleasant flavour. In most cases, it is sufficient to remove the parts affected by freezer burn.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Freeze drying\n\nBULLET::::- Ice crystals\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum packing\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::Modern burnings.:Unconfirmed act of execution in the Soviet Union.\n\nA former Soviet Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU) officer writing under the alias Victor Suvorov described, in his book \"Aquarium\", a Soviet \"traitor\" being burned alive in a crematorium. There has been some speculation that this officer was Oleg Penkovsky. However, during a radio interview with the Echo of Moscow, Suvorov denied this, saying \"I never mentioned it was Penkovsky\". No executed GRU traitors other than Penkovsky are known to match Suvorov's description of the spy in \"Aquarium\".\n\nSection::::Modern burnings.:Executions in North Korea.\n" ]	[ "Freeing and burning has the same effect on skin cells. " ]	[ "Freeing and burning look the same to the human eye, but under a microscope frozen cells and burned cells look different " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Freeing and burning has the same effect on skin cells. ", "Freeing and burning has the same effect on skin cells. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Freeing and burning look the same to the human eye, but under a microscope frozen cells and burned cells look different ", "Freeing and burning look the same to the human eye, but under a microscope frozen cells and burned cells look different " ]
2018-16686	Why can't phone numbers be blocked by specific geographic region?	yes, the technology exists, but the government won't let telecoms use it. & #x200B; Notice how you rarely get spam text messages? That's because the government allows telecom companies to filter those, based on both content and sender address. The law says, however, that telecom companies must deliver all voice calls as dialed, even if we KNOW they are spam.	[ "BULLET::::- In area codes where service providers are required to participate in thousands-block number pooling, the carrier is to return any blocks of 1,000 numbers which are more than 90% empty; an exemption applies for one block per rate center which the carrier must keep as an initial block or footprint block.\n\nBULLET::::- The Pooling Administrator, a neutral third party, maintains no more than a six-month inventory of telephone numbers in each thousands-block number pool.\n\nThe default National Number Pool Administration in the United States is Neustar, the North American Numbering Plan Administrator. Canada has no number pooling.\n", "BULLET::::- Service-specific overlay: the first overlay area code in the NANPA, 917, is the only example of this. It was originally established as an area code specifically for cell phones and pagers in New York City, but soon after, the FCC said area codes going forth could not be service-specific, but they allowed 917 to remain as such. However, 917 is being used for landlines in New York City on a limited basis.\n\nSection::::Number pool management.\n", "This feature is not available from most cellphone services with caller ID, such as Sprint, T-Mobile USA or AT&T. Verizon Wireless does provide this service, but ACR prevents dialing a feature code or successfully calling customer service. Verizon Wireless does not currently provide blocked or anonymous call rejection.\n\nIn North America, the feature is enabled with the vertical service code 77, and disabled with 87.\n\nSection::::Service usage messages.\n\n\"Your anonymous call rejection service is now on. Callers who block their number will get a recording saying you do not accept blocked calls.\"\n", "There are also technical limitations; voice over IP users in particular are difficult to geolocate as their calls may be gated to the public switched telephone network at a point hundreds or thousands of miles away from their actual location. A roaming mobile or Internet telephone user is effectively (like the user of a foreign exchange line) attached to a distant rate centre far from their physical address.\n", "The original 800-code operated for over thirty years before its 7.8 million possible numbers were depleted, but new toll-free area codes are being depleted at an increasing rate both by more widespread use of the numbers by voice-over-IP, pocket pagers, residential, and small business use, and widespread abuse by RespOrgs and subscribers who stockpile the numbers for use in misdial marketing, response tracking for individual advertisements (each ad from each client gets a different freephone number) or sale, lease or shared use. Brokering numbers for sale is illegal, but renting a number or part of a number circumvents these regulations as FCC enforcement is sporadic to minimal.\n", "Questions were asked in the Scottish Parliament in June 2010.\n", "While mandatory number pooling requirements originally existed only in the top 100 MSA's, the National Association of Regulatory Commissioners (NARUC) petitioned the FCC in 2006 to extend them to rural states to cope with demand for numbers for VoIP. All US states have implemented their own regulations requiring that carriers implement number pooling. By 2013, even sparsely populated Montana was using number pooling in order to extend the useful life of area code 406, the one area code in the state.\n", "As the owner of a toll-free telephone number must pay to receive all long-distance calls (including misdial calls), a toll-free subscriber may request that the responsible organization for a toll-free number (often but not always the inbound long-distance carrier) configure the number to only be reachable from specific area codes, from within one province or state or from specified cities. (The original Bell System InWATS used wide multiple-state or province \"bands\" as calling areas, modern systems route more finely.)\n", "Where blocking is applied on a call-by-call basis (that is, at the time a call is made), subscribers can block their caller ID by dialing a special code (a vertical service code, or VSC) before making a call. In North America and some other regions, the code is *67 (1167 rotary dial), while in the United Kingdom and Ireland, it is 141. This special code does not block the information from companies using call capture technology. This means that equipment with caller ID will simply display the word \"PRIVATE\" or \"WITHHELD\". When CNID is blocked at the caller's request, the number is actually transmitted through the entire telephone network, with the \"presentation withheld\" flag set; the destination CO is expected to honor this flag, but sometimes does not—especially when the destination phone number is served by an ISDN PRI. \n", "These developments largely coincided with the deployment of local number portability (LNP), a scheme which allowed subscribers to keep their existing numbers when switching to a different provider in the same community. \n\nThe original LNP database contract was granted in 1996. The number pooling scheme relies on LNP as it relies on carriers to return blocks of mostly unused numbers. The thousand-number blocks being returned to the pool may be \"contaminated\" with up to a hundred working numbers which must be ported to a block which the carrier intends to keep.\n", "Number pooling remains available to carriers on an optional basis in many US markets in which it is not yet mandatory. \n", "With phone numbers assigned to various operators in blocks, the system worked quite well in a fixed line environment since everyone was attached to the same infrastructure. The situation becomes somewhat more complex in a wireless environment such as that created by cellular communications.\n", "Local telephone numbers have always been subject to the constraint that the first digits must identify a geographic location, leaving less flexibility to select digits which spell specific phonewords. Toll-free numbering, as originally introduced by AT&T in 1967, was initially even more limited, as each geographic area code was hardwired to one or two specific exchanges in the +1-800 toll-free area code. This changed after Roy P. Weber of Bell Labs patented a \"Data base communication call processing method\" which laid the initial blueprint for construction of the SMS/800 database in 1982 and the portable RespOrg structure in 1993. A toll-free number, instead of indicating a geographic location, was merely a pointer to a database record; any number could geographically be reassigned anywhere and ported to any carrier. All seven digits were available to construct vanity numbers or phonewords.\n", "This business model of operation is very common around the world and is usually legal, as it simply uses the internet to piggyback calls to a local area and using a private exchange to route the call back to the mobile network. However, many companies, such as Verizon, provide strong lobbying forces to local governments to ban the use of SIM pools. Another reason is the lack of control of the users, i.e. Knowing who called whom? Creating a serious privacy challenge to the users, where (local) governments want to know who made certain calls to whom and from where. One such example is the country of Ghana, where government has banned the use of SIM boxes. \n", "This similar practice was implemented on a large scale in the metropolitan area of Washington, D.C. and its suburbs in Maryland and Virginia. Until 1991, the entire region was a single local calling area, and it was possible for anyone living in the metro area to dial a number in D.C. or the Maryland and Virginia suburbs with only seven digits. The entire area implemented a system of central office code protection in which no central office code was duplicated in the entire area. Each existing central office code was properly routed with each area code in the region, so that each telephone number in the region could be dialed with any of the regional area codes, giving the appearance of an overlay plan.\n", "North American mobile telephones, from their introduction in 1983, have used local numbers from the same geographic area codes as wireline services. Unlike the system in nations where mobiles have their own special area code, the recipient of a mobile call in the US or Canada pays the airtime charges.\n\nSection::::History.:Background.\n", "If a program like Crime Stoppers is inherently regional or local, but its national 1800222TIPS number is shared between multiple exchanges, the exchange accepting the call must determine whether the call belongs to some other region.\n\nSection::::Around the world.\n\nCountries around the world use various dialing prefixes to denote toll-free services in their telephone networks.\n", "The format of the toll-free number is called a non-geographic number, in contrast to telephone numbers associated with households which are geographic. (Since the advent of cell phones and voice over IP, households can have any area code in the U.S. —it is still geographic in the sense that calls from that area code are considered local, but the recipient can be physically anywhere). In the latter case, it is possible to determine an approximate location of the caller from the area code (e.g. New York or London). In contrast, toll-free numbers could be physically located anywhere in the world.\n", "With cellphones, the biggest issue appears to be in the passing of calling line ID information through the network. Cellphone companies must support interconnecting trunks to a significant number of Wireline and PSTN access carriers.\n\nSection::::CLI localisation.\n", "Despite the closed numbering plan in the NANP, different dialing procedures exist in many of the territories for local and long distance telephone calls. This means that to call another number within the same city or area, callers need to dial only a subset of the full telephone number. For example, in the NANP, only the 7-digit number may need to be dialed, but for calls outside the local numbering plan area, the full number including the area code is required. In these situations, ITU-T Recommendation E.123 suggests to list the area code in parentheses, signifying that in some cases the area code is optional or may not be required.\n", "Instead of being subdivided geographically as in a typical numbering plan, the ETNS was intended to be subdivided by type of service or customer. It would therefore not have been possible to reverse engineer the location of an owner of an ETNS number based on the characteristics of the phone number. The numbers were also not allocated in blocks to individual carrier companies and were therefore intended to be portable. Carriers needed to have ETNS translation capability, or routing agreement with a carrier that did, in order for its customers to successfully call ETNS numbers.\n\nSection::::Subdivision.\n\nSection::::Subdivision.:Country Groups.\n", "While +883 is a valid ITU dial code and the iNum numbers formally assigned by the ITU, not all access, fixed and mobile carriers know how to route the calls correctly. Skype, Belgacom, British Telecom, Colt, KPN, Sprint USA, Orange Switzerland and Verizon Europe are among the major communications companies that route voice calls to iNum. SMS to iNum is supported by several agreements with major international messaging providers.\n", "An attempt by the United States Telecom Association, a trade group of local phone companies, to propose mandatory 10-digit dialing nationwide was rejected by the FCC in 2000. The FCC instead adopted many aspects of the Illinois Commerce Commission number pooling trial, including a requirement that telcos actually use 60% percent of their allocations (increased to 75% after three years) before requesting more phone numbers, allocation of new numbers to phone companies in blocks of 1,000 and a requirement that phone companies return unused numbers to a pool.\n", "Australia has a national Do Not Call Register. The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) is responsible for the register under the Do Not Call Register Act 2006. In order to be included on the register, a telephone number must be used or maintained primarily for private or domestic purposes, or exclusively for transmitting and/or receiving faxes. Government body numbers and emergency services numbers are also able and numbers can be removed at any time.\n\nSection::::E-mail marketing.\n", "Toll-free telephone numbers in the NANP are regulated by the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 52 Section 101. RespOrgs assign the numbers in the SMS/800 database. SMS/800, Inc. administers this database as the Number Administration and Service Center, as a subcontractor for the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).\n\nThe SMS/800 database and RespOrg structure are used in the U.S. and Canada. A few specific exchanges remain reserved or are assigned to specific North American Numbering Plan countries which do not draw numbers from the SMS/800 pool:\n\nBULLET::::- Some 800-xxx prefixes are reserved for the following areas:\n" ]	[ "Phone numbers cannot be blocked by specific geographic region." ]	[ "Phone numbers can indeed be blocked by specific geographic region, however the government does not allow telecoms to use it." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Phone numbers cannot be blocked by specific geographic region." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Phone numbers can indeed be blocked by specific geographic region, however the government does not allow telecoms to use it." ]
2018-01855	Why does testosterone make you stronger?	Testosterone is type of hormone (androgen) that leads to the development secondary sexual characteristics in men by being converted to 5a-dihydrotestosterone and binding to testosterone receptors. These include increased muscle and bone mass as well as increased sex drive. In terms of how it works, hormones work as a signalling mechanism to tell cells what to do - think of it as a cell sending instructions to another cell. Testosterone is a chemical signal to develop the above characteristics.	[ "Testosterone is significantly discussed in relation to aggression and competitive behavior. There are two theories on the role of testosterone in aggression and competition. The first one is the challenge hypothesis which states that testosterone would increase during puberty, thus facilitating reproductive and competitive behavior which would include aggression. It is therefore the challenge of competition among males of the species that facilitates aggression and violence. Studies conducted have found direct correlation between testosterone and dominance, especially among the most violent criminals in prison who had the highest testosterone levels. The same research also found fathers (those outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males.\n", "BULLET::::- Weight loss: Reduction in weight may result in an increase in testosterone levels. Fat cells synthesize the enzyme aromatase, which converts testosterone, the male sex hormone, into estradiol, the female sex hormone. However no clear association between body mass index and testosterone levels has been found.\n\nBULLET::::- Miscellaneous: \"Sleep\": (REM sleep) increases nocturnal testosterone levels. \"Behavior\": Dominance challenges can, in some cases, stimulate increased testosterone release in men. \"Drugs\": Natural or man-made antiandrogens including spearmint tea reduce testosterone levels. Licorice can decrease the production of testosterone and this effect is greater in females.\n\nSection::::Biochemistry.:Distribution.\n", "BULLET::::- Age: Testosterone levels gradually reduce as men age. This effect is sometimes referred to as andropause or late-onset hypogonadism.\n\nBULLET::::- Exercise: Resistance training increases testosterone levels, however, in older men, that increase can be avoided by protein ingestion. Endurance training in men may lead to lower testosterone levels.\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrients: Vitamin A deficiency may lead to sub-optimal plasma testosterone levels. The secosteroid vitamin D in levels of 400–1000 IU/d (10–25 µg/d) raises testosterone levels. Zinc deficiency lowers testosterone levels but over-supplementation has no effect on serum testosterone.\n", "Anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), including testosterone and its esters, have also been taken to enhance muscle development, strength, or endurance. They do so directly by increasing the muscles' protein synthesis. As a result, muscle fibers become larger and repair faster than the average person's.\n", "A few studies indicate that the testosterone derivative estradiol (one form of estrogen) might play an important role in male aggression. Estradiol is known to correlate with aggression in male mice. Moreover, the conversion of testosterone to estradiol regulates male aggression in sparrows during breeding season. Rats who were given anabolic steroids that increase testosterone were also more physically aggressive to provocation as a result of \"threat sensitivity\".\n\nSection::::Biological effects.:Brain.\n", "Section::::Combined training.\n\nOne study showed GH increase with anaerobic effort to be blunted in those who performed aerobic training for 60 minutes prior to strength training. Testosterone levels remained high only at the end of the training session with aerobic training followed by strength training, a phenomenon not seen with weight training done before aerobics. In an 11-week soccer training program focusing on combined vertical jumps, short sprints, and submaximal endurance running, total testosterone increased, but SHBG rose in parallel, maintaining a constant free androgen index.\n", "The second theory is similar and is known as \"evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory of male aggression\". Testosterone and other androgens have evolved to masculinize a brain in order to be competitive even to the point of risking harm to the person and others. By doing so, individuals with masculinized brains as a result of pre-natal and adult life testosterone and androgens enhance their resource acquiring abilities in order to survive, attract and copulate with mates as much as possible. The masculinization of the brain is not just mediated by testosterone levels at the adult stage, but also testosterone exposure in the womb as a fetus. Higher pre-natal testosterone indicated by a low digit ratio as well as adult testosterone levels increased risk of fouls or aggression among male players in a soccer game. Studies have also found higher pre-natal testosterone or lower digit ratio to be correlated with higher aggression in males.\n", "The effects of testosterone in humans and other vertebrates occur by way of multiple mechanisms: by activation of the androgen receptor (directly or as DHT), and by conversion to estradiol and activation of certain estrogen receptors. Androgens such as testosterone have also been found to bind to and activate membrane androgen receptors.\n", "In addition to its role as a natural hormone, testosterone is used as a medication, for instance in the treatment of low testosterone levels in men, transgender hormone therapy for transgender men, and breast cancer in women. Since testosterone levels decrease as men age, testosterone is sometimes used in older men to counteract this deficiency. It is also used illicitly to enhance physique and performance, for instance in athletes.\n\nSection::::Biological effects.\n", "Section::::Cornerstones.:Male-male aggression.\n\nIt has long been known that testosterone increases aggressive behavior. While castration tends to decrease the frequency of aggression in birds and replacement therapy with testosterone increases aggression, aggression and testosterone are not always directly related. The challenge hypothesis proposes that testosterone is most immediately related to aggression when associated with reproduction, such as mate-guarding. An increase in male-male aggression in the reproductive context as related to testosterone is strongest in situations of social instability, or challenges from another male for a territory or access to mates.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Testosterone.:Effects on the nervous system.\n\nAnother line of research has focused on the proximate effects of circulating testosterone on the nervous system, as mediated by local metabolism within the brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to estradiol by the enzyme aromatase, or to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by 5α-reductase.\n", "The relationship between aggression and testosterone can be understood in light of the three-level model of testosterone as proposed by the challenge hypothesis. As testosterone reaches Level B, or breeding baseline, there is minimal increase in aggression. As testosterone increases above Level B and approaches Level C, male-male aggression rapidly increases.\n\nSection::::Continuous breeders.\n", "An elevation of GnRH raises males’ testosterone capacity beyond a male's natural testosterone level. Injections of GnRH in male birds immediately after an aggressive territorial encounter results in higher testosterone levels than what is observed naturally during an aggressive territorial encounter.\n", "In every mammalian species examined demonstrated a marked increase in a male's testosterone level upon encountering a \"novel\" female. The reflexive testosterone increases in male mice is related to the male's initial level of sexual arousal.\n", "Section::::Aerobic.\n\nIn trained long term aerobic exercisers, basal levels are unchanged, or decreased. Acutely, endurance based aerobic efforts cause testosterone to rise.\n", "The bones and the brain are two important tissues in humans where the primary effect of testosterone is by way of aromatization to estradiol. In the bones, estradiol accelerates ossification of cartilage into bone, leading to closure of the epiphyses and conclusion of growth. In the central nervous system, testosterone is aromatized to estradiol. Estradiol rather than testosterone serves as the most important feedback signal to the hypothalamus (especially affecting LH secretion). In many mammals, prenatal or perinatal \"masculinization\" of the sexually dimorphic areas of the brain by estradiol derived from testosterone programs later male sexual behavior.\n\nSection::::Biological activity.:Neurosteroid activity.\n", "The possible correlation between testosterone and aggression could explain the \"roid rage\" that can result from anabolic steroid use, although an effect of abnormally high levels of steroids does not prove an effect at physiological levels.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Dehydroepiandrosterone.\n", "Testosterone is another compound whose concentration within the body are affected by winner and loser effects. Research conducted using humans show that after completing a competitive task against another team, the winning team's testosterone goes up, while the losing team's testosterone goes down. It also showed in a group setting that the team member who was the top-scoring player or did the most work received the highest boost in testosterone.\n\nSection::::Importance of previous experience.\n", "Section::::Patterns of testosterone.:In birds.\n", "Section::::Patterns of testosterone.:In other animals.\n", "Some examples of the anabolic effects of these hormones are increased protein synthesis from amino acids, increased appetite, increased bone remodeling and growth, and stimulation of bone marrow, which increases the production of red blood cells. Through a number of mechanisms AAS stimulate the formation of muscle cells and hence cause an increase in the size of skeletal muscles, leading to increased strength.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:Effects in the body and brain.\n\nThe ARs are expressed widely throughout the body, including in the penis, testicles, epididymides, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, fat, skin, bone, bone marrow, muscle, larynx, heart, liver, kidneys, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and elsewhere throughout the brain. Through activation of the ARs (as well as the mARs), testosterone has many effects, including the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Promotes growth, function, and maintenance of the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and penis during puberty and thereafter\n\nBULLET::::- Promotes growth and maintenance of muscles, particularly of the upper body\n", "Changes in levels of weak adrenal androgens are of relevance as these androgens serve as circulating reservoir of precursors that are transformed in tissues into potent androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone and into estrogens.\n\nSection::::Effects in the body and brain.:Effects on liver protein synthesis.\n", "The pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions. However, during periods of heightened male aggression, testosterone levels increase further to a maximum physiological level. This additional boost in testosterone appears to facilitate male-male aggression, particularly during territory formation and mate guarding, and is also characterized by a lack of paternal care. The challenge hypothesis has come to explain patterns of testosterone production as predictive of aggression across more than 60 species.\n\nSection::::Patterns of testosterone.\n", "In general, androgens such as testosterone promote protein synthesis and thus growth of tissues with androgen receptors. Testosterone can be described as having virilising and anabolic effects (though these categorical descriptions are somewhat arbitrary, as there is a great deal of mutual overlap between them).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anabolic effects\" include growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density and strength, and stimulation of linear growth and bone maturation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23512	How does wind actually work? I mean, I know about how the cold and warm mix and stuff but really, how does it work?	Heat has an expansionary pressure, and hot things won't be compelled to go towards something that's equally hot or hotter, it moves away. & #x200B; As such, heat in the atmosphere is constantly trying to move away from the center of the heat, which pushes less-hot things away. & #x200B; But, since pressure across the environment is so grossly inconsistent due to large bodies of water, evaporation, mountain ranges, and the earth's motion, the atmosphere is basically a big jumbled soup of hot air trying to equalize itself. Since all this hot air is moving very fast, it creates wind.	[ "Section::::Usage.:Recreation.\n", "Section::::Local examples.\n\nRegionally, these winds are known by many different names. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- in Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Bergwind in South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- in the Americas\n\nBULLET::::- The Brookings Effect on the southwestern coast of Oregon, also known as the Chetco Effect.\n\nBULLET::::- Chinook winds east of the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade Range in the United States and Canada, and north, east and west of the Chugach Mountains of Alaska, United States\n", "Section::::Wind Rose.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "Section::::On other planets.\n", "Section::::Role in the natural world.\n", "In addition to these primary names, the document also gives partial information on other traditional names for the same winds, and geographic associations tied to various places.\n", "BULLET::::- WIND Hellas, a mobile telephone carrier in Greece\n\nBULLET::::- WIND Mobile, a mobile telephone carrier in Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Renault Wind, a roadster by French automobile manufacturer Renault\n\nSection::::Computing and technology.\n\nBULLET::::- MSI Wind Netbook\n\nBULLET::::- MSI Wind PC\n\nSection::::Science and healthcare.\n\nBULLET::::- WIND (spacecraft), a NASA spacecraft launched in 1994 to study solar wind\n\nBULLET::::- Flatulence, or passing wind, or passing gas\n\nBULLET::::- Wind power, use of wind as a source of energy\n\nBULLET::::- Planetary wind, the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nor'easter\" (strong storm with winds from the northeast on the north eastern coast of the United States (particularly New England states) and the east coast of Canada (Atlantic Canada))\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nor'wester\" (wind that brings rain to the West Coast, and warm dry winds to the East Coast of New Zealand's South Island, caused by the moist prevailing winds being uplifted over the Southern Alps, often accompanied by a distinctive arched cloud pattern)\n\nSection::::O-R.\n\nBULLET::::- (strong katabatic wind across the Kanto Plain)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ostro\" (southerly wind in the Mediterranean)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Calima\" (dust-laden south to southeasterly wind blowing in the Saharan Air Layer across the Canary Islands)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carpinteiro\" (strong southeasterly wind along the southern Atlantic coast of Brazil)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Doctor\" (dry south-easterly wind that blows on the South African coast in summer)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cers\" (strong, very dry northeasterly wind in the bas-Languedoc region in southern France)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chetco Effect\" (alternate term for Brookings Effect, off-shore wind on the southwestern Oregon coast, United States)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chinook\" (warm dry westerly off the Rocky Mountains)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cierzo\" (cool north/northwesterly wind on Ebro Valley in Spain)\n", "Section::::Local considerations.:Circulation in elevated regions.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Santana winds\" (southern California) (Sometimes referred to as 'Santa Ana Winds' after a nearby town)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Santa Lucia winds\" (a downslope wind affecting southern San Luis Obispo and northern Santa Barbara Counties, California)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sarma\" (cold strong wind at the western shore of Lake Baikal)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shamal\" (a summer northwesterly wind blowing over Iraq and the Persian Gulf states)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sharqi\" (seasonal dry, dusty Middle Eastern wind coming from the south and southeast)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Simoom\" (Samiel) (strong, dry, desert wind that blows in Israel, Jordan, Syria, and the desert of Arabia)\n", "Section::::Usage.:Transportation.\n", "Section::::Opinions.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nSection::::Description.:Physical explanation.\n", "Section::::Role in the natural world.:Desert dust migration.\n", "BULLET::::- Foehn winds in the foothills of the southern Appalachian mountains, which can be unusual compared to other foehn winds in that the relative humidity typically changes little due to the increased moisture in the source air mass\n\nBULLET::::- The Santa Ana winds of southern California, including the Sundowner winds of Santa Barbara, are in some ways similar to the Föhn, but originate in dry deserts as a katabatic wind.\n\nBULLET::::- Puelche wind in Chile\n\nBULLET::::- Suêtes on the west coast of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Zonda winds in Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- in Antarctica\n", "Section::::Role in the natural world.:Effect on animals.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Brickfielder\" (hot and dry wind in Southern Australia)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Böhm\" (cold, dry wind in Central Europe)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bora\" (northeasterly from eastern Europe to northeastern Italy and northwestern Balkans)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brisote\" (the northeast trade wind when it is blowing more strongly than usual, in Cuba)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brookings Effect\" (off-shore wind on the southwestern Oregon coast, United States)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Buran\" (a wind which blows across eastern Asia. It is also known as \"Purga\" when over the tundra)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (north wind which blows in the winter in south-central France)\n\nSection::::C-E.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caju\" (stormy gale-force north-westerly in the Atlantic coast of Brazil)\n", "Section::::Local considerations.\n\nSection::::Local considerations.:Sea and land breezes.\n", "Section::::Local considerations.:Sea and land breezes.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sirocco\" (southerly from north Africa to southern Europe)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solano\" (south to south-easterly wind in the southern sector of Spain)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Southerly Buster\" (rapidly arriving low pressure cell that dramatically cools Sydney, Australia during summer)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sou'wester\" (strong wind which blows from the southwest, and also a type of waterproof hat designed to protect from wind and rain)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Squamish\" (strong, violent wind occurring in many of the fjords of British Columbia)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sudestada\", (strong offshore wind from the Southeast associated with most of the shipwrecks in Uruguay's Rio de la Plata coast)\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n", "Section::::Wind force scale.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11318	why a word like "live" has different meanings based on pronunciation even though it's spelt one way.	This is how the English language works. There is no rule. Just like READ is the past tense of READ. I am intrigued if there's any scholars who can explain more.	[ "Alphabetic orthographies often have features that are morphophonemic rather than purely phonemic. This means that the spelling reflects to some extent the underlying morphological structure of the words, not only their pronunciation. Hence different forms of a morpheme (minimum meaningful unit of language) are often spelt identically or similarly in spite of differences in their pronunciation. That is often for historical reasons; the morphophonemic spelling reflects a previous pronunciation from before historical sound changes that caused the variation in pronunciation of a given morpheme. Such spellings can assist in the recognition of words when reading.\n", "French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. The actual letter-to-phoneme correspondence, however, is often low and a sequence of sounds may have multiple ways of being spelt.\n", "On the other hand, spelling pronunciations are also evidence of the reciprocal effects of spoken and written language on each other. Many spellings represent older forms and corresponding older pronunciations. Some spellings, however, are not etymologically correct.\n", "BULLET::::- Compound words are often simplified in pronunciation, while their spelling remains the same. For example, \"cupboard\" and \"breakfast\" were once pronounced as written, but were then simplified over time. The words \"forehead\" and \"waistcoat\" have largely reverted to their spelling pronunciations, but were once pronounced \"forrid\" and \"weskit\", respectively.\n", "BULLET::::- \"forehead\" once rhymed with \"horrid\" but is now pronounced with the second syllable as by 85% of American speakers and 65% of British speakers. That is actually a reversion to the original pronunciation.\n\nBULLET::::- \"clothes\" was historically pronounced the same way as the verb \"close\" (\"Whenas in silks my Julia goes/.../The liquefaction of her clothes\"—Herrick), but many speakers now insert a , a voiced \"th\". That is actually a reversion to the 15th-century pronunciation.\n\nBULLET::::- \"salmon\" is occasionally pronounced with .\n", "BULLET::::- , as in \"name\", \"case\" and \"sake\", was a long monophthong, approximating , perhaps at first more open, such as (with Shakespeare rhyming words like \"haste\", \"taste\" and \"waste\" with a fronted \"last\" and \"shade\" with \"sad\"), and later less open, such as . The phoneme was just beginning or already in the process of merging with the phoneme as in \"day\", \"pay,\" and \"say\". Depending upon the exact moment or dialect of Early Modern English, \"met\" was a potential homophone with \"mate\"; the same was true for even \"mat\" and \"mate\". Such an open pronunciation remains in some dialects, notably in Scotland, Northern England, and perhaps Ireland.\n", "BULLET::::- The change from fricative to stop articulation in a sequence of fricatives may belong here: German \"sechs\" (as evidenced by the spelling, the was previously a fricative). In Sanskrit in any original sequence of two sibilants the first became a stop (often with further developments): root \"vas\"- \"dress\", fut. \"vas-sya\"- \"vatsya\"-; \"wiś-s\" \"clan\" (nom.sg.) \"viťś viṭṣ viṭ\" (final clusters are simplified); \"wiś-su\" locative pl. \"viṭṣu vikṣu\". English \"amphitheater\" is very commonly pronounced \"ampitheater\" (though spelling pronunciation may be either some or all of the story here). Russian конфорка 'stove burner' is from Dutch \"komfoor\" 'brazier'.\n", "BULLET::::- Conversely, a letter or group of letters can correspond to different phonemes in different contexts. For example, \"th\" in English can be pronounced as ð (as in \"this\") or θ (as in \"thin\").\n\nBULLET::::- Spelling may otherwise represent a historical pronunciation; orthography does not necessarily keep up with sound changes in the spoken language. For example, both the \"k\" and the digraph \"gh\" of English \"knight\" were once pronounced, but after the loss of their sounds, they no longer represent the word's phonemic structure or its pronunciation.\n", "Spelling pronunciations give rise to varied opinions. Often, those who retain the old pronunciation consider the spelling pronunciation to be a mark of ignorance or insecurity. Those who use a spelling pronunciation may not be aware that it is one and consider the historically-authentic version to be slovenly since it \"slurs over\" a letter. Conversely, the users of some innovative pronunciations such as \"Febuary\" (for \"February\") may regard the historically- and phonetically-authentic version to be a pedantic spelling pronunciation.\n", "BULLET::::- The final-obstruent devoicing that occurs in many languages (such as German, Polish, Russian and Welsh) is not normally reflected in the spelling. For example, in German, \"Bad\" \"bath\" is spelt with a final even though it is pronounced , thus corresponding to other morphologically related forms such as the verb \"baden\" (bathe) in which the \"d\" is pronounced . (Compare \"Rat\", \"raten\" (\"advice\", \"advise\") in which the \"t\" is pronounced in both positions.) Turkish orthography, however, is more strictly phonemic: for example, the imperative of \"eder\" \"does\" is spelled \"et\", as it is pronounced (and the same as the word for \"meat\"), not \"ed\", as it would be if German spelling were used.\n", "Since neither nor was a native sound in Latin, the tendency must have emerged early, and at the latest by medieval Latin, to substitute . Thus, in many modern languages, including French and German, the digraph is used in Greek loan-words to represent an original , but is now pronounced : examples are French \"théâtre\", German \"Theater\". In some cases, this etymological , which has no remaining significance for pronunciation, has been transferred to words in which there is no etymological justification for it. For example, German \"Tal\" ('valley', cognate with English \"dale\") appears in many place-names with an archaic spelling \"Thal\" (contrast Neandertal and Neanderthal). The German spelling reform of 1901 largely reversed these, but they remain in some proper nouns. The name \"Rothschild\" is an example of this, being a compound of \"rot[h]\" (\"red\") and \"Schild\" (\"shield\").\n", "BULLET::::- \"Make\" and \"take\" are pronounced \"mak\" and \"tak\" ( and ) in the most conservative forms of the dialect. This variation is the supposed reason why Tyneside shipyard workers might have coined \"Mak'em\" as an insult. However, the pronunciation of the word is not confined to Sunderland and can be found in other areas of Northern England and Scotland.\n\nBULLET::::- Many words ending in \"-own\" are pronounced (cf. Geordie: ).\n", "BULLET::::- \"herb\", a word with origins in Old French, is pronounced with a silent \"h\" in the United States (generally speaking, anyway. It is the most common pronunciation there, although the \"h\"-pronouncing pronunciation is used there too, although it is often perceived as incorrect). The same was true of the United Kingdom until the 19th century, when it adopted a spelling pronunciation, with an audible \"h\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ralph\", originally pronounced or in the United Kingdom (at least in England), is now often pronounced .\n", "A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the same function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the English phoneme , which occurs in words such as cat\", kit\", \"scat\", \"skit\". Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects the \"c/k\" sounds in these words are not identical: in the sound is aspirated, while in it is unaspirated. The words therefore contain different \"speech sounds\", or \"phones\", transcribed for the aspirated form, for the unaspirated one. These different sounds are nonetheless considered to belong to the same phoneme, because if a speaker used one instead of the other, the meaning of the word would not change: using the aspirated form in \"skill\" might sound odd, but the word would still be recognized. By contrast, some other sounds would cause a change in meaning if substituted: for example, substitution of the sound would produce the different word \"still\", and that sound must therefore be considered to represent a different phoneme (the phoneme ).\n", "BULLET::::- (typically spelled or ) as in \"see\", \"bee\" and \"meet\", was more or less the same as the phoneme represents today, but it had not yet merged with the phoneme represented by the spellings or (and perhaps , particularly with \"fiend\", \"field\" and \"friend\"), as in \"east\", \"meal\" and \"feat\", which were pronounced with or . However, words like \"breath\", \"dead\" and \"head\" may have already split off towards ).\n\nBULLET::::- , as in \"bib\", \"pin\" and \"thick\", was more or less the same as the phoneme represents today.\n", "In addition, there is one word where is voiced in the plural:\n\nMany nouns ending in or (including all words where is represented orthographically by gh or ph) nevertheless retain the voiceless consonant:\n\nSome can do either:\n\nSection::::Form.:Irregular plurals.\n\nThere are many other less regular ways of forming plurals, usually stemming from older forms of English or from foreign borrowings.\n\nSection::::Form.:Irregular plurals.:Nouns with identical singular and plural.\n\nSome nouns have identical singular and plural (zero inflection). Many of these are the names of animals:\n", "Spelling pronunciations are generally considered incorrect next to the traditionally accepted, and usually more widespread, pronunciation. If a spelling pronunciation persists and becomes more common, it may eventually join the existing form as equally acceptable (for example \"waistcoat\" and \"often\"), or even become the dominant pronunciation (as with \"forehead\" and \"falcon\"). If a rare word is more often encountered in writing than in speech, the spelling pronunciation may be assumed by most, while the traditional pronunciation is maintained only by older or educated individuals.\n\nSection::::Prevalence and causes.\n", "The voicing alternation found in plural formation is losing ground in the modern language, and of the alternations listed below many speakers retain only the pattern, which is supported by the orthography. This voicing is a relic of Old English, the unvoiced consonants between voiced vowels were 'colored' with voicing. As the language became more analytic and less inflectional, final vowels or syllables stopped being pronounced. For example, modern \"knives\" is a one syllable word instead of a two syllable word, with the vowel \"e\" not being pronounced. However, the voicing alternation between and still occurs.\n\nBULLET::::- knife – knives\n", "As noted above, the Old English phoneme split into two phonemes in early Middle English: a voiceless dental fricative and a voiced dental fricative . Both continued to be spelt .\n\nCertain English accents feature variant pronunciations of these sounds. These include fronting, where they merge with /f/ and /v/ (found in Cockney and some other dialects); stopping, where they approach /t/ and /d/ (as in some Irish speech); alveolarisation, where they become (in some African varieties); and debuccalisation, where becomes before a vowel (found in some Scottish English).\n\nSection::::Fricatives and affricates.:Initial fricative voicing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"falcon\" is now nearly always pronounced with , and only 3% of speakers have no . The was silent in the old pronunciation: compare French \"faucon\" and the older English spellings \"faucon\" and \"fawcon\". That may suggest either analogical change or the reborrowing of the original Latin.\n\nBULLET::::- \"alm\", \"balm\", \"psalm\" are now often pronounced with in some parts of the United States. In most of the United Kingdom, the traditional pronunciation continues to prevail.\n", "For example, the English words \"kid\" and \"kit\" end with two distinct phonemes, /d/ and /t/, and swapping one for the other would change one word into a different word. However, the difference between the /p/ sounds in \"pun\" ([pʰ], with aspiration) and \"spun\" ([p], without aspiration) never affects the meaning or identity of a word in English; it's not possible to replace [p] with [pʰ] (or vice versa) and thereby convert one word to another. Thus, [pʰ] and [p] are two distinct phones but not distinct phonemes in English.\n", "BULLET::::- In Indian English, /v/ is often pronounced like /w/, sounded as [w] or as a labiodental approximant . Some Indian speakers make various changes in the pronunciation of other fricatives: may become or ; may become or ; may become , or , may become or ; may become ; may become a bilabial or an aspirated stop . For , see \"th\"-stopping.\n\nBULLET::::- For some speakers of Mexican American English, initial and may be used in place of each other, so \"jet\" may be pronounced as \"yet\" or vice versa.\n", "BULLET::::- \"conduit\", historically pronounced or , is now nearly always pronounced in most of the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- \"covert\", historically pronounced (reflecting its link with the verb \"cover\") is now pronounced usually , by analogy to \"overt\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"medicine\", historically pronounced with two syllables but now quite often with three (some speakers use two when they mean medicaments and three when they mean medical knowledge; the pronunciation with three syllables is standard in the United States).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bartholomew\", formerly pronounced or , is now .\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anthony\" ( Lat. \"Antonius\"), now (in the US) .\n", "In \"The Divine Comedy\" of Dante Alighieri, Pietro della Vigna appears as a suicide in Circle VII, ring ii, Canto XIII of the Inferno. Pietro describes the fate awaiting souls guilty of suicide to Dante the Pilgrim and Virgil. According to Pietro, the soul of the suicide grows into a wild tree and is tormented by harpies that feast upon its leaves. Pietro likens the initial growth and transformation of the soul of the suicide to the germination of a grain of spelt (\"Inferno\" XIII, 94–102).\n", "BULLET::::- high, narrower, possibly , spelt (found in Late West Saxon)\n\nBULLET::::- mid, , spelt\n\nBULLET::::- low, , spelt\n\nAs with monophthongs, the length of the diphthongs was not indicated in spelling, but in modern editions of OE texts the long forms are often written with a macron: , , , .\n\nIn the transition from Old to Middle English, all of these diphthongs generally merged with monophthongs.\n\nSection::::Middle English.\n\nSection::::Middle English.:Development of new diphthongs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03691	How is a vending machine able to know the differences of how much a bill is? (like 1's, 5's, etc)?	I actually know quite a bit about this. My best friend writes the code for the optics that go into machines lime this and a ATM's. Basically what happens is the US bills have water marks and other identifying features on them for safety. When you use a specific light they light up brightly. A photosensor is able to identify the image and thus the bill it is. A 1 has no mark. A 5 I think has Lincoln on it, a 10 is Hamilton and so on. So the computer matches it up with a portrait like a game of guess who and then identifies the bill that way. This is only one way. Some higher tech machines have more sophisticated means. Some include identifying the specific ink that's on the bill, identifying micro print and so on. It'll depend on the level of security required by the customer as to which programs get put where. For instance vending machines the risk of loss is relatively small. So a less advanced identifying algorithm is used. An ATM involves a high level of risk so an advanced algorithm would be used. So on and so forth. Edited ATM	[ "A full-line vending company may set up several types of vending machines that sell a wide range of products. Products may include candy, cookies, chips, fresh fruit, milk, cold food, coffee and other hot drinks, bottles, cans of soda, and even frozen products like ice cream. These products can be sold from machines that include hot coffee, snack, cold food, 20-oz. bottle machines, and glass-front bottle machines. In the United States, almost all machines accept bills with more and more machines accepting $5 bills. This is an advantage to the vendor because it virtually eliminates the need for a bill changer. Larger corporations with cafeterias will often request full line vending with food service.\n", "Internal communication in vending machines is typically based on the MDB standard, supported by National Automatic Merchandising Association (NAMA) and European Vending & Coffee Service Association (EVA).\n\nAfter payment has been tendered, a product may become available by:\n\nBULLET::::- the machine releasing it, so that it falls in an open compartment at the bottom, or into a cup, either released first, or put in by the customer, or\n\nBULLET::::- the unlocking of a door, drawer, or turning of a knob.\n", "These cash counters do not examine each note or coin separately but work by using finely calibrated loadcells to assess a number of notes or coins at a time, and using a constantly updated, stored average weight to compute the number of pieces it has been presented with. These machines often use complex algorithms to take into consideration the variation in the condition of the money arising from wear, humidity and production variances.\n", "A stack of bills are placed in a compartment of the machine, and then one bill at a time is mechanically pulled through the machine. By counting the number of times a beam of light is interrupted, the machine can count the bills. By comparing an image of each bill to pattern recognition criteria, the machine can figure out the denominations of the bills and how much genuine money was placed in the compartment.\n\nSection::::Banknote and coin counters.\n", "Section::::Common vending machines.\n\nSection::::Common vending machines.:Change machine.\n\nA change machine is a vending machine that accepts large denominations of currency and returns an equal amount of currency in smaller bills or coins. Typically these machines are used to provide coins in exchange for paper currency, in which case they are also often known as bill changers.\n\nSection::::Common vending machines.:Cigarette vending.\n", "Section::::Common vending machines.:Stamp vending machine.\n\nA stamp vending machine is a mechanical, electrical or electro-mechanical device which can be used to automatically vend postage stamps to users in exchange for a pre-determined amount of money, normally in coin.\n\nSection::::Common vending machines.:Ticket machines.\n", "Also known as validators or acceptors, paper currency detectors scan paper currency using optical and magnetic sensors. Upon validation, the validator will inform the vending machine controller (VMC) or other host device of a credit via a parallel or serial interface. Various interfaces exist for the host device, including a single-line pulse interface, a multi-line parallel interface, a multi-line binary interface, and serial interfaces such as ccTalk, SSP, and MDB. Wrinkled or creased notes can cause these machines to reject them.\n", "Optical sensing with a small light detector called a photocell or a miniature digital camera is one of the main techniques that vending machines use. Many countries' banknotes are pixelated—that is, they are made out of small dots. The dots are spaced differently and have different sizes, depending on the note. The optical sensors can look for these different patterns to determine what sort of note has been inserted. Some paper money is also fluorescent: it glows when ultraviolet light is shined on it. Some machines shine an ultraviolet light on the note and measure the glow to help determine the banknote's material composition.\n", "Some new types of coin acceptors are able to recognize the coins through \"training\", so they will support any new types of coins or tokens when correctly introduced.\n\nSection::::Testing methods.\n\nVending and change machines use several methods of deciding whether a banknote is genuine. Adjusting these settings and the sensitivity of each is programmed via means of dip switches on the internal circuitry.\n\nSection::::Testing methods.:Optical sensing.\n", "Clayton pointed out the continuing costs associated with bill validators, saying, \"They have made great strides and improved the bill acceptors over the years, but, at the same time, the bulk of, I would say, about 40 percent of my service calls and maintenance and upkeep, those calls are still on bill acceptors. So, they're costing us not only to install, to accept the dollar bill in the beginning, but also to maintain and keep them working so that our customers aren't unhappy.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dollar coin (United States)\n\nBULLET::::- Presidential $1 Coin Program\n\nBULLET::::- United States one-dollar bill\n", "Today, sophisticated electronic coin acceptors are being used in some places that, in addition to examining the mass, weight and size, also scan the inserted coin using optics and match the image to a pre-defined list, or test the coin's \"metallic signature\" based on its alloy composition.\n", "When a user first accesses an online service whose collections are managed by MBS, the sign-up software creates a unique identifier based on the user's computer configuration and IP address. This identifier permits MBS to maintain a history of user access to supported sites and to send billing notices directly to the user's computer without the consumer ever having entered a name, credit card number, or other personal information.\n", "Vending machines are a common sight in Japan. There are more than 5.5 million throughout the nation. It is the highest ratio for any country with one machine for every twenty-five people. \n", "Vending machine\n\nA vending machine is an automated machine that provides items such as snacks, beverages, cigarettes and lottery tickets to consumers after money, a credit card, or a specially designed card is inserted into the machine. The first modern vending machines were developed in England in the early 1880s and dispensed postcards. Vending machines exist in many countries, and in more recent times, specialized vending machines that provide less common products compared to traditional vending machine items have been created.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The process involves examining the coins and/or notes that have been inserted into the machine, and conducts various tests to determine if the currency is counterfeit. Because the parameters are different for each coin or note, these currency acceptors must be correctly programmed for each item to be accepted.\n", "When the system was in full operation, Metcards could be purchased from:\n\nBULLET::::- rail stations Ticket Vending Machines\n\nBULLET::::- ticket vending machines on board trams (coin only) and the Stony Point train\n\nBULLET::::- bus drivers\n\nBULLET::::- Premium (staffed) stations\n\nBULLET::::- the Met Shop (inside the Melbourne Town Hall on Swanston Street)\n\nBULLET::::- authorised Metcard outlets such as newsagencies and milk bars\n\nBULLET::::- the internet\n\nBULLET::::- by phone\n", "Fully electronic counters that are able to count batches of notes or of coins without having to process them individually, were introduced in Great Britain in 1980 and are now widely used by banks, retailers and food service outlets in many parts of the world. They are faster and more versatile than the traditional notes-only & coins-only equipments, but cannot detect counterfeits.\n\nSection::::Coin sorter.\n", "Measuring cups may be made of plastic, glass, or metal. Transparent (or translucent) cups can be read from an external scale; metal ones only from a dipstick or scale marked on the inside.\n\nSection::::Capacity and scale.\n", "Section::::Specialized vending machines.:Automobile vending machine.\n\nIn November 2013, online auto retailer Carvana opened the first car vending machine in the U.S. located in Atlanta.\n\nIn late 2016, Autobahn Motors, a car dealership in Singapore, opened a 15-story-tall luxury car vending machine containing 60 cars, dispensing Ferrari and Lamborghini vehicles.\n\nSection::::Specialized vending machines.:Bait vending machine.\n\nA bait machine is a vending machine that dispenses live fishing bait, such as worms and crickets, for fishing.\n\nSection::::Specialized vending machines.:Book vending machine.\n", "From 2000-2010, the specialization of vending machines became more common. Vending extended increasingly into non-traditional areas like electronics, or even artwork or short stories. Machines of this new category are generally called Automated retail kiosks. When using an automated retail machine, consumers select products, sometimes using a touchscreen interface, pay for purchases using a credit or debit card and then the product is dispensed, sometimes via an internal robotic arm in the machine. The trend of specialization and proliferation of vending machines is perhaps most apparent in Japan where vending machines sell products from toilet paper to hot meals and pornography, and there is 1 vending machine per 23 people.\n", "BULLET::::- the meter reading is echoed on a display unit mounted to the outside of the premises, where a meter reader records them;\n\nBULLET::::- a small radio is hooked up to the meter to automatically transmit readings to corresponding receivers in handheld computers, utility vehicles or distributed collectors\n\nBULLET::::- a small computer is hooked up to the meter that can either dial out or receive automated phone calls that give the reading to a central computer system.\n", "To increase the chance of having a bill reported, users write or stamp text on the bills encouraging bill finders to visit whereswilly.com and track the bill's travels.\n\nSince Canada has replaced the one and two dollar bills with more durable coins, the $5 note is the smallest denomination tracked by Where's Willy.\n\nIn April 2003, \"USA Today\" named whereswilly.com one of its \"Hot Sites\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Automat – a fast food restaurant where simple foods and drink are served by vending machines\n\nBULLET::::- Arcade game\n\nBULLET::::- Automated charging machine\n\nBULLET::::- Automated retail\n\nBULLET::::- ChargeBox\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee vending machine\n\nBULLET::::- Eu'Vend – a vending industry trade show\n\nBULLET::::- Fortune teller machine\n\nBULLET::::- Freedom Toaster\n\nBULLET::::- Gashapon\n\nBULLET::::- Gold to Go\n\nBULLET::::- Gumball machine\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive kiosk\n\nBULLET::::- Jukebox\n\nBULLET::::- Kiddie ride\n\nBULLET::::- Love tester machine\n\nBULLET::::- Parking meter\n\nBULLET::::- Reverse vending machine\n\nBULLET::::- Self-service\n\nBULLET::::- Slot machine\n\nBULLET::::- Slug (coin)\n\nBULLET::::- Stamp vending machines in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Strength tester machine\n", "The free site, established by Hank Eskin, a computer consultant in Brookline, Massachusetts, allows people to enter their local postal code and the serial and series of any Canadian denomination from $5 up to $100 they want to track. Once a bill is registered, the site reports the time between sightings, the distance travelled and any comments from the finders, and anyone who registered the bill earlier learns about it by e-mail and/or text messaging.\n", "Currency and other financial instruments commonly use this second type of authentication method. Bills, coins, and cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features, such as fine printing or engraving, distinctive feel, watermarks, and holographic imagery, which are easy for trained receivers to verify.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02193	What happens when you pass out from something like shock and how is it different from being knocked unconscious due to trauma?	Shock is typically Hypovolemic shock, meaning extreme loss of blood. When this happens your body shuts down. It can no longer get oxygen, has a build up of waste, and you pass out and shortly thereafter die. Getting TKO'd results in either misfiring of your neurons or again a quick lack of oxygen. Your brain loses oxygen, or your neurons fire wrong, and you pass out. But shortly thereafter recover, and usually don't die.	[ "Section::::Effects on unconsciousness.\n\nGenerally, there are six abnormal states of consciousness that can result from a TBI: \n\nBULLET::::- Stupor is a state of partial or near complete unconsciousness in which the patient is lethargic, immobile, and has a reduced response to stimuli.\n\nBULLET::::- Coma is a state in which the patient is totally unconscious and cannot be aroused even with strong stimuli.\n", "Bullets can indirectly disrupt the CNS by damaging the cardiovascular system so that it can no longer provide enough oxygen to the brain to sustain consciousness. This can be the result of bleeding from a perforation of a large blood vessel or blood-bearing organ, or the result of damage to the lungs or airway. If blood flow is completely cut off from the brain, a human still has enough oxygenated blood in their brain for 10–15 seconds of wilful action, though with rapidly decreasing effectiveness as the victim begins to lose consciousness.\n", "Little is known about what exactly causes one to be knocked unconscious, but many agree it is related to trauma to the brain stem. This usually happens when the head rotates sharply, often as a result of a strike. There are three general manifestations of such trauma:\n\nBULLET::::- a typical knockout, which results in a sustained (three seconds or more) loss of consciousness (comparable to general anesthesia, when the recipient emerges and has lost memory of the event),\n", "Pain, especially headache, is a common complication following a TBI. Being unconscious and lying still for long periods can cause blood clots to form (deep venous thrombosis), which can cause pulmonary embolism. Other serious complications for patients who are unconscious, in a coma, or in a vegetative state include pressure sores, pneumonia or other infections, and progressive multiple organ failure.\n", "In a hospital, physicians respond to a case of hypovolemic shock by conducting these investigations:\n\nBULLET::::- Blood tests: U+Es/Chem7, full blood count, glucose, blood type and screen\n\nBULLET::::- Central venous catheter\n\nBULLET::::- Arterial line\n\nBULLET::::- Urine output measurements (via urinary catheter)\n\nBULLET::::- Blood pressure\n\nBULLET::::- SpO2 oxygen saturation monitoring\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Field care.\n\nThe most important step in treatment of hypovolemic shock is to identify and control the source of bleeding.\n\nMedical personnel should immediately supply emergency oxygen to increase efficiency of the patient's remaining blood supply. This intervention can be life-saving.\n", "BULLET::::- Brain death is the irreversible loss of measurable brain function, with loss of any integrated activity among distinct areas of the brain. Breathing and heart function must be maintained with assistive devices.\n\nDisorders of consciousness affect a significant number of people who suffer severe TBI; of those with severe TBI discharged from a hospital, are in a vegetative state, and of this number only half regain consciousness within one to three years.\n\nSection::::Cognitive deficits.\n", "Early symptoms include anxiety, increased breathing rate, weak peripheral pulses, and cold skin on the arms and legs. If internal bleeding is not treated, the heart and breathing rate will continue to increase while blood pressure and mental status decrease. Eventually, internal bleeding can result in death by blood loss (exsanguination). The median time from the onset of hemorrhagic shock to death by exsanguination is 2 hours.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Trauma.\n\nThe most common cause of death in trauma is bleeding. Death from trauma accounts for 1.5 million of the 1.9 million deaths per year due to bleeding. \n", "Severe head injuries can lead to permanent vegetative states or death, therefore being able to recognize symptoms and get medical attention is very important. Symptoms of a severe closed-head injury include:\n\nBULLET::::- coma or vegitative states\n\nBULLET::::- seizures or convulsions\n\nBULLET::::- loss of consciousness\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Secondary symptoms.\n", "In a survey of documented head injuries followed by unconsciousness, most of which involved sporting activities, two thirds of head impacts demonstrated a fencing response, indicating a high incidence of fencing in head injuries leading to unconsciousness, and those pertaining to athletic behavior. Likewise, animal models of diffuse brain injury have illustrated a fencing response upon injury at moderate but not mild levels of severity as well as a correlation between fencing, blood brain barrier disruption, and nuclear shrinkage within the LVN, all of which indicates diagnostic utility of the response. \n", "BULLET::::- a \"flash\" knockout, when a very transient (less than three seconds) loss of consciousness occurs (in the context of a knock-down), and the recipient often maintains awareness and memory of the combat\n", "BULLET::::- diffuse axonal injury – These injuries are frequently seen in car accidents and cause permanent damage to the brain. Severe diffuse axonal injuries often lead to comas or vegetative states.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Glasgow Coma Scale.\n\nThe Glasgow Coma Scale is commonly used to assess the severity of traumatic brain injuries, including closed-head injuries. The scale tests a patient's eye, verbal, and motor responses. The scale goes up to fifteen points; with fifteen being the most mild injury, less than eight being a severe brain injury, and three being a vegetative state.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:ASCOT.\n", "An altered level of consciousness can result from a variety of factors, including alterations in the chemical environment of the brain (e.g. exposure to poisons or intoxicants), insufficient oxygen or blood flow in the brain, and excessive pressure within the skull. Prolonged unconsciousness is understood to be a sign of a medical emergency. A deficit in the level of consciousness suggests that both of the cerebral hemispheres or the reticular activating system have been injured. A decreased level of consciousness correlates to increased morbidity (sickness) and mortality (death). Thus it is a valuable measure of a patient's medical and neurological status. In fact, some sources consider level of consciousness to be one of the vital signs.\n", "A fighter who becomes unconscious from a strike with sufficient knockout power is referred to as having been \"knocked out\" or \"KO'd\" (\"kay-ohd\"). Losing balance without losing consciousness is referred to as being \"knocked down\" (\"down but not out\"). Repeated blows to the head, regardless whether they cause loss of consciousness, are known to gradually cause permanent brain damage. In severe cases this may cause strokes or paralysis. This loss of consciousness is commonly known as becoming \"punch drunk\" or \"shot\". Because of this, many physicians advise against sports involving knockouts.\n\nSection::::Knockdown.\n", "After testing is completed, doctors will make an estimate on the extent of the injury and possible recovery time. If cranial bleeding and swelling is minor, a short hospital stay (up to a week) is needed with close observation. If bleeding is severe, the player may be treated as a patient with a severe head injury (with surgery as the main option). This process requires the patient to be admitted into an intinsive care unity with close monitoring of blood levels and brain activity.\n\nSection::::Cerebral contusions.:Prognosis (short/long-term effects).\n", "The autonomic nervous system's physiological state (see below) leading to loss of consciousness may persist for several minutes, so\n\nBULLET::::- If sufferers try to sit or stand when they wake up, they may pass out again\n\nBULLET::::- The person may be nauseated, pale, and sweaty for several minutes or hours\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nReflex syncope occurs in response to a trigger due to dysfunction of the heart rate and blood pressure regulating mechanism. When heart rate slows or blood pressure drops, the resulting lack of blood to the brain causes fainting.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Vasovagal syncope.\n\nTypical triggers include:\n\nBULLET::::- Prolonged standing\n\nBULLET::::- Emotional stress\n", "Therefore, such effects are not as reliable as physiological effects at stopping people. Animals will not faint or surrender if injured, though they may become frightened by the loud noise and pain of being shot, so psychological mechanisms are generally less effective against non-humans.\n\nSection::::Penetration.\n", "Contusions are identified with two forms of diagnosis: acceleration of the brain and direct trauma. A direct trauma injury is much more severe than an acceleration injury (in most cases) and requires much more intensive diagnosis and testing. The full extent of the injury may not be known until testing done in a hospital is complete.\n", "Unconsciousness may occur as the result of traumatic brain injury, brain hypoxia (e.g., due to a brain infarction or cardiac arrest), severe poisoning with drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system (e.g., alcohol and other hypnotic or sedative drugs), severe fatigue, anaesthesia, and other causes.\n\nSection::::Law and medicine.\n", "Recognizing the degree of blood loss via vital sign and mental status abnormalities is important. The American College of Surgeons Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) hemorrhagic shock classification links the amount of blood loss to expected physiologic responses in a healthy 70 kg patient. As total circulating blood volume accounts for approximately 7% of total body weight, this equals approximately five liters in the average 70 kg male patient.\n", "Trauma-induced coagulopathy is acutely worsened by the presence of acidosis and hypothermia. The activity of coagulation factors, fibrinogen depletion, and platelet quantity are all adversely affected by acidosis. Hypothermia (less than 34 C) compounds coagulopathy by impairing coagulation and is an independent risk factor for death in hemorrhagic shock. \n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Fluid loss.\n", "BULLET::::- Dehydration can reduce the blood volume by reducing the water content of the blood. This would rarely result in shock (apart from the very severe cases) but may result in orthostatic hypotension and fainting.\n\nBULLET::::- Disorders of circulation\n\nBULLET::::- Shock is the ineffective perfusion of tissues, and can be caused by a variety of conditions including blood loss, infection, poor cardiac output.\n", "Section::::Cerebral contusions.:Diagnosis in sports.:Case study example.\n\n\"History\": The individual is possibly unconscious when examined by medical personnel on the field. A common symptom is prolonged unconsciousness (coma), however this player reports headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and weakness of the extremities (paresis) and makes inappropriate responses to questions.\n\n\"Physical exam\": The individual's level of consciousness is disturbed. A neurological examination may not reveal any localizing signs. The individual with no other serious injuries than cerebral contusion will not have a fractured skull or any signs of opening or penetration of the skull.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Acute stage.\n\nCertain facilities are equipped to handle TBI better than others; initial measures include transporting patients to an appropriate treatment center. Both during transport and in hospital the primary concerns are ensuring proper oxygen supply, maintaining adequate blood flow to the brain, and controlling raised intracranial pressure (ICP), since high ICP deprives the brain of badly needed blood flow and can cause deadly brain herniation. Other methods to prevent damage include management of other injuries and prevention of seizures. Some data supports the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy to improve outcomes.\n", "In October 2009, OHL player of the Kitchener Rangers, Ben Fanelli took a devastating hit to the head from Erie Otters player Mike Liambas. Fanelli was left lying unconscious on the ice, and was taken to the hospital in critical condition with facial and skull fractures. After the hit Fanelli took, he was lucky to be alive let alone be able to play hockey again. \"It's a miracle for me to be able to walk into this room and put together sentences after what I went through,\" Fanelli says about the severity of his injury. After recovering from his injury, Fanelli eventually returned to the Kitchener Rangers for the 2011-2012 season.\n", "Hypovolemia is a massive decrease in blood volume, and death by excessive loss of blood is referred to as exsanguination. Typically, a healthy person can endure a loss of 10–15% of the total blood volume without serious medical difficulties (by comparison, blood donation typically takes 8–10% of the donor's blood volume). The stopping or controlling of bleeding is called hemostasis and is an important part of both first aid and surgery.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04280	Why does Amazon Prime offer 20% off new Physical Video Games but has no discount on Digital games?	Physical copies take space in the hangar. You pay for leasing space. In 3-5-7 years media of physical game (dvd, cd) will be outdated and of no use at all. Digital game takes no space in hangar. Internet will not be outdated any time soon.	[ "Video games sold at retail are typically subject to the first-sale doctrine, giving the consumer the right to sell the game at any price and without the publisher/distributor seeing any part of that price. On the other hand, digital games are generally sold as a license to the game; players generally cannot transfer that license by resale, though some digital storefronts like Steam enable the user to transfer that license into a closed-system currency; publishers/distributors do not see any return from that. For these reasons, publishers and distributors have been wary of resale systems in video game marketplaces since they do not see any further revenue after the point of first sale, and have had to turn to means to monetize video games from post-sale activities.\n", "The years after 2004 saw the rise of many digital distribution services on the PC, such as Amazon Digital Services, Desura, GameStop, Games for Windows – Live, Impulse, Steam, Origin, Direct2Drive, GOG.com, and GamersGate. The offered properties differ significantly: while most of these digital distributors don't allow reselling of bought games, \"Green Man Gaming\" allows this. Another example is \"gog.com\" which has a strict non-DRM policy while most other services allow various (strict or less strict) forms of DRM.\n", "Shortly after the Amazon Appstore launch, the International Game Developers Association (IGDA) published an open letter expressing concerns that were primarily aimed at Amazon's distribution terms. The main concerns about the conditions were that Appstore terms force developers to permanently lower their AppStore prices if ever they do promotions on other stores, and that Amazon could choose to lower the price of an application while deciding to reduce the developer's share without having to ask permission. Following this address, Amazon clarified the Appstore developer agreement, but this did not assuage the IGDA's concerns, which declared that \"Amazon’s terms represent a threat to game developers\".\n", "The period between 2004 and now saw the rise of many digital distribution services on PC, such as Amazon Digital Services, GameStop, Games for Windows – Live, Origin, Direct2Drive, GOG.com, GamersGate and several more. The offered properties and policies differs significantly between the digital distribution services: e.g. while most of the digital distributors don't allow reselling of bought games, \"Green Man Gaming\" allows this.\n", "In January 2019, Ubisoft announced its plans to distribute its games via the Epic Games Store, with its upcoming \"Tom Clancy's The Division 2\" to be sold on the storefront (in addition to Ubisoft's own Uplay storefront) instead of Steam, making it the first major third-party publisher to utilize the Epic Games Store. Publisher Deep Silver followed suit later that month, announcing that \"Metro Exodus\" will be exclusive to Epic Games Store for one year, at a reduced (in North America) compared to when it was offered on other storefronts. Epic has subsequently made partnerships with Private Division and Quantic Dream for publishing on the store.\n", "On October 1, 2015, Amazon announced that Apple TV and Google Chromecast products were banned from sale on Amazon.com by all merchants, with no new listings allowed effective immediately, and all existing listings removed effective October 29, 2015. Amazon argued that this was to prevent \"customer confusion\", as these devices do not support the Prime Video ecosystem. This move was criticized, as commentators believed that it was meant primarily to suppress the sale of products deemed as competition to Amazon Fire TV products, given that Amazon itself had deliberately refused to offer software for its own streaming services on these devices, and the action contradicted the implication that Amazon.com was a general online retailer.\n", "On June 18, 2014, BlackBerry announced an official relationship with Amazon, which includes access to the Amazon Appstore in BlackBerry 10.3.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nThe Amazon Appstore included the \"Free App of the Day\" feature. Every day, an application, frequently a game, was offered for free. On the launch day, this game was Angry Birds Rio (Ad-Free), in itself a promotional game. On The European launch day, the free app was Angry Birds (Ad-Free). The Free App of the Day feature made an exception to Amazon's payments, instead giving the developer none of the list price during the featured day.\n", "In early December 2018, Epic Games announced that it would open a digital storefront to challenge Steam by using a 12% revenue split rather than Steam's 30%. Epic also said that it would not impose digital rights management (DRM) restrictions on games sold through its platform. The store opened days later, on December 6, 2018, as part of the Game Awards, with a handful of games and a short list of upcoming titles. The store was open for macOS and Windows platforms before expanding to Android and other platforms. Epic aims to release a storefront for Android devices, bypassing the Google Play Store, where it will similarly only take a 12% cut compared to Google's 30%. While Apple, Inc.'s monopoly on iOS currently makes it impossible for Epic to release an App Store there, analysts believe that if Google reacts to Epic's App Store by reducing their cut, Apple will be pressured to follow suit.\n", "In 2008, Amazon UK came under criticism for attempting to prevent publishers from direct selling at discount from their own websites. Amazon's argument was that they should be able to pay the publishers based on the lower prices offered on their websites, rather than on the full recommended retail price (RRP).\n", "On August 11, 2014, Amazon removed the option to preorder \"\" in an effort to gain control over online pricing of Disney films. Amazon has previously used similar tactics with Warner Bros. and Hachette Book Group. The conflict was resolved in late 2014 with neither having to concede anything. Then in February 2017, Amazon again began to block preorders of Disney films, just before \"Moana\" and \"Rogue One\" were due to be released to the home market.\n\nSection::::Anti-competitive practices.:Removal of competitors' products.\n", "In August 2012, Amazon announced it would be adding a gaming department to its company titled Amazon Game Studios. Amazon stated that it would introduce \"innovative, fun and well-crafted games\" to consumers. According to the Amazon Game Studios website, the last game that was launched by the department was Amazon's first ever mobile game \"Air Patriots\", released on November 1, 2012.\n", "Epic plans to offer one free game every two weeks through 2019; this was increased to one free game every week in June 2019, and on weeks where the free game has a mature content rating and thus locked out if parental controls are enabled, Epic has offered a second free game that is not rated as a mature game. Epic Games also has offered sales, in which Epic absorbs the discount from the sale. For example, its first store-wide sale in May 2019 offered a discount of off any game valued at or more.\n", "In South Africa the video game retailers such as Game 4U work hand in hand with video game distributors like Megarom Interactive to ensure the latest video games are in stores by their respective release dates and at competitive prices, the distributors provide a recommended retail price (RRP) to the retailers and they either set the same selling price or cheaper if they are willing to cut certain percentages of their profit in order to have the cheapest prices as Game 4U does. \n\nSection::::Gaming retailers and distributors in South Africa.:Game 4U.\n", "On July 15, 2015, in honor of the website's 20th anniversary, Amazon first held Prime Day. The event features a large number of sales and promotions that are exclusively available to Amazon Prime subscribers, with Amazon promoting that the first edition would feature \"more deals than Black Friday\". The inaugural Prime Day faced criticism over the quality of the discounts offered, with many of them being tied to items not in high demand. Some users jokingly described the event as a \"yard sale\", and Walmart also countered the event with a promotional blog post arguing that customers \"shouldn't have to pay $100 to find great deals\". Amazon defended criticism of the event, noting that order volume on the website had \"surpassed\" Black Friday sales in 2014.\n", "In August 2013, Amazon agreed to end its price parity policy for marketplace sellers in the European Union, in response to investigations by the UK Office of Fair Trade and Germany's Federal Cartel Office . It is not yet clear if this ruling applies to direct selling by publishers.\n\nSection::::Anti-competitive practices.:Price control.\n", "The store is also known for giving more credit for trade-ins than its competitors. In 2005, \"Vox Magazine\" had the same four games (\"\", \"Metal Gear Solid 3\", \"NHL 2004\", and \"Madden NFL 2005\") priced at EB Games, Game Crazy, and Slackers CDs and Games, with the trade-in values being $16.50, $26.82, and $45 respectively.\n\nSection::::Praise and criticism.:Wii Controversy.\n", "However, the game avoided a pay-to-win scenario by opting for a different \"pay-to-not-grind\" system instead; players could pay money to obtain in-game weapons, items, internals, holotaunts, boosters, etc., without the need to grind for HCs. The only aspect of the game that cannot be unlocked without paying money (that also don't have a HC price tag) are most cosmetics—i.e. player avatars, mech paint and mech camos/skins.\n", "Section::::Buyer advantages and disadvantages.\n\nCompared to physically distributed games, digital games like those offered on the Steam digital distribution service cannot be lost or destroyed, and can be redownloaded at any time. Services like Steam, Origin, and Xbox Live do not offer ways to sell used games once they are no longer desired, even though some services like Steam do have family sharing options. This is also somewhat countered by frequent sales offered by these digital distributors, often allowing major savings by selling at prices below what a retailer is able to offer.\n", "Epic Games states that its store is more favorable to publishers by taking a smaller cut of revenue than Steam (12% in comparison to Steam's 30%, including waiving separate revenue sharing associated with Unreal Engine). In response to the criticism, Epic Games stated that it would be less aggressive in seeking exclusivity deals if Valve reduced its revenue cut, and that it would try to avoid repeating the \"pushback\" associated with the \"Metro\" controversy.\n\nSection::::Impact of exclusivity on sales.\n", "Section::::Service features.\n\nGamerang operates four basic rental plans:\n\nBULLET::::- $17.95 monthly for one video game at a time\n\nBULLET::::- $24.95 monthly for two video games at a time\n\nBULLET::::- $49.95 monthly for three video games at a time\n\nBULLET::::- $59.95 monthly for four video games at a time\n\n(Refundable deposits are required for the three-game and four-game rental options.)\n", "On February 1, 2008, Pepsi introduced a Pepsi Stuff promotion in partnership with Amazon MP3. Customers can exchange points offered on 4 billion Pepsi bottles for, among other prizes, MP3 downloads from Warner, EMI, and Sony BMG (though not Universal).\n\nRockstar Games' 2008 title \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" connects to Amazon MP3. Players can register on the Rockstar Games Social Club web site to receive e-mail outside the game containing a link to buy marked songs from Amazon MP3.\n\nMyspace has sold music from Amazon MP3 as part of its MySpace Music feature since September 2008.\n\nSection::::Reaction.\n", "Depending on the device, Amazon supports up to 4K (UHD) and High Dynamic Range (HDR) streaming. UHD/HDR rolled out with its original content. Other titles support 1080p (HD) streaming with 5.1 Dolby Digital or Dolby Digital Plus audio, with Dolby Atmos coming soon to certain titles. For titles available for purchase (and not included in a customer's Amazon Prime subscription), the HD option is often offered at an additional price.\n\nSection::::Information.:Requirements.\n", "In September 2016, Amazon subsidiary Twitch announced features available to users with an Amazon Prime subscription (\"Twitch Prime\"), including monthly offers of video games and add-on content, and the ability to purchase a free subscription to a user's channel once per-month.\n\nIn December 2016, Amazon began offering Prime membership for an alternative monthly, instead of yearly fee, of $10.99 per month, increased to $12.99 in February 2018.\n\nIn December 2016, Amazon announced Wickedly Prime, an own-brand line of food and beverages available to Prime members.\n", "Section::::Products.:Epic Games Store.\n\nEpic announced its own Epic Games Store, an open digital storefront for games, on December 4, 2018, which launched a few days later with The Game Awards 2018 presentation. Differing from Valve's Steam storefront, which takes 30% of revenues (30/70 revenue-sharing agreement) from the sale of a game, the Epic Game Store will take 12%, as well as foregoing the 5% for games developed in the Unreal Engine, anticipating that these lower revenue-sharing agreements will draw developers to it.\n\nSection::::Litigation with Silicon Knights.\n", "On February 6, 2014, Amazon confirmed the acquisition of the gaming company Double Helix Games without any indication of the financial terms. The 75 Double Helix employees were to become Amazon employees and their Orange County, California, headquarters was to remain their operating base. Amazon informed the \"TechCrunch\" media company that it \"acquired Double Helix as part of our [Amazon's] ongoing commitment to build innovative games for customers\" and confirmed that Double Helix's current game roster and other future developments will receive support following the acquisition.\n" ]	[ "If a physical game and a digital game offer the same value to the customer, there should be no reason that Amazon offers a discount only on physical copies." ]	[ "Physical copies take space within Amazon's inventory, therefore they offer a discount which allows them to free space." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If a physical game and a digital game offer the same value to the customer, there should be no reason that Amazon offers a discount only on physical copies.", "If a physical game and a digital game offer the same value to the customer, there should be no reason that Amazon offers a discount only on physical copies." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Physical copies take space within Amazon's inventory, therefore they offer a discount which allows them to free space.", "Physical copies take space within Amazon's inventory, therefore they offer a discount which allows them to free space." ]
2018-14415	How do spiders spin that first string of web across a large open space?	They start out in a few ways. Some spiders just start a little thread of webbing and let it dangle in the air until the wind takes it, and it'll eventually stick to something else. Others will attach a little anchor of webbing to whatever they are on, and then jump and let the air/wind take them to whatever they happen to land on.	[ "Generally, orb-weaving spiders are three-clawed builders of flat webs with sticky spiral capture silk. The building of a web is an engineering feat, begun when the spider floats a line on the wind to another surface. The spider secures the line and then drops another line from the center, making a \"Y\". The rest of the scaffolding follows with many radii of nonsticky silk being constructed before a final spiral of sticky capture silk.\n", "The spider, after spinning its web, then waits on or near the web for a prey animal to become trapped. The spider senses the impact and struggle of a prey animal by vibrations transmitted through the web. A spider positioned in the middle of the web makes for a highly visible prey for birds and other predators, even without web decorations; many day-hunting orb-web spinners reduce this risk by hiding at the edge of the web with one foot on a signal line from the hub or by appearing to be inedible or unappetizing.\n", "After the radials are complete, the spider fortifies the center of the web with about five circular threads. It makes a spiral of non-sticky, widely spaced threads to enable it to move easily around its own web during construction, working from the inside outward. Then, beginning from the outside and moving inward, the spider methodically replaces this spiral with a more closely spaced one made of adhesive threads. It uses the initial radiating lines as well as the non-sticky spirals as guide lines. The spaces between each spiral and the next are directly proportional to the distance from the tip of its back legs to its spinners. This is one way the spider uses its own body as a measuring/spacing device. While the sticky spirals are formed, the non-adhesive spirals are removed as there is no need for them any more.\n", "Section::::Aerial.:Ballooning.\n\nBallooning is a method of locomotion used by spiders. Certain silk-producing arthropods, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight gossamer silk for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude.\n\nSection::::Terrestrial.\n", "Many webs span gaps between objects which the spider could not cross by crawling. This is done by first producing a fine adhesive thread to drift on a faint breeze across a gap. When it sticks to a surface at the far end, the spider feels the change in the vibration. The spider reels in and tightens the first strand, then carefully walks along it and strengthens it with a second thread. This process is repeated until the thread is strong enough to support the rest of the web.\n", "Other studies suggest that the stabilimenta may actually lead predators to the spider; species such as \"A. keyserlingi\" place their web predominantly in closed, complex habitats such as among sedges.\n\nAs \"Argiope\" sit in the centre of their web during the day, they have developed several responses to predators, such as dropping off the web, retreating to the periphery of the web, or even rapidly pumping the web in bursts of up to 30 seconds, similar to the motion done by the unrelated \"Pholcus phalangioides\".\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Net-casting spiders weave only small webs, but then manipulate them to trap prey. Those of the genus \"Hyptiotes\" and the family Theridiosomatidae stretch their webs and then release them when prey strike them, but do not actively move their webs. Those of the family Deinopidae weave even smaller webs, hold them outstretched between their first two pairs of legs, and lunge and push the webs as much as twice their own body length to trap prey, and this move may increase the webs' area by a factor of up to ten. Experiments have shown that \"Deinopis spinosus\" has two different techniques for trapping prey: backwards strikes to catch flying insects, whose vibrations it detects; and forward strikes to catch ground-walking prey that it sees. These two techniques have also been observed in other deinopids. Walking insects form most of the prey of most deinopids, but one population of \"Deinopis subrufa\" appears to live mainly on tipulid flies that they catch with the backwards strike.\n", "For resting, all \"Portia\"s spin a horizontal web whose diameter is about twice the spider's body length and is suspended only 1 to 4 millimetres below a leaf. \"P. schultzi\" returns to its resting platform at night. While eating prey at dusk and with no platform nearby, one \"P. schultzi\" built a silk platform while holding the prey, and then continued eating.\n", "The best-known method of prey capture is by means of sticky webs. Varying placement of webs allows different species of spider to trap different insects in the same area, for example flat horizontal webs trap insects that fly up from vegetation underneath while flat vertical webs trap insects in horizontal flight. Web-building spiders have poor vision, but are extremely sensitive to vibrations.\n", "Section::::Types.:Orb web construction.\n\nMost orb weavers construct webs in a vertical plane, although there are exceptions, such as \"Uloborus diversus\", which builds a horizontal web. During the process of making an orb web, the spider will use its own body for measurements.\n", "The larger part of the odd-clawed spider's web is composed of a network of supporting threads built up to above the ground. Two lateral support threads extend from this network and are attached to vegetation or ground below. These threads are held more or less parallel to each other by several short bridge threads. The spider spins the catching ladder in between them, composed of a loose irregular zigzag of cribellate thread. The catching ladder and the supporting webs are usually built far from the retreat of the spider in the tree hollows, as far as away. The retreat and the webs are connected to each other by a single sturdy thread.\n", "More than a thousand Sparassidae species occur in most warm temperate to tropical regions of the world, including much of Australasia, Africa, Asia, the Mediterranean Basin, and the Americas.\n\nSeveral species of huntsman spider can use an unusual form of locomotion. The wheel spider (\"Carparachne aureoflava\") from the Namib uses a cartwheeling motion, while \"Cebrennus rechenbergi\" uses a handspring motion.\n\nSection::::Appearance.\n", "Spiders in the genus \"Deinopis\" catch their prey in an unusual fashion. They first spin a small upright rectangular cribellate web. This is then detached from its supporting threads and held horizontally above the ground by the spider's long front two pairs of legs while the spider hangs almost vertically. Passing prey is then captured by dropping the \"net\" over it.\n\nSection::::Eyes.\n", "Most spiders that hunt actively, rather than relying on webs, have dense tufts of fine hairs between the paired claws at the tips of their legs. These tufts, known as scopulae, consist of bristles whose ends are split into as many as 1,000 branches, and enable spiders with scopulae to walk up vertical glass and upside down on ceilings. It appears that scopulae get their grip from contact with extremely thin layers of water on surfaces. Spiders, like most other arachnids, keep at least four legs on the surface while walking or running.\n\nSection::::Description.:Silk production.\n", "This spider builds a funnel-shaped web to catch its prey. It usually consists of a multitude of stressed silk threads spun over a flat surface (such as a window sill) near any corner, with a funnel-like structure reaching for the corner, in which the spider would typically reside (hence the name). These webs can become quite large if undisturbed. They act like cord strings, helping the spider glide over them, and once a prey stumbles into the web, it will quickly get attacked, then dragged inside the funnel part and eaten, but very rarely stored underneath the structure.\n", "This spider builds its web mostly into window frames, but can also be found on walls, fences, or under the bark of old trees. It is very common around boats and docks throughout the world.\n\nSection::::Web.\n\nAdult spiders build an orb-web usually with two sectors without connecting threads in one of the two upper corners. The signalling thread in the middle of these sectors leads to the spider's retreat. In the evening and at night, however, the spider sits in the center of the web. It renews the web in the morning hours.\n", "Scytodidae catch their prey by spitting a fluid that congeals on contact into a venomous and sticky mass. The fluid contains both venom and spider silk in liquid form, though it is produced in venom glands in the chelicerae. The venom-laced silk both immobilizes and envenoms prey such as silverfish. In high-speed footage the spiders can be observed swaying from side to side as they \"spit\", catching the prey in a crisscrossed \"Z\" pattern; it is criss-crossed because each of the chelicerae emits half of the pattern. The spider usually strikes from a distance of and the entire attack sequence only lasts 1/700th of a second. After making the capture, the spider typically bites the prey with venomous effect, and wraps it in the normal spider fashion with silk from the spinnerets.\n", "Like many species of spider, a \"P. schultzi\" lays a continuous dragline of silk as it moves, and from time to time anchors the dragline to a surface with a spot of sticky silk. This allows the spider to return to the surface if the animal is dislodged. A spider about to jump first lays a sticky silk anchor, and then lays out a dragline as it flies. Unlike those of most jumping spiders, \"P. schultzi\"′s draglines stick to each other and, when a \"P. schultzi\" has laid a few lines across a gap, it uses these as walkways and reinforces them with additional silk as it moves.\n", "The net-casting spider weaves a small net which it attaches to its front legs. It then lurks in wait for potential prey and when such prey arrives, lunges forward to wrap its victim in the net, bite and paralyze it. Hence, this spider expends less energy catching prey than a primitive hunter and also avoids the energy loss of weaving a large orb web.\n", "Unlike many spiders, they do not spin a web of any kind. Instead, they prowl on the ground, as well as climbing plants and flowers, to find their prey. They can move forwards, backwards, and sideways. \n", "Some salticid species are continually on the move, stopping periodically to look around for prey, which they then stalk immediately. Others spend more time scanning their surroundings from one position, actively stalking any prey they detect. Members of the genus \"Phaeacius\" take that strategy to extremes; they sit on a tree trunk, facing downwards and rarely do any stalking, but simply lunge down on any prey items that pass close before them.\n", "This spider spins an unusual web. It creates a tube of silk that is hidden partially underground, with the portion above ground being covered in leaves and other debris. The spider waits for an insect to land or crawl onto the tube, then bites through the silk to pull the insect inside. These spiders usually do not leave their webs for any reason other than mating.\n", "Some important spider families are :\n\nBULLET::::- Pholcidae (daddy long-legs spiders)\n\nThese spiders are frequently seen in cellars. When light contact disturbs their web their characteristic response is to set the entire web moving the way a person would jump up and down on a trampoline. It is unclear why they cause their webs to vibrate in this way; moving their webs back and forward may increase the possibility that insects flying close by may be ensnared, or the rapid gyrations caused by the spider in its web may make the spider harder to target by predators.\n", "The hubs of orb webs, where the spiders lurk, are usually above the center, as the spiders can move downwards faster than upwards. If there is an obvious direction in which the spider can retreat to avoid its own predators, the hub is usually offset towards that direction.\n", "A spider (usually limited to individuals of a small species), or spiderling after hatching, climbs as high as it can, stands on raised legs with its abdomen pointed upwards (\"tiptoeing\"), and then releases several silk threads from its spinnerets into the air. These form a triangle-shaped parachute that carries the spider on updrafts of winds, where even the slightest breeze transports it. The Earth's static electric field may also provide lift in windless conditions.\n\nSection::::Passive locomotion.:Insects.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01699	Why do very few but some USA license plates come in the European style?	The ones you are seeing are fake/decorative. USA states do not issues license plates in this shape.	[ "Section::::Usage.\n\nBULLET::::- On Euro-style license plates with the country code in a blue section on the left:\n\nBULLET::::- Germany – introduced in 1995 on Euro license plates only, these are mandatory since 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Bosnia and Herzegovina – in 2009 the new Euro-style license plate design was introduced along with the typeface. The new design (dropping the national crest from the old Euro-style license plates as it was used since 1998) is more similar to the Euro license plate.\n\nBULLET::::- Malta – since 2004, the Euro-style license plate design was introduced in 1995 without the FE-Schrift\n", "In the U.S., where each state issues plates, New York State has required plates since 1903 (black numerals on a white background) after first requiring in 1901 that only the owner's initials be clearly visible on the back of the vehicle. At first, plates were not government issued in most jurisdictions and motorists were obliged to make their own. In 1903, Massachusetts was the first state to issue plates.\n\nIn Spain, the first law to define rules on non-animal vehicle traction was and the registration of vehicles was defined as a per province task in the .\n", "Towards the mid-1990s there was some discussion about introducing a unified scheme for Europe, which would also incorporate the country code of origin of the vehicle, but after much debate such a scheme was not adopted because of lack of countries willing to participate.\n", "BULLET::::- Most countries, including Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland (formerly also Sweden until 1974, Italy until 1994, Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1998, Lithuania and Spain until 2000, Estonia until 2004 and Albania until 2011, also former countries East Germany until 1990, Soviet Union until 1991, Czechoslovakia until 1993, Yugoslavia until 1998 and Serbia and Montenegro until 2011), have systems in which there is a direct link between a letter or letters appearing on the plate and the town or district where the plate was issued (e.g. \"\"B\"\" and \"\"M\"\" in Germany for Berlin and Munich, \"\"TN\"\" and \"\"ZV\"\" in Slovakia for Trenčín and Zvolen, \"\"BG\"\" and \"\"KG\"\" in Serbia for Belgrade and Kragujevac and \"\"AX\"\" and \"\"KY\"\" in Greece for Achaea and Corfu). Some countries, including Austria, Germany, Slovenia, and Switzerland, even include a regional or municipal coat of arms on the plate, but Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovakia include a national coat of arms. In Ireland, all plates have the name of the county of registration in Irish in smaller letters on the top.\n", "From 1984 until August 28, 2007, all plates issued followed the pattern of a letter identifying the status of the owner, followed by the two-letter country code, followed by a random three or four-digit number (S \"AB\" 1234). For member countries of the Organization of American States (OAS), a subset of that numbering pattern was allotted to vehicles based at those countries' missions to the OAS. Plates issued to cars based at the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City were issued in the reverse format, with the three or four-digit number first, followed by the two-letter country code, followed by the status code (1234 \"AB\" S). \n", "BULLET::::- The UK uses flat plastic plates (embossed metal plates are an option in the UK), as opposed to metal plates in most other European countries. A mixture of plastic and metal plates is permitted in France and Ireland. Plastic plates have earlier also been used in Sweden and Norway.\n\nSection::::Format.:Other countries.\n", "BULLET::::- Cyprus – since 3 June 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia – since 3 June 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Latvia - only for tractors and tractor trailers. On car, car trailer and motorcycle plates they use DIN 1451.\n\nBULLET::::- Cuba resolved a law on a new license plate scheme in 2013 which opted for the Euro license plate format and the . The reasoning is to lower the cost while increasing the quality of the plates with the change to be completed by May 2016.\n\nBULLET::::- Moldova – since 1 April 2015\n", "BULLET::::- In practice, the requirement to display a distinguishing sign, as defined in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, is mutually waived between some countries, for example within the European Economic Area, for vehicles with license plates in the common EU format (which satisfies the requirements of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, and hence are also valid in non-EU countries signatory to the convention) issued in EU member states, and between Canada, the United States, and Mexico (where the province, state, or district of registration is usually embossed or surface-printed on the vehicle registration plate).\n", "BULLET::::- The UK uses a system based on the region where the car was first registered and the date of registration, for example CA52 GJK, where the \"\"C\"\" stands for Wales (the name of that country in Welsh being Cymru), the \"\"A\"\" stands for Cardiff (the letters A-O assigned to the city), and the \"\"52\"\" means that the car was registered in the period September 2002 to February 2003.\n", "BULLET::::- Belgium uses red characters and is the only country not to use the standard black-on-white or black-on-yellow combination; with the introduction of European-style plates in November 2010, a slightly darker shade of red was chosen (RAL 3003) to improve legibility.\n", "Section::::Plate types no longer issued but still valid.\n\nPlates with the following designs and serial formats are no longer being issued but may still be valid for use in certain instances. This table does not include year of manufacture registrations.\n\nSection::::Diplomatic license plates.\n\nDiplomatic license plates are issued by the United States Department of State to accredited diplomats.\n", "The requirement to display a separate distinguishing sign is not necessary within the European Economic Area, for vehicles with license plates in the common EU format which satisfy the requirements of the Vienna Convention, and so are also valid in non-EU countries signatory to the convention. Separate signs are also not needed for Canada, Mexico and the United States, where the province, state or district of registration is usually embossed or surface-printed on the vehicle registration plate.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aircraft registration\n\nBULLET::::- International Driving Permit\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 3166\n\nBULLET::::- Vienna Convention on Road Traffic\n\nSection::::Notes.\n\nBULLET::::- Note\n", "Section::::Cross-border traffic.\n\nAccording to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, vehicles in cross-border traffic are obliged to display a distinguishing sign of the country of registration on the rear of the vehicle. This sign may either be placed separately from the registration plate or may be incorporated into the vehicle registration plate. One of the main benefits of the convention for motorists is the obligation on signatory countries to recognise the legality of vehicles from other signatory countries. The following requirements must be met when driving outside the country of registration:\n", "BULLET::::- Poland and the United Kingdom have both used AAA 123A. In Poland these were issued from 1976-2000, in the UK, they were issued from 1963-1983, with those issued prior to 1973 being the same colour as their Polish counterparts (white on black). These plates are still valid in both countries.\n\nSection::::Format.:Differing numbering systems.\n\nIndividual European countries use differing numbering schemes and text fonts:\n", "Vehicle registration plates of American Samoa\n\nThe U.S. unincorporated territory of American Samoa first required its residents to register their motor vehicles and display license plates in 1924.\n\nIn 1956, the United States, Canada, and Mexico came to an agreement with the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators, the Automobile Manufacturers Association, and the National Safety Council that standardized the size for license plates for vehicles (except those for motorcycles) at in height by in width, with standardized mounting holes. American Samoa adopted these standards in 1977.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Plateshack.com - American Samoa Y2K\n", "The following European countries are required to recognise the license plate of other European countries, satisfying the requirements set out in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, as an international vehicle registration code:\n\nSection::::List.\n\nVehicle registration plates of each country are described in the following table:\n\nMotorcycle plates are used for motorcycles and vehicles where mounting space is an issue, such as taxis which display their license plate beside the registration plate, and vehicles imported from countries where the mounting space was not originally designed to take European-sized plates (e.g. USA).\n\nSection::::List.:Countries.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Some UK number plates have conformed to the 1998 European standard design, with black lettering on a white or yellow background. The standard design have also incorporated a blue strip on the left side of the plate with the European Union symbol and the country identification code of the member state, although this aspect of the design is not compulsory. EU member states that require foreign vehicles to display a distinguishing sign of the country of origin (e.g. 'GB' for the United Kingdom) are obliged by EU Regulation No. 2411/98 to accept this standard design as a distinguishing sign, making a separate sign unnecessary.\n", "According to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, vehicles in cross-border traffic are obliged to display a distinguishing sign of the country of registration on the rear of the vehicle. This sign may either be placed separately from the registration plate or may be incorporated into the vehicle registration plate. With registration plates in the common EU format, vehicles registered in the EU are no longer required to carry an international code plate or sticker for traveling within the European Economic Area. The common EU format is also recognized in countries signatory to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. As are registration plates of other European countries similar to the EU format, such as Norwegian ones; with the Norwegian flag replacing the circle of stars. Both the common EU format, and i.e. Norwegian registration plates satisfies the requirements laid out in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic; According to the convention, when the distinguishing sign is incorporated into the registration plate, it must also appear on the front registration plate of the vehicle, and may be supplemented with the flag or emblem of the national state, or the emblem of the regional economic integration organization to which the country belongs.\n", "In order to combat registration plate fraud, since the 1920s several jurisdictions developed their own anti-fraud typefaces so that characters cannot be painted or modified to resemble other characters. Since the 1990s, many jurisdictions have adopted FE-Schrift typeface.\n", "Several non-EU European states have implemented formats similar to the EU format, replacing the circle of stars with their own symbols. Vehicles with such number plates do not need to display the white oval international vehicle registration code while within countries signatory to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic.\n\nBULLET::::- Norway is an example of such a state, issuing europlates with the Norwegian flag replacing the circle of stars. In Norway, regular number plates are white with black characters, however, cars with front seats only (used for carrying goods) have green plates with black characters.\n", "Earlier plates (1972–1983, black lettering on white. Pre-1972, white lettering on black) differed in that they could have either one or two numbers to indicate the town of registration. The group of digits was separated from the rest of the plate by a vertical line.\n\nThe current plates use numerals without script. Earlier plates used numerals and included Arabic script.\n\nSection::::Africa.:South Africa.\n\nSouth African number plates are unique in each of the provinces. Each province has its own number plate design and colors, as well as numbering scheme.\n\nSection::::Americas.\n\nSection::::Americas.:Argentina.\n", "Prior to 1984 license plates for diplomatic vehicles were provided by the jurisdiction where the foreign mission was located. The District of Columbia provided license plates for missions headquartered in the capital, and New York provided plates for members of the United Nations, etc. Upon passage of the Foreign Missions Act in 1984 registration authority for foreign mission vehicles was centralized with the U.S. Department of State.\n", "BULLET::::- 260 by 110 mm (10.2 by 4.3 inches) in Monaco\n\nBULLET::::- 390 by 120 mm (15.4 by 4.7 inches) in San Marino\n\nBULLET::::- 300 by 80 mm (11.8 by 3.1 inches) in Switzerland and Liechtenstein (only front plates)\n\nBULLET::::- 360 by 110 mm (14.1 by 4.3 inches) in Italy (only front plates)\n\nBULLET::::- 390 by 130 mm (15.4 by 5.1 inches) And 345 by 130 mm (13.5 by 5.1 inches) in Åland\n\nSection::::Format.:European Union.\n", "Section::::Europe.:Denmark.\n\nDenmark offers both a European or normal style registration plate. They have a fairly similar look, with the EU strip with the letters DK. Both styles are in the XX 12 345 format.\n\nThe first two letters run sequentially with no ties to any geographic region.\n\nThe first two digits determine the type of vehicle. For example, 10 through 18 are reserved for motorcycle.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Finland.\n", "BULLET::::- Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Iceland, Estonia (after 2004), Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania (after 2000), Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Sweden (after 1974) use plates that do not denote the location where the car is registered. Since 2000 Spain no longer uses province codes on plates but codes like 'B' for Barcelona or 'M' for Madrid can still be seen, for cars registered before that date. Italy, also, did not use the province codes on plates between 1994 and 1999.\n" ]	[ "USA license plates can come in the European style." ]	[ "Those license plates are just decorative and not like that from the DMV." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "USA license plates can come in the European style." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Those license plates are just decorative and not like that from the DMV." ]
2018-23863	Why did WWI happen?	The assassination is what put the gears in motion that led to the war, but there were a multitude of reasons that the war broke out. This was an era when nationalism was at its height in Europe and when everyone thinks their country is the best they won't shy away from a war. In its simplist form that was WW1. Franz Ferdinand was heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary who ruled land that Serbians thought should go to Serbia. The man that shot him was a Serbian Nationalist.	[ "When the war broke out, much of the fighting was between Western powers, and the immediate \"casus belli\" was an assassination. The victim was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, and he was assassinated on 28 June 1914 by a Yugoslav nationalist named Gavrilo Princip in the city of Sarajevo, at the time part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although Serbia agreed to all but one point of the Austrian ultimatum (it did not take responsibility in planning the assassination but was ready to hand over any subject involved on its territory), Austria-Hungary was more than eager to declare war, attacked Serbia and effectively began World War I. Fearing the conquest of a fellow Slavic Orthodox nation, Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary. Germany responded by declaring war on Russia as well as France, which it feared would ally with Russia. To reach France, Germany invaded neutral Belgium in August, leading Britain to declare war on Germany. The war quickly stalemated, with trenches being dug from the North Sea to Switzerland. The war also made use of new and relatively new technology and weapons, including machine guns, airplanes, tanks, battleships, and submarines. Even chemical weapons were used at one point. The war also involved other nations, with Romania and Greece joining the British Empire and France and Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joining Germany. The war spread throughout the globe with colonial armies clashing in Africa and Pacific nations such as Japan and Australia, allied with Britain, attacking German colonies in the Pacific. In the Middle East, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps landed at Gallipoli in 1915 in a failed bid to support an Anglo-French capture of the Ottoman capital of Istanbul. Unable to secure an early victory in 1915, British Empire forces later attacked from further south after the beginning of Arab revolt and conquered Mesopotamia and Palestine from the Ottomans with the support of local Arab rebels and supported an Arab revolt against the Ottomans centered in the Arabian Peninsula.\n", "At the start of the twentieth century two power blocs emerged through alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that came into effect at the start of the First World War in 1914, drawing all the major European powers into the war. This was the first major war in Europe between industrialized countries and the first time in Western Europe the results of industrialization (for example mass production) had been dedicated to war. The result of this industrial warfare was an unprecedented casualty level with eight and a half million members of armed services dead, an estimated 21 million wounded, and approximately 10 million civilian deaths.\n", "The main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, included many factors, such as the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and ethnic nationalism played major roles. However the immediate origins of the war lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the Crisis of 1914, which was sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the Archduke of Austria Hungary) by a Serbian secret organization, the Black Hand.\n", "The crisis followed a series of diplomatic clashes among the Great Powers (Italy, France, Germany, Britain, Austria-Hungary and Russia) over European and colonial issues in the decades before 1914 that had left tensions high. In turn, these public clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1867.\n", "BULLET::::- July 26: A meeting is organised to take place between ambassadors from Great Britain, Germany, Italy and France to discuss the crisis. Germany declines the invitation.\n\nBULLET::::- July 28: Austria-Hungary, having failed to accept Serbia's response of the 25th, declares war on Serbia. Austro-Hungarian mobilisation against Serbia begins.\n\nBULLET::::- July 29: Sir Edward Grey appeals to Germany to intervene to maintain peace.\n", "As David Stevenson has put it, \"A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness ... was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster ... The armaments race ... was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities.\" David Herrmann goes further, arguing that the fear that \"windows of opportunity for victorious wars\" were closing, \"the arms race did precipitate the First World War.\" If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was \"... the armaments race ... and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars\" that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war.\n", "Captain John Hay Beith's \"The First Hundred Thousand\", a best-selling account of life in the army, was published in 1915 and became one of the more popular books of the period. It was translated into French as \"Les Premiers Cent Mille\". Due to its popularity in the United States, which was neutral at the time, Beith was transferred to the British War Mission in Washington, D.C.\n", "BULLET::::- July 29: The British Ambassador in Berlin, Sir Edward Goschen, is informed by the German Chancellor that Germany is contemplating war with France, and furthermore, wishes to send its army through Belgium. He tries to secure Britain's neutrality in such an action.\n\nBULLET::::- July 29: In the morning Russian general mobilisation against Austria and Germany is ordered; in the evening the Tsar opts for partial mobilization after a flurry of telegrams with Kaiser Wilhelm.\n\nBULLET::::- July 30: Russian general mobilization is reordered by the Tsar on instigation by Sergei Sazonov.\n\nBULLET::::- July 31: Austrian general mobilization is ordered.\n", "BULLET::::- 1915: The \"RMS Lusitania\" is sunk. The United States occupation of Haiti begins. Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire. D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation is released. First use of poison gas at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle and Second Battle of Ypres. The Treaty of London brings Italy into the war.\n", "Section::::Polarization of Europe, 1887–1914.:The Liman von Sanders \"Affair\" 1913-14.\n\nThis was a crisis caused by the appointment of a German officer, Liman von Sanders to command the Turkish First Army Corps guarding Constantinople, and the subsequent Russian objections.\n", "Significantly, the Anglo-German Naval Race was over by 1912. In April 1913, Britain and Germany signed an agreement over the African territories of the Portuguese empire which was expected to collapse imminently. Moreover, the Russians were threatening British interests in Persia and India to the extent that in 1914, there were signs that the British were cooling in their relations with Russia and that an understanding with Germany might be useful. The British were \"deeply annoyed by St Petersburg's failure to observe the terms of the agreement struck in 1907 and began to feel an arrangement of some kind with Germany might serve as a useful corrective.\"\n", "Imperial rivalries between France, Britain, Russia and Germany played an important part in the creation of the Triple Entente and the relative isolation of Germany. Imperial opportunism, in the form of the Italian attack on Ottoman Libyan provinces, also encouraged the Balkan wars of 1912-13, which changed the balance of power in the Balkans to the detriment of Austria-Hungary.\n", "British Diplomat Arthur Nicolson wrote in May 1914, “Since I have been at the Foreign Office I have not seen such calm waters.” The anglophile German Ambassador Karl Max, Prince Lichnowsky deplored that Germany had acted hastily without waiting for the British offer of mediation in July 1914 to be given a chance.\n\nSection::::July Crisis: The chain of events.\n\nBULLET::::- June 28, 1914: Serbian irredentists assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.\n", "Section::::July Crisis: The chain of events.:Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian irredentists, 28 June 1914.\n\nOn 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were shot dead, by two gun shots in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, one of a group of six assassins (five Serbs and one Bosniak) coordinated by Danilo Ilić, a Bosnian Serb and a member of the Black Hand secret society.\n", "BULLET::::- France reiterated her support for Russia, and there was significant cause to think that Britain would also support Russia\n\nSection::::July Crisis: The chain of events.:German mobilisation and war with Russia and France, 1–3 August.\n", "BULLET::::- July 24: the Russian Council of Ministers agrees to secret partial mobilization of the Russian Army and Navy.\n\nBULLET::::- July 25: Tsar approves Council of Ministers decision and Russia begins partial mobilization of 1.1 million men against the Austrian-Hungarian Empire.\n\nBULLET::::- July 25: Serbia responds to Austro-Hungarian démarche with less than full acceptance and asks that the Hague Tribunal arbitrate. Austria-Hungary breaks diplomatic relations with Serbia. Serbia mobilizes its army.\n\nBULLET::::- July 26: Serbian reservists accidentally violate Austro-Hungarian border at Temes-Kubin.\n", "BULLET::::- July 23: Austria-Hungary, following their own secret enquiry, sends an ultimatum to Serbia, containing their demands, and gives only forty-eight hours to comply.\n\nBULLET::::- July 24: Sir Edward Grey, speaking for the British government, asks that Germany, France, Italy and Great Britain, \"who had no direct interests in Serbia, should act together for the sake of peace simultaneously.\"\n\nBULLET::::- July 24: Serbia seeks support from Russia and Russia advises Serbia not to accept the ultimatum. Germany officially declares support for Austria's position.\n", "Scholars doing short-term analysis focused on the summer of 1914 ask if the conflict could have been stopped, or whether it was out of control. The immediate causes lay in decisions made by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914. This crisis was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by the Bosnian-Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip who had been supported by a nationalist organization in Serbia. The crisis escalated as the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia came to involve Russia, Germany, France, and ultimately Belgium and Great Britain. Other factors that came into play during the diplomatic crisis that preceded the war included misperceptions of intent (e.g., the German belief that Britain would remain neutral), fatalism that war was inevitable, and the speed of the crisis, which was exacerbated by delays and misunderstandings in diplomatic communications.\n", "It is true that in Austro-Hungary, the political scene of the last decades before the war were increasingly dominated by the struggle for national rights among the empire's eleven official nationalities: Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, Ruthenians, Poles and Italians. However, before 1914, radical nationalists seeking full separation from the empire were still in a small minority, and the roots of Austro-Hungary's political turbulence went less deep than appearances suggested.\n", "The Italo-Turkish War of 1911–12 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy in North Africa. The war made it clear that no great power appeared to wish to support the Ottoman Empire any longer, which paved the way for the Balkan Wars.\n", "BULLET::::- Hungary, as the successor state of Transleithania and the Austro-Hungarian Empire\n\nBULLET::::- Montenegro declared union with Serbia and subsequently became incorporated into Yugoslavia\n\nBULLET::::- Russian SFSR, as the successor state of the Russian Empire\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey, as the successor state of the day Ottoman Empire\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom: lost most of Ireland as the Irish Free State, Egypt in 1922 and Afghanistan in 1919\n\nSection::::Social trauma.\n", "Clark concluded, \"In the minds of many statesmen, the hope for a short war and the fear of a long one seemed to have cancelled each other out, holding at bay a fuller appreciation of the risks\".\n\nSection::::Technical and military factors.:Primacy of the offensive and war by timetable.\n", "In 1914, however, the African scene was peaceful. The continent was almost fully divided up by the imperial powers (with only Liberia and Ethiopia still independent). There were no major disputes there pitting any two European powers against each other.\n\nSection::::Imperialism.:Marxist interpretation.\n\nMarxists typically attributed the start of the war to imperialism. \"Imperialism,\" argued Lenin, \"is the monopoly stage of capitalism.\" He thought that monopoly capitalists went to war to control markets and raw materials.\n\nSection::::Social Darwinism.\n", "BULLET::::- 1916: Easter Rising in Ireland. The implementation of daylight saving time. Brusilov Offensive. Warlord Era begins in China. David Lloyd George becomes the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The Gallipoli Campaign fails. First use of tanks at the Battle of Flers-Courcelette. Battle of the Somme. Grigory Rasputin is assassinated by H.H. Prince Felix Youssoupov. The Pact is agreed upon by both the Congress and the Muslim League at the Indian city of Lucknow. Sinking of the HMHS Britannic. Battle of Verdun. The Arab Revolt begins\n", "Section::::Domestic political factors.:The drivers of Austro-Hungarian policy.\n\nThe argument that Austro-Hungary was a moribund political entity, whose disappearance was only a matter of time, was deployed by hostile contemporaries to suggest that its efforts to defend its integrity during the last years before the war were in some sense illegitimate.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16913	Why people have a 'type' that they are (sexually) attracted to	There are two major factors, biological and psychological. Certain things like smell are more certainly evolutionary, they can indicate things such as diverse immune systems, so that your offspring would be better able to survive a wider range of disease. This particularly explains being attracted to people of other races. Psychological factors such as the environment you were raised in, stereotypes promoted by the media, as well as your families preference are more psychological and likely to change.. features likes glasses, hair colour and body weight play more into this in the modern world. Genetic features would not play into effect with things from thousands of years that simply isn't long enough for genetic divergence to occur	[ "Section::::Types.:R associations.\n", "Section::::Sexual preferences and hormones.:Ovulation and female sexual preferences.\n\nThere is evidence that women's mate preferences differ across the ovarian cycle. A meta analysis, investigating 50 studies about whether women's mate preferences for good gene-related male traits changed across the ovarian cycle found that women's preferences change across their cycle: Women show the greatest preference for good gene male traits at their most fertile window.\n", "The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.\n", "Section::::Biosocial theory.\n\nKenrick and Trost (1987) have formulated a Biosocial theory of heterosexual relationships which encompasses several stages of seduction. This includes five stages of natural progression:\n\nBULLET::::1. Individuals identify a potential partner based on desired characteristics such as physical attraction\n\nBULLET::::2. Both individuals establish contact\n\nBULLET::::3. Other traits of the individual that are not necessarily explicit are analysed to determine fitness\n\nBULLET::::4. A physical relationship is established\n\nBULLET::::5. The relationship is either successful and progresses or discontinued\n", "Which aspects of a person's sexuality attract another is influenced by cultural factors; it has varied over time as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.\n\nA person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:\n", "Section::::Similarity attraction effect.\n\nSection::::Similarity attraction effect.:General.\n\nThe proverb \"birds of a feather flock together\" has been used to illustrate that similarity is a crucial determinant of interpersonal attraction. Studies about attraction indicate that people are strongly attracted to lookalikes in physical and social appearance. This similarity is in the broadest sense: similarity in bone-structure, characteristics, life goals and physical appearance. The more these points match, the happier people are in a relationship.\n", "Once a preference becomes established, females choosing males with elaborate secondary sexual traits will produce sons that carry alleles for the trait and daughters that carry alleles for the preference,\n", "Section::::Context.\n\nFemale mating preferences are widely recognized as being responsible for the rapid and divergent evolution of male secondary sex characteristics. In 1976, prior to Weatherhead and Robertson's paper, Richard Dawkins had written in his book \"The Selfish Gene\":\n", "Many people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.\n\nPheromones have been determined to play a role in sexual attraction between people. They influence gonadal hormone secretion, for example, follicle maturation in the ovaries in females and testosterone and sperm production in males.\n\nSection::::High anxiety.\n", "Section::::Scholarly reception.\n", "Type B personality types are more tolerant than individuals in the Type A category. This can be evident through their relationship style that members of upper management prefer. Type B individuals can \"...see things from a global perspective, encourage teamwork, and exercise patience in decision making...\" \n\nSection::::The types.:Interactions between Type A and Type B.\n", "Often, when people ignore the anima or animus complexes, the anima or animus vies for attention by projecting itself on others. This explains, according to Jung, why we are sometimes immediately attracted to certain strangers: we see our anima or animus in them. Love at first sight is an example of anima and animus projection. Moreover, people who strongly identify with their gender role (e.g. a man who acts aggressively and never cries) have not actively recognized or engaged their anima or animus.\n", "Section::::Increased female attraction to men in relationships.\n\nA 2009 study by Melissa Burkley and Jessica Parker found that 59% of women tested were interested in pursuing a relationship with an \"ideal\" single man (who was, unknown to the women, fictitious). When they believed the \"ideal\" man was already in a romantic relationship, 90% of the women were interested in a romantic relationship.\n\nSection::::Breaking up.\n", "Research by Nathan Oesch of the University of Oxford Department of Experimental Psychology confirmed attraction and seduction principles, as described in Strauss' books on the subject, do have a factual basis in social, physiological and evolutionary psychology.\n\nAndrew King's cultural history of the pickup artist in the journal \"Sexuality & Culture\" argues that, as a genre, the growth of PUA philosophy parallels the rise of feminism in academic and popular culture—and in some ways can be seen as a critique of its limitations, particularly the idea of gender egalitarianism.\n\nSection::::Notable members.\n\nBULLET::::- Julien Blanc\n\nBULLET::::- Albert Ellis\n\nBULLET::::- Ross Jeffries\n", "Section::::Sexual preferences and hormones.\n", "BULLET::::- A March 2012 segment of TLC's \"My Strange Addiction\" featured Nathaniel, a man emotionally and sexually attracted to his car. Nathaniel told Anderson Cooper that he was also attracted to jet skis and airplanes.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2013 an Australian woman, Jodi Rose, married the Le Pont du Diable Bridge in France.\n\nBULLET::::- Discovery Channel's \"Forbidden\" featured a Dutch man who professed his love for bicycles.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2016 a man was refused permission to marry his computer.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Film and television.\n", "Section::::Male mate preferences.:Body shape and size.\n", "Section::::Male.:Genetics.\n", "Ronald Fisher, the English biologist developed a number of ideas concerning secondary characteristics in his 1930 book \"The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection\", including the concept of Fisherian runaway which postulates that the desire for a characteristic in females combined with that characteristic in males can create a positive feedback loop or runaway where the feature becomes hugely amplified. The 1975 handicap principle extends this idea, pointing out that a peacock's tail, for instance, displays fitness by being a useless impediment that is very hard to fake. Another of Fisher's ideas is the sexy son hypothesis, whereby females will desire to have sons that possess the characteristic that they find sexy in order to maximize the number of grandchildren they produce. An alternative hypothesis is that some of the genes that enable males to develop impressive ornaments or fighting ability may be correlated with fitness markers such as disease resistance or a more efficient metabolism. This idea is known as the good genes hypothesis.\n", "BULLET::::- Sexual experience: Many men assume that women who have engaged in sexual experiences beforehand are likely to have a higher sex drive than women who haven't. These women may also be more accessible and require less courtship.\n\nSection::::Mate choice in humans.:Male mate choice.:Long-term mating strategies.\n", "BULLET::::- Physical beauty: Observable characteristics of a woman can indicate good health and the ability to reproduce, qualities which are likely to be desired by a male. This may include smooth skin, absence of lesions, muscle tone, long hair and high energy levels.\n\nBULLET::::- Resources: Men who are looking for a long-term partner may strive to achieve a high status or resources, such as their own home or a job promotion. This may increase their chance of attracting a desirable mate.\n", "BULLET::::- Visual perception (the symmetry of the face, physical attractiveness, health, and how they act or move, for example, while dancing);\n\nBULLET::::- Audition (how the other's voice and movements sound);\n\nBULLET::::- Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent).\n", "BULLET::::- One example of personality types is Type A and Type B personality theory. According to this theory, impatient, achievement-oriented people are classified as Type A, whereas easy-going, relaxed individuals are designated as Type B. The theory originally suggested that Type A individuals were more at risk for coronary heart disease, but this claim has not been supported by empirical research.\n\nBULLET::::- One study suggests that people with Type A personalities are more likely to develop personality disorders whereas Type B personalities are more likely to become alcoholics.\n", "Cognitive processes: People who have demographic similarity tend to own shared knowledge, and therefore they have a greater ease of communication and share cultural tastes, which can also generate homophily.\n\nSection::::Effect.\n", "3. The heart through emotional reactions.\n\n4. The phallus by way of sexual charge or interest.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01145	How the bowl audio capture things on football sidelines work?	The bowl is a parabolic reflector, much like a satellite dish but for sound waves. URL_0 It concentrates a large amount of sound, by reflecting it all toward a microphone protruding in the middle.	[ "BULLET::::- Due to the low video quality, sound effects are added to identify game events. A \"ringing\" sound (meant to simulate a whistle) indicates a tackle, incomplete pass, or unsuccessful kick; a high melody indicates a completion, a lower melody (in minor key, a variation of the theme from \"Dragnet\") indicates an interception, and a \"roar\" indicates a score. A pass in motion is indicated by a sound that starts off high and then drops in pitch as it reaches the receiver.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "On television, the game was carried on Versus, with Craig Minervini on play-by-play, Doug Flutie handling color commentary, and Ryan Nece and Damon Hack reporting on the sidelines. The game also was simulcast in HD on YouTube, where viewers could watch four alternative camera angles as well as submit questions and comments via Facebook and Twitter, which were read off during Versus' commercial breaks by HDNet's UFL sideline reporter, Ron Kruck.\n", "The United States Army's Land Warrior system, designed by General Dynamics, also uses Speex for VoIP on an EPLRS radio designed by Raytheon.\n\nThe Ear Bible is a single-ear headphone with a built-in Speex player with 1 GB of flash memory, preloaded with a recording of the New American Standard Bible.\n\nASL Safety & Security's Linux based VIPA OS software which is used in long line public address systems and voice alarm systems at major international air transport hubs and rail networks.\n", "BULLET::::- Clemson renovated the video systems at Clemson Memorial Stadium prior to the start of the 2012 season. A new Jumbotron was installed on the primary scoreboard behind the East endzone, while two smaller video boards were installed on each side of the WestZone stands. In addition, video ribbons were installed along the facings of the upper decks.\n", "Christianson had a couple stops with both Avid Sports and XOS Digital where he worked to develop, implement and train coaches on the use and benefits of technology as it relates to the sport of football. Christianson is considered an expert when it comes to technology and how it relates to the game of football. He coordinated and helped develop large football technology projects at the Oakland Raiders, the University of Nebraska and the San Francisco 49ers to name just a few.\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 Sports Emmy Award - Outstanding Technical Team-Remote \"Winter X Games 16\" ESPN 3D Kevin Cleary, Technical Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Sports Emmy Award - Outstanding Technical Team-Remote \"Winter X Games 15\" ESPN 3D Kevin Cleary, Technical Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Eclipse Award - Outstanding National Television Live Racing Programming - \"The Breeders Cup\" ESPN Kevin Cleary, Senior Audio Producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 College Sports Media Awards - Professional Live Game or Event - \"2011 Rose Bowl Wisconsin vs TCU\" ESPN Kevin Cleary, Senior Audio Producer\n", "List of Los Angeles Chargers broadcasters\n\nSection::::Radio.\n", "Electro-Mech manufactures a variety of accessories for use with their scoreboards. Control consoles, wireless RF modems sets, and customizable ID panels are all common accessories manufactured by Electro-Mech. Other accessories, such as horns and data cable, are outsourced.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Super Bowl LIII.\n", "The game was divided into four ten-minute quarters with a 15-minute half time. Kickoffs, kick returns, and turnovers were live. Field goals and extra points were not live. The White team won 7–3 with all scores in the second quarter.\n\nSection::::Schedule.\n", "Land Rover BAR employed 'military' bone conduction technology, designed by BAE Systems, within their helmets for use within the 2017 America's Cup. The helmets allowed the crews to communicate effectively with each other under race conditions and within the harsh, noisy environment; whilst maintaining situational awareness due to their ears being uncovered.\n", "NFL Audio Pass coverage of the Super Bowl was unique. Because the NFL only allows one station to air a local broadcast for each team in the contest, NFL Audio Pass and Sirius Satellite Radio were the only options for those who want to listen to their home team but live outside of the flagship station's listening range. In addition to the team broadcasts, the NFL Audio Pass Super Bowl package included various foreign language broadcasts, live feeds from the stadium PA announcer, archives, and \"press box\" stat play-by-play.\n\nSection::::NFL Audio Pass.:Free previews.\n", "Section::::Muvizu Productions.\n\nThere have been a wide variety of videos made using the Muvizu package, but the most widely known commercial videos are:\n\nThe Football Special\n\nGhost House\n\nSection::::Commercial Use.\n", "As a precursor to the eventual changeover in music for the 2003 season, CBS used the song \"Pompeii\", composed by the Los Angeles electronic music group E.S. Posthumus, during the intro of the 2002 AFC Championship between the Oakland Raiders and Tennessee Titans. The song used since the beginning of the 2003 season is the E.S. Posthumus composition \"Posthumus Zone\". For the 2005 season, CBS frequently played a rap-inspired remix of \"Posthumus Zone\" entitled \"Rise to Glory\", featuring DJ Quik and Bizarre.\n\nSection::::2010s.\n", "\"NCAA Football 07\" returned to the fight song only format. \n\n\"NCAA Football 08\" added a cinematic theme song to the main menu, with fight songs playing during Dynasty Mode.\n\n\"NCAA Football 09\" allows a new custom stadium sounds feature allowing users to edit what sounds are heard at specific stadiums during events within the game, such as a touchdown, field goal, or timeout. Fans of the teams can now create an authentic experience in each stadium by using copyrighted songs that EA is not allowed to put into the game.\n", "The game also includes a maze using 3D computer graphics (although not related to the BBC Micro and Acorn Electron game \"3D Maze\") and mini-games such as car chases.\n\nPlayers can continue their game at any time using a 14-symbol password system consisting of common Japanese characters. They can also memorize telephone numbers from different sources (never actually shown on the screen) to use in an in-game telephone directory; it is possible to dial these numbers anytime while the game is in session.\n\nSection::::Characters.\n", "In 2009, Arrowhead Stadium completed the installation of a multimillion-dollar integrated system from Daktronics out of Brookings, South Dakota. Two high definition video displays were retrofitted into the existing football-shaped displays in both end zones. Approximately of digital ribbon board technology was also installed in the stadium.\n\nSection::::Noise record.\n", "In February, 2012, Landsman handed off operations to new owner, Doug Strohm who renamed the company, Tudor Games. Strohm re-established the NFL license, created new innovations, figures and fields and added products from many of the hobbyist inventors across the country, making Tudor Games a one stop shop for the game. Tudor Games with the help of dedicated Electric Football enthusiasts and an Electric Football non-profit fan association called the Miniature Football Coaches Association, has re-energized the game for new generations of sports fans, game players, hobbyists, and collectors.\n", "Levi's Stadium was equipped for Intel freeD instant replay technology (previously used by CBS during Super Bowl 50 at the stadium earlier in the year) in order to facilitate testing for \"Be the Player\" — a new instant replay feature Fox planned to use during Super Bowl LI to present first-person perspectives of plays.\n", "Section::::Developments.\n\nAn Internet television spinoff service, NFL Game Pass, debuted in 2008 for online users outside of North America.\n\nNFL Field Pass and Game Pass during the 2009 season had a major outage on the season's opening Sunday (September 13) which left its subscribers without access to the service.\n\nNFL Field Pass was renamed NFL Audio Pass prior to the 2010 season.\n\nStarting with the 2015 season, Game Pass became available in North America, replacing the similar NFL Game Rewind service. At the same time, NFL Audio Pass was also integrated into Game Pass.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- NFL Game Pass\n", "In 2008, MIT students collaborated with the government of Singapore and a professor at the National University of Singapore to create \"AudiOdyssey\", a game which allows both blind and sighted gamers to play together.\n\nApple's iPhone platform has become home to a number of audio games, including Papa Sangre.\n\nSection::::TTS-enabling video games.\n", "Section::::Gameplay.\n\nIn \"Audiosurf\", the player controls a levitating vehicle similar to those found in \"Wipeout\" or \"F-Zero\". The player then maneuvers it down a colorful multi-lane highway, collecting blocks in a manner similar to Klax. The ship is controlled either by a mouse, the arrow keys, the number keys, or a gamepad (Using XInput drivers such as the Xbox 360 controller, not the older DirectInput drivers). The game also supports the rumble feature of the Xbox 360 controller.\n", "Each team has a different level of effectiveness based on its personnel and play selection.\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Finch, the public address announcer at the stadium from 1966 through 2001, was known for his famously long \"Heeeeeeeeeeeeeere come the Gators!\" call delivered in powerful baritone as the Gators ran onto Florida Field before each game, and for his succinct and even-handed style of announcing the plays during the game. Finch died in 2002, but an audio recording of his distinctive entrance call has been used on occasion, with the current PA announcer replicating Finch's call for all other games.\n", "Super Bowl Live was organized by the Houston Super Bowl Host Committee, which was led by Honorary Chairman James A. Baker, III, Chairman Ric Campo, and President and CEO Sallie Sargent.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20697	What makes cyanide so lethal?	TL:DR it stops your cells using oxygen and you die from massive systemic failure. Ok, so you take a deep breath and all this air rushes into your lungs. Then, a few seconds later you breathe out and the process repeats. you can't stop doing that for very long at all. The thing is though, that process of exchanging O2 for CO2 in your lungs is only the tip of the iceberg. Oxygen is really important to us because we are aerobic organisms. We use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor in the chain of biochemical reactions that generate a molecule called adenosine tri-phosphate or ATP for short. ATP is then used by your cells like fuel. But wait you say, I thought we used glucose as fuel?? That's why we eat! That's correct when you look at the human body as a whole but it's not all that great a model when you look at cells themselves. In cells, you break down glucose to pyruvate via glycolysis (that's just a fancy word that means "splitting glucose"). You then take that pyruvate and feed it into the TCA cycle (TCA stands for trycarboxylic acid which is just a fancy word for acids that have 3 carbon atoms). A good diagram is found [here]( URL_0 ). The TCA cycle splits off hydrogen atoms and a few CO2 molecules (which you then breathe out after they're transported back to your lungs) and then does the most important thing. It turns adenosine di-phosphate (ADP) into ATP. Now the problem is that all of this generates electrons and your body has to get rid of those electrons somehow. It does that by using an enzyme called cytochrome c oxidase to take electrons from cytochrome c with a few H^+ atoms and add them to oxygen. Voila! We now have water. So what the hell does cyanide do? Cyanide inhibits the action of cytochrome c oxidase. It's as simple as that. Um, ELI5. How does this kill you? Every part of the chain involved in making ATP from the energy in glucose depends on re-using parts of the chain. Think of cytochrome c as a transport truck that moves electrons from the work yard to the dump site. Cytochrome c oxidase is like a new dump site that opens up when the truck arrives. If you stop cytochrome c oxidase from working then you can't dump electrons. When you can't dump electrons then you can't make ATP and you can't make the TCA cycle work. Your cell starves, suffocates and backs up with garbage all at once and, when it happens to enough cells, you die. So what exactly kills you? Some cells are working really hard all the time. Those cells are mainly in the brain, heart and gut and they need the most oxygen. When you have cyanide poisoning (the technical term is [histotoxic hypoxia]( URL_1 ) (which is a fancy name for saying low oxygen situation that kills your cells), the cells that use the most oxygen are hit first and hardest. So you get headaches and dizziness (brain), heart palpitations (heart) and nausea (gut). If you are exposed to more cyanide then one or more of those areas fails completely and you have vomiting, heart failure, unconsciousness and then death.	[ "Section::::Toxicity.:Sensitivity.\n\nMinimum risk levels (MRLs) may not protect for delayed health effects or health effects acquired following repeated sublethal exposure, such as hypersensitivity, asthma, or bronchitis. MRLs may be revised after sufficient data accumulates.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Mining.\n", "Diagnosis is often difficult. It may be suspected in a person following a house fire who has a decreased level of consciousness, low blood pressure, or high blood lactate. Blood levels of cyanide can be measured but take time. Levels of 0.5–1 mg/L are mild, 1–2 mg/L are moderate, 2–3 mg/L are severe, and greater than 3 mg/L generally result in death.\n", "In addition to its uses as a pesticide and insecticide, cyanide is contained in tobacco smoke and smoke from building fires, and is present in many seeds or kernels such as those of almonds, apricots, apples, oranges, and in foods including cassava (also known as yuca or manioc), and bamboo shoots. Vitamin B12, in the form of hydroxocobalamin (also spelled hydroxycobalamin), may reduce the negative effects of chronic exposure, and a deficiency can lead to negative health effects following exposure.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "BULLET::::- On January 27, 2013, a fire at the Kiss nightclub in the city of Santa Maria, in the south of Brazil, caused the poisoning of hundreds of young people by cyanide released by the combustion of soundproofing foam made with polyurethane. By March 2013, 241 fatalities were confirmed.\n\nSection::::History.:Gas chambers.\n", "BULLET::::- On June 6, 1985, serial killer Leonard Lake died in custody after having ingested cyanide pills he had sewn into his clothes.\n\nBULLET::::- On June 28, 2012, Wall Street trader Michael Marin ingested a cyanide pill seconds after a guilty verdict was read in his arson trial in Phoenix, AZ; he died minutes after.\n\nBULLET::::- On June 22, 2015, John B. McLemore, an horologist and the central figure of the podcast S-Town, died after ingesting cyanide.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Chronic exposure.\n\nExposure to lower levels of cyanide over a long period (e.g., after use of improperly processed cassava roots as a primary food source in tropical Africa) results in increased blood cyanide levels, which can result in weakness and a variety of symptoms, including permanent paralysis, nervous lesions, hypothyroidism, and miscarriages. Other effects include mild liver and kidney damage.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Use against Canidae.\n\nThe M44 is in frequent use by the USDA Wildlife Services in their programs to eliminate coyotes. For example, in 2016, out of the 76,963 coyotes that Wildlife Services killed, the M44 was used to kill 12,511 of them (16%).\n", "BULLET::::- In February 1937, the Uruguayan short story writer Horacio Quiroga committed suicide by drinking cyanide in a hospital at Buenos Aires.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1937, polymer chemist Wallace Carothers committed suicide by cyanide.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1943 Operation Gunnerside to destroy the Vemork Heavy Water Plant in World War II (an attempt to stop or slow German atomic bomb progress), the commandos were given cyanide tablets (cyanide enclosed in rubber) kept in the mouth and were instructed to bite into them in case of German capture. The tablets ensured death within three minutes.\n", "Most significantly, hydrogen cyanide released from pellets of Zyklon-B was used extensively in the systematic mass murders of the Holocaust, especially in extermination camps. Poisoning by hydrogen cyanide gas within a gas chamber (as a salt of hydrocyanic acid is dropped into a strong acid, usually sulfuric acid) is one method of executing a condemned prisoner as the condemned prisoner eventually breathes the lethal fumes.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Niche uses.:Food additive.\n", "Section::::Occurrence and reactions.\n\nSection::::Occurrence and reactions.:In nature.\n", "Section::::Chemical tests for cyanide.:Gas diffusion flow injection analysis—amperometry.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Illegal fishing and poaching.\n\nCyanides are illegally used to capture live fish near coral reefs for the aquarium and seafood markets. The practice is controversial, dangerous, and damaging but is driven by the lucrative exotic fish market.\n\nPoachers in Africa have been known to use cyanide to poison waterholes, to kill elephants for their ivory.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Pest control.\n", "BULLET::::- It is speculated that, in 1954, Alan Turing used an apple that had been injected with a solution of cyanide to commit suicide after being convicted of having a homosexual relationship — illegal at the time in the UK—and forced to undergo hormonal castration.\n\nBULLET::::- Members of the Sri Lankan LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, whose insurgency lasted from 1983 to 2009), used to wear cyanide vials around their necks with the intention of committing suicide if captured by the government forces.\n", "It has been shown that treatment of mice with carbon tetrachloride, which acts on the mixed function oxygenase system, results in much lower cyanide concentrations than controls and greatly reduced toxicity of MeAN, indicating that cyanide production is indeed the main pathway of toxicity, unlike AN, which is more carcinogenic.\n\nMore information about toxicity of cyanide see: \"cyanide poisoning\". \n\nSection::::Toxicity in humans.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Decontamination.\n\nDecontamination of people exposed to hydrogen cyanide gas only requires removal of the outer clothing and the washing of their hair. Those exposed to liquids or powders generally require full decontamination.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Antidote.\n", "The vasodilatation caused by sodium nitroprusside has been shown to be mediated not only by NO generation, but also by endogenous cyanide generation, which adds not only toxicity, but also some additional antihypertensive efficacy compared to nitroglycerine and other non-cyanogenic nitrates which do not cause blood cyanide levels to rise.\n\nHCN is a constituent of tobacco smoke.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:HCN and the origin of life.\n", "BULLET::::2. 2 RCN + LiAlH + (second step) 4 HO → 2 RCHNH + LiAl(OH) (under reflux in dry ether, followed by addition of HO)\n\nSection::::Manufacture.\n\nThe principal process used to manufacture cyanides is the Andrussow process in which gaseous hydrogen cyanide is produced from methane and ammonia in the presence of oxygen and a platinum catalyst.\n\nSodium cyanide is produced by treating hydrogen cyanide with sodium hydroxide\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n", "BULLET::::- Rosemary Barton: Wife of George Barton, who inherited wealth from an uncle. She was killed one year before this story.\n\nBULLET::::- George Barton: Husband of Rosemary, who arranges a dinner one year after his wife's death, and is killed at the anniversary dinner.\n\nBULLET::::- Colonel Race: Investigator and friend of George Barton.\n\nBULLET::::- Iris: Sister of Rosemary, now wealthy, and the intended victim of a second poisoning attempt at the dinner.\n\nBULLET::::- Anthony Browne: Boyfriend of Iris, who works to solve the many attempts to kill her.\n", "BULLET::::- On November 29, 2017, Slobodan Praljak died from drinking potassium cyanide, after being convicted of war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia.\n\nSection::::History.:Mining and industrial.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2000, a spill at Baia Mare, Romania resulted in the worst environmental disaster in Europe since Chernobyl.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2000, Allen Elias, CEO of Evergreen Resources was convicted of knowing endangerment for his role in the cyanide poisoning of employee Scott Dominguez. This was one of the first successful criminal prosecutions of a corporate executive by the Environmental Protection Agency.\n\nSection::::History.:Murder.\n", "Section::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- ATSDR medical management guidelines for cyanide poisoning (US)\n\nBULLET::::- HSE recommendations for first aid treatment of cyanide poisoning (UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen cyanide and cyanides (CICAD 61)\n\nBULLET::::- IPCS/CEC Evaluation of antidotes for poisoning by cyanides\n\nBULLET::::- National Pollutant Inventory—Cyanide compounds fact sheet\n\nBULLET::::- Eating apple seeds is safe despite the small amount of cyanide\n\nBULLET::::- Toxicological Profile for Cyanide, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, July 2006\n\nSafety data (French):\n\nBULLET::::- Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (1997). \"Cyanure d'hydrogène et solutions aqueuses\". \"Fiche toxicologique n° 4\", Paris: INRS, 5 pp. (PDF file, )\n", "Exposure to small amounts of cyanide has no effect. Higher concentrations cause dizziness, weakness and nausea, which cease with the exposure, but long-time exposure can cause mild symptoms followed by permanent brain damage and muscle paralysis. Moderate exposure causes stronger and longer-lasting symptoms, including headache, that can be followed by convulsions and coma. Stronger or longer exposure will also lead to convulsions and coma. Very strong exposure causes severe toxic effects within seconds, and rapid death.\n", "A number of prominent persons were killed or committed suicide using potassium cyanide, including members of the Young Bosnia and famous personalities in the Third Reich, such as Erwin Rommel, Hitler's longtime companion Eva Braun, Joseph Goebbels, Heinrich Himmler, and Hermann Göring, World War II–era British agents (using purpose-made suicide pills), computer scientist Alan Turing, polymer chemist Wallace Carothers, 19th-century German chemist Viktor Meyer, and various religious cult suicides such as by the Peoples Temple, Danish writer Gustav Wied in 1914, members of the LTTE involved in the assassination of Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, and Jason Altom, who was a promising graduate student in the lab of Nobel Prize–winning chemist EJ Corey at Harvard. Slobodan Praljak, a wartime general in Republic of Croatia and convicted war criminal, committed suicide by drinking from a vial containing potassium cyanide during the reading of his sentence in The Hague on International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) on 29 November 2017.\n", "If exposure is suspected, the person should be removed from the source of exposure and decontaminated. Treatment involves supportive care and giving the person 100% oxygen. Hydroxocobalamin (vitamin B12) appears to be useful as an antidote and is generally first-line. Sodium thiosulphate may also be given. Historically cyanide has been used for mass suicide and by the Nazis for genocide.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Acute exposure.\n", "Cyanide poisoning\n\nCyanide poisoning is poisoning that results from exposure to a number of forms of cyanide. Early symptoms include headache, dizziness, fast heart rate, shortness of breath, and vomiting. This may then be followed by seizures, slow heart rate, low blood pressure, loss of consciousness, and cardiac arrest. Onset of symptoms is usually within a few minutes. If a person survives, there may be long-term neurological problems.\n", "If cyanide is inhaled it can cause a coma with seizures, apnea, and cardiac arrest, with death following in a matter of seconds. At lower doses, loss of consciousness may be preceded by general weakness, giddiness, headaches, vertigo, confusion, and perceived difficulty in breathing. At the first stages of unconsciousness, breathing is often sufficient or even rapid, although the state of the person progresses towards a deep coma, sometimes accompanied by pulmonary edema, and finally cardiac arrest. A cherry red skin color that changes to dark may be present as the result of increased venous hemoglobin oxygen saturation. Despite the similar name, cyanide does not directly cause cyanosis. A fatal dose for humans can be as low as 1.5 mg/kg body weight.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02795	Is a regular audio file with sounds larger than an audio file of the same lengths without sounds?	To a degree, it would depend on the format of the audio file. If it is a file type that allows for compression, then something with no sound would be highly compressible, and have negligible size, whilst the version with audio would be less compressible and so be bigger. If it was a format without compression, then both would be the same size.	[ "The original SoundFont file format was developed in the early 1990s by E-mu Systems and Creative Labs. A specification for this version was never released to the public. The first and only major device to utilize this version was Creative's Sound Blaster AWE32 in 1994. Files in this format conventionally have the file extension of .SBK or .SB2.\n", "Section::::MWW.\n\nMWW is the non-documented, proprietary binary file format developed by Middle Earth Software that stored MIDI and additional information. The .mww files are typically about six to eight times larger than .mid files. MusicWorks has an autosave feature that created a \"~MW\" file, identical to an MWW file, that backs up the music while being working on. The program is stable enough that this is in case the OS crashes or some other problem is caused by multi-tasking.\n", "BULLET::::- MX6HS – Mixcraft 6 Home Studio project file\n\nBULLET::::- NPR – Steinberg Nuendo project file\n\nBULLET::::- OMF, OMFI – Open Media Framework Interchange OMFI succeeds OMF (Open Media Framework)\n\nBULLET::::- RIN – Soundways RIN-M file containing sound recording participant credits and song information\n\nBULLET::::- SES – Adobe Audition multitrack session file\n\nBULLET::::- SFL – Sound Forge sound file\n\nBULLET::::- SNG – MIDI sequence file (MidiSoft, Korg, etc.) or n-Track Studio project file\n\nBULLET::::- STF – StudioFactory project file. It contains all necessary patches, samples, tracks and settings to play the file\n\nBULLET::::- SND – Akai MPC sound file\n", "AppleLoops use either the .aiff (or .aif) or .caf extension regardless of type.\n\nSection::::Data format.\n\nAn AIFF file is divided into a number of chunks. Each chunk is identified by a \"chunk ID\" more broadly referred to as FourCC.\n\nTypes of chunks found in AIFF files:\n\nBULLET::::- Common Chunk (required)\n\nBULLET::::- Sound Data Chunk (required)\n\nBULLET::::- Marker Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Instrument Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Comment Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Name Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Author Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Copyright Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Annotation Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Audio Recording Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- MIDI Data Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- Application Chunk\n\nBULLET::::- ID3 Chunk\n\nSection::::Metadata.\n", "The file extension for the standard AIFF format is .aiff or .aif. For the compressed variants it is supposed to be .aifc, but .aiff or .aif are accepted as well by audio applications supporting the format.\n\nSection::::AIFF on Mac OS X.\n\nWith the development of the Mac OS X operating system, Apple created a new type of AIFF which is, in effect, an alternative little-endian byte order format.\n", "The audio files are categorized into a number of groups, including acoustic, live, solo, environmental and loops. A single audio file can be used in many different ways by varying, for example, dynamic levels, volume and duration of play. For a particular piece, for example, the software might select any two of seven acoustic files and play them together for \"x\" seconds, adding one of four environmental files after \"y\" seconds.\n", "Thus, an MXF file received & unwrapped may reveal SMPTE D10 compliant essence with eight \"mono\" AES audio components; the recipient has no way of knowing whether these components are multiple stereo pairs, 5.1 or serve some other purpose.\n\nMost of the incompatibilities were addressed and ratified in the 2009 version of the standard.\n", "The manufacturer of electronic music instruments Akai had an audio file format with the extension .snd. The first byte contains the number 1 and the second the number 4.\n\nThe manufacturer of the HOM-BOT Robot Vacuum Cleaner LG Group is using audio files with the extension .snd. The sounds are encoded in PCM (single channel, 16 kHz, 16 bits signed).\n\nThe Unity Game Engine uses a compressed format called .snd for sound packages.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Au file format\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Documentation on developer.apple.com\n\nBULLET::::- List of commands on developer.apple.com\n\nBULLET::::- Sox audio file format FAQ\n", "The first sub-chunk is identified by the \"hdrl\" tag. This sub-chunk is the file header and contains metadata about the video, such as its width, height and frame rate. The second sub-chunk is identified by the \"movi\" tag. This chunk contains the actual audio/visual data that make up the AVI movie. The third optional sub-chunk is identified by the \"idx1\" tag which indexes the offsets of the data chunks within the file.\n", "SoundFont banks can conform to standard sound sets such as General MIDI, or use other wholly custom sound-set definitions.\n\nSection::::SoundFont creation software (.sf2 format).\n\nSeveral .sf2 editors are available:\n\nBULLET::::- Vienna from Creative Labs, requiring a particular sound card (such as Sound Blaster),\n\nBULLET::::- Viena (with a single \"n\"), created in 2002,\n\nBULLET::::- Swami is a collection of free software for editing and managing musical instruments for MIDI music composition, used mainly under Linux,\n\nBULLET::::- Polyphone, free editor for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux created in 2013.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- DLS format\n\nBULLET::::- SFZ (file format)\n", "Creative Voice file\n\nCreative Voice , filename extension codice_1 is an audio format for digital audio data for developed in the 1990s Sound Blaster - sound cards from Creative Technology .\n\nSection::::Construction.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Original-Format (8-Bit).\n\nThe file format consists of a 26-byte header and a series of subsequent data blocks containing the audio information. The byte order is Little Endian .\n", "AVI is a subformat of the Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF), which divides a file's data into blocks, or \"chunks.\" Each \"chunk\" is identified by a FourCC tag. An AVI file takes the form of a single \"chunk\" in a RIFF formatted file, which is then subdivided into two mandatory \"chunks\" and one optional \"chunk\".\n", "Nowadays, most module files, including ones in zipped form, are supported by most popular media players such as Winamp, VLC, Foobar2000, Amarok, Exaile and many others (mainly due to inclusion of common playback libraries such as libmodplug for gstreamer).\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nModule files store digitally recorded samples and several \"patterns\" or \"pages\" of music data in a form similar to that of a spreadsheet. These patterns contain note numbers, instrument numbers, and controller messages. The number of notes that can be played simultaneously depends on how many \"tracks\" there are per pattern.\n", "Some time later, Pixel developed the Organya format for use in the indie game Cave Story. This format is very similar to PiyoPiyo, with the major difference being support for up to 8 melody tracks and 8 drum tracks for 16 simultaneous sounds. Rather than having the specifications of the waveform editable, Organya uses a built-in library of 100 wave \"instruments\" to choose from. Pxtone was developed as a successor to Organya.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nBULLET::::- Up to 100 voice samples, 50 instrument units, and 500,000 events per file\n\nBULLET::::- Sampling of .wav, .ogg, .pcm, .ptvoice, and .ptnoise\n", "The format specifies a multimedia container file that contains one or more tracks, each of which stores a particular type of data: audio, video, or text (e.g. for subtitles). Each track either contains a digitally-encoded media stream (using a specific format) or a data reference to the media stream located in another file. Tracks are maintained in a hierarchical data structure consisting of objects called atoms. An atom can be a parent to other atoms or it can contain media or edit data, but it cannot do both.\n", "Most AAC files with finite length are wrapped in an MPEG-4 container (.mp4, .m4a), which is supported natively in Internet Explorer, Safari, and Chrome, and supported by the OS in Firefox and Opera. Most AAC live streams with infinite length are wrapped in an Audio Data Transport Stream container (.aac, .adts), which is supported by Chrome, Safari, Firefox and Edge.\n\nMany browsers also support uncompressed PCM audio in a WAVE container.\n\nIn 2012, the free and open royalty-free Opus format was released and standardized by IETF. It is supported by Mozilla, Google, Opera and Edge.\n", "BULLET::::- Embedded mp3 track and the mp3HD file share the same id3 metadata\n\nBULLET::::- Popularity of the mp3 brand\n\nCons\n\nBULLET::::- Not very widespread\n\nBULLET::::- Lack of support\n\nBULLET::::- Bigger than standard mp3\n\nBULLET::::- No quality boost if player only supports standard mp3\n\nBULLET::::- The lossless part is stored in an ID3v2 tag.\n\nBULLET::::- Size of ID3v2 tags is limited to by specifications; as a result, lossless part of an mp3hd file can't be larger than .\n", "Following the header structure is a variable-length annotation field. The contents of this field are currently undefined, except that its length must be a multiple of eight bytes and it must be terminated with at least one null (zero) byte. The audio data segment begins on an eight-byte boundary immediately following the annotation field. Audio data is encoded in the format identified by the file header. The current implementation supports only a single audio data segment per file. The variable-length annotation field is currently ignored by most audio applications.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Sample .AU file\n", "Note, however, that such notation is usually not valid at operating system and command-line interface levels, because the 'codice_21' character is neither a valid regular expression nor a universally \"legal\" filename character: that notation just stands as a placeholder for the virtual file-like representing the whole explicit file sequence.\n\nNotable software packages acknowledging explicit file sequences as single filesystem objects, rather typical in the Audio/Video post-production industry (see below), are found among products by Autodesk, Quantel, daVinci, DVS, as well as Adobe After Effects.\n\nSection::::File scattering.\n", "AIFF files can store metadata in Name, Author, Comment, Annotation, and Copyright chunks. An ID3v2 tag chunk can also be embedded in AIFF files, as well as an Application Chunk with Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP) data in it.\n\nSection::::Common compression types.\n\nAIFF supports only uncompressed PCM data. AIFF-C also supports compressed audio formats, that can be specified in the \"COMM\" chunk. The compression type is \"NONE\" for PCM audio data. The compression type is accompanied by a printable name. Common compression types and names include, but are not limited to:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Lossless (ALAC)\n\nBULLET::::- FLAC\n\nBULLET::::- WAV\n", "BULLET::::- Windows Media Audio Voice (decoding only)\n\nSection::::Legal aspects.\n\nLibavcodec contains more than 100 codecs, most of which do not just store uncompressed data. Most codecs that compress information could be claimed by patent holders. Such claims may be enforceable in countries like the United States which have implemented software patents, but are considered unenforceable or void in countries that have not implemented software patents.\n", "Device name length in MME is restricted to 31 characters so long device names may appear only partially.\n\nSection::::Multimedia Extensions (MME).:Issues.\n", "The header is followed by data blocks. Each data block begins with a type byte describing the contents of the data, followed by 3 bytes for the size of the data (as an integer ). For two of the 9 defined types, the subsequent size of the data is missing, so the block ultimately consists of only a single byte - these are codice_2the terminator , and codice_3the repeat end.\n\nIf a size is specified, the first 4 bytes will be followed by a block of the content resulting from the specified type with the specified size.\n", "OSC messages consist of an address pattern, a type tag string, arguments and an optional time tag. Address patterns form a hierarchical name space, reminiscent of a Unix filesystem path, or a URL. Type tag strings are a compact string representation of the argument types. Arguments are represented in binary form with four-byte alignment. The core types supported are\n\nBULLET::::- 32-bit two's complement signed integers\n\nBULLET::::- 32-bit IEEE floating point numbers\n\nBULLET::::- Null-terminated arrays of eight-bit encoded data (C-style strings)\n\nBULLET::::- arbitrary sized blob (e.g. audio data, or a video frame)\n", "The CMF format uses the .CMF filename extension. Files can be identified by the file signature in the first four bytes, which will be the ASCII characters \"CTMF\" (Creative Technology Music File) if the file is in CMF format.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00932	Why exactly does cold weather dry out skin even when there's a decent level of relative humidity?	Relative humidity is relative to the carrying capacity of the air. Colder air cannot hold as much water vapor as warm air, which is how you get condensation on cold cups carried in warm humid weather - the air next to the cup cools and the water vapor in it precipitates out as liquid. So if relative humidity stays the same percentage, but the air gets significantly colder, there is less water vapor in any given segment of air.	[ "The U.S. National Weather Service defines \"extreme cold\" as with winds less than . In these conditions, the unprotected skin of a healthy adult will develop frostbite in ten to twenty minutes. The Canadian standard includes lower temperatures.\n\nSection::::Principles.\n", "In the original sense it meant the movement of waste saturated in water found in periglacial regions. However it was later discovered that various slow waste movements in periglacial regions did not require saturation in water, but were rather associated to freeze-thaw processes. The term solifluction was appropriated to refer to these slow processes, and therefore excludes rapid periglacial movements. In slow periglacial solifluction there are not clear gliding planes, and therefore skinflows and active layer detachments are not included in the concept. On the other hand, movement of waste saturated in water can occur in any humid climate, and therefore this kind of solifluction is not restricted to cold climates.\n", "In cold climates, the outdoor temperature causes lower capacity for water vapor to flow about. Thus although it may be snowing and the relative humidity outdoors is high, once that air comes into a building and heats up, its new relative humidity is very low, making the air very dry, which can cause discomfort.\n\nDry cracked skin can result from dry air.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Very little variation in temperature occurs throughout the year. The mean monthly temperature ranges from in August (the coolest) to in March (the hottest), with an annual average of . The \"cooler\" months tend to be more humid than the warmer months. As a result, during the warmer months and particularly during the windy harmattan season, the district experiences a breezy \"dry heat\" that feels less warm than the \"cooler\" but more humid rainy season.\n", "Keratolysis exfoliativa normally appears during warm weather. Due to excessive sweating and friction, in for example athletic shoes, the skin can start to exfoliate. Other factors that can cause exfoliation are detergents and solvents.\n\nAnother very common cause has been reported from salt water fishermen, who often suffer from these symptoms. It is not sure whether it is from the salt water or whether it is from some bacteria from fish.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Blood flow is directly influenced by the thermodynamics of the body. Changes in temperature affect the viscosity and surface tension of the blood, altering the minimum blood flow rate. At high temperatures the minimum flow rate will decrease and the capillary will expand. This allows heat transfer through the increased surface area of the inner capillary lining and through increased blood flow. At low temperatures the minimum flow rate will increase and the capillary will constrict. This restricts blood flow and decreases the surface area of the capillary, reducing heat transfer.\n", "Thus, the higher surface area-to-volume ratio of smaller animals in hot and dry climates facilitates heat loss through the skin and helps cool the body. It is important to note that when analyzing Bergmann's Rule in the field that groups of populations being studied are of different thermal environments, and also have been separated long enough to genetically differentiate in response to these thermal conditions.\n", "Section::::Thermodynamics.\n\nThe ambient temperature of the body directly affects blood flow through microvasculature. Changes in temperature affect the viscosity of blood and the surface tension. Surface tension decreases with increasing temperature, decreasing the minimum flow rate (see Surface Tension). The decrease in minimum flow rate by higher temperatures allows more blood to flow and dissipate heat throughout the body. Temperature greatly affects blood flow by influencing the diameter of flow. Decreases and increases in temperature trigger vasoconstriction and vasodilation respectively.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.:Vasoconstriction.\n", "The evaporation of the moisture from the clothes will cool the indoor air and increase the humidity level, which may or may not be desirable. In cold, dry weather, moderate increases in humidity make most people feel more comfortable. In warm weather, increased humidity makes most people feel even hotter. Increased humidity can also increase growth of fungi, which can cause health problems.\n", "The skin temperature is thus independent of the absorptivity/emissivity of the skin layer.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Anesthesia causes vasodilatation, which increases blood flow to the surface of the body and thus increases heat loss from the body. During anesthesia, blood flow to the surface may maintain skin temperature (which is normally lower than the core temperature), even while the core temperature is falling. Barring preventive interventions, hypothermia occurs in more than half of all surgical patients undergoing anesthesia.\n", "As seen in the heat equation,\n\none way to view thermal diffusivity is as the ratio of the time derivative of temperature to its curvature, quantifying the rate at which temperature concavity is \"smoothed out\". In a sense, thermal diffusivity is the measure of thermal inertia. In a substance with high thermal diffusivity, heat moves rapidly through it because the substance conducts heat quickly relative to its volumetric heat capacity or 'thermal bulk'.\n", "Dry skin results from lack of water in the outer layer of skin cells (the stratum corneum). When this layer becomes dehydrated it loses its flexibility and becomes cracked, scaly and sometimes itchy. The stratum corneum contains natural water-holding substances that retain water seeping up from the deeper layers of the skin, and water is also normally retained in the stratum corneum by a surface film of natural oil (sebum) and broken-down skin cells, which slow down evaporation of water from the skin surface. Diprobase works by increasing that layer of oil.\n\nSection::::Manufacturer.\n", "The wetness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort. Humidity can increase wetness on different areas of the body, leading to a perception of discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body, and local thermal comfort limits for skin wettedness differ by locations of the body. The extremities are much more sensitive to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal discomfort can be caused from wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be affected by the wetness of certain parts.\n", "However, the substrate can still be affected by humidity and UV exposure if the substrate is applied in an environment that it was not designed for. For instance, one could get substrate failure by using a tape that was made to be used in a desert in a place such as Florida. The difference in temperature might not be very large, but there is a huge difference in humidity. Any environmental effect on the substrate is dependent on the identity and purpose of the substrate.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Mechanical wear.\n", "Usually, if the inland areas have a humid continental climate, the coastal areas stay much milder during winter months, in contrast to the hotter summers. This is the case further north on the American west coast, such as in British Columbia, Canada, where Vancouver has an oceanic wet winter with rare frosts, but inland areas that average several degrees warmer in summer have cold and snowy winters.\n\nSection::::Background.:Soil types.\n", "Equation () is a simplified form of Darcy's Law. In building applications the air is at ambient pressure and temperature and small changes in the viscosity of air are not significant. Darcy's Law can be used to calculate the air permeability of a porous medium if the permeability of the medium (m) is known.\n", "The main border of hot-summer/cold-winter zone is hot, humid summers and cold, humid winters. The temperature difference between day and night is normally small. The precipitation in an average year is large. Sun radiation is relative weak due to cloud cover. \n\nThe most durable time you will ever have outside during the hottest summer month is , with peak temperatures above . The average outside temperature during the coldest winter month is , with lowest temperatures below .\n", "The skin layer of an atmosphere references a layer far above the emission level, at a height where the atmosphere is extremely diffuse. As a result, this thin layer is transparent to solar (visible) radiation and translucent to planetary/atmospheric (infrared) radiation. In other words, the skin layer acts as a graybody, because it is not a perfect absorber/emitter of infrared radiation. Instead, most of the infrared radiation coming from below (i.e. from the emission level) will pass through the skin layer, with only a small fraction being absorbed, resulting in a cold skin layer.\n\nSection::::Derivation.\n", "Because of this effect, the lowering of temperature in moist, cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate. The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes, and latent heat is released. This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen, at which point temperatures can continue to fall.\n\nTherefore, for as long as water is available to the system (for example, through cryosuction/capillary action) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature.\n", "Climatologist Wladimir Köppen demonstrated a relationship between the Arctic and Antarctic tree lines and the summer isotherm; i.e., places where the average temperature in the warmest calendar month of the year is below cannot support forests. See Köppen climate classification for more information.\n", "Lastly, there is a latitudinal variation in the cloud cover, such that around 20°N there are regions with 0.10 less cloudiness than the global mean. Almost the same variation (0.15 instead of 0.10) is found 20°S. On the other hand, in the storm regions of the Southern Hemisphere midlatitudes were found to have with 0.15-0.25 more cloudiness than the global mean at 60°S. On average, about 52% of Earth is cloud-covered at any moment.\n", "Skin wettedness is defined as \"the proportion of the total skin surface area of the body covered with sweat.\"\n", "Section::::Climate.:Global climate.\n\nHumidity affects the energy budget and thereby influences temperatures in two major ways. First, water vapor in the atmosphere contains \"latent\" energy. During transpiration or evaporation, this latent heat is removed from surface liquid, cooling the earth's surface. This is the biggest non-radiative cooling effect at the surface. It compensates for roughly 70% of the average net radiative warming at the surface.\n" ]	[ "Cold weather should not dry out your skin because there is decent RH.", "If cold air has humidity, it should not be able to dry out skin as much as it does. " ]	[ "Cold weather dries your skin because there is less water in it. ", "Cold air doesn't hold as much water vapor as warmer air, " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cold weather should not dry out your skin because there is decent RH.", "If cold air has humidity, it should not be able to dry out skin as much as it does. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cold weather dries your skin because there is less water in it. ", "Cold air doesn't hold as much water vapor as warmer air, " ]
2018-13879	What is the difference between the specification of a 7” record and a 12” record ( in newer, digital forms of music)	7" would be a single, and 12" would be an album, so they are specifying which version of the track it is - the version released as a single, or the copy which appeared on the album.	[ "As a special release for Record Store Day 2011, Capitol re-released The Beach Boys single \"Good Vibrations\" in the form of a 10-inch 78 rpm record (b/w \"Heroes and Villains\"). More recently, The Reverend Peyton's Big Damn Band has released their tribute to blues guitarist Charley Patton \"Peyton on Patton\" on both 12-inch LP and 10-inch 78 rpm. Both are accompanied with a link to a digital download of the music, acknowledging the probability that purchasers might be unable to play the vinyl recording.\n\nSection::::New sizes and materials.\n", "Sizes of records in the United States and the UK are generally measured in inches, e.g. 7-inch records, which are generally 45 rpm records. LPs were 10-inch records at first, but soon the 12-inch size became by far the most common. Generally, 78s were 10-inch, but 12-inch and 7-inch and even smaller were made —— the so-called \"little wonders\".\n\nSection::::Formats.:Less common formats.\n\nFlexi discs were thin flexible records that were distributed with magazines and as promotional gifts from the 1960s to the 1980s.\n", "BULLET::::- 1983: Nona Hendryx – \"Transformation\" – 12\" single\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Bill Laswell – \"Baselines\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Yellowman – \"King Yellowman\" – tracks \"Strong Me Strong\" and \"Disco Reggae\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Yellowman – \"Strong Me Strong\" – 12\" single\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Gil Scott-Heron – \"Re-Ron\" – 7\" and 12\" single\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Timezone featuring Afrika Bambaataa and John Lydon – \"World Destruction\" – 7\" and 12\" single\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Fab Five Freddy – \"Change the Beat\" – 7\" and 12\" single\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Herbie Hancock – \"Sound-System\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: Herbie Hancock – \"Metal Beat\" – 12\" single\n", "BULLET::::- CHS TT26 The Special AKA — \"Nelson Mandela\" / \"Break Down The Door!\" 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT12 26 The Special AKA — \"Nelson Mandela\" / \"Break Down The Door!\" 12\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT27 The Special AKA — \"What I Like Most About You Is Your Girlfriend\" / \"Can't Get A Break\" 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT12 27 The Special AKA — \"What I Like Most About You Is Your Girlfriend\" (Extended Version) / \"Can't Get A Break\" 12\" (Early copies had free poster)\n", "BULLET::::- A special 12\" version of M's single \"Pop Muzik\" (1979) features \"Pop Muzik\" and \"M Factor\" on one side. The single was credited on its cover as \"The first 'Double Groove' single\", although this claim is questionable.\n\nBULLET::::- John Cooper Clarke's 7\" Splat/Twat S EPC 7982 (1979) has Twat (live recording) and Splat (censored version) on two grooves on the A side.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n\nThe album was included in Robert Christgau's \"Basic Record Library\" of 1950s and 1960s recordings, published in \"\" (1981).\n\nSection::::Remastered version.\n\nIn August 2002, \"12 × 5\" was reissued in a new remastered CD and SACD digipak by ABKCO Records. This edition includes stereo versions of \"Around and Around\", \"Confessin' the Blues\", \"Empty Heart\", \"It's All Over Now\", an extended version of \"2120 South Michigan Avenue\", and \"If You Need Me\".\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nNote\n", "Some records to have incorporated this feature, include:-\n\nBULLET::::- One of the earliest examples of a three-track side was a 1901 Pre-Dog Victor A-821 Fortune Telling Record. This is a multi-Track disc with three recording tracks that go all the way through the record. It is titled \"Fortune Telling Puzzle Record a song and two Fortunes, See if you can find them.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Fortune Teller Song,\" a 1951 single by the Fontane Sisters (RCA Victor 4106), contained four different versions of the song, each with a different ending.\n", "The hardback book provides a history of Topic Records from its start as a subscription label run by the Workers Music Association issuing 78rpm shellac records, through the introduction of vinyl and its associated formats to CDs and subsequent to the boxed set the release of some of the older albums as downloads.\n\nThe book contains pictures of album covers and artists that recorded them for Topic with a chronological history of the label up to 2009.\n\nAs part of this history there are spotlight studies of classic records and short biographies of key personnel and performers.\n\nSection::::Packaging.:Catalogue of releases.\n", "The basic specifications of the music single were set in the late 19th century, when the gramophone record began to supersede phonograph cylinders in commercially produced musical recordings. Gramophone discs were manufactured with a range of playback speeds (from 16 rpm to 78 rpm) and in several sizes (including 12-inch/30 cm). By about 1910, however, the 10-inch (25 cm), 78 rpm shellac disc had become the most commonly used format.\n", "Eventually the 12-inch (300 mm) rpm LP prevailed as the dominant format for musical albums, and 10-inch LPs were no longer issued. The last Columbia Records reissue of any Frank Sinatra songs on a 10-inch LP record was an album called \"Hall of Fame\", CL 2600, issued on October 26, 1956, containing six songs, one each by Tony Bennett, Rosemary Clooney, Johnnie Ray, Frank Sinatra, Doris Day, and Frankie Laine. The 10-inch LP had a longer life in the United Kingdom, where important early British rock and roll albums such as Lonnie Donegan's \"Lonnie Donegan Showcase\" and Billy Fury's \"The Sound of Fury\" were released in that form. The 7-inch (175 mm) 45 rpm disc or \"single\" established a significant niche for shorter duration discs, typically containing one item on each side. The 45 rpm discs typically emulated the playing time of the former 78 rpm discs, while the 12-inch LP discs eventually provided up to one half-hour of recorded material per side.\n", "12 X 5\n\n12 × 5 is the second American studio album by The Rolling Stones, released in 1964 following the success of their American debut \"The Rolling Stones (England's Newest Hit Makers)\", released concurrently with their UK debut \"The Rolling Stones\". \"12 × 5\" is an expanded version of the EP \"Five by Five\", which had followed their debut album in the UK.\n", "BULLET::::- April 1977 – SS-8418 – \"Get It\" – Dave Edmunds\n\nBULLET::::- April 1978 – SS-8504 – \"It Takes One to Know One\" – Detective\n\nBULLET::::- 8 September 1978 – SS-8505 – \"Tracks on Wax 4\" – Dave Edmunds\n\nBULLET::::- 17 March 1979 – SS-8506 – \"Desolation Angels\" – Bad Company\n\nBULLET::::- 5 July 1979 – SS-8507 – \"Repeat When Necessary\" – Dave Edmunds\n\nBULLET::::- 15 August 1979 – SS-16002 – \"In Through the Out Door\" – Led Zeppelin\n\nBULLET::::- February 1981 – SS-8509 – \"Midnight Flyer\" – Midnight Flyer\n\nBULLET::::- 20 April 1981 – SS-16034 – \"Twangin’...\" – Dave Edmunds\n\nBULLET::::- August 1981 – SS-16048 – \"Sad Café\" – Sad Café\n\nBULLET::::- November 1981 – SS-8510 – \"Best of Dave Edmunds\" – Dave Edmunds\n", "BULLET::::7. \"(Can You) Feel It-Part 2\" (James Brown) – 2:38 – James Brown Presents His Band\n\nBULLET::::8. \"Three Hearts in a Tangle\" (R.S. Pennington, Sonny Thompson) – 2:55 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n\nBULLET::::9. \"I've Got Money\" (James Brown) – 2:32 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n\nBULLET::::10. \"Like a Baby\" (Jesse Stone) – 2:54 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n\nBULLET::::11. \"Every Beat of My Heart\" (Johnny Otis) – 3:46 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n", "Section::::Maxi-singles.\n", "BULLET::::- More advanced stylus tip shapes (Shibata, Van den Hul, MicroLine, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- Direct Metal Mastering\n\nBULLET::::- Noise-reduction (CX encoding, dbx encoding), starting from 1973\n", "BULLET::::- CHS TT29 JB's Allstars — \"The Alphabet Army\" / \"Al. Arm\" 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT12 29 JB's Allstars — \"The Alphabet Army\" / \"String Mix\" / \"Radio Version\" / \"Al. Arm\" 12\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tone FNMX1 The Special AKA — \"Free Nelson Mandela\" (70th Birthday Remake) / \"Free Nelson Mandela\" 12\"\n\nBULLET::::- TTP1 V/A — \"The 2 Tone Story\" promo EP 7\" (4 track EP, Specials, Selector, Madness, promo for The 2 Tone Story LP)\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT30 The Specials — \"Ghost Town\" / \"Ghost Town\" (Dub '91) 7\"\n", "BULLET::::- CHS TT15 Rico Rodriguez — \"Sea Cruise\" / \"Carolina\" 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT16 The Specials — \"Do Nothing\" / \"Maggie's Farm\" 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT17 The Specials — \"Ghost Town\" / \"Why ?\" / \"Friday Night, Saturday Morning\" 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT12 17 The Specials — \"Ghost Town\" (Extended) / \"Why ?\" (Extended) / \"Friday Night, Saturday Morning\" 12\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT18 Rhoda & The Special AKA — \"The Boiler\" / \"Theme From The Boiler\" 7\"\n\nBULLET::::- CHS TT19 Rico Rodriguez & The Special AKA — \"Jungle Music\" / \"Rasta Call You\" 7\"\n", "After sessions in Chicago in June 1964, the Stones' UK label Decca Records released the five-song EP \"Five by Five\". Because EPs were never a lucrative format in the US, London Records — their American distributor at the time — spread its songs across an album, adding seven new recordings to create a release of 12 songs by five musicians, hence the album's title. The rest of the songs were singles \"It's All Over Now\" and \"Time Is on My Side\" with their B-sides, plus three that were later included on \"The Rolling Stones No. 2\". Decca would use the same cover (minus the lettering) for the band's second UK album, \"The Rolling Stones No. 2\", in early 1965.\n", "Section::::History.:Columbia.\n\nCBS Laboratories head research scientist Peter Goldmark led Columbia's team to develop a phonograph record that would hold at least 20 minutes per side. Although Goldmark was the chief scientist who selected the team, he delegated most of the experimental work to William S. Bachman, whom Goldmark had lured from General Electric, and Howard H. Scott.\n", "In January 1938, Milt Gabler started recording for Commodore Records, and to allow for longer continuous performances, he recorded some 12-inch discs. Eddie Condon explained: \"Gabler realized that a jam session needs room for development.\" The first two 12-inch recordings did not take advantage of their capability: \"Carnegie Drag\" was 3m 15s; \"Carnegie Jump\", 2m 41s. But at the second session, on April 30, the two 12-inch recordings were longer: \"Embraceable You\" was 4m 05s; \"Serenade to a Shylock\", 4m 32s. Another way to overcome the time limitation was to issue a selection extending to both sides of a single record. Vaudeville stars Gallagher and Shean recorded \"Mr. Gallagher and Mr. Shean\", written by themselves or, allegedly, by Bryan Foy, as two sides of a 10-inch 78 in 1922 for Victor. Longer musical pieces were released as a set of records. In 1903 HMV in England made the first complete recording of an opera, Verdi's \"Ernani\", on 40 single-sided discs. In 1940, Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band's recording of \"A Good Man Is Hard to Find\" in four parts, issued on both sides of two 12-inch 78s. The limited duration of recordings persisted from their advent until the introduction of the LP record in 1948. In popular music, the time limit of minutes on a 10-inch 78 rpm record meant that singers seldom recorded long pieces. One exception is Frank Sinatra's recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein's \"Soliloquy\", from \"Carousel\", made on May 28, 1946. Because it ran 7m 57s, longer than both sides of a standard 78 rpm 10-inch record, it was released on Columbia's Masterwork label (the classical division) as two sides of a 12-inch record. The same was true of John Raitt's performance of the song on the original cast album of \"Carousel\", which had been issued on a 78-rpm album set by American Decca in 1945.\n", "BULLET::::16. \"I Love You, Yes I Do\" (Guy Wood, Edward Seiler, Sol Marcus, Sally Nix, Henry Glover) – 2:49 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n\nBULLET::::17. \"Just You and Me, Darling\" (James Brown) – 2:49 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n\nBULLET::::18. \"Lost Someone\" (James Brown, Eugene Stallworth, Bobby Byrd) – 3:08 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n\nBULLET::::19. \"Night Train\" (Oscar Washington, Lewis Simpkins, Jimmy Forrest) – 3:33 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n\nBULLET::::20. \"Why Does Everything Happen to Me\" (James Brown) – 2:11 – James Brown & the Famous Flames\n", "Janek Schaefer's \"On/Off LP\" is a one-sided clear 12-inch record with one centered groove and one off-center groove on the same side, designed to be played on Schaefer's multi-arm Tri-Phonic Turntable, and Twin Turntable. The disc was cut using two holes, one for each track. Schaefer's Wow 7\" was also cut with two holes and one-off center track on the B side.\n", "In 1906, Sears introduced the Oxford disc to replace the earlier Harvard brand. These discs in the 11000 and 16000 series, were produced by Leeds & Catlin. The 1908 Sears catalog introduced 7-inch discs listed at 21 cents that were pressed by Columbia and numbered in the 7000 series. In 1909 10-inch discs from Zonophone, retailing at 30 cents, were introduced. Fall 1911 saw Sears return to Columbia for pressings. These later discs are the most commonly found. The brand was phased out in 1916 for the new Silvertone brand, although records with the Oxford label were still being shipped in late 1917. Recordings appearing on the Oxford label could be recorded anywhere from 1901 to 1916. The take number is important to dating the recording, particularly for Columbia pressings. Cal Stewart's \"I'm Old But I'm Awfully Tough\" (Oxford 22) first appeared on Columbia in 1901, but the issued take number of was probably recorded much later.\n", "There was also a small batch of longer-playing records issued in the very early 1930s: Columbia introduced 10-inch longer-playing records (18000-D series), as well as a series of double-grooved or longer-playing 10-inch records on their Harmony, Clarion & Velvet Tone \"budget\" labels. There were also a couple of longer-playing records issued on ARC (for release on their Banner, Perfect, and Oriole labels) and on the Crown label. All of these were phased out in mid-1932.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1999, English Noise Artist Paul Nomex released a Parallel Groove 12\", \"Are you more than just a product of your influence\" that plays from the inside out on both sides at both 16 & 78 speeds.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2014, American alternative rock group Camper Van Beethoven released a two-disc reissue of their Key Lime Pie album, featuring one side that plays the song \"Closing Theme\" from the inside out at 45 RPM.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05244	Where does skin go after a lot of weight is lost?	It doesn’t vanish or retract to the form of your body. It sags, and the only means of really fixing it is to get it removed.	[ "Body contouring is a common procedure in both men and women. The surgery is prominent in those who have undergone significant weight loss resulting in excess sagging skin being present around areas of the body. Patients who have lost a large portion of excess weight may experience issues with elasticity of the skin once the fat has been lost. The skin losses elasticity (a condition called elastosis) once it has been stretched past capacity and is unable to recoil back to its standard position against the body and also with age. Body contouring is the removal of this excess skin and fat from numerous areas of the body, restoring the appearance of skin elasticity of the remaining skin, enhancing the contouring an tone of the body.\n", "Excess skin\n\nExcess skin is an effect of surplus skin and fat after expansion during pregnancy or adipositas and following loss of weight. Further reasons can be aging effects, genetic disorders or an intentional expansion for skin reconstruction.\n\nMethods to remove excess skin by surgery include abdominoplasty, breast reduction and brachioplasty.\n\nSection::::Literature.\n\nBULLET::::- Trude Staalesen: \"Assessment of Excess Skin and Outcome of Body Contouring Surgery in Post Bariatric Patients.\" Department of Plastic Surgery, Institute of Clinical Sciences at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg 2014 (pdf)\n\nBULLET::::- Mammoreduction - The goal to shrink the woman's breasts \n", "Skin aging is caused in part by TGF-β, which reduces the subcutaneous fat that gives skin a pleasant appearance and texture. TGF-β does this by blocking the conversion of dermal fibroblasts into fat cells; with fewer fat cells underneath to provide support, the skin becomes saggy and wrinkled. Subcutaneous fat also produces cathelicidin, which is a peptide that fights bacterial infections. \n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nThe term \"skin\" may also refer to the covering of a small animal, such as a sheep, goat (goatskin), pig, snake (snakeskin) etc. or the young of a large animal.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Epidermis.:Components.\n\nThe epidermis contains no blood vessels, and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkel cells. The epidermis helps the skin to regulate body temperature.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Epidermis.:Layers.\n", "The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air and to a far lesser degree by blood capillaries extending to the outer layers of the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are Merkel cells, keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following \"strata\" (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum, basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the basale layer. The daughter cells (see cell division) move up the strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The cytoplasm is released and the protein keratin is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and slough off (desquamation). This process is called \"keratinization\". This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.\n", "The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the granules of keratin. These skin cells finally become the cornified layer (\"stratum corneum\"), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After birth these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout life they are shed at a rate of 0.001 - 0.003 ounces of skin flakes every hour, or 0.024-0.072 ounces per day.\n", "Wound healing is a complex and fragile process in which the skin repairs itself after injury. It is susceptible to interruption or failure that creates non-healing chronic wounds.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n\nAdd from\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 American Society for Clinical Nutrition Nutritional skin care: health effects of micronutrients and fatty acids Esther Boelsma, Henk FJ Hendriks, and Len Roza.\n\nSection::::Radiation.\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "Often, when an object is rigged with a skeleton, weights are applied to the vertices near the joints. The vertices closer to the joint will usually have a lower weight assigned; the reason is so that during deformation, the geometry of the skin does not fold in on itself. Weighting in this situation will most of the time be done automatically using skinning techniques but is often done by hand fine tune the skeleton's deformation effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Skin aging is caused in part by TGF-β, which reduces the subcutaneous fat that gives skin a pleasant appearance and texture. TGF-β does this by blocking the conversion of dermal fibroblasts into fat cells; with fewer fat cells underneath to provide support, the skin becomes saggy and wrinkled. Subcutaneous fat also produces cathelicidin, which is a peptide that fights bacterial infections.\n\nSection::::Biological basis.:Damage-related factors.\n", "Section::::Molecular mechanisms in Skin Aging.\n\nThere are many dissimilar models that have been used to give an explanation of skin aging using a molecular base such as the theory of cellular senescence, the reduction in the cell's DNA repair capacity and losing of telomeres, oxidative stress etc. Some scientists also proposed that a large portion of skin aging is caused by external factors while only 3% is caused by internal factors. In this section we will talk about the significant models and advancement in molecular mechanisms studies in relation to aging of the skin.\n\nSection::::Oxidative stress.\n", "The subcutaneous tissue (also \"hypodermis\" and \"subcutis\") is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis of the cutis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Skin color.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Background and concept.\n", "Epidermis is divided into several layers where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. They eventually reach the top layer called \"stratum corneum\" and are sloughed off, or desquamated. This process is called \"keratinization\" and takes place within weeks. The outermost layer of the epidermis consists of 25 to 30 layers of dead cells.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Epidermis.:Sublayers.\n\nEpidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata:\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum corneum\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum lucidum\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum granulosum\n\nBULLET::::- Stratum spinosum\n", "Section::::Inflammaging.\n\nThis is the long-lasting inflammation that occurs as a result of aging. It affects the start and the progression of diseases that occur as a result of aging e.g. type 2 diabetes. It occurs in the skin because when exposed to the UV radiation it leads to the damaging of the epidermal cells which in turn cause inflammation to occur.\n\nSection::::Collagen loss due to increase in age.\n", "While the suctioned fat cells are permanently gone, after a few months overall body fat generally returns to the same level as before treatment. This is despite maintaining the previous diet and exercise regimen. While the fat returned somewhat to the treated area, most of the increased fat occurred in the abdominal area. Visceral fat - the fat surrounding the internal organs - increased, and this condition has been linked to life-shortening diseases such as diabetes, stroke, and heart attack.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "In reptiles, the \"stratum corneum\" is permanent, and is replaced only during times of rapid growth, in a process called ecdysis or moulting. This is conferred by the presence of beta-keratin, which provides a much more rigid skin layer.\n\nIn the human forearm, about 1300 cells per cm per hour are shed. \n\nStratum corneum protects the internal structures of the body from external injury and bacterial invasion.\n\nSection::::Skin disease.\n", "Chafing is caused by clothing rubbing against the skin. Chafing can also be caused by improper or overly loose fitting clothing generating extra friction. Obesity is commonly thought to be the leading cause of thigh chafing, and in some cases losing body fat may help the issue, but the problem is just as noticeable in athletes with well developed quadriceps and people with tight bone structures. Chafing is quite prevalent among long distance athletes such as cyclists or marathon runners due to the extensive time periods during which the skin is in irritating conditions.\n", "Section::::Permeability.:Increasing permeability.\n\nScientists previously believed that the skin was an effective barrier to inorganic particles. Damage from mechanical stressors was believed to be the only way to increase its permeability. \n", "Skin is a soft tissue and exhibits key mechanical behaviors of these tissues. The most pronounced feature is the J-curve stress strain response, in which a region of large strain and minimal stress exists and corresponds to the microstructural straightening and reorientation of collagen fibrils. In some cases the intact skin is prestreched, like wetsuits around the diver's body, and in other cases the intact skin is under compression. Small circular holes punched on the skin may widen or close into ellipses, or shrink and remain circular, depending on preexisting stresses.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Aging.\n", "BULLET::::- Stage 2: Swelling is not reversible overnight, and does not disappear without proper management. The tissue now has a spongy consistency and is considered non-pitting: when pressed by the fingertips, the affected area bounces back without indentation. Fibrosis found in Stage 2 lymphedema marks the beginning of the hardening of the limbs and increasing size.\n", "The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin, a squamous epithelium with several strata: the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Nourishment is provided to these layers via diffusion from the dermis, since the epidermis is without direct blood supply. The epidermis contains four cell types: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Of these, keratinocytes are the major component, constituting roughly 95% of the epidermis. This stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale, in which differentiating cells slowly displace outwards through the stratum spinosum to the stratum corneum, where cells are continually shed from the surface. In normal skin, the rate of production equals the rate of loss; about two weeks are needed for a cell to migrate from the basal cell layer to the top of the granular cell layer, and an additional two weeks to cross the stratum corneum.\n", "The overall integrity of the stratum corneum is maintained by specialized intercellular proteins called corneodesmosomes. Three adhesive proteins desmoglein-1, desmocollin-1 and corneodesmosin compose the corneodesmosomes and provide the cohesive forces to connect the adjacent corneocytes. The components of the corneodesmosomes are gradually degraded by the enzymes that digest proteins, as the corneocytes are pushed towards the surface of the skin. As a result of the weakened corneodesmosomes in the outer skin surface, the uppermost layers of corneocytes get exfoliated through frictional forces such as rubbing or washing. This process is a normal protective mechanism of the skin to prevent pathogens from colonizing the skin, and is referred to as desquamation. In healthy skin, desquamation is an invisible process and the stratum corneum is turned over completely within 2–4 weeks, while maintaining the tissue thickness.\n", "BULLET::::5. Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water\n\nBULLET::::6. Absorption through the skin: Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide can diffuse into the epidermis in small amounts; some animals use their skin as their sole respiration organ (in humans, the cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin are \"almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen\", although the \"contribution to total respiration is negligible\") Some medications are absorbed through the skin.\n" ]	[ "Skin goes somewhere when a lot of weight is lost." ]	[ "When a lot of weight is lost, skin does not vanish nor retract to the form of the body; this excess skin causes sagging." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Skin goes somewhere when a lot of weight is lost.", "Skin goes somewhere when a lot of weight is lost." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "When a lot of weight is lost, skin does not vanish nor retract to the form of the body; this excess skin causes sagging.", "When a lot of weight is lost, skin does not vanish nor retract to the form of the body; this excess skin causes sagging." ]
2018-03237	How do the Bank/Credit card company know someone is using your account/credit card, effectively freezing your card before you even get a chance to call up about a suspicious activity?	They (or more specifically their processing systems) look for oddities in "your" spending habits. Unusual locations. Unusual purchases. Unusual amounts. Known fronts for money laundering. Basically, anything that matches their database of known fraud patterns Phone and internet orders make it a bit more difficult, but they have enough experience watching for fraudulent purchases they can catch a lot of them in the act	[ "In addition to a duress code, there is duress activity. This may include the duressed individual withdrawing cash from an ATM using a specific credit card, instead of using their debit card. Many credit card companies allow for email alerts to be set up when specific activity occurs. There are technical issues that could pose problems, such as a delay in notification, cellular network availability, and the fact that a location is not disclosed, only the activity.\n", "Card issuers have several countermeasures, including sophisticated software that can, prior to an authorized transaction, estimate the probability of fraud. For example, a large transaction occurring a great distance from the cardholder's home might seem suspicious. The merchant may be instructed to call the card issuer for verification or to decline the transaction, or even to hold the card and refuse to return it to the customer. The customer must contact the issuer and prove who they are to get their card back (if it is not fraud and they are actually buying a product).\n", "Skimming is difficult for the typical cardholder to detect, but given a large enough sample, it is fairly easy for the card issuer to detect. The issuer collects a list of all the cardholders who have complained about fraudulent transactions, and then uses data mining to discover relationships among them and the merchants they use. For example, if many of the cardholders use a particular merchant, that merchant can be directly investigated. Sophisticated algorithms can also search for patterns of fraud. Merchants must ensure the physical security of their terminals, and penalties for merchants can be severe if they are compromised, ranging from large fines by the issuer to complete exclusion from the system, which can be a death blow to businesses such as restaurants where credit card transactions are the norm.\n", "For instance, a person applying for a loan with one company and stating their salary as £10,000 could have their application rejected if in a subsequent application for a different product from a different company they stated their salary as £100,000. The process is not fully automated in the way most credit scoring is - suspicious applications are flagged by National Hunter and then checked before an institution makes the decision to decline an application. According to Barclaycard, \"Every night, we send it almost all our card applications. Next morning, its computers send them back, either with OK or showing a potential fraud, If it's the latter, then we might decide to contact the applicant, although that may depend on other factors.\"\n", "The stringent regulatory environment establishes KYC as a mandatory and crucial procedure for financial institutions. As it minimises the risk of fraud, by identifying suspicious elements earlier on in the client-business relationship lifecycle. For the purposes of a KYC policy, a c\"ustomer/user\" may be defined as: \n\nBULLET::::- a person or entity that maintains an account and/or has a business relationship with the bank;\n\nBULLET::::- one on whose behalf the account is maintained (i.e. the beneficial owner);\n\nBULLET::::- beneficiaries of transactions conducted by professional intermediaries such as stockbrokers, Chartered Accountants, or solicitors, as permitted under the law; or\n", "Business credit monitoring can provide instantaneous email alerts about notable or suspicious activity. In South Carolina, businesses filing tax returns were invited to enroll in free business credit monitoring services provided by credit agencies Dun & Bradstreet and Experian. The invitation was made after state officials claimed that an international computer hacker accessed data from up to 657,000 businesses in what experts call the largest cyber-attack against a state tax agency in the nation.\n", "Today, various methodologies include skimmers at ATMs, hacking or web skimming an ecommerce or payment processing site or even intercepting card data within a point of sale network. Randomly calling hotel room phones asking guests to 'confirm' credit card details is example of a social engineering attack vector.\n\nSection::::Resale.\n", "Stolen cards can be reported quickly by cardholders, but a compromised account can be hoarded by a thief for weeks or months before any fraudulent use, making it difficult to identify the source of the compromise. The cardholder may not discover fraudulent use until receiving a billing statement, which may be delivered infrequently. For smaller amounts (e.g $100 or €100) many won't notice anything. Cardholders can mitigate this fraud risk by checking their account frequently to ensure constant awareness in case there are any suspicious, unknown transactions or activities.\n\nSection::::Stolen cards.\n", "On May 15, 2016, in a coordinated attack, a group of around 100 individuals used the data of 1600 South African credit cards to steal 12.7 million USD from 1400 convenience stores in Tokyo within three hours. By acting on a Sunday and in another country than the bank which issued the cards, they are believed to have won enough time to leave Japan before the heist was discovered.\n\nThere are 209,000 breached credit card account cases in 2018.\n\nSection::::Countermeasures.\n\nCountermeasures to combat credit card fraud include the following.\n\nBy merchants:\n", "Most banking services have their own credit card services that handle fraud cases and monitor for any possible attempt at fraud. Employees that are specialized in doing fraud monitoring and investigation are often placed in Risk Management, Fraud and Authorization, or Cards and Unsecured Business. Fraud monitoring emphasizes minimizing fraud losses while making an attempt to track down those responsible and contain the situation. Credit card fraud is a major white collar crime that has been around for many decades, even with the advent of the chip based card (EMV) that was put into practice in some countries to prevent cases such as these. Even with the implementation of such measures, credit card fraud continues to be a problem.\n", "Section::::Major threats detected by Group-IB.:Anunak/Carbanak.\n\nIn late 2014 Fox-IT and Group-IB jointly released a report on the Anunak (aka Carbanak) hacker group that had stolen more than 1 billion rubles from over 50 Russian banks. In Europe Anunak attacked POS terminals of large retail store chains with data of several million clients infected. The group has not performed successful thefts since early 2015.\n\nSection::::Major threats detected by Group-IB.:Reverse ATM Attack.\n", "For card not present transactions where the card is not shown (e.g., e-commerce, mail order, and telephone sales), merchants additionally verify that the customer is in physical possession of the card and is the authorized user by asking for additional information such as the security code printed on the back of the card, date of expiry, and billing address.\n", "Card information is stored in a number of formats. Card numbers – formally the Primary Account Number (PAN) – are often embossed or imprinted on the card, and a magnetic stripe on the back contains the data in machine-readable format. Fields can vary, but the most common include:\n\nBULLET::::- Name of card holder\n\nBULLET::::- Card number\n\nBULLET::::- Expiration date\n\nBULLET::::- Verification/CVV code\n\nSection::::Compromised accounts.:Card not present transaction.\n", "In the past, carders used computer programs called \"generators\" to produce a sequence of credit card numbers, and then test them to see which were valid accounts. Another variation would be to take false card numbers to a location that does not immediately process card numbers, such as a trade show or special event. However, this process is no longer viable due to widespread requirement by internet credit card processing systems for additional data such as the billing address, the 3 to 4 digit Card Security Code and/or the card's expiration date, as well as the more prevalent use of wireless card scanners that can process transactions right away. Nowadays, carding is more typically used to verify credit card data obtained directly from the victims by skimming or phishing.\n", "KrebsOnSecurity reported a suspected breach at Staples, On October 20, 2014 after hearing multiple banks had identified a pattern of card fraud (suggesting that several Staples office supply locations in the Northeastern United States were dealing with a data breach). At the time, Staples would say only that it was investigating \"a potential issue\" and had contacted law enforcement.\n", "Large U.S. corporations, such as Target Corporation, Home Depot, Neiman Marcus and Barnes & Noble, have been in the news after their credit card system was hacked. In 2014, a malware intrusion at Staples resulted in a credit card breach. 119 stores were impacted between April and September 2014, and 1.16 million customer credit and debit cards may have been stolen.\n", "The mail and the Internet are major routes for fraud against merchants who sell and ship products and affect legitimate mail-order and Internet merchants. If the card is not physically present (called CNP, card not present) the merchant must rely on the holder (or someone purporting to be so) presenting the information indirectly, whether by mail, telephone or over the Internet. The credit card holder can be tracked by mail or phone. While there are safeguards to this, it is still more risky than presenting in person, and indeed card issuers tend to charge a greater transaction rate for CNP, because of the greater risk.\n", "BULLET::::- United States: Pursuant to the USA Patriot Act of 2001, the Secretary of the Treasury was required to finalize regulations before October 26, 2002 making KYC mandatory for all US banks. The related processes are required to conform to a customer identification program (CIP)\n\nBULLET::::- Luxembourg: KYC is governed in the Anti-Money Laundering (AML) laws and regulations, which became effective in 1993 and were amended for the last time in 2015.\n\nSection::::Enhanced due diligence.\n", "Many other government organizations monitor cold calling within their jurisdiction including the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission(SEC). The SEC specializes in monitoring cold calling that deals with stocks, specifically stockbrokers. When investing over the phone, the SEC states that written banking information must be given. This means that an investment cannot be made over the phone.\n\nSection::::Rules and regulations.:Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- Over 800,000 financial transactions that are either gathered from text-to-text payments or by linking credit cards to phone users\n\nBULLET::::- Details of 1.6 million border crossings based on the interception of network roaming alerts\n\nBULLET::::- Over 5 million missed call alerts\n\nBULLET::::- About 200 million text messages from around the world\n\nThe database is supplemented with an analytical tool known as the Prefer program, which processes SMS messages to extract other types of information including contacts from missed call alerts.\n", "A similar system of controls can be used on physical cards. Technology provides the option for banks to support many other controls too that can be turned on and off and varied by the credit card owner in real time as circumstances change (i.e., they can change temporal, numerical, geographical and many other parameters on their primary and subsidiary cards). Apart from the obvious benefits of such controls: from a security perspective this means that a customer can have a Chip and PIN card secured for the real world, and limited for use in the home country. In this eventuality a thief stealing the details will be prevented from using these overseas in non chip and pin EMV countries. Similarly the real card can be restricted from use on-line so that stolen details will be declined if this tried. Then when card users shop online they can use virtual account numbers. In both circumstances an alert system can be built in notifying a user that a fraudulent attempt has been made which breaches their parameters, and can provide data on this in real time.\n", "Using the records of the Panama City Walmart, which showed the cash register and the time of purchase of the phone card, Mount Washington police were able to find surveillance camera footage of the purchaser of the card. The Massachusetts investigation had gone cold when their surveillance video failed to show the purchaser—the cameras had been trained on the store's parking lot and not on the cash registers.\n", "\"Declined due to AVS mismatch\", the authorization code, along with the hold on the authorized funds, will remain on the customer's card until the merchant account reverses the authorization or the issuing bank have it expire (typically 7 day for all business types except hotels and car rentals that can have up to 30 days). As a result, the held funds may be subtracted from the customer's available balance, and an online statement may reflect the authorization request which might be mistaken for an actual charge. Most card issuing banks will remove authorizations within 1–2 days if they are not claimed for settlement.\n", "On 1 April 2018, HBC disclosed that more than 5 million credit and debit cards used for in-store purchases had been recently breached by hackers. The compromised credit card transactions took place at Saks Fifth Avenue, Saks Off 5th, and Lord & Taylor stores. The hack had been discovered by Gemini Advisory, which called the breach \"amongst the biggest and most damaging to ever hit retail companies\".\n", "BULLET::::- Industry collaboration and information sharing about known fraudsters and emerging threat vectors\n\nBy Banks / Financial Institutions:\n\nBULLET::::- Add a designated area for customers, accessible 24/7, where they can carry out transactions securely. This self-banking area for the customer to carry out the transactions regardless of the weather conditions. From a security point of view, a control access system can be installed on the access door of the designated area which would provide the following features:\n\nBULLET::::- Identifies every cardholder that gains access to the designated area\n\nBULLET::::- Increased protection for customers during self-service procedures\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04235	Can leaving a device, such as a smartphone, on a charger after it's reached 100% battery for an extended period of time damage, or have long-term effects on the battery?	Your phone and laptop have battery controller chips that regulate charging and discharging to keep the battery within the allowed current, voltage, temperature, and charge range. When the battery is "full" the controller will stop charging the battery and the phone will run off the incoming power directly rather than sending it through the battery and back out With modern devices the assumption is that the random charger you plug it into will be garbage so they all have their own controller that will protect them. You don't damage your phone by letting it charge overnight	[ "Most modern cell phones, laptops, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries. These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging the cells will degrade their capacity relatively quickly, but most such batteries are used in equipment which can sense the approach of fill discharge and discontinue equipment use. When stored after charging, lithium battery cells degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40-50% charged. As with all battery types, degradation also occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an increased internal battery resistance often due to cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery. However, if Li-ION cells are discharged below a certain voltage a chemical reaction occurs that make them dangerous if recharged, which is why many such batteries in consumer goods now have an \"electronic fuse\" that permanently disables them if the voltage falls below a set level. The electronic fuse circuitry draws a small amount of current from the battery, which means that if a laptop battery is left for a long time without charging it, and with a very low initial state of charge, the battery may be permanently destroyed.\n", "BULLET::::- Charging systems may attempt to gauge battery string capacity by measuring overall voltage. Due to the overall string voltage depletion due to the dead cells, the charging system may detect this as a state of discharge, and will continuously attempt to charge the series-parallel strings, which leads to continuous overcharging and damage to all the cells in the degraded series string containing the damaged battery.\n", "The problem is, the magnitude of \"delta-V\" can become very small or even non-existent if (very) high capacity rechargeable batteries are recharged. This can cause even an intelligent battery charger to not sense that the batteries are actually already fully charged, and to continue charging. Overcharging of the batteries will result in some cases. However, many so called intelligent chargers employ a combination of cut off systems, which are intended to prevent overcharging in the vast majority of cases.\n", "Disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case.\n\nRecalls of devices using Lithium-ion batteries have become more common in recent years. This is in response to reported accidents and failures, occasionally ignition or explosion. An expert summary of the problem indicates that this type uses \"liquid electrolytes to transport lithium ions between the anode and the cathode. If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires\".\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Leakage.\n", "For cells that are supposed to operate within a specific discharge window, new cells with more capacity may cause the old cells in the series string to continue to discharge beyond the safe bottom limit of the discharge window, damaging the old cells.\n", "Since no measurement can be perfect, this method suffers from long-term drift and lack of a reference point: therefore, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SoC to 100% when a charger determines that the battery is fully charged (using one of the other methods described here).\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Combined approaches.\n", "As of mid 2016, LiPo packs of 1.3 Ah exist, providing 95C continuous discharge, and short-time 190C bursts. In March 2017, LiPo packs were available in various configurations, most commonly up to 6400mAh, achieving a maximum 4.2V/cell, for powering certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions.\n", "The charging protocol (how much voltage or current for how long, and what to do when charging is complete, for instance) depends on the size and type of the battery being charged. Some battery types have high tolerance for overcharging (i.e., continued charging after the battery has been fully charged) and can be recharged by connection to a constant voltage source or a constant current source, depending on battery type. Simple chargers of this type must be manually disconnected at the end of the charge cycle, and some battery types absolutely require, or may use a timer, to cut off charging current at some fixed time, approximately when charging is complete. Other battery types cannot withstand over-charging, being damaged (reduced capacity, reduced lifetime), over heating or even exploding. \n", "Section::::Suffocation risk and recall.\n", "As SoH does not correspond to a particular physical quality, there is no consensus in the industry on how SoH should be determined.\n\nThe designer of a battery management system may use any of the following parameters (singly or in combination) to derive an arbitrary value for the SoH.\n\nBULLET::::- Internal resistance / impedance / conductance\n\nBULLET::::- Capacity\n\nBULLET::::- Voltage\n\nBULLET::::- Self-discharge\n\nBULLET::::- Ability to accept a charge\n\nBULLET::::- Number of charge–discharge cycles\n\nBULLET::::- Age of the battery\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature of battery during its previous uses\n\nBULLET::::- Total energy charged and discharged\n", "Battery users may attempt to avoid the memory effect proper by fully discharging their battery packs. This practice is likely to cause more damage as one of the cells will be deep discharged. The damage is focused on the weakest cell, so that each additional full discharge will cause more and more damage to that cell.\n\nSection::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Age and use—normal end-of-life.\n", "In some situations, such as when correcting NiCd batteries that have been previously overcharged, it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery. To avoid damage from the cell reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.\n\nSection::::Charging and discharging.:Damage during storage in fully discharged state.\n\nIf a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal effect mentioned above.\n", "The safety circuit determines that a pack has been used when its voltage falls below a threshold, or if it detects a minimum number of pulses. Testing a pack is not normally sufficient to cause it to become \"used\", but normal operation should make it \"used\" around the time 1% of its capacity has been depleted. The safety circuit causes the pack to become \"depleted\" when it falls below its end-of-life voltage and turns off. A used pack will continue to function normally, but a depleted pack can no longer be used.\n", "When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the battery (e.g. through a built-in vent), leading to pressure build-up and eventual bursting of the battery case. In extreme cases, battery chemicals may spray violently from the casing and cause injury. Overcharging – that is, attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity – can also lead to a battery explosion, in addition to leakage or irreversible damage. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.\n", "During Coast Guard inspections, the batteries must be able to go from 100% discharge to fully charged in no longer than 10 hours in order to pass certification. The charger too must be obtainable at all times during vessel operation and should be inspected to make sure it functions properly. When the reserve source of energy consists of batteries, the battery capacity must be checked at intervals not exceeding 12 months. If not completed within past 12 months, this must be done during inspection.\n", "An equalization charge cycle, having a higher voltage-low current profile, may be occasionally utilized to partially reverse a battery sulfation condition; some SLA 'smart' battery chargers either manually or automatically perform equalization cycles at infrequent times.\n\nSome designs can be fast charged (1 hour) at high rates. Sustained charging at 2.7 V per cell will damage the cells. Constant-current overcharging at high rates (rates faster than restoring the rated capacity in three hours) will exceed the capacity of the cell to recombine hydrogen and oxygen.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "For this reason it is often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge level by periodically recharging it.\n\nSince damage may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.\n\nSection::::Charging and discharging.:Depth of discharge.\n", "Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow \"dumb\" chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.\n", "Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range. When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Sealed cells will sometimes explode violently if safety vents are overwhelmed or nonfunctional. Reports of exploding cellphones have been published in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.\n", "Which electrical practices, and so which charger, are best suited for use depending entirely on the type of battery. NiCd cells must be fully discharged occasionally, or else the battery loses capacity over time due to a phenomenon known as \"memory effect.\" Once a month (perhaps once every 30 charges) is sometimes recommended. This extends the life of the battery since memory effect is prevented while avoiding full charge cycles which are known to be hard on all types of dry-cell batteries, eventually resulting in a permanent decrease in battery capacity.\n", "Slow battery chargers may take several hours to complete a charge. High-rate chargers may restore most capacity much faster, but high rate chargers can be more than some battery types can tolerate. Such batteries require active monitoring of the battery to protect it from overcharging. Electric vehicles ideally need high-rate chargers. For public access, installation of such chargers and the distribution support for them is an issue in the proposed adoption of electric cars.\n\nSection::::C-rate.\n", "State of health\n\nState of health (SoH) is a figure of merit of the condition of a battery (or a cell, or a battery pack), compared to its ideal conditions. The units of SoH are percent points (100% = the battery's conditions match the battery's specifications).\n\nTypically, a battery's SoH will be 100% at the time of manufacture and will decrease over time and use. However, a battery's performance at the time of manufacture may not meet its specifications, in which case its initial SoH will be less than 100%.\n\nSection::::SoH evaluation.\n", "An effect with similar symptoms to the memory effect is the so-called \"voltage depression\" or \"lazy battery effect\". This results from repeated overcharging; the symptom is that the battery appears to be fully charged but discharges quickly after only a brief period of operation. In rare cases, much of the lost capacity can be recovered by a few deep-discharge cycles, a function often provided by automatic battery chargers. However, this process may reduce the shelf life of the battery. If treated well, a Ni–Cd battery can last for 1,000 cycles or more before its capacity drops below half its original capacity. Many home chargers claim to be \"smart chargers\" which will shut down and not damage the battery, but this seems to be a common problem.\n", "Lithium ion rechargeable battery cells are rather more sensitive to overcharging, overheating, improper charge levels during storage, and other forms of mistreatment, than most commonly used battery chemistries. The reason is that the various lithium battery chemistries are susceptible to chemical damage (e.g., cathode fouling, molecular breakdown, etc.) by only very slight overvoltages (i.e., millivolts) during charging, or more charging current than the internal chemistry can tolerate at this point in its charge/discharge cycle, and so on. Heat accelerates these unwanted, but so far inescapable, chemical reactions and overheating during charging amplifies those effects. Because lithium chemistries often permit flexible membrane structures, lithium cells can be deployed in flexible though sealed bags, which permits higher packing densities within a battery pack. Some of the breakdown products (usually of electrolyte chemicals or additives) outgas when mistreated; such cells will become 'puffy' and are very much on the way to failure. In sealed lithium ion cylinders, the same outgassing has caused rather large pressures (800+ psi has been reported); such cells can explode if not provided with a relief failure mechanism. Compounding the danger is that many lithium cell chemistries include hydrocarbon chemicals (the exact nature of which is typically proprietary) which are flammable. Not only is explosion a possibility with mistreated lithium cells, but even a non-explosive leak can cause a fire.\n", "Different battery chemistries require different charging schemes. For example, some battery types can be safely recharged from a constant voltage source. Other types need to be charged with a regulated current source that tapers as the battery reaches fully charged voltage. Charging a battery incorrectly can damage a battery; in extreme cases, batteries can overheat, catch fire, or explosively vent their contents.\n\nSection::::Charging and discharging.:Rate of discharge.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23498	Why does menthol temporarily relieve coughing?	I'm not a scientist. But menthol has antiseptic and cooling properties. So it helps numb the throat slightly. Coughing is also often triggered by tickling from snot building up. Which the cooling and antiseptic effect of menthol helps clear temporarily. I'm sure someone else can provide a more thorough answer thought.	[ "In another study performed with non-smoking patients, it demonstrates that oral administration of \"Passifora incarnata\" following extubation for patients surgery reduced the patients coughing versus the control group. By administering \"Passiflora incarnata\" orally with the correct dosage, it can result in antitussive activities without impairing the patient drastically. The results presented show a decrease of post extubation cough after out-patient surgery but it was only recorded early on. With this information, further research can be applied to create other medications for coughing but the authors note the limitations on the study included short observation period as well as a small sample size.\n", "Although the use of menthol in ointments and cough drops is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States of America, regulation of cigarettes was removed from their purview in 2000 by the Supreme Court in a 5–4 ruling, \"FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp.\" In October 2009, the United States Congress passed the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, which gave the FDA the authority to regulate tobacco products and ban flavor additives, although the act contained an exception for menthol.\n", "A study conducted in 1994 suggests menthol and camphor are effective cough suppressants for guinea pigs. It has been suggested that thymol oil can reduce or cure onychomycosis (nail fungus), although the same source mentions that \"no human studies have been conducted to test whether thymol is a lasting and effective treatment\".\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n\nThe ingredients, as listed on older product labels, are: camphor, menthol, spirits of turpentine, oil of eucalyptus, cedar leaf, nutmeg, and thymol, all \"in a specially balanced Vick formula\".\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:US.\n\nActive Ingredients:\n\n\"Label reads: Active Ingredients (Purpose)\n\nRegular:\n\nLemon: \n\nInactive Ingredients\n\nRegular & Lemon: \n", "The eugenol in clove smoke causes a numbing of the throat which can diminish the gag reflex in users, leading researchers to recommend caution for individuals with respiratory infections. There have also been a few cases of aspiration pneumonia in individuals with normal respiratory tracts possibly because of the diminished gag reflex.\n\nSection::::Legal status in the United States.\n\nIn the United States, cigarettes were the subject of legal restrictions and political debate, including a proposed 2009 US Senate bill that would have prohibited cigarettes from having a \"characterizing flavor\" of certain ingredients other than tobacco and menthol.\n", "Menthogen was originally created and developed by Mr F.J. Cunningham MIT (Lond) MAE FRSPH at his dispensary in Castleton, Rochdale, Greater Manchester in 2002 for in clinic use with private clinic patient's within his trichology centre. A year long private double-blind study was undertaken to study the assumed benefits of the formulation.\n\nSection::::Science.\n", "When The Yucca Company started manufacturing a cough syrup containing a blend of camphor and menthol, named Vest Pocket Cough Specific, Hyde became intrigued by the soothing and antiinflammatory effects of menthol. After years of research and experimentation, the company introduced the original \"Mentholatum Ointment\" in December 1894, which consisted of a combination of menthol and petrolatum. The product was so successful that in 1903 Hyde opened a second office in Buffalo, New York, to handle sales and distribution east of the Mississippi River. In 1906, The Yucca Co. officially incorporated the name \"The Mentholatum Company\" after its flagship product and no longer sold soap. In 1909 a new factory was built in Wichita, Kansas, and in 1919 a second factory was built in Buffalo. The Wichita factory was closed after Hyde's death in 1935 and the corporate offices were moved to Wilmington, Delaware, in 1937 and later to Buffalo in 1945.\n", "BULLET::::- Soothers Blackcurrant\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Cherry\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Honey And Lemon\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Peach And Raspberry\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Strawberry\n\nBULLET::::- Fresh & Cool\n\nBULLET::::- Zingy Citrus\n\nBULLET::::- Strawberry Wave\n\nThe \"Soothers\" varieties do not list menthol on their ingredients and their packaging does not describe them as a medicine or specify any dosage instructions, but supermarkets frequently categorise them as common cold treatment.\n\nSection::::Drug information.\n\nThe menthol ingredient acts as local anesthetic and \"creates a cooling sensation\". Also acts as a cough suppressant.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry\n\nBULLET::::- Honey-Lemon\n\nBULLET::::- Honey-Lemon Chamomile\n\nBULLET::::- Ice Blue Peppermint:\n\nBULLET::::- Intense Cool:\n\nBULLET::::- Mentho-Lyptus:\n", "In brewing, decoction mashing is the traditional method where a portion of the mash is removed to a separate vessel, boiled for a time and then returned to the main mash, raising the mash to the next temperature step.\n\nIn herbalism, decoctions are usually made to extract fluids from hard plant materials such as roots and bark. To achieve this, the plant material is usually boiled for 1–2 hours in 1-5 liters of water. It is then strained. Ayurveda also utilizes this method to create \"Kashayam\" type of herbal medicines.\n", "For over two decades, Kools were the only significant menthol cigarette brand in the United States, with a market share that never got much above 2%. Their advertisements focused on \"throat comfort\" and the \"medicinal\" properties of menthol, and some ads even suggested occasional use: \"In between the others, rest your throat with Kools.\"\n", "Menthone is a constituent of the essential oils of pennyroyal, peppermint, \"Mentha arvensis\", \"Pelargonium\" geraniums, and others. In most essential oils, it is a minor compound. This is the cause for the fact that it was first synthesized by oxidation of menthol in 1881 before it was found in essential oils in 1891.\n\nSection::::Structure and preparation.\n", "Menthol\n\nMenthol is an organic compound made synthetically or obtained from the oils of corn mint, peppermint, or other mints. It is a waxy, crystalline substance, clear or white in color, which is solid at room temperature and melts slightly above.\n\nThe main form of menthol occurring in nature is (−)-menthol, which is assigned the (1\"R\",2\"S\",5\"R\") configuration. Menthol has local anesthetic and counterirritant qualities, and it is widely used to relieve minor throat irritation. Menthol also acts as a weak kappa opioid receptor agonist.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Demulcent\n\nA demulcent (derived from the \"caress\") is an agent that forms a soothing film over a mucous membrane, relieving minor pain and inflammation of the membrane. However, they generally help for less than 30 minutes. \n\nDemulcents are sometimes referred to as mucoprotective agents. Demulcents such as pectin, glycerin, honey, and syrup are common ingredients in cough mixtures and cough drops. Methylcellulose, propylene glycol and glycerine are synthetic demulcents.\n", "According to the American Academy of Pediatrics the use of cough medicine to relieve cough symptoms is supported by little evidence and thus not recommended for treating cough symptoms in children. There is tentative evidence that the use of honey is better than no treatment or diphenhydramine in decreasing coughing. It does not alleviate coughing to the same extent as dextromethorphan but it shortens the cough duration better than placebo and salbutamol. A trial of antibiotics or inhaled corticosteroids may be tried in children with a chronic cough in an attempt to treat protracted bacterial bronchitis or asthma respectively.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Chlorphenamine may be combined with the opioid hydrocodone. Chlorphenamine/dihydrocodeine immediate-release syrups are also marketed. The antihistamine is helpful in cases where allergy or common cold is the reason for the cough; it is also a potentiator of opioids, allowing enhanced suppression of cough, analgesia, and other effects from a given quantity of the drug by itself. In various places in the world, cough and cold preparations containing codeine and chlorphenamine are available.\n\nIn the drug Coricidin, chlorphenamine is combined with the cough suppressant dextromethorphan.\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n", "Menthol cigarettes were first developed by Lloyd \"Spud\" Hughes of Mingo Junction, Ohio in 1924, though the idea did not become popular until the Axton-Fisher Tobacco Company acquired the patent in 1927, marketing them nationwide as \"Spud Menthol Cooled Cigarettes\". Spud brand menthol cigarettes went on to become the fifth most popular brand in the U.S. by 1932, and it remained the only menthol cigarette on the market until the Brown & Williamson Tobacco Company created the Kool brand in 1933.\n", "Salmeterol\n\nSalmeterol is a long-acting β adrenergic receptor agonist (LABA) used in the maintenance and prevention of asthma symptoms and maintenance of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) symptoms. Symptoms of bronchospasm include shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness. It is also used to prevent breathing difficulties during exercise (exercise-induced bronchoconstriction). \n", "This menthol and eucalyptus combination is widely used in medicated sweets to clear the head and nasal passages and to reduce the symptoms of nasal congestions and colds.\n", "The motility of the gastrointestinal tract is regulated by the parasympathetic system, and blockage of this input results in diminished motility and constipation.\n\nA rare side effect of trimethaphan administration is sudden respiratory arrest. The mechanism behind it is unknown, as trimethaphan does not appear to block neuromuscular transmission, and respiratory arrest is not an expected consequence of ganglionic blockage.\n\nSection::::Therapeutic uses.\n", "Luden collaborated with a pharmacist to develop a cough drop formula. He colored his cough drops amber instead of the red associated with cough drops at the time. In 1881, Luden's honey-licorice menthol throat drops were introduced. \"Luden's Menthol Cough Drops\" were sold for many years in 5-cent packages.\n", "Bromhexine, a synthetic compound imitating the molecular shape of vasicine, is a common ingredient of cough medicine for its mucolytic properties; it increases the production of serous mucus in the respiratory tract which makes the phlegm thinner and less viscous, which allows the cilia to more easily transport the phlegm out of the lungs.\n", "Numerous studies have been published investigating the effect of L-menthol application as a model for TRPM8-sensitization. The primary consensus finding is that TRPM8 sensitization increases the sensation of cold pain, also known as cold hyperalgesia. An experiment was done in a double-blind two-way crossover study by applying 40% L-menthol to the forearm, using ethanol as a control. Activation of the TRPM8-receptor channel (the primary menthol receptor channel) resulted in increased sensitization to the menthol stimulus. To investigate the mechanisms of this sensitization, Wasner \"et al.\", 2004, performed A fiber conduction blockade of the superficial radial nerve in another group of subjects. This ended up reducing the menthol-induced sensation of cold and hyperalgesia because blocking A fiber conduction resulted in inhibition of a class of group C nerve fiber nociceptors needed to transduce the sensation of pain. They concluded menthol sensitizes cold-sensitive peripheral C nociceptors and activates cold-specific A delta fibers.\n", "Absorbine, a horse liniment product manufactured by W.F. Young, Inc., was reformulated for humans and marketed as Absorbine Jr. The company also acquired other liniment brands including Bigeloil and RefreshMint. The equine version of Absorbine is sometimes used by humans, though its benefits in humans may be because the smell of menthol releases serotonin, or due to a placebo effect.\n", "The powdered form of \"Silphium perfoliatum L.\" has diaphoretic and tonic properties. It can help alleviate the symptoms of fevers, dry cough, asthma, spleen illness, heart and liver disease. The extract from the leaves of the plant has shown to lower cholesterol and triglycerides levels in blood. Studies show that the presence of phenolic acids is responsible for the species’ antiseptic activity to stimulate generation of IgG and IgM antibodies. In addition, it stimulates bile production of the gall bladder.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nThe antibiotics erythromycin, clarithromycin, or azithromycin are typically the recommended treatment. Newer macrolides are frequently recommended due to lower rates of side effects. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) may be used in those with allergies to first-line agents or in infants who have a risk of pyloric stenosis from macrolides.\n", "Section::::Medicinal uses.\n\nA tea made of the leaves and stem has been used to treat tooth pain. For cases of cough and bronchitis, a water extract (decoction) of \"Mimosa tenuiflora\" is drunk. A handful of bark in one liter of water is used by itself or in a syrup. The solution is drunk until the symptoms subside.\n\nOne preliminary clinical study found \"Mimosa tenuiflora\" to be effective in treating venous leg ulcerations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04536	In order to save endangered species, like the northern white rhino, why are scientists not cloning the few that are left?	Cloning has some benefits, but also a lot of drawbacks. Among those: 1) It's super hard. Most cloning attempts fail and do not result in a new animal, and even the successes do not necessarily result in a robust animal. 2) It doesn't solve the issue of lacking genetic diversity. You still get the problems associated with inbreeding because your different animals do not introduce different genes. 3) It doesn't solve the extinction issue in the first place. These animals are generally being hunted to extinction, or losing their habitat to human encroachment. If you make more of them, they still get hunted or have no where to live in a sustainable population. So cloning might have a benefit here of surviving past the extinction of the sick male, but it doesn't address why we're down to one male to begin with, and is a losing battle without more done. You might have more success saving sperm and skipping the clone attempts if that's where you are.	[ "It can be possible to save an endangered species from extinction by preserving only \"parts\" of specimens, such as tissues, sperm, eggs, etc. – even after the death of a critically endangered animal, or collected from one found freshly dead, in captivity or from the wild. A new specimen can then be \"resurrected\" with the help of cloning, so as to give it another chance to breed its genes into the living population of the respective threatened species. Resurrection of dead critically endangered wildlife specimens with the help of cloning is still being perfected, and is still too expensive to be practical, but with time and further advancements in science and methodology it may well become a routine procedure not to far into the future.\n", "Cloning, or more precisely, the reconstruction of functional DNA from extinct species has, for decades, been a dream. Possible implications of this were dramatized in the 1984 novel \"Carnosaur\" and the 1990 novel \"Jurassic Park\". The best current cloning techniques have an average success rate of 9.4 percent (and as high as 25 percent) when working with familiar species such as mice, while cloning wild animals is usually less than 1 percent successful. Several tissue banks have come into existence, including the \"Frozen Zoo\" at the San Diego Zoo, to store frozen tissue from the world's rarest and most endangered species.\n", "Some, such as Harvard geneticist George M. Church, believe that ongoing technological advances will let us \"bring back to life\" an extinct species by cloning, using DNA from the remains of that species. Proposed targets for cloning include the mammoth, the thylacine, and the Pyrenean ibex. For this to succeed, enough individuals would have to be cloned, from the DNA of different individuals (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms) to create a viable population. Though bioethical and philosophical objections have been raised, the cloning of extinct creatures seems theoretically possible.\n", "In 2001, a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian gaur, an endangered species, but the calf died after two days. In 2003, a banteng was successfully cloned, followed by three African wildcats from a thawed frozen embryo. These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species. Anticipating this possibility, tissue samples from the last \"bucardo\" (Pyrenean ibex) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda and cheetah.\n", "The best current cloning techniques have an average success rate of 9.4 percent, when working with familiar species such as mice, while cloning wild animals is usually less than 1 percent successful. In 2001, a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian gaur, an endangered species, but the calf died after two days. In 2003, a banteng was successfully cloned, followed by three African wildcats from a thawed frozen embryo. These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species. Anticipating this possibility, tissue samples from the last bucardo (Pyrenean ibex) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda and cheetah. However, cloning of animals is opposed by animal-groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they die.\n", "\"Scientific American\", in an editorial condemning de-extinction, pointed out that the technologies involved could have secondary applications, specifically to help species on the verge of extinction regain their genetic diversity, for example the black-footed ferret or the northern white rhinoceros. It noted, however, that such research \"should be conducted under the mantle of preserving modern biodiversity rather than conjuring extinct species from the grave.\"\n", "At the end of 2015, scientists from the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, San Diego Zoo Global, Tiergarten Schönbrunn, and Dvůr Králové Zoo developed a plan to reproduce northern white rhinos using natural gametes of the living rhinos and induced pluripotent stem cells. Subsequently, in the future, it might be possible to specifically mature the cells into specific cells such as neurons and muscle cells, in a similar way in which Katsuhiko Hayashi has grown mice out of simple skin cells. The DNA of a dozen northern white rhinos has been preserved in genetic banks in Berlin and San Diego.\n", "One of the most anticipated targets for cloning was once the woolly mammoth, but attempts to extract DNA from frozen mammoths have been unsuccessful, though a joint Russo-Japanese team is currently working toward this goal. In January 2011, it was reported by Yomiuri Shimbun that a team of scientists headed by Akira Iritani of Kyoto University had built upon research by Dr. Wakayama, saying that they will extract DNA from a mammoth carcass that had been preserved in a Russian laboratory and insert it into the egg cells of an African elephant in hopes of producing a mammoth embryo. The researchers said they hoped to produce a baby mammoth within six years. It was noted, however that the result, if possible, would be an elephant-mammoth hybrid rather than a true mammoth. Another problem is the survival of the reconstructed mammoth: ruminants rely on a symbiosis with specific microbiota in their stomachs for digestion.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Cloning.\n\nCloning is the method discussed as an option for bringing back extinct species, by extracting the nucleus from a preserved cell from the extinct species and swapping it into an egg of the nearest living relative. This egg can then be inserted into a relative host. It is important to note that this method can only be used when a preserved cell is available. This means that it is most feasible for recently extinct species.\n", "BULLET::::- In January 2016 the scientist at the Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes in Hisar, India announced that they had cloned a buffalo offspring \"Cirb Gaurav\" using cells of the ventral side of the tail of superior buffalo.\n\nBULLET::::- In July 2016 scientists at the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza in Chachapoyas, Peru cloned a Jersey cattle by handmade cloning method using cells of an ear of a cow. The first Peruvian clon was called \"Alma CL-01\".\n\nSection::::Coyote.\n\nSooam Biotech, Korea cloned eight coyotes in 2011 using domestic dogs as surrogate mothers.\n\nSection::::Deer.\n", "BULLET::::- A Javan banteng calf was successfully cloned from frozen cells using a cow as a surrogate, delivered via c-section April 1, 2003 then hand raised at the San Diego Wild Animal Parks Infant Isolation Unit. It died due to an injury when it was less than seven years old, about half the normal life of a banteng which is an endangered species.\n\nBULLET::::- The world's first water buffalo was cloned in Guangxi, China by the Guangxi University in 2005 according to one reference.\n", "BULLET::::- Samrupa, the world's first Murrah buffalo (a type of water buffalo) calf cloned using a simple \"Hand guided cloning technique\" was born in 2009 at National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal, India, but died due to a lung infection five days after she was born. Garima-I, a buffalo calf cloned using an \"Advanced Hand guided Cloning Technique\" was born in 2009 at the NDRI. Two years later in 2011, she died of a heart failure. Garima-II, another cloned calf was born in 2010. This buffalo was inseminated with frozen-thawed semen of a progeny tested bull and gave birth to a female calf, Mahima in 2013. A cloned male buffalo calf Shresth was born in 2010 at the NDRI.\n", "Section::::New technologies.:Cloning.\n", "After the death of Sudan, Dvůr Králové Zoo spokesman Jan Stejskal, declared that \"We must take advantage of the unique situation in which cellular technologies are utilised for conservation of critically endangered species. It may sound unbelievable, but thanks to the newly developed techniques even Sudan could still have an offspring.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The President's Council on Bioethics\n\nBULLET::::- The Frozen Ark\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Guo, Owen. \"World's Biggest Animal Cloning Center Set for '16 in a Skeptical China.\" The New York Times, The New York Times, 26 Nov. 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Lerner, K. Lee. \"Animal cloning.\" The Gale Encyclopedia of Science, edited by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, 5th ed., Gale, 2014. Science In Context, link\n\nBULLET::::- Dutchen, Stephanie. \"Rise of the Clones.\" Rise of the Clones \| Harvard Medical School, 2018 hms.harvard.edu/news/rise-clones\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Cloning Fact Sheet from Human Genome Project Information website.\n", "BULLET::::- Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua (female crab-eating macaques, 2017) – first successful cloning of a primates using somatic cell nuclear transfer, the same method as \"Dolly\", with the birth of two live female clones. Conducted in China in 2017 but reported in January 2018.\n", "BULLET::::- Millie and Emma were two female Jersey cows cloned at the University of Tennessee in 2001. They were the first calves to be produced using standard cell-culturing techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2001, Brazil cloned their first heifer, Vitória.\n\nBULLET::::- Pampa, a Jersey calf, was the first animal cloned in Argentina (by the company Bio Sidus) in 2002.\n", "Research in cloning was undertaken during these years. In 1999, McGill University produced the world's first cloned goats. In 2001, veterinary doctor, Dr. Lawrence Smith of the University of Montreal cloned three calves.\n", "BULLET::::- In January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, using the same cloning technique that was used with Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua – the first ever cloned monkeys - and Dolly the sheep, and the same gene-editing Crispr-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana. The monkey clones were made in order to study several medical diseases.\n\nSection::::Mouflon.\n\nBULLET::::- A European mouflon lamb was the first cloned endangered species to live past infancy. Cloned 2001.\n", "Research published in the \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" in 2011, suggests picking a genetically diverse breeding stock, defined by the genome sequence, for conservation efforts. In 2011, it was estimated that it would cost $11 million to preserve the Tasmanian devil species.\n", "De-extinction\n\nDe-extinction, also known as resurrection biology, or species revivalism is the process of creating an organism, which is either a member of, or resembles an extinct species, or breeding population of such organisms. Cloning is the most widely proposed method, although selective breeding has also been proposed. Similar techniques have been applied to endangered species.\n\nThere is significant controversy over de-extinction. Critics assert that efforts would be better spent conserving existing species, that the habitat necessary for formerly extinct species to survive is too limited to warrant de-extinction, and that the evolutionary conservation benefits of these operations are questionable.\n", "While the methods needed to carry out genome editing for de-extinction are advancing, there are still several limitations. First, the more degraded and old the tissue from the extinct species is, the more fragmented the resulting DNA will be, making genome assembly more challenging. Additionally, a close relative must be living and able to be reared in captivity for insertion of edited cells. Because a near relative is used as a host for the edited cells, the resulting individuals will not be exactly the same as the extinct species, but may also possess traits of the extant relative.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Selective breeding.\n", "Section::::New technologies.:Interspecific pregnancy.\n\nA potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. It has been used for the Spanish Ibex and Houbara bustard.\n\nSection::::Ethical Considerations.\n", "Section::::Related research.\n\nIn January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, using the same cloning technique that was used with Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua – the first ever cloned monkeys - and Dolly the sheep, and the same gene-editing Crispr-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana. The monkey clones were made in order to study several medical diseases.\n", "Scientists from the University of Newcastle and the University of New South Wales, including Andrew French, Michael Mahony, Simon Clulow and Mike Archer reported in May 2013 the successful cloning of the extinct frog \"Rheobatrachus silus\" using the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer. The embryos developed for several days but died. In an important development the scientists from Newcastle reported associated technologies that provide a \"proof of concept\" for the proposal that frozen zoos (also referred to as genome banks and seed banks) are an effective mechanism to provide an insurance against species extinction and the loss of population genetic diversity. They connected the circle between de-extinction and the prevention of extinction for threatened animal species. The important advances were the capacity to successfully recover live frozen embryonic cells from animals that produce large yolky eggs (anamniotes such as fishes and amphibians) When this development is combined with somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) it enables the genome to be recovered. The scientists point out that many embryonic cells can be frozen and when combined with frozen sperm storage enables the genetic diversity of populations to be stored. With groups of vertebrates such as the amphibians facing an extinction crisis they propose this as an effective means to prevent extinction while the causes of declines can be identified and remedied. The technical difference between frozen tissue samples commonly used for genetic studies (e.g. phylogenetic reconstruction) and those in a frozen zoo is the use of cryoprotectants and special freezing rates at the time of freezing and thawing.\n" ]	[ "Cloning is a quick and simple solution to endangered species.", "Scientists should resort to cloning endangered species to save them." ]	[ "Cloning is difficult and doesn't work well. There are also new problems that arise like a genetic bottleneck.", "There are many cons to cloning and it also has a low success rate. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cloning is a quick and simple solution to endangered species.", "Scientists should resort to cloning endangered species to save them." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cloning is difficult and doesn't work well. There are also new problems that arise like a genetic bottleneck.", "There are many cons to cloning and it also has a low success rate. " ]
2018-04669	How many generations does it take to train the natural instincts out of a group of animals? Can some instincts never be forgotten?	Of course they tried it in Russia, apparently foxes can become "tame" in about 4-5 generations URL_0	[ "Psychologist Abraham Maslow argued that humans no longer have instincts because we have the ability to override them in certain situations. He felt that what is called instinct is often imprecisely defined, and really amounts to strong \"drives\". For Maslow, an instinct is something which cannot be overridden, and therefore while the term may have applied to humans in the past, it no longer does.\n\nRichard Dawkins seems to condone the veneer theory when he writes:\n", "James believed that humans wielded far more impulses than other creatures. Impulses which, when observed out of their greater context, may have appeared just as automatic as the most basic of animal instincts. However, as man experienced the results of his impulses, and these experiences evoked memories and expectations, those very same impulses became gradually refined.\n\nBy this reasoning, William James arrived at the conclusion that in any animal with the capacity for memory, association, and expectation, behavior is ultimately expressed as a synthesis of instinct and experience, rather than just blind instinct alone.\n\nSection::::Selected important topics.\n", "If copying errors are common, or if each observer adds individually learned modifications to a new behavior pattern, stable traditions are unlikely to develop and persist over time. However, even when no longer adaptive, traditions can be passed down if individuals learn primarily through observing experienced individuals rather than through asocial learning techniques. This was observed in guppies in the laboratory, in the group foraging example explained above. Even when the originally trained “founder” guppies were removed from the group and only initially naive individuals (trained by the founders) were present, the tradition persisted and new guppies learned the costly path. Socially learning the more costly route also resulted in slower learning of the more efficient route when it was subsequently presented, suggesting that even maladaptive strategies can be socially learned and incorporated into local traditions.\n", "Instincts are inborn complex patterns of behavior that exist in most members of the species, and should be distinguished from reflexes, which are simple responses of an organism to a specific stimulus, such as the contraction of the pupil in response to bright light or the spasmodic movement of the lower leg when the knee is tapped. The absence of volitional capacity must not be confused with an inability to modify fixed action patterns. For example, people may be able to modify a stimulated fixed action pattern by consciously recognizing the point of its activation and simply stop doing it, whereas animals without a sufficiently strong volitional capacity may not be able to disengage from their fixed action patterns, once activated.\n", "In the use of the comparative method, James wrote, \"instincts of animals are ransacked to throw light on our own...\" By this light, James dismisses the platitude that \"man differs from lower creatures by the almost total absence of instincts\". There is no such absence, so the difference must be found elsewhere.\n", "Section::::20th century.\n\nDarwin's theory inspired William James's functionalist approach to psychology. At the core of his theory was a system of \"instincts.\" James wrote that humans had many instincts, even more than other animals. These instincts, he said, could be overridden by experience and by each other, as many of the instincts were actually in conflict with each other.\n\nIn their Evolutionary Psychology Primer Tooby and Cosmides make note of James' perspective, and also quote him:\n", "Some animals have demonstrated the ability to pass information from one generation to the next (culture) including: primates, cetaceans, and birds. Primates and birds can pass information of specific tool use strategies on to their offspring who can, in turn, pass it on to their offspring. In this way, the information can remain in a group on individuals even after the original users are gone. One famous example of this is in a group of macaque monkeys in Japan. Researchers studying this species observed these monkeys feeding behavior in a population in Japan. The researchers witnessed one female, named Imo, realize that by washing potatoes in the nearby river you could remove much more sand and dirt then by simply wiping it off. Over the next few generations the researcher saw this behavior begin to appear in other individuals throughout the group.\n", "An interest in innate behaviors arose again in the 1950s with Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen, who made the distinction between instinct and learned behaviors. Our modern understanding of instinctual behavior in animals owes much to their work. For instance, there exists a sensitive period for a bird in which it learns the identity of its mother. Konrad Lorenz famously had a goose imprint on his boots. Thereafter the goose would follow whoever wore the boots. This suggests that the identity of the goose's mother was learned, but the goose's behavior towards what it perceived as its mother was instinctive.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bijeli jelen\" / \"White Deer\" (1947) by Vladimir Nazor, in which a six-year-old girl named Anka was lost in the forest while herding a flock of geese. She is adopted by deer and soon befriends most of animals in the forest. Her main antagonist is a wolf, while her closest ally is a white deer. After growing up she becomes a powerful forest-warrior who helps both animals and humans living in the forest.\n\nBULLET::::- In Howard Fast's 1960 short story \"The First Men\", a tale of a wolf-child starts off the series of letters.\n", "Brought up deep in the countryside in the small village of Great Massingham, which is near King's Lynn Norfolk, he began observing wild animals at a young age, learning to use his sense of smell and sound to find his way at night when studying foxes and badgers.\n\nEllis first trained to be a gamekeeper, but left the job when the Head gamekeeper found out that Ellis was feeding rather than culling foxes. He then joined and served with the Royal Marines.\n", "Leda Cosmides and John Tooby noted that William James (1842–1910) argued that humans have \"more\" instincts than animals, and that greater freedom of action is the result of having more psychological instincts, not fewer.\n", "The nature vs. nurture controversy is a major topic discussed in psychology and pertains to animal training as well. Both sides of the nature vs. nurture debate have valid points and this controversy is one of the most debated in psychology. A common question asked today by many experts in various fields is if behaviour is due to life experiences or if it is predisposed in DNA. Today, partial credit is given to both sides and in many cases nature and nurture are given equal weight. With animal training it is often questioned if the training and shaping is the cause of a behaviour exhibited by an animal (nurture), or if the behaviour is actually innate to the species (nature). Instinctive drift centers around the nature of behaviour more so than learning being the sole cause of a behaviour. Species are obviously capable of learning behaviours, this is not denied in instinctive drift. Instinctive drift says that animals often revert to innate (nature) behaviours that can interfere with conditioned responses (nurture).\n", "Shaping sometimes fails. An oft-cited example is an attempt by Marian and Keller Breland (students of B.F. Skinner) to shape a pig and a raccoon to deposit a coin in a piggy bank, using food as the reinforcer. Instead of learning to deposit the coin, the pig began to root it into the ground, and the raccoon \"washed\" and rubbed the coins together. That is, the animals treated the coin the same way that they treated food items that they were preparing to eat, referred to as “food-getting” behaviors. In the case of the raccoon, it was able to learn to deposit one coin into the box to gain a food reward, but when the contingencies were changed such that two coins were required to gain the reward, the raccoon could not learn the new, more complex rule. After what could be characterized as expressions of frustration, the raccoon resorts to basic “food-getting” behaviors common to its species. These results show a limitation in the raccoon’s cognitive capacity to even conceive of the possibility that two coins could be exchanged for food, irrespective of existing auto-shaping contingencies. Since the Breland's observations were reported many other examples of untrained responses to natural stimuli have been reported; in many contexts, the stimuli are called \"sign stimuli\", and the related behaviors are called \"sign tracking\". \n", "The second rule, named by Konrad Lorenz as ‘imprinting,’ states that those who you grow up with are kin. Several species exhibit this behavior, including, but not limited to the Belding's ground squirrel. Experimentation with these squirrels showed that regardless of true genetic relatedness, those that were reared together rarely fought. Further research suggests that there is partially some genetic recognition going on as well, as siblings that were raised apart were less aggressive toward one another compared to non-relatives reared apart.\n\nSection::::Social behaviors.:Cooperation.\n", "Ardrey's main focus in \"The Hunting Hypothesis\" was to examine the ways in which human evolution developed with and because of hunting behavior, and the effects on modern man of inherited traits related to this evolution.\n", "In 2014, a whole genome study of the DNA differences between wolves and dogs found that dogs did not show a reduced fear response, they showed greater synaptic plasticity. Synaptic plasticity is widely believed to be the cellular correlate of learning and memory, and this change may have altered the learning and memory abilities of dogs.\n", "Human infants (10 months old) continue to search for hidden objects at their initial hiding place, even after observing them being hidden at another location. This perseverance of searching errors is at least partly contributed to by behavioural cues from the experimenter. Domestic dogs also commit more search errors in communicative trials than in non-communicative or non-social hiding trials. However, human-encultured wolves (\"Canis lupus\") do not show this context-dependent perseverance in searching. This common sensitivity to human communication behaviour may arise from convergent evolution.\n", "His theory that culture gets imprinted into the \"Reptilian Brain\" during early childhood has been heavily contradicted by scientific evidence. His practice of leading managers into regression sessions to tap into their unconscious in an attempt to discover a \"code\" word, has also been cited as \"primitive\" and has been heavily contradicted by scientific evidence.\n", "After he left the Marines he contacted a Native American biologist, Levi Holt, and from their meeting he was able to spend several months living at the Wolf Education and Research Center on Nez Perce tribal lands in northern Idaho, United States as a volunteer in a project studying wolves at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. They taught him how to observe wolves, and he was able to get into a pack of wolves and live among them. He recorded wild wolf howls and gradually learned to identify individual pack members and began to realise that wolves are highly intelligent and instinctive individuals that show trust and balance within their pack's social structure.\n", "Section::::Non-heritable.:Learning.\n\nMany species have the ability to adapt through learning. Organisms will often learn through various psychological and cognitive processes, such as operant and classical conditioning and discrimination memory. This learning process allows organisms to modify their behavior to survive in unpredictable environments. Organisms begin as naive individuals and learning allows them to obtain the knowledge they need to adapt and survive. It is important to remember that a learned adaptive behavior must have a psychological, as well as a biological, component; without the integration of these two disciplines, behavioral adaptation cannot occur.\n\nSection::::Non-heritable.:Learning.:Kin selection.\n", "Other factors like ecological availability, reward-based factors, content-based factors, and source-based factors might explain the stability of animal culture in a wild rather than just imitation. As an example of ecological availability, chimps may learn how to fish for ants with a stick from their peers, but that behavior is also influenced by the particular type of ants as well as the condition. A behavior may be learned socially, but the fact that it was learned socially does not necessarily mean it will last. The fact that the behavior is rewarding has a role in cultural stability as well. The ability for socially-learned behaviors to stabilize across generations is also mitigated by the complexity of the behavior. Different individuals of a species, like crows, vary in their ability to use a complex tool. Finally, a behavior’s stability in animal culture depends on the context in which they learn a behavior. If a behavior has already been adopted by a majority, then the behavior is more likely to carry across generations out of a need for conforming.\n", "There is debate on whether or not there exists a biological component associated with the learning process in ecological adaptive behavior. Many researchers suggest that the biological and psychological disciplines are integrated, while others believe that the non-heritable component is strictly psychological. They argue that non-heritable traits cannot evolve over successive generations.\n\nSection::::Heritable.\n", "Sigmund Freud considered that mental images of bodily needs, expressed in the form of desires, are called instincts. \n\nPsychologist Abraham Maslow argued that humans no longer have instincts because we have the ability to override them in certain situations. He felt that what is called instinct is often imprecisely defined, and really amounts to strong \"drives\". For Maslow, an instinct is something which cannot be overridden, and therefore while the term may have applied to humans in the past, it no longer does.\n", "Gregg Ritz is a professional hunter who specializes in technical muzzleloading and archery. After acquiring ownership of the Ohio, United States hunting lodge, Hunt Master’s Lodge, Ritz began hosting the Outdoor Channel’s television show, Hunt Masters. The show centered on a variety of expert hunters engaging in challenging hunting adventures, but Ritz was soon given the opportunity by the Outdoor Channel to host his own show in the form of Primitive Instinct.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n", "Within a very short time, Belyayev's experiment began to show results. \"By 1964 the fourth generation was already beginning to live up to the researchers' hopes\", reported National Geographic. \"Trut can still remember the moment when she first saw a fox wag its tail at her approach. Before long, the most tame among them were so doglike that they would leap into researchers' arms and lick their faces. At times the extent of the animals' tameness surprised even the researchers. Once, in the 1970s, a worker took one of the foxes home temporarily as a pet. When Trut visited him, she found the owner taking his fox for walks, unleashed, 'just like a dog. I said \"Don't do that, we'll lose it, and it belongs to the institute! she recalls. 'He said \"just wait\", then he whistled and said, \"Coca!\" It came right back. By the time the selectively bred foxes had reached their tenth generation, 18 percent of the fox puppies were in the elite category; by the 20th generation, that figure had climbed to 35 percent. As of 2009, elite foxes made up 70 to 80 percent of the population.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07278	Instead of battery technology, why do Smartphone companies only upgrade cameras, processors, memory, etc yearly?	I will start by saying I am not a scientist or battery specialist. Just a techy and rc enthusiast. Most phones do receive an upgraded battery along with other components. however the components require more power and therefore battery life remains similar. As for pioneering entirely new battery types or using things similar to the RC world, volatility becomes an issue if they’re not handled extremely carefully which is not in the cards for the average cell phone user.	[ "Section::::Hardware.:Battery.\n\nBy the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate; however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.\n", "On December 28, 2017, amidst many complaints about older iPhone models slowing down when new ones are released, Apple released a communication to its customers on its website, acknowledging the effect that old batteries have on the iPhone's performance. The company offered $29 battery replacements as a solution.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Camera.\n", "On April 28, 2014, Apple initiated an out of warranty recall program to replace any failing power buttons of iPhone 5 models which were manufactured prior to March 2013 at no cost. On August 23, 2014, Apple announced a program to replace batteries of iPhone 5 models that \"may suddenly experience shorter battery life or need to be charged more frequently\" which were sold between September 2012 and January 2013.\n\nSection::::History.:Litigation.\n", "There are many high-capacity \"extended\" batteries available for the HTC Universal. 2600mAh, 3150mAh, 3200mAh, 3800mAh, 4800mAh and even 5200mAh models have been sold by various retailers, which allow the device to run for more than a week in many cases on a single charge (with light to medium use). All extended batteries have one big drawback though, they are all supplied with a new plastic back to hold the battery, which considerably increases the size and weight of the device.\n", "The company is also increasing the proportion of recycled materials that used in its products. For example, the housings for the MOTO W233 Renew and MOTOCUBO A45 Eco mobile phones contain plastic from post-consumer recycled water cooler bottles. According to the company's information, all of Motorola's newly designed chargers meet the current Energy Star requirements and exceed the requirements for standby/no-load modes by at least 67%.\n\nSection::::Sponsorships.\n", "Section::::Hardware.:Battery.\n\nThe average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500-2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used. It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:SIM card.\n", "Section::::Attributes' place on the model changes over time.\n\nAn attribute will drift over time from Exciting to performance and then to essential. The drift is driven by customer expectations and by the level of performance from competing products.\n\nFor example mobile phone batteries were originally large and bulky with only a few hours of charge. Over time we have come to expect 12+ hours of battery life on slim lightweight phones. The battery attributes have had to change to keep up with customer expectations.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Wind Mobile\n\nBULLET::::- Ntelos\n\nBULLET::::- Cellular One\n\nSection::::Software upgrades.\n\nMotorola is unwilling to upgrade the Android 2.1 operating system preloaded on the Milestone XT720. Nevertheless, wireless operator Cincinnati Bell as well as third-party developers have provided means to install the Android 2.2 operating system on the XT720. Such upgrades are not certified by Motorola and involve the rooting of the smartphone.\n\nSection::::Software upgrades.:Cincinnati Bell.\n", "BULLET::::- Battery life. In December 2011, Nokia confirmed that some Lumia 800 devices do not use the full capacity of their battery. They also state that \"only a charger with an output of 1000mA will fully charge your Lumia 800 battery.\" During 19–20 January 2012, two updates were made available—battery related software update and another of Windows Phone 7.5 Mango build 8107. Nokia has stated that reported issues are fixed with the update and it triples the battery life.\n\nAs of July 2013, the camera and sound hadn't been fixed yet in Bulgaria. \n", "It is widely accepted that all electronic devices are subject to the product life cycle. As products evolve into updated versions, they require parts and technology distinct from their predecessors. However, the earlier versions of the product often still need to be maintained throughout their life cycle. As the new product becomes predominant, there are fewer parts available to fix the earlier versions and the technology becomes outdated.\n", "BULLET::::- LCD resolution: 115,000 pixels\n\nBULLET::::- Battery types: AA (2) batteries or CRV3\n\nBULLET::::- Weight including batteries: 245 g (8.6 oz)\n\nBULLET::::- Dimensions: 100 x 65 x 35 mm (3.9 x 2.6 x 1.4 in)\n\nOlympus released a firmware update that was rumored to address battery life problems. However, battery life is still poor with alkaline batteries, below average with nickel metal halides batteries and good with lithium batteries (CRV3s).\n", "In February 2017, Apple released a statement to \"TechCrunch\", saying that the iOS 10.2.1 update, released on January 23, had reduced the occurrence of battery shutdowns by \"more than 80%\" on iPhone 6S devices.\n\nOn December 28, 2017, Apple decreased the price of an out-of-warranty battery replacement for iPhone 6 or later from $79 to $29 for one year until December 31, 2018, and promised an iOS update that would provide more information about an iPhone's battery health which eventually turned out to be iOS 11.3.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of iOS devices\n\nBULLET::::- History of iPhone\n", "Users started reporting battery drain issues after the February security update. The battery drain become worse after the April security updates. Google is looking for a fix.\n\nUsers are reporting proximity sensor issues. Google is aware of the issue and looking for a fix.\n\nSome users are having issues making calls and receiving MMS messages. Google claims these issues are fixed but users are still complaining about them.\n", "A cell phone's shelf life is only about 24 months for the average user. This means that newer cell phone models are constantly put up on the market to replace older ones. This is as a result of the rapid progression of technology in the mobile industry. According to Matt Ployhar of Intel, the industry is rapidly evolving, possibly even at “Moore's law pace or faster.” This means that newer cell phone models are continually on the rise of consumerism and more outdated models are likely to end up in landfills.\n", "In 2015, Tesla founder Elon Musk claimed that silicon in Model S batteries increased the car’s range by 6%.\n\nAs of 2018, products by startups Sila Nanotechnologies, Global Graphene Group, Enovix, Enevate, and others were undergoing tests by the battery manufacturers, car companies, and consumer-electronics companies. Sila clients include BMW and Amperex Technology, battery supplier to companies including Apple and Samsung. BMW plans to incorporate Sila technology by 2023 and increase battery-pack capacity by 10-15%.\n\nSection::::Specific capacity.\n", "Some former NiMH Ranger operators have expressed surprise that any vehicles are being released with NiMH due to the extremely high cost of replacement of cells and packs, while others have pointed out that some NiMH vehicles have run for over on their original battery packs. It is not yet clear what would need to be changed within the vehicle to use other batteries such as PbA or NiCad.\n\nSection::::Discontinuation and later development.\n", "To a more limited extent this is also true of some consumer electronic products, where manufacturers will release slightly updated products at regular intervals and emphasize their value as status symbols. An example is OnePlus, a smartphone manufacturer that releases a marginally updated model every 5 or 6 months compared to the typical yearly cycle, leading to the perception that a one year-old handset can be up to two generations old.\n\nSection::::Types.:Systemic obsolescence.\n", "When exposed to high temperatures, the lithium-ion batteries in smartphones are easily damaged and can fail faster than expected, in addition to letting the device run out of battery too often. Debris and other contaminants that enter through small cracks in the phone can also infringe on smartphone life expectancy. One of the most common factors that causes smartphones and other electronic devices to die quickly is physical impact and breakage, which can severely damage the internal pieces.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "As of July 2013, the list of companies that were engaged in smartwatch development activities consists of Acer, Apple, BlackBerry, Foxconn/Hon Hai, Google, LG, Microsoft, Qualcomm, Samsung, Sony, VESAG and Toshiba. Some notable omissions from this list include HP, HTC, Lenovo, and Nokia. Science and technology journalist Christopher Mims identified the following points in relation to the future of smartwatches:\n\nBULLET::::- The physical size of smartwatches is likely to be large.\n", "Wearable technology was a popular topic at the trade show Consumer Electronics Show in 2014, with the event dubbed \"The Wearables, Appliances, Cars and Bendable TVs Show\" by industry commentators. Among numerous wearable products showcased were smartwatches, activity trackers, smart jewelry, head-mounted optical displays and earbuds. Nevertheless, wearable technologies are still suffering from limited battery capacity.\n", "In order to adhere to corporation-wide policies of camera absence in electronic devices, Motorola released a non-camera version of the i930 called the i920 sometime in February. While the technology on both the i920 and the i930 are considered to be obsolete by some, the pricing map is as follows:\n", "The S8 and S8+ use non-removable 3000 and 3500 mAh batteries respectively; Samsung stated that it had engineered the batteries to retain their capacity for a longer period of time than previous models. The S8 supports AirFuel Inductive (formerly PMA) and Qi wireless charging standards. Due to the recalls of the Samsung Galaxy Note 7, Samsung said in a press conference it is committed to stricter quality control and safety testing procedures on all of the company's future products.\n", "An internal document circulated in Q4 2015 stated that any new vehicle from Q1 2016 onwards fitted with SYNC2 upon delivery should be replaced under warranty. This was to safeguard the batch building and storing of vehicles being equipped with the older option and making it to market during the cross over period. This also safeguarded against dealerships pre-ordering vehicles and storing against possible future orders.\n\nThe document also stated that the numbers expected to be effected are insignificant. The document stated “Preserving the brand image is paramount”\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Audi MMI\n\nBULLET::::- Bluetooth\n\nBULLET::::- Hyundai Blue Link\n", "When, after a whole year, the unlocked and unbranded A1000 appeared, its new firmware version made most of these applications obsolete, as it included their facilities. The phone was also available in its glossy black finish.\n", "Omega caliber 1400 is compatible with Panasonic MT920 (nominal voltage of 1.5V). Even though MT920 is designed to last 500 charge-discharge cycles, due to lack of official documentation, it is not clear how long this titanium lithium rechargeable battery will last when used in Omega 1400 caliber, however it is advised that these watches are serviced every 24 months and the batteries are replaced as a matter of discourse during Omega servicing.\n\nSection::::Operation of Omegamatic mechanisms.\n" ]	[ "Smartphone companies do not upgrade battery technology yearly like they do with memory, cameras, etc.", "Smartphone companies do not upgrade battery technology." ]	[ "Most phones do receive an upgraded battery along with other components.", "Smartphone companies do upgrade battery technology in most smartphones." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Smartphone companies do not upgrade battery technology yearly like they do with memory, cameras, etc.", "Smartphone companies do not upgrade battery technology." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most phones do receive an upgraded battery along with other components.", "Smartphone companies do upgrade battery technology in most smartphones." ]
2018-03395	What are the main tasks of diplomats? How can I become one?	The U.S. Department of State offers five different career tracks for diplomats. An individual interested in becoming a diplomat must be a U.S. citizen and be between the ages of 20 and 59. A college degree is not necessary; however, possessing a college diploma and having the ability to speak a foreign language improves an individual's chances of being hired. [Source]( URL_0 )	[ "BULLET::::- 2004: \"Towards the Virtual University: Trends and Strategies\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: \"Are Diplomats Really Necessary? The Hydra in a Mutating Environment\" Edited with Sir Peter Marshall, University of Westminster Press, 1999\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: \"The Information Explosion: A Challenge for Diplomacy\" edited with Sir Peter Marshall, University of Westminster Press, 1999\n\nBULLET::::- 1996: \"Diplomacy beyond 2000\" edited with Sir Peter Marshall, University of Westminster Press, 1996\n\nBULLET::::- 1990: Edited \"The Dynamics of Diplomacy\" by Sir Peter Marshall, The Diplomatic Academy of London, 1990\n\nArticles in books\n", "In this operation, the intelligence, integrity, cultural understanding, and energy of individual diplomats become critical. If competent, they will have developed relationships grounded in trust and mutual understanding with influential members of the country in which they are accredited. They will have worked hard to understand the motives, thought patterns and culture of the other side.\n\nSection::::Function.:Negotiation.\n", "Diplomats in posts collect and report information that could affect national interests, often with advice about how the home-country government should respond. Then, once any policy response has been decided in the home country's capital, posts bear major responsibility for implementing it. Diplomats have the job of conveying, in the most persuasive way possible, the views of the home government to the governments to which they are accredited and, in doing so, of trying to convince those governments to act in ways that suit home-country interests. In this way, diplomats are part of the beginning and the end of each loop in the continuous process through which foreign policy develops.\n", "Section::::Suitability, Enrolment and Admission.\n\nTypical entry requirements include PhDs, master's degrees, or equivalent qualifications in a functional field awarded by a professional body. Significant experience is also required. Therefore, typical candidates are:\n\nBULLET::::- Ambassadors\n\nBULLET::::- Heads of mission\n\nBULLET::::- Heads of Protocol\n\nBULLET::::- Heads of NGOs\n\nBULLET::::- Directors from Organisations such as WTO, Red Cross, UNESCO, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Ministers & Assistant Ministers from ministries of Foreign Affairs, Interior, Environment, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Members of Think Tanks\n", "Section::::Purpose of a Professional Doctorate of Diplomacy.\n\nThe role and responsibilities of diplomats has changed dramatically in recent years and has become something more than the diplomacy of states and governments. Globalisation, international trade developments, and our increasing interdependencies – not to mention dramatic shifts in the balance of power – mean that today’s diplomat needs to have at his/her finger tips a vast amount of knowledge and an array of skills that is unprecedented. This requires a new way of thinking about how to train diplomats\n", "Diplomats have generally been considered members of an exclusive and prestigious profession. The public image of diplomats has been described as \"a caricature of pinstriped men gliding their way around a never-ending global cocktail party\". J. W. Burton has noted that \"despite the absence of any specific professional training, diplomacy has a high professional status, due perhaps to a degree of secrecy and mystery that its practitioners self-consciously promote.\" The state supports the high status, privileges, and self-esteem of its diplomats in order to support its own international status and position.\n", "Section::::Diplomatic career.\n", "The home country will usually send instructions to a diplomatic post on what foreign policy goals to pursue, but decisions on tactics – who needs to be influenced, what will best persuade them, who are potential allies and adversaries, and how it can be done - are for the diplomats overseas to make.\n", "Though any person can be appointed by the state's national government to conduct said state's relations with other states or international organisations, a number of states maintain an institutionalised group of career diplomats—that is, public servants with a steady professional connection to the country's foreign ministry. The term \"career diplomat\" is used worldwide in opposition to \"political appointees\" (that is, people from any other professional backgrounds who may equally be designated by an official government to act as diplomats abroad). While officially posted to an embassy or delegation in a foreign country or accredited to an international organisation, both career diplomats and political appointees enjoy the same diplomatic immunities. Ceremonial heads of state commonly act as diplomats on behalf of their nation, usually following instructions from their head of Government.\n", "Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies. For instance, the job of military attachés includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows. There are also deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main task is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents \"in situ\" and under close monitoring.\n", "BULLET::::- Dorman, Shawn, ed. \"Inside a U.S. Embassy: How the Foreign Service Works for America\" by American Foreign Service Association, Second edition February 2003,\n\nBULLET::::- Callieres, Francois De. \"The Practice of Diplomacy\" (1919).\n\nBULLET::::- Anderson, Matthew S. \"The Rise of Modern Diplomacy, 1450–1919\" (1993).\n\nBULLET::::- Nicolson, Sir Harold George. \"The Evolution of Diplomatic Method\" (1977)\n\nBULLET::::- Rana, Kishan S. and Jovan Kurbalija, eds. \"Foreign Ministries: Managing Diplomatic Networks and Optimizing Value\" DiploFoundation, 2007,\n\nBULLET::::- Rana, Kishan S. \"The 21st Century Ambassador: Plenipotentiary to Chief Executive\" DiploFoundation,2004,\n", "BULLET::::- “The Information Explosion and the Future of Diplomatic Training,” in The Information Explosion: A Challenge for Diplomacy, edited with Sir Peter Marshall, University of Westminster Press, 1999\n\nLectures\n\nBULLET::::- \"International Security in the Age of Fear\" at China Foreign Affairs University, October 2008, Beijing , China\n\nBULLET::::- Member of the panel on ‘The Role of the Media in the Arab-Israel Relations: Stereotyping or Bridging Gaps'? June 2009, House of Lords, London\n\nBULLET::::- “Information Technology and the Future of Diplomatic Training,” 1st International Symposium Diplomacy Beyond 2000, University of Westminster, April 1995\n", "The diplomat should be an excellent negotiator but, above all, a catalyst for peace and understanding between peoples. The diplomat's principal role is to foster peaceful relations between states. This role takes on heightened importance if war breaks out. Negotiation must necessarily continue – but within significantly altered contexts.\n\nSection::::Training.\n\nMost career diplomats have university degrees in international relations, political science, economics, or law.\n\nSection::::Status and public image.\n", "Section::::Non-diplomatic offices.\n", "BULLET::::- “Threats to Global Security from Terrorism: Intelligence Services and Non-State Actors” in The Impact of Technology on Intelligence and Security. Edited by Nabil Ayad, The Diplomatic Academy of London Press, 2006\n\nBULLET::::- “Information Technology and the Future of Diplomatic Training,” in Diplomacy beyond 2000, edited with Sir Peter Marshall, University of Westminster Press, 1999\n\nBULLET::::- “Information Technology and Diplomatic Training: The Hydra in a Mutating Environment,” in Are Diplomats Really Necessary? Edited with Sir Peter Marshall, University of Westminster Press, 1999\n", "Since the early 20th century, diplomacy has become increasingly professionalized, being carried out by accredited career diplomats supported by staff and diplomatic infrastructure, such as consulates and embassies. Subsequently, the term \"diplomats\" has also been applied to diplomatic services, consular services and foreign ministry officials more generally. \n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:West Asia.\n", "BULLET::::- Joseph Hoar, former commander of United States Central Command\n\nBULLET::::- H. Allen Holmes, former Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and former Ambassador to Portugal\n\nBULLET::::- Robert V. Keeley, former Ambassador to Greece, Zimbabwe, and Mauritius\n\nBULLET::::- Samuel Lewis, former Ambassador to Israel\n\nBULLET::::- Princeton N. Lyman, former Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs, and Ambassador to South Africa and Nigeria\n\nBULLET::::- Donald McHenry, former Ambassador to the United Nations\n\nBULLET::::- Merrill McPeak, former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force\n", "Section::::Diplomatic service.\n", "BULLET::::- Management Officers are responsible for the affairs of an embassy or consulate and dealing with the personnel and budgets of the embassy.\n\nBULLET::::- Political Officers have the responsibility of interacting with foreign governments on policy issues and negotiating policy.\n\nBULLET::::- Public Diplomacy Officers inform the citizens of their respective countries on the actions of the embassy, including meeting with the press and giving educational events.\n", "One of the cornerstones of foreign diplomatic missions is to work for peace. This task can grow into a fight against international terrorism, the drug trade, international bribery, and human trafficking. Ambassadors help stop these acts, helping people across the globe. These activities are important and sensitive and are usually carried out in coordination with the Defense Ministry of the state (or the Defense Department in the U.S.) and the head of the nation.\n\nSection::::Rise of modern diplomacy.\n", "The Vienna Convention states:The functions of a diplomatic mission consist, \"inter alia\", in representing the sending State in the receiving State; protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State; ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.\n", "More pragmatically, Peter Beal defines diplomatics as \"the science or study of documents and records, including their forms, language, script and meaning. It involves knowledge of such matters as the established wording and procedures of particular kinds of document, the deciphering of writing, and document analysis and authentication\".\n", "On some occasion a former holder of an official position continues to carry out an informal diplomatic activity after retirement. In some cases, governments welcome such activity, for example as a means of establishing an initial contact with a hostile state of group without being formally committed. In other cases, however, such informal diplomats seek to promote a political agenda different from that of the government currently in power. Such informal diplomacy is practiced by former US Presidents Jimmy Carter and (to a lesser extent) Bill Clinton and by the former Israeli diplomat and minister Yossi Beilin (see Geneva Initiative).\n", "Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign policy, which consists of the broader goals and strategies that guide a state's interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties, agreements, alliances, and other manifestations of foreign policy are usually negotiated by diplomats prior to endorsement by national politicians. Diplomats may also help shape a state's foreign policy in an advisory capacity.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Diplomatic career.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00597	How is it that men outnumber women 101.8 to 100(according to google) in the present day even though millions of men died at wars throughout the history?	The sex ratio as birth isn't exactly 1:1 - there's a slightly higher chance for a baby to be born a boy than a girl, something between 103:100 and 108:100. This offsets men's lower lifespan compared to women's.	[ "Males typically produce billions of sperm each month, many of which are capable of fertilization. Females typically produce one ovum a month that can be fertilized into an embryo. Thus during a lifetime males are able to father a significantly greater number of children than females can give birth to. The most fertile female, according to the Guinness Book of World Records, was the wife of Feodor Vassilyev of Russia (1707–1782) who had 69 surviving children. The most prolific father of all time is believed to be the last Sharifian Emperor of Morocco, Mulai Ismail (1646–1727) who reportedly fathered more than 800 children from a harem of 500 women.\n", "The numbers also vary between countries. For example, China has many more young men than young women, and this disparity is expected to increase. In regions with recent conflict such as Chechnya, women greatly outnumber men.\n\nIn a cross-cultural study by David Buss, men and women were asked to rank the importance of certain traits in a long term partner. Both men and women ranked \"kindness\" and \"intelligence\" as the two most important factors. Men valued beauty and youth more highly than women, while women valued financial and social status more highly than men.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Studies on marriage in the U.S..:Media.\n", "Section::::History and distribution.:By chronology.:20th–21st centuries.\n\nIn 1995, in Kenya, according to Emily Wax, Umoja, a village only for women from one tribe with about 36 residents, was established under a matriarch. Men of the same tribe established a village nearby from which to observe the women's village, the men's leader objecting to the matriarch's questioning the culture and men suing to close the women's village. The village was still operational in 2005 when Wax reported on it.\n", "Our species has depended largely on subsistence provided by collaboration among members of the immediate family: a woman who bears, nurses, and looks after children (with aid and advice of her mother), and does chores consistent with those responsibilities; a man, who is free to range farther from the home base for food and materials and can do things that require extra strength or concentration; and the children providing whatever assistance is required of them as they grow more capable. \n", "Section::::Variables that Change the Child Sex Ratio.\n\nSection::::Variables that Change the Child Sex Ratio.:War Alters Child Sex Ratio.\n", "Section::::History and distribution.:By chronology.\n\nSection::::History and distribution.:By chronology.:Earliest prehistory and undated.\n", "Section::::100,000-year problem.\n", "Helle et al. have studied 138 years of human birth sex ratio data, from 1865 to 2003. They find an increased excess of male births during periods of exogenous stress (World War II) and during warm years. In the warmest period over the 138 years, the birth sex ratio peaked at about 1.08 in northern Europe.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting sex ratio in humans.:Environmental factors.:Effects of gestation environment.\n", "Kurt Derungs is a non-academic author advocating an \"anthropology of landscape\" based on allegedly matriarchal traces in toponymy and folklore.\n\nSection::::History and distribution.:By chronology.:Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages.\n", "Section::::Fertility and family life.\n\nThe total fertility rate (TFR) – the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime — differs significantly between different regions of the world. In 2016, the highest estimated TFR was in Niger (6.62 children born per woman) and the lowest in Singapore (0.82 children/woman). While most Sub-Saharan African countries have a high TFR, which creates problems due to lack of resources and contributes to overpopulation, most Western countries currently experience a sub replacement fertility rate which may lead to population ageing and population decline.\n", "Eller sets out to refute what she describes as feminist matriarchalism as an \"ennobling lie\".\n", "James's hypothesis is supported by historical birth sex ratio data before technologies for ultrasonographic sex-screening were discovered and commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, as well by reversed sex ratios currently observed in Africa. Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, witnessed birth sex ratios below 100, that is more girls are born than boys. Angola, Botswana and Namibia have reported birth sex ratios between 94 and 99, which is quite different than the presumed 104 to 106 as natural human birth sex ratio. John Graunt noted that in London over a 35-year period in the 17th century (1628–1662), the birth sex ratio was 1.07; while Korea's historical records suggest a birth sex ratio of 1.13, based on 5 million births, in 1920s over a 10-year period.\n", "In North America and Europe the birth sex ratio of the population ranges between 103 and 107 boys per 100 girls; in India, China and South Korea, the ratio has been far higher. Women have a biological advantage over men for longevity and survival; however, there have been more men than women in India and other Asian countries. This higher sex ratio in India and other countries is considered as an indicator of sex-selective abortion.\n", "Some of the factors suggested as causes of the gender imbalance are warfare (excess of females, notably in the wake of WWI in western Europe, and WWII, particularly in the Soviet Union); sex-selective abortion and infanticide (excess of males, notably in China as a result of the one-child policy, or in India); and large-scale migration, such as that by male labourers unable to bring their families with them (as in Qatar and other Gulf countries). Gender imbalance may result in the threat of social unrest, especially in the case of an excess of low-status young males unable to find spouses, and being recruited into the service of militaristic political factions. Economic factors such as male-majority industries and activities like the petrochemical, agriculture, engineering, military, and technology also have created a male gender imbalance in some areas dependent on one of these industries. Conversely, the entertainment, banking, tourism, fashion, and service industries may have resulted in a female-majority gender imbalance in some areas dependent on them.\n", "Unlike in India, the number of males born surpassed the number of females born in England after World War I. For every 100 girls born, there were two more boys born in the UK. It was believed the men were producing baby boys to replace the men lost during battle. Others believed it was genetics, if the males had a family of many brothers it was likely for them to produce more sons than daughters. Many more boys were born in many countries after the world wars. There are about 105 males to 100 females in the United States and Britain in 2008. \n", "BULLET::::- Zarulli, Virginia, et al. \"Women Live Longer than Men Even during Severe Famines and Epidemics.\" \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\", National Academy of Sciences, Jan 3 2018.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Fuller, \"The Youth Crisis in Middle Eastern Society\" (2004) download\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Fuller, \"The Demographic Backdrop to Ethnic Conflict: A Geographic Overview\", was born in 1989 and was produced by Edward Gewin: The Challenge of Ethnic Conflict to National and International Order in the 1990s, Washington: CIA (RTT 95-10039, October), 151-154.\n\nBULLET::::- Navtej Dhillon, \"Middle East Youth Bulge: Challenge or Opportunity?\" (2008) The Brookings Institution\n", "The human sex ratio is of particular interest to anthropologists and demographers. In human societies, however, sex ratios at birth may be considerably skewed by factors such as the age of mother at birth, and by sex-selective abortion and infanticide. Exposure to pesticides and other environmental contaminants may be a significant contributing factor as well. As of 2014, the global sex ratio at birth is estimated at 107 boys to 100 girls (1000 boys per 934 girls).\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nIn most species, the sex ratio varies according to the age profile of the population.\n\nIt is generally divided into four subdivisions:\n", "Section::::Modern population.\n", "Section::::Examples in non-human species.:Domesticated animals.\n\nTraditionally, farmers have discovered that the most economically efficient community of animals will have a large number of females and a very small number of males. A herd of cows with a few bulls or a flock of hens with one rooster are the most economical sex ratios for domesticated livestock.\n\nSection::::Examples in non-human species.:Dioecious plants secondary sex ratio and amount of pollen.\n", "Eventually, they learn the truth. A plague wiped out most human life, including all males. Only about 11,000 women survived, mostly concentrated in Australasia and a few other areas. Until recently, they reproduced only by cloning, so most women are clones of the original 11,000 genotypes. Babies are raised communally in crèches, and all members of each genotype are encouraged to add their story to a book that is passed on for the inspiration and education of future \"sisters.\" Certain genotypes are given early androgen treatments (hence, Andy, who the astronauts thought was male) to increase bulk and strength for physical tasks. The resulting communal male-free society has settled into a peaceful pattern — without major conflict and seemingly happy.\n", "BULLET::::- In Orson Scott Card's \"Speaker for the Dead\" (1986) and its sequels, the alien pequenino species in every forest are matriarchal.\n\nBULLET::::- In Sheri S. Tepper's book, \"The Gate to Women's Country\" (1988), the only men who live in Women's Country are the \"servitors,\" who are servants to the women, according to Peter Fitting.\n\nBULLET::::- Élisabeth Vonarburg's book, \"Chroniques du Pays des Mères\" (1992) (translated into English as \"In the Mothers' Land\") is set in a matriarchal society where, due to a genetic mutation, women outnumber men by 70 to 1.\n", "From Latvians Online This paragraph was taken from an article written by Diana Kiesners: \"Above all, no one must know what happened to the women in the basement at Lobethal. When the local Latvian center holds a debate to establish who suffered more in the war, men or women, it is a foregone conclusion that it is the men who suffered most. They have the statistics to prove it. The few women who disagree (Agate’s mother is one of them) are shouted down; what are their losses by comparison? \"There are worse things than death,’ they say, but the word ‘rape’ cannot be spoken. Otherwise they will be ostracized, blamed for their own tragedy. Agate puts up her hand to vote \"with the winning side\"\".\n", "Section::::Kin selection.:Conflict over sex ratio.\n", "As a contributing measure to gender imbalance in developing countries, Kristof and WuDunn's best estimate is that a girl in India, from 1 to 5 years of age, dies from discrimination every four minutes (132,000 deaths per year); that 39,000 girls in China die annually, within the first year of life, because parents did not give girls the same medical care and attention that boys received. The authors describe similar gender discrimination and gendercide in Congo, Kenya, Pakistan, Iraq, Bahrain, Thailand and many other developing countries.\n", "While not conclusive, evidence does exist to support the idea that female-biased dispersal existed in pre-modern humans. The closest living relatives to humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and both mountain gorillas and western lowland gorillas, are female-biased dispersers. Analysis of sex specific genetic material, the non-recombining portions of the Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA, show evidence of a prevalence of female-biased dispersal as well; however, these results could also be affected by the effective breeding numbers of males and females in local populations. Evidence of female-biased dispersion in hunter-gatherers is not definitive, with some studies supporting the idea, and others suggesting there is no strong bias towards either sex. In killer whales, both sexes mate non-locally with members of a different pod but return to the pod after copulation. Demographic data shows that a female’s mean relatedness to the group does increase over time due to increasing relatedness to males. While less well-studied, there is evidence that short-finned pilot whales, another menopausal species, also display this behavior. However, mating behavior that increases local relatedness with female age is prevalent in non-menopausal species, making it unlikely that it is the only factor that determines if menopause will evolve in a species.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00674	Why does a baloon explode into many pieces when it is punctured with something sharp, but not do so when the bottom opening is opened?	It's about the amount of strain that is on the point where you create the puncture. If you take a needle and poke a balloon right by the knot, where the pressure is lowest; it won't explode it will just leak. If you create a puncture in the side of the balloon where the stress is very high from all sides, the energy will be released more quickly and will shred some of the rubber under the most tension.	[ "Stress acting on a material when fast fracture occurs is less than the material's yield stress. A very representative example of this is what happens when poking a blown up balloon with a needle, that is, fast fracture of the balloon's material. The energy in the balloon comes from the compressed gas inside it and the energy stored in the rubber membrane itself. The introduction of the flaw, which in this case is the pin prick, would lead to the explosion as the membrane fails by fast fracture. However, if the same flaw is introduced to a balloon with less energy - as in the case of a partially inflated balloon - the fast fracture will not occur, unless the balloon is punctured progressively so that it reaches a critical pressure at which fast fracture occurs.\n", "BULLET::::- A very dry gasket can make it difficult or impossible to close the lid. Smearing the gasket sparingly with vegetable oil alleviates this problem (using too much vegetable oil can make the gasket swell and prevent it sealing properly).\n", "Pipe bombs concentrate pressure and release it suddenly, through the failure of the outer casing. Plastic materials can be used, but metals typically have a much higher bursting strength and so will produce more concussive force. For example, common schedule 40 wrought steel pipe has a typical working pressure of , and bursting pressure of , though the pipe sealing method can significantly reduce the burst pressure.\n\nThe pipe can rupture in different ways, depending on the rate of pressure rise and the ductility of the casing material.\n", "BULLET::::- If the pressure rise is slow, the metal can deform until the walls become thin and a hole is formed, causing a loud report from the gas release, but no shrapnel.\n\nBULLET::::- A rapid rate of pressure rise will cause the metal to act as a crystal and shatter into fragments, which are pushed outward in all directions by the expanding gases.\n\nSection::::Modes of failure.\n", "BULLET::::1. Under plane stress conditions, the piece of material in the plastic zone is elongated, which is mainly balanced by an out-of-the-plane flow of the material. Hence, the plasticity-induced crack closure under plane stress conditions can be expressed as a consequence of the stretched material behind the crack tip, which can be considered as a wedge that is inserted in the crack and reduces the cyclic plastic deformation at the crack tip and hence the fatigue crack growth rate.\n", "While beverage cans or cans of fluid such as broth can merely be punctured to remove the product, solid or semisolid contents require removing one end of the can. This can be accomplished with a heavy knife or other sharp tool—but can openers are much more convenient.\n", "Low explosives are compounds where the rate of decomposition proceeds through the material at less than the speed of sound. The decomposition is propagated by a flame front (deflagration) which travels much more slowly through the explosive material than a shock wave of a high explosive. Under normal conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimetres per second to approximately 400 metres per second. It is possible for them to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation. This can happen under higher pressure or temperature, which usually occurs when ignited in a confined space.\n", "Still less sensitive materials such as blasting agents like ANFO, or shell fillings like Composition B, are so insensitive that the impulse from the detonator must be amplified by an explosive booster charge to secure reliable detonation. Some polymer bonded explosives — especially those based on TATB — are designed for use in insensitive munitions, which are unlikely to detonate even if struck by another explosive weapon.\n", "BULLET::::- This is dictated by its extremely low blast capacity as a consequence of the limited yield of these weapons, namely size and concealment constraints; as well as,\n\nBULLET::::- The likely lack of fragmentation from ‘hard’ casings (again a consequence of the need for greater concealment).\n", "Pipe bombs can fail to explode if the gas pressure buildup is too slow, resulting in bleed-out through the detonator ignition hole. Insufficiently tight threading can also bleed gas pressure through the threads faster than the chemical reaction pressure can rise.\n\nThey can also fail if the pipe is fully sealed and the chemical reaction triggered, but the total pressure buildup from the chemicals is insufficient to exceed the casing strength; such a bomb is a dud, but still potentially dangerous if handled, since an external shock could trigger rupture of the statically pressurized casing.\n\nSection::::Minimum evacuation distances.\n", "\"Deformation-induced martensitic transformation\" in the stress field of the crack tip is another possible reason to cause crack closure. It was first studied by Pineau and Pelloux and Hornbogen in metastale austenitic stainless steels. These steels transform from the austenitic to the martensitic lattice structure under sufficiently high deformation, which leads to an increase of the material volume ahead of the crack tip. Therefore, compression stresses are likely to arise as the crack surfaces contact each other. This transformation-induced closure is strongly influenced by the size and geometry of the test specimen and of the fatigue crack.\n", "Many closures need to have the ability to adjust to slight manufacturing variation in the container and the closure structure. Some closures are made of flexible material such as cork, rubber, or plastic foam. Often an o-ring or a closure liner (gasket made of pulp or foam cap liner) is used. Linerless closures often use a deformable plastic rim or structure to maintain the seal.\n", "The ejection of spent cases from the Galil is sometimes a violent action. Cases can be dented by the ejector and be thrown as much as 40 ft away from the rifle in some cases, depending on position.\n\nSection::::Design details.:Features.\n", "A high explosive bomb is one that employs a process called \"detonation\" to rapidly go from an initially high energy molecule to a very low energy molecule. Detonation is distinct from deflagration in that the chemical reaction propagates faster than the speed of sound (often many times faster) in an intense shock wave. Therefore, the pressure wave produced by a high explosive is not significantly increased by confinement as detonation occurs so quickly that the resulting plasma does not expand much before all the explosive material has reacted. This has led to the development of plastic explosive. A casing is still employed in some high explosive bombs, but with the purpose of fragmentation. Most high explosive bombs consist of an insensitive secondary explosive that must be detonated with a blasting cap containing a more sensitive primary explosive.\n", "Parts that are subject to high pressures and sharp impacts are still commonly case-hardened. Examples include firing pins and rifle bolt faces, or engine camshafts. In these cases, the surfaces requiring the hardness may be hardened selectively, leaving the bulk of the part in its original tough state.\n", "Leak testing is commonly used for piping and pressure vessels due to the safety, reliability, or environment consequences of a leak once in service. The part to be tested is filled with water, air, or other type of fluid. Depending on the application, testing can be done at atmospheric pressure, under a positive pressure, or under vacuum. Evidence of leak can either be visual or by observing a change in pressure. When positive pressure is used, testing with non-compressible fluids is safer than using a gas. Gasses under pressure contain a significantly higher amount of stored energy than liquids and a rupture can pose a significant safety risk.\n", "Air or nitrogen from the source of pressurization is not the only potential cause of sudden over-pressure. An autoclave fire is guaranteed to raise the internal pressure, and this may exceed the safety valve's ability to vent fast enough. The solution is oversized safety valves and rupture disks, and more than a single one of each.\n", "In demand valves where the cracking pressure is adjustable by the diver, it may also occur as a result of maladjustment of the cracking pressure (dial a breath) knob. In these cases the freeflow can usually be eliminated by adjusting the setting.\n", "The porosity in powder metal parts becomes a liability when the part must resist a differential pressure. PM applications for compressed air, fuel handling or hydraulic housings are common and effective; however, they must be sealed first. The polymer does not add structural strength to the physical part, but it will hold high pressures without creeping. If the wall thickness of the part exceeds 1/4 inch, the leak pressure is typically on the same order of magnitude as the burst pressure of the part.\n", "There are various approaches; one is to place metal plate over a die, with the intervening space evacuated by a vacuum pump, place the whole assembly underwater, and detonate a charge at an appropriate distance from the plate. For complicated shapes, a segmented die can be used to produce in a single operation a shape that would require many manufacturing steps, or to be manufactured in parts and welded together with an accompanying loss of strength at the welds. There is often some degree of work hardening from the explosive-forming process, particularly in mild steel.\n\nSection::::Tooling.\n", "The phenomenon of plasticity-induced crack closure is associated with the development of residual plastically deformed material on the flanks of an advancing fatigue crack.. \n\nThe degree of plasticity at the crack tip is influenced by the level of material constraint. The two extreme cases are:\n", "\"Roughness induced closure\" occurs with Mode II or in-plane shear type of loading, which is due to the misfit of the rough fracture surfaces of the crack’s upper and lower parts. Due to the anisotropy and heterogeneity in the micro structure, out-of-plane deformation occurs locally when Mode II loading is applied, and thus microscopic roughness of fatigue fracture surfaces is present. As a result, these mismatch wedges come into contact during the fatigue loading process, resulting in crack closure. The misfit in the fracture surfaces also takes place in the far field of the crack, which can be explained by the asymmetric displacement and rotation of material.\n", "BULLET::::- Many PBXes are safe to machine—to turn solid blocks into complex three-dimensional shapes. For example, a billet of PBX can, if necessary, be precisely shaped on a lathe or CNC machine. This technique is used to machine explosive lenses necessary for modern nuclear weapons.\n\nSection::::Binders.\n\nSection::::Binders.:Fluoropolymers.\n", "Section::::Application examples.:Pulse IRNDT analysis of a demonstration sample.\n\nThe demonstration and calibration sample is made of carbon fiber-epoxy composite. There are six holes of different depths on one side to simulate defects at different depths in range from 1 to 4 mm under the surface. The IRNDT analysis is performed from the flat side.\n", "3. Explosive Decompression - An O-ring embolism, also called gas expansion rupture, occurs when high pressure gas becomes trapped inside the elastomeric seal element. This expansion causes blisters and ruptures on the surface of the seal.\n\nSection::::\"Challenger\" disaster.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00585	Why isn't winter storm Grayson considered a hurricane?	A hurricane is a tropical cyclone and specifically one that develops in the Atlantic or the north east Pacific. Once it leaves the tropics it becomes a post-tropical cyclone. Cyclones that generate outside the tropics are extratropical cyclones and do not count as hurricanes. They form over cooler regions and won't pick up nearly as much power as a tropical cyclone that travels hundreds of miles over 80 degree water. Cyclones are common, there are a bunch around earth all the time, most of them are weak and outside the tropics so they don't get any fancy names. Only ones inside the tropics can become hurricanes or typhoons because thats how we defined hurricanes and typhoons	[ "The following names were used for named storms that formed in East Pacific in 2004. This is the same list used in the 1998 season. No names were retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 2005, therefore this list was re-used in the 2010 season.\n\nAlthough Isis did not result in significant damage or casualties (it was not retired during the WMO's annual meeting in 2005), the organization determined in 2015 that it would retire the name, deeming its usage inappropriate in light of the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant (commonly referred to as ISIS).\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 New England hurricane\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Bob\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Carol\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Connie\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Diane\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Floyd\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Gloria\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Isabel\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Sandy\n\nBULLET::::- List of New England hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of New York hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of New Jersey hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Pennsylvania hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Delaware hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Maryland hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Canada hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of retired Atlantic hurricane names\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- National Hurricane Center's advisory archive\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's advisory archive\n", "† System ceased to be a tropical cyclone and regenerated at least once during its life span.\n\n‡ Hurricane Li formed in the eastern Pacific, but was not named until it crossed into the central Pacific.\n\nIn addition, Hurricane Jimena of 2003 is recognized per NHC, CPHC and JTWC as a storm that existed in all three areas of responsibility, but isn't recognized by the JMA as an official western Pacific tropical cyclone.\n\nSection::::Crossover storms.:From Western Pacific to Central Pacific.\n", "The northeastern Pacific hurricane basins are divided into two parts – eastern and central. The eastern Pacific basin extends from all areas of the Pacific north of the equator east of 140° W, while the central Pacific basin includes areas north of the equator between 140° W and 180° W. Both basins extend to the Arctic Circle at 66° N. When tropical cyclones cross from the Atlantic into the Pacific, the name of the previous storm is retained if the system continues to exhibit tropical characteristics; however, when hurricanes degenerate into a remnant low-pressure area, the system is designated with the next name on the rotating eastern Pacific hurricane naming list.\n", "BULLET::::- October 3, 2011: Hurricane Ophelia made landfall near the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland as a strong extratropical cyclone, damaging drainage infrastructure that had been repaired after Hurricane Igor a year earlier.\n\nBULLET::::- September 11, 2012: Hurricane Leslie made landfall on the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland as a hurricane-strength post-tropical cyclone. Leslie's track put the Avalon Peninsula in the right-front quadrant, resulting in hurricane-force winds, widespread power outages, and structural damage.\n", "Canadian Navy ships headed to the U.S. Gulf Coast to help in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina were slowed down trying to avoid Nate and Hurricane Ophelia (see below).\n\nBULLET::::- The NHC's archive on Hurricane Nate\n\nSection::::Hurricane Ophelia.\n", "BULLET::::- November 3, 2006: the 2006 Central Pacific cyclone, after developing in the north-central Pacific, made landfall on Vancouver Island, BC. The exact nature of this storm is debatable, but it appears to have been a tropical or subtropical cyclone for at least a portion of its life. Nonetheless, this cyclone is not included in any archives of the National Hurricane Center or the Canadian Hurricane Centre.\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Iris of 2001 in the Atlantic Ocean triggered the formation of Tropical Storm Manuel in the Pacific.\n\nBULLET::::- Tropical Storm Earl in 2004 dissipated in the southeast Caribbean Sea, but regenerated into Hurricane Frank in the East Pacific.\n", "Although the storm affected several vessels during its existence, no land areas were threatened by Zeta. As a result, the NHC did not issue any tropical storm watches or warnings.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 Atlantic hurricane season\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Alex (2016) – An early season Atlantic hurricane that formed during the month of January\n\nBULLET::::- List of tropical cyclones\n\nBULLET::::- List of Atlantic hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of off-season Atlantic hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of storms in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The NHC's archive on Tropical Storm Zeta\n", "BULLET::::- September 24, 2005 – Hurricane Rita makes Landfall as a Category 3 Hurricane On the Texas-Louisiana border. Winds were 120mph (193 km/h). Storm surge destroyed coastal communities in Cameron Parish such as Holly Beach.\n\nBULLET::::- September 13, 2007 – Hurricane Humberto\n\nBULLET::::- September 22, 2007 – Tropical Depression Ten\n\nBULLET::::- August 4, 2008 – Tropical Storm Edouard\n", "Section::::Systems.:Hurricane Ilsa.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Newfoundland hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of South America hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of United States hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Delaware hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Florida hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of Florida hurricanes (pre-1900)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Florida hurricanes (1900–1949)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Florida hurricanes (1950–1974)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Florida hurricanes (1975–1999)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Florida hurricanes (2000–present)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Louisiana hurricanes (2000–present)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Maryland hurricanes (1950–present)\n\nBULLET::::- List of New England hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of New Jersey hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of New York hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of North Carolina hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- List of North Carolina hurricanes (pre-1900)\n", "There were many reports of tropical storm-force winds from ships in the north Atlantic. One ship, with the call sign GBSA, encountered Tanya's winds twice and reported the strongest winds from any ship, 71 mph (112 km/h).\n\nHurricane Tanya was the first tropical cyclone to be designated a name starting with the letter \"T\" since naming of Atlantic tropical cyclones began in 1950. In subsequent seasons, \"T\" names would be given to Tammy in 2005, Tomas in 2010, and Tony in 2012.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Other storms of the same name\n\nBULLET::::- List of Atlantic hurricanes\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 Atlantic hurricane season\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Retirement.\n\nThe Central Pacific Hurricane Center retired the name \"Iwa\" subsequent to the storm and replaced it with \"Io\". However, in 2007, the CPHC revised the four rotating lists of tropical cyclone names and replaced the name \"Io\" with \"Iona\" before it could be used. Iwa was the first retired hurricane in the Central Pacific since the modern system of using Hawaiian naming began in the early 1980s, and it remains one of only four to be retired as of 2015.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Dot (1959)\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Iniki\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Lane (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Pacific hurricanes\n", "Section::::Impact and records.\n\nWhen Lili reached hurricane status on December 20, it became one of only four Atlantic tropical cyclones to reach hurricane strength in the month of December. The other three were an unnamed hurricane in the 1887 season, Hurricane Alice in 1954, and Hurricane Epsilon in 2005. In addition, Hurricane Nicole lasted as a hurricane from late November to early December 1998.\n", "Sometimes, a hurricane will make landfall in the United States and continue northward to dissipate over (or partially over) Canada. Only a handful of storms that have taken this path were devastating in Canada. Two examples of this include the 1900 Galveston hurricane and Hurricane Hazel in 1954.\n\nMany extratropical remnants of tropical cyclones have entered Canada. They are not included in this list unless they were particularly notable. Storms that have entered Canada from the U.S. after landfall are omitted from these lists, exceptions being devastating, or notable cyclones.\n", "It used to be that when a Pacific named storm crossed North America and made it to the Atlantic (or vice versa), it would receive the next name on the respective basin's list. However, in 2000 this policy was changed so that a tropical cyclone will keep its name if it remains a tropical cyclone during the entire passage. Only if it dissipates and then re-forms does it get renamed.\n\nSection::::Crossover storms.:From Eastern Pacific to Atlantic.\n\nThis includes only systems which stayed a tropical cyclone during the passage or that maintained a circulation during the crossover.\n", "BULLET::::- September 3, 2004 – The remnants of Hurricane Frances produce over of rain in some locations, although there are no reports of damage.\n\nBULLET::::- September 19, 2004 – The remnants of Hurricane Ivan drop up to of rainfall, particularly in western areas. The system also results in several tornadoes, one of which is reported to have killed an elderly woman and her daughter when a tree fell on their home in Cecil County.\n", "BULLET::::- The NHC's archive on Hurricane Dennis\n\nBULLET::::- The WPC's archive on Hurricane Dennis\n\nSection::::Hurricane Emily.\n", "The 1935 Labor Day hurricane was the most intense hurricane to make landfall on the country, having struck the Florida Keys with a pressure of 892 mbar. It was one of only seven hurricanes to move ashore as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale; the others were \"Okeechobee\" in 1928, Karen in 1962, Camille in 1969, Andrew in 1992, Michael in 2018, and Yutu in 2018, which had a landfalling pressure of 931 mbar, 932 mbar, 900 mbar, 922 mbar, 919 mbar, and 900 mbar, respectively. Hurricane Michael in 2018 was the fourth most intense hurricane to strike the country with a pressure of 919 mbar, while hurricanes Katrina in 2005 and Maria in 2017 are tied as the fifth most intense hurricanes to strike the country, each with a pressure of 920 mbar.\n", "Dr. David Daniel, the chairman of a panel reviewing the corps' investigation, said in an interview, \"It was not a terribly sophisticated or detailed analysis by today's standards.\" \n\nThe creators of the standard project hurricane, in an attempt to find a representative storm, actually excluded the fiercest storms from the database. \n", "Section::::Climatology.\n", "Section::::Systems.:Tropical Storm Becky.\n", "2005 was the first time two storms recorded pressures below 900 millibars in a single season (Rita, 895; and Wilma, 882).\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.:Records.\n\nMatthew set several records during its long and destructive journey. Matthew intensified into a Category 5 hurricane at a latitude of 13.4 degrees north, breaking the record set by Ivan in 2004, which had reached that intensity at a latitude of 13.7 degrees north. Matthew also maintained at least Category 4 status for the longest duration on record for the month of October, according to Phil Klotzbach of Colorado State University, doing so for roughly 5 days.\n\nSection::::Preparations.\n\nSection::::Preparations.:Windward Islands and South America.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04223	Why do employers even add the "Attach Resume" button if you're required to enter it all in anyways?	Usually computers have a hard time picking through resume files since there's so many different ways people could tweak the layout of their document. But if they make you type it in separate, they can categorize you automatically on their end (ie they could filter by what education applicants indicate they have) AND still see your resume where you get a chance to say whatever you want. It's still a pile of hot goblin turds and easily my least favorite part of job searching.	[ "This trend has attracted criticism from human resources management professionals, who warn that this may be a passing fad and point out that multimedia-based résumés may be overlooked by recruiters whose workflow is designed only to accommodate a traditional résumé format. \n\nSection::::Résumé evaluation.\n", "Many employers now find candidates' résumés through search engines, which makes it more important for candidates to use appropriate keywords when writing a résumé. Larger employers use Applicant Tracking Systems to search, filter, and manage high volumes of résumés. Job ads may direct applicants to email a résumé to a company or visit its website and submit a résumé in an electronic format.\n\nMany employers, and recruitment agencies working on their behalf, insist on receiving résumés in a particular file format. Some require Microsoft Word documents, while others will only accept résumés formatted in HTML, PDF, or plain ASCII text.\n", "Section::::Styles.:Online résumés.\n\nAs the search for employment has become more electronic, it is common for employers to only accept résumés electronically, either out of practicality or preference. This has changed much about the manner in which résumés are written, read, and processed. Some career experts are pointing out that today a paper-based résumé is an exception rather than the rule.\n", "BULLET::::9. Most resume parsers claim to work with all of the main file types, but stick with docx, doc and pdf to be on the safe side.\n\nSection::::Software and vendors.\n", "Section::::Future.\n\nResume parsers are already standard in most mid- to large-sized companies and this trend will continue as the parsers become even more affordable.\n\nA qualified candidate's resume can be ignored if it is not formatted the proper way or doesn't contain specific keywords or phrases. As Machine Learning and Natural Language Processing get better, so will the accuracy of resume parsers.\n", "Another consideration for electronic résumé documents is that they are parsed with natural language processors. Résumé parsers may correctly interpret some parts of the content of the résumé but not other parts. The best résumé parsers capture a high percentage of information regarding location, names, titles, but are less accurate with skills, industries and other less structured or rapidly changing data. Résumés written in a standard format are more likely to be correctly interpreted by résumé parsers, and thereby may make the candidate more findable.\n", "A standard private-sector resume should not be used to apply for Federal positions. Not only is the format different in terms of structure, length and content, but a Federal resume must include all the information required by a job announcement — not following these guidelines will irremediably get you eliminated. Federal resumes are written in chronological resume format. Specific information is required to be included on federal resumes so that applicants can be rated uniformly. This additional information is not typically requested on private sector resumes, and resumes that do not include it will likely be rejected. This information includes:\n", "There are a number of red flags when looking at resumes that should, at the very least, be noted and questioned as part of any phone screen with the candidate. Gaps in employment and job hopping are often considered to be red flags, although a study conducted by company Evolv concluded that job hoppers and the long-term unemployed perform no worse than non-job hoppers and the currently employed. Other possible red flags include multiple moves to different states, using years instead of months/years for employment history and noting a college and degree program without indicating graduation. Others still are more subtle, like a significant drop in responsibility or a completely new career direction. While there are many valid reasons for some of these red flags, it should generate follow up questions if all other qualities of the resume are suitable for moving to further contact with the candidate.\n", "BULLET::::- The technology is extremely cost-effective and a resource saver. Rather than asking candidates to manually enter the information, which could discourage them from applying or wasting recruiter's time, data entry is now done automatically.\n\nBULLET::::- The contact information, relevant skills, work history, educational background and more specific information about the candidate is easily accessible.\n", "BULLET::::- A good resume parser provides a configuration feature. This allows the user to enable or disable fields as per the requirement. Bias can be eliminated by disabling the fields which provide personal identifiable information such as name, age, gender, etc. It can help HR professionals to judge candidates purely based on their skills and experience.\n\nSection::::Challenges.\n", "The employer has the option of filing an PERM application electronically (using web-based forms and instructions) or by mail. However, the Department of Labor recommends that employers file electronically. Not only is electronic filing faster, but it will also ensure the employer has provided all required information, as an electronic application can not be submitted if the required fields are not completed. Employers will not be permitted to submit PERM applications by FAX.\n", "Studies have found that there is a gender discrepancy in video resumes as it is often detrimental for women to exhibit 'masculine' workplace characteristics such as assertiveness, confidence and self-promotion, whereas self-promotion was beneficial for male applicants. There is also an assumption that additional information on age, race, disability, gender and ethnicity provided by video resumes at an early stage in an application process could result in accusations of descrimination. As Heimstra (2012) states \"There is empirical evidence that e-recruitment practices that are perceived as unfair and intrusive lead to negative applicant reactions, possible legal action, and a tendency to ‘self-select out’.\"\n", "Once a resume has been initially screened for keywords, it needs a more careful review. This second pass is designed to verify some of the second order criteria of the job description are met. For instance, level of education, years of experience required by the position, salary range and current location. Other functions of this evaluation include a closer look at job functions performed by the candidate and comparing them to the job description.\n", "Many USAJOBS announcements are time-sensitive. The process of creating your federal resume for the first time and gaining access to the various elements of the USAJOBS application system and any companion systems can take upwards of 2 hours. Successful candidates get familiar with the system and its components and have a basic resume built in the system that they can they adjust when they see a vacancy announcement of interest.\n", "BULLET::::- The applicant screening process is now significantly faster and more efficient. Instead of having to look at every resume, recruiters can filter them by specific characteristics, sort and search them. This allows recruiters to move through the interview process and fill positions at a faster rate.\n\nBULLET::::- One of the biggest complaints people searching for jobs have is the length of the application process. With resume parsers, the process is now faster and candidates have an improved experience.\n", "Section::::Benefits.\n", "This step of the process can often be aided by computers. For example, if one has a resume database, these keywords are the search queries used to find potential candidates in the database.\n\nFurther, this step is sometimes delegated to a junior person who can be trained to look for keywords and perform the initial sort.\n\nSection::::Process.:Evaluation.\n", "In many contexts, a résumé is typically limited to one or two pages of size A4 or letter-size, highlighting only those experiences and qualifications that the author considers most relevant to the desired position. Many résumés contain keywords or skills that potential employers are looking for via applicant tracking systems, make heavy use of active verbs, and display content in a flattering manner. Acronyms and credentials after the applicant's name should be spelled out fully in the appropriate section of the résumé, greater chance of being found in a computerized keyword scan. Résumés can vary in style and length, but should always contain accurate contact information of the job seeker. A recent hiring simulation by ResumeGo concluded that a two-page resume was more likely to lead to being hired.\n", "One study, published in the \"Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association\", found that the position and prominence of advice on a screen can impact the likelihood of automation bias, with prominently displayed advice, correct or not, is more likely to be followed; another study, however, seemed to discount the importance of this factor. According to another study, a greater amount of on-screen detail can make users less \"conservative\" and thus increase the likelihood of automation bias. One study showed that making individuals accountable for their performance or the accuracy of their decisions reduced automation bias.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Availability.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "With the popularity of video hosting solutions there has been much debate in the usefulness of video resumes. Most recruiters feel that a video alone does not give an employer enough information about a candidate to make a proper evaluation of the applicant's potential and more importantly skills. One article suggests that\n", "Employers also need to maintain additional private information in a private access file to share with the United States Department of Labor in the event of an audit or fraud investigation, but this Private Access File cannot be requested by the public. Employers are strongly advised not to include any information in the Public Access File beyond what is mandated by law, so as not to violate the privacy of employees and the company's other stakeholders.\n\nSection::::Differences with labor certification.\n", "BULLET::::- The technology helps prevent qualified candidates from slipping through the cracks. On average, a recruiter spends 6 seconds looking at a resume. When a recruiter is looking through hundreds or thousands of them, it can be easy to miss or lose track of potential candidates.\n\nBULLET::::- Once a candidate's resume has been analyzed, their information remains in the database. If a position comes up that they are qualified for, but haven't applied to, the company still has their information and can reach out to them.\n", "Automatic form-filling programs may prevent keylogging by removing the requirement for a user to type personal details and passwords using the keyboard. Form fillers are primarily designed for web browsers to fill in checkout pages and log users into their accounts. Once the user's account and credit card information has been entered into the program, it will be automatically entered into forms without ever using the keyboard or clipboard, thereby reducing the possibility that private data is being recorded. However someone with physical access to the machine may still be able to install software that is able to intercept this information elsewhere in the operating system or while in transit on the network. (Transport Layer Security (TLS) reduces the risk that data in transit may be intercepted by network sniffers and proxy tools.)\n", "In some sectors, particularly in the startup community, use of traditional résumé has seen a consistent decline. While standalone résumés are still used to apply for jobs, job-seekers may also view their résumés as one of a number of assets which form their \"personal brand\" and work together to strengthen their job application. In this scenario, résumés are generally used to provide a potential employer with factual information (e.g., achievements), while the social media platforms give insight into the job-seekers' motivations and personality in development.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Background check\n\nBULLET::::- Europass European Standardized model\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Resume\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13374	Would brushing my teeth five times a day be significantly more hygienic than just twice a day	No. Brushing your teeth 5 times a day will be significantly bad for your teeth. Too much brushing can ware off the protective enamel, leaving them exposed to things that can actually cause them to decay and rot away quicker. It can also damage your gums and cause them to recede, potentially exposing nerves and roots. URL_0	[ "As to the frequency of cleaning, research on this matter is inconclusive. That is, it has \"neither\" been shown that more frequent cleaning leads to better outcomes \"nor\" that it does not. A review of the research literature on the question concluded \"[t]he research evidence is not of sufficient quality to reach any conclusions regarding the beneficial and adverse effects of routine scaling and polishing for periodontal health and regarding the effects of providing this intervention at different time intervals\". Thus, any general recommendation for a frequency of routine cleaning (e.g. every six months, every year) has no empirical basis. Moreover, as economists have pointed out, private dentists (or other dental professionals) have an economic incentive to recommend frequent cleaning, because it increases their revenues.\n", "A similar study was conducted to assess if there was a difference between using sonic/powered toothbrushes and using manual toothbrushes in the treatment of peri-implant mucositis and it was found that there is no statistically significant difference between the two in terms of intervention either.\n\nIrrigants were also tested as part of a set of interventions administered by dental professionals but it was found that there was no statistically significant difference between chlorhexidine and physiologic solutions when used as irrigants at second state surgery to maintain health of soft tissues.\n", "General guidelines suggest brushing twice a day: after breakfast and before going to bed, but ideally the mouth would be cleaned after every meal. Cleaning between the teeth is called interdental cleaning and is as important as tooth brushing. This is because a toothbrush cannot reach between the teeth and therefore only removes about 50% of plaque off the surface. There are many tools to clean between the teeth, including floss and interdental brushes; it is up to each individual to choose which tool he or she prefers to use.\n", "Toothbrushing can only clean to a depth of about 1.5 mm inside the gingival pockets, but a sustained regime of plaque removal above the gum line can affect the ecology of the microbes below the gums and may reduce the number of pathogens in pockets up to 5 mm in depth.\n", "Between cleanings by a dental hygienist, good oral hygiene is essential for preventing tartar build-up which causes the problems mentioned above. This is done through careful, frequent brushing with a toothbrush, combined with the use of dental floss or interdental brushes to prevent accumulation of plaque on the teeth. Powered toothbrushes reduce dental plaque and gingivitis more than manual toothbrushing in both short and long term. Further evidence is needed to determine the clinical importance of these findings.\n", "Routine tooth brushing is the principal method of preventing many oral diseases, and perhaps the most important activity an individual can practice to reduce plaque buildup. Controlling plaque reduces the risk of the individual suffering from plaque-associated diseases such as gingivitis, periodontitis, and caries – the three most common oral diseases. The average brushing time for individuals is between 30 seconds and just over 60 seconds. Many oral health care professionals agree that tooth brushing should be done for a minimum of two minutes, and be practiced at least twice a day. Brushing for at least two minutes per session is optimal for preventing the most common oral diseases, and removes considerably more plaque than brushing for only 45 seconds\n", "BULLET::::2. Gingival diseases of viral origin\n\nBULLET::::3. Gingival diseases of fungal origin\n\nBULLET::::4. Gingival diseases of genetic origin\n\nBULLET::::5. Gingival manifestations of systemic conditions\n\nBULLET::::6. Traumatic lesions\n\nBULLET::::7. Foreign body reactions\n\nBULLET::::8. Not otherwise specified\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nGingivitis can be prevented through regular oral hygiene that includes daily brushing and flossing. Hydrogen peroxide, saline, alcohol or chlorhexidine mouth washes may also be employed. In a 2004 clinical study, the beneficial effect of hydrogen peroxide on gingivitis has been highlighted. The use of oscillation type brushes might reduce the risk of gingivitis compared to manual brushing.\n", "Section::::Toothbrushing guidelines.:Frequency.\n\nAlthough there is a consensus that a thorough toothbrushing once a day is sufficient for maintaining oral health, most dentists recommend patients brush twice a day since a sufficient level of thoroughness in brushing is not normally achieved.\n\nSection::::Toothbrushing guidelines.:Proper technique.\n", "A study performed by the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition at Clemson University claimed that three to six instances of double-dipping \"would transfer about 10,000 bacteria from the eater’s mouth to the remaining dip,\" which corresponds with \"about 50-100 bacteria from one mouth to another, in every bite.\" The study's conclusion recommended that double-dipping should, in their opinion, be curtailed, including tips to prevent it from occurring.\n", "Harder tooth brushes reduce plaque more efficiently but are more stressful to teeth and gum; using a medium to soft tooth brush for a longer cleaning time was rated to be the best compromise between cleaning result and gum and tooth health.\n\nA study by University College London found that advice on brushing technique and frequency given by 10 national dental associations, toothpaste and toothbrush companies, and in dental textbooks was inconsistent.\n\nSection::::Hygiene and care.\n", "It was found that there was no statistically significant difference between the effectiveness of using a powered/sonic toothbrush and using a manual toothbrush, although participants reported that they preferred the sonic toothbrush as they felt that it was better at keeping the areas around the implants clean.\n\nSection::::Prevention and Maintenance.:Dental Professional.\n", "The Australian Healthcare and Hospital Association's (AHHA) most recent evidence brief ) suggests that dental check-ups should be conducted once every 3 years for adults, and 1 every 2 years for children. It has been documented that dental professionals frequently advise for more frequent visits, but this advice is contraindicated by evidence suggesting that check up frequency should be based on individual risk factors, or the AHHA's check-up schedule. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, tooth polishing, and, if tartar has accumulated, debridement; this is usually followed by a fluoride treatment. However, the American Dental Hygienists' Association (ADHA) stated in 1998 that there is no evidence that scaling and polishing only above the gums provides therapeutic value, and cleaning should be done under the gums as well. The Cochrane Oral Health Group found only three studies meeting the criteria for inclusion in their study and found little evidence in them to support claims of benefits from supragingival (above the gum) tooth scaling or tooth polishing.\n", "This one study in Madagascar done on school children in grades 1 and 4 were given a \"school-based oral health education program.\" In addition to that all children had to undergo supervised toothbrushing daily. The group was then split into control group and test group where the test group received two types of gum to chew 3-5 times a day. One type of gum was polyol while the other contained a mix of sorbitol (55.5%), xylitol (4.3%), and carbamide (2.3%). After 3 years of this program, the results of the dental exams showed no significant difference between the test and control groups. It is thought that due to the daily supervised toothbrushing, the groups were similar in their overall oral hygiene and therefore the significant difference between the results was reduced.\n", "Preventative action is required to prevent the continuous accumulation of plaque, tartar, and calculus, and to reduce the long term risk of dental diseases. Although a dental diet is formulated to reduce plaque and/or tartar and plays an important role in oral care and hygiene, it is not the only method that can be used to care for a dog’s teeth. Daily dental dog chews and teeth brushing will scrape away plaque before it forms into tartar. Regular dental check-ups by a veterinarian will assess the health of the mouth and jaw, and advise whether dental cleanings are required. These are all necessary and crucial steps to maintain oral health, and contribute to the overall health of a dog.\n", "Active restorative management depends upon the location of the wear (localised or generalised), the severity of the wear, and the patient's occlusal vertical dimension (OVD), which may have changed as a result of tooth wear. There are three different potential scenarios. \n\nBULLET::::1. excessive wear with loss of OVD\n\nBULLET::::2. excessive wear without loss of OVD but with space available\n\nBULLET::::3. excessive wear without loss of OVD but with limited space available\n", "Another factor which affects the risk of developing cavities is the stickiness of foods. Some foods or sweets may stick to the teeth and so reduce the pH in the mouth for an extended time, particularly if they are sugary. It is important that teeth be cleaned at least twice a day, preferably with a toothbrush and fluoride toothpaste, to remove any food sticking to the teeth. Regular brushing and the use of dental floss also removes the dental plaque coating the tooth surface.\n\nSection::::Food and drink.:Chewing gum.\n", "Most dental hygienists recommend having the teeth professionally cleaned every six months. More frequent cleaning and examination may be necessary during treatment of dental and other oral disorders. Routine examination of the teeth is recommended at least every year. This may include yearly, select dental X-rays. See also dental plaque identification procedure and removal.\n\nGood oral hygiene helps to prevent cavities, tartar build-up, and gum disease.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n", "BULLET::::- They found that if the protection factors are not stable, the average efficiency is strongly dependent on smaller values: If the same worker used respirator twice, and if the protection factor was 230,000 in the first case, and the protection factor was 19 in the second (example values from), the average protection factor was only 38. (Penetrations in the first and second cases are 5.26% and 0%, respectively; and the average penetration is equal to 2.63%). Medium PF is strongly dependent on the minimum values.\n", "80% of cavities occur in the grooves, or pits and fissures, of the chewing surfaces of the teeth, however, there is no evidence currently showing that normal at-home flossing reduces the risk of cavities in these areas.\n\nSpecial appliances or tools may be used to supplement toothbrushing and interdental cleaning. These include special toothpicks, oral irrigators, and other devices. A 2015 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to determine whether the interdental brushing decreases the levels of plaque when compared to flossing.\n\nSection::::Brushing, scrubbing and flossing.:Scrubbing.\n", "Daily brushing must include brushing of both the teeth and gums. Effective brushing itself, will prevent progression of both dental decay and gum diseases. Neutralising acids after eating and at least twice a day brushing with fluoridated toothpaste will assist preventing dental decay. Stimulating saliva flow assists in the remineralisation process of teeth, this can be done by chewing sugar free gum. Using an interdental device once daily will assist prevention of gum diseases.\n", "Some studies looked solely at interventions which contribute to the reversal of peri-implant mucositis. One such study found no statistically significant difference between triclosan dentrifice in comparison to sodium fluoride dentrifice at recovering soft tissue health. There were also two trials conducted where patients with peri-implant mucositis were assessed after different interventions carried out by dental professionals. In these trials mechanical debridement being followed by minocycline or chlorhexidine gel had no statistically significant difference, nor did debridement with titanium curettes compared to an ultrasonic debridement tool.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Nouveau interventions.\n", "Information presented in Wikipedia can be considered to be only an outline of the requirements for professional occupational hygiene training. This is because the actual requirements in any country, state or region may vary due to educational resources available, industry demand or regulatory mandated requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- While brushing your teeth, turn the faucet off or fill a cup to rinse your mouth;\n\nBULLET::::- While washing dishes, turn the faucet off between rinsing dishes; and\n\nBy employing these simple suggestions and incorporating your own, will save substantial amounts of water, energy and money.\n\nSection::::Paper initiatives.\n", "BULLET::::- Assigned Protection Factors for the respirators of this type have been reduced from 900 to 40 due to this study (in the UK). US restrictions are similar to English: Assigned PF = 50.\n\n(1990) Measurement results showed that the effectiveness of the protection of employees of various specialties (using the same half mask respirators) may be different; and that the effectiveness of one and the same worker may differ by tens of times.\n", "To be a professional occupational hygienist, experience in as wide a practice as possible is required to demonstrate knowledge in areas of occupational hygiene. This is difficult for \"specialists\" or those who practice in narrow subject areas. Limiting experience to individual subject like asbestos remediation, confined spaces, indoor air quality, or lead abatement, or learning only through a textbook or “review course” can be a disadvantage when required to demonstrate competence in other areas of occupational hygiene.\n" ]	[ "Brushing my teeth five times a day could be significantly more hygienic than just twice a day." ]	[ "Brushing your teeth 5 times a day will be significantly bad for your teeth, as it can wear off the protective enamel." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Brushing my teeth five times a day could be significantly more hygienic than just twice a day.", "Brushing my teeth five times a day could be significantly more hygienic than just twice a day." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Brushing your teeth 5 times a day will be significantly bad for your teeth, as it can wear off the protective enamel.", "Brushing your teeth 5 times a day will be significantly bad for your teeth, as it can wear off the protective enamel." ]
2018-06374	how can we tell the composition of planets/stars/other celestial bodies just by looking at them?	Spectroscopy. You can take the light from an object, and use a prism to break it up into the rainbow. That rainbow will have different gaps in it, called bands, depending on the different materials that emitted or reflected the light, because they absorb some of the light. Comparing the spectrum from an objects light to known spectrum can tell you what it's made of	[ "Spectra are typically measured with an imaging spectrometer, based on a Focal Plane Array.\n\nSection::::Principles.:Terminology.\n", "Section::::Planets, asteroids, and comets.:Planets.\n\nThe reflected light of a planet contains absorption bands due to minerals in the rocks present for rocky bodies, or due to the elements and molecules present in the atmosphere. To date over 3,500 exoplanets have been discovered. These include so-called Hot Jupiters, as well as Earth-like planets. Using spectroscopy, compounds such as alkali metals, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane have all been discovered.\n\nSection::::Planets, asteroids, and comets.:Asteroids.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Section::::Background.:Optical spectroscopy.\n\nPhysicists have been looking at the solar spectrum since Isaac Newton first used a simple prism to observe the refractive properties of light. In the early 1800s Joseph von Fraunhofer used his skills as a glass maker to create very pure prisms, which allowed him to observe 574 dark lines in a seemingly continuous spectrum. Soon after this, he combined telescope and prism to observe the spectrum of Venus, the Moon, Mars, and various stars such as Betelgeuse; his company continued to manufacture and sell high-quality refracting telescopes based on his original designs until its closure in 1884.\n", "The measurements can be made with various instruments, including a task specific spectrometer, although the most common method is separation of the red, green, blue and near infrared portion of the EM spectrum as acquired by digital cameras. Calibrating spectral signatures under specific illumination are collected in order to apply a correction to airborne or satellite imagery digital images.\n\nThe user of one kind of spectroscope looks through it at a tube of ionized gas. The user sees specific lines of colour falling on a graduated scale. Each substance will have its own unique pattern of spectral lines.\n", "Section::::Modern astronomy.\n\nIn the 19th century it was discovered that (by Joseph von Fraunhofer), when sunlight was dispersed, a multitude of spectral lines were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly hydrogen and helium) were also found on Earth.\n", "The specificity also allows unknown samples to be identified by comparing a measured spectrum with a library of reference spectra. In many cases, it is possible to determine qualitative information about a sample even if it is not in a library. Infrared spectra, for instance, have characteristics absorption bands that indicate if carbon-hydrogen or carbon-oxygen bonds are present.\n", "Section::::Instruments.:Reflection Grating Spectrometers.\n\nThe \"Reflection Grating Spectrometers\" (RGS) are a secondary system on the spacecraft and are composed of two Focal Plane Cameras and their associated Reflection Grating Arrays. This system is used to build X-ray spectral data and can determine the elements present in the target, as well as the temperature, quantity and other characteristics of those elements. The RGS system operates in the () range, which allows detection of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon and iron.\n", "Section::::CCD photometry.:Calibrations.\n\nAfter determining the flux of an object in counts, the flux is normally converted into instrumental magnitude. Then, the measurement is calibrated in some way. Which calibrations are used will depend in part on what type of photometry is being done. Typically, observations are processed for relative or differential photometry.\n", "Section::::TAS detectors in the world.:Lucrecia measuring station.\n\nThis measuring station, installed at the end of one of the ISOLDE beamlines, consists of a TAS, and a tape station.\n", "spectroscopy, and utilizing the differences in their optical properties in some cases.\n", "It is helpful to understand how light is processed in a multivariate optical computer, as compared to how it is processed in a spectrometer. For example, if we are studying the composition of a powder mixture using diffuse reflectance, a suitable light source is directed at the powder mixture and light is collected, usually with a lens, after it has scattered from the powder surface. Light entering a spectrometer first strikes a device (either a grating or interferometer) that separates light of different wavelengths to be measured. A series of independent measurements is used to estimate the full spectrum of the mixture, and the spectrometer renders a measurement of the spectral intensity at many wavelengths. Multivariate statistics can then be applied to the spectrum produced.\n", "Planets, asteroids, and comets all reflect light from their parent stars and emit their own light. For cooler objects, including solar-system planets and asteroids, most of the emission is at infrared wavelengths we cannot see, but that are routinely measured with spectrometers. For objects surrounded by gas, such as comets and planets with atmospheres, further emission and absorption happens at specific wavelengths in the gas, imprinting the spectrum of the gas on that of the solid object. In the case of worlds with thick atmospheres or complete cloud cover (such as the gas giants, Venus, and Saturn's satellite Titan (moon)), the spectrum is mostly or completely due to the atmosphere alone.\n", "Section::::Abundance of elements.\n\nSection::::Abundance of elements.:Solar System.\n", "Newton used a prism to split white light into a spectrum of color, and Fraunhofer's high-quality prisms allowed scientists to see dark lines of an unknown origin. In the 1850s, Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen described the phenomena behind these dark lines. Hot solid objects produce light with a continuous spectrum, hot gases emit light at specific wavelengths, and hot solid objects surrounded by cooler gases show a near-continuous spectrum with dark lines corresponding to the emission lines of the gases. By comparing the absorption lines of the Sun with emission spectra of known gases, the chemical composition of stars can be determined.\n", "The most common form of elemental analysis, CHNS analysis, is accomplished by combustion analysis. In this technique, a sample is burned in an excess of oxygen and various traps, collecting the combustion products: carbon dioxide, water, and nitric oxide. The masses of these combustion products can be used to calculate the composition of the unknown sample. Modern elemental analyzers are also capable of simultaneous determination of sulfur along with CHN in the same measurement run.\n\nSection::::Quantitative analysis.\n", "Even when compounds only contain elements with less intense isotope peaks (carbon or oxygen), the distribution of these peaks can be used to assign the spectrum to the correct compound. For example, two compounds with identical mass of 150 Da, CHN and CHO, will have two different M+2 intensities which makes it possible to distinguish between them.\n\nSection::::Fragmentation.\n", "Section::::Early observations.:Nuclide abundances.\n\nDetermination of the cosmic abundance of elements has a history dating back to early spectroscopic measurements of light from astronomical objects and the identification of emission and absorption lines which corresponded to particular electronic transitions in chemical elements identified on Earth. For example, the element Helium was first identified through its spectroscopic signature in the Sun before it was isolated as a gas on Earth.\n\nComputing relative abundances was achieved through corresponding spectroscopic observations to measurements of the elemental composition of meteorites.\n\nSection::::Early observations.:Detection of the cosmic microwave background.\n", "The composition of meteorites was investigated and compared to terrestrial rocks as early as 1850. In 1901, Oliver C. Farrington hypothesised that, although there were differences, the relative abundances should still be the same. This was the beginnings of the field of cosmochemistry and has contributed much of what we know about the formation of the Earth and the Solar System.\n", "Section::::Standards.:Internal standards.\n\nSometimes an internal standard is added at a known concentration directly to an analytical sample to aid in quantitation. The amount of analyte present is then determined relative to the internal standard as a calibrant. An ideal internal standard is isotopically-enriched analyte which gives rise to the method of isotope dilution.\n\nSection::::Standards.:Standard addition.\n", "Samples analyzed on Earth can be matched against findings of remote sensing, for more insight into the processes that formed the Solar System.\n\nSection::::Lines of study.:Elemental and isotopic abundances.\n\nPresent day elemental abundances are superimposed on an (evolving) galactic-average set of elemental abundances that was inherited by the Solar System, along with some atoms from local nucleosynthesis sources, at the time of the Sun's formation. Knowledge of these average planetary system elemental abundances is serving as a tool for tracking chemical and physical processes involved in the formation of planets, and the evolution of their surfaces.\n", "To date more than 20 000 absorption lines have been listed for the Sun between 293.5 and 877.0 nm, yet only approximately 75% of these lines have been linked to elemental absorption.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Planetary observations.\n\nThe practical application of imaging spectrometers is they are used to observe the planet Earth from orbiting satellites. The spectrometer functions by recording all points of color on a picture, thus, the spectrometer is focused on specific parts of the Earth’s surface to record data. The advantages of spectral content data include vegetation identification, physical condition analysis, mineral identification for the purpose of potential mining, and the assessment of polluted waters in oceans, coastal zones and inland waterways.\n", "Direct information on Mars, Venus and Mercury largely comes from spacecraft missions. Using gamma-ray spectrometers, the composition of the crust of Mars has been measured by the Mars Odyssey orbiter, the crust of Venus by some of the Venera missions to Venus, and the crust of Mercury by the \"MESSENGER\" spacecraft. Additional information on Mars comes from meteorites that have landed on Earth (the Shergottites, Nakhlites, and Chassignites, collectively known as SNC meteorites). Abundances are also constrained by the masses of the planets, while the internal distribution of elements is constrained by their moments of inertia.\n", "Light dispersed by the grating or prism in a spectrograph can be recorded by a detector. Historically, photographic plates were widely used to record spectra until electronic detectors were developed, and today optical spectrographs most often employ charge-coupled devices (CCDs). The wavelength scale of a spectrum can be calibrated by observing the spectrum of emission lines of known wavelength from a gas-discharge lamp. The flux scale of a spectrum can be calibrated as a function of wavelength by comparison with an observation of a standard star with corrections for atmospheric absorption of light; this is known as spectrophotometry.\n\nSection::::Background.:Radio spectroscopy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11562	Why are there fourteen mountains over 8,000m, but none over 9,000m?	It's likely Mt. Everest is near to the largest size mountain earth will support. A larger mountain is more massive, which puts a strain on the material at its base. They deform the plates they sit upon, more mass will further the deformation. And depending on height and climate, can promote glacial development, which it has been theorized to cause vigorous erosion limiting total height.	[ "List of mountains of the Alps (2500–2999 m)\n\nThis page contains a table listing by elevation all 514 mountains of the Alps that are between 2500 and 3000m m high and have a topographic prominence of at least . The list is a continuation of the List of mountains of the Alps above 3000 m, which page contains an introduction with statistics and an explanation of the criteria. The list is continued down to 2000 m elevation on this page.\n\nSection::::Alpine mountains between 2500 and 3000 m.\n\nThe table is continued here.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "List of mountains of the Alps above 3000 m\n\nThis page contains a table listing by elevation all 537 mountains of the Alps that exceed 3000 m and have a topographic prominence of at least 300 m. The list is continued down to 2500 m elevation on this page and down to 2000 m elevation on this page. All of these mountains are located in France, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany or Slovenia. The list includes all 44 ultra-prominent peaks of the Alps, with 19 ultras over 3000m on this page.\n\nSection::::Criteria.\n", "The proposed six new eight-thousander peaks would not meet the wider UIAA criteria of 600 meters of elevation change between standalone peaks, called topographic prominence, as used by the UIAA elsewhere for major mountains (the lowest prominence of the existing list of 14 eight-thousanders is Lothse, at 610 metres). For example, only Broad Peak Central, with a topographic prominence of 181 meters, would even meet the 150–metre prominence threshold to be a British Isles Marilyn. However, the appeal noted the UIAA's 1994 reclassification of Alpine 4,000 metre peaks where a prominence threshold of 30–metres was used, amongst other criteria; the logic being that if 30–metres worked for 4,000 metres summits, then 60–metres should work for 8,000m summits.\n", "Also, the deepest points in connecting ridges are not always survey points with spot elevations, where heights have to be estimated from contour lines. For example, maps often provide heights for the place where a route passes over a ridge rather than for the lowest point of that pass.\n", "Since no exact and formal definition of mountain exists, the number of 4000-metre summits is arbitrary. One can consider a stone, for instance, as a summit if it is situated above this elevation. The topographic prominence is an important factor to decide the official nomination of a summit. The list proposed by the UIAA is based not only on prominence but also on other criteria such as the morphology (general appearance) and mountaineering interest. Summits such as Roccia Nera or Mont Blanc de Courmayeur have much less than the 30 metres minimum prominence criterion but are included in the list because of the other criteria. In comparison, the official 8000 metres summit having the smallest prominence is Lhotse with 610 metres. A minimum prominence criterion of 500 metres would reduce the number of Alpine four-thousanders to only 22.\n", "Firsts:\n\nBULLET::::- 1970: Yuichiro Miura (Japan) made the first ski tracks above 8000m in preparation for his epic schuss starting near the south col of Everest for the film \"The Man Who Skied Down Everest\".\n", "BULLET::::- Three-thousanders (in Japan) - The 21 major 3000 meter summits in Japan\n\nSection::::Asia.:Indonesia.\n\nBULLET::::- A list of peaks in Indonesia with at least of topographic prominence, known as the Ribus. Also contained in the list are the Spesials. Spesials are Indonesian peaks with less than 1,000 meters of topographic prominence, but of significant touristic interest.\n\nSection::::Asia.:Taiwan.\n\nBULLET::::- The 100 Peaks of Taiwan\n\n\"See also List of ribus.\"\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nPopular peak-bagging challenges in Australia include the State 8: the highest peak in each of the six states and two territories (excluding Australia's external territories).\n", "The summits meeting the 3,000-metre criterion were defined by a UIAA-sponsored joint Franco-Spanish team led by Juan Buyse. The UIAA list, published in 1990, also contains 83 secondary summits in addition to the 129 principal ones listed here, and divides the range into 11 zones. According to the latest surveys, three of the peaks in the original list are actually below 3000m but are still included below. \n", "Section::::Geography.\n\nSection::::Geography.:Regional.\n", "Given the inaccuracies, the list includes (unranked) summits with estimated prominences down to 7 meter below the cut-off (293 m), many of which may very well have a real prominence exceeding 300 m.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n\nThe lists contain 1599 mountains higher than 2000 m. The summits are distributed over 7 countries as follows:\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn greater North America, only Denali exceeds elevation. Three major summits exceed , 11 exceed, 21 exceed , the following 124 major summits exceed , 277 exceed , and 401 exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 4000-meter summits.\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn the United States, only Denali exceeds elevation. Four major summits exceed , nine exceed , the following 104 major summits exceed , 220 exceed , and 302 exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 4000-meter summits.\n", "The selection criteria used here are quite broad – many of the peaks included are secondary summits of major mountains. Using prominence as a criterion, only one summit is an ultra-prominent peak, Aneto, a further three have a prominence of 1000m (Pico Posets, Pica d'Estats, Vignemale), and five more have a prominence of over 600m. Only 17 in total have a prominence of more than 300m, commonly used as a criterion for determining an independent mountain, and are indicated in bold in the table below. 28 more have a prominence of over 100m and can be considered significant summits.\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn the United States, only Denali exceeds elevation. Four major summits exceed , nine exceed , 104 major summits exceed, 220 exceed , and the following 302 major summits exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 3000-meter summits.\n", "List of mountains of Switzerland above 3000 m\n\nThis is a list of mountains of Switzerland above . This height, in the Alps, approximately corresponds to the level of the climatic snow line. For a list of mountains (major summits only) including lower summits, see List of mountains of Switzerland. \n", "BULLET::::- to the east: the \"Cimet\" (3020 m), separated from the \"Teton\" (2969 m) by the small \"col de Talon\" (2678 m), \"Mount Pelat\" (3050 m), and between Allos and Mont Pelat the \"Tête du Vallonnet\" (Head of Vallonnet) (2710 m) and the \"Tête de Prachastel\" (Head of Prachastel) (2320 m);\n", "BULLET::::- 1988: Veronique Perillat (France) was the first woman to ski from the top of an 8000er and the first woman to ski from over 8000 meters, skiing off the top of Cho Oyu on a monoski.\n", "List of mountains of the Alps (2000–2499 m)\n\nThis page contains a table listing by elevation, mountains of the Alps that are between 2000 and 2499 metres high and have a topographic prominence of at least . The list is a continuation of the List of mountains of the Alps (2500-2999 m) and List of mountains of the Alps above 3000 m, which page contains an introduction with statistics and an explanation of the criteria.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountains of the Alps (2500–2999 m)\n\nBULLET::::- List of Alpine three-thousanders\n\nBULLET::::- List of Alpine four-thousanders\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn greater North America, only Denali exceeds elevation. Three major summits exceed , the following 11 major summits exceed , 21 exceed , 124 exceed, 277 exceed , and 401 exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 5000-meter summits.\n", "Different approaches have been developed to define \"mountainous\" areas. While some use an altitudinal difference of 300 m inside an area to define that zone as mountainous, others consider differences from 1000 m or more, depending on the areas' latitude. Additionally, some include steepness to define mountain regions, hence excluding high plateaus (e.g. the Andean Altiplano or the Tibetan Plateau), zones often seen to be mountainous. A more pragmatic but useful definition has been proposed by the Italian Statistics Office ISTAT, which classifies municipalities as mountainous\n", "In the Rocky Mountains there is a large number of four-thousanders, especially in the state of Colorado (Mount Elbert: ) and Wyoming (Gannett Peak: ). In addition the Sierra Nevada rises well above ; its highest peak is Mount Whitney at . On Hawaii the volcano of Mauna Kea lies above sea level and has an overall height of above the seabed. The US-American equivalent of the four-thousanders are the fourteeners, which include all mountains that are higher than 14,000 feet (4,267.2 m).\n\nSection::::Antarctica.\n", "\"No ski descents from above 8000 meters\"\n\nSection::::Descents.:Lhotse.\n\nNEPAL - 8516 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Makalu.\n\nNEPAL - 8485\n\n\"No ski descents from above 8000 meters\"\n\nSection::::Descents.:Cho Oyu.\n\nNEPAL - 8188 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Dhaulagiri.\n\nNEPAL - 8167 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Manaslu.\n\nNEPAL - 8163 meters\n\nBenjamin Darcé -USA from 8100 (just below summit ridge) no oxygen or Sherpa support.\n\nSection::::Descents.:Nanga Parbat.\n\nPAKISTAN - 8126 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Annapurna.\n\nNEPAL - 8093 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Gasherbrum I.\n\n- PAKISTAN - 8080 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Broad Peak.\n\nPAKISTAN - 8051 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Gasherbrum II.\n\nPAKISTAN - 8034 meters\n\nSection::::Descents.:Shisha Pangma.\n\nCHINA - 8027 meters\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Eight-thousander\n\nBULLET::::- List of highest mountains\n", "All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island, and all but one (Mount Aspiring) are within a 10-mile radius of Aoraki / Mount Cook. Some of these summits are mere shoulders on the ridges of Aoraki and Mount Tasman.\n\nSection::::The 100 highest mountains.\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn greater North America, only Denali exceeds elevation. Three major summits exceed , 11 exceed, 21 exceed , 124 exceed, 277 exceed , and the following 401 major summits exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 3000-meter summits.\n", "The mountaineering community groups Earth's 14 mountains with summits exceeding , referred to as eight-thousanders, as a special category of peaks defining the \"top of the world.\" Only an elite group of mountaineers can claim to have summited all 14 peaks and many have perished trying. (See eight-thousanders for current list.) Particularly since 1986 when Italian expeditionist Reinhold Messner became the first to have climbed all fourteen 8000m peaks, summiting the eight-thousanders has become the ultimate goal for many high altitude mountaineers. Similarly, the ski-mountaineering community has set its sights on skiing from the summits of the \"eight-thousanders.\" In a 2007 interview for the film \"Skiing Everest\", the Italian mountaineer and skier, Hans Kammerlander articulated the challenge for the ski-mountaineering community: \"Almost all peaks have been reached, almost all walls have been climbed. But seldom have the walls been skied down... It would be a lovely project if I could see someone who could ski all 8,000m peaks.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23833	Why does pregnancy and birth defects get riskier as women get older? Do their eggs expire, what about the sperm?	Eggs exist in a woman before she is even born. So the genetic material making up the egg gets older and more frail as time goes on, leading to higher risk of genetic malfunction, like downs syndrome. A dude produces sperm every 72 hours or so. It's fresh genetic material. But as he gets older he produces less so his chances of impregnating are lower. The risk of poor genetic material doesn't super increase though, like it does in an egg	[ "All pregnancies can be risky, but there are greater risk for women who are older and are over the age of 40. The older the women the riskier the pregnancy. As women get older, they are more likely to suffer from conditions such as gestational diabetes and pre-eclampsia. If older women do conceive over the age of 40, their offspring may be of lower birth weight, and more likely to requires intensive care. Because of this, the increased risk is a sufficient cause for concern. The high incidence of caesarean in older mothers is commonly regarded as a risk.\n", "According to the March of Dimes, \"about 9 percent of recognized pregnancies for women aged 20 to 24 ended in miscarriage. The risk rose to about 20 percent at age 35 to 39, and more than 50 percent by age 42\". Birth defects, especially those involving chromosome number and arrangement, also increase with the age of the mother. According to the March of Dimes, \"At age 25, your risk of having a baby with Down syndrome is 1 in 1,340. At age 30, your risk is 1 in 940. At age 35, your risk is 1 in 353. At age 40, your risk is 1 in 85. At age 45, your risk is 1 in 35.\"\n", "The use of fertility drugs and/or invitro fertilization can increase the chances of becoming pregnant at a later age. Successful pregnancies facilitated by fertility treatment have been documented in women as old as 67. Studies since 2004 now show that mammals may continue to produce new eggs throughout their lives, rather than being born with a finite number as previously thought. Researchers at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, US, say that if eggs are newly created each month in humans as well, all current theories about the aging of the female reproductive system will have to be overhauled, although at this time this is simply conjecture.\n", "Dietary deficiencies (such as vitamins B, E and A), anabolic steroids, metals (cadmium and lead), x-ray exposure, dioxin, alcohol, and infectious diseases will also adversely affect the rate of spermatogenesis. In addition, the male germ line is susceptible to DNA damage caused by oxidative stress, and this damage likely has a significant impact on fertilization and pregnancy. Exposure to pesticides also affects spermatogenesis.\n\nSection::::Hormonal control.\n", "Section::::Biological factors.\n\nWomen and men differ in their chromosomal makeup, protein gene products, genomic imprinting, gene expression, signaling pathways, and hormonal environment. All of these necessitate caution in extrapolating information derived from biomarkers from one sex to the other. Women are particularly vulnerable at the two extremes of life. Young women and adolescents are at risk from STIs, pregnancy and unsafe abortion, while older women often have few resources and are disadvantaged with respect to men, and also are at risk of dementia and abuse, and generally poor health.\n\nSection::::Reproductive and sexual health.\n", "Men also experience a decline in fertility as they age. Male fertility drops gradually and steadily; the average time to pregnancy if both partners are under 25 is just over 4.5 months but nearly two years if a man is over 40 (and the woman is under 25). The risk of genetic defects is greatly increased due to the paternal age effect. Children with fathers aged 40 or older are more than five times as likely to have an autism spectrum disorder than children fathered by men aged under 30. Researchers estimate that compared to a male fathering a child in his early 20s, there is double the chance of the child getting schizophrenia when the father is age 40, and triple the risk of schizophrenia when the father is age 50 (though, for most people this means the risk goes from approximately 1 in 121 when a man is 29, to 1 in 47 when a man is age 50 to 54). The volume and fecundity of a man’s semen quality and sperm motility (the ability of sperm to move towards an egg) decrease continually between the ages of 20 and 80. The incidence of dwarfism and miscarriage also increases as men age.\n", "The risk of pregnancy complications increases as the mother's age increases. Risks associated with childbearing over the age of 50 include an increased incidence of gestational diabetes, hypertension, delivery by caesarean section, miscarriage, preeclampsia, and placenta previa. In comparison to mothers between 20 and 29 years of age, mothers over 50 are at almost three times the risk of low birth weight, premature birth, and extremely premature birth; their risk of extremely low birth weight, small size for gestational age, and fetal mortality was almost double.\n\nSection::::Cases of pregnancy over age 50.\n", "Pregnancy over age 50 has, over recent years, become possible for more women, and more easily achieved for many, due to recent advances in assisted reproductive technology, in particular egg donation. Typically, a woman's fecundity ends with menopause, which, by definition, is 12 consecutive months without having had any menstrual flow at all. During perimenopause, the menstrual cycle and the periods become irregular and eventually stop altogether, but even when periods are still regular, the egg quality of women in their forties is lower than in younger women, making the likelihood of conceiving a healthy baby also reduced, particularly after age 42. It is important to note that the female biological clock can vary greatly from woman to woman. A woman's individual level of fertility can be tested through a variety of methods.\n", "Women conceiving at 40 have a greater risk of gestational hypertension and premature birth. The offspring is at risk when being born from older mothers, and the risks associated with being conceived through IVF.\n\nSection::::Ethics.:Pregnancy past menopause.\n", "BULLET::::- In males 20–39 years old, 90% of the seminiferous tubules contain mature sperm.\n\nBULLET::::- In males 40–69 years old, 50% of the seminiferous tubules contain mature sperm.\n\nBULLET::::- In males 80 years old and older, 10% of the seminiferous tubules contain mature sperm.\n\nDecline in male fertility is influenced by many factors, including lifestyle, environment and psychological factors. \n", "A woman's fertility is also affected by her age. As a woman's total egg supply is formed in fetal life, to be ovulated decades later, it has been suggested that this long lifetime may make the chromatin of eggs more vulnerable to division problems, breakage, and mutation than the chromatin of sperm, which are produced continuously during a man's reproductive life. However, despite this hypothesis, a similar paternal age effect has also been observed.\n", "Future problems for mothers and babies can be prevented. It is important that women of reproductive age adopt healthy behaviors in everyday life, such as taking folic acid, maintaining a healthy diet and weight, being physically active, avoiding tobacco use, and avoiding excessive alcohol and drug use. If women follow some of the above guidelines, later complications can be prevented to help decrease the infant mortality rates. Attending regular prenatal care check-ups will help improve the baby's chances of being delivered in safer conditions and surviving.\n", "Miscarriage risks\n\nMiscarriage risks are those circumstances, conditions, and substances that increase the risk of miscarriage. Some risks are modifiable and can be changed. Other risks cannot be modified and can't be changed. Risks can be firmly tied to miscarriages and others are still under investigation. In addition, there are those circumstances and treatments that have not been found effective in preventing miscarriage. When a woman keeps having miscarriages, infertility is present.\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomical defect in the mother\n\nBULLET::::- Amniocentesis\n\nBULLET::::- Chorionic villus sampling\n\nBULLET::::- Age 30\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking and exposure tobacco smoke\n\nBULLET::::- Obesity\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetes\n\nBULLET::::- Thyroid problems\n", "Women with an inherited mutation in the DNA repair gene \"BRCA1\" undergo menopause prematurely, suggesting that naturally occurring DNA damages in oocytes are repaired less efficiently in these women, and this inefficiency leads to early reproductive failure. Genomic data from about 70,000 women were analyzed to identify protein-coding variation associated with age at natural menopause. Pathway analyses identified a major association with DNA damage response genes, particularly those expressed during meiosis and including a common coding variant in the \"BRCA1\" gene.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by age at first marriage\n\nBULLET::::- Childlessness\n\nBULLET::::- Fertility factor (demography)\n", "The issues of age can be discussed with a qualified fertility specialist such as a reproductive endocrinologist.\n\nA review in 2012 came to the result that therapeutic interventions to halt or reverse the process of reproductive ageing in women is limited, despite recent reports of the potential existence of stem cells which may be used to restore the ovarian reserve.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Paternal age effect\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced maternal age\n\nBULLET::::- Pregnancy over age 50\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- http://dl.dropbox.com/u/8256710/ASRM%20Protect%20Your%20Fertility%20newsletter.pdf, by American Society for Reproductive Medicine\n\nBULLET::::- http://www.reproductivefacts.org/uploadedFiles/ASRM_Content/Resources/Patient_Resources/Fact_Sheets_and_Info_Booklets/agefertility.pdf, by American Society for Reproductive Medicine\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Long-term effects.\n\nMenopause confers:\n\nBULLET::::- A possible but contentious increased risk of atherosclerosis. The risk of acute myocardial infarction and other cardiovascular diseases rises sharply after menopause, but the risk can be reduced by managing risk factors, such as tobacco smoking, hypertension, increased blood lipids and body weight.\n\nBULLET::::- Increased risk of osteopenia, osteoporosis, and accelerated lung function decline.\n\nWomen who experience menopause before 45 years of age have an increased risk of heart disease, death, and impaired lung function.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Sperm count declines with age, with men aged 50–80 years producing sperm at an average rate of 75% compared with men aged 20–50 years. However, an even larger difference is seen in how many of the seminiferous tubules in the testes contain mature sperm;\n\nBULLET::::- In males 20–39 years old, 90% of the seminiferous tubules contain mature sperm\n\nBULLET::::- In males 40–69 years old, 50% of the seminiferous tubules contain mature sperm\n\nBULLET::::- In males 80 years old and older, 10% of the seminiferous tubules contain mature sperm\n", "In partnership with Life Line Screening, Oxford University published a 2013 clinical research study with data drawn from over 290,000 vascular screenings performed by Life Line Screening between 2008 and 2012 across the UK and Ireland. Results from the study revealed that chronic cardiovascular diseases, including abdominal aortic aneurysm, narrowing of a main artery in the neck, irregular heartbeat and circulatory problems in the legs – occur approximately 10 years earlier in men than women.\n", "Among postmenopausal women, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and osteoporosis are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, as well as impaired quality of life. Among women in all age groups, cancer and cardiovascular disease are the leading causes of mortality. As the incidence of these diseases increases according to age, women over the age of 50 bear much of the disease burden.\n", "While advanced age can be a possible factor in sperm motility and health, the sperm of men below 20 years of age has likewise been linked to an increase in birth defects such as neural tube defects, hypospadias, cystic kidney, and Down syndrome.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Heat.\n\nSperm are heat-sensitive, and cannot endure high temperatures. Increases of 2-3 °C are associated with increased DNA fragmentation.\n", "BULLET::::- Postnatally (after birth) to estimate various risk factors\n\nSection::::Uses.:Estimation of due date.\n", "BULLET::::- Donor oocyte. Oocyte donation is the most successful method for producing pregnancy in perimenopausal women. In the UK the use of donor oocytes after natural menopause is controversial. A 1995 study reported that women age fifty or higher experience similar pregnancy rates after oocyte donation as younger women. They are at equal risk for multiple gestation as younger women. In addition, antenatal complications were experienced by the majority of patients, and that high risk obstetric surveillance and care is vital.\n", "In female placentals, the number of ovarian oocytes is fixed during embryonic development, possibly as an adaptation to reduce the accumulation of mutations, which then mature or degrade over the life course. At birth there are, typically, one million ova. However, by menopause, only approximately 400 eggs would have actually matured. In humans, the rate of follicular atresia increases at older ages (around 38-40), for reasons that are not known. In chimpanzees, our closest nonhuman, genetic relatives, there is a very similar rate of oocyte atresia until the age of 35 at which point humans experience a far accelerated rate compared to chimpanzees. However, chimpanzee females, unlike humans, usually die while still in their reproductive phase.\n", "The 2002 Women's Health Initiative of the National Institutes of Health found disparate results for all cause mortality with hormone replacement, finding it to be lower when HRT was begun earlier, between age 50-59, but higher when begun after age 60. In older patients, there was an increased incidence of breast cancer, heart attacks and stroke, although a reduced incidence of colorectal cancer and bone fracture. Some of the WHI findings were again found in a larger national study done in the UK, known as The Million Women Study. As a result of these findings, the number of women taking hormone treatment dropped precipitously. The Women's Health Initiative recommended that women with non-surgical menopause take the lowest feasible dose of HRT for the shortest possible time to minimize associated risks.\n", "Recent studies from the US National Cancer Institute (NCI) show that the daughters of women who were exposed \"in utero\" to DES may be less likely than the unexposed to have regular menstrual periods. A possible increased risk of infertility in the older, third generation daughters was also noted. The NCI study provides limited evidence of an increased risk of birth defects in the sons or daughters of women who were exposed prenatally to DES. An increased risk of ovarian cancer in the daughters of women exposed \"in utero\" was observed, but it was based on three cases of almost 800, so the finding is considered preliminary and requires further study.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Sperm and eggs in humans age at the same rate." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Eggs exist before a woman is born, sperm is produced as fresh genetic material every 72 hours." ]
2018-01918	Why is it that some food loses its nutritional value when cooked?	Cooking it breaks down the chemicals in the food. When broken down, these chemicals are no longer nutritious, or are less nutritious. In addition, if the food is boiled, many of the vitamins will dissolve into the water, and thus not be ingested since you don't normally drink all of the cooking water afterwards.	[ "Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods which are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw cereal grains are hard to digest, while kidney beans are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of phytohaemagglutinin, which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at .\n", "Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure. Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.\n", "Phytochemicals in freshly harvested plant foods may be degraded by processing techniques, including cooking. The main cause of phytochemical loss from cooking is thermal decomposition.\n\nA converse exists in the case of carotenoids, such as lycopene present in tomatoes, which may remain stable or increase in content from cooking due to liberation from cellular membranes in the cooked food. Food processing techniques like mechanical processing can also free carotenoids and other phytochemicals from the food matrix, increasing dietary intake.\n", "Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Vitamin C concentrations in various food substances decrease with time in proportion to the temperature at which they are stored and cooking can reduce the vitamin C content of vegetables by around 60% possibly partly due to increased enzymatic destruction as it may be more significant at sub-boiling temperatures. Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which catalyse the decomposition.\n", "Section::::Claims.\n\nClaims held by raw food proponents include:\n\nBULLET::::- That heating food above starts to degrade and destroy the enzymes in raw food that aid digestion. Enzymes in food play no significant role in the digestive process, prior to being digested themselves.\n\nBULLET::::- That raw foods have higher nutrient values than foods that have been cooked. In reality, whether cooking degrades nutrients or increases their availability, or both, depends on the food and how it is cooked.\n", "Section::::Intake.:Effects of cooking.\n\nThe USDA has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from different food types and cooking methods. Some vitamins may become more \"bio-available\" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.\n", "In a related way if amino acids are missing from the protein source which are particularly slow or energy consuming to synthesise this can result in a low BV.\n\nMethods of food preparation also affect the availability of amino acids in a food source. Some of food preparation may damage or destroy some EAAs, reducing the BV of the protein source.\n", "The sugar added to meat for the purpose of curing it comes in many forms, including honey, corn syrup solids, and maple syrup. However, with the exception of bacon, it does not contribute much to the flavor, but it does alleviate the harsh flavor of the salt. Sugar also contributes to the growth of beneficial bacteria such as \"Lactobacillus\" by feeding them.\n\nSection::::Chemical actions.:Nitrates and nitrites.\n", "Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n\nMaintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.\n\nNew techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Curing.\n", "Though not ra nutrient as such, an entry for \"ash\" is sometimes found on nutrition labels, especially for pet food. This entry measures the weight of inorganic material left over after the food is burned for two hours at 600 °C. Thus, it does not include water, fibre, and nutrients that provide calories, but it does include some nutrients, such as minerals \n\nToo much ash may contribute to feline urological syndrome in domestic cats.\n\nSection::::Intestinal bacterial flora.\n\nAnimal intestines contain a large population of gut flora which are essential to digestion, and are also affected by the food eaten. \n", "Boiling raw kale diminishes most of these nutrients, while values for vitamins A, C, and K, and manganese remain substantial (see table \"Kale, cooked\"). Kale is high in oxalic acid but this can be reduced by cooking the leaves.\n\nSection::::Nutritional value.:Phytochemicals.\n", "The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.\n\nSection::::Effect of meat preservation.\n\nSection::::Effect of meat preservation.:On health.\n\nSince the 20th century, with respect to the relationship between diet and human disease (e.g. cardiovascular, etc.), scientists have conducted studies on the effects of lipolysis on vacuum-packed or frozen meat. In particular, by analyzing entrecôtes of frozen beef during 270 days at , scientists found an important phospholipase that accompanies the loss of some unsaturated fat n-3 and n-6, which are already low in the flesh of ruminants.\n", "Vitamin B is widely distributed in foods in both its free and bound forms. Cooking, storage, and processing losses of vitamin B vary and in some foods may be more than 50%, depending on the form of vitamin present in the food. Plant foods lose the least during processing, as they contain mostly pyridoxine, which is far more stable than the pyridoxal or pyridoxamine found in animal foods. For example, milk can lose 30–70% of its vitamin B content when dried. Vitamin B is found in the germ and aleurone layer of grains, and milling results in the reduction of this vitamin in white flour. The heating that occurs before most freezing and canning processes may also result in the loss of vitamin B in foods.\n", "Section::::Health and safety.:Effects on nutritional content of food.\n", "Other types of processing increase resistant starch content. If cooking includes excess water, the starch is gelatinized and becomes more digestible. However, if these starch gels are then cooled, they can form starch crystals resistant to digestive enzymes (Type RS3 or retrograded resistant starch), such as those occurring in cooked and cooled cereals or potatoes (e.g., potato salad). Cooling a boiled potato overnight increases the amount of resistant starch.\n\nSection::::Nutritional information.\n", "Unmodified fish meal can spontaneously combust from heat generated by oxidation of the polyunsaturated fatty acids in the meal. In the past, factory ships have sunk because of such fires. That danger has been eliminated by adding antioxidants to the meal.\n", "One review stated that \"Many raw foods are toxic and only become safe after they have been cooked. Some raw foods contain substances that destroy vitamins, interfere with digestive enzymes or damage the walls of the intestine. Raw meat can be contaminated with bacteria which would be destroyed by cooking; raw fish can contain substances that interfere with vitamin B1 (anti-thiaminases)\"\n\nSection::::Role of cooking in human evolution.\n", "Proponents of raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin C, the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin. However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.\n", "Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (made by enzymatic splitting of sucrose) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot and potato.\n", "Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is leaching, where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C does not leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows broccoli seems to retain more than any other. Research has also shown that freshly cut fruits do not lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.\n\nSection::::Diet.:Supplements.\n", "BULLET::::- Vitamin A (Carotene): There is little loss of carotene during preparation for freezing and freezing of most vegetables. Much of the vitamin loss is incurred during the extended storage period.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n", "BULLET::::- Loss of lysine, an essential amino acid necessary for developmental growth and nitrogen management\n\nBULLET::::- Simplification of complex starches, increasing rates of tooth decay\n\nBULLET::::- Increase of glycemic index of the processed food, as the \"extrusion process significantly increased the availability of carbohydrates for digestion\"\n\nBULLET::::- Destruction of Vitamin A (beta-carotene)\n\nBULLET::::- Denaturation of proteins.\n", "Under the UN's Save Food initiative, the FAO, UNEP, and stakeholders have agreed on the following definition of food loss and waste:\n\nBULLET::::- Food loss is the decrease in quantity or quality of food. Food loss in the production and distribution segments of the food supply chain is mainly a function of the food production and supply system or its institutional and legal framework.\n", "Common foodstuffs and their values: (Note: These values use \"whole egg\" as a value of 100, so foodstuffs that provide even more nitrogen than whole eggs, can have a value of more than 100. 100, does not mean that 100% of the nitrogen in the food is incorporated into the body, and not excreted, as in other charts.)\n\nBULLET::::- Whey protein concentrate: 104\n\nBULLET::::- Whole egg: 100\n\nBULLET::::- Cow milk: 91\n\nBULLET::::- Beef: 80\n\nBULLET::::- Casein: 77\n\nBULLET::::- Soy: 74\n\nBULLET::::- Wheat gluten: 64\n", "Decreased processing times in ohmic heating maintains nutritional and sensory properties of foods. Ohmic heating inactivates antinutritional factors like lipoxigenase (LOX), polyphenoloxidase (PPO), and pectinase due to the removal of active metallic groups in enzymes by the electrical field. Similar to other heating methods, ohmic heating causes gelatinization of starches, melting of fats, and protein agglutination. Water-soluble nutrients are maintained in the suspension liquid allowing for no loss of nutritional value if the liquid is consumed.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]

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