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2018-20653	What happens to our brain when we concentrate?	Think of your brain like a room full of kids with ideas. Each wants to do something and they're just shouting over each other. "Concentrate!" Is the teacher shouting to get their attention. She takes their ideas one at a time and decides what the whole class should focus on.	[ "Section::::Attention regulation.\n\nAttention regulation is the task of focusing attention on an object, acknowledging any distractions, and then returning your focus back to the object. Some evidence for mechanisms responsible for attention regulation during mindfulness meditation are shown below.\n\nBULLET::::- Mindfulness meditators showed greater activation of rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC). This suggests that meditators have a stronger processing of conflict/distraction and are more engaged in emotional regulation. However, as the meditators become more efficient at focused attention, regulation becomes unnecessary and consequentially decreases activation of ACC in the long term.\n", "BULLET::::- Executive control attention include functions of inhibiting the conscious processing of distracting information. In the context of mindful meditation, distracting information relates to attention grabbing mental events such as thoughts related to the future or past.\n", "BULLET::::- Using the Attention Network Task (a version of Eriksen flanker task ) it was found that error scores that indicate executive control performance were reduced in experienced meditators and following a brief 5 session mindfulness training program.\n\nBULLET::::- A neuroimaging study supports behavioural research findings that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with greater proficiency to inhibit distracting information. As greater activation of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was shown for mindfulness meditators than matched controls.\n", "In his text \"Buddho\" Ajahn Thate describes what it is like when the mind has finally rid itself of preoccupation with sensual distractions and is able to focus on the breath, mantra, or a part of the body, in meditation: \"\"When you first enter concentration, this is what it's like: You'll have no idea at all of what concentration or one-pointedness of mind is going to feel like. You are simply intent on keeping mindfulness firmly focused on one object – and the power of a mind focused firmly on one object is what will bring you to a state of concentration. You won't be thinking at all that concentration will be like this or like that, or that you want it to be like this or like that. It will simply take its own way, automatically. No one can force it. At that moment you will feel as if you are in another world (the world of the mind), with a sense of ease and solitude to which nothing else in the world can compare. When the mind withdraws from concentration, you will regret that that mood has passed, and you will remember it clearly. All that we say about concentration comes from the mind which has withdrawn from that state. As long as it is still gathered in that state, we aren't interested in what anyone else says or does. You have to train the mind to enter this sort of concentration often, so as to become skilled and adept, but don't try to remember your past states of concentration, and don't let yourself want your concentration to be like it was before – because it won't be that way, and you will just be making more trouble for yourself.\"\"\n", "The ACC detects conflicting information coming from distractions. When a person is presented with a conflicting stimulus, the brain initially processes the stimulus incorrectly. This is known as error-related negativity (ERN). Before the ERN reaches a threshold, the correct conflict is detected by the frontocentral N2. After the correction, the rostral ACC is activated and allows for executive attention to the correct stimulus. Therefore, mindfulness meditation could potentially be a method for treating attention related disorders such as ADHD and bipolar disorder.\n\nSection::::Body awareness.\n", "BULLET::::- The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is involved in emotional drives, experience and integration. Associated cognitive functions include inhibition of inappropriate responses, decision making and motivated behaviors. Lesions in this area can lead to low drive states such as apathy, abulia or akinetic mutism and may also result in low drive states for such basic needs as food or drink and possibly decreased interest in social or vocational activities and sex.\n", "An aesthetic environment may also serve a restorative function in fostering recovery from mental fatigue. Research has shown that restorative experiences, such as clearing one's head and reflecting on one's life and priorities, may help combat Directed Attention Fatigue. As investigated by attention restoration theory, natural environments, such as forests, mountain landscapes or beaches, appear to be particularly effective for restoring attention, perhaps because they contain a vast amount of diverse, relatively weak stimuli, thus inciting the mind to wander freely while relaxing its strict focus.\n\nSection::::Link to ADHD.\n", "In order to suppress a thought, one must (a) plan to suppress the thought and (b) carry out that plan by suppressing all other manifestations of the thought, including the original plan. Thought suppression seems to entail a state of knowing and not knowing all at once. It can be assumed that thought suppression is a difficult and even time consuming task. Even when thoughts are suppressed, they can return to consciousness with minimal prompting. This is why suppression has also been associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder.\n\nSection::::Suppression.:Directed forgetting.\n", "A number of studies have been performed that specifically focus on Directed Attention Fatigue experienced by cancer patients. Such studies suggests that the DAF experienced by cancer patients following surgery improves significantly through outdoor restorative activities for 20 minutes per day.\n\nSimilarly, it has been discovered that even brief amounts of time spent on a busy metropolitan street can affect one's ability to maintain focus on a given task. Experimental findings suggest that spending time in a natural environment or even looking at pictures of nature can improve maintenance of directed attention.\n", "One form of cue that can be implemented in an inhibition of return task are exogenous cues. Exogenous cues are stimuli that are produced in the environment surrounding. Because one's attention is shifted to the stimulus without much thought or effort, these cues are seen as a form of reflex that the person has low control over. Due to this cue's automatic nature and lack of effort, it uses very few of our attentive resources. This also causes our attention shift to be quick for exogenous cues than for endogenous cues\n", "Considering the relation of the PCC with the DMN, with suppressed posterior cingulate activity favoring low cognitive introspection and higher external attention and increased activity indicating memory retrieval and planning, it has been hypothesized that this brain region is heavily involved in noticing internal and external changes and in facilitating novel behavior or thought in response. High activity, then, would indicate continued operation with the current cognitive set, while lower activity would indicate exploration, flexibility and renewed learning.\n", "In a 2005 study, subjects were asked to learn to categorize visual stimuli by classifying images and receiving feedback on their responses. Activity associated with successful classification learning (correct categorization) was concentrated to the body and tail of the caudate, while activity associated with feedback processing (the result of incorrect categorization) was concentrated to the head of the caudate.\n\nSection::::Cognitive functions.:Sleep.\n", "Attention can be divided into two major attentional systems: exogenous control and endogenous control. Exogenous control works in a bottom-up manner and is responsible for orienting reflex, and pop-out effects. Endogenous control works top-down and is the more deliberate attentional system, responsible for divided attention and conscious processing.\n", "Section::::Nature and effects of object-based attention.:Inhibition of return.\n", "Specifically, spatial working memory activity has been observed, via fMRI studies of delayed recognition, to be greater in the caudate nucleus when the activity immediately preceded a motor response. These results indicate that the caudate nucleus could be involved in coding a motor response. With this in mind, the caudate nucleus could be involved in the recruitment of the motor system to support working memory performance by the mediation of sensory-motor transformations.\n\nSection::::Motor functions.:Directed movements.\n", "Directed attention, or voluntary attention, requires a great deal of concentration and focus, and is employed in tasks such as problem solving. This type of attention employs the inhibitory mechanisms of the brain, which help block incoming stimuli that are unrelated to the task at hand. Several parts of the brain are involved in maintaining directed attention, primarily those located in the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe of the brain. Specifically, the mechanism of directed attention employs the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the brain stem's basal ganglia. Some fMRI studies have shown that directed attention involves changes in the anterior cingulate cortex and the lateral prefrontal cortex, perhaps as a consequence of increased connectivity between these two areas. Evidence also suggests that the right inferior frontal cortex (IFC) plays a specialized role in response inhibition. It seems that this region plays a key role in the integration of bottom-up response-related information and facilitates goal-directed behavior.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Mindfulness.\n", "BULLET::::- In a Continuous performance task an association was found between higher dispositional mindfulness and more stable maintenance of sustained attention.\n\nBULLET::::- In an EEG study, the Attentional blink effect was reduced, and P3b ERP amplitude decreased in a group of participants who completed a mindfulness retreat. The incidence of reduced attentional blink effect relates to an increase in detectability of a second target. This may have been due to a greater ability to allocate attentional resources for detecting the second target, reflected in a reduced P3b amplitude.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "Thought suppression is referred to as the conscious and deliberate efforts to curtail one's thoughts and memories. Suppression is goal-directed and it includes conscious strategies to forget, such as intentional context shifts. For example, if someone is thinking of unpleasant thoughts, ideas that are inappropriate at the moment, or images that may instigate unwanted behaviors, they may try to think of anything else but the unwanted thought in order to push the thought out of consciousness.\n", "Ongoing research is examining ways in which the incidence of DAF can be decreased, and suggests that exposure to the natural environment may aid in the reduction of DAF symptoms. A number of researchers have investigated Directed Attention Fatigue recently. Leading contributors include Rachel and Stephen Kaplan, environmental psychologists at the University of Michigan. Rachel and Stephen Kaplan are credited with much of the research relating to Directed Attention Fatigue and were the first to discover that extended periods of focused attention can lead to DAF. Their research suggests that Directed Attention Fatigue can be alleviated with exposure to nature. Together, the Kaplans devised the Attention restoration theory (ART), which states that a person is better able to maintain focused directed attention after spending time in the natural environment.\n", "fMRI studies have shown two distinct patterns of brain activity during suppression tasks. The first is that there is less activity in the hippocampus, the brain area responsible for forming memories. The second is an increase of brain activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, especially in cases where suppression is harder. Researchers think that this region works to prevent memory formation by preventing the hippocampus from working.\n", "Other studies have demonstrated that perceptual and cognitive load affect spatial focusing of attention. These two mechanisms interact oppositely so that when cognitive load is decreased, perceptual load must be high to increase spatial attention focusing.\n\nSection::::Auditory alertness.\n", "While these areas of the brain are known to be involved in DAF, their specific molecular mechanisms in the perpetuation of DAF symptoms are not yet known.\n\nSection::::Onset.\n", "The default mode network is active during passive rest and mind-wandering which usually involves thinking about others, thinking about one's self, remembering the past, and envisioning the future rather than the task being performed. Recent work, however, has challenged a specific mapping between the default mode network and mind-wandering, given that the system is important in maintaining detailed representations of task information during working memory encoding. Electrocorticography studies (which involve placing electrodes on the surface of a subject's scalp) have shown the default mode network becomes activated within a fraction of a second after participants finish a task. Additionally, during attention demanding tasks, sufficient deactivation of the default mode network at the time of memory encoding has been shown to result in more successful long-term memory consolidation. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02252	How did the word "bots" become applied to live, paid, human trolls?	Shifts in meaning like this usually occur when a new user of a jargon term simply misunderstood the meaning upon learning it.	[ "Bot farms are known to be used in online app stores, like the Apple App Store and Google Play, to manipulate positions or to increase positive ratings/reviews.\n", "A rapidly growing, benign, form of internet bot is the chatbot. From 2016, when Facebook Messenger allowed developers to place chatbots on their platform, there has been an exponential growth of their use on that forum alone. 30,000 bots were created for Messenger in the first six months, rising to 100,000 by September 2017. Avi Ben Ezra, CTO of SnatchBot, told Forbes that evidence from the use of their chatbot building platform pointed to a near future saving of millions of hours of human labour as 'live chat' on websites was replaced with bots.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Humans.:RM Corp.\n", "Detecting non-human Twitter users has been of interest to academics. Indiana University has developed a free service called Botometer (formerly BotOrNot), which scores Twitter handles based on their likelihood of being a Twitterbot. One significant academic study estimated that up to 15% of Twitter users were automated bot accounts. The prevalence of Twitter bots coupled with the ability of some bots to give seemingly human responses has enabled these non-human accounts to garner widespread influence.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Political.\n", "BULLET::::- in 2012, reporter Percy von Lipinski reported that he discovered millions of bot or botted or pinged views at CNN iReport. CNN iReport quietly removed millions of views from the account of so-called superstar iReporter Chris Morrow. It is not known if the ad revenue received by CNN from the fake views was ever returned to the advertisers.\n\nBULLET::::- Bots may be used on internet forums to automatically post inflammatory or nonsensical posts to disrupt the forum and anger users.\n", "In 2017, Ash Bhat and Rohan Phadte, both undergraduates at the University of California, Berkeley, began developing online tools to help combat the spread of misinformation on the Internet. The first, NewsBot, was an app for Facebook Messenger that attempts to identify the political leanings in a news story. The second, BotCheck.me, was developed as an extension for Google Chrome. It uses machine learning and natural language processing to assess the probability that a Twitter account is a bot spreading political propaganda. Users who installed it saw a button on every Twitter account's page that they could click to determine the probability it was a bot.\n", "Twitter suspended a number of bot accounts that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi Arabian tweets about the disappearance of Saudi dissident journalist Jamal Khashoggi.\n\nSection::::Trolling and other applications.\n", "Social bots appear to have played a significant role in the 2016 United States presidential election and their history appears to go back at least to the United States midterm elections, 2010. It is estimated that 9-15% of active Twitter accounts may be social bots and that 15% of the total Twitter population active in the US Presidential election discussion were bots. At least 400,000 thousand bots were responsible for about 3.8 million tweets, roughly 19% of the total volume. \n", "Social networking bots are sets of algorithms that take on the duties of repetitive sets of instructions in order to establish a service or connection among social networking users. Various designs of networking bots vary from chat bots, algorithms designed to converse with a human user, to social bots, algorithms designed to mimic human behaviors to converse with behavioral patterns similar to that of a human user. The history of social botting can be traced back to Alan Turing in the 1950s and his vision of designing sets of instructional code that passes the Turing test. From 1964 to 1966, ELIZA, a natural language processing computer program created by Joseph Weizenbaum, is an early indicator of artificial intelligence algorithms that inspired computer programmers to design tasked programs that can match behavior patterns to their sets of instruction. As a result, natural language processing has become an influencing factor to the development of artificial intelligence and social bots as innovative technological advancements are made alongside the progression of the mass spreading of information and thought on social media websites.\n", "The effects of all points can be likened to and support methods of traditional psychological warfare.\n\nSection::::Detection.\n\nThe first generation of bots could sometimes be distinguished from real users by their often superhuman capacities to post messages around the clock (and at massive rates). Later developments have succeeded in imprinting more \"human\" activity and behavioral patterns in the agent. To unambiguously detect social bots as what they are, a variety of criteria must be applied together using pattern detection techniques, some of which are:\n\nBULLET::::- cartoon figures as user pictures\n", "Many non-malicious bots are popular for their entertainment value. However, as technology and the creativity of bot-makers improves, so does the potential for Twitter bots that fill social needs. @tinycarebot is a Twitterbot that encourages followers to practice self care, and brands are increasingly using automated Twitter bots to engage with customers in interactive ways. One anti-bullying organization has created @TheNiceBot, which attempts to combat the prevalence of mean tweets by automatically tweeting kind messages.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Public figures.\n", "The first botnet was first acknowledged and exposed by Earthlink during a lawsuit with notorious spammer Khan C. Smith in 2001 for the purpose of bulk spam accounting for nearly 25% of all spam at the time.\n\nAround 2006, to thwart detection, some botnets were scaling back in size.\n", "Techniques to like, share, and post on social networks were used. The bot accounts were used to \"game algorithms\" to push different content on the platforms. Real content put out by real people can be covered up and bots can make online measures of support, such as the number of likes or retweets something has received, look larger than it should, thus tricking users into thinking that specific piece of content is popular, a process identified as manufacturing consensus.\n\nSection::::Propaganda on social media.:Twitter propaganda.:Russian propaganda on Twitter.\n", "The operators of Web Bot interpret the bot's results and make a report called the \"ALTA report\" available on their website to paying subscribers. ALTA stands for \"asymmetric language trend analysis\". Many believe the predictions are pseudoscientific and too vague to be meaningful. Despite this, the creators have made many claims after the fact that their reports have predicted important events.\n\nSection::::Predictions.\n\nSection::::Predictions.:Claimed hits.\n\nBULLET::::- Northeast Blackout of 2003\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake\n\nBULLET::::- Hurricane Katrina and its devastation\n\nSection::::Predictions.:Misses.\n", "A malicious use of bots is the coordination and operation of an automated attack on networked computers, such as a denial-of-service attack by a botnet. Internet bots can also be used to commit click fraud and more recently have seen usage around MMORPG games as computer game bots. A spambot is an internet bot that attempts to spam large amounts of content on the Internet, usually adding advertising links. More than 94.2% of websites have experienced a bot attack.\n\nBULLET::::- There are malicious bots (and botnets) of the following types:\n", "BULLET::::- The Web Bot gained most of its notoriety for contributing to the 2012 phenomenon by predicting a cataclysm that would devastate the planet on 21 December 2012, possibly a reversing of Earth's magnetic poles or a small series of nuclear attacks leading up to a major attack during the year. The prediction did not call for a complete end of the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Web Bot predicted that a massive earthquake would occur in December 2008 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and the Pacific Northwest, but no such event happened.\n", "An active method that worked well in detecting early spam bots was to set up honeypot accounts where obvious nonsensical content was posted and then dumbly reposted (retweeted) by bots. However, recent studies show that bots evolve quickly and detection methods have to be updated constantly, because otherwise they may get useless after few years. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Astroturfing\n\nBULLET::::- Crowd manipulation\n\nBULLET::::- Fake news website\n\nBULLET::::- Internet bot\n\nBULLET::::- Marketing and artificial intelligence\n\nBULLET::::- Messaging spam\n\nBULLET::::- On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog\n\nBULLET::::- Post-truth politics\n\nBULLET::::- Search engine manipulation effect\n\nBULLET::::- Social spam\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "Section::::Commercial bots.\n\nThere has been a great deal of controversy about the use of bots in an automated trading function. Auction website eBay has been to court in an attempt to suppress a third-party company from using bots to traverse their site looking for bargains; this approach backfired on eBay and attracted the attention of further bots. The United Kingdom-based bet exchange Betfair saw such a large amount of traffic coming from bots that it launched a WebService API aimed at bot programmers, through which it can actively manage bot interactions.\n", "Web Bot\n\nWeb Bot is an internet bot computer program whose developers claim is able to predict future events by tracking keywords entered on the internet. It was developed in 1997, originally to predict stock market trends. The creator of the Web Bot Project, Clif High, along with his associate George Ure, keep the technology and algorithms largely secret and sell the predictions via the website.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n", "Internet bot\n\nAn Internet bot, also known as a web robot, robot or simply bot, is a software application that runs automated tasks (scripts) over the Internet. Typically, bots perform tasks that are both simple and structurally repetitive, at a much higher rate than would be possible for a human alone. The largest use of bots is in web spidering (\"web crawler\"), in which an automated script fetches, analyzes and files information from web servers at many times the speed of a human. More than half of all web traffic is made up of bots.\n", "In Lyman Frank Baum's children's novel \"Ozma of Oz\", the first-ever introduction of a humanoid-appearance mechanical man that would satisfy the later \"humanoid robot\" definition occurred in 1907 - some fifteen years before the word \"robot\" was coined - with Tik-Tok, powered with a trio of clockwork movements for his thinking, movement and speech, none of which he could wind up himself.\n\nIn 1912, Selma Lagerlöf published the poem \"Slåtterkarlarna på Ekolsund\" which was published in the first part of \"Troll och människor\". In the poem Christopher Polhem is hired to create mechanical mowers for a farmer.\n\nSection::::The modern \"Robot\".\n", "Internet bots monitor news articles, blogs, forums, and other forms of Internet chatter. Words in the lexicon are assigned numeric values for emotional quantifiers such as duration, impact, immediacy, intensity, and others. The lexicon is dynamic, and changes according to shifts in emotional tension, and how humans communicate those changes using the Internet. As of 2008, there were about 300,000 keywords in the lexicon, along with emotional context, which are fed into a computer-generated modelspace.\n", "The term \"robot\" was first used in a play published by the Czech Karel Čapek in 1921. \"R.U.R.\" (Rossum's Universal Robots) was a satire, robots were manufactured biological beings that performed all unpleasant manual labor. According to Čapek, the word was created by his brother Josef from the Czech \"robota\", meaning servitude. The play \"R.U.R,\" replaced the popular use of the word \"automaton\". However, until the 1950s \"robot\" was pronounced \"robit\" in films, radio and television programs: examples are \"The Lonely\" episode of the TV series \"The Twilight Zone\", first aired on 15 November 1959, and the sci-fi radio program \"X Minus One\".\n", "BULLET::::- Researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara took control of a botnet that was six times smaller than expected. In some countries, it is common that users change their IP address a few times in one day. Estimating the size of the botnet by the number of IP addresses is often used by researchers, possibly leading to inaccurate assessments.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Computer worm\n\nBULLET::::- Spambot\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of computer viruses and worms\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced Persistent Threat\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Honeynet Project & Research Alliance – \"Know your Enemy: Tracking Botnets\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07125	What makes bolt action rifles more suitable than semi autos/full autos to fire more powerful ammo?	It is simpler to make a bolt action system with high strength, ruggedness, reliability and accuracy compared to other system and the weight will be lower and they are cheaper to produce. The disadvantage is rate of fire. But for many application like hunting, target shooting and precision shooting that is not a a huge disadvantage compare to the advantages. Large powerful calibrates are primary used at long range where accuracy it one of the most important factor. For man portable military systems weight is important both for the weapon and for the ammunition. So you either have sniper rifles that can be move quite easy that are light and often bolt action to increase accuracy and reduce weight and ammunition use. Or you have heavy machinguns that are hard to transport and use a lot of ammunition so you like to use them on vehicles where you even have heavier cannon system both smaller full automatic and larger that you load manually or some semi automatic.	[ "Furthermore, there are many subtle issues involving the provenance of a rifle and its ammunition. Many calibres have dual civilian/military uses but are not \"completely\" identical – e.g. the .308 Winchester/7.62mm NATO and .223 Remington/5.56mm NATO have very slight differences in chamber sizes. Military ammunition often has thicker brass, and harder primers. Over major wars there were literally millions of surplus rifles converted to civilian uses (sporterized); many may be unsafe with modern ammunition – caution is required with any ex-military bolt action.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Antique guns\n\nBULLET::::- British military rifles\n\nBULLET::::- Service rifle\n", "Most straight pull rifles have a firing mechanism without a hammer, but there are some hammer fired models, such as the Merkel Helix. Firearms using a hammer usually have a comparably longer lock time than hammer-less mechanisms.\n", "The controlled-feed Mauser M 98 bolt-action system's simple, strong, safe, and well-thought-out design inspired other military and hunting/sporting rifle designs that became available during the 20th century, including the:\n\nBULLET::::- Gewehr 98/Karabiner 98k\n\nBULLET::::- M24 series\n\nBULLET::::- vz. 24/vz. 33\n\nBULLET::::- Type 24 rifle\n\nBULLET::::- M1903 Springfield\n\nBULLET::::- Pattern 1914 Enfield\n\nBULLET::::- M1917 Enfield\n\nBULLET::::- Arisaka Type 38/Type 99\n\nBULLET::::- M48 Mauser\n\nBULLET::::- Kb wz. 98a/Karabinek wz. 1929\n\nBULLET::::- FR8\n\nBULLET::::- modern hunting/sporting rifles like the CZ 550, Heym Express Magnum, Winchester Model 70 and the Mauser M 98\n", "Today, bolt-action rifles are chiefly used as hunting rifles. These rifles can be used to hunt anything from vermin to deer and to large game, especially big game caught on a safari, as they are adequate to deliver a single lethal shot from a safe distance.\n", "BULLET::::- Lee–Enfield (all marks and models)\n\nBULLET::::- Ishapore 2A1\n\nBULLET::::- Various hunting/sporting rifles manufactured by BSA, LSA, SAF Lithgow, and Parker-Hale\n\nBULLET::::- Australian International Arms M10 and No 4 Mk IV hunting/sporting rifles\n\nBULLET::::- Rifle Factory Ishapore's hunting Lee-Enfield rifle in .315\n\nSection::::Major bolt-action systems.:Turn-bolt.:Mosin–Nagant.\n", "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.\n", "Bolt thrust is an important factor in weapons design. The greater the bolt thrust, the stronger the locking mechanism has to be to withstand it. Assuming equal engineering solutions and material adding strength to a locking mechanism causes an increase in weight and size of locking mechanism components.br\n\nBolt thrust is not a measure to determine the amount of recoil/free recoil.\n\nSection::::Calculating bolt thrust.\n\nWith a basic calculation the bolt thrust produced by a particular firearms cartridge can be calculated fairly accurately.\n\nSection::::Calculating bolt thrust.:Formula.\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- \"F\" = the amount of bolt thrust\n", "Bolt-action firearms can theoretically achieve higher muzzle velocity and therefore have more accuracy than semi-automatic rifles because of the way the barrel is sealed. In a semi-automatic rifle, some of the energy from the charge is directed towards ejecting the spent shell and loading a new cartridge into the chamber. In a bolt action, the shooter performs this action by manually operating the bolt, allowing the chamber to be better sealed during firing, so that much more of the energy from the expanding gas can be directed forward. However, numerous other factors related to design and ammunition affect reliability and accuracy, and well designed modern semi-automatic rifles can be exceptionally accurate. Because of the combination of relatively light weight, reliability, high potential accuracy and lower cost, the bolt action is still the design of choice for many hunters, target shooters and marksmen.\n", "BULLET::::- MAT 49\n\nBULLET::::- MG34\n\nBULLET::::- MG42\n\nBULLET::::- Mk-19\n\nBULLET::::- MP18\n\nBULLET::::- Minebea PM-9\n\nBULLET::::- MP40\n\nBULLET::::- Nikonov machine gun\n\nBULLET::::- Owen Gun\n\nBULLET::::- PK machine gun\n\nBULLET::::- PM-63 RAK\n\nBULLET::::- PPS submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- PPSh-41\n\nBULLET::::- PPS-43\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger-34a\n\nBULLET::::- Rheinmetall MG3\n\nBULLET::::- RPD\n\nBULLET::::- SG-43\n\nBULLET::::- SIG MG710\n\nBULLET::::- Sten submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- Steyr Aug (LMG configuration)\n\nBULLET::::- Stoner 63 (LMG configuration)\n\nBULLET::::- Thompson submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- Type 100 submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- UKM-2000\n\nBULLET::::- Ultimax 100\n\nBULLET::::- Uzi\n\nBULLET::::- Vigneron submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- Voere 2005/1\n\nBULLET::::- MP3008\n\nSection::::Mixed-mode weapons.\n\nBULLET::::- FG 42\n", "BULLET::::- Heckler & Koch MP5\n\nBULLET::::- Heckler & Koch UMP\n\nBULLET::::- Heckler & Koch G3\n\nBULLET::::- Heckler & Koch G36\n\nBULLET::::- Heckler & Koch HK21 general-purpose machine gun\n\nBULLET::::- M2 Browning Machine Gun\n\nBULLET::::- MG 17 machine gun\n\nBULLET::::- MG 131 machine gun\n\nBULLET::::- M16 Rifle\n\nBULLET::::- AK series of rifles\n\nBULLET::::- Steyr AUG\n\nBULLET::::- FN F2000\n\nBULLET::::- Mendoza HM-3\n\nBULLET::::- Spectre M4\n\nSection::::Mixed mode firearms.\n\nBULLET::::- FG 42\n\nBULLET::::- FN SCAR - Heat Adaptive Modular Rifle\n\nBULLET::::- LWRC Infantry Automatic Rifle - M6A4\n\nBULLET::::- M1941 Johnson machine gun\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Open bolt\n\nBULLET::::- Action (firearms)\n\nSection::::External Links.\n", "The integral strength of the design means very powerful magnum cartridges can be chambered without significantly increasing the size or weight of the weapon. For example, some of the most powerful elephant guns are in the same weight range (7–10 lbs.) as a typical deer rifle, while delivering several times the kinetic energy to the target. The recoil of these weapons, however, is correspondingly severe. By contrast, the operating mechanism of a semi-automatic weapon must increase in mass and weight as the cartridge it fires increases in power. This means that semi-automatic rifles firing magnum cartridges tend to be relatively heavy and impractical for many types of hunting.\n", "BULLET::::- modern sniper rifles like the GOL Sniper Magnum and Zastava M07\n\nVersions of the Mauser action designed prior to the Gewehr 98's introduction, such as that of the Swedish Mauser rifles and carbines, lack the third locking lug and feature a \"cock on closing\" operation.\n\nSection::::Major bolt-action systems.:Turn-bolt.:Lee–Enfield.\n", "Section::::Major bolt-action systems.:Turn-bolt.:Mauser.\n", "During the buildup prior to World War II, the military bolt-action rifle began to be superseded by semi-automatic rifles and later fully-automatic rifles, though bolt-action rifles remained the primary weapon of most of the combatants for the duration of the war; and many American units, especially USMC, used bolt-action '03 Springfields until sufficient M1 Garands were available. The bolt action is still common today among sniper rifles, as the design has potential for superior accuracy, reliability, lesser weight, and the ability to control loading over the faster rate of fire that alternatives allow. There are, however, many semi-automatic sniper rifle designs, especially in the designated marksman role.\n", "The bolt action requires four distinct movements and is therefore generally slower than other major manual repeating mechanisms, such as lever and pump action, which generally require two movements, although straight-pull bolt actions also require only two distinct movements. In addition, the trigger hand must leave the gun and regrip the weapon after each shot, usually resulting in the shooter having to realign his sight and reacquire the target for every shot. It is also not ambidextrous, and left-handed models tend to be more expensive.\n\nSection::::Safety and headspace.\n", "Section::::Open-bolt weapons.\n\n• M231\n\nBULLET::::- Cobray Terminator\n\nBULLET::::- Alpha GPI\n\nBULLET::::- APS underwater rifle\n\nBULLET::::- AA-12 Shotgun\n\nBULLET::::- Browning Automatic Rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Bren light machine gun\n\nBULLET::::- Carl Gustav M/45\n\nBULLET::::- CETME Ameli\n\nBULLET::::- Degtyaryov machine gun\n\nBULLET::::- F1 submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- FN MAG and variants (including the M240)\n\nBULLET::::- FN Minimi and variants (including the M249)\n\nBULLET::::- Halcón M-1943\n\nBULLET::::- Intratec KG-9\n\nBULLET::::- Jatimatic\n\nBULLET::::- Kk 62\n\nBULLET::::- Lanchester submachine gun\n\nBULLET::::- Lewis gun\n\nBULLET::::- LWRCI M6A4 Squad automatic weapon\n\nBULLET::::- M3\n\nBULLET::::- M56\n\nBULLET::::- M60\n\nBULLET::::- M231 FPW\n\nBULLET::::- MAC-10 and variants (including the MAC-11)\n\nBULLET::::- MAC-58\n", "BULLET::::- FN SCAR - Heat Adaptive Modular Rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Johnson LMG\n\nBULLET::::- LWRC IAR - M6A4\n\nSection::::Legality.\n", "Bolt-action firearms are most often rifles, but there are some bolt-action variants of shotguns and a few handguns as well. Examples of this system date as far back as the early 19th century, notably in the Dreyse needle gun. From the late 19th century, all the way through both World Wars, the bolt-action rifle was the standard infantry firearm for most of the world's military forces. In modern military and law enforcement use, the bolt action has been mostly replaced by semi-automatic and selective-fire firearms, though the bolt-action design remains popular in dedicated sniper rifles due to inherently more rugged design, and are still very popular for civilian hunting and target shooting.\n", "Section::::Loading.\n", "The Mosin–Nagant action, created in 1891 and named after the designers Sergei Mosin and Léon Nagant, differs significantly from the Mauser and Lee–Enfield bolt action designs. The Mosin–Nagant design has a separate bolthead which rotates with the bolt and the bearing lugs, in contrast to the Mauser system where the bolthead is a non-removable part of the bolt. The Mosin–Nagant is also unlike the Lee–Enfield system where the bolthead remains stationary and the bolt body itself rotates. The Mosin–Nagant bolt is a somewhat complicated affair, but is extremely rugged and durable; it, like the Mauser, uses a \"cock on open\" system. Although this bolt system has been rarely used in commercial sporting rifles (the Vostok brand target rifles being the most recognized) and never outside of Russia, large numbers of military surplus Mosin–Nagant rifles have been sporterized for use as hunting rifles in the years since WWII.\n", "BULLET::::- CO Cartridge knob with assist lever\n\nBULLET::::- External Velocity Adjuster\n\nBULLET::::- Simulated Cocking Action\n\nBULLET::::- Durable Anodized Fine Matte Finish\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed Hard Sights\n\nBULLET::::- Quick Release Striker Bolt\n\nBULLET::::- Slide Cocking System\n\nBULLET::::- Ergonomically Designed Aluminum Trigger Frame (composite material for the Chaser)\n\nBULLET::::- Rubber Grip Panel\n\nSection::::Propellant.\n", "Some pistols utilize a bolt action, although this is uncommon, and such examples are typically specialized target handguns.\n\nSection::::Major bolt-action systems.\n\nSection::::Major bolt-action systems.:Turn-bolt.\n", "To put lock time and bullet dwell time in perspective; the lock time of most conventional bolt action rifles varies between 2.6 and 9.0 milliseconds, while after cartridge ignition most rifle bullets travel through a high powered rifle barrel bore in 1.0 to 1.5 milliseconds. Mechanical bolt action rifle trigger systems with a sub 2.0 millisecond lock time are applied in most purpose designed high end competition rifles.\n\nSection::::Clearances and Tolerances.\n", "List of bolt action rifles\n\nBolt action rifles are recognized by that the user has to manually rotate the bolt for chambering and primary extraction. Bolt actions are distinct from other manual action types such as lever action, straight pull and pump action mechanisms. Most bolt action rifles have striker firing mechanism (without a hammer), and therefore generally have shorter lock times compared to other types of manual mechanisms mentioned.\n\nSection::::Other firearm lists.\n\nBULLET::::- List of weapons\n\nBULLET::::- List of firearms\n\nBULLET::::- List of rifles\n\nBULLET::::- List of machine guns\n\nBULLET::::- List of lightmachine guns\n\nBULLET::::- List of submachine guns\n", "BULLET::::- Beretta Cx4 Storm\n\nBULLET::::- Beretta Rx4 Storm\n\nBULLET::::- Berkut rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Breda M1935 PG Rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Browning 22 Semi-Auto rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Browning BAR\n\nBULLET::::- Bushmaster M4 Type Carbine\n\nBULLET::::- Bushmaster XM-15\n\nBULLET::::- Calico Liberty\n\nBULLET::::- Calico M100\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon 15\n\nBULLET::::- Charlton Automatic Rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Colt AR-15\n\nBULLET::::- Crazy Horse rifle\n\nBULLET::::- CZ 511\n\nBULLET::::- ČZW-127\n\nBULLET::::- Demro TAC-1\n\nBULLET::::- Dragunov sniper rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Dragunov SVU\n\nBULLET::::- FAMAE FD-200\n\nBULLET::::- FEG Model 58\n\nBULLET::::- FN FAL\n\nBULLET::::- FN FNAR\n\nBULLET::::- FN Model 1949\n\nBULLET::::- Farquhar–Hill rifle\n\nBULLET::::- Fusil Automatique Modèle 1917\n\nBULLET::::- General Liu rifle\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00884	what makes some boats able to cross larger masses of water than others?	Fuel capacity, size/ability to deal with larger waves, ability to operate the engine(s) continually for long enough to reach your destination, etc.	[ "Although ships are typically larger than boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se.\n\nBULLET::::- Ships are typically large ocean-going vessels; whereas boats are smaller, and typically travel most often on inland or coastal waters.\n\nBULLET::::- A rule of thumb says \"a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't fit on a boat\", and a ship \"usually\" has sufficient size to carry its own boats, such as lifeboats, dinghies, or runabouts.\n", "Section::::Definitions.:Size categories.\n\nCargo ships are categorized partly by cargo capacity, partly by weight (deadweight tonnage DWT), and partly by dimensions. Maximum dimensions such as length and width (beam) limit the canal locks a ship can fit in, water depth (draft) is a limitation for canals, shallow straits or harbors and height is a limitation in order to pass under bridges. Common categories include:\n\nBULLET::::- Dry Cargo\n\nBULLET::::- Small Handy size, carriers of 20,000–\n", "Small boats are typically found on inland waterways such as rivers and lakes, or in protected coastal areas. However, some boats, such as the whaleboat, were intended for use in an offshore environment. In modern naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard a ship. Anomalous definitions exist, as bulk freighters long on the Great Lakes being known as oreboats.\n", "Ships and other watercraft are used for maritime transport. Types can be distinguished by propulsion, size or cargo type. Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas, such as the Everglades, some craft, such as the hovercraft, are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.\n\nMost modern merchant ships can be placed in one of a few categories, such as:\n\nSection::::Description.:Typical in-transit times.\n", "Some of these are discussed in the following sections.\n\nSection::::Types of ships.:Freshwater.\n\nFreshwater shipping may occur on lakes, rivers and canals. Ships designed for those venues may be specially adapted to the widths and depths of specific waterways. Examples of freshwater waterways that are navigable in part by large vessels include the Danube, Mississippi, Rhine, Yangtze and Amazon Rivers, and the Great Lakes.\n\nSection::::Types of ships.:Freshwater.:Great Lakes.\n", "BULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 1,200 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 32 in service\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gus W. Darnell\" class transport tanker (AOT 1125)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 40,000 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 5 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Henry J. Kaiser\" class fleet oiler\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 42,000 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 13 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jinyou\" class coastal tanker\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 4,800 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 3 in service\n\nBULLET::::- \"Khobi\" class coastal tanker\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 1,525 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operators:\n\nBULLET::::- : 1 delivered in 1959\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leizhou\" class coastal tanker\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 900 tons\n", "Traditional fishing boats are usually characteristic of the stretch of coast along which they operate. They evolve over time to meet the local conditions, such as the materials available locally for boat building, the type of sea conditions the boats will encounter, and the demands of the local fisheries.\n", "Water transport is the process of transport that a watercraft, such as a barge, boat, ship or sailboat, makes over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. If a boat or other vessel can successfully pass through a waterway it is known as a navigable waterway. The need for buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes the hull a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and appearance. When a boat is floating on the water the hull of the boat is pushing aside water where the hull now is, this is known as displacement.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cape Ann\" class general cargo ship (AK 5009)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 20,110 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 4 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Breton\" class general cargo ship (AK 5056)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 21,000 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 4 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Ducato\" class roll-on/roll-off vehicle cargo ship (AKR 5051)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder: /\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 34,790 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 5 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Fear\" class barge carrier (AK 5061)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 44,250 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 2 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Flattery\" class barge carrier (AK 5070)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 62,300 tons\n", "BULLET::::- Saltwater fishing boats vary widely in length and are once again specialized for various species of fish. Flats boats, for example, are used in protected, shallow waters, and have shallow draft. Sportfishing boats range from or more, and can be powered by large outboard engines or inboard diesels. Fishing boats in colder climates may have more space dedicated to cuddy cabins and wheelhouses, while boats in warmer climates are likely to be entirely open.\n", "Comparison of large sloops\n\nThis article lists the largest active privately owned single-masted monohulls in excess of 130ft (39.6m) in overall sparred length.\n\nSection::::Parameter list.\n\nName: currently registered identification of the vessel\n\nYear: year of launch of the vessel\n\nShipyard: signatory of the build contract responsible for the final fitout and the delivery of the vessel\n\nDesigner: naval architect responsible for drawing the lines plan and the sail plan of the vessel\n\nLOA: overall sparred length in metres\n\nLWL: load waterline length in metres\n\nBeam: width of the vessel in metres\n", "Because these vessels must traverse the locks of the Great Lakes Waterway, they all have features in common, and their appearance differs from similarly sized ocean-going freighters. For instance, they are narrower and generally longer. An early variation of the type (designed by Alexander McDougall and built from 1887 through 1898) was the \"whaleback\" design, which featured significant tumblehome in the sides of the hull and a rounded bow, looking rather like the back of a whale. Where the superstructure of an ordinary freighter had the bridge in the center of the vessel, lake freighters typically have the bridge and associated superstructure on the bow. Traditionally they had a second island, over the engine room in the stern. These dual cabined boats were constructed between 1869 and 1974. \"R. J. Hackett\" premiered the style and the second \"Algosoo\" was the final vessel designed this way. More recently built lakers, like CSL \"Niagara\", have a single large superstructure island at the stern.\n", "BULLET::::- Operator: : 2 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Girardeau\" class container/bulk cargo ship (AK 2039)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 32,000 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 2 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Hudson\" class vehicle cargo ship (AKR 5066)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder: /\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 51,000 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 3 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Island\" class vehicle cargo ship (AKR 10)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 33,900 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 4 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape John\" class general cargo ship (AK 5022)\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 23,000 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 4 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Knox\" class vehicle cargo ship (AKR 5082)\n", "BULLET::::- NWB 1288\n\nBULLET::::- NWB 1289\n\nBULLET::::- NWB 1290\n\nBULLET::::- NWB 1291\n\nBULLET::::- NWB 1292 \"Turtle\"\n\nHalvorsen-design workboat\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 4011\n\n40-foot Mk 1 and 1963-design workboats\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 404\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 421\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 423\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 424\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 436\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 440\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 1658\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 4006\n\nBULLET::::- AWB 4007\n\nAWB Mod. II workboat\n\nBULLET::::- 4010\n\nAWB short and long group cabin workboats\n\nBULLET::::- \"Amethyst\"\n\nBULLET::::- 4002\n\n7.2 metre rigid-hulled inflatable boats\n\nBULLET::::- 27 RHIBS, numbered 0701 through 0727\n\nRadio controlled surface targets\n\nBULLET::::- RCST 06\n\nBULLET::::- RCST 07\n\nBULLET::::- RCST 08\n\nBULLET::::- RCST 09\n", ", built in 1906 as \"William P Snyder\", was the oldest laker still working on the Lakes until its conversion into a barge starting in 2013. Similarly, \"E.M. Ford\", built in 1898 as \"Presque Isle\", was sailing the lakes 98 years later in 1996. As of 2007 \"E.M. Ford\" was still afloat as a stationary transfer vessel at a riverside cement silo in Saginaw, Michigan.\n\nSection::::Types of ships.:Merchant ship.\n", "Dinghies usually range in length from about . Larger auxiliary vessels are generally called tenders, pinnaces or lifeboats. Folding and take-down multi-piece (nesting) dinghies are used where space is limited. Some newer dinghies have much greater buoyancy, giving them more carrying capacity than older boats of the same size.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nFerry designs depend on the length of the route, the passenger or vehicle capacity required, speed requirements and the water conditions the craft must deal with.\n\nSection::::Types.:Double-ended.\n", "List of HSC ferry routes\n\nThis is a list of high-speed craft ferry routes.\n\nMany routes are operated by catamarans, as catamarans are a faster craft than a similar sized monohulls.\n\nIn the 1990s monohull HSCs with capacity for cars and buses have taken over many routes.\n\nSection::::Catamarans.\n\nSection::::Catamarans.:Europe.\n\nSection::::Catamarans.:Europe.:Scandinavia and Baltic Sea.\n\nBULLET::::- Molslinjen - Denmark\n\nBULLET::::- \"KatExpress 1\" - Jutland to Zealand, 40 knots. Incat ferry (1200 passengers & 417 cars. 112 metres. 10,503 tons)\n\nBULLET::::- \"KatExpress 2\" - Jutland to Zealand, 40 knots. Incat ferry (1200 passengers & 417 cars. 112 metres. 10,503 tons)\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nSection::::Design.:General characteristics.\n\n\"Terry Fox\" is long overall and between perpendiculars. She has a beam of and draws of water when fully laden. \n", "BULLET::::- \"Rouen\": Converted merchant ship in service as a seaplane tender from 1916 to 1919\n\nBULLET::::- \"Petrel\"-class: Eight light inshore seaplane tenders in service from 1931 into World War II\n\nBULLET::::- \"Commandant Teste\": Seaplane transport and tender in service from 1932 to 1942\n\nBULLET::::- \"Belfort\": Converted \"Amiens\"-class sloop in service from 1939 to 1946\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diligente\": Converted \"Friponne\"-class sloop in service during 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paul Goffeny\": Former German tug type seaplane tender in service from 1948 to 1955\n\nBULLET::::- \"Robert Giraud\": Former German tug type seaplane tender in service from 1948 to 1963\n", "The Class 3 is probably the most popular of the large yacht designs, almost identical to the Class 2 in appearance, but significantly smaller. Class 3 yachts are generally made from fiberglass, sometimes in combination with other high-tech lightweight materials, such as carbon fibre, Kevlar, or various composites, with a wooden rear axle. They are capable of reaching speeds up to .\n", "Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world's fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels. Of these, 1.3 million were decked vessels with enclosed areas and the rest were open vessels. Most decked vessels were mechanized, but two-thirds of the open vessels were traditional craft propelled by sails and oars. More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.\n", "BULLET::::- Operator: : 2 in commission\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dubna\" class fleet oiler\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 11,140 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 2 in service\n\nBULLET::::- \"Durance\" class replenishment oiler\n\nBULLET::::- Builder: /\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 17,900 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operators:\n\nBULLET::::- : 4 in service\n\nBULLET::::- : 1 in service, former \"Durance\"\n\nBULLET::::- : 1 in service as HMAS \"Success\" (built in Australia)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fulin\" class coastal tanker\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 2,200 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 19 in service\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fuqing\" class fleet oiler\n\nBULLET::::- Builder:\n\nBULLET::::- Displacement: 21,740 tons\n\nBULLET::::- Operator: : 2 in service\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fuzhou\" class coastal tanker\n", "The world's largest ferries are typically those operated in Europe, with different vessels holding the record depending on whether length, gross tonnage or car vehicle capacity is the metric.\n\nOn 11 October 1811, inventor John Stevens' ship the \"Juliana\", began operation as the first steam-powered ferry (service was between New York City, and Hoboken, New Jersey).\n\nThe Elwell Ferry, a cable ferry in North Carolina, travels a distance of , shore to shore, with a travel time of five minutes.\n", "Section::::Business operations.:Equipment.\n\nIn addition to the craft themselves, the livery will often have one or more vehicles or trailers fitted out with special racks to enable transport of many craft efficiently. These vehicles can be quite large, holding as many as 20 craft or more. This is because usually the customers travel downstream from the livery and at the end of the journey, some provision for return must be made. Small liveries may have as few as four boats in their fleet, while large ones may have over one thousand.\n\nSection::::Business operations.:Location.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16773	Why does a hot shower make a hangover feel more bearable, and why does it kick right back in when you step out of it?	Hot water causes your blood vessels to dialate (open) which decreases the blood pressure which makes your hangover less. Most of a hangover is the dehydration and withdrawal symptoms, one of which is a constricting of blood vessels. So the two cancel out. When you step out of the shower you are no longer getting the heat to cause your blood vessels to relax and they constrict back and bam.... hangover.	[ "The effects of dousing are usually more intense and longer-lasting than just a cold shower. Ending a shower with cold water is an old naturopathic tradition. There are those who believe that this fever is helpful in killing harmful bacteria and leaving the hardier beneficial bacteria in the body.\n\nSection::::National traditions.\n\nSection::::National traditions.:Burma.\n\nBULLET::::- Thingyan (Water Festival) was celebrated from 13 to 17 April in 2001 and the rituals included dousing.\n\nSection::::National traditions.:Japan.\n", "BULLET::::- Some Japanese ascetic practices, as with Shinto misogi practices, include dousing. This is seen, for example, with some Aikido martialists. Morihei Ueshiba was known to practice cold water misogi.\n\nBULLET::::- Kamakura, Japan has a temple whose Nichiren Buddhist priests in training practice a ritual of 100 days of fasting, meditation and walking which ends with stripping to loincloths and dousing with ice cold water.\n\nSection::::National traditions.:Russia.\n", "BULLET::::- Sauna or steam-bath: Medical opinion holds this may be dangerous, as the combination of alcohol and hyperthermia increases the likelihood of dangerous cardiac arrhythmia}abnormal heart rhythms.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.:Overexertion and heat stress.\n", "A great deal of the bloodstream is made up of humor of “Blood” which is warm and wet. It is noteworthy that the body lives on “Blood” as it keeps the body warm and moist as warmth and humidity are indicatives of being alive.\n\nSection::::Humors.:Blood.:Excessive “Blood” symptoms.\n", "When body temperature is significantly elevated, mechanical cooling methods are used to remove heat and to restore the body's ability to regulate its own temperatures. Passive cooling techniques, such as resting in a cool, shady area and removing clothing can be applied immediately. Active cooling methods, such as sponging the head, neck, and trunk with cool water, remove heat from the body and thereby speed the body's return to normal temperatures. Drinking water and turning a fan or dehumidifying air conditioning unit on the affected person may improve the effectiveness of the body's evaporative cooling mechanisms (sweating).\n", "Symptomatic relief is noted with exposure to hot water (greater than 41 degrees C), which is mediated by TRPV–the capsaicin receptor. Assessing for dehydration due to vomiting and hot showers is important as it can lead to acute kidney failure, and this is easily treated with IV fluids. If dehydration is severe, hospitalization may be required. Based on the mechanism of the effect, some clinicians have used topical capsaicin cream applied to the periumbilical area in the treatment of acute cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. The use of capsaicin as first-line treatment for cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome has been well-tolerated, though the evidence for efficacy is limited. The use of hot water showers in the emergency department setting has been advocated in situations where topical capsaicin cream is unavailable, though the same precautions to hot water use (dehydration, burn injury) are required.\n", "Navy showers originated on naval ships, where supplies of fresh water were often scarce. Using this method, crew members were able to stay clean, while conserving their limited water supply. The concept has also been adopted by some other people who wish to conserve water and the energy needed to heat the water, for both environmental and economic reasons. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, water heating is typically the second-largest energy expense in homes (after space heating).\n", "Hangover House\n\nHangover House (also known as the Halliburton House) was designed and built by William Alexander for his friend the travel writer Richard Halliburton. Constructed in 1938 on a Laguna Beach, California, hilltop, the house, boasting commanding views of the Pacific Ocean, was built with three bedrooms, one each for Halliburton, Alexander, and Halliburton's lover Paul Mooney, who was also Halliburton's editor and ghostwriter.\n", "Section::::Hangover House in Laguna Beach, California.\n", "Other untested or discredited treatments include:\n", "Any activity or situation that promotes heavy sweating can lead to water intoxication when water is consumed to replace lost fluids. Persons working in extreme heat and/or humidity for long periods must take care to drink and eat in ways that help to maintain electrolyte balance. People using drugs such as MDMA (often referred to colloquially as \"Ecstasy\") may overexert themselves, perspire heavily, feel increased thirst, and then drink large amounts of water to rehydrate, leading to electrolyte imbalance and water intoxication – this is compounded by MDMA use increasing the levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), decreasing the amount of water lost through urination. Even people who are resting quietly in extreme heat or humidity may run the risk of water intoxication if they drink large amounts of water over short periods for rehydration.\n", "The hyperemetic phase is characterized by the full syndromal symptoms of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, including persistent nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and retching. Retching can occur up to 5 times per hour. It is very difficult to take food or medicine by mouth during this stage, and patients may develop a fear of eating. Weight loss and dehydration due to decreased oral intake and vomiting are possible. Compensatory exposure to hot water, even for hours at a time, may be attempted for symptomatic relief, resulting in compulsive bathing/showering. People have described the hot water relief as \"temperature-dependent,\" meaning that hotter temperatures provide greater relief. It is during this phase that people with cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome are likely to present to the emergency department of the hospital for treatment.\n", "The Hangover is a 2009 American comedy film directed by Todd Phillips, co-produced with Daniel Goldberg, and written by Jon Lucas and Scott Moore. It is the first installment in \"The Hangover\" trilogy. The film stars Bradley Cooper, Ed Helms, Zach Galifianakis, Heather Graham, Justin Bartha, Ken Jeong, and Jeffrey Tambor. It tells the story of Phil Wenneck, Stu Price, Alan Garner, and Doug Billings, who travel to Las Vegas for a bachelor party to celebrate Doug's impending marriage. However, Phil, Stu, and Alan wake up with Doug missing and no memory of the previous night's events, and must find the groom before the wedding can take place.\n", "Section::::Nutrition.\n", "BULLET::::- Destination spa\n\nBULLET::::- Enema\n\nBULLET::::- Finnish sauna\n\nBULLET::::- Halliwick\n\nBULLET::::- Hot tub\n\nBULLET::::- Mineral spring\n\nBULLET::::- Sebastian Kneipp\n\nBULLET::::- Spa\n\nBULLET::::- Spa bath\n\nBULLET::::- Spa town\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted Lake (\"Kliluk\")\n\nBULLET::::- Steam shower\n\nBULLET::::- Thalassotherapy\n\nSection::::Notes.\n", "The Hangover Part II\n\nThe Hangover Part II is a 2011 American comedy film produced by Legendary Pictures and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is the sequel to the 2009 film \"The Hangover\" and the second installment in \"The Hangover\" trilogy. Directed by Todd Phillips, who co-wrote the script with Craig Mazin and Scot Armstrong, the film stars Bradley Cooper, Ed Helms, Zach Galifianakis, Ken Jeong, Jeffrey Tambor, Justin Bartha, and Paul Giamatti. \n", "The Nara period to Kamakura period is defined as \"religious bathing\". Initially, due to its religious background, baths in Japan were usually found in a temple. These baths were called \"yūya\" (, lit. hot water shop), or later when they increased in size \"ōyuya\" (, lit. big hot water shop). These baths were most often steam baths (, \"mushiburo\", lit. steam bath). While initially these baths were only used by priests, sick people gradually also gained access, until in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) sick people were routinely allowed access to the bathhouse. Wealthy merchants and members of the upper class soon also included baths in their residences.\n", "Water left stagnant in the pipes of showers can be contaminated with pathogens that become airborne when the shower is turned on. If a shower has not been used for some time, it should be left to run at a hot temperature for a few minutes before use.\n", "Blanching tempeh by steaming or parboiling helps to extend the storage life by preventing bacterial growth, stopping mold growth and inactivating enzymes. Steaming appears to have a less negative effect than parboiling in terms of texture, flavor and nutritional value. Blanching is a great method for preserving tempeh prior to refrigeration, though not as beneficial for tempeh that is to be frozen.\n\nSection::::Preservation.:Dehydration.\n\nSection::::Preservation.:Dehydration.:Air tray drying.\n", "The drink became extremely popular and was regarded as having various medicinal or even aphrodisiac properties.\n\nIn the 16th century, food was classified by four axes: cold or hot, dry or wet. People at that time believed in such “balance”, that is to say, to stew dry ingredients like root vegetables and to roast wet food like suckling pig can achieve balance. Wine was regarded to be cold and dry, and so to this warm ingredients like sugar, ginger and cinnamon were added into wine, creating \"hypocras\". \n", "Hydration is important in cooling the person. In mild cases of concomitant dehydration, this can be achieved by drinking water, or commercial isotonic sports drinks may be used as a substitute. In exercise- or heat-induced dehydration, electrolyte imbalance can result, and can be worsened by excess consumption of water. Hyponatremia can be corrected by intake of hypertonic fluids. Absorption is rapid and complete in most people but if the person is confused, unconscious, or unable to tolerate oral fluid, then an intravenous drip may be necessary for rehydration and electrolyte replacement.\n", "BULLET::::- Kudzu (\"Pueraria montana var. lobata\"): The main ingredient in remedies such as kakkonto. A study concluded, \"The chronic usage of \"Pueraria lobata\" at times of high ethanol consumption, such as in hangover remedies, may predispose subjects to an increased risk of acetaldehyde-related neoplasm and pathology. ... Pueraria lobata appears to be an inappropriate herb for use in herbal hangover remedies as it is an inhibitor of ALDH2.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Artichoke: Research shows that artichoke extract does not prevent the signs and symptoms of alcohol-induced hangover.\n", "Some follow cold water dousing with air-drying outside or in wintertime taking a \"snow bath\" by rubbing handfuls of snow on the body or lying/moving in it.\n\nBULLET::::- Porfiry Ivanov's health system includes cold water dousing.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold water dousing is practiced by some Systema martialists.\n\nSection::::National traditions.:Thailand.\n\nSongkran is a popular festival in April which includes dousing using water. It is also celebrated by the Dai people in Yunnan Province in China, and in Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar during the traditional New Year.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Baptism\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrotherapy\n\nBULLET::::- The Polar Bear Plunge\n\nBULLET::::- Water Festival\n", "Once the hot water has been added, the mate is ready for drinking, and it may be refilled many times before becoming \"lavado\" (washed out) and losing its flavor. When this occurs, the mound of \"yerba\" can be pushed from one side of the gourd to the other, allowing water to be added along its opposite side; this revives the mate for additional refillings and is called \"\"reformar o/el mate\"\" (reforming the mate).\n\nSection::::Etiquette.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00020	How can a single USB port can handle information from many devices?	The computer basically takes turns speaking to each device plugged into the hub. So if there are 3 devices, the computer will turn to device A and send and receive any relevant information from A. Then the computer will turn to device B and trade information. Finally it will turn to device C to do similarly and then start over again from A.	[ "When a device is plugged into the USB bus, the master device, or host, sets up communications with the device and handles service provisioning (the host's software enables or does the needed data-handling such as file managing or other desired kind of data communication or function). That allows the devices to be greatly simplified compared to the host; for example, a mouse contains very little logic and relies on the host to do almost all of the work. The host controls all data transfers over the bus, with the devices capable only of signalling (when polled) that they require attention. To transfer data between two devices, for example from a phone to a printer, the host first reads the data from one device, then writes it to the other.\n", "A USB device may consist of several logical sub-devices that are referred to as \"device functions\". A \"composite device\" may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function). An alternative to this is a \"compound device,\" in which the host assigns each logical device a distinct address and all logical devices connect to a built-in hub that connects to the physical USB cable.\n", "The host periodically polls the device's interrupt IN endpoint during operation. When the device has data to send it forms a report and sends it as a reply to the poll token. Common devices such as keyboards and mice send reports that are compliant with standards set by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF). When a vendor makes a custom USB HID class device, the reports formed by the device need to match the report description given during enumeration and the driver installed on the host system. In this way it is possible for the USB HID class to be extremely flexible.\n", "Various domains and application areas involve devices of many kinds and these devices may have different communication capabilities. To achieve interoperability in such an heterogeneous situation, the SIB supports multiple transport mechanisms, such as TCP/IP, HTTP, Bluetooth and NoTA. Depending on the actual operating environment the most suitable transport technology is selected.\n\nSection::::Notion of application.\n", "BULLET::::- USB 1.0, 1.1, and 2.0 use a \"speak-when-spoken-to\" protocol, meaning that each peripheral communicates with the host when the host specifically requests it to communicate. USB 3.0 allows for device-initiated communications towards the host. A FireWire device can communicate with any other node at any time, subject to network conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- A USB network relies on a single host at the top of the tree to control the network. All communications are between the host and one peripheral. In a FireWire network, any capable node can control the network.\n", "Endpoints are grouped into \"interfaces\" and each interface is associated with a single device function. An exception to this is endpoint zero, which is used for device configuration and is not associated with any interface. A single device function composed of independently controlled interfaces is called a \"composite device\". A composite device only has a single device address because the host only assigns a device address to a function.\n", "The MAC layer is particularly relevant to W-USB. It uses superframes divided in 256 time slots, the first of which are dedicated to the transfer of beaconing information. Slots can further be allocated to meet the necessities of clusters of devices, also identified by MMC's (see below). A host maintains one or more W-USB communication channels and is fully aware of the MAC layer, whereas a device only needs to use the defined W-USB interface to communicate through existing channels.\n", "There are two basic forms of data packet, \"DATA0\" and \"DATA1\". A data packet must always be preceded by an address token, and is usually followed by a handshake token from the receiver back to the transmitter. The two packet types provide the 1-bit sequence number required by stop-and-wait ARQ. If a USB host does not receive a response (such as an ACK) for data it has transmitted, it does not know if the data was received or not; the data might have been lost in transit or it might have been received but the handshake response was lost.\n", "Section::::Comparison with USB Mass Storage.:Drivers know a fixed set of supported devices.\n\n(-) Despite identifiability by the PTP/MTP USB device class, libmtp documentation indicates that the vendor and product ID combination plays a functional role in identifying an MTP device, also by Windows drivers. Libmtp includes vast listings of vendor and product ID numbers of devices that it supports, along with workarounds for bugs. This non-generic methodology hinders MTP drivers' forward compatibility with new devices.\n\nSection::::Comparison with USB Mass Storage.:The spec knows a fixed set of defined file formats.\n", "Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate with each other. This communication is governed by well-understood protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no shared memory, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared transmission medium. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems.\n", "Section::::Hardware implementation.\n\nAccording to the CCID specification by the USB standards work group, a CCID exchanges information through a host computer over USB by using a CCID message that consists of a 10-byte header followed by message-specific data. The standard defines fourteen commands that the host computer can use to send data and status and control information in messages. Every command requires at least one response message from the CCID.\n\nSection::::Software driver.\n", "USB (Communications)\n\nThis article provides information about the communications aspects of Universal Serial Bus, USB: Signaling, Protocols, Transactions.\n\nSection::::Signaling (USB PHY).\n\nSection::::Signaling (USB PHY).:Signaling rate (transmission rate).\n\nThe theoretical maximum data rate in USB 2.0 is 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) per controller and is shared amongst all attached devices. Some personal computer chipset manufacturers overcome this bottleneck by providing multiple USB 2.0 controllers within the southbridge.\n", "During USB communication, data is transmitted as packets. Initially, all packets are sent from the host via the root hub, and possibly more hubs, to devices. Some of those packets direct a device to send some packets in reply.\n", "The transport stream format is specified by IEC 13818-1 and is the MPEG 2 TS format.\n\nSection::::Standards.:DVB-CI.:Command Interface.\n\nIn addition there is a command interface for communication between the host and module.\n", "Standard USB uses a master/slave architecture; a \"host\" acts as the master device for the entire bus, and a USB \"device\" acts as a slave. If implementing standard USB, devices must assume one role or the other, with computers generally set up as hosts, while (for example) printers normally function as slaves. In the absence of USB OTG, cell phones often implemented slave functionality to allow easy transfer of data to and from computers. Such phones, as slaves, could not readily be connected to printers as they also implemented the slave role. USB OTG directly addresses this issue.\n", "The approach allows devices with very limited communications hardware to operate over IP networks. The Linux kernel for the iPAQ uses this communications strategy exclusively, since the iPAQ hardware has neither an accessible legacy (RS-232/RS-422) serial port nor a dedicated network interface.\n\nSection::::Providers.\n", "The \"USB Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices\" allows Music Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music data to be sent over USB. The MIDI capability is extended to allow up to sixteen simultaneous \"virtual MIDI cables\", each of which can carry the usual MIDI sixteen channels and clocks.\n", "Also, most gadgets must be either a host or a device. OTG hardware design merges all of the controllers into one dual-role controller that is somewhat more complex than an individual device controller.\n\nSection::::Targeted peripheral list (TPL).\n", "The bus follows a TDMA-based polling approach supervised by the host. A transfer is formed by three parts: token, data and handshake. For efficiency reasons, several tokens containing timing information for the devices can be grouped into one, thus forming \"transaction groups\". Flow control and packet sizes are adjusted for power efficiency, while respecting the high-level pipe model of communication between source and destination.\n\nEven preserving the USB model typical error rates in wireless media require modifications in the mechanisms used to achieve said model: among others, data handshakes and buffering.\n", "Devices of this class are also implemented in embedded systems such as mobile phones so that a phone may be used as a modem, fax or network port. The data interfaces are generally used to perform bulk data transfer.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- USB-IF's Approved Class Specification Documents\n\nBULLET::::- Class definitions for Communication Devices 1.2 (.zip file format, size 3.43 MB)\n\nBULLET::::- Class definitions for Communication Devices 1.1\n\nBULLET::::- a good guide (linux-oriented) about USB host-to-host, CDC 'ethernet' class and RNDIS\n", "One solution is the use of a predefined USB device class. Operating systems provide built-in drivers for some of them. The most widely used device class for embedded devices is the USB communications device class (CDC). A CDC device can appear as a virtual serial port to simplify the use of a new device for older applications.\n", "Compared to USB, A.b had several advantages. Any device on the bus could be a master or a slave, and a protocol is defined for selecting which one a device should use under any particular circumstance. This allows devices to be plugged together with A.b without a host computer. For instance, a digital camera could be plugged directly into a printer and become the master. Under (standard) USB the computer is always the master and the devices are always slaves.\n", "Section::::Device roles.\n\nUSB OTG defines two roles for devices: OTG A-device and OTG B-device, specifying which side supplies power to the link, and which initially is the host. The OTG A-device is a power supplier, and an OTG B-device is a power consumer. In the default link configuration, the A-device acts as a USB host with the B-device acting as a USB peripheral. The host and peripheral modes may be exchanged later by using HNP or RSP. Because every OTG controller supports both roles, they are often called \"Dual-Role\" controllers rather than \"OTG controllers\".\n", "IC-USB is being used primarily in embedded systems and standards. One of the most relevant areas of application is in mobile phones, where, for instance, ETSI (in specification TS 102 600) has standardized on IC-USB as the official high-speed interface for connections between the phone's main chipset and the SIM card or UICC card.\n", "The W-USB host tries to mitigate the unreliability of wireless mediums (a 10% error rate is considered acceptable for 1 kB packets; in wired media this value is usually around 10) maintaining counters and statistics for each device and possible requesting information from them. It can also access and modify the \"transmit power control\" functions of each device, as well as change transmission parameters such as data payload size and bandwidth adjustments.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02437	We produce enough food to feed everyone. Why do ~25,000 people die of hunger each day?	Hunger problems are mostly problems with food distribution. Specifically, most starving people live in countries with poor transportation systems, or countries suffering from civil war or other internal problems that disrupt food distribution.	[ "The United States produces far more food than it needs for domestic consumption—hunger within the U.S. is caused by some Americans having insufficient money to buy food for themselves or their families. Additional causes of hunger and food insecurity include neighborhood deprivation and agricultural policy. Hunger is addressed by a mix of public and private food aid provision. Public interventions include changes to agricultural policy, the construction of supermarkets in underserved neighborhoods, investment in transportation infrastructure, and the development of community gardens. Private aid is provided by food pantries, soup kitchens, food banks, and food rescue organizations.\n", "Although the United States Department of Agriculture reported in 2012 that an estimated 85.5 percent of households in the country are food secure, millions of people in America struggle with the threat of hunger or experience hunger on a daily basis. The USDA defines food security as the economic condition of a household wherein which there is reliable access to a sufficient amount of food so all household members can lead a healthy productive life. Hunger is most commonly related to poverty since a lack of food helps perpetuate the cycle of poverty. Most obviously, when individuals live in poverty they lack the financial resources to purchase food or pay for unexpected events, such as a medical emergency. When such emergencies arise, families are forced to cut back on food spending so they can meet the financial demands of the unexpected emergency. There is not one single cause of hunger but rather a complex interconnected web of various factors. Some of the most vulnerable populations to hunger are the elderly, children, people from a low socioeconomic status, and minority groups; however, hunger's impact is not limited to these individuals.\n", "There are strong, direct relationships between agricultural productivity, hunger, poverty, and sustainability. Three-quarters of the world's poor live in rural areas and make their living from agriculture. Hunger and child malnutrition are greater in these areas than in urban areas. Moreover, the higher the proportion of the rural population that obtains its income solely from subsistence farming (without the benefit of pro-poor technologies and access to markets), the higher the incidence of malnutrition. Therefore, improvements in agricultural productivity aimed at small-scale farmers will benefit the rural poor first. Food and feed crop demand is likely to double in the next 50 years, as the global population approaches nine billion. Growing sufficient food will require people to make changes such as increasing productivity in areas dependent on rainfed agriculture; improving soil fertility management; expanding cropped areas; investing in irrigation; conducting agricultural trade between countries; and reducing gross food demand by influencing diets and reducing post-harvest losses.\n", "In 1994, David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, and Mario Giampietro, senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), estimated the maximum U.S. population for a sustainable economy at 200 million.\n", "David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, estimates that the sustainable agricultural carrying capacity for the United States is about 200 million people; its population as of 2015 is over 300 million. In 2009, the UK government's chief scientific advisor, Professor John Beddington, warned that growing populations, falling energy reserves and food shortages would create a \"perfect storm\" of shortages of food, water, and energy by 2030. According to a 2009 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world will have to produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people.\n", "In the later half of the twentieth century, other advanced economies in Europe and Asia began to overtake the U.S. in terms of reducing hunger among their own populations. In 2011, a report presented in the \"New York Times\" found that among 20 economies recognized as advanced by the International Monetary Fund and for which comparative rankings for food security were available, the U.S. was joint worst. Nonetheless, in March 2013, the Global Food Security Index commissioned by DuPont, ranked the U.S. number one for food affordability and overall food security.\n\nSection::::Hunger vs. food insecurity.\n", "4. WFP (World Food Program): The World Food Program (WFP) is the largest agency dedicated to fighting hunger worldwide. On average, WFP brings food assistance to more than 90 million people in 75 countries. The WFP not only strives to prevent hunger in the present, but also in the future by developing stronger communities which will make food even more secure on their own. The WFP has a range of expertise from Food Security Analysis, Nutrition, Food Procurement and Logistics.\n", "Section::::Dangers and effects.:Depletion and destruction of resources.:Food.\n\nSome scientists argue that there is enough food to support the world population, and some dispute this, particularly if sustainability is taken into account.\n\nMany countries rely heavily on imports. Egypt and Iran rely on imports for 40% of their grain supply. Yemen and Israel import more than 90%. And just 6 countries – Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, Thailand and the USA – supply 90% of grain exports. In recent decades the US alone supplied almost half of world grain exports.\n", "In 2050 the Earth's population will most probably reach approximately 10 billion people. To look for an answer to the question of whether it is possible to supply food for the whole world population, Valentin Thurn travels to different spots in the world in search of ecologically and economically responsible alternatives to the mass means by which most of our food is currently produced.\n", "According to Jean Ziegler (the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food for 2000 to March 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality in 2006: \"In the world, approximately 62 millions people, all causes of death combined, die each year. In 2006, more than 36 millions died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients\".\n", "According to a USDA report, 14.3% of American households were food insecure during at least some of 2013, falling to 14% in 2014. The report stated the fall was not statistically significant. The percentage of households experiencing very low food security remained at 5.6% for both 2013 and 2014.\n", "According to the World Health Organization, hunger is the single gravest threat to the world's public health. The WHO also states that malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Undernutrition is a contributory factor in the death of 3.1 million children under five every year. Figures on actual starvation are difficult to come by, but according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the less severe condition of undernourishment currently affects about 842 million people, or about one in eight (12.5%) people in the world population.\n", "According to Jean Ziegler (the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food for 2000 to March 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality in 2006: \"In the world, approximately 62 millions people, all causes of death combined, die each year. In 2006, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients\".\n\nOf the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.\n\nSection::::Economics.\n", "BULLET::::1. Demographic change: The world population is expected to be over 9 billion by 2050. Additionally, more and more people live in cities. Urban populations feed themselves differently than inhabitants of rural areas; they tend to consume less staple foods and more meat and dairy products.\n\nBULLET::::2. Higher income and non-sustainable use of resources: As the global economy grows, wealthy people consume more food and goods, which have to be produced with a lot of water and energy. They can afford not to be efficient and wasteful in their use of resources.\n", "According to estimates by the Food and Agriculture Organization there were 925 million under- or malnourished people in the world in 2010. This was a decrease from an estimate of roughly 1 billion malnourished people in 2009. In 2007, 923 million people were reported as being undernourished, an increase of 80 million since 1990-92. It has also been recorded that the world already produces enough food to support the world's population.\n", "Hunger in the United States\n\nHunger in the United States is an issue that affects millions of Americans, including some who are middle class, or who are in households where all adults are in work. Research from the USDA found that 14.9% of American households were food insecure during at least some of 2011, with 5.7% suffering from very low food security. Journalists and charity workers have reported further increased demand for emergency food aid during 2012 and 2013.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nStarvation can be caused by factors, other than illness, outside of the control of the individual. The Rome Declaration on World Food Security outlines several policies aimed at increasing food security and, consequently, preventing starvation. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- Poverty reduction\n\nBULLET::::- Prevention of wars and political instability\n\nBULLET::::- Food aid\n\nBULLET::::- Agricultural sustainability\n\nBULLET::::- Reduction of economic inequality\n\nSupporting farmers in areas of food insecurity through such measures as free or subsidized fertilizers and seeds increases food harvest and reduces food prices.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "A program that is neither universal nor targeted is Emergency Food Assistance Program. This is a successor to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation which used to distribute surplus farm production direct to poor people; now the program works in partnership with the private sector, by delivering the surplus produce to food banks and other civil society agencies.\n", "In a July 2016 discussion on the importance of private sector engagement with the Sustainable Development Goals, Malcolm Preston the global sustainability leader at PricewaterhouseCoopers, suggested that unlike the older Millennial development goals, the SDGs are applicable to the advanced economies due to issues such as hunger in the United States. Preston stated that one in seven Americans struggle with hunger, with food banks in the US now more active than ever. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Place at the Table\"\n\nBULLET::::- Economic issues in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Feeding America\n\nBULLET::::- Homelessness in the United States\n", "Another potential approach to mitigating hunger and food insecurity is modifying agricultural policy. The implementation of policies that reduce the subsidization of crops such as corn and soybeans and increase subsidies for the production of fresh fruits and vegetables would effectively provide low-income populations with greater access to affordable and healthy foods. This method is limited by the fact that the prices of animal-based products, oils, sugar, and related food items have dramatically decreased on the global scale in the past twenty to fifty years. According to the \"Nutritional Review Journal\", a reduction or removal of subsidies for the production of these foods will not appreciably change their lower cost in comparison to healthier options such as fruits and vegetables.\n", "The newly established United Nations became a leading player in co-ordinating the global fight against hunger. The UN has three agencies that work to promote food security and agricultural development: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). FAO is the world's agricultural knowledge agency, providing policy and technical assistance to developing countries to promote food security, nutrition and sustainable agricultural production, particularly in rural areas. WFP's key mission is to deliver food into the hands of the hungry poor. The agency steps in during emergencies and uses food to aid recovery after emergencies. Its longer term approaches to hunger helps the transition from recovery to development. IFAD, with its knowledge of rural poverty and exclusive focus on poor rural people, designs and implements programmes to help those people access the assets, services and opportunities they need to overcome poverty.\n", "As the definitions of starving and malnourished people are different, the number of starving people is different from that of malnourished. Generally, far fewer people are starving, than are malnourished.\n\nThe proportion of malnourished and of starving people in the world has been more or less continually decreasing for at least several centuries. This is due to an increasing supply of food and to overall gains in economic efficiency. In 40 years, the proportion of malnourished people in the developing world has been more than halved. The proportion of starving people has decreased even faster.\n\nSection::::Capital punishment.\n", "In the years 2011–2013, an estimated 842 million people were suffering from chronic hunger. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, or FAO, identified the four pillars of food security as availability, access, utilization, and stability. The United Nations (UN) recognized the Right to Food in the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and has since noted that it is vital for the enjoyment of all other rights.\n\nThe 1996 World Summit on Food Security declared that \"food should not be used as an instrument for political and economic pressure\".\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "However, the observed figures for 2016 show an actual increase in absolute numbers of undernourished people in the world, 815 million in 2016 versus 777 million in 2015. The FAO estimates that these numbers are still far lower than the nearly 900 million registered in 2000.\n\nSection::::Dangers and effects.:Depletion and destruction of resources.:Food.:Global perspective on food supply.\n", "Section::::Synopsis.\n\nAs of 2012, about 50 million Americans were food insecure. This was approximately 1 in 6 of the overall population, with the proportion of children facing food insecurity even higher at about 1 in 4. One in every two children receive federal food assistance. The film sees directors Kristi Jacobson and Lori Silverbush examine the issue of hunger in America, largely through the stories of three people suffering from food insecurity: \n\nBULLET::::- Barbie, a single Philadelphia mother who grew up in poverty and is trying to provide a better life for her two children.\n" ]	[ "If enough food is available to feed everyone, there should not be 25,000 people dying of hunger everyday." ]	[ "Although there is enough food for everyone, it is not distributed equally, therefore many people go hungry. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If enough food is available to feed everyone, there should not be 25,000 people dying of hunger everyday.", "If enough food is available to feed everyone, there should not be 25,000 people dying of hunger everyday." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Although there is enough food for everyone, it is not distributed equally, therefore many people go hungry. ", "Although there is enough food for everyone, it is not distributed equally, therefore many people go hungry. " ]
2018-24102	When I’m driving, the wind can blow my car all over the road. When I’m parked, the wind can’t move my car one inch. Why?	But it does move your car. If you're driving down the road and a gust of wind hits the side of your car it's going to push it off to the side until you correct it. That's because your car is already in motion but it's shifted slightly to the side during that motion. However while it's parked that same gust of wind will cause it to rock back and forth a bit. The only difference is that it doesn't feel as extreme because you're not in motion.	[ "Because the boundary between parking space and driving area is not always well-defined, the length of a parking space is more difficult to establish. However, most angled and perpendicular spaces are considered to be between in length. In the United States, due to vehicles being larger on average than some other countries, a parking space deep is uncommon and most parking spaces will be within , with feet deep being the standard DOT recommended depth for standard perpendicular parking. Parallel parking spaces typically range from long.\n", "With perpendicular parking, also known as bay parking, cars are parked side to side, perpendicular to an aisle, curb, or wall. This type of car parking fits more cars per length of road (or curb) than parallel parking, and is therefore commonly used in car parking lots and car parking structures.\n", "In the US, minimum width standards of parking spaces usually range from . Angled and perpendicular spaces may need to be wide to allow doors to open, while parallel parking spots may be narrower on low-traffic neighborhood streets.\n", "Overspill parking may conflict with other road users including other motorists, emergency vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and members of various vulnerable groups including the blind, wheel-chair users and people with small children. Vehicles parked on grass, authorised or not, can turn the area to mud in wet weather and parking on sidewalks can cause damage and additional maintenance/repair costs. Such cases may prompt preventative action.\n\nSection::::Reaction.\n", "The U.S. Supreme Court in \"California v. Carney\" found the motor vehicle exception to apply to a motor home. The court did however, make a distinction between readily mobile motor homes and parked mobile homes. A number of factors including, the home being elevated on blocks, whether the vehicle is licensed, and if it is connected to utilities determine if the motor vehicle exception applies. In \"United States v. Johns\", the motor vehicle exception was applied to trucks. In \"United States v. Forrest\" it was applied to trailers pulled by trucks. \"United States v. Forrest\" applied the exception to boats and in \"United States v. Hill\" to house boats. In \"United States v. Nigro\" and \"United States v. Montgomery\" the motor vehicle exception was found to also include airplanes.\n", "Parking minimums are also set for parallel, pull-in, or diagonal parking, depending on what types of vehicles are allowed to park in the lot or a particular section of it. Parking minimums initially took hold in the middle of the last century, as a way to ensure that traffic to new developments wouldn't use up existing spaces.\n\nBig cars may not fit properly in assigned parking spaces, creating issues with entering or leaving the car or blocking adjacent parking spaces.\n", "The practice of using parking chairs is common in snowy weather within urban residential areas of the United States, where vehicle owners do not wish to risk losing their vehicle's previously occupied space in its absence. Other spaces may be hard to find due to accumulation of uncleared and plowed snow, and the owner of a vehicle may have invested considerable work in clearing a parking space to free the car. This is common in areas where side streets are fully lined with parallel parked cars allowing only the center of the street to be cleared of snow, which then has the effect of pushing the snow onto the parked cars.\n", "Overspill parking\n\nOverspill parking is the parking of vehicles beyond a defined area specifically designed for this purpose. It can occur because provided parking spaces are insufficient for demand or considered unsatisfactory, and may have unintended consequences on its surroundings. Additional official parking may be provided for an event, or at some distance from the intended destination.\n", "Perspective is a property that depends only on viewpoint (camera position). But if moving a lens to a smaller-format camera causes a photographer to move further from the subject, then the perspective will be affected.\n", "In the United States, park models must remain under to qualify as a recreational vehicle under federal and state laws. In Canada, park models must remain under 540 square feet in order to qualify as a recreational vehicle. Over that size they would be considered a manufactured home and subject to different taxes and regulations. Many units feature slide-out or tip-out bays, which collapse into the unit for travel, and then expand outward when parked to increase overall living space. All floor plans are designed to remain under that limit when adding bays. If buyers want to stretch a plan, then the width may need to be narrowed. If they want to widen a plan, then the length has to be shortened.\n", "Section::::Internavi (with VICS).:Parking selection function.\n\nInternavi participating vehicles also benefit from available parking spaces, whether it be on the street or in parking structures, public or private parking, from Internavi-equipped vehicles having made available a parking space. The space is also defined by the size of the leaving vehicle so that vehicles looking for a parking space can be reasonably confident the vacant space will accommodate the arriving vehicle.\n\nSection::::Internavi (with VICS).:Internavi Weather Features.\n", "Large positive values of scrub radius, 4 inches/100 mm or so, were used in cars for many years. The advantage of this is that the tire rolls as the wheel is steered, which reduces the effort when parking. This also allows greater width in the engine bay, which is very important in some compact sports cars.\n\nIf the scrub radius is small then the contact patch is spun in place when parking, which takes a lot more effort. The advantage of a small scrub radius is that the steering becomes less sensitive to braking inputs, in particular.\n", "This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been the subject of many studies, is residential self-selection: people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low-density suburbs, whereas people who prefer to walk, cycle or use transit tend to move towards higher density urban areas, better served by public transport. Some studies have found that, when self-selection is controlled for, the built environment has no significant effect on travel behaviour. More recent studies using more sophisticated methodologies have generally rejected these findings: density, land use and public transport accessibility can influence travel behaviour, although social and economic factors, particularly household income, usually exert a stronger influence.\n", "Overspill car parking may simply be parking further away from a place than desirable. In some circumstances it may involve parking violations or other unauthorised or anti-social parking such as double parking, parking on verges or on sidewalks and can on occasions create difficulties for others.\n", "In the early 21st century, car manufacturers are addressing this need by introducing automatic parking.\n\nSection::::Road infrastructure.\n\nRoads that facilitate parallel parking have an extra lane or a large shoulder for parked cars. It is also employed whenever parking facilities are not available—usually in large metropolitan areas where there is a high density of vehicles and few (or restricted) accommodations such as multi-storey car parks.\n", "The average response in parking demand to a change in price (parking price elasticity) is -0.52 for commuting and -0.62 for non-commuting trips. Non-commuters also respond to parking fees by changing their parking duration if the price is per hour.\n\nSection::::Economics.:Performance parking.\n", "As the distance between the referent and vehicle grows, children transition from speaking a “baby” language to standard language. This transition occurs in two directions, in distancing the referent from the vehicle and vehicle from the referent. As the distance between the referent and vehicle grows there is a decrease in concreteness between the referent and the vehicle. For example, a sound that has come to represent a particular cat would then be applied to all cats.\n", "Lowering the CoM towards the ground is one method of reducing load transfer. As a result load transfer is reduced in both the longitudinal and lateral directions. Another method of reducing load transfer is by increasing the wheel spacings. Increasing the vehicle's wheelbase (length) reduces longitudinal load transfer while increasing the vehicle's track (width) reduces lateral load transfer. Most high performance automobiles are designed to sit as low as possible and usually have an extended wheelbase and track.\n", "These car parks often have low ceiling clearances, which restrict access by full-size vans and other large vehicles. On 15 December 2013, a man was killed during a robbery in the multistorey car park at The Mall at Short Hills in Millburn, New Jersey. The paramedics responding to the shooting were delayed because their ambulance was too large to enter the structure.\n\nIn the United States, costs for multi-storey parking structures are estimated to cost between $25,000 per space, with underground parking costing around $35,000 per space.\n\nSection::::Design.:Structural integrity.\n", "High unsprung mass also exacerbates wheel control issues under hard acceleration or braking. If the vehicle does not have adequate wheel location in the vertical plane (such as a rear-wheel drive car with Hotchkiss drive, a live axle supported by simple leaf springs), vertical forces exerted by acceleration or hard braking combined with high unsprung mass can lead to severe wheel hop, compromising traction and steering control.\n", "Parallel parking\n\nParallel parking is a method of parking a vehicle parallel to the road (hence the term 'Parallel Parking'), in line with other parked vehicles. Parallel parking usually requires initially driving slightly past the parking space, parallel to the parked vehicle in front of that space, keeping a safe distance, then followed by reversing into that space. Subsequent position adjustment may require the use of forward and reverse gears.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n", "Roads, parking spaces but also suburban sprawl caused by cars need significant amount of space. Typically, once agricultural or uncultivated land is turned over into ever wider motorways and ever larger parking lots to accommodate the automobile but induced demand means any relief is temporary and more and more surfaces are sealed in the process.\n\nSection::::Negative externalities.:Costs for water pollution.\n", "Depending on the location of the parking space, the time allowed to park may be fixed by regulation, and a fee may be required to use the parking space. It may be designated for free parking. When the demand for spaces outstrips supply vehicles may overspill park onto the sidewalk, grass verges and other places which were not designed for the purpose.\n\nSection::::Patterns.\n\nFor most motorised vehicles, there are three commonly used arrangements of parking spaces — parallel parking, perpendicular parking, and angle parking. These are self-park configurations where the vehicle driver is able to access the parking independently.\n", "A car mat is designed to help protect a vehicle's carpeted floors. One major use of a car mat is to keep mud, sand and snow from contacting the carpeted floors. Some require fixation points to ensure they remain fixed in position.\n", "Available parking may be insufficient, unsuitable, expensive or otherwise undesirable. Parking may be limited because the urban form historically made little provision for the parking of private vehicles, or because the transport authority zoning policies consciously limit the provision of parking spaces to discourage car use. Overspill parking is commonplace near shops, schools, hospitals, sports grounds and train/metro stations and at other locations that attract people and vehicles. Commuters prevented from parking for the day close to train stations may resort to parking elsewhere, for example on side streets, verges or other locations.\n" ]	[ "A parked car is not moved by wind gusts.", "When parked the wind cannot move a car." ]	[ "Wind gusts cause a parked car to move in a rocking back and forth motion.", "The wind does move a car when parked, it's just that you don't experience the movement as much as when the car is in motion." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A parked car is not moved by wind gusts.", "When parked the wind cannot move a car." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wind gusts cause a parked car to move in a rocking back and forth motion.", "The wind does move a car when parked, it's just that you don't experience the movement as much as when the car is in motion." ]
2018-10338	Why does lightning striking the ground affect people in a pool or body of water?	When lighting strikes, it's not really "completing the circuit" in the same way as a light switch. It's more like dumping a massive amount of charge from where it was previously taken. In a simple picture, each rain drop carries a small amount of charge from the cloud to the ground. This happens for billions of rain drops over a wide area. Eventually, the charge difference between the cloud and the ground is enough to cause a spark - lightning - that brings it back towards even. But remember that the rain falls over a large area, whereas the lightning strikes a single point. Imagine collecting rain on a large sheet, and storing it in a bucket. When the bucket's full, you pour it on the ground. Then your feet are wetter than if you'd just been standing in the rain. The charge from the lightning strike needs to spread out and dissipate. If the ground's sodden, it'll go through the top layers of surface, shocking things as it goes. I was aware of this happening - [here's a single strike that killed 323 deer]( URL_0 ) - but didn't know it could reach so far! Scary stuff!	[ "Bonding is particularly important for bathrooms, swimming pools and fountains. In pools and fountains, any metallic object (other than conductors of the power circuit) over a certain size must be bonded to assure that all conductors are at the same potential. Since it is buried in the ground, a pool can be a better ground than the electric panel ground. With all the conducting elements bonded, it is less likely that electric current will find a path through a swimmer. In concrete pools even the reinforcing bars of the concrete must be connected to the bonding system to ensure no dangerous potential gradients are produced during a fault.\n", "BULLET::::- Ground current or \"step potential\" – Earth surface charges race towards the flash channel during discharge. Because the ground has high impedance, the current \"chooses\" a better conductor, often a person's legs, passing through the body. The near-instantaneous rate of discharge causes a potential (difference) over distance, which may amount to several thousand volts per linear foot. This phenomenon is responsible for more injuries and deaths than the above three combined, with reports such as \"hundreds of reindeer killed by a lightning storm...\" being a classic example.\n", "Lightning can strike or injure humans in four different ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Direct strike\n\nBULLET::::- 'Splash' from nearby objects struck\n\nBULLET::::- Ground strike near the person causing a difference of potential in the ground itself (due to resistance to current in the Earth), amounting to several thousand volts per foot, depending upon the composition of the earth that makes up the ground at that location (sand being a fair insulator and wet, salty and spongy earth being more conductive).\n\nBULLET::::- Electromagnetic pulse from close strikes – especially during positive lightning discharges\n", "About 90% of ionic channel lengths between \"pools\" are approximately in length. The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time (hundreds of milliseconds) in comparison to the resulting discharge, which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The electric current needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of amperes, is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.\n", "Lightning strikes can produce severe injuries, and have a mortality rate of between 10% and 30%, with up to 80% of survivors sustaining long-term injuries. These severe injuries are not usually caused by thermal burns, since the current is too brief to greatly heat up tissues; instead, nerves and muscles may be directly damaged by the high voltage producing holes in their cell membranes, a process called electroporation.\n", "A large electric current flows along the plasma channel from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials, they are responsible for more injuries and deaths than the strike itself. Electricity takes every path available to it.\n", "Metallic objects in contact with the skin may \"concentrate\" the lightning's energy, given it is a better natural conductor and the preferred pathway, resulting in more serious injuries, such as burns from molten or evaporating metal. At least two cases have been reported where a strike victim wearing an iPod suffered more serious injuries as a result.\n", "Section::::Prevention and mitigations.:Monitoring and warning systems.\n", "A portion of the return stroke current will often preferentially flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.\n", "The field of lightning protection systems is an enormous industry worldwide due to the impacts lightning can have on the constructs and activities of humankind. Lightning, as varied in properties measured across orders of magnitude as it is, can cause direct effects or have secondary impacts; lead to the complete destruction of a facility or process or simply cause the failure of a remote electronic sensor; it can result in outdoor activities being halted for safety concerns to employees as a thunderstorm nears an area and until it has sufficiently passed; it can ignite volatile commodities stored in large quantities or interfere with the normal operation of a piece of equipment at critical periods of time.\n", "BULLET::::- At poolside, not having a non-metallic fiberglass pole or net on hand to pull someone to safety in case the pool water is electrified, and the victim is still conscious. Furthermore, to not know where the circuit breakers for the pool are located.\n", "Another effect of lightning on bystanders is to their hearing. The resulting shock wave of thunder can damage the ears. Also, electrical interference to telephones or headphones may result in damaging acoustic noise.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nAbout 240,000 people are injured by lightning strikes each year.\n\nOne estimate is that the annual global death toll is 6,000.\n", "In a \"direct hit\", the electrical charge strikes the person first.\n\n\"Splash\" hits occur when lightning jumps to a person (lower resistance path) from a nearby object that has more resistance, striking the person on its way to the ground.\n\nIn \"ground\" strikes, the bolt lands near the person and is conducted by a connection to the ground (usually the feet), due to the voltage gradient in the earth. This can still cause substantial injury.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Counterintuitively, lightning current flowing through the person's body resistance may develop a high voltage sufficient to \"flash\" around the skin or clothing to the ground in a \"direct strike\".\n", "Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do not necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar in nature and originating from their respective charge region.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Section::::In culture and religion.\n", "These statistics do not reflect the difference between direct strikes, where the victim was part of the lightning pathway, indirect effects of being close to the termination point, like ground currents, and resultant, where the casualty arose from subsequent events, such as fires or explosions. Even the most knowledgeable first responders may not recognize a lightning related injury, let alone particulars, which a medical examiner, police investigator or on the rare occasion a trained lightning expert may have difficulty identifying to record accurately. This ignores the reality that lightning, as the first event, may assume responsibility for the overall and resulting accident.\n", "Section::::Flashes and strikes.:Upward streamers.\n\nWhen a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward streamer, can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.\n", "Section::::Prevention and mitigations.:Lightning protection systems.\n\nHundreds of devices, including lightning rods and charge transfer systems, are used to mitigate lightning damage and influence the path of a lightning flash.\n", "In a direct strike, the electrical currents in the flash channel pass directly through the victim. The relatively high voltage drop around poorer electrical conductors (such as a human being), causes the surrounding air to ionize and break down, and the external flashover diverts most of the main discharge current so that it passes \"around\" the body, reducing injury.\n", "As a result of their greater power, as well as lack of warning, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous. Due to the aforementioned tendency for positive ground flashes to produce both high peak currents and long continuing current, they are capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited.\n", "Hazards due to lightning obviously include a direct strike on persons or property. However, lightning can also create dangerous voltage gradients in the earth, as well as an electromagnetic pulse, and can charge extended metal objects such as telephone cables, fences, and pipelines to dangerous voltages that can be carried many miles from the site of the strike. Although many of these objects are not normally conductive, very high voltage can cause the electrical breakdown of such insulators, causing them to act as conductors. These transferred potentials are dangerous to people, livestock, and electronic apparatus. Lightning strikes also start fires and explosions, which result in fatalities, injuries, and property damage. For example, each year in North America, thousands of forest fires are started by lightning strikes.\n", "Lightning protection systems are used to prevent or lessen lightning strike damage to structures. Lightning protection systems mitigate the fire hazard which lightning strikes pose to structures. A lightning protection system provides a low-impedance path for the lightning current to lessen the heating effect of current flowing through flammable structural materials. If lightning travels through porous and water-saturated materials, these materials may literally explode if their water content is flashed to steam by heat produced from the high current. This is why trees are often shattered by lightning strikes.\n", "In 2002, Jan was 13 years old and was playing table tennis with some school friends in his hometown of Malbork, Poland, when it suddenly started raining heavily. He sheltered from the rain in a nearby electrical transformer building, where he received a 15,000 volt electric shock. The burns and tissue damage sustained meant surgeons had to amputate his left crus and right forearm.\n\nSection::::Polar expeditions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01273	why does it seem that for all the animals that eat bamboo, bamboo is the majority of its diet?	Eating bamboo is hard, e.g. it requires a highly adapted digestive system to get energy out of it. Animals that eat bamboo have that, so they adapted to eat bamboo, yet the downside is that their digestive system doesn't work too well with other things.	[ "Section::::Behavior.:Diet.\n\nThe Amazon bamboo rat is a small folivore. It consumes only plants that are easily digested, in order to conserve energy. The bamboo rat primarily consumes young leaves, stems, and petioles. Because of its limited diet of bamboo and local vines, it is more abundant in regions of Latin America where its preferred food sources are plentiful.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Social.\n", "Section::::Early years.\n", "The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make \"ulanzi\" (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.\n", "Section::::Ecological considerations.:Water use.\n\nVery little bamboo is irrigated and there is sound evidence that the water-use efficiency of bamboo is twice that of trees. This makes bamboo more able to handle harsh weather conditions such as drought, flood and high temperatures. Compare bamboo to cotton which is a thirsty crop – it can take up to 20,000 litres of water to produce 1 kg of cotton and 73% of the global cotton harvest comes from irrigated land.\n\nSection::::Ecological considerations.:Soil erosion.\n", "Although bamboo is a plant that has been grown and harvested in China for generations, it occurs only within a smallholder model. There are few commercial or large scale managed plantations. The majority of area under bamboo comprises plots of a few Mu in size, owned by individual farmers or families, and managed as part of a diverse mix of livelihood crops. Throughout China bamboo has been planted only in areas not suitable for agriculture, which generally mean mountainous land that is often inaccessible. Most of China's bamboo industry is focused on a single iconic species – Moso (\"Phyllostachys edulis\")\n", "The bamboo species used for clothing is called Moso bamboo. Moso bamboo is the most important bamboo in China, where it covers about 3 million hectares (about 2% of the total Chinese forest area). It is the main species for bamboo timber and plays an important ecological role.\n\nSection::::Ecological considerations.:Harvesting.\n", "Pandas eat any of 25 bamboo species in the wild, such as \"Fargesia dracocephala\" and \"Fargesia rufa\". Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit. Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less.\n", "The processing of bamboo in China is dominated by low and medium level processing, with a large focus on two very different markets (1) the global handicraft industry and (2) the production of edible bamboo shoots for the food industry. In recent years there has been an increase in the production of bamboo flooring.\n\nEcoPlanet Bamboo is working in a different manner growing certified bamboo fiber for the pulp and paper industry, textiles and engineered timber.\n\nSection::::Historical barriers to industrialization of bamboo.\n\nEcoPlanet Bamboo claims to have overcome many barriers to industrialize bamboo as a commercial crop:\n", "Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation. As compared to forest trees, bamboo species grow fast. Bamboo plantations can be readily harvested for a shorter period than tree plantations.\n\nHarvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to these cycles:\n\n1) Lifecycle of the culm:\n", "BULLET::::1. A lack of planting material. See “bamboo mass flowering\".\n\nBULLET::::2. Lack of knowledge on the growth, ecology and yields of bamboos other than Moso.\n\nBULLET::::3. High investment required to take bamboo through the 6–7 years required to reach maturity.\n\nBULLET::::4. Difficulty of operating in remote parts of the developing world.\n\nSection::::Bamboo sustainability.\n", "BULLET::::- Venezuela\n\nBULLET::::- Vietnam\n\nSection::::Publications.\n\nINBAR publishes a wide range of publications on bamboo and rattan., including: \n\nBULLET::::- Bamboo for land restoration\n\nBULLET::::- Bamboo and Rattan Yellow Pages\n\nBULLET::::- Road from the Global Bamboo and Rattan Congress 2018\n\nBULLET::::- INBAR Strategy 2015-2013: From Research to Development\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Emissions Reduction Through Bamboo Forests and Products\n\nINBAR also publishes a series of fact sheets for the general public about issues related to bamboo and rattan.\n\nBULLET::::1. Think Bamboo for Land Restoration\n\nBULLET::::2. Why is Bamboo important for the Belt and Road Initiative?\n", "The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called \"khorisa\". In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice ( () in Nepali).\n", "Section::::Ecological considerations.:Growth.\n", "Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as \"Phyllostachys nigra\" (Henon) and \"Phyllostachys edulis\" (Moso).\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (\"kirlu\") are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare \"kirla sukke\".\n\nSection::::Uses.:Culinary.:Kitchenware.\n\nThe empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.\n", "Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (\"sǔn\"筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to be incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called \"\"Sǔn Pǔ\"筍譜\" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots.\n", "As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year lifecycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the lifecycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.\n\n2) Annual cycle:\n", "Soft bamboo shoots, stems and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal, and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Central Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.\n\nThe larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth \"Omphisa fuscidentalis\") of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan, China feed off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.\n", "Just like other cellulose-based clothing materials, bamboo fibre is biodegradable in soil by micro organisms and sunlight. Having reached the end of its useful life, clothing made from bamboo can be composted and disposed of in an organic and environmentally friendly manner.\n\nSection::::Ecological considerations.:Pesticides and fertilizers.\n", "A huge benefit of using bamboo as the organic base for textile fibres is that there is no need for pesticides or fertilizers when growing bamboo. However, herbicide and fertilizer applications are common in some places to encourage edible shoot growth. Bamboo also contains a substance called bamboo-kun – an antimicrobial agent that gives the plant a natural resistance to pest and fungi infestation, though some pathogen problems do still exist in some bamboo plantations.\n", "This lemur is the only primate specifically adapted to living in papyrus reeds. Unlike other bamboo lemurs, the Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur does not eat bamboo; instead, it feeds on the stems of papyrus reeds, shoots of the grass \"Phragmites communis\", and two other species of grasses (\"Echinochloa crus-galli\" and \"Leersia hexandra\").\n\nSection::::Status.\n", "Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.\n", "The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the \"Melocanna bambusoides\" population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 \"Nova\" documentary .\n", "Section::::Ecological considerations.:Greenhouse gases.\n\nGrowing forests absorb but deforestation results in fewer trees to soak up rising levels of . Bamboo minimises and generates up to 35% more oxygen than equivalent stands of trees. One hectare of bamboo sequesters 62 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year while one hectare of young forest only sequesters 15 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year.\n\nSection::::Ecological considerations.:Deforestation.\n", "In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Fuel.\n\nBamboo charcoal has been traditionally used as fuel in China and Japan. Bamboo can also be utilized as a biofuel crop.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Writing pen.\n" ]	[ "Animals that eat bamboo should eat other things to." ]	[ "Animals that eat bamboo have a specilized digestive system that doesn't work well for other food items. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Animals that eat bamboo should eat other things to." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Animals that eat bamboo have a specilized digestive system that doesn't work well for other food items. " ]
2018-02880	Do stretching still hurt when you're flexible?	I'm not as limber as I used to be, but when I was in my best shape I was very flexible (took lots of traditional Asian martial arts and speed and flexibility was stressed over strength when training, generally); the short answer is yes; after I got to the point that I could do the splits, after a while it wasn't as drastic of a stretch and it didn't hurt to go into the splits. It could hurt if I did it really fast because I didn't get to Jean Claude Van Damme levels of splits, but the basic function of stretching (kicking higher) was met so that wasn't a big deal. But if it isn't pulling, then as a general rule, you should be stretching deeper, because if it isn't pulling then you aren't getting anything out of it.	[ "However, both of these types of stretching have been shown to have a positive impact on flexibility over time by increasing muscle and joint elasticity, thus increasing the depth and range of motion an athlete is able to reach. This is evident in the experiment \"Acute effects of duration on sprint performance of adolescent football players.\" In this experiment, football players were put through different stretching durations of static and dynamic stretching to test their effects. They were tested on maximum sprinting ability and overall change in flexibility. Both static and dynamic stretching had a positive impact on flexibility but, whereas dynamic stretching had no impact on sprint times, static stretching had a negative result, worsening the time the participants were able to sprint the distance in. While the duration of stretching for dynamic had no impact on the overall results, the longer the stretch was held for static, the worse the results got, showing that the longer the duration of stretching held, the weaker the muscle became.\n", "Although static stretching is part of some warm-up routines, a study in 2013 indicated that it weakens muscles. For this reason, an active dynamic warm-up is recommended before exercise in place of static stretching.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nStudies have shed light on the function, in stretching, of a large protein within the myofibrils of skeletal muscles named titin. A study performed by Magid and Law demonstrated that the origin of passive muscle tension (which occurs during stretching) is actually within the myofibrils, not extracellularly as had previously been supposed.\n", "Stretching can be dangerous when performed incorrectly. There are many techniques for stretching in general, but depending on which muscle group is being stretched, some techniques may be ineffective or detrimental, even to the point of causing hypermobility, instability, or permanent damage to the tendons, ligaments, and muscle fiber. The physiological nature of stretching and theories about the effect of various techniques are therefore subject to heavy inquiry.\n", "Although many people engage in stretching before or after exercise, the medical evidence has shown this has no meaningful benefit in preventing specifically muscle soreness. \n\nStretching does not appear to reduce the risk of injury during exercises, except perhaps for runners. There is some evidence that pre-exercise stretching may increase athletes' range of movement.\n", "Some people get injuries while doing yoga and aerobics so one needs to be careful while doing it. While most stretching does not cause injury, it is said that quick, ballistic stretching can if it is done incorrectly. If a bone, muscle or any other part is stretched more than its capacity it may lead to dislocation, muscle pulls, etc. or something even more severe too.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dance\n\nBULLET::::- Physical Exercise\n\nSection::::See also.:Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Arnheim, Daniel D. \"Dance Injuries: Their Prevention And Care.\" 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1991. Print.\n", "Stretching for too long or too much can give way to an injury. For most activities, the normal range of motion is more than adequate. Any sudden movements or going too fast can cause a muscle to tighten. This leads to extreme pain and the performer should let the muscle relax by resting.\n\nSection::::Risk of Injury.\n", "While necessary for sports and ordinary motions, this protective reaction is counterproductive for stretching, i.e., lengthening muscles.\n\nSection::::A history of active stretching.\n\nBULLET::::1. Sir Charles Sherrington conceptualized the principle of reciprocal innervation circa 1904 and demonstrated it circa 1913.\n\nBULLET::::2. A. D. Munrow's work proposed these principles for ‘active’ mobilizing exercises. 1962\n", "BULLET::::- Robin Lumley (2002): \"To this day I can proudly count Michael Palin and Terry Jones as good pals! I got Mike to do the sleeve notes on \"Do They Hurt?\" (which is itself a line from Holy Grail (witch sequence)... He wanted 25 pence for writing the notes... Charisma didn't pay him so he threatened to sue! (a joke of course)\".\n", "Typically performed by physical therapists, passive stretching is a more beneficial preventative measure and tool to maintain available range of motion (ROM) rather than used as a treatment. It is very important to continually move the limb throughout its full range at a specific velocity but a passive stretch can’t be maintained for the period of time required for optimal benefit.\n\nA 2017 Cochrane review found that stretching does not provide any short-term pain relief. \n\nSection::::Treatment.:Splinting.\n", "There are stretches and exercises which have provided reduced levels of pain for some people. There are different sources of pain for people since there are so many ligament, muscles and nerves in the area. Sometimes women do pelvic floor exercises for compression after childbirth. However, there have been cases where the wrong stretches make the constant pain worse. Some people need to strengthen the muscles, others should stretch, while for some people it is purely neurological. There have been cases where doing stretches have helped bicyclists. Acupuncture has helped decrease pain levels for some people, but is generally ineffective. Chiropractic adjustments to the lower back have also helped some patients with pudendal nerve issues.\n", "Externally, anything from the weather outside to the age of the performer can affect flexibility. General tissues and collagen change with age influencing the individual.As one ages, performing activities of daily living without pain becomes much harder. By stretching often, one can maintain a level of musculoskeletal fitness that will keep them feeling well. \n\nSection::::Limits of Flexibility.:Signs of Injury.\n", "Another study observed 12 different positions of movements and their relative correlation with injuries occurred during those movements. The evidence shows that putting the arm in a neutral position relieves tension on all ligaments and tendons.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Stretching.\n\nOne article observed the influence of stretching techniques on preventive methods of shoulder injuries. Increased velocity of exercise increases injury, but beginning a fast-movement exercise with a slow stretch may cause muscle/tendon attachment to become more resistant to tearing.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Muscle groups.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Act of Will\" is sung through a vocoder. John Goodsall himself said, in a private e-mail, that there were never any written lyrics. Various attempts have been made to puzzle out what he is saying, but the words are likely similar to \"Masoko Tanga\" by The Police and are not always words.\n\nBULLET::::- This album consists of out-takes from the \"Product\" sessions. Because \"Noddy Goes to Sweden\" was included on this album, the song \"Pool Room Blues\" gains the distinction of being the only non-album Brand X song.\n", "Stretching prior to strenuous physical activity has been thought to increase muscular performance by extending the soft tissue past its attainable length in order to increase range of motion. Many physically active individuals practice these techniques as a “warm-up” in order to achieve a certain level of muscular preparation for specific exercise movements. When stretching, muscles should feel somewhat uncomfortable but not physically agonizing.\n", "Section::::Procedures and mechanisms.\n\nThe WFEs were for many years the standard for non-surgical low back pain treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Exposure to a vacuum, or experiencing uncontrolled decompression, does not cause the body to explode, or internal fluids to boil. (However, fluids in the mouth or lungs will boil at altitudes above the Armstrong limit.) Instead, it would lead to a loss of consciousness once the body has depleted the supply of oxygen in the blood, followed by death from hypoxia within minutes.\n\nBULLET::::- Stretching before or after exercise does not reduce muscle soreness.\n", "There are different positives and negatives for the two main types of stretching: static and dynamic. Static stretching is better at creating a more intense stretch because it is able to isolate a muscle group better. But this intense of a stretch may hinder one's athletic performance because the muscle is being over stretched while held in this position and, once the tension is released, the muscle will tend to tighten up and may actually become weaker than it was previously . Also, the longer the duration of static stretching, the more exhausted the muscle becomes. This type of stretching has been shown to have negative results on athletic performance within the categories of power and speed .\n", "However, other studies have found that removing portions of these series-elastic components (by way of tendon length reduction) had little effect on muscle performance.\n\nStudies on turkeys have, nevertheless, shown that during SSC, a performance enhancement associated with elastic energy storage still takes place but it is thought that the aponeurosis could be a major source of energy storage (Roleveld et al., 1994).\n", "A 2013 journal article examined the use of Kinesio Tape and Stretching on shoulder joint range of motion (ROM). Participants with no history of shoulder injuries were assigned to three treatment groups. One using Kinesio Tape only, one stretching only, and one using both Kinesio Tape and stretching. It was found that the usage of Kinesio Tape can increase shoulder ROM, and that stretching had no effect on shoulder ROM if being used alone or when coupled with the Kinesio Tape.\n", "After stress relief treatment, the braces (rust-colored, structural beams), which are used to maintain the desired shape during welding, were removed. The spacing between the two \"arms\" remained the same; no change was detectable (measured to 1/32\" or less than 1 mm), and the spacing remained so throughout assembly, testing (to 60 ton test loads), transport, and installation.\n\nSection::::When should VSR be considered and the limits of TSR.\n", "The simplest static stretches are static-passive stretches, which bring the joint to its end range of motion and hold it there using external forces. There are more advanced forms of static stretching, such as proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), which involves both active muscle contractions and passive external forces. PNF stretching may involve contracting either the antagonist muscles, agonist muscles, or both (CRAC).\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n\nStretching has been found both effective, and ineffective based on its application for treatment. \n", "A 2015 meta analysis found that the taping provided more pain relief than no treatment at all, but was not better than other treatment approaches in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain. The same meta analysis did not find any significant changes in disability as a result of taping.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Flexibility.\n\nFlexibility can be simply defined as the available range of motion (ROM) provided by a specific joint or group of joints. For the most part, exercises that increase flexibility are performed with intentions to boost overall muscle length, reduce the risks of injury and to potentially improve muscular performance in physical activity. Stretching muscles after engagement in any physical activity can improve muscular strength, increase flexibility, and reduce muscle soreness. If limited movement is present within a joint, the “insufficient extensibility” of the muscle, or muscle group, could be restricting the activity of the affected joint.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Flexibility.:Stretching.\n", "Section::::Historical overview.:Experimental animal studies.:Are atrophied muscles vulnerable to injury.\n", "A study sponsored and done by the American Council on Exercise revealed that the extensions are around 70-90 percent effective compared to the triangle push up for the triceps. However, extensions put no pressure on the wrists so they are an alternative for people with wrist strain or injury.\n\nSection::::Execution.\n\nInstructions:\n\nBULLET::::1. Lie on a flat bench with feet on the ground and head hanging just off the top of the bench, so that the edge of the bench rests in the pit between neck and head.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00778	how does n+1 blankets keep you warmer than n blankets?	Insulation. Your body heat is what warms the area under the blanket Warmth leaves the blanket from the air cooling the surface of the blanket, so when you add another blanket there is more air and blanket to trap heat.	[ "Much like heating pads, electric blankets use an insulated wire or heating element inserted into a fabric that heats when it is plugged in. The temperature control unit, located between the blanket and the electrical outlet, manages the amount of current entering into the heat elements in the blanket.\n", "Electric blankets usually have a control unit that adjusts the amount of heat the blanket produces. Blankets for two-person beds often have separate controls for each side of the bed. The electric blanket may be used to pre-heat the bed before use or to keep the occupant warm while in bed.\n\nSome modern \"low voltage\" electric blankets have thin carbon fiber wires and work on 12 to 24 volts.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "MLI blankets are constructed with sewing technology. The layers are cut, stacked on top of each other, and sewn together at the edges. Seams and gaps in the insulation are responsible for most of the heat leakage through MLI blankets. A new method is being developed to use polyetheretherketone (PEEK) tag pins (similar to plastic hooks used to attach price tags to garments) to fix the film layers in place instead of sewing to improve the thermal performance.\n\nSection::::Additional properties.\n", "Clearly, increasing the number of layers and decreasing the emissivity both lower the heat transfer coefficient, which is equivalent to a higher insulation value. In this equation, it is assumed that the temperature difference is small compared to the absolute temperature. In space, where the apparent outside temperature could be 3 K (cosmic background radiation), the exact \"U\" value is different.\n", "Some electric blankets work on a low voltage of 12 to 24 volts, including those which plug into ordinary household electrical outlets; in the US, such blankets are sold by Soft Heat, Serta, and Select Comfort. Such blankets also include 12-volt blankets designed for in-car use; they tend to shut off automatically every 45 minutes or so.\n", "Some basic insulation values can be considered as examples of typical conditions\n\nBULLET::::- naked body: 0 ;\n\nBULLET::::- summer clothing: 0.6 clo ;\n\nBULLET::::- ski outfit: 2 clo ;\n\nBULLET::::- light polar equipment: 3 clo ;\n\nBULLET::::- heavy polar equipment: 4 clo ;\n\nBULLET::::- polar down duvet: 8 clo.\n\nSection::::Temperature of thermal equilibrium.\n\nThe ambient temperature at which someone's body will be at thermal equilibrium depends on the rate of heat generation per unit area \"P\" and the thermal insulance of the clothing \"R\". The empirical formula is:\n", "Some modern electric blankets use carbon fiber elements that are far less bulky and conspicuous than older heating wires. Carbon fiber is also used as the heating element in many high-end heated car seats. Blankets can be purchased with rheostats that regulate the heat by managing body heat and blanket temperatures, ensuring a comfortable experience.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Overheating.\n\nNewer electric blankets have a shutoff mechanism to prevent the blanket from overheating or catching fire. Older blankets (prior to about 2001) may not have a shut-off mechanism; users run the risk of overheating. Older blankets are considered fire hazards.\n", "The company has developed two versions of the Embrace infant warmer: Embrace Nest, and Embrace Care. The infant warmers are composed of three components: an infant-sized sleeping bag or baby interface, a pouch of phase change material (PCM), and a heater. The pouch, when warmed in the heater and placed into a compartment of the sleeping bag, maintains the World Health Organisation recommended temperature of 37 °C for a period of up to 8 hours. The product was designed to complement skin-to-skin care.\n", "Since the core material of a VIP is similar in thermal characteristics to materials used in conventional insulation, VIPs therefore achieve a much lower thermal conductivity (\"k\"-value) than conventional insulation, or in other words a higher thermal resistance per unit of thickness. Typically, commercially available VIPs achieve a thermal conductivity of 0.004 W/(m·K) across the centre of the panel, or an overall value of 0.006-0.008 W/(m·K) after allowing for thermal bridging (heat conduction across the panel edges) and the inevitable gradual loss of vacuum over time.\n\nSection::::Comparison to conventional insulation.\n", "Blankets have been used by militaries for many centuries. Most militaries have blankets as compulsory for sleeping quarters in preference to duvets. Militaries are some of the biggest single consumers of woolen blankets. Military blankets tend to be coarse grey with a high level of microns, usually over 20. Suppliers include J. E. Ashworth & Sons and Faribault Woolen Mills who made half of all blankets in America at one time.\n", "The Bair Hugger system warms effectively due to the properties of convection and radiation; heat transfer improves with the movement of warmed air across the surface of the patient's skin. Up to 64 percent of the patient's body surface may be recruited for heat transfer, depending on which Bair Hugger blanket is utilized.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "where \"T\" is the mean of the temperatures (in K) of the two layers and formula_6 WmK is the Stefan-Boltzmann Constant. If each layer has the same emissivity formula_7 on both sides, then a stack of \"N\" layers placed between two high-emissivity surfaces will have an overall heat transfer coefficient\n", "BULLET::::- and between the two, a \"thick\" layer that traps the air and prevents contact between the skin and the wind-breaking layer (which, as it is thin, gets close to the ambient temperature).\n\nThe three layers of air between the skin and the exterior layer also play an insulating role. If the clothing is squeezed tight (as by the straps of a backpack), insulation will be poorer in those places.\n\nSection::::Units and measurement.\n", "This equation shows that the critical radius depends only on the heat transfer coefficient and the thermal conductivity of the insulation. If the radius of the insulated cylinder is smaller than the critical radius for insulation, the addition of any amount of insulation will increase heat transfer.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Clothing and natural animal insulation in birds and mammals.\n", "Insulation is achieved by slowing the transfer of thermal energy (heat) to or from a component. This is achieved by insulating the component with materials that have a high r-value, which measures how well a material resists conductive flow of heat. The external layer of a removable insulation blanket is typically durable, made with a material like Silicone or Teflon, to protect the component from the elements. The touch temperature of the component is lowered to a safer temperature, which prevents workplace injury. \n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "Many types of blanket material, such as wool, are used because they are thicker and have more substantial fabric to them, but cotton can also be used for light blankets. Wool blankets are warmer and also relatively slow to burn compared to cotton. The most common types of blankets are woven acrylic, knitted polyester, mink, cotton, fleece and wool. Blankets also come with exotic crafting and exotic material such as crocheted afghan or a silk covering. The term blanket is often interchanged with comforter, quilt, and duvet, as they all have similar uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "It has been shown that moisture (either externally, or from sweating) severely decreases the insulating effect of sleeping bags.\n\nSection::::Indoor sleeping bags.\n", "The thermal resistance R-value provided by Thinsulate products varies by the specific thickness and construction of the fabric. Values (US units) range from 1.6 for 80-gram fabric to 2.9 for 200-gram fabric. Thinsulate is considered \"the warmest thin apparel insulation\" available. In fact, when equal thicknesses are compared, it provides about 1½ times the warmth of down and about twice the warmth of other high-loft insulation materials.\n", "In some applications the insulating layers must be grounded, so they cannot build up a charge and arc, causing radio interference. Since the normal construction results in electrical as well as thermal insulation, these applications may include aluminum spacers as opposed to cloth scrim at the points where the blankets are sewn together.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid hydrogen tank car, on which a form of multi-layer insulation is applied\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal Control Subsystem\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Satellite Thermal Control Handbook\", ed. David Gilmore. . In particular, Chapter 5, \"Insulation\", by Martin Donabedian and David Gilmore.\n", "Other factors that influence the clothing insulation are posture and activity. Sitting or lying change the thermal insulation due to the compression of air layers in the clothing, but at the same time - depending on the materials that are made of - chairs and bedding can provide considerable insulation. While it is possible to determine the increase of insulation provided by chairs, sleeping or resting situations are more difficult to evaluate unless the individual is completely immobile.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Blankets - Manteau de Neige\" (French edition) , Casterman, March 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blankets\" (Spanish edition) , Astiberri Ediciones, April 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blankets\" (Catalan edition) Astiberri Ediciones, April 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blankets\" (German edition) , Speed Comics, May 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Een Deken Van Sneeuw\" (Dutch edition) , Oog & Blik, May 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blankets\" (Italian edition) , Coconino Press, November 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pod dekou\" (Czech edition) , BB Art, November 2005\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blankets. Pod śnieżną kołderką\" (Polish edition) , Timof i Cisi Wspólnicy, December 2006\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blankets\" (Greek edition) , Εκδόσεις ΚΨΜ, March 2007\n", "Thompson said that he believes \"Blankets\" was a success because he was \"reacting against all of the over-the-top, explosive action genre [in alternative comics, and] I also didn’t want to do anything cynical and nihilistic, which is the standard for a lot of alternative comics.\" Despite the praise heaped upon the book, it resulted in tension between Thompson and his parents for a couple of years after they read it.\n", "or, if \"R\" is taken to be the number of clos and \"P\" the number of watts per square metre,\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature of thermal equilibrium:\n\nBULLET::::- person in summer dress (shorts and bare torso) at rest (\"P\" = 60 W/m², \"R\" = 0.4 clo): \"T\" = +27 °C;\n\nBULLET::::- heavy polar equipment, at rest (\"P\" = 60 W/m², \"R\" = 4 clo): \"T\" = −6 °C;\n\nBULLET::::- slow walking in light polar equipment (\"P\" = 120 W/m², \"R\" = 3 clo): \"T\" = −25 °C;\n\nBULLET::::- sleeping in a polar duvet (\"P\" = 48 W/m², \"R\" = 8 clo): \"T\" = −28 °C;\n", "Section::::Thermal performance.\n\nThe maximum insulating efficiency of a standard IGU is determined by the thickness of the space. Typically, most sealed units achieve maximum insulating values using a space of when measured at the centre of the IGU.\n", "Breeding blanket\n\nThe breeding blanket, also known as the lithium blanket or simply blanket, is a key part of most commercial fusion reactor designs. It serves several purposes; one is to act as a cooling mechanism, absorbing the energy from the neutrons produced by the nuclear fusion reaction between deuterium and tritium (D-T), another is to \"breed\" more tritium through reactions with elements in the blanket, typically lithium, and finally, to act as shielding, preventing the high-energy neutrons from escaping to the area outside the reactor and protecting the more radiation-susceptible portions, like the magnets, from damage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20339	Why didn't the US govt release the picture of dead Osama Bin Laden despite releasing dead pictures of his other members?	They didn't want to make him more of a martyr than he already was. No grave. No memorial site. No pictures of him dead. Also, if I recall correctly, he got shot in the face. The pictures might be too much for standard publication.	[ "A debate on whether the military photos should be released to the public took place. Those supporting the release argued that the photos should be considered public records, that they are necessary to complete the journalistic record, and that they would prove bin Laden's death and therefore prevent conspiracy theories. Those in opposition expressed concern that the photos would inflame anti-American sentiment in the Middle East.\n", "On May 11, selected members of Congress (the congressional leadership and those who serve on the House and Senate intelligence, homeland security, judiciary, foreign relations, and armed forces committees) were shown 15 bin Laden photos. In an interview with Eliot Spitzer, Senator Jim Inhofe said that three of the photos were of bin Laden alive for identification reference. Three other photos were of the burial-at-sea ceremony.\n", "On May 4, the Obama administration announced it would not release any images of Bin Laden's dead body. The administration had considered releasing the photos to dispel rumors of a hoax, at the risks of perhaps prompting another attack by al Qaeda and of releasing very graphic images to people who might find them disturbing. Several photos of the aftermath of the raid were given to Reuters by an anonymous Pakistani security official, but though all appeared to be authentic, they were taken after the U.S. forces had left and none of them included evidence regarding bin Laden's fate.\n", "CNN cited a senior U.S. official as saying three sets of photographs of bin Laden's body exist: Photos taken at an aircraft hangar in Afghanistan, described as the most recognizable and gruesome; photos taken from the burial at sea on the before a shroud was placed around his body; and photos from the raid itself, which include shots of the interior of the compound as well as three of the others who died in the raid.\n", "Obama decided not to release the photos. In an interview aired on May 4 on \"60 Minutes\", he said: \"We don't trot out this stuff as trophies. We don't need to spike the football.\" Obama said that he was concerned with ensuring that \"very graphic photos of somebody who was shot in the head are not floating around as an incitement to additional violence, or as a propaganda tool. That's not who we are.\" Among Republican members of Congress, Senator Lindsey Graham criticized the decision and stated that he wanted to see the photos released, while Senator John McCain and Representative Mike Rogers, the chair of the House Intelligence Committee, supported the decision.\n", "On the day of the release, the Army announced that it had started a criminal investigation. By 2018, there were no reports freely available on the World Wide Web about the results of the investigation. On May 4, 2012, however, weeks after the pictures' release, U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon E. Panetta visited Ft. Benning, Georgia and spoke to the 3rd Infantry Brigade about the need for discipline. He said, \"These days it takes only seconds for a picture, a photo, to suddenly become an international headline. And those headlines can impact the mission we're engaged in. They can put your fellow service members at risk. They can hurt morale. They can damage our standing in the world, and they can cost lives.\" The case appears to have ended, at least publicly, with that speech.\n", "A source told ABC News that the photos taken by the military servicemen on the scene depict the physical damage done by a high-caliber bullet. \"CBS Evening News\" reported that the photo shows that the bullet which hit above bin Laden's left eye blew out his left eyeball and blew away a large portion of his frontal skull, exposing his brain. CNN stated that the pictures from the Afghanistan hangar depict \"a massive open head wound across both eyes. It's very bloody and gory.\" U.S. Senator Jim Inhofe, who viewed the photos, stated that the photos taken of the body on the \"Carl Vinson\", which showed bin Laden's face after much of the blood and material had been washed away, should be released to the public.\n", "Up until this time, the U.S. Office of Censorship only permitted the media to publish images of blanket-covered bodies and flag-draped coffins of dead U.S. soldiers, partly for fear that Americans would be demoralized if they had any graphic understanding of the human price being paid in the war. The government also restricted what reporters could write, and coverage was generally upbeat and bloodless.\n", "In an interview conducted the day after the uproar at the press conference, Cuban said, \"There is no way I am going to include images of people who have been severely wounded or maimed and killed when the possibility exists that their families could unknowingly see the images and recognize a loved one.\" He also said that Magnolia had offered De Palma the option of buying the film back from the distributor in order to release it himself and \"absorb 100 percent of the risk\", but that De Palma did not accept. De Palma responded, \"That's not true. He never offered me that opportunity, he never answered my phone calls.\"\n", "Monis featured a photograph of Osama bin Laden on his website in 2008.\n", "Osama bin Laden, leader of the terror group al-Qaeda, was killed in Pakistan on May 1, 2011 in a joint operation by the United States Navy SEALs and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). This operation was code-named \"Operation Neptune Spear\". On May 2, 2011 Judicial Watch filed a FOIA request with the Department of Defense and the CIA for photographs and videos of bin Laden taken during or after the operation.\n", "In October 2010 the Global Tamil Forum (GTF), an umbrella group for Tamil diaspora groups, published photographs that appeared to show the massacre of civilians and execution of Tamil Tigers. The photos showed blood stained bodies of young men and women with blindfolds and hands tied behind their backs. The GTF could not verify the authenticity of the photographs. It had obtained them from a Tamil Tiger intelligence official who said they had obtained the photos from someone in the Sri Lankan Army. The Sri Lankan government rejected the photos as an attempt to tarnish Sri Lanka's image.\n", "BULLET::::- Measurement of the body: Both the corpse and bin Laden were ; SEALs on the scene did not have a tape measure to measure the corpse, so a SEAL of known height lay down next to the body and the height was so approximated by comparison. Obama quipped: \"We donated a $60 million helicopter to this operation. Could we not afford to buy a tape measure?\"\n\nBULLET::::- Facial recognition software: A photograph transmitted by the SEALs to CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, for facial recognition analysis yielded a 90 to 95 percent likely match.\n", "The Associated Press filed a FOIA request for photographs and videos taken during the Abbottabad raid less than one day after bin Laden was killed. The AP also requested \"contingency plans for bin Laden's capture, reports on the performance of equipment during the mission and copies of DNA tests\" confirming bin Laden's identity. The Defense Department rejected the AP's request for expedited processing, a legal provision to shorten the amount of time to process FOIA requests. The Defense Department rejected the request, and the AP administratively appealed.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Alternative accounts.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Alternative accounts.:\"Seal Target Geronimo\".\n", "A freelance photographer working for the Associated Press claimed that two Marines and a translator asked him: \"Why are you taking pictures? You don't have permission.\" Another photographer claimed that he had been told by US troops, through an interpreter: \"Delete them [your photos], or we will delete you.\"\n\nSection::::Afghan response.\n", "\"unfortunately we are not aware of the continuing existence of any chart containing Mohamed Atta's name or photograph. The copies that would have been in the possession of the U.S. Army were apparently destroyed by March 2001. The copies within Lt Col Shaffer's files were destroyed by the DIA in approximately Spring 2004. The destruction of these files is an important element to this story and I encourage the Committee to investigate it further. It would appear, particularly given the Defense Department's outright refusal to allow those involved with Able Danger to testify today, that an obstructionist attitude exists. The question for this Committee is to investigate how far that position extends and why.\"\n", "Reuters announced that they had withdrawn \"all of Hajj's photos, about 920 images, from its archives\".\n\nSection::::Allegations of staging by press photographers.\n", "Soon after taking office in January 2009, President Barack Obama asked Defense Secretary Robert Gates to review the ban on media coverage of coffins. In February Gates announced that the ban would be lifted, and permission for coverage of individual soldiers would be at the discretion of their next of kin. On 5 April the return of Phillip Myers, an Air Force Staff Sergeant killed in Afghanistan the day before, became the first return of a US serviceman's remains to receive media coverage since the instatement of the original ban in 1991.\n\nSection::::Bombing of Al Jazeera.\n", "The picture was taken at 4:06 pm local time in Washington (16:06 EDT), which was 12:36 am local time in Afghanistan. President Obama later said he believed the picture was taken about the time the room's occupants were informed or realized that one of the raid's helicopters had crashed.\n", "In Afghanistan, Taliban spokesman Zabiullah Mujahid called the pictures disrespectful and condemned both the U.S. soldiers involved in the pictures as well as the Afghan police also featured in them. \"We strongly condemn these occupiers and their puppets who are without culture, who are brutal and inhuman,\" Mujahid said. \"Next to these occupiers there are some Afghans -- puppets -- who were ordered to stand next to the bodies of the martyrs.\" Afghan President Hamid Karzai called it \"a disgusting act to take photos with body parts and then share it with others\".\n", "BULLET::::- Inference: Per the same DoD official, from the initial review of the materials removed from the Abbottabad compound the Department \"assessed that much of this information, including personal correspondence between Osama bin Laden and others, as well as some of the video footage ... would only have been in his possession.\"\n\nSection::::Operation Neptune Spear.:Local accounts.\n", "On September 9, 2009, photographs of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ammar al Baluchi were published on the Internet and widely in US and international media. Camp authorities have strict controls over the taking and distribution of images of the Guantanamo captives. Journalists and VIPs visiting Guantanamo are not allowed to take any pictures that show the captives' faces. Journalists may see \"high value\" captives such as Khalid Sheikh Mohammed only when they are in the court room, where cameras are not allowed. But, on September 9, 2009, independent counter-terrorism researchers found new images of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and his nephew Ammar al Baluchi on \"jihadist websites\". According to Carol Rosenberg, writing in \"The Miami Herald\": \"The pictures were taken in July, said International Committee of the Red Cross spokesman Bernard Barrett, under an agreement with prison camp staff that lets Red Cross delegates photograph detainees and send photos to family members.\"\n", "BULLET::::- On December 7, 2006, \"Post\" doctored a front-page photograph to depict the co-chairmen of the Iraq Study Group—James Baker and Lee Hamilton—in primate fur, under the headline \"SURRENDER MONKEYS\", inspired by a once-used line from \"The Simpsons\". In defense of the \"Surrender Monkeys\" headline, media contributor Simon Dumenco wrote an \"Ad Age\" article about his love for \"Post\".\n", "Section::::Reactions.:Afghan.\n\nTaliban spokesman Zabiullah Mujahid called the pictures disrespectful, and condemned both the U.S. soldiers involved in the pictures as well as the Afghan police also featured in them. \"We strongly condemn these occupiers and their puppets who are without culture, who are brutal and inhumane,\" Mujahid said. \"Next to these occupiers there are some Afghans—puppets—who were ordered to stand next to the bodies of the martyrs.\" Afghan President Hamid Karzai said that it is \"a disgusting act to take photos with body parts and then share it with others\".\n", "The group Judicial Watch filed a Freedom of Information Act request to obtain access to the photos in May 2011, soon after the raid. On May 9, the Department of Defense declined to process Judicial Watch's FOIA request, prompting Judicial Watch to file a federal lawsuit. In 2012, Judge James E. Boasberg of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia issued a ruling denying release of the photographs. In May 2013, a three-judge panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit consisting of Chief Judge Merrick Garland, Senior Judge Harry T. Edwards, and Judge Judith Rogers affirmed the ruling, holding that 52 post-mortem images were properly classified as \"top secret\" and exempt from disclosure. Judicial Watch filed a petition for a writ of certiorari in August 2013, seeking U.S. Supreme Court review, but in January 2014 the Supreme Court declined to hear the case.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10512	why do soccer players fake injuries so frequently AND dramatically?	If you can get another player ejected for "hurting" you, your team gets an advantage. The consequences for flopping aren't severe enough to discourage this, so players do it constantly. In the NBA egregious flopping can earn a technical foul, but even this isn't much of a deterrent and it's become common. In the NHL "embellishment" is a penalty that can leave your team a man down, which is usually significant enough to keep the flopping to a fake-high-sticking minimum.	[ "Other offenses can result in technical fouls, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Allowing players to lock arms in order to restrict the movement of an opponent (usually a team technical)\n\nBULLET::::- Baiting or taunting an opponent\n\nBULLET::::- Disrespectfully addressing or contacting an official or gesturing in such a manner as to indicate resentment\n\nBULLET::::- Faking being fouled (flopping)\n\nBULLET::::- Fighting or threatening to fight\n\nBULLET::::- Goaltending a free throw\n", "Players also try to intimidate their opposing sides to give them a psychological edge. Fans sadly encourage this sort of behaviour, feeling the tension rise and wanting to see reactions from players as a thrilling scene. Opposing sides like to get a retaliation from other players, forcing them into an aggressive attitude that will lead them down the track of unnecessary physical conduct. This excitement fans get from visualising such unethical behaviour leaves them with the thoughts of such actions being alright.\n", "Section::::Detection.\n\nA 2009 study found that there are recognisable traits that can often be observed when a player is diving. They are:\n\nSection::::Punishment.\n\nThe game's rules state that \"attempts to deceive the referee by feigning injury or pretending to have been fouled (simulation)\", must be sanctioned as unsporting behaviour which is misconduct punishable by a yellow card. The rule changes are in response to an increasing trend of diving and simulation.\n\nSection::::Punishment.:Europe.\n", "The panel wore thick-lensed glasses and reviewed shots at goal which did not make it close to the net.\n\nSection::::Regular segments.:Take on My Nuts.\n\nThe panel highlighted examples of players attempting to block the ball who made no effort to protect their groins from the impact.\n\nSection::::Regular segments.:Bin Night.\n", "Some have referred to simulation as a menace to footballers with real, sometimes life-threatening, injuries or conditions. On 24 May 2012, English FA referee Howard Webb spoke to a FIFA medical conference in Budapest about the importance of curbing simulation in football, as players feigning injury could put players with serious medical issues in jeopardy. Earlier that year, he had to deal with the collapse of Fabrice Muamba, who suffered cardiac arrest during an FA Cup match.\n\nSection::::Diving reputation.\n\nRepeated accusations of diving have resulted in certain players acquiring the reputation of being a \"diver\".\n", "Another way in which fouls are controversially abused in sport is when players pretend to be fouled by another player. This results in players receiving unfair penalties and the so-called 'victims' receiving free-kicks and other rewards unjustly. One sport where this practice is common is Association Football. In football players are known to perform Diving (association football) which is the practice of pretending to fall over as a result of an opponent tripping you over. Although diving produces outrage and controversy amongst many football fans, it is commonly practised amongst professionals and amateurs alike.\n", "In association football, a professional foul involves a defender fouling an attacking player in order to prevent them from scoring, or a handball offence that denied an obvious goal-scoring opportunity. The resulting free kick or penalty may offer the attacking team a lower chance of scoring than the original playing position, and the defending player therefore has an incentive to tactically foul the attacking player or use their hand. Offending players are cautioned or sent off depending on the circumstances of the foul.\n", "BULLET::::- Oscar（杨聪）: 13 years old, Shanghainese, in first year of secondary school. Was originally part of Team Protector, but when Shawn went back to Vienna at the end of the 4 Nations Charity Tournament he joined Team Barefoot to compete with them in the GGO World Cup Qualifying to play against teams of Asia, in Shawn's place. He lacked confidence and always worries to drag his brothers down when he was with Team Protector but has since turned to be a calm and defensive controller. Controller of Team Barefoot's Goalkeeper Shield.\n\nSection::::Team Introduction.:Barefoot.:Footballers.\n", "\"Some progressive professional leagues, such as the Australian A-League and the American MLS have already started handing down punishments for players found guilty of diving. This is the best way to decrease the incentive for diving,\" says Dr. Robbie Wilson of the soccerscience lab that conducted the study.\n", "It was also found that diving was more common in leagues where it was rewarded most – meaning that the more often players were likely to get free kicks or penalties out of a dive, the more often they dived. This suggests that the benefits of diving are far outweighing the costs, and the only way to reduce diving in football is by increasing the ability of referees to detect dives and by increasing the punishment associated with them.\n", "Section::::Diving as deceptive behaviour.\n\nRecently, researchers studying signalling in animals examined diving in the context of communication theory, which suggests that deceptive behaviour should occur when the potential payoffs outweigh the potential costs (or punishments). Their aim was to discern when and where diving is likely to occur, with the aim of identifying ways to stop it.\n", "According to Downs DS and D Abwender in their article Neuropsychological Impairment in Soccer Athletes, “participation in soccer may be associated with poorer neuropsychological performance, although the observed pattern of findings does not specifically implicate heading as the cause”.\n", "Injured players may also need to be substituted. For each injured player who must be substituted, the team loses one more opportunity to influence things later in the game in their favour.\n\nSubstitutions can also be used as a time consuming tactic to hold a one-goal lead in the last minutes.\n\nSection::::Fouls and poor conduct.\n\nThe following are fouls or poor conduct practices in football:\n\nBULLET::::- Delaying the start or restart of play\n\nBULLET::::- Using abusive language or gestures\n\nBULLET::::- Attempting to influence the referees\n", "BULLET::::- 6 October: Serhiy Zakarlyuka, Ukrainian footballer (born 1976)\n\nBULLET::::- 7 October: Amos Mkhari, South African footballer\n\nBULLET::::- 7 October: Nika Kiladze, Georgian footballer (born 1988)\n\nBULLET::::- 9 October: Henning Bjerregaard, Danish footballer (born 1927)\n\nBULLET::::- 10 October: Roy Law, English footballer (born 1937)\n\nBULLET::::- 11 October: Carmelo Simeone, Argentine international footballer (born 1933)\n\nBULLET::::- 12 October: Roberto Telch, Argentine international footballer (born 1943)\n\nBULLET::::- 13 October: Pontus Segerström, Swedish footballer (born 1981)\n\nBULLET::::- 16 October: Shalom Schwarz, Israeli footballer (born 1951)\n\nBULLET::::- 17 October: Daisuke Oku, Japanese international footballer (born 1976)\n", "BULLET::::- 11 December - Peter Risi, Swiss striker (60, after a long illness)\n\nBULLET::::- 12 December - Emmanuel Ogoli, Nigerian defender (21, collapsed on the pitch)\n\nBULLET::::- 14 December - Dale Roberts, English goalkeeper (24, suicide)\n\nBULLET::::- 17 December - Ralph Coates, English midfielder (64, stroke)\n\nBULLET::::- 21 December - Oleksandr Kovalenko, Ukrainian midfielder and referee (34, suicide)\n\nBULLET::::- 21 December - Enzo Bearzot, Italian defender and World Cup winning manager (83)\n\nBULLET::::- 24 December - Frans de Munck, Dutch goalkeeper (88)\n\nBULLET::::- 26 December - Bill Jones, English defender (89)\n", "BULLET::::- Throwing the ball into the stands or otherwise preventing a ball from being made live promptly after a made goal to allow one's team to set up on defense (if a blatantly unsportsmanlike act, a technical foul against the player; otherwise, a warning to that team and team technicals thereafter). This includes throwing the ball to an official when such act is not required—such would likely incur a warning. In addition, throwing the ball at an opponent's head may also be considered a technical foul.\n\nand more technical issues, such as:\n", "BULLET::::- Touching the ball with outstretched hands or arms (with the exception of a goalkeeper within his/her own penalty area)\n\nBULLET::::- Impeding the progress of an opponent (includes tripping, pushing and pulling, charging, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- Denying an obvious goalscoring opportunity with a foul or handball\n\nBULLET::::- Simulation\n\nAlthough some fans and players see foul play as a good part of the game (as long as it helps them win), FIFA constantly change rules and issue campaigns for promoting \"Fair Play\".\n\nSection::::Individual skills.\n", "Referees come across these situations regularly. At such a fast tempo, they have to make a rash decision on whether or not the player performed a dive or they were legitimately fouled. A test by Peter G. Renden was done to determine if motor experience in football contributes to the ability to recognise dives in potential tackle situations. This study showed, experienced players as well as referees were able to pin point the differences. In comparison, fans and novice participants that had little experience to recognise the difference between a dive and foul showed a lower result.\n", "BULLET::::1. Portugal national team goalkeeper Ricardo in a quarter-final match against England, where he saved three penalties out of four.\n\nBULLET::::2. The quarter-final match between Argentina and Germany also came down to penalties, and German goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was seen looking at a piece of paper kept in his sock before each Argentinian player would come forward for a penalty kick. It is presumed that information on each kicker's \"habits\" were written on this paper. Lehmann saved two of the four penalties taken and came close to saving a third.\n", "Sebastian Deisler was hospitalized after being unable to cope with the pressures of professional football, eventually retiring from the sport at the age of 27.\n", "Feigning injury to cause the ball to be kicked out is another example of gamesmanship intended to break the flow of play, though if detected, it may be regarded as ungentlemanly conduct, which is a breach of the laws and hence is no longer gamesmanship. In response to claims of feigned injuries during the 2006 World Cup, the Premier League has asked players, managers and referees to end the custom as of the 06/07 season, instead preferring a referee alone to determine whether a break in play is needed.\n", "Footballers such as Marco van Basten, Fernando Torres, Cristiano Ronaldo, Andy Carroll, Harry Kane, Olivier Giroud, Gareth Bale, Javier Hernandez, Sergio Ramos, Peter Crouch, Giorgio Chiellini, Ali Daei and Abby Wambach are players who are notable for their quality headers.\n\nSection::::Health risks.\n", "Section::::Players.:Role models.\n\nWhile many football players can be argued to be good role models, there have been headlines in the news regarding bad behaviour by footballers. Such is the influence of footballers, their activities tend to be reported widely in the media and also bring condemnation from the government of the countries in which they play.\n", "The most tired players are generally substituted, but only if their substitutes are well trained to fill in the same role, or if the formation is transformed at the same time to accommodate for the substitution.\n\nCoaches often refrain from substituting defensive players in order not to disrupt the defensive posture of the team. Instead, they often replace ineffective attackers or unimaginative midfielders in order to freshen up the attacking posture and increase their chances of scoring.\n", "BULLET::::- 13 August: Kurt Tschenscher, German football referee (born 1928)\n\nBULLET::::- 13 August: Süleyman Seba, Turkish footballer (born 1926)\n\nBULLET::::- 14 August: Géza Gulyás, Hungarian footballer (born 1931)\n\nBULLET::::- 14 August: Javier Guzmán, Mexican football defender (born 1945)\n\nBULLET::::- 15 August: Bruno Petroni, Italian footballer (born 1941)\n\nBULLET::::- 15 August: Ferdinando Riva, Swiss footballer (born 1930)\n\nBULLET::::- 17 August: Sammy Conn, Scottish footballer (born 1961)\n\nBULLET::::- 18 August: Jean Nicolay, Belgian football goalkeeper (born 1937)\n\nBULLET::::- 19 August: Carlos Arango, Colombian footballer (born 1928)\n\nBULLET::::- 20 August: Eric Barber, Irish footballer (born 1942)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20055	If the Earth's average temperature is rising, why has winter gotten colder in some places?	The average temperature rises. But global climate is more complex then hot and cold. It's the change of climate zones. Some places get more rain than ever. Others get draughts where you never had one. That's why the term global warming was changed with climate change. For Europe for example the warm stream from the gulf of Mexico is essentially for bringing warm weather in winter. With the stream getting weaker and carrying less warmth the winters here get stronger plus longer.	[ "Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during summer. This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on glacial runoff to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas increasingly vulnerable to water shortages over time; an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water melting from glaciers in the summer, followed by a retreat in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and consequently the water supply every year as the size of these glaciers get smaller and smaller.\n", "On the 4th, the UN issued a Green Alert in Albania as northern rivers swell with melt water\n\nIn its monthly summary, Met Éireann, Ireland's weather service, said December was the coldest month for 28 years for most of the country and the coldest of any month since February 1986 at a few stations.\n", "\"Science as well as our subjective experiences has made it unequivocally clear that longer, hotter and deadlier summers are poised to become the norm due to climate change,\" environmental researcher Hem Dholakia wrote\"\n", "The agricultural growing season has also expanded by 10–20 days over the last few decades.\n\nThe effects of season creep have been noted by non-scientists as well, including gardeners who have advanced their spring planting times,\n\nand experimented with plantings of less hardy warmer climate varieties of non-native plants. While summer growing seasons are expanding, winters are getting warmer and shorter, resulting in reduced winter ice cover on bodies of water,\n\nearlier ice-out,\n\nearlier melt water flows,\n\nand earlier spring lake level peaks.\n", "While phenology fairly consistently points to an earlier spring across temperate regions of North America, a recent comprehensive study of the subarctic showed greater variability in the timing of green-up, with some areas advancing, and some having no discernible trend over a recent 44-year period.\n\nAnother 40 year phenological study in China found greater warming over that period in the more northerly sites studied, with sites experiencing cooling mostly in the south, indicating that the temperature variation with latitude is decreasing there.\n", "On March 24, 2014, the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that \"many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change\".\n\nSection::::Cold spring in the Northern Hemisphere.\n", "Section::::Climate.\n", "BULLET::::- In some areas, shrinking glaciers and snow deposits threaten the water supply. Areas that depend on melted water runoff will likely see that runoff depleted, with less flow in the late summer and spring peaks occurring earlier. This can affect the ability to irrigate crops. (This situation is particularly acute for irrigation in South America, for irrigation and drinking supplies in Central Asia, and for hydropower in Norway, the Alps, and the Pacific Northwest of North America.)\n", "The winter of 2009–10 in Europe was unusually cold. It is hypothesized that this may be due to a combination of low solar activity, a warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and a strong easterly phase of the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation all occurring simultaneously. The Met Office reported that the UK, for example, had experienced its coldest winter for 30 years. This coincided with an exceptionally negative phase of the NAO. Analysis published in mid-2010 confirmed that the concurrent 'El Niño' event and the rare occurrence of an extremely negative NAO were involved, this has become known as a \"Hybrid El Niño\".\n", "Satellite observations record a decrease in snow-covered areas since the 1960s, when satellite observations began. In some regions such as China, a trend of increasing snow cover was observed from 1978 to 2006. These changes are attributed to global climate change, which may lead to earlier melting and less coverage area. However, in some areas there may be an increase in snow depth because of higher temperatures for latitudes north of 40°. For the Northern Hemisphere as a whole the mean monthly snow-cover extent has been decreasing by 1.3% per decade.\n", "Satellite observations record a decrease in snow-covered areas since the 1960s, when satellite observations began. In some regions such as China, a trend of increasing snow cover has been observed (from 1978 to 2006). These changes are attributed to global climate change, which may lead to earlier melting and less aea coverage. However, in some areas there may be an increase in snow depth because of higher temperatures for latitudes north of 40°. For the Northern Hemisphere as a whole the mean monthly snow-cover extent has been decreasing by 1.3% per decade.\n", "Weather is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes to the environment, so accurate weather forecasting is limited to only a few days. Overall, two things are happening worldwide: (1) temperature is increasing on the average; and (2) regional climates have been undergoing noticeable changes.\n\nSection::::Water on Earth.\n", "The cold weather was caused by high pressure over Greenland and Iceland forcing weather patterns southward, a phenomenon described by meteorologists as the Arctic Oscillation and also the North Atlantic Oscillation which were negative compared to normal. The North Atlantic Oscillation in Winter 2009/10 was lower than during any winter in over a century and this resulted in more easterly winds bringing cold air into Northern Europe from Siberia and the Arctic. Scientists have shown that El Niño, the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation and solar variability all conspired to drive this extreme winter.\n\nSection::::December 2009.\n\nSection::::December 2009.:16–21 December.\n", "In the north western part of the Atlantic, both of these winters were mild, especially 2009-2010, which was the warmest recorded in Canada. The winter of 2010-2011 was particularly above normal in the northern Arctic regions of that country.\n", "In the Northern Hemisphere, when the Earth is at its furthest point from the sun (aphelion) the variation in temperature between winter and summer are less extreme. When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), about 5,750 years later, then the variations are at their most extreme. At present the Earth is at its furthest, so the northern hemisphere summers and winters are less extreme and the southern hemisphere climate is more extreme.\n", "Scientists have found evidence that increased evaporation could result in more extreme weather as global warming progresses. The IPCC Third Annual Report says: \"...global average water vapor concentration and precipitation are projected to increase during the 21st century. By the second half of the 21st century, it is likely that precipitation will have increased over northern mid- to high latitudes and Antarctica in winter. At low latitudes there are both regional increases and decreases over land areas. Larger year-to-year variations in precipitation are very likely over most areas where an increase in mean precipitation is projected.\"\n", "Over most land areas since the 1950s, it is very likely that there have been fewer or warmer cold days and nights. Hot days and nights have also very likely become warmer or more frequent. Human activities have very likely contributed to these trends. There may have been changes in other climate extremes (e.g., floods, droughts and tropical cyclones) but these changes are more difficult to identify.\n", "BULLET::::- For five days around January 25, temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate, and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides.\n\nDuring this \"thaw\" period, usually lasting for about a week, temperatures are generally about 6 °C (10 °F) above normal. This varies from year to year, and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable; what is remarkable (and unexplained) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February, which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer.\n", "Some spring events, or \"phenophases\", have become intermittent or unobservable; for example, bodies of water that once froze regularly most winters now freeze less frequently,\n\nand formerly migratory birds are now seen year-round in some areas.\n\nSection::::Relationship to global warming.\n\nThe full impact of global warming is forecast to happen in the future, but climate scientists have cited season creep as an easily observable effect of climate change that has already occurred and continues to occur.\n", "In a usual northern-hemisphere winter, several minor warming events occur, with a major event occurring roughly every two years. One reason for major stratospheric warmings to occur in the Northern hemisphere is because orography and land-sea temperature contrasts are responsible for the generation of long (wavenumber 1 or 2) Rossby waves in the troposphere. These waves travel upward to the stratosphere and are dissipated there, decelerating the winds and warming the Arctic. This is the reason that major warmings are only observed in the northern-hemisphere, with one exception. In 2002 a southern-hemisphere major warming was observed. This event to date is not fully understood.\n", "In a statement to the press in March 2016, Professor David Vaughan of the British Antarctic Survey said that recent increases in global temperature were not due to an unusually severe El Niño, but that the opposite is true. \"This is a catch-up of a recent hiatus that has occurred in rising global temperatures. We are returning to normality: rising temperatures. This is an absolute warning of the dangers that lie ahead.\"\n\nSection::::Factors.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Temperature dataset coverage and homogenization.\n", "Section::::Precipitation and vegetation changes.:Arctic and Alpine regions.\n\nPolar and alpine ecosystems are assumed to be particularly vulnerable to climate change as their organisms dwell at temperatures just above the zero degree threshold for a very short summer growing season. Predicted changes in climate over the next 100 years are expected to be substantial in arctic and sub-arctic regions. Already there is evidence of upward shifts of plants in mountains and in arctic shrubs are predicted to increase substantially to warming \n\nSection::::Precipitation and vegetation changes.:Amazon.\n", "2013 extreme weather events\n\nThe 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere. The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average, while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4.5% below the 1981–2010 average. The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice, which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice.\n", "There has been a general, but not global, tendency toward reduced diurnal temperature range (DTR: the difference between daily high or maximum and daily low or minimum temperatures) over about 70% of the global land mass since the middle of the 20th century. However, for the period 1979–2005 the DTR shows no trend since the trend in both maximum and minimum temperatures for the same period are virtually identical; both showing a strong warming signal. A variety of factors likely contribute to this change in DTR, particularly on a regional and local basis, including changes in cloud cover, atmospheric water vapor, land use and urban effects.\n", "Seasonal temperature trends are positive over most of the globe but weak cooling is observed over the mid latitudes of the southern ocean but also over eastern Canada in spring because of strengthening of the North Atlantic oscillation. Warming is stronger over northern Europe, China and North America in winter, Europe and Asia interior in spring, Europe and north Africa in summer and northern North America, Greenland and eastern Asia in autumn.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Earth's temperatures rising should mean that winters are warmer." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Global climate is more complex than that." ]
2018-04733	How can peanut butter be turned into diamonds?	Don't know where you got this idea, but: Diamonds are made out of compressed carbon. Peanut butter contains carbon. Remove everything except the carbon and compress to 20,000 atmospheres. Simple.	[ "Section::::Manufacture.\n\nThe isotopes of carbon can be separated in the form of carbon dioxide gas by cascaded chemical exchange reactions with amine carbamate. Such CO can be converted to methane and from there to isotopically pure synthetic diamonds. Isotopically enriched diamonds have been synthesized by application of chemical vapor deposition followed by high pressure.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Carbon 12.\n", "There are several methods producing DLC, which rely on the lower density of sp than sp carbon. So the application of pressure, impact, catalysis, or some combination of these at the atomic scale can force sp bonded carbon atoms closer together into sp bonds. This must be done vigorously enough that the atoms cannot simply spring back apart into separations characteristic of sp bonds. Usually techniques either combine such a compression with a push of the new cluster of sp bonded carbon deeper into the coating so that there is no room for expansion back to separations needed for sp bonding; or the new cluster is buried by the arrival of new carbon destined for the next cycle of impacts. It is reasonable to envisage the process as a \"hail\" of projectiles that produce localized, faster, nanoscale versions of the classic combinations of heat and pressure that produce natural and synthetic diamond. Because they occur independently at many places across the surface of a growing film or coating, they tend to produce an analog of a cobblestone street with the cobbles being nodules or clusters of sp bonded carbon. Depending upon the particular \"recipe\" being used, there are cycles of deposition of carbon and impact or continuous proportions of new carbon arriving and projectiles conveying the impacts needed to force the formation of the sp bonds. As a result, \"ta-C\" may have the structure of a cobblestone street, or the nodules may \"melt together\" to make something more like a sponge or the cobbles may be so small as to be nearly invisible to imaging. A classic \"medium\" morphology for a \"ta-C\" film is shown in the figure.\n", "Section::::Composites.\n", "Section::::Color enhancements.\n\nGenerally there are three major methods to artificially alter the color of a diamond: irradiation with high-energy subatomic particles; the application of thin films or coatings; and the combined application of high pressure and high temperature (HPHT). However, there is recent evidence that fracture filling is not only used to improve clarity, but that it can be used for the sole purpose to change the color into a more desirable color as well.\n", "As a solid piece of chocolate, the cocoa butter fat particles are in a crystalline rigid structure that gives the chocolate its solid appearance. Once heated, the crystals of the polymorphic cocoa butter are able to break apart from the rigid structure and allow the chocolate to obtain a more fluid consistency as the temperature increases – the melting process. When the heat is removed, the cocoa butter crystals become rigid again and come closer together, allowing the chocolate to solidify.\n", "Section::::Natural simulants.\n", "The first crystalline artificial diamond simulants were synthetic white sapphire (AlO, pure corundum) and spinel (MgO·AlO, pure magnesium aluminium oxide). Both have been synthesized in large quantities since the first decade of the 20th century via the Verneuil or flame-fusion process, although spinel was not in wide use until the 1920s. The Verneuil process involves an inverted oxyhydrogen blowpipe, with purified feed powder mixed with oxygen that is carefully fed through the blowpipe. The feed powder falls through the oxy-hydrogen flame, melts, and lands on a rotating and slowly descending pedestal below. The height of the pedestal is constantly adjusted to keep its top at the optimal position below the flame, and over a number of hours the molten powder cools and crystallizes to form a single pedunculated pear or \"boule\" crystal. The process is an economical one, with crystals of up to 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) in diameter grown. Boules grown via the modern Czochralski process may weigh several kilograms.\n", "Section::::Color enhancements.:Irradiation.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing technologies.:Chemical vapor deposition.\n", "Section::::Artificial simulants.:1976 to present.\n", "It was Alice in the boat. She is buying an egg and it turns into Humpty-Dumpty. The woman serving in the shop turns into a sheep and the next minute they are rowing in a rowing boat somewhere and I was visualizing that.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing technologies.\n\nThere are several methods used to produce synthetic diamonds. The original method uses high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) and is still widely used because of its relatively low cost. The process involves large presses that can weigh hundreds of tons to produce a pressure of 5 GPa at 1500 °C. The second method, using chemical vapor deposition (CVD), creates a carbon plasma over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms deposit to form diamond. Other methods include explosive formation (forming detonation nanodiamonds) and sonication of graphite solutions.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing technologies.:High pressure, high temperature.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing technologies.:Ultrasound cavitation.\n", "Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size. It is possible to make colorless synthetic gemstones that, on a molecular level, are identical to natural stones and so visually similar that only a gemologist with special equipment can tell the difference.\n", "Gem-quality diamonds grown in a lab can be chemically, physically and optically identical to naturally occurring ones. The mined diamond industry has undertaken legal, marketing and distribution countermeasures to protect its market from the emerging presence of synthetic diamonds. Synthetic diamonds can be distinguished by spectroscopy in the infrared, ultraviolet, or X-ray wavelengths. The DiamondView tester from De Beers uses UV fluorescence to detect trace impurities of nitrogen, nickel or other metals in HPHT or CVD diamonds.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Synthetic diamonds can be grown from high-purity carbon under high pressures and temperatures or from hydrocarbon gas by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Imitation diamonds can also be made out of materials such as cubic zirconia and silicon carbide. Natural, synthetic and imitation diamonds are most commonly distinguished using optical techniques or thermal conductivity measurements.\n\nSection::::Material properties.\n", "The candy is prepared by mixing roasted, peeled peanuts with melted brown sugar, with or without the addition of macerated peanuts as well. The mixture is gently stirred over low heat until it gets close to crystallizing. Then the mixture is placed on a plain stone or metal surface (preferably thinly oiled with butter to ease removal) in pieces similar in size to cookies. This traditional preparation results in soft, irregularly-shaped sweets of a dark brown color. Softness results from the incorporation of peanut oil.\n", "Section::::Clarity enhancement.\n\nLaser \"drilling\" involves using a laser to burn a hole to a colored inclusion, followed by acid washing to remove the coloring agent. The clarity grade is the grade after the treatment. The treatment is considered permanent.\n", "Section::::Desired and differential properties.:Thermal and electrical.\n", "The concern in the industry today is what if, just what if there is a way to synthesise diamonds that are non-detectable from natural diamonds? What if technology uses the ability to make this synthetic diamond and no one knows this is synthetic?\"\n\nSection::::Conflict diamonds.\n", "The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous crystallization). The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best form is present. The six different crystal forms have different properties.\n", "Section::::Production.:Tempering.\n\nThe final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken. The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.\n", "The recipe is relatively easy requiring only vegetable shortening, icing sugar, cocoa, desiccated coconut and Rice Bubbles (or Coco Pops). The hydrogenated oil is melted and combined with the dry ingredients and portions of the mixture are placed in cupcake pans to set, usually in the refrigerator. Sometimes these are lined with cupcake papers – round sheets of thin, rounded and fluted paper. The hydrogenated oil re-sets to give each cake its form without baking.\n", "Before packaging, the peanut butter must first be cooled in order to be sealed in jars. The mixture is pumped into a heat exchanger in order to cool it to about . Once cool, the peanut butter is pumped into jars and vacuum sealed. This vacuum sealing rids the container of oxygen so that oxidation cannot occur, preserving the food. The jars are then labelled and set aside until crystallization occurs. The peanut butter is then packaged into cartons distributed to retailers, where they are stored at room temperature and sold to consumers.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14315	if someone knows how to play the piano, and sat down at a organ, would they be able to play the organ without any practice?	Have played both piano (for many years) and organ (just 1 or 2 yrs) so I have first hand experience. First, the obvious difference is that the organ has a pedalboard so you play the bass notes with your feet. Completely unique skill that you must learn from scratch. Secondly, the organ has stops (the knobs to the side used to change the sound). These aren't a huge difference because a lot of times you might just set the stops at the beginning of a piece and leave it. Thirdly, the organ has multiple keyboards, each of which can have its stops set separately, so each keyboard can have a different sound. But organs and pianos both have a keyboard, so if you didn't need the pedals or stops, playing the organ is just like the piano, right? Wrong. The action (how the keys respond) of the keyboard is different. The piano is velocity- sensitive and the keys have a weightier response. The organ keyboard feels more like a non-weighted digital keyboard. There is also no sustain pedal on the organ so if you want a note to hold, you must keep your finger on the key. With the piano you can cheat a bit using the pedal. So your fingering technique on the organ involves more finger substitution (where you switch which finger is on a key without lifting the key) and sometimes awkward reaches. On the piano a bigger part of the technique is how you strike each key, because that's where your expressiveness comes from. So, yes, someone who plays the piano could play the organ simply, but to be good at each instrument requires somewhat separate skill sets and ample practice on each.	[ "Ellis began organ studies in the 6th grade, and at 15 began studying with R. Gary Deavel at Manchester University in North Manchester, Indiana.\n", "In the Netherlands there is a wealth of historical organs. For the preservation and maintenance of this cultural legacy, it is important to encourage a continuing flow of new organists and organ builders. To prevent that knowledge and enthusiasm for organs continue to decline, Orgelkids has made a special instrument available to schools. An organist or organ builder visits the school with the Do-organ and supervises the students as they build/assemble the organ.\n\nSection::::Orgelkids Do-organ.\n", "In 2001, a long audition process began. Eventually, Sketch \"tired of auditions,\" and decided to \"just hire some people.\" After finding a handful of like-minded musicians, Katie assigned them instruments and taught them to play. Taught is a relative term though—Debbie had been playing guitar for three years, and Sketch has expressed distaste in interviews when portrayed as a \"music teacher\" to the girls: \"[The press seems] to think they had a lot of help or something, but mostly it's just the drive to be able to learn the instruments and play them,\" Sketch said. \"[My teaching them] was maybe a half-an-hour, hour process.\"\n", "Many organ scholars have gone on to notable careers in music and in other fields. Two notable ex-organ scholars who went on to achieve fame in other fields are Edward Heath, who read Philosophy, Politics, and Economics at Balliol College, Oxford and later served as British Prime Minister 1970–1974; and Dudley Moore, who read music at Magdalen College, Oxford and went on to a career in acting.\n", "There is speculation that some works written for organ may have been intended for pedal clavichord. An interesting case is made by Harald Vogel that Bach's \"Eight Little Preludes and Fugues\", now thought to be spurious, may actually be authentic. The keyboard writing seems unsuited to organ, but Vogel argues that they are idiomatic on the pedal clavichord. As also notes, the compass of the keyboard parts of Bach's six organ sonatas, BWV 525–530 rarely go below the tenor C, so could have been played on a single manual pedal clavichord, by moving the left hand down an octave, a customary practice in the 18th century.\n", "Mark Whitty of Australia built his own electric piano with 15 bass pedals in 1980. In the 1990s, he converted it for MIDI, controlling a Roland piano module running into a Yamaha 200w p/ch stereo mixer amplifier, with the keyboard panned left and right and the pedals panned center.\n\nOf course, nowadays any MIDI controller keyboard and MIDI pedalboard can recreate the effect essentially of the Pedal Piano, without all of the bulk and expense of mechanical instruments. This way, anyone can play the pedal piano repertoire easily.\n\nSection::::Compositions for pedal piano.\n\nSection::::Compositions for pedal piano.:19th century.\n", "The field of piano pedagogy may be studied through academic programs culminating in the attainment of a bachelor, master, or doctoral degree at music colleges or conservatories. The undergraduate level may require many years of prior piano studies and previous teaching experience as prerequisites for application. At the graduate level, many schools require applicants to have some teaching experience and at least a bachelor of music or equivalent experience in piano performance and/or pedagogy.\n", "\"I met Katie Sketch when we worked morning shifts at a wretched cinnamon bun shop,\" says Efron, \"but we really became friends on a road trip where we ended up breaking down in the redneck town of Hermiston, Oregon. On this trip, we decided to form a band and call it Full Sketch.\" Katie, though she was already a proficient multi-instrumentalist, decided this would be a good time to try her hand at drums.\n", "The \"pedalier\" piano, or pedal piano, is a rare type of piano that includes a pedalboard so players can user their feet to play bass register notes, as on an organ. There are two types of pedal piano. On one, the pedal board is an integral part of the instrument, using the same strings and mechanism as the manual keyboard. The other, rarer type, consists of two independent pianos (each with separate mechanics and strings) placed one above the other—one for the hands and one for the feet. This was developed primarily as a practice instrument for organists, though there is a small repertoire written specifically for the instrument.\n", "However, with an organ chest to account for as well as the harpsichord or clavichord, may also be possible that the organ was operated from the pedal board, leaving the harpsichord/clavichord completely separate, although still allowing the two to be coupled together when desired. This would be similar to having one of the keyboards of a virginal claviorgan completely separate.\n", "In the United States, piano lessons may be offered by teachers without higher education specifically focused in piano performance or piano pedagogy. Some teachers may hold degrees in another discipline in music, such as music education or another performance area (voice, orchestral instrument, etc.). Other teachers, without higher education in music, may have studied piano playing independently or have been self-taught.\n\nSection::::Professional training.:Undergraduate and graduate studies in piano pedagogy.\n", "Since 2016, Orgelkids has been supporting the training of organ builders and the passing down of artisanal skills. Organ building shops can have apprentice builders work on an Orgelkids instrument during their practical training. In doing so they develop all manner of practical skills which are also needed in the building or restoration of large, monumental organs. After completion, the organ kit can be made available for educational projects.\n\nFor those who wish to build an organ kit themselves, building instructions are available including 20 technical drawings that correspond to the original organ.\n\nSection::::Foundation.\n", "BULLET::::- Sean Hulings was a guest on NBC's \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\" in a segment called \"The Tonight Show Side Show,\" August 14, 2004, performing the theme from Indiana Jones.\n", "Organ scholars may sometimes be found at a cathedral or a collegiate church. Many colleges at Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin universities, as well as other universities, offer organ scholarships to undergraduates. At some institutions (for example, Christ Church, Oxford, New College, Oxford, Trinity College, Dublin or King's College, Cambridge), the organ scholar(s) work under the direction of a full-time professional Director of Music. At other institutions, the organ scholar is in charge of running the choir.\n", "During the summer of 1871, Sherwood took five weeks of piano lessons with the American composer and pianist, William Mason. Recognizing Sherwood's talent, Mason encouraged him to study piano in Europe. Sherwood first traveled to Berlin, Germany with his father, where he began piano studies with Theodor Kullak. Kullak criticized the limitations of Sherwood's small hands and expressed concern that he would not do great legato octave work. Recognizing this challenge, Sherwood drafted his own manipulations of the joints within his thumbs, practiced slowing and accurately, and over time was able to successfully demonstrate his octave exercises to Kullak.\n", "Rubbra took piano lessons from a local lady with a good reputation and a piano with discoloured ivory keys. This instrument contrasted starkly with the piano on which Rubbra practised, which was a new demonstration upright piano, lent to his family by his uncle by marriage. This uncle owned a piano and music shop, and prospective buyers would come to Rubbra's house, where he would demonstrate the quality of the piano by playing Mozart's Sonata in C to them. If the\n", "An organ in a lesson box is a unique concept, first conceived and built by Dutch organ builder Wim Janssen specially for the goal of educating children with the technology and playing of the organ. It is not a demonstration organ with just a few keys, but a real instrument with which children can self-discover how it works. That is the reason it was given the name, \"Do-organ.\"\n", "One of the first organ scholarships in the University of Cambridge was set up by Queens' College, Cambridge. An early scholar there was the composer Charles Villiers Stanford, who took up his position there in 1870.\n", "There are many organists employed in the production of popular and jazz music. In the United States most of them play the Hammond organ, and many are classically trained, often in piano rather than organ. In England and Japan, one of the most popular series of instruments is the Yamaha Electone; while Electones of recent decades are more properly characterized as digital synthesizers rather than as organs, the player interface, and the skills and coordination required to play, mean that it may be effectively regarded by some, as an organ in these respects.\n\nSection::::Organizations.\n", "Although virtually all piano pedagogy programs include a significant portion of performance requirement, the pedagogy major may be distinct from the performance major at some schools. Some members of the latter group may have the option to take courses in the teaching of piano, but not all do.\n\nSection::::Professional training.:Professional organizations in the United States.\n", "Swedish organist L. Nilson published a method for the pedal keyboard, the English translation of which was titled \"A System of Technical Studies in Pedal Playing for the Organ\" (Schirmer, 1904). Nilson lamented that it \"...is a melancholy fact that only very few eminent organists since Bach's time have made it their business to lift pedal-playing out of its primitive confusion...\" (page 1 of Preface). He argued that the great organ pedagogues such as Kittel and Abbe Vogler did not make any efforts to improve the \"...system of playing on the pedals\". Nilson makes one exception from this critique: the organ method of J. Lemmens, who he praises as having reformed pedal playing by introducing \"...sound principles of execution\" (page 2 of Preface). Nilson's pedal method includes scale and arpeggio studies, polyphonic studies with both feet playing in contrary motion, studies written in parallel octaves, and studies written in thirds.\n", "There are a small number of organ compositions that are written solely for the pedal keyboard. English organist and composer George Thalben-Ball (1896–1987) wrote a piece entitled “Variations on a Theme by Paganini” for pedal keyboard. Based on Paganini's “Caprice No. 24”, a virtuoso work for solo violin, it includes pedal glissandi, leaps from one end of the pedalboard to the other, and four-note chords.\n", "The main organization that offers certificates and testing curriculum in Canada is Royal Conservatory of Music. There are three levels in their certificate program; elementary, intermediate and advanced. Elementary pedagogy certificate enables teachers to teach beginners up to grade two piano, while intermediate certificate allows teachers to teach up to grade 6 piano. Advanced piano pedagogy is known as \"ARCT\" (Associate of Royal Conservatory of Toronto), which enables teachers to teach up to grade 10. There are also a number of theory and history examinations that accompany each certificate program which must be completed. There is also a Piano Teachers Federation based in Vancouver, British Columbia.\n", "Section::::Music technology.\n\nAfter moving to the United States, Taussig developed a technology tool at the Yamaha Corporation, Musical Sculpting. Using the company’s Disklavier-PRO computer-driven concert grand, the application allowed handicapped pianists to record with minimal use of their fingers. To demonstrate the potential inherent in this novel recording technique Taussig released two albums created entirely without the use of fingers, Bach's The Art of Fugue, (2001) and The Well-Tempered Clavier/a, book 1 (2002).\n", "Bish began piano lessons when she was 6 years old and started organ lessons at age 14. She noted that her foundation in piano gave her the background needed to succeed with organ studies, which required not only excellent keyboard technique but also added in the pedal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05605	Why is giving birth seemingly so much more painful for humans than any other animal?	We evolved a tough combination of traits: big heads to hold our overdeveloped brains, and slim, bony hips to allow us to walk upright. Those ended up being two of our biggest advantages, and those helped us advance beyond our early cave-dwelling, scavenger days.... but put them together and you're trying to push a big head through a small hole, and it causes a lot of problems.	[ "Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting 24 hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes lead to the death of the mother, the child or both. This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference and the mother's relatively narrow pelvis. The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.\n", "Pain is expected during labor and is seen as part of the natural labor process. There is little knowledge about options such as epidurals in some communities. Depending on birth location, some women receive pain relief from warm water and massage, while other receive little support or even human touch. In hospital births, private hospitals have a higher rate of pain relief. One study found the rate for private hospitals to be 9.9 percent while the public hospitals had a rate of 0.9 percent.\n", "Peter Singer, a bioethicist and author of \"Animal Liberation\" published in 1975, suggested that consciousness is not necessarily the key issue: just because animals have smaller brains, or are ‘less conscious’ than humans, does not mean that they are not capable of feeling pain. He goes on further to argue that we do not assume newborn infants, people suffering from neurodegenerative brain diseases or people with learning disabilities experience less pain than we would.\n", "Instead of medical interventions, a variety of non-invasive methods are employed during natural childbirth to ease the mother's pain. Many of these techniques stress the importance of \"a mind-body connection,\" which the techno-medical model of birth does not. These techniques include hydrotherapy, massage, relaxation therapy, hypnosis, breathing exercises, acupressure for labor, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), vocalization, visualization, mindfulness and water birth. Other approaches include movement, walking, and different positions (for example, using a birthing ball), hot and cold therapy (for example, using hot compresses and/or cold packs), and receiving one-on-one labor support like that provided by a midwife or doula. However, natural childbirth proponents maintain that pain is a natural and necessary part of the labor process, and should not automatically be regarded as entirely negative. In contrast to the pain of injury and disease, they believe that the pain of childbirth is a sign that the female body is functioning as it is meant to.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Cattle.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Dogs.\n", "Section::::Pain management after childbirth.\n\nPerineal pain after childbirth has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant. The pain from injection sites and possible episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered. Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Epidural\n\nBULLET::::- Lumbar puncture\n\nBULLET::::- Combined spinal and epidural anaesthesia\n", "Perineal pain after episiotomy has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant. The pain from injection sites and episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered. Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Perineal massage\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Episiotomy, Merck Manual Professional Edition\n", "Obstructed labor is unique to humans compared to other primates. The evolution of humans to become obligate bipedal and increase in brain size create the problems associated with obstructed labor. In order for bipedal locomotion to be possible, many changes had to occur to the skeletal structure of humans, especially in the pelvis. Both the shape and orientation of the pelvis changed. Other primates have straighter and wider pelvises compared to humans. A narrow pelvis is better for bipedal locomotion but makes childbirth more difficult. The pelvis is sexually dimorphic, with females having a wider pelvis to be better suited for childbirth. However, the female pelvis still must accommodate for bipedal locomotion which is what creates the challenges for obstructed labor. The brain size of humans has also increased as the species has evolved, resulting in a larger head of the fetus that must exit the womb. This requires human infants to be born less developed when compared to other species. The bones of the skull are not yet fused when a human infant is born in order to prevent the head from becoming too large to exit the womb. However, the head of the fetus is still large and poses the possibility for obstructed labor.\n", "Pain management during childbirth\n\nPain management during childbirth is the treatment or prevention of pain that a woman may experience during labor and delivery. The amount of pain a woman feels during labor depends partly on the size and position of her baby, the size of her pelvis, her emotions, the strength of the contractions, and her outlook. Tension increases pain during labor. Virtually all women worry about how they will cope with the pain of labor and delivery. Childbirth is different for each woman and predicting the amount of pain experienced during birth and delivery can not be certain.\n", "Peter Singer, a bioethicist and author of \"Animal Liberation\" published in 1975, suggested that consciousness is not necessarily the key issue: just because animals have smaller brains, or are 'less conscious' than humans, does not mean that they are not capable of feeling pain. He goes on further to argue that we do not assume newborn infants, people suffering from neurodegenerative brain diseases or people with learning disabilities experience less pain than we would.\n", "Studies have also shown that high IMR is due to the inadequate care that pregnant African Americans receive compared to other women in the country. This unequal treatment stems from the idea that there are racial medical differences and is also rooted in racial biases and controlled images of black women. Because of this unequal treatment, research finds that black women do not receive the same urgency in medical care and are not taken as seriously regarding pain they feel or complications they think they are having, as exemplified by the complications tennis-star Serena Williams faced during her delivery.\n", "Perineal pain after childbirth has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant. The pain from injection sites and possible episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered. Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth. Comfort is enhanced with changing linens, urination, the cleaning of the perineum and ice packs. Privacy also in implemented to promote comfort.\n", "During the hominin’s early evolution, brains became larger, due to increased intelligence, and bipedalism became the norm. The consequences of these two changes in particular resulted in painful and difficult labor due to the increased favor of a narrow pelvis for bipedalism being countered by larger heads passing through the constricted birth canal. This phenomenon is commonly known as the obstetrical dilemma.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nBipedal movement occurs in a number of ways, and requires many mechanical and neurological adaptations. Some of these are described below.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Biomechanics.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Biomechanics.:Standing.\n", "The most prominent sign of labour is strong repetitive uterine contractions. The distress levels reported by labouring women vary widely. They appear to be influenced by fear and anxiety levels, experience with prior childbirth, cultural ideas of childbirth and pain, mobility during labour, and the support received during labour. Personal expectations, the amount of support from caregivers, quality of the caregiver-patient relationship, and involvement in decision-making are more important in women's overall satisfaction with the experience of childbirth than are other factors such as age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, preparation, physical environment, pain, immobility, or medical interventions.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Descriptions.\n", "Though Bariba women who deliver in health facilities may not indicate that the birthing is more painful than at home, they give some indications that it is more uncomfortable due to a lack of privacy, the possibility of being attended by male staff, restrictions on who can accompany a woman in a delivery setting, and the authority of the hospital staff. There is also little distraction and the element of staying in bed that changes the dynamic of labor and the associated discomfort.\n", "Some women do fine with \"natural methods\" of pain relief alone. Many women blend \"natural methods\" with medications and medical interventions that relieve pain. Building a positive outlook on childbirth and managing fear may also help some women cope with the pain. Labor pain is not like pain due to illness or injury. Instead, it is caused by contractions of the uterus that are pushing the baby down and out of the birth canal. In other words, labor pain has a purpose.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "In waterbirthing, a woman remains in the water for delivery. The American Academy of Pediatrics has expressed concerns about delivering in water because of a lack of studies showing its safety and because of the rare but reported chance of complications.\n\nSection::::Medical and pharmaceutical methods of pain control.\n", "In 2016, complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium resulted globally in 230,600 deaths, down from 377,000 deaths in 1990. The most common causes of maternal mortality are maternal bleeding, maternal sepsis and other infections, hypertensive diseases of pregnancy, obstructed labor, and , which includes miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, and elective abortion.\n", "Human infants are also almost always born with assistance from other humans because of the way that the pelvis is shaped. Since the pelvis and opening of birth canal face backwards, humans have difficulty giving birth themselves because they cannot guide the baby out of the canal. Non-human primates seek seclusion when giving birth because they do not need any help due to the pelvis and opening being more forward. Human infants depend on their parents much more and for much longer than other primates. Humans spend a lot of their time caring for their children as they develop whereas other species stand on their own from when they are born. The faster an infant develops, the higher the reproductive output of a female can be. So in humans, the cost of slow development of their infants is that humans reproduce relatively slowly. This phenomenon is also known as cooperative breeding.\n", "Section::::Other animals.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Marsupials.\n", "Obstetrical dilemma\n\nThe obstetrical dilemma is a hypothesis to explain why humans often require assistance from other humans during childbirth to avoid complications, whereas most non-human primates give birth alone with relatively little difficulty. The obstetrical dilemma posits that this is due to the biological trade-off imposed by two opposing evolutionary pressures in the development of the human pelvis. As human ancestor species (hominids) developed bipedal locomotion (the ability to walk upright), decreasing the size of the bony birth canal, they also developed ever larger skulls, which required a wider obstetrical pelvic area to accommodate this trend in hominid infants.\n", "Childbirth, referred to as labor and delivery in the medical field, is the process whereby an infant is born.\n\nA woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix – primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations. Most births are successful vaginal births, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a cesarean section.\n", "Over the course of the next 15 years, Karta experienced a number of infant losses.\n\nBULLET::::- August 1995; Karta gave birth to a healthy baby but the baby died at four days old. It took two days for the zookeepers to separate her from the baby. Although a head injury was found, it was not the cause of death.\n\nBULLET::::- April 1997; Karta delivered a baby at night but it was found dead in the morning.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01708	I’m lying on the couch and staring at the ceiling right now. Why is the ceiling bumpy as if there were tiny rocks embedded in the paint? How do they get the paint to be so bumpy like that? Is there a benefit from having it like this.	For multiple reasons. For one, it's cheaper - you can do it more quickly and with less labor. Also, it hides any imperfections, so you can also spend less time working on ceiling seems. And last, it was said to give some acoustic benefits.	[ "The reason for this is that invariably when a ceiling is being worked on plaster will fall and splash onto the walls. However a texture mix doesn't need to be smoothed out when it starts to set:\n\nBULLET::::- thus a retardant such as \"Cream of tartar\" or sugar can be used to prolong the setting time, and is easily scraped off the walls.\n\nBULLET::::- and since time is not as restraining of a factor on textured ceilings a large mix, or back-to-back mixes can be done and all ceilings covered at the same time.\n", "Environmental hazards from the lead paint used on turn of the century tin ceilings mean that this is a job for experts in the field. Often restoration is achieved by simply stripping old paint, treating the metal with a protective base coat, patching minor damaged areas, and repainting. In some cases, where small sections of a ceiling have been damaged, partial restoration is needed. Panels can be easily replaced through companies that still manufacture original design components. If, however, a ceiling requires a historic pattern that is no longer in production, good quality panels from the existing ceiling may be used to create a mold and new customized tin can be pressed. \n", "If a wall is to be smooth and the ceiling textured, typically the wall is done first, then the ceiling after the wall has set. Instead of rebirding the ceiling (which would have been done when the wall was laid on), a clean trowel is held against the wall and its corner is run along the ceiling to \"cut it in\" and clean the wall at the same time. This line is then smoothed with a paintbrush to make the transition seamless.\n\nSection::::Plastering.:Traditional plastering.:Interior plastering techniques.:Sponge.\n", "This system has some major disadvantages compared to the more common \"drop panel\" system, most notably the difficulty in removing and reattaching panels from the grid, which in some cases can cause irreparable damage to the panels removed. Finding replacement panels for this type of dropped ceiling is becoming increasingly more difficult as demand for them is slowing, as is production of the parts. Small clips are still available which allow tiles to be inserted into gaps in the ceiling where a tile is missing, they work by being placed on the edge of a concealed tile, then being slid along as the tile is placed to 'lock' it in place.\n", "Wiring and piping installed behind traditional plaster or wallboard ceilings is extremely difficult to modify once the finished ceiling is in place. Wires must either be fished through hollow spaces in the walls behind the finished ceiling, or the ceiling must be demolished in order for wiring or piping changes to be made.\n", "BULLET::::3. IC rated remodel housings are used in existing ceilings where insulation will be present and in contact with the fixture.\n\nBULLET::::4. Non-IC rated remodel housings are used for existing ceilings where, ideally, no insulation is present. However, these also require that there be no contact with insulation and at least spacing from insulation. Sloped-ceiling housings are available for both insulated and non-insulated ceilings that are vaulted.\n", "A typical dropped ceiling consists of a gridwork of metal channels in the shape of an upside-down \"T\", suspended on wires from the overhead structure. These channels snap together in a regularly spaced pattern of cells. Each cell is then filled with lightweight ceiling tiles or \"panels\" which simply drop into the grid. The primary grid types are \"Standard 1\" (\" face), Slimline (\" grid), and concealed grid.\n", "If full restoration is needed, meaning no part of the existing ceiling remains structurally sound, a professional can help design a new ceiling appropriate for the period and structure using existing molds or creating reproductions based on photographic evidence or architectural drawings. This latter method can be extremely expensive, and is not cost effective, due to the cost of making a custom mold for the panel and usually the metal trim that was also used with the original project.\n", "In contrast, the tiles and other parts of a dropped or stretch ceiling are easily removed to allow access to the area above the grid to do any necessary wiring or plumbing modifications. In the event of remodelling, nearly all components of the grid can be dismantled and reassembled somewhere else.\n", "A subset of the dropped ceiling is the suspended ceiling, wherein a network of aluminum struts, as opposed to drywall, are attached to the joists, forming a series of rectangular spaces. Individual pieces of cardboard are then placed inside the bottom of those spaces so that the outer side of the cardboard, interspersed with aluminum rails, is seen as the ceiling from below. This makes it relatively easy to repair the pipes and insulation behind the ceiling, since all that is necessary is to lift off the cardboard, rather than digging through the drywall and then replacing it.\n", "Most of what one actually sees, entering a room, are the vertical surfaces. The illumination requires asymmetric lighting fixtures, which, in a number of 3 or more in a line, can produce evenly illuminated walls. It is a tool mainly used by lighting designers, to create lighter spaces or making the rooms seem brighter or higher. The technique is similar to the \"horizon\" technique used in theatre lighting.\n", "Section::::Plastering.:Traditional plastering.:Interior plastering techniques.:Textured.\n\nTexturing is usually reserved for closets, ceilings and garage walls.\n", "For many years, dropped ceilings were made of basic white tiles, but modern innovations now offer a plethora of options in sizes, colors, materials (including retro designs and faux leather, wood, or metal), visual effects and shapes, patterns, and textures as well as support systems and ways to access the plenum. Custom runs of specialty ceiling tiles can be done at relatively low cost compared with the past.\n\nSection::::Design objectives.:Acoustics.\n\nAcoustic balance and control was another early objective of dropped ceilings. A noisy room can overstimulate occupants, while a too quiet interior may seem dull and uninviting.\n", "Section::::Stretch Ceiling.\n\nWith similar advantages to a dropped ceiling, a stretch ceiling is often used to conceal pipework, wires or the existing ceiling. On top of this there is usually a broad choice of colour or texture and the membrane can be manipulated into a variety of shapes.\n\nA stretch ceiling is a suspended ceiling system and it is made of three main components\n", "When installing a stretch ceiling, semi-concealed plastic/aluminum track, the preferred choice for most architects and designers, is cut to size and fixed to the perimeter of the ceiling area. The membrane is stretched and the harpoon or catch edge is clipped into the track. Stretching is aided by heating up the membrane or sheet prior to fitting.\n\nSection::::Drop out ceilings.\n", "BULLET::::- To obtain proper cohesion, however, a roughened face is necessary, and this is obtained by keying the surface with a wire brush or nail float, that is, a hand float with the point of a nail sticking through and projecting about 1/8 inch; sometimes a point is put at each corner of the float.\n\nBULLET::::- After the floating is finished to the walls and ceiling, the next part of internal plastering is the running of the cornice, followed by the finishing of the ceiling and walls.\n", "Approved Drop out (or drop-out) ceilings allow the installation of a dropped ceiling beneath existing fire sprinklers because the tiles, sometimes called melt-out ceiling tiles, are heat sensitive and designed to fall from the dropped ceiling suspension grid in the event of a fire, allowing the sprinklers to do their job.\n\nDrop out ceiling tiles can add to the aesthetic appeal of a ceiling since the fire sprinklers are hidden by the tiles. Commonly made from vinyl or expanded polystyrene, drop out ceiling tiles are available in multiple sizes and finishes from a variety of manufacturers.\n", "The most common type of ceiling is the dropped ceiling, which is suspended from structural elements above. Panels of drywall are fastened either directly to the ceiling joists or to a few layers of moisture-proof plywood which are then attached to the joists. Pipework or ducts can be run in the gap above the ceiling, and insulation and fireproofing material can be placed here.\n", "The lay-on phase is the same as smooth but it is added with a thicker coat. Once the coat is on uniformly the plasterer then goes back and birds his corners. Staying away from the corner he then gets a trowel with a nice banana curve in it and starts to run it over the wall in a figure eight or Ess pattern, making sure to cross all areas at least once. He adds a little extra plaster to his trowel if needed. The overall effect is layers of paint-like swaths over the whole of the ceiling or wall. He can then just walk away and let it set with care taken not too leave any globs and to make sure the corners look smooth and linear.\n", "BULLET::::- another reason is that a bird is usually run along the top corner after doing a smooth ceiling, then it is easier to maintain this edge by doing the wall last. But a textured ceiling normally doesn't need to be birded, only blended in with a very wet paint brush. In this case the wall is done first and the corner formed with the bird.\n\nBULLET::::- Scratching\n", "One disadvantage with this ceiling system is reduced headroom. Clearance is required between the grid and any pipes or ductwork above to install the ceiling tiles and light fixtures. In general, a minimum clearance of is often needed between the lowest obstruction and the level of the ceiling grid. A direct-mount grid may work for those who want the convenience of a dropped ceiling, but have limited headroom. Stretch ceiling supports require less than one inch of vertical space, and no space is required for tiles to be lifted out with a stretch ceiling, but a greater clearance space may be chosen to allow room for MEC or for aesthetic reasons.\n", "Shiny-floor show\n\nA shiny-floor show is a light entertainment television program that is recorded in or broadcast from the floor of a television studio, often in front of a live audience. The name derives from the flat floor of the studio, which is typically covered in a shiny temporary self-adhesive plastic overlay.\n\nExamples of shiny-floor shows include studio-based celebrity competition shows such as the BBC's \"Strictly Come Dancing\", game shows such as BBC's \"The Weakest Link\", and talent shows such as \"The Voice\" and \"The X Factor.\"\n", "Gloss level can be characterized by the angular distribution of light scattered from a surface, measured with a glossmeter, but there are various ways of measuring this, and different industries have different standards.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nIn traditional household interiors, walls are usually painted in flat or eggshell gloss, wooden trim (including doors and window sash) in high gloss, and ceilings almost invariably in flat. Similarly, exterior trim is usually painted with a gloss paint, while the body of the house is painted in a lower gloss.\n\nGloss-paint is commonplace in the automotive industry for car bodies.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::1. IC or “insulation contact” rated new construction housings are attached to the ceiling supports before the ceiling surface is installed. If the area above the ceiling is accessible these fixtures may also be installed from within the attic space. IC housings must be installed wherever insulation will be in direct contact with the housing.\n\nBULLET::::2. Non-IC rated new construction housings are used in the same situations as the IC rated new construction housings, only they require that there be no contact with insulation and at least spacing from insulation. These housings are typically rated up to 150 watts.\n", "An older, less common type of dropped ceiling is the \"concealed grid\" system. This type of dropped ceiling employs a method of interlocking panels into each other and the grid with the use of small strips of metal called 'splines', thus making it difficult to remove panels to gain access above the ceiling without damaging the installation or the panels. Normally, these type of ceilings will have a \"key panel\" (usually in the corner) which can be removed, allowing for the other panels to be slid out of the grid (a series of metal channels called 'z bars') one by one, until eventually removing the desired panel. This type of ceiling is more commonly found in older installations or installations where access to above the ceiling is generally considered unnecessary.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22824	What causes the switch process in bipolar disorder?	Mainly hormones and the amount your body produces or gives you - or doesn't because something stops/slows down the production of hormones that make you happy. (Serotonine and Dopamine) If some points in your body get close to them - you get happy. This is manic BPD. Works also the other way around some bodies produce more of the 'feel good/euphoric' hormones but less 'feel bad' ones with the opposite effect. This is depressive BPD. This is caused by neurological problems. Your brain can't control this right and you can't control your brain when it comes to this . Imagine pulling off all cables on a machine with no Idea how to reattach them. Feels like sitting on the back of a bike with no driver and just sometimes you can take the wheel yourself. Edit: ELI5 : Your brain doesn't produce the needed amount of 'happy' and 'sad' hormones or can't distribute them right. So they wait until they can 'come through' which leads to fast mood swings.	[ "Some of the brain components which have been proposed to play a role are the mitochondria and a sodium ATPase pump. Circadian rhythms and regulation of the hormone melatonin also seem to be altered.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Neurochemical.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Neurological.\n\nLess commonly, bipolar disorder or a bipolar-like disorder may occur as a result of or in association with a neurological condition or injury. Conditions like these and injuries include stroke, traumatic brain injury, HIV infection, multiple sclerosis, porphyria, and rarely temporal lobe epilepsy.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Physiological.\n", "Glycogen synthase kinase 3 has been implicated in bipolar disorder, as bipolar medications lithium and valproate have been shown to increase its phosphorylation, thereby inhibiting it. However, some postmortem studies have not shown any differences in GSK-3 levels or the levels of a downstream target β-catenin. In contrast, one review reported a number of studies observing reduced expression of β-catenin and GSK3 mRNA in the prefrontal and temporal cortex.\n", "John O. Brooks III put forward a model of bipolar disorder involving dysregulation of a circuit called the \"corticolimbic system\". The model was based on more or less consistent observations of reduced activity in the mOFC, vlPFC, and dlPFC, as well as the more or less consistent observations of increased activity in the amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, cerebellar vermis, anterior temporal cortex, sgACC, and ACC. This pattern of abnormal activity was suggested to contribute to disrupted cognitive and affective processes in bipolar disorder.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Neurocognition.\n", "The \"Kindling model\" of mood disorders suggests that major environmental stressors trigger initial mood episodes, but as mood episodes occur, weaker and weaker triggers can precipitate an affective episode. This model was initially created for epilepsy, to explain why weaker and weaker electrical stimulation was necessary to elicit a seizure as the disease progressed. While parallels have been drawn between bipolar disorder and epilepsy, supporting the kindling hypothesis, this model is generally not supported by studies directly assessing it in bipolar subjects.\n\nSection::::Etiology.:Neurological Disorders.\n", "Often individuals who are \"moody\" or have mood swings say they are bipolar. Bipolar disorder is an often severe mood disorder characterized by periods of days, weeks, or months of deep depression, alternating with periods of normal mood and/or manic episodes, which are not just periods of \"high energy\" or \"productivity\", though these may be a symptom of mania.\n\nSection::::Problems.\n\nClinomorphism is in fact often both a contributory factor in as well as being the result of the mythology and popular misconception of many medical conditions.\n", "Section::::Cognitive functioning.\n", "Findings point strongly to heterogeneity, with different genes being implicated in different families. Robust and replicable genome-wide significant associations showed several common SNPs, including variants within the genes \"CACNA1C\", \"ODZ4\", and \"NCAN\".\n\nBipolar disorder is associated with reduced expression of specific DNA repair enzymes and increased levels of oxidative DNA damages.\n\nAdvanced paternal age has been linked to a somewhat increased chance of bipolar disorder in offspring, consistent with a hypothesis of increased new genetic mutations.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Environmental.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Neuroimaging.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Neuroimaging.:Structural.\n", "Section::::Etiology.\n\nSection::::Etiology.:Genetic.\n", "Advanced paternal age has been linked to a somewhat increased chance of bipolar disorder in offspring, consistent with a hypothesis of increased new genetic mutations.\n\nSection::::Etiology.:Environmental.\n\nManic episodes can be produced by sleep deprivation in around 30% of people with bipolar. While not all people with bipolar demonstrate seasonality of affective symptoms, it is a consistently reported features that supports theories of circadian dysfunction in bipolar.\n\nRisk factors for bipolar include obstetric complications, abuse, drug use, and major life stressors.\n", "The bipolar disorder is known to have a high heritability. Therefore, sleep disturbances in bipolar disorder could also have a genetic basis. Studies found modest associations between several genes that are known to be associated with the generation and regulation of circadian rhythms and bipolar disorder. Two locus interactions between sleep disturbances of the rs11824092 (ARNTL) and rs11932595 (CLOCK) were found in one study.\n\nSection::::Sleep disturbances and relapse.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medical assessment.\n\nRoutine medical assessments are often prescribed to rule-out or identify a somatic cause for bipolar I symptoms. These tests can include ultrasounds of the head, x-ray computed tomography (CAT scan), electroencephalogram, HIV test, full blood count, thyroid function test, liver function test, urea and creatinine levels and if patient is on lithium, lithium levels are taken. Drug screening includes recreational drugs, particularly synthetic cannabinoids, and exposure to toxins.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medication.\n\nMood stabilizers are often used as part of the treatment process.\n", "According to the \"kindling\" hypothesis, when people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder experience stressful events, the stress threshold at which mood changes occur becomes progressively lower, until the episodes eventually start (and recur) spontaneously. There is evidence supporting an association between early-life stress and dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) leading to its overactivation, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Mitochondrial Dysfunction.\n\nSome researchers have suggested bipolar disorder is a mitochondrial disease. Some cases of familial chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia demonstrate increased rates of bipolar disorder before the onset of CPEO, and the higher rate of maternal inheritance patterns support this hypothesis. Downregulation of genes encoding for mitochondrial subunits, decreased concentration of phosphocreatine, decreased brain pH, and elevated lactate concentrations have also been reported. Mitochondrial dysfunction may be related to elevated levels of the lipid peroxidation marker thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, which are attenuated by lithium treatment.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Neuropathology.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Neurochemistry.:Neurotrophic Factors.\n\nBrain derived neurotrophic factor levels are peripherally reduced in both manic and depressive phases.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Intracellular Signaling.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.:Recovery and recurrence.\n\nA naturalistic study from first admission for mania or mixed episode (representing the hospitalized and therefore most severe cases) found that 50 percent achieved syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks and 98 percent within two years. Within two years, 72 percent achieved symptomatic recovery (no symptoms at all) and 43 percent achieved functional recovery (regaining of prior occupational and residential status). However, 40 percent went on to experience a new episode of mania or depression within 2 years of syndromal recovery, and 19 percent switched phases without recovery.\n", "Lateralized seizure sequelae similar to bipolar has been reported in people with mesial temporal lobe seizures, and provides support for kindling hypotheses about bipolar. This observation led to the first experiments with anticonvulsants in bipolar, which are effective in stabilizing mood. Studies reporting reduced markers of inhibitory interneurons post-mortem link the analogy with epilepsy to a possible reduction in inhibitory activity in emotional circuits. Overlap with epilepsy extends to include abnormalities in intracellular signaling, biochemistry in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and structure and function of the amygdala.\n", "Calcium homeostasis may be impaired across all mood states. Elevated basal intracellular, and provoked calcium concentrations in platelets and transformed lymphoblasts are found in people with bipolar. Serum concentrations of calcium are also elevated, and abnormal calcium concentrations in response to stimulation of olfactory neurons is also observed. These findings are congruent with the genetic association of bipolar with CACNAC1, an L-type calcium channel, as well as the efficacy of anti-epileptic agents. Normal platelets placed in plasma from people with bipolar disorder do not demonstrate elevated levels of intracellular calcium, indicating that dysfunction lies intracellularly. One possible mechanism is that elevated inositol triphosphate(IP3) caused by hyperactive neuronal calcium sensor 1 causes excessive calcium release. Serum levels of S100B(a calcium binding protein) are elevated in bipolar mania.\n", "Sleep in bipolar disorder\n\nSleep is known to play an important role in the etiology and maintenance of a bipolar disorder. Patients with a bipolar disorder often have for example a less stable and more variable circadian activity. This circadian activity disruption is often also apparent, even if the person concerned isn't currently ill.\n", "Psychological studies of bipolar disorder have examined the development of a wide range of both the core symptoms of psychomotor activation and related clusterings of depression/anxiety, increased hedonic tone, irritability/aggression and sometimes psychosis. The existing evidence has been described as patchy in terms of quality but converging in a consistent manner. The findings suggest that the period leading up to mania is often characterized by depression and anxiety at first, with isolated sub-clinical symptoms of mania such as increased energy and racing thoughts. The latter increase and lead to increased activity levels, the more so if there is disruption in circadian rhythms or goal attainment events. There is some indication that once mania has begun to develop, social stressors, including criticism from significant others, can further contribute. There are also indications that individuals may hold certain beliefs about themselves, their internal states, and their social world (including striving to meet high standards despite it causing distress) that may make them vulnerable during changing mood states in the face of relevant life events. In addition, subtle frontal-temporal and subcortical difficulties in \"some\" individuals, related to planning, emotional regulation and attentional control, may play a role. Symptoms are often subthreshold and likely continuous with normal experience. Once (hypo)mania has developed, there is an overall increase in activation levels and impulsivity. Negative social reactions or advice may be taken less notice of, and a person may be more caught up in their own thoughts and interpretations, often along a theme of feeling criticised. There is some suggestion that the mood variation in bipolar disorder may not be cyclical as often assumed, nor completely random, but results from a complex interaction between internal and external variables unfolding over time; there is mixed evidence as to whether relevant life events are found more often in early than later episodes. Many sufferers report inexplicably varied cyclical patterns, however.\n", "Medications used to treat bipolar may exert their effect by modulating intracellular signaling, such as through depleting myo-inositol levels, inhibition of cAMP signaling, and through altering G coupled proteins. Consistent with this, elevated levels of G, G, and G have been reported in brain and blood samples, along with increased protein kinase A expression and sensitivity.\n", "Scientists are studying the possible causes of bipolar disorder and most agree that there is no single cause. There have been very few studies conducted to examine the possible causes of Bipolar II. Those that have been done have not considered Bipolar I and Bipolar II separately and have had inconclusive results. Researchers have found that patients with either Bipolar I or II may have increased levels of blood calcium concentrations, but the results are inconclusive. The studies that have been conducted did not find a significant difference between those with Bipolar I or Bipolar II. There has been a study looking at genetics of Bipolar II disorder and the results are inconclusive; however, scientists did find that relatives of people with Bipolar II are more likely to develop the same bipolar disorder or major depression rather than developing Bipolar I disorder. The cause of Bipolar disorder can be attributed to misfiring neurotransmitters that overstimulate the amygdala, which in turn causes the prefrontal cortex to stop working properly. The bipolar patient becomes overwhelmed with emotional stimulation with no way of understanding it, which can trigger mania and exacerbate the effects of depression.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.:Functioning.\n", "The factors related to this persistent social impairment are residual depressive symptoms, limited illness insight (a very common occurrence in patients with Bipolar II Disorder), and impaired executive functioning. Impaired ability in regards to executive functions is directly tied to poor psychosocial functioning, a common side-effect in patients with Bipolar II.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23195	How do babies/toddlers run on their knees like it's no problem but adults can't?	I think it has to do with the fact that the bones of a baby don't really solidify into hard bones until they are older. So going on their knees isn't too bad. Also as a baby the have at what 15lbs of weight on their knees and are usually somewhat chubby (thinks more padding) Adults are a lot heavier with more wear and tear on their joints already. But I could be wrong.	[ "Children until the age of 3 to 4 have a degree of genu varum. The child sits with the soles of the feet facing one another; the tibia and femur are curved outwards; and, if the limbs are extended, although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct space between the knee-joints. During the first year of life, a gradual change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another; the femur slopes downward and inward towards the knee joints; the tibia become straight; and the sole of the foot faces almost directly downwards.\n", "Telhan et al. observed no change in the joint moments at the hip, knee, or ankle when comparing incline to level running. Also noted was the fact that both general kinetic patterns and peak magnitudes at all three joints were consistent with those in the current literature. The only significant change between the two conditions was an increase in the hip power at early stance phase.\n", "Neuroscientist and evolutionary psychologist Roger Keynes, psychologist Nicholas Humphrey and medical scientist John Skoyles have argued that the gait of these individuals is due to two rare phenomena coming together, not atavism. First, instead of initially crawling as infants on their knees, they started off learning to move around with a \"bear crawl\" on their feet. Second, due to their congenital brain impairment, they found balancing on two legs difficult. Because of this, their motor development was channeled into turning their bear crawl into a substitute for bipedalism.\n", "Human knee joints are enlarged for the same reason as the hip – to better support an increased amount of body weight. The degree of knee extension (the angle between the thigh and shank in a walking cycle) has decreased. The changing pattern of the knee joint angle of humans shows a small extension peak, called the “double knee action,” in the midstance phase. Double knee action decreases energy lost by vertical movement of the center of gravity. Humans walk with their knees kept straight and the thighs bent inward so that the knees are almost directly under the body, rather than out to the side, as is the case in ancestral hominids. This type of gait also aids balance.\n", "There has been only one documented case of the disorder noted from birth. In 1988, three-year-old Eric Rogstad of Minneapolis, Minnesota was discovered to suffer from the condition in both knees after several attempts by his parents and family physician to discover the cause of his abnormal difficulties with walking and running. After surgery and physical therapy, Eric gained the ability to walk and run without significant difficulty.\n", "In contrast, Yokozawa saw increases in support phase knee and hip torques at the rectus femoris, hypothesizing it as a compensation mechanism for the decreased knee extension torque at the vasti set. Also seen was an increase in the net hip flexion torque during the recovery phase of incline running, allowing a quicker recovery and allowing a greater amount of hip flexion.\n\nSection::::Kinetics.:Ground Reaction Forces.\n", "“This is the age at which the characteristics of diplegia become more noticeable, mainly because, unlike other children at this age, the child with diplegia is not walking.” By the age of three, it is important for the child to be in a specialized school environment so the child can participate in physical therapy and learn social skills. Parents should not force the child to sit, crawl, or walk a certain way during this age period. Let the child do what's comfortable for them and allow the therapist to correct this problem. If you want to help your child walk more, then push toys are recommended for walking aids. Regular exams should be done to make sure the child's legs are growing normally and he or she is not having any problems with the hip.\n", "Children’s motor development generally follows the pattern of sitting (around 6 months), crawling (around 9 months) and walking (around 10–16 months), with high normal variability in the ages at which various milestones are reached.\n\nWalking or bipedal gait is usually assessed clinically unless there is a neuromuscular condition, such as cerebral palsy. Laboratory based gait analysis can be very useful for planning treatment regimes, especially surgical management, but also the effects of ankle-foot-orthoses (AFO’s) and footwear.\n\nSection::::Footwear.\n", "The knee is the largest joint and one of the most important joints in the body. It plays an essential role in movement related to carrying the body weight in horizontal (running and walking) and vertical (jumping) directions.\n\nAt birth, the kneecap is just formed from cartilage, and this will ossify (change to bone) between the ages of three and five years. Because it is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body, the ossification process takes significantly longer.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Articular bodies.\n", "stairs though, they are not able to get back down. They also begin to move from one position to another more smoothly. (Oswalt) Significant changes in gait patterns are also observed in the second year. Infants in the second year have a discordant use of hip and shoulder while walking, which is closer to an adult walking pattern. They are also able to utilize the rage of motion of their ankles, toes, and heels more, which is similar to a mature walk. By 18 to 24 months, can move quicker or run for a short distance along with other motor skills. They also start to walk backwards and in circles and begin to run. They can also not only walk up the stairs with their hands and feet but are now able to hold onto the handrail and walk up. Near the end of their second year, complex gross motor skills begin to develop including \n", "BULLET::::- The hip and knee joints exhibit a greater lag than the shoulder and elbow joints, which shows that motor skills develop in a cephalocaudal trend.\n\nBULLET::::- The lags between joints decreases as age increases.\n\nBULLET::::- The hip and knee joints are more strongly coupled than the shoulder and elbow joints in interlimb comparisons. This may be due to the weight bearing the hip and knee joints go through for standing and walking.\n\nBULLET::::- Walks with adult support, holding onto adult's hand; may begin to walk alone.\n", "Stair descent involves perceptual, cognitive and motor abilities. It relies heavily on visual information to enable balance and accuracy. Seeing obstacles ahead helps stair descent, but for infants the action of keeping their heavy head balanced enough to look down at their feet and the objective together, make the process very difficult. (Hurlke, 1998). Not seeing the task ahead causes confusion and disrupts concentration.\n\nInfants tend to adopt one of several strategies closely associated with stair descent:\n\nBULLET::::- Scooting: where the infant sits on the step and thrusts forward using their bottom to land on the next step.\n", "Thus if athletes do many ladder, hurdle or cone drills, they learn to drive the knees upward rather than forward. If instead they duplicated a true cutting action in which the feet stay close to the ground and the knees are driven forward it could bring about a positive transfer that could improve skill execution. Practicing the cutting action in a drill would be much more productive.\n", "The long-term effect of these gait changes due to footwear on growth and development are currently unknown. The impact of footwear on gait should be considered when assessing children’s gait and evaluating the effect of shoe or in-shoe interventions.\n\nChildren who go barefoot have a lower incidence of flat feet and deformity while having greater foot flexibility than children who wear shoes.\n\nSection::::Medical problems.\n", "When holding hands with each other, the back of the right hand should be above, and the palm of the left hand should be above. When walking, the heel should be on the ground first. \n\nSection::::How to play Ganggangsullae.:Running.\n\nPeople doing 'running' have to run faster than 'walking'. They shouldn't open their legs very much, and they have to raise their knees while running.\n\nSection::::How to play Ganggangsullae.:Gatekeeper Play.\n", "Toe walking\n\nToe walking refers to a condition where a person walks on their toes without putting much weight on the heel or any other part of the foot. Toe walking in toddlers is common. These children usually adopt a normal walking pattern as they grow older. If a child continues to walk on their toes past the age of three, they should be evaluated by a doctor.\n", "Children's feet\n\nChildren's feet are smaller than those of adults, not reaching full size until the ages of 13 in girls and 15 in boys. There are correspondingly small sizes of shoes for them. In poor populations and tropical countries, children commonly go barefoot.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Kinematics of running is concerned with describing the motion of the body and in particular the joint angles realized at the hip, knee, and ankle. In level running the hip reaches maximal flexion prior to the end of the swing phase, followed by extension as the leg moves to meet the ground. Throughout stance phase the hip is extending until toe-off to provide propulsion. Knee joint angle displays a biphasic plot. At initial ground contact the knee flexes to lower the body followed by extending to propel the body. Maximal extension is reached at toe-off, after which the knee again flexes to provide clearance. At the ankle maximal plantarflexion is reached at toe-off and is followed by dorsiflexion until mid-swing when the ankle of dorsiflexion remains nearly constant until initial ground contact is made and further dorsiflexion occurs to lower and support the body. In the second half of the stance phase the ankle begin rapid plantar flexion until toe-off.\n", "BULLET::::- Backing: where the infant turns around (to counter the motion of climbing), and slowly lowers one foot at a time to descend to the lower step. Backing distributes the weight evenly on all four limbs, but means that the child cannot see what it is doing.\n\nBULLET::::- Walking: where a child descends in an upright position facing the bottom of the staircase, lowering one foot at a time to the next step.\n", "Physical fitness is related integrally to the development of knee problems. The same activity such as climbing stairs may cause pain from patellofemoral compression for someone who is physically unfit, but not for someone else (or even for that person at a different time). Obesity is another major contributor to knee pain. For instance, a 30-year-old woman who weighed 120lb at age 18 years, before her three pregnancies, and now weighs 285lb, had added 660lb of force across her patellofemoral joint with each step.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Common injuries due to physical activity.\n", "“This first year sees the development of many milestones, such as head control, reaching out for a toy, sitting, starting to vocalize sounds, and finger feeding.” Most parents want their children to excel very fast, but there is a wide upper and lower range of development time for premature babies so it's very hard to diagnose cerebral palsy or diplegia this early. The most common symptom of a child with diplegia is stiff lower extremities. This should become apparent by the six month mark which means he or she does not have severe diplegia. During this age if a child is not moving his legs on his own then it is recommended to do some exercise, especially gentle stretching with the child.\n", "One study looked at the typical age onset for stair ascent and descent, and compared them to other developmental milestones. It also looked at the stair climbing strategies that infants use. Consisting of 732 infants, and including parental assessment and documentation of motor skill achievements, along with in-depth interviews parents about the strategies involved and child assessment using laboratory stair apparatus. The results showed that children younger than 9 months of age were unable to go up or down stairs at all, or were only able to go up. By around 13 months, most infants could go upstairs and about half could ascend and descend stairs. Infants typically learned to descend stairs after they have already learned to ascend, with only about 12% achieved both stair-climbing skills at the same time.\n", "Other research suggests that infants’ descent strategies may be related to their cognitive abilities. This is why most parents teach their children to back down stairs, even though it’s the safest it is also the most cognitively difficult descent strategy.\n\nSection::::Records.\n\nBULLET::::- On 28 September 2014, Christian Riedl climbed Tower 185 in Frankfurt, Germany 71 times in 12 hours for a total of 43,128 ft (13.14 km).\n\nBULLET::::- From 5–6 October 2007, Kurt Hess climbed Esterli Tower in Switzerland 413 times in less than 24 hours for a total of 60,974 ft (18.585 km).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tower Running\n\nBULLET::::- Stair climbing sport\n", "People with a lesion at S1 have their hamstring and peroneal muscles effected. Functionally, they can bend their knees and lift their feet. They can walk on their own, though they may require ankle braces or orthopedic shoes. They can generally change in any physical activity. People with lesions at the L4 to S2 who are complete paraplegics may have motor function issues in their gluts and hamstrings. Their quadriceps are likely to be unaffected. They may be absent sensation below the knees and in the groin area.\n", "People with a lesion at S1 have their hamstring and peroneal muscles effected. Functionally, they can bend their knees and lift their feet. They can walk on their own, though they may require ankle braces or orthopedic shoes. They can generally change in any physical activity. People with lesions at the L4 to S2 who are complete paraplegics may have motor function issues in their gluts and hamstrings. Their quadriceps are likely to be unaffected. They may be absent sensation below the knees and in the groin area.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Functional.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21625	why does the US have such a large economy?	A legal structure that encourages innovation and offers secure property rights, a large population, access to a wide variety of resources within its borders. In the contemporary US, those are in order of importance.	[ "As of 2014, China passed the U.S. as the largest economy in GDP terms, measured at purchasing power parity conversion rates. The U.S. was the largest economy for more than a century prior to that milestone; China has more than tripled the U.S. growth rate for each of the past 40 years. As of 2017, the European Union as an aggregate had a GDP roughly 5% larger than the U.S.\n", "The United States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is fortunate to have a moderate climate. It also has extensive coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. Rivers flow from far within the continent and the Great Lakes—five large, inland lakes along the U.S. border with Canada—provide additional shipping access. These extensive waterways have helped shape the country's economic growth over the years and helped bind America's 50 individual states together in a single economic unit.\n", "Section::::Composition of economic sectors.\n\nThe United States is the world's second-largest manufacturer, with a 2013 industrial output of US$2.4 trillion. Its manufacturing output is greater than of Germany, France, India, and Brazil combined.\n\nIts main industries include petroleum, steel, automobiles, construction machinery, aerospace, agricultural machinery, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber, and mining.\n", "Canada, Mexico, and the United States have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The United States has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The United States' services sector comprises 77% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22% and agriculture comprises 1.2%. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.\n", "The top ten largest North American metropolitan areas by population as of 2013, based on national census numbers from the United States and census estimates from Canada and Mexico.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n\nNorth America's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.\n", "The close relationship between large linked metropolitan regions and a nation's ability to compete in the global economy is recognized in Europe and Asia. Each has aggressively pursued strategies to manage projected population growth and strengthen economic prosperity in its large regions.\n\nThe European Spatial Development Perspective, a set of policies and strategies adopted by the European Union in 1999, is working to integrate the economies of the member regions, reduce economic disparities, and increase economic competitiveness (Faludi 2002; Deas and Lord 2006).\n", "By total area (water as well as land), the United States is either slightly larger or smaller than the People's Republic of China, making it the world's third or fourth largest country. China and the United States are smaller than Russia and Canada in total area, but are larger than Brazil. By land area only (exclusive of waters), the United States is the world's third largest country, after Russia and China, with Canada in fourth.\n", "A central feature of the U.S. economy is the economic freedom afforded to the private sector by allowing the private sector to make the majority of economic decisions in determining the direction and scale of what the U.S. economy produces. This is enhanced by relatively low levels of regulation and government involvement, as well as a court system that generally protects property rights and enforces contracts. Today, the United States is home to 29.6 million small businesses, 30% of the world's millionaires, 40% of the world's billionaires, as well as 139 of the world's 500 largest companies.\n", "In 180 years, the U.S. grew to a huge, integrated, industrialized economy that made up around one-fifth of the world economy. As a result, the U.S. GDP per capita converged on and eventually surpassed that of the UK, as well as other nations that it previously trailed economically. The economy maintained high wages, attracting immigrants by the millions from all over the world.\n", "The US, Canada and Mexico have significant and multifaceted economic systems. In 2011, the US has an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $47,200, and is the most technologically developed economy in North America. The United States' services sector comprises 76.7% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22.2% and agriculture comprises 1.2%.\n", "Some of the major characteristics of Megalopolis, which set it apart as a special region within the United States, are the high degree of concentration of people, things and functions crowded here, and also their variety. This kind of crowding and its significance cannot be described by simple measurements. Its various aspects will be shown on a number of maps, and if these could all be superimposed on one base map there would be demarcated an area in which so many kinds of crowding coincide in general (though not always in all the details of their geographical distribution) that the region is quite different from all neighboring regions and in fact from any other part of North America. The essential reason for its difference is the greater concentration here of a greater variety of kinds of crowding.\n", "The U.S. has one of the world's largest and most influential financial markets. The New York Stock Exchange is by far the world's largest stock exchange by market capitalization. Foreign investments made in the U.S. total almost $2.4 trillion, while American investments in foreign countries total to over $3.3 trillion. The U.S. economy is ranked first in international ranking on venture capital and Global Research and Development funding. Consumer spending comprised 68% of the U.S. economy in 2018, while its labor share of income was 43% in 2017. The U.S. has the world's largest consumer market, with a household final consumption expenditure five times larger than that of Japan. The nation's labor market has attracted immigrants from all over the world and its net migration rate is among the highest in the world. The U.S. is one of the top-performing economies in studies such as the Ease of Doing Business Index, the Global Competitiveness Report, and others.\n", "Standard of living in the United States\n\nThe standard of living in the United States is high by the standards that most economists use, and for many decades throughout the 20th century, the United States was recognized as having the highest standard of living in the world. Per capita income is high but also less evenly distributed than in most other developed countries; as a result, the United States fares particularly well in measures of average material well being that do not place weight on equality aspects.\n\nSection::::Measures.\n", "The number of workers and, more importantly, their productivity help determine the health of the U.S. economy. Consumer spending in the U.S. rose to about 62% of GDP in 1960, where it stayed until about 1981, and has since risen to 71% in 2013. Throughout its history, the United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, a phenomenon that is both cause and effect of almost constant economic expansion. Until shortly after World War I, most workers were immigrants from Europe, their immediate descendants, or African Americans who were mostly slaves taken from Africa, or their descendants.\n", "About 82% of Americans live in urban areas (including suburbs); about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000. The U.S. has numerous clusters of cities known as megaregions, the largest being the Great Lakes Megalopolis followed by the Northeast Megalopolis and Southern California. In 2008, 273 incorporated municipalities had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four global cities had over two million (New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston). There are 52 metropolitan areas with populations greater than one million. Of the 50 fastest-growing metro areas, 47 are in the West or South. The metro areas of San Bernardino, Dallas, Houston, Atlanta, and Phoenix all grew by more than a million people between 2000 and 2008.\n", "While the United States, Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the sunbelt regions of the United States, such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the United States border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.\n", "The introduction of Special Economic Zones since the 1980s have led to the development of several distinct regional economies within the People's Republic of China, such as the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta, and the Bohai Circle. Several of these regions have economies the size of small developed nations. Some scholars who use the term United States of China argue that during the process of Chinese economic reform the People's Republic has evolved into a de facto federal state in which these economic regions have wide discretion to implement policy goals which are set by the PRC central government and in which provinces and localities actively compete with each other in order to advance economically.\n", "BULLET::::- Texas - the healthiest place in America. Actually, the only place where one can find green vegetation. Modern Texans still grow crops, breed horses and herd cattle, like their ancestors in the 19th century did.\n\nBULLET::::- The Appalachian Federation - a place ruled by feudal lords. They have a social class system, in which people are divided into nobility and peasantry. Thanks to its iron and coal deposits, it's one of the richest places in the post-nuclear U.S.\n", "Section::::History of the concept.\n\nThe region was partially outlined as an emergent megalopolis in the 1961 book \"Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States\" by French geographer Jean Gottmann. Gottmann envisaged the development of other megalopolises in the U.S.: from Boston to Washington, D.C., from Chicago to Pittsburgh, and from San Francisco to San Diego.\n", "Agriculture is very important in Central American and Caribbean nations. In western Canada, in the provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia and Manitoba, wheat and other various main agricultural products are grown. The U.S. also has many states with significant agriculture production, mainly in the central continental U.S. Mexico produces many tropical fruits and vegetables as well as edible animals.\n\nSection::::Economic sectors.:Manufacturing.\n", "Economy of North America\n\nThe economy of North America comprises more than 579 million people (8% of the world population) in its 23 sovereign states and 15 dependent territories. It is marked by a sharp division between the predominantly English speaking countries of Canada and the United States, which are among the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world, and countries of Central America and the Caribbean in the former Latin America that are less developed. Mexico and Caribbean nations of the Commonwealth of Nations are between the economic extremes of the development of North America.\n", "The United States has dozens of major cities, including 31 \"global cities\" of all types, with 10 in the \"alpha\" group of global cities: New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Boston, San Francisco, Miami, Philadelphia, Dallas, and Atlanta. , the United States had 51 metropolitan areas with a population of over 1,000,000 people each. (See Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas.)\n\n, about 250 million Americans live in or around urban areas. That means more than three-quarters of the U.S. population shares just about three percent of the U.S. land area.\n", "North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population, if nearby islands (most notably the Caribbean) are included.\n", "The population density of the United States is relatively low compared to many other developed countries due to its size. For example, the population density of the U.S. is one-twelfth that of the Netherlands and one-fifteenth that of South Korea.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Big Eight States\n\nBULLET::::- Outline of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Index of United States-related articles\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- Demographics of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of United States cities by population density\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. state\n\nBULLET::::- List of U.S. states\n\nBULLET::::- List of U.S. states by African-American population\n\nBULLET::::- List of U.S. states by area\n", "If the city of São Paulo were a country, its economy would be the 47th in the world, bigger than Egypt and Kuwait, for example, about the same size as Hungary, New Zealand or Israel. The economy of the city of São Paulo would also be bigger than 22 U.S. states, such as Hawaii and New Hampshire.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05393	Why do probiotic supplements need to be taken daily?	Your gut is a class that has a session everyday. Your native flora are the students that show up to class each day.; they all have their preferred seats, and they won’t give them up without an argument. The probiotics are the new kid; in order for him to earn a spot he has to be consistent. He has to show up at the right time and sit in the right place, maybe taking a seat from someone who has been slacking on attendance. Your gut flora is well established, taking advantage of every niche. In order for a new species to take hold it has to ~~overpower~~ slide in next to the present bacteria, and that won’t happen with just one day’s dose of probiotic	[ "Probiotics decrease the risk of diarrhea in those taking antibiotics.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Probiotics do not appear to change the risk of infection in older people.\n\nSection::::Research.:Inflammatory bowel disease.\n\nProbiotics are being studied for their potential to influence inflammatory bowel disease. Some evidence supports their use in conjunction with standard medications in treating ulcerative colitis and no evidence shows their efficacy in treating Crohn's disease.\n", "Viral diarrhea refers to the type of diarrhea that is caused by a rotavirus, a virus often impacting toddlers and infants. A meta-analysis of nine previously conducted studies (those studies were conducted in Canada, Thailand, and Finland) has shown that certain types of probiotics are also effective in treating viral diarrhea in hospital-admitted children. Subjects of those studies ranged from one to above 36 months old. The study results showed that \"the duration of the illness was shortened by 0.7 days on average\" when placing the children on Lactobacillus therapy. \n", "A very large meta-analysis investigated the effect of probiotics on preventing late-onset sepsis (LOS) in neonates. Probiotics were found to reduce the risk of LOS, but only in babies who were fed human milk exclusively. It is difficult to distinguish if the prevention was a result of the probiotic supplementation or if it was a result of the properties of human milk. It is also still unclear if probiotic administration reduces LOS risk in extremely low birth weight infants due to the limited number of studies that investigated it. Out of the 37 studies included in this systematic review, none indicated any safety problems related to the probiotics. It would be beneficial to clarify the relationship between probiotic supplementation and human milk for future studies in order to prevent late onset sepsis in neonates.\n", "Oral antibiotics are recommended for no longer than three months as antibiotic courses exceeding this duration are associated with the development of antibiotic resistance and show no clear benefit over shorter courses. Furthermore, if long-term oral antibiotics beyond three months are thought to be necessary, it is recommended that benzoyl peroxide and/or a retinoid be used at the same time to limit the risk of \"C. acnes\" developing antibiotic resistance. \n", "Probiotic treatment might reduce the incidence and severity of AAD as indicated in several meta-analyses. For example, treatment with probiotic formulations including \"L. rhamnosus\" may reduce the risk of AAD, improve stool consistency during antibiotic therapy, and enhance the immune response after vaccination.\n", "The sudden addition of substantial quantities of prebiotics to the diet may result in an increase in fermentation, leading to increased gas production, bloating or bowel movement. Production of SCFA and fermentation quality are reduced during long-term diets of low fiber intake. Until bacterial flora are gradually established to rehabilitate or restore intestinal bacteria, nutrient absorption may be impaired and colonic transit time temporarily increased with a rapid addition of higher prebiotic intake.\n\nSection::::Research.:Genetic modification.\n\nGenetically modified plants have been created in research labs with upregulated inulin production.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Prebiotic scores\n\nBULLET::::- Probiotic\n\nBULLET::::- Synbiotics\n", "The manipulation of the gut microbiota is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Although probiotics are considered safe, when they are used by oral administration there is a risk of passage of viable bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract to the internal organs (bacterial translocation) and subsequent bacteremia, which can cause adverse health consequences. Some people, such as those with immune compromise, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, cardiac valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events.\n", "A growing probiotics market has led to the need for stricter requirements for scientific substantiation of putative benefits conferred by microorganisms claimed to be probiotic. Although numerous claimed benefits are marketed towards using consumer probiotic products, such as reducing gastrointestinal discomfort, improving immune health, relieving constipation, or avoiding the common cold, such claims are not supported by scientific evidence, and are prohibited as deceptive advertising in the United States by the Federal Trade Commission. As of 2019, numerous applications for approval of health claims by European manufacturers of probiotic dietary supplements have been rejected by the European Food Safety Authority for insufficient evidence of beneficial mechanism or efficacy.\n", "Recently, probiotics have become a new ingredient in many of our foods, and studies have been completed regarding the use of probiotics in infant formula Several randomized, controlled trials completed recently have shown limited and short term clinical benefits for the use of probiotics in infants’ diet The safety of probiotics in general and in infants, especially preterm infants, has been investigated in a limited number of controlled trials. The findings thus far suggest probiotics are generally safe. Therefore, the study suggested more scientific research is necessary before a conclusion can be made about probiotic supplementation in infant formula, since the research is still quite preliminary.\n", "Some probiotics are suggested as a possible treatment for various forms of gastroenteritis, and a Cochrane Collaboration meta-analysis on the use of probiotics to treat acute infectious diarrhea based on a comprehensive review of medical literature through 2010 (35 relevant studies, 4500 participants) reported that use of any of the various tested probiotic formulations appeared to reduce the duration of diarrhea by a mean of 25 hours (vs. control groups, 95% confidence interval, 16–34 hours), also noting, however, that \"the differences between the studies may be related to other unmeasured and unexplored environmental and host factors\" and that further research was needed to confirm reported benefits.\n", "Prescribing by an infectious disease specialist compared with prescribing by a non-infectious disease specialist decreases antibiotic consumption and reduces costs.\n\nSection::::Antibiotic resistance.\n", "Contrasting antibiotics, probiotics were defined as microbially derived factors that stimulate the growth of other microorganisms. In 1989, Roy Fuller suggested a definition of probiotics that has been widely used: \"A live microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance.\" Fuller's definition emphasizes the requirement of viability for probiotics and introduces the aspect of a beneficial effect on the host.\n", "The manipulation of the gut flora is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Although probiotics, in general, are considered safe, there are concerns about their use in certain cases. Some people, such as those with compromised immune systems, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, heart valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events. Rarely, consumption of probiotics may cause bacteremia, and sepsis, potentially fatal infections in children with lowered immune systems or who are already critically ill.\n", "BULLET::::- Eat products\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nPreliminary research has demonstrated potential effects on calcium and other mineral absorption, immune system effectiveness, bowel acidity, reduction of colorectal cancer risk, inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis), hypertension and defecation frequency. Prebiotics may be effective in decreasing the number of infectious episodes needing antibiotics and the total number of infections in children aged 0–24 months.\n", "First, probiotics must be alive when administered. One of the concerns throughout the scientific literature resides in the viability and reproducibility on a large scale of observed results for specific studies, as well as the viability and stability during use and storage, and finally the ability to survive in stomach acids and then in the intestinal ecosystem.\n", "In adult patients with Acute Respiratory infections, a 2017 systematic review found that PCT-guided therapy reduced mortality, reduced antibiotic use(2.4 less days of antibiotics) and led to decreased adverse drug effects across a variety of clinical settings(ED, ICU, primary care clinic).\n\nProcalcitonin-guided treatment limits antibiotic exposure with no increased mortality in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\n", "Using procalcitonin to guide protocol in acute asthma exacerbation led to reduction in prescriptions of antibiotics in primary care clinics, emergency departments and during hospital admission. This was apparent without an increase in ventilator days or risk of intubation. Be that acute asthma exacerbation is one condition that leads to overuse of antibiotics worldwide, researchers concluded that PCT could help curb over-prescribing.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Cardiovascular disease.\n", "Probiotic supplements are generally regarded as safe. The greatest concern, evidenced by reviews reporting on case studies, is that for people with compromised gut wall integrity there may be a risk of systemic infection. For this reason, probiotic research is expected to exclude bacteria species that are antibiotic resistant.\n\nSection::::Industry.\n\nIn 2015, the American market for dietary supplements was valued at $37 billion, with the economic impact in the United States for 2016 estimated at $122 billion, including employment wages and taxes. One 2016 analysis estimated the total market for dietary supplements could reach $278 billion worldwide by 2024.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "Probiotic\n\nProbiotics are live microorganisms intended to provide health benefits when consumed, generally by improving or restoring the gut flora. Probiotics are considered generally safe to consume, but may cause bacteria-host interactions and unwanted side effects in rare cases.\n", "Section::::\"L. bulgaricus\" GLB44 and the definition of probiotics.\n\nThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has presented on their website the following guideline: “Guidance for Industry on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Products and Their Regulation by the Food and Drug Administration” In this article, the definition of \"Probiotics\" is twofold: 1) live microbial food supplements that beneficially affect the host by improving its intestinal microbial; 2) live microorganisms which, when consumed in adequate amounts of food, confer a health benefit on the host.\n", "The manipulation of the gut flora is complex and may cause bacteria-host interactions. Although probiotics, in general, are considered safe, there are concerns about their use in certain cases. Some people, such as those with compromised immune systems, short bowel syndrome, central venous catheters, heart valve disease and premature infants, may be at higher risk for adverse events. Rarely, consumption of probiotics may cause bacteremia, and sepsis, potentially fatal infections in children with lowered immune systems or who are already critically ill.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "No good evidence indicates probiotics are of benefit in the management of infection or inflammation of the urinary tract.\n\nSection::::General research.\n\nSection::::General research.:Formulations.\n\nSupplements such as tablets, capsules, powders, and sachets containing the bacteria have been studied. However, probiotics taken orally can be destroyed by the acidic conditions of the stomach. As of 2010, a number of microencapsulation techniques were being developed to address this problem.\n\nSection::::General research.:Multiple probiotics.\n", "While research demonstrates that prebiotics lead to increased production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), more research is required to establish a direct causal connection. Prebiotics may be beneficial to inflammatory bowel disease or Crohn's disease through production of SCFA as nourishment for colonic walls, and mitigation of ulcerative colitis symptoms.\n", "In humans, the large intestine is host to more than 1,000 species of microorganisms, mostly bacteria, numbering in the tens of trillions. \"Probiotic\" in the context of dietary supplements is the theory that by orally consuming specific live bacteria (or yeast) species, it is possible to influence the large intestine microbiota, with consequent health benefits. Although there are numerous claimed benefits of using probiotic supplements, such as maintaining gastrointestinal health, in part by lowering risk of and severity of constipation or diarrhea, and improving immune health, including lower risk of and severity of acute upper respiratory tract infections, i.e., the common cold, such claims are not all supported by sufficient clinical evidence. A review based on interviews with dozens of experts in microbiome research expressed concern about \"...how biomedical research is co-opted by commercial entities that place profit over health.\" The concern is timely, as through 2021, probiotic supplements are expected to be the fastest growing segment of the dietary supplement market worldwide, while at the same time, the global health benefits market for probiotic-containing yogurt (a food, not a dietary supplement) is declining.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17238	Why does JELLO pudding mix only work with dairy milk?	They make ones that will work with non dairy milks. The proteins and fats and sugars in milk are pretty unique which is why they can make cheese. You cant make almond cheese or coconut cheese, and you cant make dairy pudding with them either. Maybe someone can explain the science behind the interactions with the casein(or whatever milk enzyme it is) that makes it work specifically	[ "Typical recipes from the early 20th century included exotic fruits like figs, dates and bananas, or lemon flavored jello paired with maraschino cherries and other ingredients like marshmallows and almonds. One sweet gelatin-based fruit dessert called only \"Good Salad\" includes vanilla pudding, tapioca pudding, pineapple, mandarin oranges and orange gelatin. The pudding mixes are made with the reserved juice from the canned fruit and the flavored gelatin, the fruits are added and the dessert salad is allowed to set in the fridge and served cool.\n", "A whipping aid such as modified soy protein can help to account for the decreased foaming ability of dehydrated or frozen egg whites. Modified soy protein is a soy protein in a solution which is then acidified using hydrochloric acid. Pepsin or another enzyme is then added to enhance the protein foaming abilities. Once the enzyme activity has ceased, the solution is heated to deactivate the enzyme and more hydrochloric acid is added if a pH adjustment is required.\n", "A lactose-free food, such as non-dairy ice cream, may require a different process during manufacturing. For example, traditional dairy ice cream is made with a combination of milk products that contain lactose, but non-dairy ice cream may be synthesized using hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated vegetable oil (coconut oil, palm kernel oil and soybean oil) along with emulsifier, protein, sweetener and water. Some not yet widely prevalent synthetic ice cream products are claimed to have a similar flavour and texture to traditional dairy ice cream.\n", "However many smaller scale, organic, gourmet or slow food focused non-dairy ice cream manufacturers create all their products using traditional, natural and only slightly altered methods. The preferred base for non dairy ice creams are often coconut milk or plant cream, due to the higher fat and lower water content preventing the formation of ice crystals.\n\nSection::::Infant formula.\n", "Milo dissolved in water has a Glycemic Index (GI) of 55, the same as Coca-Cola. However, milk has a much lower GI of 30 - 33, so mixing a very small amount of Milo into a mug of milk yields an overall GI closer to 33, and mixing a large amount of Milo into a mug of milk will give a GI closer to 55.\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"Daria\" episode \"Psycho Therapy\", Jake Morgendorffer, when his efforts to get a glass of milk are thwarted by his wife Helen, roars, \"Got milk? Not Jakey! Dammit!\"\n\nBULLET::::- In the Season 1 episode, \"It's Hokey Mon!\", of \"The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy\", Mandy creates her own monster that turns the other monsters into toast; at the end of the episode, Mandy's monster is eating toast in bed and asks her \"got milk?\"\n", "BULLET::::- Caramel\n\nBULLET::::- Cheesecake\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate Fudge\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate-Vanilla Swirl\n\nBULLET::::- Classic Turtle\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Crème brûlée\n\nBULLET::::- Custard\n\nBULLET::::- Dark Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Devil's Food\n\nBULLET::::- Double Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Dulce De Leche\n\nBULLET::::- Flan\n\nBULLET::::- French Vanilla\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerbread\n\nBULLET::::- Lemon\n\nBULLET::::- Mixchief Vanilla Color-Changing\n\nBULLET::::- Orange Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Oreo Cookies 'n Creme\n\nBULLET::::- Pistachio\n\nBULLET::::- Pumpkin Spice\n\nBULLET::::- Rice Pudding\n\nBULLET::::- Strawberry Cheesecake\n\nBULLET::::- Strawberry Crème\n\nBULLET::::- Strawberry Ice Cream\n\nBULLET::::- Tapioca\n\nBULLET::::- Vanilla\n\nBULLET::::- White Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- S'more pudding\n\nSection::::Discontinued flavors.\n\nBULLET::::- Apple (Banana Orange)\n\nBULLET::::- Black Raspberry\n\nBULLET::::- Blackberry\n\nBULLET::::- Bubble Gum\n", "Certain beauty salon products that are primarily composed of hydrogen peroxide can also be used as an alternative to Retr0bright, as it has been discovered to be almost identical in effect, and already \"creamy\" so that it can be applied less wastefully to yellowed plastics (especially large devices such as computer panels or monitors). While this eliminates the difficulty of having to put together a batch directly from the instructions, one must be careful to apply the cream and wrap consistently and evenly to avoid streaks in the final product.\n", "A full Gellish Message table is in fact a combination of a Naming Table and a Fact Table. It contains not only columns for the expression of facts, but also columns for the names of the related objects and the additional columns to express auxiliary facts. This enables the use of a single table, also for the specification and use of synonyms and homonyms, multiple languages, etcetera. \n\nThe core of a Message Table is illustrated in the following table:\n", "Section::::History.\n\nHolton \"Rex\" Diamond, an employee of Rich Products, performed experiments from 1943 to 1945 with using a \"[g]elationous form of soybean protein\" to make a \"soy cream\" that would not form curds when mixed with coffee. Diamond's experiments are the first English-language reference to a non-dairy creamer for coffee. Frank S. Mitchell, another Rich Products Corp. employee, and Diamond developed a non-dairy whipped topping for their employer in 1946. Mitchell also developed a non-dairy coffee creamer, Perx, which was successful in the market.\n", "Other culinary gelling agents can be used instead of animal-derived gelatin. These plant-derived substances are more similar to pectin and other gelling plant carbohydrates than to gelatin proteins; their physical properties are slightly different, creating different constraints for the preparation and storage conditions. These other gelling agents may also be preferred for certain traditional cuisines or dietary restrictions.\n", "Section::::Preparation.\n\nTo make a jelly, gelatin is dissolved in hot liquid with the desired flavors and other additives. These latter ingredients usually include sugar, fruit juice, or sugar substitutes; they may be added and varied during preparation, or pre-mixed with the gelatin in a commercial product which merely requires the addition of hot water.\n", "A milkshake can also be made by adding powder into fresh milk and stirring the powder into the milk. Milkshakes made in this way can come in a variety of flavors, including chocolate, caramel, strawberry, and banana.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Hand-blended.\n\nHand-blended milkshakes are traditionally made from any flavor of ice cream; additional flavorings, such as chocolate syrup and/or malt syrup or malt powder, can be added prior to mixing. This allows a greater variety than is available in machine-made shakes. Some unusual milkshake recipes exclude ice cream. \n", "Section::::Creating culinary foam.\n\nTo form a stable foam and emulsion, a surfactant, such as lecithin, monoglycerides or proteins, must be present to reduce the interfacial tension between the air-oil phase and the aqueous phase. If the surfactants are at equal concentrations at the interface, proteins are generally less effective than small surfactants, such as lecithin or monoglycerides, at decreasing the interfacial tension. Of course, this is not true of heated soybean or whey protein, which readily forms copious foam.\n", "Drink mix\n\nA drink mix, or powdered drink mix is a processed-food product, a powder designed to mix usually with water to produce a beverage resembling fruit juice or soda in flavor. Another type of drink mix is represented by products that must be mixed into milk.\n\nSection::::About.\n", "Jell-O is used as a substantial ingredient in a well-known dessert, a \"Jell-O mold\" the preparation of which requires a mold designed to hold gelatin, and the depositing of small quantities of chopped fruit, nuts, and other ingredients before it hardens to its typical form. Fresh pineapple, papaya, kiwifruit, and ginger root cannot be used because they contain enzymes that prevent gelatin from \"setting\". In the case of pineapple juice and the enzyme bromelain that it contains though, the enzyme can be inactivated without denaturing through excessive heating and thus altering the flavor by the addition of a small measured amount of capsaicin sourced from hot chilies.\n", "One savory recipe collected by the \"Des Moines Register\", published in Iowa, is for a tomato soup gelatin salad. The salad, served chilled, is made from lemon gelatin, tomato soup, cream cheese, stuffed olives combined with various other ingredients and seasonings. \n", "Dairy mix\n\nA dairy mix is the blend of milk, cream, sugar, stabilizers, and vanilla packaged by a dairy for commercial use. This mix can either be made directly into ice cream or placed into containers for the use in soft serve, frozen custard, or ice cream machines. Dairy mix used in restaurants can be also used to make frozen drinks or smoothies.\n", "Regarding syntax similarity with Java, Scala inherits much of Java's syntax, as is the case with Groovy. Clojure on the other hand follows the Lisp syntax, which is different in both appearance and philosophy. However, learning Scala is also considered difficult because of its many advanced features. This is not the case with Groovy, despite its also being a feature-rich language, mainly because it was designed to be mainly a scripting language.\n\nSection::::Adoption.\n\nSection::::Adoption.:Language rankings.\n", "There is a distinction between “Contains ___” and “May contain ___.” The first is a deliberate addition to the ingredients of a food, and is required. The second addresses unintentional possible inclusion of ingredients, in this instance dairy-sourced, during transportation, storage or at the manufacturing site, and is voluntary, and is referred to as precautionary allergen labeling (PAL).\n", "Some nongelatin pudding and pie filling products are sold under the Jell-O brand. Pudding is cooked on the stove top with milk, then eaten warm or chilled until firmly set. Jell-O has an instant pudding product which is mixed with cold milk and chilled. To make pie fillings, the same products are prepared with less liquid.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early history.\n\nGelatin, a protein produced from collagen extracted from boiled bones, connective tissues, and other animal products, has been a component of food, particularly desserts, since the 15th century.\n", "The solubility of powdered gelatin can be enhanced by sprinkling it into the liquid several minutes before heating, \"blooming\" the individual granules. The fully dissolved mixture is then refrigerated, slowly forming a colloidal gel as it cools.\n\nJelly may be enhanced in many ways, such as using decorative molds, creating multicolored layers by adding a new layer of slightly cooled liquid over the previously-solidified one, or suspending non-soluble edible elements such as marshmallows or fruit. Some types of fresh fruit and their unprocessed juices are incompatible with jelly; see the Chemistry section below.\n", "\"Take equal quantity of Butter and Sallet-oyle, melt them well together, but not boyle them: Then stirre them well that they may incorporate together: Then melt therewith three times as much Honey, and stirre it well together: Then add thereunto powder of Turkish Cophie, to make it a thick Electuary\".\n", "Where C = concentration, B = Bloom strength and k = constant. For example, when making gummies, it's important to know that a 250 Bloom gelatin has a much shorter (more thick) texture than a 180 Bloom gelatin.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Jelly shots.\n\nA jelly shot (usually called a Jell-O shot in North America and vodka jelly or jelly shot in the UK and Australia) is a shooter in which liquor, usually vodka, rum, tequila, or neutral grain spirit, replaces some of the water or fruit juice that is used to congeal the gel.\n", "According to Kraft archivist Becky Haglund Tousey, Kraft developed the product in-house using a patented \"emulsifying machine\" invented by Charles Chapman to create a product that blended mayonnaise and less expensive salad dressing, sometimes called \"boiled dressing\" or \"salad dressing spread\". The machine (dubbed \"Miracle Whip\" by Chapman) ensured that the ingredients (including more than 20 different spices) were thoroughly blended.\n" ]	[ "JELLO pudding mix only works with dairy milk." ]	[ "JELLO makes pudding mix that will work with non-dairy milks." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "JELLO pudding mix only works with dairy milk." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "JELLO makes pudding mix that will work with non-dairy milks." ]
2018-20927	DNA decides how life is made, but what decides how DNA is made?	DNA that fails to replicate "dies out." DNA will naturally mutate when it's copied (a standard process for cells). Sometimes these mutations are beneficial and lead to an organism having better odds at reproducing. Consider two mice. One of them has a mutation which allows it to run 10% faster. Sometime later, the two mice are running from a cat. The cat catches the slower one, so the mouse with a mutation to run faster passes that beneficial mutation to the next generation.	[ "All the cells of an organism originate from a single cell, so they are expected to have identical genomes; however, in some cases, differences arise. Both the process of copying DNA during cell division and exposure to environmental mutagens can result in mutations in somatic cells. In some cases, such mutations lead to cancer because they cause cells to divide more quickly and invade surrounding tissues. In certain lymphocytes in the human immune system, V(D)J recombination generates different genomic sequences such that each cell produces a unique antibody or T cell receptors.\n", "As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development. The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to \"read\" the DNA sequence. Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible.\n\nSection::::Interactions with proteins.:DNA-modifying enzymes.\n", "Section::::Description of the theory.:Conserved core components.\n\nAnimals are built from a tool kit of components (e.g. like lego bricks). Most of the core components are conserved across diverse phyla of the animal kingdom. Examples of core components are:\n\nBULLET::::- DNA replication,\n\nBULLET::::- DNA transcription to RNA,\n\nBULLET::::- translation of RNA to protein,\n\nBULLET::::- formation of microfilament and microtubule cytoskeletons,\n\nBULLET::::- cell–cell signaling pathways,\n\nBULLET::::- cell adhesion processes,\n\nBULLET::::- anteroposterior axis formation\n", "Section::::Gene expression.\n\nSection::::Gene expression.:Genetic code.\n\nGenes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each of which is composed of a sequence of amino acids, and the DNA sequence of a gene (through an RNA intermediate) is used to produce a specific amino acid sequence. This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called transcription.\n", "The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain. Viruses are the only exception to this rule—sometimes viruses use the very similar molecule RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material. Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms.\n", "Linus Pauling discovered the chemical structure of protein and proposed a completely wrong structure for DNA, which carries hereditary information from parent to offspring. Pauling guessed a wrong structure for DNA because he assumed that a pattern that worked for protein would also work for DNA. He overlooked the gross chemical differences between protein and DNA. Francis Crick and James Watson paid attention to the differences and found the correct structure for DNA that Pauling had missed a year earlier.\n", "Section::::Genetic change.:Research methods.\n\nDNA can be manipulated in the laboratory. Restriction enzymes are commonly used enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA. DNA fragments can be visualized through use of gel electrophoresis, which separates fragments according to their length.\n", "Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA. In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions (e.g. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA). RNA can also have regulatory effects through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (e.g. microRNA).\n\nSection::::Gene expression.:Nature and nurture.\n", "Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA base-pair sequences. In bacteria, each cell usually contains a single circular genophore, while eukaryotic organisms (such as plants and animals) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the DNA, forming a material called chromatin; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed of nucleosomes, segments of DNA wound around cores of histone proteins. The full set of hereditary material in an organism (usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes) is called the genome.\n", "BULLET::::- POLR2C\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2D\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2E\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2F\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2G\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2H\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2I\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2J\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2K\n\nBULLET::::- POLR2L\n\nBULLET::::- POLR3C\n\nBULLET::::- POLR3E\n\nBULLET::::- POLR3GL\n\nBULLET::::- POLR3K\n\nSection::::Common housekeeping genes in humans.:Gene expression.:Protein processing.\n\nBULLET::::- PPID Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase D\n\nBULLET::::- PPIE Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase E\n\nBULLET::::- PPIF Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase F\n\nBULLET::::- PPIG Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase G\n\nBULLET::::- PPIH Cyclophilin H\n\nBULLET::::- CANX Calnexin. Folding of glycoproteins within endoplasmic reticulum\n\nBULLET::::- CAPN1 Calpain subunit\n\nBULLET::::- CAPN7\n\nBULLET::::- CAPNS1 Calpain protease subunit\n\nBULLET::::- NACA Nascent polypeptide associated complex alpha polypeptide\n\nBULLET::::- NACA2\n\nBULLET::::- PFDN2 Prefoldin 2\n", "Section::::Methods and mechanisms of transformation in laboratory.\n\nSection::::Methods and mechanisms of transformation in laboratory.:Bacterial.\n\nArtificial competence can be induced in laboratory procedures that involve making the cell passively permeable to DNA by exposing it to conditions that do not normally occur in nature. Typically the cells are incubated in a solution containing divalent cations (often calcium chloride) under cold conditions, before being exposed to a heat pulse (heat shock). Calcium chloride partially disrupts the cell membrane, which allows the recombinant DNA enter the host cell. Cells that are able to take up the DNA are called competent cells. \n", "A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein. Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules. For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties. Sickle-cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein. These sickle-shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through blood vessels, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease.\n", "Section::::Transfers of information not explicitly covered in the theory.:Methylation.\n\nVariation in methylation states of DNA can alter gene expression levels significantly. Methylation variation usually occurs through the action of DNA methylases. When the change is heritable, it is considered epigenetic. When the change in information status is not heritable, it would be a somatic epitype. The effective information content has been changed by means of the actions of a protein or proteins on DNA, but the primary DNA sequence is not altered.\n\nSection::::Transfers of information not explicitly covered in the theory.:Prions.\n", "DNA is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones. The set of chromosomes in a cell and any other hereditary information found in the mitochondria, chloroplasts, or other locations is collectively known as a cell's genome. In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is localized in the cell nucleus, or with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete assemblage of this information in an organism is called its genotype.\n", "In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a \"giant hereditary molecule\" made up of \"two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template\". In 1928, Frederick Griffith in his experiment discovered that traits of the \"smooth\" form of \"Pneumococcus\" could be transferred to the \"rough\" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed \"smooth\" bacteria with the live \"rough\" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.\n", "Differences in gene expression are especially clear within multicellular organisms, where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes. All the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell, differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and intercellular signals and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors. As no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells.\n", "Bacteria, as asexual organisms, inherit an identical copy of the parent's genomes and are clonal. However, all bacteria can evolve by selection on changes to their genetic material DNA caused by genetic recombination or mutations. Mutations come from errors made during the replication of DNA or from exposure to mutagens. Mutation rates vary widely among different species of bacteria and even among different clones of a single species of bacteria. Genetic changes in bacterial genomes come from either random mutation during replication or \"stress-directed mutation\", where genes involved in a particular growth-limiting process have an increased mutation rate.\n", "Each gene is associated with other DNA segments (promoters, enhancers, or silencers) that act as binding sites for activators or repressors for gene transcription. \n\nGenes interact with each other either through their gene products (mRNA, proteins) which can regulate gene transcription, or through small RNA species that can directly regulate genes.\n\nThese gene-gene interactions, together with genes' interactions with other substances in the cell, form the most basic interaction\n", "Section::::Types of structural variants.:Copy-number variation.\n", "Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation, to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus, with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype. A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers, which control transcription of the open reading frame.\n", "Section::::Common housekeeping genes in humans.:Structural.:Organelle synthesis.\n\n\"A specialized form of cell signaling\"\n\nBULLET::::- BLOC1S1\n\nBULLET::::- BLOC1S2NM_173809\n\nBULLET::::- BLOC1S3NM_212550\n\nBULLET::::- BLOC1S4NM_018366\n\nBULLET::::- BLOC1S6NM_012388\n\nBULLET::::- AP1G1 NM_001128\n\nBULLET::::- AP1M1 NM_032493\n\nBULLET::::- AP2A1 NM_014203\n\nBULLET::::- AP2A2 NM_012305\n\nBULLET::::- AP2M1\n\nBULLET::::- AP2S1 NM_004069\n\nBULLET::::- AP3B1 NM_003664\n\nBULLET::::- AP3D1 NM_003938\n\nBULLET::::- AP3M1 NM_012095\n\nBULLET::::- AP3S1 NM_001284\n\nBULLET::::- AP3S2 NM_005829\n\nBULLET::::- AP4B1 NM_006594\n\nBULLET::::- AP5M1 NM_018229\n\nBULLET::::- ANXA6 Annexin 6\n\nBULLET::::- ANXA7 Annexin 7\n\nBULLET::::- AP1B1 Coated vessicles\n\nBULLET::::- CLTA Clathrin A (vessicles)\n\nBULLET::::- CLTB Clathrin B (vessicles)\n\nBULLET::::- CLTC\n\nSection::::Common housekeeping genes in humans.:Structural.:Mitochondrion.\n\nBULLET::::- MTX2\n\nSection::::Common housekeeping genes in humans.:Surface.\n\nBULLET::::- AP2S1\n\nBULLET::::- CD81\n", "Although all the cells of an organism contain the same DNA, there can be hundreds of different types of cells in a single organism. These diverse cell shapes, behaviors and functions are created and maintained by tissue-specific gene expression patterns and these can be modified by internal and external environmental conditions.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of constructive development.:Physical properties of cells and tissues.\n", "Although they do not use the haploid/diploid method of sexual reproduction, bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information. Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium. Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genomes, a phenomenon known as transformation. These processes result in horizontal gene transfer, transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated.\n\nSection::::Molecular basis for inheritance.:Recombination and genetic linkage.\n", "In the natural world DNA usually becomes available by death and lysis of other cells, but in the laboratory it is provided by the researcher, often as a genetically engineered fragment or plasmid. During uptake, DNA is transported across the cell membrane(s), and the cell wall if one is present. Once the DNA is inside the cell it may be degraded to nucleotides, which are reused for DNA replication and other metabolic functions. Alternatively it may be recombined into the cell's genome by its DNA repair enzymes. If this recombination changes the cell's genotype the cell is said to have been transformed. Artificial competence and transformation are used as research tools in many organisms (\"see Transformation (genetics)\").\n", "Section::::Forces in molecular evolution.\n\nThe content and structure of a genome is the product of the molecular and population genetic forces which act upon that genome. Novel genetic variants will arise through mutation and will spread and be maintained in populations due to genetic drift or natural selection.\n\nSection::::Forces in molecular evolution.:Mutation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01198	How do you get enough information from peer reviewed journal articles to reproduce the experiment or review their conclusions if the journal articles are so short?	At minimum you can email the corresponding author and ask. More and more journals are requiring inclusion of their data these days. For example, Plos One. This would all allow you to check that their data and analyses are accurate. It would have minimal effect on reproducibility as that's a result of interpreting random results as significant (Type I error). To check that you would need to collect your own data using identical methods.	[ "BULLET::::- Research reports are published when authors do experiments to help support their topics. Reports are generally a formal type of publications, but it depends on the author. Some authors simply publish research findings, without any detailed explanations or formal papers. Other authors will write up full reports, with all the findings, calculations, and conclusions drawn from the information found.\n\nBULLET::::- Conference papers are published following conferences. Authors find these helpful, not only for reviewing what happened during the conference, but also finding out what happened at conferences they were unable to attend.\n", "BULLET::::- Data papers are articles dedicated to describe datasets. This type of article is becoming popular and journals exclusively dedicated to them have been established, e.g. \"Scientific Data\" and \"Earth System Science Data\".\n\nBULLET::::- Video papers are a recent addition to practice of scientific publications. They most often combine an online video demonstration of a new technique or protocol combined with a rigorous textual description.\n", "BULLET::::- Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data. Some journals now only publish this data electronically on the Internet. Supplemental information also contains other voluminous material not appropriate for the main body of the article, like descriptions of routine procedures, derivations of equations, source code, non-essential data, spectra or other such miscellaneous information.\n", "One common review process is the same as the peer review above, except all references to the authors are removed from the article before review by the researchers.\n\nSection::::Content.\n\nMost public health journals include various types of content, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Editorial\n\nBULLET::::- Letter to the Editor\n\nBULLET::::- Original research\n\nBULLET::::- Literature review, systematic review and meta-analysis\n\nBULLET::::- Abstracts from scientific meetings or other journals\n\nBULLET::::- Technical notes\n\nMedical journals may also include, for example, case reports and clinical images of interest. Some online journals are also moving to publishing video content (e.g. \"Journal of Visualized Experiments\").\n", "The Minimum Information about a Flow Cytometry Experiment (MIFlowCyt), requires that any flow cytometry data used in a publication be available, although this does not include a requirement that it be deposited in a public database.\n\nThus, although the journals Cytometry Part A and B, as well as all journals from the Nature Publishing Group require MIFlowCyt compliance, there is still relatively little publicly available flow cytometry data.\n\nSome efforts have been made towards creating public databases, however.\n", "Section::::Copyright.\n\nAbstracts are protected under copyright law just as any other form of written speech is protected. However, publishers of scientific articles invariably make abstracts freely available, even when the article itself is not. For example, articles in the biomedical literature are available publicly from MEDLINE which is accessible through PubMed.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nAn academic abstract typically outlines four elements relevant to the completed work:\n\nBULLET::::- The research focus (i.e. statement of the problem(s)/research issue(s) addressed);\n\nBULLET::::- The research methods used (experimental research, case studies, questionnaires, etc.);\n\nBULLET::::- The results/findings of the research; and\n\nBULLET::::- The main conclusions and recommendations\n", "In 2004 McIntyre and McKitrick tried unsuccessfully to get an extended analysis of the hockey stick into the journal \"Nature\". At this stage \"Nature\" contacted Mann, Bradley, and Hughes, about minor errors in the online supplement to MBH98. In a corrigendum published on 1 July 2004 they acknowledged that McIntyre and McKitrick had pointed out errors in proxy data that had been included as supplementary information, and supplied a full corrected listing of the data. They included a documented archive of all the data used in MBH98, and expanded details of their methods. They stated that \"None of these errors affect our previously published results.\"\n", "Scientific journals use a process of \"peer review\", in which scientists' manuscripts are submitted by editors of scientific journals to (usually one to three, and usually anonymous) fellow scientists familiar with the field for evaluation. In certain journals, the journal itself selects the referees; while in others (especially journals that are extremely specialized), the manuscript author might recommend referees. The referees may or may not recommend publication, or they might recommend publication with suggested modifications, or sometimes, publication in another journal. This standard is practiced to various degrees by different journals, and can have the effect of keeping the literature free of obvious errors and to generally improve the quality of the material, especially in the journals who use the standard most rigorously. The peer review process can have limitations when considering research outside the conventional scientific paradigm: problems of \"groupthink\" can interfere with open and fair deliberation of some new research.\n", "BULLET::::- Special Volume in Memory of Ilya Prigogine: Advances in Chemical Physics, Volume 135, based on the symposium 'Time, Irreversibility and Self-Organization', University of Brussels, December 2–3, 2004.\n\nBULLET::::- Advances in Chemical Physics, Volume 145: Advancing Theory for Kinetics and Dynamics of Complex, Many-Dimensional Systems: Clusters and Proteins\n\nBULLET::::- Advances in Chemical Physics, Volume 146: Single Molecule Biophysics: Experiments and Theories\n\nSince the first book in 1958 and until 2010, either Ilya Prigogine or Stuart A. Rice acted as series editor. Since 2011, the series editor is Aaron R. Dinner.\n", "Section::::Communication and community.:Documentation and replication.:Data sharing.\n\nWhen additional information is needed before a study can be reproduced, the author of the study might be asked to provide it. They might provide it, or if the author refuses to share data, appeals can be made to the journal editors who published the study or to the institution which funded the research.\n\nSection::::Communication and community.:Documentation and replication.:Limitations.\n", "Most researchers cannot be familiar with all of the many reporting standards that now exist, but it is enough to know which ones must be followed in one's own work, and to know where to look for details when needed. Several organizations provide help with this task of checking one's own compliance with the latest standards: \n\nBULLET::::- The EQUATOR Network\n\nBULLET::::- The BioSharing collaboration (biosharing.org)\n\nSeveral important webpages on this topic are: \n\nBULLET::::- NLM's list at Research Reporting Guidelines and Initiatives: By Organization\n\nBULLET::::- The EQUATOR Network's list at Reporting guidelines and journals: fact & fiction\n", "Section::::Methods for publishing data.\n\nSection::::Methods for publishing data.:Data files as supplementary material.\n\nA large number of journals and publishers support supplementary material being attached to research articles, including datasets. Though historically such material might have been distributed only by request or on microform to libraries, journals today typically host such material online. Supplementary material is available to subscribers to the journal or, if the article or journal is open access, to everyone.\n\nSection::::Methods for publishing data.:Data repositories.\n", "\"The Tyee\" had first publication rights to these reports, and then, on Tides Canada's behalf, responds to requests for republication by others. The author owns the ideas and data gathered during the research and writing of the reports. After the terms of the fellowship grant were fulfilled, and the resulting reports published, the author was free to produce new and different content (articles, books, films, etc.) from that research, and to sell that content to whomever he or she wishes and keep all rights and proceeds.\n", "Another less insidious tactic journals employ is to publish a large portion of its papers, or at least the papers expected to be highly cited, early in the calendar year. This gives those papers more time to gather citations. Several methods, not necessarily with nefarious intent, exist for a journal to cite articles in the same journal which will increase the journal's impact factor.\n", "Some journals have begun posting on the Internet the pre-publication history of each individual article, from the original submission to reviewers' reports, authors' comments, and revised manuscripts. For example, the \"British Medical Journal\" and some Nature Research publications, such as \"Nature Communications\". \n", "BULLET::::- government reports such as a forensic investigation conducted by a government agency such as the NTSB\n\nBULLET::::- scientific publications on the World Wide Web\n\nBULLET::::- books, technical reports, pamphlets, and working papers issued by individual researchers or research organizations on their own initiative; these are sometimes organised into a series\n\nLiterature may also be published in areas considered to be \"grey\", as they are published outside of traditional channels. This material is traditionally not indexed by major databases and can include manuals, theses and dissertations, or newsletters and bulletins. \n", "Many scientific manuscripts describe relationships between entities such as genes and proteins. However, this information cannot be used efficiently because of the difficulties in retrieving it automatically from unstructured text. In a six-month pilot project that started in January 2008, FEBS Letters began publishing manuscripts with “structured digital abstracts” (SDAs). The SDAs were added to the end of abstracts in a structured, but human-readable, format and digitally linked to interaction databases. In the pilot project, the journal concentrated on protein-protein interactions. After six months, this “experiment” was evaluated. As it was a success, all appropriate FEBS Letters manuscripts are now given an SDA.\n", "Section::::Journal support.\n\nThe journal \"Psychological Science\" has encouraged the preregistration of studies and the reporting of effect sizes and confidence intervals. The editor in chief also noted that the editorial staff will be asking for replication of studies with surprising findings from examinations using small sample sizes before allowing the manuscripts to be published.\n\nThe journal \"Nature Human Behaviour\" has adopted the registered report format, as it “shift[s] the emphasis from the results of research to the questions that guide the research and the methods used to answer them”.\n", "The registered report format requires authors to submit a description of the study methods and analyses prior to data collection. Once the method and analysis plan is vetted through peer-review, publication of the findings is provisionally guaranteed, based on whether the authors follow the proposed protocol. One goal of registered reports is to circumvent the publication bias toward significant findings that can lead to implementation of questionable research practices and to encourage publication of studies with rigorous methods. Registered reports differ from pre-registration: the latter involves creating a time-stamped non-modifiable public record of the study and analysis plan before the data is collected. However, unlike registered reports, the study and analysis plan is not subjected to peer review. \n", "BULLET::::8. \"List all of the HSPs in the database whose score is high enough to be considered.\"\n\nBULLET::::- We list the HSPs whose scores are greater than the empirically determined cutoff score \"S\". By examining the distribution of the alignment scores modeled by comparing random sequences, a cutoff score \"S\" can be determined such that its value is large enough to guarantee the significance of the remaining HSPs.\n\nBULLET::::9. \"Evaluate the significance of the HSP score.\"\n", "In 2012, Manske was co-author of a paper published in \"Nature\" that demonstrated new ways to identify areas where malaria parasites are evolving, and described techniques for mapping malarial drug resistance. The researchers developed a technique to extract the malaria parasite DNA directly from the blood, which minimizes errors in sequencing.\n\nSection::::Development of MediaWiki.\n", "This can be done in many different ways. There are formal reports, such as lab reports, research documents, and other white paper publications. Informal versions include posts on person web pages, blogs, and new forms like facebook posts.\n\nSection::::Publication process.:Conferences.\n\nThese meetings include both formal and inform forms of communication and are great ways not only to present your findings but also begin the cycle. Presentations and discussions are held to publicize research.\n\nSection::::Publication process.:Magazines and newspapers.\n", "The authors of scientific articles are active researchers instead of journalists; typically, a graduate student or a researcher writes a paper with a professor. As such, the authors are unpaid and receive no compensation from the journal. However, their funding bodies may require them to publish in scientific journals. The paper is submitted to the journal office, where the editor considers the paper for appropriateness, potential scientific impact and novelty. If the journal's editor considers the paper appropriate, the paper is submitted to scholarly peer review. Depending on the field, journal and paper, the paper is sent to 1–3 reviewers for evaluation before they can be granted permission to publish. Reviewers are expected to check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument, i.e. if the data collected or considered in the paper support the conclusion offered. Novelty is also key: existing work must be appropriately considered and referenced, and new results improving on the state of the art presented. Reviewers are usually unpaid and not a part of the journal staff—instead, they should be \"peers\", i.e. researchers in the same field as the paper in question.\n", "In the late 20th century and early 21st, the scientific communities found that the communicative value of journal articles was still much less than it could be if best practices were developed, promoted, and enforced. Thus reporting guidelines (guidelines for how best to report information) arose. The general theme has been to create templates and checklists with the message to the user being, \"your article is not complete until you have done all of these things.\" In the 1970s, the ICMJE (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors) released the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals (Uniform Requirements or URM). Other such standards, mostly developed in the 1990s through 2010s, are listed below. The academic medicine community is working hard on trying to raise compliance with good reporting standards, but there is still much to be done; for example, a 2016 review of instructions for authors in 27 emergency medicine journals found insufficient mention of reporting standards, and a 2018 study found that even when journals' instructions for authors mention reporting standards, there is a difference between a mention or badge and enforcing the requirements that the mention or badge represents.\n", "A record about an article would contain the title, publication date, and page numbers, as well as a link to the author, the journal, any reviews of the work, and a list of subject headings. From a particular journal issue, it is possible to navigate to each of the individual articles and vice versa.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "You get all the info you need from a short article about an experiment." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "You would actually get more info by contacting the original author and asking about it. " ]
2018-18131	How is it possible for soccer players to “bend” shots?	It's called the Magnus effect. A bend shot has a lot of spin. The spinning motion combines with the linear movement. The speed of the inside of the curve is less than the speed on the outside of the curve. So the ball moves into the direction of the spin. Edit: As many have pointed out, the way the spinning ball interfaces with the relatively still air creates the curving movement. This is affected by the speed of the ball, the surface characteristics of the ball, the rotation and direction of spin, and other characteristics of the ball. This can be seen in soccer, basketball, golf, tennis, table tennis, and other round ball sports. Bowling and curling are slightly different because the ball or rock is interfacing with a solid (wood lanes or ice) instead of a fluid (air).	[ "BULLET::::- Bend: skill attribute in which players strike the ball in a manner that applies spin, resulting in the flight of the ball curving, or bending, in mid-air. Players who are especially adept at achieving this will often be their team's designated free kick taker, as they are able to bend the ball around walls while taking shots at goal. The phrase \"\"bend it like Beckham\"\" stems from English player David Beckham's ability in this regard.\n", "Sometimes mistakenly called curve. Any of part of the foot can be used to do a bending shot. Using the inside or outside of the foot produces the most bend. To do a bending shot, player kicks the sides of the ball at an angle. If he uses the inside of the foot, he wraps his leg around the ball and follows through to the outside of his body. If he is using the area around the knuckle of his big toe or the outside of the foot he follows through across his body. Is usually but not exclusively used in free kicks. The ball bends or swerves in such a way that it beats the keeper, the only drawback is that it lacks great power.\n", "To do an outside shot, the ball is sliced with the outside of the foot.\n\nBULLET::::- Toe shot / Toe punt\n", "BULLET::::- Players also sometimes use chest or back to transfer (pass) the ball to a teammate or as part of a dribbling motion. Examples are Ronaldinho and Cristiano Ronaldo.\n\nSection::::Types of shots.:Depending on the ball movement.\n\nThis types of shots are most usually used in free kicks, corner kicks and shots on goal. \n\nBULLET::::- Bending shot / Swerve shot / Curl\n", "To do a straight kick, player comes at the ball straight then kicks it with the laces of his foot (ankle is locked). The straight shot is easier to keep low than standard shot since it’s hard to follow through with the kicking leg high in the air. The shot is powerful but less accurate. \n\nBULLET::::- Inside shot\n\nTo perform an inside shot, player moves his hip outside and back then kicks the ball with the middle of the inside of his foot.\n\nBULLET::::- Outside shot\n", "An uncommon but effective technique for delivering a faster than usual throw is the flip throw (notably employed in recent years by, among others, Estonian player Risto Kallaste, and Icelander Steinthor Freyr Thorsteinsson): in it the player, during the run-up, plants the ball on the ground, flips over it, and uses the momentum gained from the flip to increase the velocity of the ball. In the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" the Danish player Thomas Grønemark is recorded to have made a throw-in of 51.33 metres. Iranian defender Milad Mohammadi made a failed attempt at a flip throw in the group-stage match against Spain at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.\n", "BULLET::::- The mitger is positioned in the middle of his team's field and his main shot is in the air, when the ball hasn't bounced on the ground. If the ball has bounced once he is able to aim and throw the ball to the corners, to the non-protected places of the opponent team, or to the special places such as the \"galleries\", the \"llotgeta\" or the stairs.\n", "The 1950s Brazilian star Didi invented the \"folha seca\" (dry leaf) which is nowadays commonly known as the \"knuckleball\" free kick, notably used by modern day players such as Cristiano Ronaldo and Juninho, where the ball would be struck with either no or a low amount of spin, causing it to swerve downward unexpectedly at a point near the goal.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Corners.\n", "Angled shot\n", "In recent years there has been a trend of playing inverted wingers – wide players stationed on the 'wrong' side of the pitch, in order to enable them to cut inside and shoot on their stronger foot and sometimes provide in-swinging crosses. This tactic was used by Frank Rijkaard, who, whilst at Barcelona, moved Lionel Messi from the left flank onto the right wing, initially against the player's wishes. This allowed him to cut into the centre and shoot or cross with his left foot.\n\nSection::::False 9.\n", "Franck Ribéry and Aiden McGeady have also performed slightly modified versions of the spin. The modifications include dragging the ball behind their standing foot instead of to the side during the first phase. The third phase also sees them using the outside of the boot in instead of the sole.\n\nSection::::Uses and effectiveness.\n\nThe manoeuvre is most effective when the opposing player approaches head on or from the side of the player's master foot.\n", "The top spin technique of putting straight curl on a ball is known as a dip.\n\nBULLET::::- Knuckleball / Dry leaf\n\nA freekick or shot from distance that has no spin and has erratic movement, Didi, Juninho Pernambucano, Roberto Carlos, Andrea Pirlo, Cristiano Ronaldo and Gareth Bale are known for using this technique. \n\nBULLET::::- Driven shot / Power shot\n\nBULLET::::- Deadball\n", "Many football players are renowned for their ability to curl or bend the ball when shooting at goal from open play or a free kick, some of which include: Pelé, Didi, Rivelino, Zico, Diego Maradona, Michel Platini, Roberto Baggio, Alessandro Del Piero, Gianfranco Zola, Siniša Mihajlović, Zinedine Zidane, Rivaldo, David Beckham, Roberto Carlos, Juninho, Ronald Koeman, Andrea Pirlo, Ricardo Quaresma, Gareth Bale, Philippe Coutinho, Ronaldinho, Thierry Henry, Neymar, Kaká, Miralem Pjanić, Rogério Ceni, Shunsuke Nakamura, Pierre van Hooijdonk, Hristo Stoichkov, Cristiano Ronaldo, and Lionel Messi. A 2002 film, \"Bend It Like Beckham\", was named after Beckham's curling ability at free kicks.\n", "Kerlon, a retired footballer who last played for Slovak side Spartak Trnava, is the most prolific user of this move.\n\nThe Italian forward Marco Nappi was also known to use the seal dribble. His most famous use of this move came in the first leg of the semi-final of the 1989–90 UEFA Cup, against Werder Bremen; during the match, Nappi picked up the ball in his area and ran 40 metres with the ball bouncing along his forehead along the right flank.\n", "BULLET::::- Using the space between the opponent's defensive line and midfielder line ('the hole'): A common build-up of attacks is to pass the ball into the space between the opponent's defenders and midfielders. Normally, an attacker with his back to the goal will receive the pass. He will seek to turn with the ball, or distribute it to a player facing the goal, who optimally also is in front of the opponent's midfielders - or even on the move into the space behind the opponent's defenders.\n", "Curl (football)\n\nCurl or bend in association football is spin on the ball which will make it change direction, called a 'screw shot' in the 19th century. When kicking the ball, the inside of the foot is often used to curl the ball, but this can also be done by using the outside of the foot. Similar to curl, the ball can also swerve in the air, without the \"spin\" on the ball which makes the ball curl.\n", "BULLET::::- The punter is in front of the opposing team or into their midfield, he must block the ball or throw it to the non-protected places.\n\nEvery point consists of four \"quinzes\": 15, 30, \"val\", and \"joc\". The team who wins the \"joc\" scores a point.\n", "BULLET::::- Crossbar: horizontal bar across the top of the goal.\n\nBULLET::::- Cruyff turn: type of turn named after Dutchman Johan Cruyff; designed to lose an opponent. Specifically, the ball is gently kicked sideways by one foot, but behind the player's own standing leg.\n\nBULLET::::- Cuauhtemiña: skill move attributed to Mexican player Cuauhtémoc Blanco, which he performed notably at the 1998 World Cup. When multiple players attempted to tackle him, he trapped the ball between his feet and jumped over them, releasing the ball in the air and landing with it under control.\n", "The long ball can be very effective as a switch in game plan in pressure situations. In Chelsea's quarter-final victory over PSG in the 2013/2014 Champions' League, PSG needed to defend their 3-2 lead on aggregate for 10 more minutes when Fernando Torres entered the game as a substitute for Oscar. Chelsea's rehearsed gameplan for this scenario was to go direct from anywhere in the field, and PSG's defensive line fell very deep and very compressed. All secondary balls from either Chelsea or PSG players fell into spaces occupied solely by Chelsea players, leading to multiple goal scoring opportunities, one of which eventually taken by Demba Ba.\n", "Visual focus should be placed on the ball, not on the football pitch. If lifting the head/eyes in order to determine where to shoot, which may be necessary in various circumstances, this should be done before taking the shot. The athlete’s vision should be focused directly at the ball through the entirety of the kicking action in order to increase accuracy.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Support (stance) leg.\n", "Not a special type of shot but a result of different shots. It is reflected in a sudden drop or dip of the ball. It can be a result of a knuckleball shot or a straight curle. In the case of the latter it is called top spin deadball or dipping deadball. Not every knuckleball shot is a deadball.\n\nSection::::Types of shots.:Special (Trick) shots.\n\nBULLET::::- Chip shot / Lob / Drop shot\n", "In general, the volley requires that the player strike the ball with the front of his foot, with the toes pointing downward, ankle locked, and the knee lifted. It is important for most applications to keep the knee high over the ball when struck, and lean slightly forward to keep the shot accurate and keeping it down. Doing so imparts a great deal of topspin and prevents the ball from flying wildly over the goal if done correctly. Because of the power and spin imparted on the ball, the shot can follow an unpredictable path to goal and prove difficult to defend against.\n", "Every \"quinze\" begins when the \"feridor\" player throws the ball to the opponent \"dauer\", who must turn it back to the team in the \"rest\" midfield. This way, both teams will be sending each other the ball over the net, only hitting it by hand; they may hit the ball in the air or when it has bounced once on the ground. This continues until one of the teams is not able to throw it back or a \"fault \" is committed.\n\n\"Faults\":\n\nBULLET::::- When the ball bounces twice, or the same team (or player) touches it twice.\n", "Some centre-backs have also been known for their direct free kicks and powerful shots from distance. Brazilian defenders David Luiz, Alex, and Naldo have been known for using the cannonball free kick method, which relies more on power than placement.\n\nIn the modern game, most teams employ two or three centre-backs in front of the goalkeeper. The 4–2–3–1, 4–3–3, and 4–4–2 formations all use two centre-backs.\n", "BULLET::::- At the kick-off, the opposing team had to be 10 m from the ball, and the ball had to remain in the field from the kick.\n\nBULLET::::- The ball carrier could be blocked, but the aim of the defending team was to touch the ball – when they would call \"touch\" or \"hit\".\n\nBULLET::::- This would result in a \"scrum\" – a circle of players \"into which the Barette is dropped so that it rolls on the ground\". The scrum would then kick the ball until it emerged.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02132	why is it that when we put cold feet in hot water it feels like it's burning more, but when we put hot feet in cold water it's relieving?	The direction of heat transfer. When you're putting your cold feet in hot water, the hot water is transferring its heat to your feet and trying to reach equilibrium. There's a huge difference in temperature between your feet and the water so a lot of heat is transferred, so it feels extra hot. The opposite is true when you put hot feet in cold water. The heat in your feet is being dissipated through the cold water.	[ "BULLET::::- Water has a very high specific heat capacity (4.184 J g K), whereas embers have a very low one. Therefore, the foot's temperature tends to change less than the coal's.\n\nBULLET::::- Water also has a high thermal conductivity, and on top of that, the rich blood flow in the foot will carry away the heat and spread it. On the other hand, embers have a poor thermal conductivity, so the hotter body consists only of the parts of the embers which are close to the foot.\n", "The result is that the top pipe which received hot water, now has cold water leaving it at 20 °C, while the bottom pipe which received cold water, is now emitting hot water at close to 60 °C. In effect, most of the heat was transferred.\n\nSection::::Three current exchange systems.:Countercurrent flow—almost full transfer.:Conditions for higher transfer results.\n\nNearly complete transfer in systems implementing countercurrent exchange, is only possible if the two flows are, in some sense, \"equal\".\n", "Warm and cold sensitive nerve fibers differ in structure and function. The cold-sensitive and warm-sensitive nerve fibers are underneath the skin surface. Terminals of each temperature-sensitive fiber do not branch away to different organs in the body. They form a small sensitive point which are unique from neighboring fibers. Skin used by the single receptor ending of a temperature-sensitive nerve fiber is small. There are 20 cold points per square centimeter in the lips, 4 in the finger, and less than 1 cold point per square centimeter in trunk areas. There are 5 times as many cold sensitive points as warm sensitive points.\n", "The burning heat is usually limited to the soles of the feet, but may extend up to the ankles or lower legs of some patients. The burning can sometimes be accompanied by feelings of 'pins and needles' or tingling in these regions. Nighttime is when almost all sufferers of this syndrome report the heat symptoms being the worst, with the condition getting better as morning comes. Those who have psychosomatic disorders sometimes display psychological symptoms along with the burning of feet associated with the syndrome. For most, there is no redness of the skin of their feet during the heat sensations, and almost never is there accompanying tenderness along with it.\n", "Immersion foot syndromes\n\nImmersion foot syndromes are a class of foot injury caused by water absorption in the outer layer of skin. There are different subclass names for this condition based on the temperature of the water to which the foot is exposed. These include trench foot, tropical immersion foot, and warm water immersion foot. In one 3-day military study, it was found that submersion in water allowing for a higher skin temperature resulted in worse skin maceration and pain.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Trench foot.\n", "Temperature and pain are thought to be represented as “feelings” of coolness/warmness and pleasantness/unpleasantness in the brain. These sensory and affective characteristics of thermoregulation may motivate certain behavioral responses depending on the state of the body (for example, moving away from a source of heat to a cooler space). Such perturbations in the internal homeostatic environment of an organism are thought to be key aspects of a motivational process giving rise to emotional states, and have been proposed to be represented principally by the insular cortex as feelings. These feelings then influence drives when the anterior cingulate cortex is activated.\n", "The square root of the product of thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat capacity is called thermal effusivity, and tells how much heat energy the body absorbs or releases in a certain amount of time per unit area when its surface is at a certain temperature. Since the heat taken in by the cooler body must be the same as the heat given by the hotter one, the surface temperature must lie closer to the temperature of the body with the greater thermal effusivity. The bodies in question here are human feet (which mainly consist of water) and burning coals.\n", "Harry M. Hyatt collected several recipes and spells for hot foot powder. Some modes of deploying hot foot collected by him include secreting a small amount into the victim's shoes or clothing, mixing it with a victim's foottrack, or placing a paper with the victim's name into a bottle with hot foot powder and disposing of it in a river.\n", "Blood flow to the muscles is lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion.\n", "Sitting in a bathtub of tepid or cool water (immersion method) can remove a significant amount of heat in a relatively short period of time. It was once thought that immersion in very cold water is counterproductive, as it causes vasoconstriction in the skin and thereby prevents heat from escaping the body core. However, a British analysis of various studies stated: \"this has never been proven experimentally. Indeed, a recent study using normal volunteers has shown that cooling rates were fastest when the coldest water was used.\" The analysis concluded that iced water immersion is the most-effective cooling technique for exertional heat stroke. No superior cooling method has been found for \"non-exertional heat stroke\". Thus, aggressive \"ice-water\" immersion remains the gold standard for \"life-threatening heat stroke\".\n", "The hunting reaction is one out of four possible responses to immersion of the finger in cold water. The other responses observed in the fingers after immersion in cold water are a continuous state of vasoconstriction, slow steady and continuous rewarming and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of the vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water can be classified as the hunting reaction.\n", "At temperatures greater than , proteins begin losing their three-dimensional shape and start breaking down. This results in cell and tissue damage. Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin. They include disruption of the skin's sensation, ability to prevent water loss through evaporation, and ability to control body temperature. Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium.\n", "For peripheral hyperhidrosis, some chronic sufferers have found relief by simply ingesting crushed ice water. Ice water helps to cool excessive body heat during its transport through the blood vessels to the extremities, effectively lowering overall body temperature to normal levels within ten to thirty minutes.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Procedures.\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In this example, hot water at 60 °C enters the top pipe. It warms water in the bottom pipe which has been warmed up along the way, to almost 60 °C. A minute but existing heat difference still exists, and a small amount of heat is transferred, so that the water leaving the bottom pipe is at close to 60 °C. Because the hot input is at its maximum temperature of 60 °C, and the exiting water at the bottom pipe is nearly at that temperature but not quite, the water in the top pipe can warm the one in the bottom pipe to nearly its own temperature. At the cold end—the water exit from the top pipe, because the cold water entering the bottom pipe is still cold at 20 °C, it can extract the last of the heat from the now-cooled hot water in the top pipe, bringing its temperature down nearly to the level of the cold input fluid (21 °C).\n", "If the hot fluid had a much larger heat capacity rate, then when hot and cold fluids went through a heat exchanger, the hot fluid would have a very small change in temperature while the cold fluid would heat up a significant amount. If the cool fluid has a much lower heat capacity rate, that is desirable. If they were equal, they would both change more or less temperature equally, assuming equal mass-flow per unit time through a heat exchanger. In practice, a cooling fluid which has both a higher specific heat capacity and a lower heat capacity rate is desirable, accounting for the pervasiveness of water cooling solutions in technology—the polar nature of the water molecule creates some distinct sub-atomic behaviors favorable in practice.\n", "The opah utilizes retia mirabilia to conserve heat, making it the newest addition to the list of regionally endothermic fish. Blood traveling through capillaries in the gills must carry cold blood due to their exposure to cold water, but retia mirabilia in the opah's gills are able to transfer heat from warm blood in arterioles coming from the heart that heats this colder blood in arterioles leaving the gills. The huge pectoral muscles of the opah, which generate most of the body heat, are thus able to control the temperature of the rest of the body.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n", "The effect of PPE on hyperthermia has been noted in fighting the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Western Africa. Doctors and healthcare workers were only able to work 40 minutes at a stretch in their protective suits, fearing heat strokes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Other.\n\nOther rare causes of hyperthermia include thyrotoxicosis and an adrenal gland tumor, called pheochromocytoma, both of which can cause increased heat production. Damage to the central nervous system, from brain hemorrhage, status epilepticus, and other kinds of injury to the hypothalamus can also cause hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Cancerous cells are not inherently more susceptible to the effects of heat. When compared in \"in vitro\" studies, normal cells and cancer cells show the same responses to heat. However, the vascular disorganization of a solid tumor results in an unfavorable microenvironment inside tumors. Consequently, the tumor cells are already stressed by low oxygen, higher than normal acid concentrations, and insufficient nutrients, and are thus significantly less able to tolerate the added stress of heat than a healthy cell in normal tissue.\n", "Many illusions in vision are caused by adaptation, the prolonged exposure to a previous stimulus. In such cases, the perception of a subsequent stimulus is altered. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as a contingent after-effect. Similarly, adaptation can cause such illusions in the sense of touch.\n\nBULLET::::- If one hand is immersed in cold water and the other in hot for a minute or so, and then both hands are placed in lukewarm water, the lukewarm water will feel hot to the hand previously immersed in cold water, and cold to the hand previously immersed in hot water.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "There are, however, tissue and species differences in the cold sensitivity of this ATPase which may account for the differences in the ability of tissues to withstand hypothermia. Martin has shown that in dog kidney cortical cells some ATPase activity is still present at 10 °C but not at 0 °C. In liver and heart cells activity was completely inhibited at 10 °C and this difference in the cold sensitivity of ATPase correlated with the greater difficulty in controlling cell swelling during hypothermic storage of liver and heart cells. A distinct ATPase is found in vessel walls, and this was shown by Belzer to be completely inhibited at 10 °C, when at this temperature kidney cortical cells ATPase is still active. These experiments were performed on aortic endothelium, but if the vascular endothelium of the kidney has the same properties, then vascular injury may be the limiting factor in prolonged kidney storage.\n", "Hunting reaction\n\nThe hunting reaction or hunting response is a process of alternating vasoconstriction and vasodilation in extremities exposed to cold. The term Lewis reaction is used too, named after Thomas Lewis, who first described the effect in 1930.\n", "In 1842, R. T. Claridge published \"The Cold Water Cure, its Principles, Theory, and Practice\", which detailed Preissnitz's treatments. Claridge was himself a patient of Preissnitz, and his book's descriptions contain notes on the process of his own treatment at the spa, and the effectiveness of Preissnitz's treatments on other patients with various diseases.\n", "Thick skin is more prone to superficial burns because of the simple fact that there's more to burn before it gets deep. Skin thickness varies throughout the body, from 0.5mm of the eye lids to 6mm in the soles of the feet. Skin thickness overall varies with age, being thinner at extremes of age.\n\nExternal factors on the skin like hair, moisture or oils can also help ease and delay the burn. Another factor is skin circulation, which is used to dissipate heat imprinted on the skin.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Hot liquids and steam.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17284	Why does your skin turn red when pressure is applied for long periods of time?	In short periods of pressure your restricting blood flow causing your skin to turn pale/white. Once pressure is relieved you get a rush of blood flow making the area look flush/red. This is called reactive hyperaemia. In longer periods of unrelieved pressure you get non blanchable erythema I.e persistent redness despite relieving pressure. The prolonged lack of blood flow and oxygen results in blood vessel damage and other cellular processes. As a result your blood vessels remain dilated and even leak blood into surrounding tissues. This causes that persistent redness. Tissue will recover if pressure is completely relieved, if not it can result in a pressure ulcer!	[ "An electrode is inserted into the muscle of interest, which is then stimulated using surface current. Chronaxie values increase resulting from hyperventilation can be ascribed to a change in skin impedance, the physiological factors responsible for this change being under the influence of the autonomic nervous system. This example of the preponderating influence which the condition of the skin and the underlying tissues may exert compels caution in judging the results of chronaxie measurements by percutaneous stimulation. A fresh and normal sartorius placed straight in a Ringer solution\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:In divers.\n", "Pressure oxidation\n\nPressure Oxidation is a process for extracting gold from refractory ore.\n\nThe most common refractory ores are pyrite and arsenopyrite, which are sulfide ores that trap the gold within them. Refractory ores require pre-treatment before the gold can be adequately extracted. The pressure oxidation process is used to prepare such ores for conventional gold extraction processes such as cyanidation. It is performed in an autoclave at high pressure and temperature, where high-purity oxygen mixes with a slurry of ore.\n", "Sometimes more direct pressure has been used. In another incident, a young woman in overly transparent capris was made to stay seated at a desk until the congressman's wife had left the office for the day. Johnson wrote of an intern being given a tie and told to put it on. In another case the other interns staged an \"intervention\" during the local bar's happy hour after the workday.\n", "In 1992, Bellhouse was at work on a \"powdered injector to deliver genetic material into plant cells\" when he wondered if he could use the same method on people. A few hours after injecting himself with finely ground salt, the skin began to bleed. As he explained, \"Salt bursts the red blood cells. This proved that it had worked. And it was utterly painless. It felt like a puff of air\".\n", "Pressure ulcers may be caused by inadequate blood supply and resulting reperfusion injury when blood re-enters tissue. A simple example of a mild pressure sore may be experienced by healthy individuals while sitting in the same position for extended periods of time: the dull ache experienced is indicative of impeded blood flow to affected areas. Within 2 hours, this shortage of blood supply, called ischemia, may lead to tissue damage and cell death. The sore will initially start as a red, painful area. The other process of pressure ulcer development is seen when pressure is high enough to damage the cell membrane of muscle cells. The muscle cells die as a result and skin fed through blood vessels coming through the muscle die. This is the deep tissue injury form of pressure ulcers and begins as purple intact skin.\n", "When the original sulfide minerals are oxidized at high temperature and pressure, it completely releases the trapped gold. Pressure oxidation has a very high gold recovery rate, normally at least 10% higher than roasting. \n", "Topical anesthetics are often used by technicians prior to cosmetic tattooing and there is the potential for adverse effects if topical anesthetics are not used safely. In 2013 the International Industry association CosmeticTattoo.org published a detailed position and general safety precautions for the entire industry.\n\nThe causes of a change of colour after cosmetic tattooing are both complex and varied. As discussed in the detailed industry article \"Why Do Cosmetic Tattoos Change Colour\", primarily there are four main areas that have influence over the potential for a cosmetic tattoo to change colour;\n\nBULLET::::1. Factors related to the pigment characteristics\n", "Adjustments of the stimulation pattern (size and frequency of pulses) are made using a device programmer which communicates with the implanted device through short-range radio signals. Stimulation is set at a level that reduces blood pressure but does not cause discomfort.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "These two autonomic effector pathways reduce heart rate and vasomotor tone, leading to a reduction in blood pressure. Effects can be seen within a few seconds of initiation of stimulation, a feature which is used in the initial implant procedure to aid positioning of the electrode.\n\nSection::::Clinical Effects.\n\n7 clinical studies\n", "BULLET::::- poor capillary refill (e.g. when the patient's fingertip is pressed, the skin turns white, but upon release, the skin does not return to pink as fast as it should - usually 2 seconds)\n\nBULLET::::- decreased skin turgor (e.g. the skin remains \"tented\" when it is pinched)\n\nBULLET::::- a weak pulse\n\nBULLET::::- orthostatic hypotension (dizziness upon standing up from a seated or reclining position, due to a drop in cerebral blood pressure)\n\nBULLET::::- orthostatic increase in pulse rate\n\nBULLET::::- cool extremities (e.g. cool fingers)\n\nSection::::Clinical assessment.:Intravascular volume overload.\n\nSigns of intravascular volume overload (high blood volume) include:\n", "Pressure is the force put on the patient's body. Those forces can stem from the surgery itself, instruments, drills, gravity, attachments, and bandages. The duration and intensity of the pressure is inversely correlated. The longer the duration of the pressure, the less pressure the body can endure. However, the body can endure a large amount of pressure for brief periods of time. The amount of pressure on the tissue is based on the size of the area of the contact: the smaller the point of pressure, the greater effect it will have on the tissue. The position of instruments can cause damage to the body if pressure is not relieved periodically.\n", "Anesthesia dolorosa or anaesthesia dolorosa or deafferentation pain is pain felt in an area (usually of the face) which is completely numb to touch. The pain is described as constant, burning, aching or severe. It can be a side effect of surgery involving any part of the trigeminal system, and occurs after 1–4% of peripheral surgery for trigeminal neuralgia. No effective medical therapy has yet been found. Several surgical techniques have been tried, with modest or mixed results. The value of surgical interventions is difficult to assess because published studies involve small numbers of mixed patient types and little long term follow-up.\n", "Decreased CSF pressure can indicate complete subarachnoid blockage, leakage of spinal fluid, severe dehydration, hyperosmolality, or circulatory collapse. Significant changes in pressure during the procedure can indicate tumors or spinal blockage resulting in a large pool of CSF, or hydrocephalus associated with large volumes of CSF.\n\nSection::::Interpretation.:Cell count.\n", "An early report from 1934 showed that intralesional injections of procaine (Novocain®) relieved pain in six cases. More recently, other types of local treatment of painful sites with lidocaine patches (5%) (Lidoderm®) or lidocaine/prilocaine (25 mg/25 mg) cream (EMLA®) have shown a reduction of pain in a few cases.\n", "Positive reaction means: A) 10mm or more induration after 48hrs B) 5mm or above nodule after 21 days. An extract sample of inactivated Hansen's bacillus is injected just under the skin, usually on the forearm, so that a small lump pushes the skin upward. The lump indicates that the antigen has been injected at the correct depth. The injection site is labeled and examined at 48hours and 21 days later to see if there is a reaction. \n", "The surface of the plant is covered in a mix of chemicals including psoralen, xanthotoxin and bergapten that causes a phototoxic reaction resulting in blistering two or three days after exposure. The moment of exposure is innocuous, without any untoward sensations to the unwary. Exposure of the affected skin to ultraviolet light, such as contained in sunlight, triggers the effects of the plant's toxins, leading to severe itching and blistering. The welts and resulting blisters can be as small as the size of a coin to covering as much exposed skin as came into contact with the plant. Where more than 5% of the body is afflicted, the scarring can be a serious matter. Washing the affected area immediately after exposure may help but preventing any further exposure to ultraviolet light such as the sun or many artificial light sources will reduce and /or eliminate blistering.\n", "Cannulation for invasive vascular pressure monitoring is infrequently associated with complications such as thrombosis, infection, and bleeding. Patients with invasive arterial monitoring require very close supervision, as there is a danger of severe bleeding if the line becomes disconnected. It is generally reserved for patients where rapid variations in arterial pressure are anticipated.\n", "Francis Arthur Bainbridge described this reflex in 1918 when he was experimenting on dogs. Bainbridge found that infusing blood or saline into the animal increased heart rate. This phenomenon occurred even if arterial blood pressure did not increase. He further observed that heart rate increased when venous pressure rose high enough to distend the right atrium, but denervation of the vagi to the heart eliminated these effects.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of Action.\n", "In the recall phase the adrenal glands increase production of cortisol which shuts down eicosanoid production and inflammation.\n\nSection::::Tissue damaged by inflammation.:Resolution phase.\n", "Clinical studies have shown that the most common side effect is a slight reaction at the site of injection in the form of redness, and sometimes swelling. Clinical studies have shown that, one hour after injection, the incidence of at least one moderate or severe local skin reaction per treatment cycle was 12% in 4 patients treated with ganirelix and 25% in patients treated subcutaneously with a GnRH agonist. The local reactions generally disappear within 4 hours after administration.\n", "Due to radiation of high-energy radio frequency, several patients have reported pain requiring sedation during the procedure. The process also requires extreme care in its execution for improper application may result in dents on the skin surface due to uneven healing responses on the skin. Many effects including fat necrosis and atrophic scarring have also been reported, although several new techniques have overcome this obstacle. With the application of a vacuum at the point of application, the burning and crusting was reportedly reduced.\n", "Galvanic skin response uses a device, called a galvanometer, which is very similar to a lie detector, designed to measure minute amounts of skin perspiration and electrical activity in the skin. Changes in skin response are associated with arousal and are an indicator of the advertisement's ability to capture attention.\n\nSection::::Measuring advertising effectiveness.:Pre-testing.:Physiological measures.:Electroencephelograph (EEG).\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Livedoid dermatitis\n\nLivedoid dermatitis is a rare iatrogenic cutaneous reaction that occurs immediately after a drug injection. It presents as an immediate, extreme pain around the injection site, with overlying skin rapidly becoming erythematous, violaceous, or blanched (\"ischemic pallor\") and sometimes with reticular pattern. The reaction eventually leads to variable degrees of necrosis to the skin and underlying tissue. The wound eventually heals, but can lead to atrophic, disfiguring scarring.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03318	How does the NBA draft system, trades, picks, and transfers work?	Every year there is a draft where teams gets to pick from a pool of eligible young players. Every team is has two picks, one in round 1 and one in round 2. The order in which teams pick is determined roughly by how the standings finished the season prior, with the worst teams receiving the top picks. There is a bit of randomness thrown into this order by a lottery system, but for the most part, bad teams get top picks, good teams get later picks. Any young players in the draft pool who do not get picked after the two rounds are completed are free to sign with any team that offers them a contract. The picks themselves can be traded between teams. For instance right now Team A could trade Player X + their 2021 first round pick for Player Y from Team B, assuming Player Y is deemed more valuable than Player X. When 2021 came around, Team B would have two first round picks and Team A would have none. First round picks can be highly valuable, second round picks not so much. Trading players basically means just moving the player's existing contract from one team to another. The players themselves do not have to consent for this to take place. You can trade player for player, player for pick(s), or multiple players and picks going both ways. As long as both teams can afford the players contracts under the salary cap, you can basically trade any combination. You can even have a three or four team trade, as long as all teams agree on what they are giving up and taking on.	[ "In the event a lottery pick is traded to another team, the record of the original team (whose pick it was before the trade) still determines eligibility for the lottery, and assignment of chances.\n\nSection::::Process.:2005.\n\nSince 2005, with 30 NBA teams, 16 qualify for the playoffs and the remaining 14 teams enter in the draft lottery. These 14 teams were ranked in reverse order of their regular season record and assigned the following number of chances, up to 2018:\n\nBULLET::::1. 250 combinations, 25.0% chance of receiving the No. 1 pick\n\nBULLET::::2. 199 combinations, 19.9% chance\n\nBULLET::::3. 156 combinations, 15.6% chance\n", "Section::::Globalization of the draft.\n", "Section::::Eligibility and entrants.\n\nThe draft is conducted under the eligibility rules established in the league's 2017 collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with its player's union. The previous CBA that ended the 2011 lockout instituted no immediate changes to the draft, but called for a committee of owners and players to discuss future changes.\n\nBULLET::::- All drafted players must be at least 19 years old during the calendar year of the draft. In terms of dates, players who are eligible for the 2018 draft must be born on or before December 31, 1999.\n", "Section::::Globalization of the draft.:Selecting foreign players.\n", "In the first four drafts the Rockets participated in, each team had a total of 90 draft choices (14 in 1967, and 19 each from 1968 to 1971). For two drafts in 1972 and 1973, there were eight rounds, from 1974 to 1976 and 1978 to 1984, the draft was 10 rounds long. However, in 1985, the draft was shortened to seven rounds, and in 1989, the NBA agreed with the National Basketball Players' Association to limit drafts to two rounds, an arrangement that has remained the same up the present time. Before each draft, an NBA Draft Lottery determines the first round selection order for the teams that missed the playoffs during the prior season. Teams can also trade their picks, which means that in some drafts teams may have more or less than two draft picks, although they must have at least one first-round pick every other year.\n", "The NBA Draft Lottery is an annual event held by the NBA, where the teams who did not make the playoffs in the past year participate in a state-lottery style process in order to determine the first three picks of the draft, until 2018. The team with the worst record receives the best odds of receiving the first pick. The NBA introduced the lottery process in 1985. The league was attempting to counter accusations that certain teams were purposefully losing in order to gain a chance to participate in the annual coin flip, where the worst team in each division flips a coin to see who will receive the first pick in the upcoming draft. In 2019, the first four picks will be determined.\n", "BULLET::::- They are least 22 years old during the calendar year of the draft. In terms of dates, players born on or before December 31, 1995 are automatically eligible for the 2017 draft.\n\nBULLET::::- They have signed a contract with a professional basketball team outside of the NBA \"within the United States\", and have played under that contract.\n\nSection::::Combine.\n", "The following table lists the odds for each seed to get specific picks, beginning with the 2019 draft, if there were no ties (rounded to 9 decimal places).\n", "The NBA draft is an annual event dating back to 1947 in which the teams from the National Basketball Association (NBA) can draft players who are eligible and wish to join the league. These are typically college basketball players, but international players are also eligible to be drafted. College players who have finished their four-year college eligibility are automatically eligible for selection, while the underclassmen have to declare their eligibility and give up their remaining college eligibility. International players who are at least 22 years old are automatically eligible for selection, while the players younger than 22 have to declare their eligibility. Players who are not automatically eligible but have declared their eligibility are often called \"early-entrants\" or \"early-entry candidates\". The draft usually takes place near the end of June, during the NBA offseason. Since 1989, the draft has consisted of two rounds; this is much shorter than the entry drafts of the other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada, all of which run at least seven rounds. Sixty players are selected in each draft. No player may sign with the NBA until he has been eligible for at least one draft.\n", "BULLET::::- All drafted players must be at least 19 years old during the calendar year of the draft. In terms of dates, players who are eligible for the 2017 draft, must be born on or before December 31, 1998.\n\nBULLET::::- Since the 2016 draft, the NCAA Division I council has implemented the following rules for that division that significantly changed the draft landscape for college players:\n", "The draft is conducted under the eligibility rules established in the league's 2017 collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with its player's union. The previous CBA that ended the 2011 lockout instituted no immediate changes to the draft but called for a committee of owners and players to discuss future changes.\n\nBULLET::::- All drafted players must be at least 19 years old during the calendar year of the draft. In terms of dates, players who are eligible for the 2019 draft must be born on or before December 31, 2000.\n", "The first 14 picks in the draft belonged to teams that had missed the playoffs; the order was determined through a lottery. The lottery determined the three teams that would obtain the first three picks on the draft. The remaining first-round picks and the second-round picks were assigned to teams in reverse order of their win-loss record in the previous season. As it is commonplace in the event of identical win-loss records, the NBA performed a random drawing to break the ties on April 16, 2010.\n", "Each NBA franchise seeks to add new players through an annual draft. The NBA uses a draft lottery to determine the first three picks of the NBA draft; the 14 teams that did not make the playoffs the previous year are eligible to participate. After the first three picks are decided, the rest of the teams pick in reverse order of their win–loss record. To be eligible for the NBA Draft, a player in the United States must be at least 19 years old during the calendar year of the draft and must be at least one year removed from the graduation of his high school class. From 1967 until the ABA–NBA merger in 1976, the American Basketball Association (ABA) held its own draft.\n", "Before each draft, an NBA draft lottery determines the first round selection order for the teams that did not make the playoffs during the prior season. Teams can also trade their picks, which means that a team could have more than or less than two picks in one draft. As a result of the various trades, the Minnesota Timberwolves had four draft picks in 1992 and 2006. The Timberwolves drafted Pooh Richardson with their first ever draft pick, tenth overall, in the 1989 NBA draft. In 1995, the Timberwolves picked Kevin Garnett fifth overall, who went on to be a 13-time All-Star. In 1996, the Timberwolves drafted Ray Allen fifth overall but was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks with a future first-round pick for the draft rights of Stephon Marbury. In the 2008 NBA draft, the Timberwolves drafted O. J. Mayo third overall but was traded to the Memphis Grizzlies along with three other players from the Timberwolves for the draft rights to Kevin Love along with three other players from the Grizzlies.\n", "The first 14 picks in the draft belong to teams that missed the playoffs; the order will be determined through a lottery. The lottery will determine the three teams that will obtain the first three picks on the draft. The remaining first-round picks and the second-round picks were assigned to teams in reverse order of their win-loss record in the previous season. As it is commonplace in the event of identical win-loss records, the NBA performed a random drawing to break the ties on April 15, 2011.\n", "NBA teams choose players from the NCAA and from teams overseas. It was formerly common for players to be chosen directly from high school, but in 2006, the NBA required that players wait a year after high school before playing in the NBA. Almost all top U.S. players thus play at least one year in college.\n\nSection::::North America.:NHL draft.\n", "The first 14 picks in the draft belonged to teams that had missed the playoffs; the order was determined through a lottery. The lottery determined the three teams that would obtain the first three picks on the draft. The remaining first-round picks and the second-round picks were assigned to teams in reverse order of their win-loss record in the previous season. As it is commonplace in the event of identical win-loss records, the NBA performed a random drawing to break the ties on April 18, 2008.\n", "The draft was conducted under the eligibility rules established in the league's now-expired 2005 collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with its players union. The CBA that ended the 2011 lockout instituted no immediate changes to the draft, but called for a committee of owners and players to discuss future changes. As of 2011, the basic eligibility rules for the draft are listed below.\n\nBULLET::::- All drafted players must be at least 19 years old during the calendar year of the draft. In terms of dates, players eligible for the 2012 draft must be born on or before December 31, 1993.\n", "This draft is also known for the number of players who made important contributions to the sport of basketball outside of the court. For example, Nate McMillan had a highly successful run with the Seattle SuperSonics as a player and then as head coach, and then spent seven seasons as head coach of the Portland Trail Blazers. Scott Skiles was the former coach of the Milwaukee Bucks and also the first coach to lead the Chicago Bulls to the playoffs in the post-Jordan era. Larry Krystkowiak, a former Bucks head coach, was hired in April 2011 as the new head coach at the University of Utah. John Salley won four championship rings with three different NBA teams (Detroit Pistons, Chicago Bulls and Los Angeles Lakers) before becoming one of the hosts of \"The Best Damn Sports Show Period\" on Fox Sports Network. Mark Price served as an assistant coach at Georgia Tech, a shooting consultant with Memphis (one season) and Atlanta (two seasons), a shooting coach for Golden State (one season), and in December 2011 was named Player Development Coach for the Orlando Magic. Jeff Hornacek would also be a full-time assistant head coach for the Utah Jazz for two seasons before accepting a job as the head coach for the Phoenix Suns in the 2013–14 NBA season. In 2016, Jeff Hornacek became the head coach for the New York Knicks, and coached them until 2018. Pete Myers, selected in the sixth round as the 120th overall pick, was an assistant coach for the Chicago Bulls from 2001 to 2010 and Golden State Warriors since 2011. Jim Les, the 70th overall pick, was an assistant coach for the WNBA's Sacramento Monarchs from 1999 to 2001 then was head coach at Bradley University from 2002 to 2011 and UC Davis since 2011.\n", "Under the current rules, only the top four picks are decided by the lottery, and are chosen from the 14 teams that do not make the playoffs. The team with the worst record, or the team that holds the draft rights of the team with the worst record, has the best chance to obtain a higher draft pick. After the top four positions are selected (from the lottery slotting system), the remainder of the first-round draft order is in inverse order of the win-loss record for the remaining teams, or the teams who originally held the lottery rights if they were traded. The lottery does not determine the draft order in the subsequent rounds of the draft. \n", "The current eligibility rules were established under the NBA's collective bargaining agreement (CBA), which expired in , resulting in a lockout. The previous CBA, approved in December 2011, made no changes to the draft rules, but called for the NBA and its players union to form a committee to discuss draft-related issues. In 2016, the NBA and NBA Players Association met to work on a new CBA, which both sides approved in December of that year. This most recent agreement started with the 2017–18 season and will run through 2023–24, with a mutual opt-out after 2022–23. The basic rules that started in the 2006 draft are:\n", "Based on the eligibility rules, all college seniors who have completed their college eligibility and all \"international\" players who were born on or before December 31, 1994 are automatically eligible for the draft. However, there are other players who became automatically eligible even though they have not completed their four-year college eligibility.\n\nSection::::Combine.\n", "The first 14 picks in the draft belong to teams that miss the playoffs; the order was determined through a lottery. The lottery determined the three teams that will obtain the first three picks on the draft. The remaining first-round picks and the second-round picks were assigned to teams in reverse order of their win-loss record in the previous season.\n", "In the lottery system, the league uses \"a lottery-style ping-pong ball machine with 14 balls numbered 1–14, and 1,000 four-digit combinations are assigned to the 14 lottery teams.\" Until 2018, the worst team received 250 combinations, the second worst getting 199, the third worst team 156, and so on. The first three draft picks were determined. Starting in 2019, the three worst teams will receive 140 combinations each, the fourth worst 125, and so on. Those three teams will have an equal chance of winning the top overall pick. After the first four picks are determined, the rest of the teams are ordered in reverse order based on their record in the previous season, like in the previous system.\n", "BULLET::::- Glen Rice Jr. – G, Rio Grande Valley Vipers (NBA D-League)\n\nSection::::Draft lottery.\n\nThe first 14 picks in the draft belong to teams that miss the playoffs; the order was determined through a lottery. The lottery determined the three teams that will obtain the first three picks on the draft. The remaining first-round picks and the second-round picks were assigned to teams in reverse order of their win-loss record in the previous season.\n\nBelow were the chances for each team to get specific picks in the 2013 draft lottery, rounded to three decimal places.\n\nSection::::Invited attendees.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04826	why do so many different ancient myths base their understanding of Gods on the planets and stars?	The things in the sky were among the greatest mysteries to ancient people, because they could be constantly be seen yet never touched, and because they had the power of light which was mysterious, and because the movement of the stars clearly went along with the seasons which controlled a lot of life.	[ "Babylonian astronomy from early times associates stars with deities, but the heavens as the residence of an anthropomorphic pantheon, and later of monotheistic God and his retinue of angels, is a later development, gradually replacing the notion of the pantheon residing or convening on the summit of high mountains. Sayce (1913) argues a parallelism of the \"stellar theology\" of Babylon and Egypt, both countries absorbing popular star-worship into the official pantheon of their respective state religions by identification of gods with stars or planets.\n", "In many ancient religions, the northern circumpolar stars were associated with darkness, death and the underworld of the dead. For the Aztecs, the northern stars were associated with Tezcatlipoca. In Peking, China, was a shrine devoted to the North Star deity. Such worship of the northern stars may have been associated with time keeping, as the positions of the stars could identify the annual seasons. Likewise, as agriculture developed, the need to keep accurate time led to more careful tracking of the positions of the sun, moon and planets; resulting with their deification when they became inextricably linked with the means of survival. In the ancient Egyptian calendar, the date of the annual flooding of the Nile was predicted by observing the heliacal rising of a star. Indeed, the belief in a strong association between the events on the earth and in the heavens led to the development of astrology.\n", "All the gods, demons and spirits had their places assigned to them in the heavens, and facts, including such as fell within the domain of political history, were interpreted in terms of astral theology. So completely did this system in the course of time sway men's minds that the cults and sects, from being an expression of animistic beliefs, took on the color derived from the \"astral\" interpretation of occurrences and doctrines. It left its trace in incantations, omens and hymns and gave birth to astronomy, which was assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of the heavens was the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by the priests of Babylonia and Assyria.\n", "The poet Fernando Demaría in an essay \"Xul Solar y Paul Klee\" (published in the Argentine magazine \"Lyra\", 1971, and quoted extensively at ), wrote, \"It is not easy for the human spirit to elevate itself from astrology to astronomy, but we would be making a mistake if we forget that an authentic astrologer, like Xul Solar, is close to the source of the stars... The primitivism of Xul Solar is anterior to the appearance of the Gods. The Gods correspond to a more evolved form of energy.\"\n", "As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself, individual stars have their own myths. To the Ancient Greeks, some \"stars\", known as planets (Greek πλανήτης (planētēs), meaning \"wanderer\"), represented various important deities, from which the names of the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were taken. (Uranus and Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods, but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness. Their names were assigned by later astronomers.)\n", "The \"Bundahishn\" (iii. 25, v. z) is able to inform us that in the primeval strife of the devil against the light-world, seven hostile powers were captured and set as constellations in the heavens, where they are guarded by good star-powers and prevented from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are the planets, while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned among the evil powers—for the obvious reason that in the Persian official religion they invariably appear as good divinities. It must be also noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely connected with the Persian religion, are acquainted with this doctrine of the ascent of the soul through the planetary spheres (Origen, \"Contra Celsum\", vi. 22).\n", "gods in question, together with the moon-god Sin and the Sun-god Shamash, in preparing the occurrences on earth. If, therefore, one could correctly read and interpret the activity of these powers, one knew what the gods were aiming to bring about.\n\nSection::::System of interpretation.\n\nThe Babylonian priests accordingly applied themselves to the task of perfecting a system of interpretation of the phenomena to be observed in the heavens, and it was natural that the system was extended from the moon, sun and five planets to the more prominent and recognizable fixed stars.\n", "Astrolatry\n\nAstrolatry is the worship of stars and other heavenly bodies as deities, or the association of deities with heavenly bodies.\n\nThe most common instances of this are sun gods and moon gods in polytheistic systems worldwide. Also notable is the association of the planets with deities in Babylonian, and hence in Greco-Roman religion, viz. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n\n\"Astrolatry\" comes from Greek ἄστρον \"astron\", \"star\" and the suffix -λάτρης, itself related to λάτρις \"latris\", \"worshipper\" or λατρεύειν \"latreuein\", \"to worship\" from λάτρον \"latron\", \"payment\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The exaltations are one of the most ancient astrological factors still in use. They are used in ancient Mesopotamian astrology from an era which pre-dates the known use of the zodiac (using reference to constellation positions which shows correspondence with those later attributed to zodiac degrees). Francesca Rochberg has pointed out that since the system is found in the tradition of Enuma anu enlil, its roots may extend into the second millennium BCE. Joanne Conman has shown that certain decan stars the ancient Egyptians venerated in Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts appear to be the source of the \"places of secret\" of the later Babylonian astrological texts referenced by Rochberg and of the corresponding planetary exaltations or hypsomata of Hellenistic astrology. The coffin texts pre-date attested Babylonian astrological texts. The pattern of the honored decans matches and appears to account for the pattern of the exaltation for four of the planets.\n", "Traditionally, the most important fixed points in the heavens were described by the constellations of the zodiac. Ptolemy's account likens the influence of some of the stars in the zodiac constellations to the planets; he writes, for example, that \"The stars in the feet of Gemini (Alhena and Tejat Posterior) have an influence similar to that of Mercury, and moderately to that of Venus.\"\n\nSection::::Non-zodiac constellations in astrology.\n", "In the Hebrew Bible the prophets scoffed at \"star-gazers\" (\"hoverei ha-shamayim\") in and . Astrologers from Babylon were called \"Kasdim/Kasdin\" (Chaldeans) in the Book of Daniel. In rabbinic literature, the term \"Chaldeans\" later was often used as a synonym with those who practiced astrology.\n\nSection::::In the Second Temple period.\n\nFor most of the Second Temple period, discussion of the planets in Jewish literature was extremely rare.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Out of the Silent Planet\" (1938; part of the Space Trilogy), by C. S. Lewis, the protagonist meets \"eldila\", mysterious beings of light native to the void of interplanetary space (who are actually what Christianity defines as \"angels\", and who are also identified as Mars, Venus and other deities of Greek and Roman mythology), and are completely loyal and obedient to God, and have never wanted to be worshiped as gods themselves (although the ancient Greeks and Romans mistakenly did so)\n\nSection::::Creation myths.\n", "Astronomy and religion\n\nAstronomy and religion have long been closely intertwined, particularly during the early history of astronomy. Archaeological evidence of many ancient cultures demonstrates that celestial bodies were the subject of worship during the Stone and Bronze Ages. Amulets and stone walls in northern Europe depict arrangements of stars in constellations that match their historical positions, particularly circumpolar constellations. These date back as much as 30,000–40,000 years. \n", "To ancient astrologers, the planets represented the will of the gods and their direct influence upon human affairs. To modern astrologers, the planets can represent basic drives or urges in the unconscious, or energy flow regulators representing dimensions of experience. They express themselves with different qualities in the twelve signs of the zodiac and in the twelve houses. The planets are also related to each other in the form of aspects.\n", "The gods were also believed to present themselves in the celestial images of the planets or stars with whom they were associated. Evil celestial omens attached to any particular planet were therefore seen as indications of dissatisfaction or disturbance of the god that planet represented. Such indications were met with attempts to appease the god and find manageable ways by which the god’s expression could be realised without significant harm to the king and his nation. An astronomical report to the king Esarhaddon concerning a lunar eclipse of January 673 BC shows how the ritualistic use of substitute kings, or substitute events, combined an unquestioning belief in magic and omens with a purely mechanical view that the astrological event must have some kind of correlate within the natural world:\n", "[Modern ruler-ships] \n\n[Chaldean ruler-ships]\n\nSection::::Modern dignity.\n\nMany modern astrologers, eschewing the use of the other essential dignities, use the three outer planets, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto as the modern rulers of Aquarius, Pisces and Scorpio, respectively. The practice derives from the similarity between the nature of the planets with the nature of these signs. This as illustrated by the differences in the two \"decans\" tables above.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Terms or bounds\n\nBULLET::::- Decans\n\nBULLET::::- Dwadasama\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Ptolemy, \"Tetrabiblos,\" tr. J. Ashmand, 1822, complete. \n", "Favorinus argued that it was absurd to imagine that stars and planets would affect human bodies in the same way as they affect the tides, and equally absurd that small motions in the heavens cause large changes in people's fates. Sextus Empiricus argued that it was absurd to link human attributes with myths about the signs of the zodiac. Carneades argued that belief in fate denies free will and morality; that people born at different times can all die in the same accident or battle; and that contrary to uniform influences from the stars, tribes and cultures are all different.\n", "Santillana and von Dechend state that ancient myths have no historical basis but a cosmological one based on a primitive form of astrology. They recognized the importance of the heliacally rising constellation as markers for the astrological ages and claimed that knowledge of this phenomenon had been known for thousands of years previously. They claim that to understand ancient thinking it is necessary to understand astrology, not the modern sun-sign or horoscopic astrology, but the astrology of ancient times which was the \"lingua franca\" of ancient times.\n", "Among surviving texts there is mention of the mythological god, Odin. Scholars have recounted the tale of the Αesir Gods creation myth which includes the idea of fixed stars found within the teleology of the tale. Padaric Colum has written a book, \"The Children of Odin\", which in much detail reiterates the story of how the Aesir god's brought the giant named Ymir to his demise and created the world from his body, affixing sparks from the fiery Muspelheim, or the \"fixed stars,\" to the dome of the sky, which was the skull of Ymir. The Norse creation myth is one of several cases which treated stars as being fixed to a sphere beyond the earth. Later scientific literature shows astronomical thought which kept a version of this idea until the seventeenth century.\n", "In his \"Almagest\" written in the 2nd century, Ptolemy refers to \"the Sun, Moon and five planets.\" Hyginus explicitly mentions \"the five stars which many have called wandering, and which the Greeks call Planeta.\" Marcus Manilius, a Latin writer who lived during the time of Caesar Augustus and whose poem \"Astronomica\" is considered one of the principal texts for modern astrology, says, \"Now the dodecatemory is divided into five parts, for so many are the stars called wanderers which with passing brightness shine in heaven.\"\n", "To read the signs of the heavens was therefore to understand the meaning of occurrences on Earth, and with this accomplished, it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by the position and relationship to one another of the sun, the moon, the planets and certain stars. Myths that symbolized changes in season or occurrences in nature were projected on the heavens, which were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the earth.\n", "A second example of star lore concerns snakes. In the earliest times, snakes were not eaten. The tribe lived in terror at the existence of two fabulous exemplars, male and female, who succeeded in dodging all attempts to kill them. One day, while the tribe had left the camp to forage, a small boy, \"Ngnapata,\" remained, forewarned not to get close to the reptile. His bold curiosity stirred, he fashioned spears and dug out bolt holes in earth in case he needed to hide, determined to try and kill the fearful animals. His efforts paid off, with him slaughtering the male snake after a hectic fight, while the female of the species sought refuge in the firmament, where she was transformed into a star. Ngnapata sliced up the snake, cooked and ate it, finding the flesh very tasty. Taking some of the fat, he oiled his body and suddenly grew into enormous proportions that rendered him unrecognizable. On their return to the camp, the tribesmen were frightened by the child's apparent disappearance, thinking he had been devoured by the serpents. But he allayed their anxieties by recounting his deeds of daring, and the tribe then partook of the remaining portions of the reptile's flesh, establishing thereby the custom of regarding snakes as a food source.\n", "However, the importance that was laid upon the endless variations in the form of the phenomena and the equally numerous apparent deviations from what were regarded as normal conditions, prevented for a long time the rise of any serious study of astronomy beyond what was needed for the purely practical purposes that the priests as \"inspectors\" of the heavens (as they were also the \"inspectors\" of the sacrificial livers) had in mind.\n\nSection::::Limits of early knowledge.:Constellations.\n", "More than 40,0000 years ago the indigenous people in Australia first observed the southern skies and developed a series of complex cosmic mythologies around the regular movement and appearance of stars, planets, the moon and sun. While different Aboriginal communities developed their own stories and explanations, there were shared threads between these cosmologies. Many groups engendered the sun as a woman warming the land. The moon was male, once young and slim (the waxing crescent moon) he grows fat and lazy as the full moon develops night after night. After breaking the law he is killed by his people (the new moon) and after being dead 3 days he rises to repeat the cycle. Other Aboriginal people such as the Kuwema people of the Northern Territory believe the moon grew fat by eating the spirits of those who disobey tribal laws.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04152	When stars reach critical mass for nuclear fusion do they ignite immediately or is it a slower process?	Think of it this way: To start fusion, the star has to reach critical mass and critical density. Start as a cloud, gravity between atoms attract each other and condense. When you condense stuff, there's higher pressure, and compression causes the cloud to heat up. This goes on for a while, slowly heating up and increasing pressure. Eventually, it hits that critical density, temperature and mass. Remember nuclear fusion is a self-sustaining reaction, so it just goes boom. So the answer to your question is it heats up slowly without fusion, and ignite immediately. At least according to my understanding of star birth.	[ "In nature, stars reach ignition at temperatures similar to that of the Sun, around 27 million degrees. Stars are so large that the fusion products will almost always interact with the plasma before it can be lost to the environment at the outside of the star. In comparison, man-made reactors are far less dense and much smaller, allowing the fusion products to easily escape the fuel. To offset this, much higher rates of fusion are required, and thus much higher temperatures; most man-made fusion reactors are designed to work at temperatures around 100 million degrees, or higher. To date, no man-made reactor has reached breakeven, let alone ignition. Ignition has however been achieved in the cores of detonating thermonuclear weapons.\n", "In the case of a white dwarf, the restarted fusion reactions releases heat, but the outward pressure that exists in the star and supports it against further collapse is initially due almost entirely to degeneracy pressure, not fusion processes or heat. Therefore, even when fusion recommences the outward pressure that is key to the star's thermal balance does not increase much. One result is that the star does not expand much to balance its fusion and heat processes with gravity and electron pressure, as it did when burning hydrogen (until too late). This increase of heat production without a means of cooling by expansion raises the internal temperature dramatically, and therefore the rate of fusion also increases extremely fast as well, a form of positive feedback known as thermal runaway.\n", "For stars in this mass range neon-burning occurs in a convective envelope rather than at the core of the star. For the particular example of a 9.5 solar mass star, the neon-burning process takes place in an envelope of approximately 0.252 solar masses (~1560 kilometers) off center. From the ignition flash, the neon convective zone extends further out to 1.1 solar masses with a peak power around 10 erg/s. After only a month, the power declines to about 10 erg/s and stays at this rate for about 10 years. After this phase, the neon in the shell is depleted, resulting in greater inward pressure on the star. This raises the shell's temperature to 1.65 billion Kelvin. This results in a neon-burning, convectively-bound flame front that moves toward the core. The motion of the flame is what eventually leads to oxygen-burning. In approximately 3 years, the flame's temperature reaches about 1.83 billion Kelvin, enabling the oxygen-burning process to commence. This occurs around 9.5 years before the iron core develops. Similarly to the beginning of neon-burning, off-center oxygen-burning commences with another flash. The convectively-burning flame then results from both neon and oxygen burning as it advances towards the core, while the oxygen-burning shell continuously shrinks in mass.\n", "The standard mechanism for star birth is through the gravitational collapse of a cold interstellar cloud of gas and dust. As the cloud contracts it heats due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. Early in the process the contracting gas quickly radiates away much of the energy, allowing the collapse to continue. Eventually, the central region becomes sufficiently dense to trap radiation. Consequently, the central temperature and density of the collapsed cloud increases dramatically with time, slowing the contraction, until the conditions are hot and dense enough for thermonuclear reactions to occur in the core of the protostar. For most stars, gas and radiation pressure generated by the thermonuclear fusion reactions within the core of the star will support it against any further gravitational contraction. Hydrostatic equilibrium is reached and the star will spend most of its lifetime fusing hydrogen into helium as a main-sequence star.\n", "For a more-massive protostar, the core temperature will eventually reach 10 million kelvin, initiating the proton–proton chain reaction and allowing hydrogen to fuse, first to deuterium and then to helium. In stars of slightly over , the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen fusion reaction (CNO cycle) contributes a large portion of the energy generation. The onset of nuclear fusion leads relatively quickly to a hydrostatic equilibrium in which energy released by the core maintains a high gas pressure, balancing the weight of the star's matter and preventing further gravitational collapse. The star thus evolves rapidly to a stable state, beginning the main-sequence phase of its evolution.\n", "Neutrino losses, by this and similar processes, play an increasingly important part in the evolution of the most massive stars. They force the star to burn its fuel at a higher temperature to offset them. Fusion processes are very sensitive to temperature so the star can produce more energy to retain hydrostatic equilibrium, at the cost of burning through successive nuclear fuels ever more rapidly. Fusion produces less energy per unit mass as the fuel nuclei get heavier, and the core of the star contracts and heats up when switching from one fuel to the next, so both these processes also significantly reduce the lifetime of each successive fusion-burning fuel.\n", "The type of hydrogen fusion process that dominates in a star is determined by the temperature dependency differences between the two reactions. The proton–proton chain reaction starts at temperatures about , making it the dominant fusion mechanism in smaller stars. A self-maintaining CNO chain requires a higher temperature of approximately , but thereafter it increases more rapidly in efficiency as the temperature rises, than does the proton-proton reaction. Above approximately , the CNO cycle becomes the dominant source of energy. This temperature is achieved in the cores of main sequence stars with at least 1.3 times the mass of the Sun. The Sun itself has a core temperature of about . As a main sequence star ages, the core temperature will rise, resulting in a steadily increasing contribution from its CNO cycle.\n", "In the helium cores of stars in the 0.6 to 2.0 solar mass range, which are largely supported by electron degeneracy pressure, helium fusion will ignite on a timescale of days in a helium flash. In the nondegenerate cores of more massive stars, the ignition of helium fusion occurs relatively slowly with no flash. The nuclear power released during the helium flash is very large, on the order of 10 times the luminosity of the Sun for a few days and 10 times the luminosity of the Sun (roughly the luminosity of the Milky Way Galaxy) for a few seconds. However, the energy is consumed by the thermal expansion of the initially degenerate core and thus cannot be seen from outside the star. Due to the expansion of the core, the hydrogen fusion in the overlying layers slows and total energy generation decreases. The star contracts, although not all the way to the main sequence, and it migrates to the horizontal branch on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, gradually shrinking in radius and increasing its surface temperature.\n", "If, however, the mass of the protostar is less than about , normal hydrogen thermonuclear fusion reactions will not ignite in the core. Gravitational contraction does not heat the small protostar very effectively, and before the temperature in the core can increase enough to trigger fusion, the density reaches the point where electrons become closely packed enough to create quantum electron degeneracy pressure. According to the brown dwarf interior models, typical conditions in the core for density, temperature and pressure are expected to be the following:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_1\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3\n", "Before accretion of material pushes a white dwarf close to the Chandrasekhar limit, accreted hydrogen-rich material on the surface may ignite in a less destructive type of thermonuclear explosion powered by hydrogen fusion. These surface explosions can be repeated as long as the white dwarf's core remains intact. This weaker kind of repetitive cataclysmic phenomenon is called a (classical) nova. Astronomers have also observed dwarf novae, which have smaller, more frequent luminosity peaks than the classical novae. These are thought to be caused by the release of gravitational potential energy when part of the accretion disc collapses onto the star, rather than through a release of energy due to fusion. In general, binary systems with a white dwarf accreting matter from a stellar companion are called cataclysmic variables. As well as novae and dwarf novae, several other classes of these variables are known, including polars and intermediate polars, both of which feature highly magnetic white dwarfs. Both fusion- and accretion-powered cataclysmic variables have been observed to be X-ray sources.\n", "As many as a quarter of all post-AGB stars undergo what is dubbed a \"born-again\" episode. The carbon–oxygen core is now surrounded by helium with an outer shell of hydrogen. If the helium is re-ignited a thermal pulse occurs and the star quickly returns to the AGB, becoming a helium-burning, hydrogen-deficient stellar object. If the star still has a hydrogen-burning shell when this thermal pulse occurs, it is termed a \"late thermal pulse\". Otherwise it is called a \"very late thermal pulse\".\n", "The final stage occurs when a massive star begins producing iron. Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei, any fusion beyond iron does not produce a net release of energy. To a very limited degree such a process proceeds, but it consumes energy. Likewise, since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei, such energy cannot be released by fission.\n\nSection::::Formation and evolution.:Post–main sequence.:Collapse.\n", "The current view among astronomers who model Type Ia supernova explosions, however, is that this limit is never actually attained and collapse is never initiated. Instead, the increase in pressure and density due to the increasing weight raises the temperature of the core, and as the white dwarf approaches about 99% of the limit, a period of convection ensues, lasting approximately 1,000 years. At some point in this simmering phase, a deflagration flame front is born, powered by carbon fusion. The details of the ignition are still unknown, including the location and number of points where the flame begins. Oxygen fusion is initiated shortly thereafter, but this fuel is not consumed as completely as carbon.\n", "These figures for temperature and density are only a guide. More massive stars burn their nuclear fuel more quickly, since they have to offset greater gravitational forces to stay in (approximate) hydrostatic equilibrium. That generally means higher temperatures, although lower densities, than for less massive stars. To get the right figures for a particular mass, and a particular stage of evolution, it is necessary to use a numerical stellar model computed with computer algorithms. Such models are continually being refined based on nuclear physics experiments (which measure nuclear reaction rates) and astronomical observations (which include direct observation of mass loss, detection of nuclear products from spectrum observations after convection zones develop from the surface to fusion-burning regions – known as dredge-up events – and so bring nuclear products to the surface, and many other observations relevant to models).\n", "A main sequence star supported by thermal pressure would expand and cool which automatically counterbalances an increase in thermal energy. However, degeneracy pressure is independent of temperature; the white dwarf is unable to regulate the fusion process in the manner of normal stars, so it is vulnerable to a runaway fusion reaction.\n", "Arcturus is estimated to be around 6 billion to 8.5 billion years old, but there is some uncertainty about its evolutionary status. Based upon the color characteristics of Arcturus, it is currently ascending the red-giant branch and will continue to do so until it accumulates a large enough degenerate helium core to ignite the helium flash. It has likely exhausted the hydrogen from its core and is now in its active hydrogen shell burning phase. However, Charbonnel et al. (1998) placed it slightly above the horizontal branch, and suggested it has already completed the helium flash stage.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Oscillations.\n", "Main-sequence stars employ two types of hydrogen fusion processes, and the rate of energy generation from each type depends on the temperature in the core region. Astronomers divide the main sequence into upper and lower parts, based on which of the two is the dominant fusion process. In the lower main sequence, energy is primarily generated as the result of the proton-proton chain, which directly fuses hydrogen together in a series of stages to produce helium. Stars in the upper main sequence have sufficiently high core temperatures to efficiently use the CNO cycle. (See the chart.) This process uses atoms of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the process of fusing hydrogen into helium.\n", "Occasionally, a white dwarf gains mass from another source – for example, a binary star companion that is close enough for the dwarf star to siphon sufficient amounts of matter onto itself; or a collision with other stars, the siphoned matter having been expelled during the process of the companion's own late stage stellar evolution. If the white dwarf gains enough matter, its internal pressure and temperature will rise enough for carbon to begin fusing in its core. Carbon detonation generally occurs at the point when the accreted matter pushes the white dwarf's mass close to the Chandrasekhar limit of roughly 1.4 solar masses. This is the mass at which gravity can overcome the electron degeneracy pressure which had prevented the star from collapsing during its lifetime. The same also happens when two white dwarfs merge and the mass of the body formed is below the Chandrasekhar limit; if two white dwarves merge and the result is \"over\" the limit, a Type Ia supernova will occur.\n", "Section::::Neutrino losses.\n\nDuring the oxygen-burning process, energy loss due to neutrino emission becomes relevant. Due to the large energy loss, oxygen must burn at temperatures higher than a billion Kelvin in order to maintain a radiation pressure strong enough to support the star against gravity. Further, two electron capture reactions (which produce neutrinos) become significant when the matter density is high enough (ρ2×10 g•cm). Due to these factors, the timescale of oxygen burning is much shorter for heavy, dense stars.\n\nSection::::Explosive oxygen burning.\n", "BULLET::::5. Even though it takes several millions of years for the cloud to accrete onto the protostar, because the protostars are relatively low mass, it takes even longer to slowly contract and approach starhood. For the most part, the cloud has a chance to accrete onto the protostar before the violent stages of evolution begin.\n\nSection::::The character of accretion and stellar wind parameters of T Tauri stars.\n", "The core of stars below about is still below the Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit, but hydrogen shell fusion quickly increases the mass of the core beyond that limit. More-massive stars already have cores above the Schönberg–Chandrasekhar mass when they leave the main sequence. The exact initial mass at which stars will show a hook and at which they will leave the main sequence with cores above the Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit depend on the metallicity and the degree of overshooting in the convective core. Low metallicity causes the central part of even low mass cores to be convectively unstable, and overshooting causes the core to be larger when hydrogen becomes exhausted.\n", "The advanced sequence of burning fuels is driven by gravitational collapse and its associated heating, resulting in the subsequent burning of carbon, oxygen and silicon. However, most of the nucleosynthesis in the mass range (from silicon to nickel) is actually caused by the upper layers of the star collapsing onto the core, creating a compressional shock wave rebounding outward. The shock front briefly raises temperatures by roughly 50%, thereby causing furious burning for about a second. This final burning in massive stars, called \"explosive nucleosynthesis\" or supernova nucleosynthesis, is the final epoch of stellar nucleosynthesis.\n", "In massive stars, heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon-burning process and oxygen-burning process. The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon-burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron-56, an endothermic process that consumes energy, and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse.\n\nThe example below shows the amount of time required for a star of 20 to consume all of its nuclear fuel. As an O-class main sequence star, it would be 8 times the solar radius and 62,000 times the Sun's luminosity.\n", "The silicon-burning sequence lasts about one day before being struck by the shock wave that was launched by the core collapse. Burning then becomes much more rapid at the elevated temperature and stops only when the rearrangement chain has been converted to nickel-56 or is stopped by supernova ejection and cooling. The star can no longer release energy via nuclear fusion because a nucleus with 56 nucleons has the lowest mass per nucleon of all the elements in the alpha process sequence. Only minutes are available for the nickel-56 to decay within the core of a massive star, and only seconds if in the ejecta. The star has run out of nuclear fuel and within minutes its core begins to contract.\n", "Finally, hydrogen begins to fuse in the core of the star, and the rest of the enveloping material is cleared away. This ends the protostellar phase and begins the star's main sequence phase on the H–R diagram.\n\nThe stages of the process are well defined in stars with masses around or less. In high mass stars, the length of the star formation process is comparable to the other timescales of their evolution, much shorter, and the process is not so well defined. The later evolution of stars are studied in stellar evolution.\n\nSection::::Observations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03339	how can we prevent the mentally ill from possessing guns when health records are protected information?	It really varies state to state, but [most states]( URL_0 ) require one of two events: - The court found you to have a mental issue severe enough to warrant actions - You were involuntarily committed to a mental institution Neither of those are private events covered by HIPAA - they are matters of public record. Now, for states that have stricter rules, you can still have the doctor pass along disqualifying information without disclosing your specific health information. Having them send a "disqualify" flag doesn't speak to the specific health information.	[ "In 2019, an RMPBS \"Insight with John Ferrugia\" investigation into unlimited access to firearms by mentally ill persons entitled “Imminent Danger” was honored with the duPont-Columbia Award for public service journalism. Elements of the investigation were aired by the PBS Newshour and shown in a Colorado legislative hearing to explain why a law allowing temporary removal of firearms from the mentally ill is necessary. A so-called \"red flag\" bill was signed into Colorado law in 2019. \n", "BULLET::::- The Act amended the New York Mental Hygiene Law to add a new reporting requirement for mental health professionals (including physicians, psychologists, registered nurses and licensed clinical social workers). Under this provision, which went into effect on March 16, 2013, mental health professionals currently providing treatment services to an individual must make a report to authorities, \"if they conclude, using reasonable professional judgment, that the individual is likely to engage in conduct that would result in serious harm to self or others.\" The reports are sent first sent to county officials, and \"if they agree with the assessments, the officials then input the names into the state database. The information is retained for five years. If the authorities find a person in the database has a gun permit—necessary to purchase a handgun in New York—they are required to revoke the license and seize any guns. The people in the database are barred from obtaining a permit until their names are purged.\"\n", "According to Sarah Brady, had a background check been conducted on Hinckley, it could have detected some, or all, of this important criminal and mental health history.\n", "A few days after the murders, the Ministry of Interior announced its deliberation about making the gun license registry accessible to psychiatrists in order to give them the ability to report to police possible changes of mental state of their patients having an impact on their eligibility to possess firearms. This was, however, rejected by psychiatric associations. They argued that psychiatrists' main goal is to cure patients, and that potential patients may be more likely to avoid psychiatric treatment for fear of losing their gun license.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Police response.\n", "Gun violence in the U.S. has been the center of headlines for years with several mass shootings prompting lawmakers to wonder what they can do to keep weapons out of the hands of criminals. The tricky part of the dilemma is finding a way to keep the public safe and not infringe on the 2nd amendment. One solution is to place more emphasis on the purchase process by strengthening the background checks with an added focus to mental health and to limit the differences in each state’s laws. The most consistent part of the purchase process is filling out the background check forms required by federal law, after that, each state applies its specific rules such as limits of types and quantity of firearm and any waiting period deemed necessary. Through the entire process, mental health is addressed under one question asking if the buyer has been considered to be mentally defective. Adding a small section to the check to ask critical questions about their mental state can be a step in the right direction. Adding this small step to standardizing the process can limit the people that slip through unnoticed. Another part of the standardization approach will be to require firearm registration transfers for personal sales as well but not expect it to be carried out by a federal firearm license holder. Adjust the process to make it as comfortable using the existing notary at a courthouse or similar office. If an incident were to occur with a firearm that was sold, the courthouse would have a record and could help in the investigation better than someone that has little proof of the sale. Additionally, if something were to cause an emergency response to the owner’s home, a quick search would inform responders that a weapon may be present and could change their approach. Any change that limits someone’s rights will encounter some resistance but these solutions could benefit far more than they detract from. \n", "Following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in 2012, President Barack Obama directed the CDC and other federal agencies to \"conduct or sponsor research into the causes of gun violence and the ways to prevent it.\" The CDC responded by funding a research project and conducting their own study in 2015. That month, a spokeswoman for the agency, Courtney Lenard, told the \"Washington Post\" that \"it is possible for us to conduct firearm-related research within the context of our efforts to address youth violence, domestic violence, sexual violence, and suicide. But our resources are very limited.\" \n", "In 1996, Congress added language to the relevant appropriations bill which required \"none of the funds made available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control.\" This language was added to prevent the funding of research by the CDC that gun rights supporters considered politically motivated and intended to bring about further gun control legislation. In particular, the NRA and other gun rights proponents objected to work supported by the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, then run by Mark L. Rosenberg, including research authored by Arthur Kellermann.\n", "In February 2017, the Trump administration signed into law a bill that rolled back a regulation implemented by the Obama administration, which would have prohibited approximately 75,000 individuals who were receiving Social Security disability and had representative payees, from owning guns. The bill was supported by the ACLU, the National Association for Mental Health, The American Association of People with Disabilities, and the National Council on Disability, the Consortium for Citizens with Disabilities, as well as other disability rights advocates. The initial regulation was supported by the Brady Campaign to Stop Gun Violence, Moms Demand Action Against Gun Violence, Democratic gun control advocates, and some mental health experts.\n", "In 2009, the Public Health Law Research program, an independent organization, published several evidence briefs summarizing the research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health, that concern the effectiveness of various laws related to gun safety. Among their findings:\n\nBULLET::::- There is not enough evidence to establish the effectiveness of \"shall issue\" laws, as distinct from \"may issue\" laws, as a public health intervention to reduce violent crime.\n\nBULLET::::- There is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of waiting period laws as public health interventions aimed at preventing gun-related violence and suicide.\n", "City ordinances and New York's state laws also require medical facilities to notify the police within a specified period of time after admitting anyone with gunshot wounds. Hospitals or clinics that fail to comply with this requirement face fines and other penalties.\n\nSection::::Rifles and shotguns, antique handguns.\n", "Section::::Implications for mental health counseling.\n\nUniversal background check laws, which require that a background check be conducted before any gun transfer, may apply to temporary removals of guns from the home of suicidal individuals. Some clinicians have reported that these laws have created confusion about whether a gun transfer would be legal, and therefore made it more difficult for them to counsel their patients.\n", "On March 11, 2013, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs announced that it would not follow the provision of the NY SAFE Act requiring mental health professionals to report patients who seem more likely to hurt themselves or others. A Department spokesman stated that federal laws protecting the privacy of veterans take precedence over state laws. Advocates for military veterans had expressed concern that the reporting requirement would deter some people from seeking needed treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- The Tiahrt Amendment requires that NICS background check records be destroyed within 24 hours. According to MAIG, this makes it harder for law enforcement authorities to catch law-breaking gun dealers who falsify their records and makes it more difficult to identify and track down straw purchasers who buy guns on behalf of criminals who wouldn't be able to pass a background check or prohibited purchasers who buy firearms themselves due to errors in the background check process.\n", "The Constitution of Maryland, Declaration of Rights, Art. 2. The Constitution of the United States, and the Laws made, or which shall be made, in pursuance thereof, and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, are, and shall be the Supreme Law of the State; and the Judges of this State, and all the People of this State, are, and shall be bound thereby; anything in the Constitution or Law of this State to the contrary. Maryland state law currently blocks anyone who has been in a mental facility or has been reported or coded at mentally ill from buying a gun notwithstanding.\n", "Dickey Amendment\n\nIn United States politics, the Dickey Amendment is a provision first inserted as a rider into the 1996 federal government omnibus spending bill which mandated that \"none of the funds made available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) may be used to advocate or promote gun control.\" In the same spending bill, Congress earmarked $2.6 million from the CDC's budget, the exact amount that had previously been allocated to the agency for firearms research the previous year, for traumatic brain injury-related research.\n", "In October 2017, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) released a report on the effectiveness of firearm storage awareness programs, ultimately finding the “ASK” program to be the only national safe storage program that has been independently evaluated and found to be effective. The report, entitled “Personal Firearms: Programs that Promote Safe Storage and Research on their Effectiveness,” was prepared over a two-year period in response to a request by the Congressional HELP (Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions) Committee.\n", "Suicide reduction from firearm regulation is disputed by Richard Harding in his 1981 book \"Firearms and Violence in Australian Life\" where, after reviewing Australian statistics, he said that \"whatever arguments might be made for the limitation or regulation of the private ownership of firearms, suicide patterns do not constitute one of them\" Harding quoted international analysis by Newton and Zimring of twenty developed countries which concluded at page 36 of their report; “cultural factors appear to affect suicide rates far more than the availability and use of firearms. Thus, suicide rates would not seem to be readily affected by making firearms less available.\"\n", "At the town hall, González pressed an NRA representative to clarify her position on guns. \"Dana Loesch, I want you to know that we will support your two children in the way that you will not,\" González said at the town hall. \"The shooter at our school obtained weapons that he used on us legally. Do you believe that it should be harder to obtain the semi-automatic and... the modifications for these weapons to make them fully automatic like bump stocks?\" Loesch answered González by arguing that mentally ill people shouldn't have access to weapons. González interjected and noted that she hadn't answered her question. \"I think I'm gonna interrupt you real quick and remind you that the question is actually, do you believe it should be harder to obtain these semi-automatic weapons and modifications to make them fully automatic, such as bump stocks?\"\n", "16. Not have a diagnosed mental illness at the time the application is made that includes an assessment that the individual presents a danger to himself or herself or to another, regardless of whether he or she is receiving treatment for that illness\n\n17. Not be under a court order of legal incapacity in this State or elsewhere\n\n18. Not be detrimental to the safety of his or her self or any other person\n\n- As issued by the Michigan State Police \"Concealed Pistol License Guide\" RI-012 (02/2009)\n", "Hemenway writes in the conclusion, \"The public health approach is not about banning guns. It is about creating policies that will prevent violence and injuries.\" Thus, he argues for federal regulations such as specific licensing of gun owners and registration programs, one-gun-per-month laws to prevent straw purchasers, background checks, and greater scrutiny of the gun manufacturing industry in a manner like the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's role with transportation businesses.\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n", "In 1992, Mark L. Rosenberg and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of c. $260,000 that focused on \"identifying the root causes of firearm deaths and the best methods to prevent them\". Their first report which was published in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" in 1993, entitled \"Gun Ownership as a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home\" reported that the \"mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefold—a \"huge\" increase.\" In response, the NRA launched a \"campaign to shut down the Injury Center.\" Doctors for Responsible Gun Ownership and Doctors for Integrity and Policy Research joined the pro-gun effort and by 1995, politicians also supported the pro-gun initiative. In 1996, Jay Dickey (R) Arkansas introduced the Dickey Amendment statement \"which stated \"none of the funds made available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control\" as a rider in the 1996 appropriations bill.\" In 1997, \"Congress redirected all of the money previously earmarked for gun violence research to the study of traumatic brain injury.\" David Satcher, who was the CDC head from 1993 to 1998 advocated for gun violence research until he left in 1998. In 1999 Rosenberg was fired. Over a dozen \"public health insiders, including current and former CDC senior leaders\" told \"The Trace\" interviewers that CDC senior leaders took an overly cautious stance in their interpretation of the Dickey amendment. They could have done much more. Rosenberg told \"The Trace\" in 2016, \"Right now, there is nothing stopping them from addressing this life-and-death national problem.”\n", "Federal law requires licensed firearms dealers to perform background checks on purchasers, but it does not require private citizens to run checks. In March 2013, Kelly said that \"any bill that does not include a universal background check is a mistake. It's the most common-sense thing we can do to prevent criminals and the mentally ill from having access to weapons.\"\n", "Not all of Markell's proposals passed the state legislature during the 2013 session. By July 2013, Markell had signed legislation on lost or stolen firearms and universal background checks. Legislation preventing firearms from being legally sold to individuals with serious mental illness failed in the state senate, despite the NRA remaining neutral and the House passing the same legislation by a vote of 40 to 1.\n\nBULLET::::- Environment\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – \"Colorado v. Connelly\", 479 U.S. 157 (1986), was a U.S. Supreme Court case that was initiated by Francis Connelly, who insisted that his schizophrenic episode rendered him incompetent, nullifying his waiver of his Miranda rights. The court ruled that because Connelly was not coerced by the Government to divulge any information, his statement should be allowed in Court due to the lack of violation of the Due Process Clause.\n\nBULLET::::- 1986 – \"Ford v. Wainwright\", , was a U.S. Supreme Court case that upheld the common law rule that the insane cannot be executed.\n", "No such rule or regulation prescribed [by the Attorney General] after the date of the enactment of the Firearms Owners Protection Act may require that records required to be maintained under this chapter or any portion of the contents of such records, be recorded at or transferred to a facility owned, managed, or controlled by the United States or any State or any political subdivision thereof, nor that any system of registration of firearms, firearms owners, or firearms transactions or disposition be established. Nothing in this section expands or restricts the Secretary's authority to inquire into the disposition of any firearm in the course of a criminal investigation.\n" ]	[ "All health records are protected information." ]	[ "Some health records, including involuntary commitment to a mental institution, are not protected and are in fact public records. This would allow a state to prevent that person from legally purchasing a gun using publically available information." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All health records are protected information." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some health records, including involuntary commitment to a mental institution, are not protected and are in fact public records. This would allow a state to prevent that person from legally purchasing a gun using publically available information." ]
2018-02024	what's the purpose of electronically signing on a credit purchase especially when most signatures are not the person's actual signature or lazy scribble that doesn't resemble letters and In what ways are they used?	There is zero security in a signature. No one checks them, and only a very few are able to detect what is a genuine signature and what isn't. The best they can do is provide evidence if the holder of a card who did a transaction tries to charge it back. Then the recording of the signature can be verified by real experts, or, more importantly, video of them signing for the transaction produced in court to support a fraud charge. Similarly, the record of a fraudulent signature will be an extra fraud charge if they catch someone who uses someone else's card.	[ "Electronic signature may also refer to electronic forms of processing or verifying identity through use of biometric \"signatures\" or biologically identifying qualities of an individual. Such signatures use the approach of attaching some biometric measurement, or hash of said measurement, to a document as evidence. For instance, fingerprints, hand geometry (finger lengths and palm size), iris patterns, or even retinal patterns. All of these are collected using electronic sensors of some kind. Since each of these physical characteristics has claims to uniqueness among humans, each is to some extent useful as a signature.\n", "When used in conjunction with an electronic signature, it can provide evidence whether data received has been tampered with after being signed by its original sender. In a time where fraud and identity theft has become rampant, electronic authentication can be a more secure method of verifying that a person is who they say they are when performing transactions online.\n", "In the past, when signing a document or message, the signatory would sign it and then return it to its intended recipient through the postal service, via facsimile service, or by scanning and attaching it to an email. This could lead to delays and of course, the possibility that signatures could be forged and documents altered, especially when multiple signatures from different people located in different locations are required. The process of using an advanced electronic signature saves time, is legally binding and assures a high level of technical security.\n\nSection::::Legal implications.\n", "An electronic signature is intended to provide a secure and accurate identification method for the signatory to provide a seamless transaction.\n\nDefinitions of electronic signatures vary depending on the applicable jurisdiction. A common denominator in most countries is the level of an advanced electronic signature requiring that:\n\nBULLET::::1. The signatory can be uniquely identified and linked to the signature\n\nBULLET::::2. The signatory must have sole control of the private key that was used to create the electronic signature\n\nBULLET::::3. The signature must be capable of identifying if its accompanying data has been tampered with after the message was signed\n", "DocuSign Professional emails recipients an electronically signed document requesting review of a document after it is uploaded. Each party must agree to complete business electronically, review the document, and apply a signature. Signatures may be added from a stored copy of a signature or generated automatically by the software. Phone confirmation and background checks are offered as premium services.\n", "Electronic signatures are a legal concept distinct from digital signatures, a cryptographic mechanism often used to implement electronic signatures. While an electronic signature can be as simple as a name entered in an electronic document, digital signatures are increasingly used in e-commerce and in regulatory filings to implement electronic signatures in a cryptographically protected way. Standardization agencies like NIST or ETSI provide standards for their implementation (e.g., NIST-DSS, XAdES or PAdES). The concept itself is not new, with common law jurisdictions having recognized telegraph signatures as far back as the mid-19th century and faxed signatures since the 1980s.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Previously, a signatory would sign a document or message and then return it to the intended recipient via the postal service, facsimile service, by hand or by scanning and then attaching it to an email. The issue with these methods is that they are not always secure or timely. Delays in delivery could occur, and there exists the possibility that signatures could be forged or the enclosed documents may be altered. The risk increases as multiple signatures are required from different people who may be located in different locations. These problems are alleviated by using qualified electronic signatures, which save time, are legally binding, and provide a higher level of technical security.\n", "Electronic signature\n\nAn electronic signature, or e-signature, refers to data in electronic form, which is logically associated with other data in electronic form and which is used by the signatory to sign. This type of signature provides the same legal standing as a handwritten signature as long as it adheres to the requirements of the specific regulation it was created under (e.g., eIDAS in the European Union, NIST-DSS in the USA or ZertES in Switzerland).\n", "A method to attack signature based online banking methods is to manipulate the used software in a way, that correct transactions are shown on the screen and faked transactions are signed in the background.\n", "BULLET::::4. In the event that the accompanying data has been changed, the signature must be invalidated\n", "As organizations move away from paper documents with ink signatures or authenticity stamps, digital signatures can provide added assurances of the evidence to provenance, identity, and status of an electronic document as well as acknowledging informed consent and approval by a signatory. The United States Government Printing Office (GPO) publishes electronic versions of the budget, public and private laws, and congressional bills with digital signatures. Universities including Penn State, University of Chicago, and Stanford are publishing electronic student transcripts with digital signatures.\n\nBelow are some common reasons for applying a digital signature to communications:\n\nSection::::Applications of digital signatures.:Authentication.\n", "For an electronic signature to be considered as advanced, it must meet several requirements:\n\nBULLET::::1. The signatory can be uniquely identified and linked to the signature\n\nBULLET::::2. The signatory must have sole control of the signature creation data (typically a private key) that was used to create the electronic signature\n\nBULLET::::3. The signature must be capable of identifying if its accompanying data has been tampered with after the message was signed\n\nBULLET::::4. In the event that the accompanying data has been changed, the signature must be invalidated\n", "The signatures within SignNow are legally recognized in the same way as traditional \"wet ink\" signatures as the company’s technology follows the Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act signed into law by former President Bill Clinton in 2000, as well as the EU Electronic Signatures Directive.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Modern day autopens use a signature smart card or USB flash drive to store signatures and phrases instead of the plastic matrices. In addition, certain models can replicate entire pages of writing once a custom font has been created in a user's handwriting.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Without the human interaction, there is no verification system when credit cards are used to make purchases, and no signature is required. This enables those in possession of stolen or cloned credit cards, or those who are otherwise making unauthorized use of another's card to purchase gasoline without a signature. Many stations now require customers making credit-based transactions to enter their zip code (United States) or equivalent (other countries) in order to be allowed to make a fuel purchase.\n", "Section::::Additional security precautions.:Other smart card designs.\n\nSmart card design is an active field, and there are smart card schemes which are intended to avoid these particular problems, though so far with little security proofs.\n\nSection::::Additional security precautions.:Using digital signatures only with trusted applications.\n", "Until the introduction of Chip & PIN, all face-to-face credit or debit card transactions involved the use of a magnetic stripe or mechanical imprint to read and record account data, and a signature for purposes of identity verification. The customer hands their card to the cashier at the point of sale who then passes the card through a magnetic reader or makes an imprint from the raised text of the card. In the former case, the system verifies account details and prints a slip for the customer to sign. In the case of a mechanical imprint, the transaction details are filled in, a list of stolen numbers is consulted, and the customer signs the imprinted slip. In both cases the cashier must verify that the customer's signature matches that on the back of the card to authenticate the transaction.\n", "Section::::Industry standards.\n\nSome industries have established common interoperability standards for the use of digital signatures between members of the industry and with regulators. These include the Automotive Network Exchange for the automobile industry and the SAFE-BioPharma Association for the healthcare industry.\n\nSection::::Industry standards.:Using separate key pairs for signing and encryption.\n\nIn several countries, a digital signature has a status somewhat like that of a traditional pen and paper signature, as in the \n", "Digital signatures are often used to implement electronic signatures, which includes any electronic data that carries the intent of a signature, but not all electronic signatures use digital signatures. In some countries, including the United States, Algeria, Turkey, India, Brazil, Indonesia, co, Saudi Arabia, Uruguay, Switzerland and the countries of the European Union, electronic signatures have legal significance.\n", "Section::::With on-board key generation.\n", "Digital signatures are cryptographic implementations of electronic signatures used as a proof of authenticity, data integrity and non-repudiation of communications conducted over the Internet. When implemented in compliance to digital signature standards, digital signing should offer end-to-end privacy with the signing process being user-friendly and secure. Digital signatures are generated and verified through standardized frameworks such as the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) by NIST or in compliance to the XAdES, PAdES or CAdES standards, specified by the ETSI.\n\nThere are typically three algorithms involved with the digital signature process:\n", "Another credential form that adds a new feature to anonymous credentials: multi-show unlinkability. These are the group signature related credentials of Camenisch et al. The introduction of Group signatures opened up the possibility of multi-show unlinkable showing protocols. While blind signatures are highly relevant for electronic cash and one-show credentials, a new cryptographic primitive, called group signature, opened new possibilities for the construction of privacy enhancing protocols. As is observed in their article, group signatures bear a resemblance to Chaum's concept of credential systems.\n", "In the United States, the definition of what qualifies as an electronic signature is wide and is set out in the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (\"UETA\") released by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) in 1999. It was influenced by ABA committee white papers and the uniform law promulgated by NCCUSL. Under UETA, the term means \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\" This definition and many other core concepts of UETA are echoed in the U.S. ESign Act of 2000. 47 US states, the District of Columbia, and the US Virgin Islands have enacted UETA. Only New York, Washington State, and Illinois have not enacted UETA, but each of those states has adopted its own electronic signatures statute.\n", "Section::::In contract law.:Legal definitions.\n\nVarious laws have been passed internationally to facilitate commerce by the use of electronic records and signatures in interstate and foreign commerce. The intent is to ensure the validity and legal effect of contracts entered into electronically. For instance,\n\nBULLET::::- PIPEDA (Canadian federal law)\n\nBULLET::::- ESIGN Act Sec 106 (US federal law)\n\nBULLET::::- GPEA Sec 1710 (US federal law):\n\nBULLET::::- UETA Sec 2 (US state law):\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Reserve 12 CFR 202 (US federal regulation): refers to the ESIGN Act\n\nBULLET::::- Commodity Futures Trading Commission 17 CFR Part 1 Sec. 1.3 (US federal regulations):\n", "In addition, the FTC requires a process similar to TPV for many orders and to have reliable documentation of their orders, and other transaction types. Third-Party Verification is now the de facto standard for transactions of all types where a legally binding authentication and confirmation are required, but a signed document is impractical or impossible. It is being applied in hospitals and else where in healthcare for records releases; in schools for parental program approvals; by local governments as notification of impending actions; by attorneys themselves for service authorizations; by service providers for work authorizations. In all cases, based upon Federal Rules and the U.S.Code, phone verifications are authorized and legally binding, assuming that the verification is recorded and available for audit for a minimum of 24 months, and that identity of the authorizing person can reasonably be verified, such as by a social security number, driver's license, date of birth, and/or other unique identifiers.\n" ]	[ "There is a security benefit to signatures.", "Electronic signatures have value for credit purchases. " ]	[ "There is no security benefit to signatures. ", "Electronic signatures themselves are not valuable, but electronic signatures are evidence of the card holders purchase. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is a security benefit to signatures.", "Electronic signatures have value for credit purchases. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is no security benefit to signatures. ", "Electronic signatures themselves are not valuable, but electronic signatures are evidence of the card holders purchase. " ]
2018-03401	Where do last names come from?	Someone who majored in something incredibly specific like Historical Genealogical Nomenclature is sure to roll along at any second and correct me on this, but I'll do my best. Names started a lot of different ways in a lot of different places. Most often, it started simply and slowly evolved. Andrew the farmer was sort of known as that - no, not Andrew the guard, Andrew the farmer. Maybe Andrew had a son, and raised him to be a farmer, so now there's Jim the farmer as well. Eventually, Farmer becomes a more formal last name. Alternately, maybe Andrew's from somewhere else in the world. In Scandinavia, the tradition was typically to identify by the father. So if our farmer, Andrew, had a son, his son might be Jim Anderson - literally Andrew's son. Some also were deliberately changed. Immigrants at Ellis Island. Maybe a Polish immigrant with the last name Rosenczek (I made that up) came through Ellis Island, and the customs agent wasn't sure how to spell that. Rather than deal with the guy with the heavy accent trying to spell his name, he just shortened it to Rosen and called it a day. Similarly, during slavery in America, slaves weren't treated all that well (you may have heard). Owners often didn't care too much about the slave's name, as long as they could work. Some owners either gave slaves their own last name, or give them a generic one like Johnson or Smith, which is a big part of why we see those names so often.	[ "Section::::Polish.:People's names.\n\nA universal placeholder name for a man is \"Jan Kowalski\" (kowal meaning smith, blacksmith); for a woman, \"Janina Kowalska\" is used less often, sometimes with a different first name. A second unspecified person would be called \"Nowak\" (\"Newman\"), choice of first name being left to the author’s imagination, often also \"Jan\" for a man; this surname is unisex. \"Jan\" is the most popular male first name in Polish, and \"Kowalski\" and \"Nowak\" are the most popular Polish surnames.\n", "While the use of given names to identify individuals is attested in the oldest historical records, the advent of surnames is a relatively recent phenomenon. A four-year study led by the University of the West of England, which concluded in 2016, analysed sources dating from the 11th to the 19th century to explain the origins of the surnames in the British Isles. The study found that over 90% of the 45,602 surnames in the dictionary are native to Britain and Ireland, with the most common in the UK being Smith, Jones, Williams, Brown, Taylor, Johnson, and Lee. The findings have been published in the \"Oxford English Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland\", with project leader, Professor Richard Coates calling the study \"more detailed and accurate\" than those before. He elaborated on the origins; \"Some surnames have origins that are occupational – obvious examples are Smith and Baker. Other names can be linked to a place, for example Hill or Green, which relates to a village green. Surnames which are 'patronymic' are those which originally enshrined the father's name – such as Jackson, or Jenkinson. There are also names where the origin describes the original bearer such as Brown, Short, or Thin – though Short may in fact be an ironic 'nickname' surname for a tall person.\"\n", "There is a range of personal naming systems:\n\nBULLET::::- Binomial systems: apart for given name, people are described by their surnames, which they obtain from one of their parents. Most modern European personal naming systems, such as Russian and Spanish, are of this type.\n\nBULLET::::- Patronymic systems: apart for given name, people are described by their patronymics, that is given names (not surnames) of parents or other ancestors. Such systems were in wide use throughout Europe in the first millennium C.E., but were replaced by binomial systems. Icelandic system is still patronymic.\n", "Section::::Surnames.:Names of European origin.\n\nBy rubbing shoulders or working as house employees with representatives of the colonial administration, surnames have been incorporated into the Vili terminology. One finds for example:\n", "Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death, and marriage records.\n\nSection::::Types of information.:Given names.\n\nGenealogical data regarding given names (first names) is subject to many of the same problems as are family names and place names. Additionally, the use of nicknames is very common. For example, Beth, Lizzie or Betty are all common for Elizabeth, and Jack, John and Jonathan may be interchanged.\n", "Section::::Categorisation.\n\nSection::::Categorisation.:Patronymics.\n\nMany Scottish surnames originate from names that were originally patronyms. Patronyms are derived from the forename of the bearer's father (for example, the full name of a man named \"John Donaldson\" indicates that the father's name was \"Donald\"). Patronyms change with every successive generation (for example, the patronyms of a grandson, father, and grandfather may be \"John Donaldson\", son of \"Donald Robertson\", son of \"Robert Williamson\").\n", "In Scandinavia family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic. Later on, people from the Scandinavian middle classes, particularly artisans and town dwellers, adopted surnames in a similar fashion to that of the gentry. Family names joining two elements from nature such as the Swedish \"Bergman\" (\"mountain man\"), \"Holmberg\" (\"island mountain\"), \"Lindgren\" (\"linden branch\"), \"Sandström\" (\"sand stream\") and \"Åkerlund\" (\"field grove\") were quite frequent and remain common today.\n\nSection::::Scandinavia.:Finland.\n", "Occupational names include such simple examples as \"Smith\" (for a smith), \"Miller\" (for a miller), \"Farmer\" (for tax farmers or sometimes farmers), \"Thatcher\" (for a thatcher), \"Shepherd\" (for a shepherd), \"Potter\" (for a potter), and so on, as well as non-English ones, such as the German \"Eisenhauer\" (iron hewer, later Anglicized in America as \"Eisenhower\") or \"Schneider\" (tailor) – or, as in English, \"Schmidt\" (smith). There are also more complicated names based on occupational titles. In England it was common for servants to take a modified version of their employer's occupation or first name as their last name, adding the letter \"s\" to the word, although this formation could also be a patronymic. For instance, the surname \"Vickers\" is thought to have arisen as an occupational name adopted by the servant of a vicar, while \"Roberts\" could have been adopted by either the son or the servant of a man named Robert. A subset of occupational names in English are names thought to be derived from the medieval mystery plays. The participants would often play the same roles for life, passing the part down to their oldest sons. Names derived from this may include \"King\", \"Lord\" and \"Virgin\". The original meaning of names based on medieval occupations may no longer be obvious in modern English (so the surnames \"Cooper\", \"Chandler\", and \"Cutler\" come from the occupations of making barrels, candles, and cutlery, respectively).\n", "Patronymic naming is very common in parts of Mozambique. Although the practice is not universal, patronymic naming has been documented in the Zambezia province.\n\nSection::::Historical and current use.:Africa.:Nigeria.\n", "BULLET::::- Family name: A name used by all members of a family. In China, surnames gradually came into common use beginning in the 3rd century BC (having been common only among the nobility before that). In some areas of East Asia (e.g. Vietnam and Korea), surnames developed in the next several centuries, while in other areas (like Japan), surnames did not become prevalent until the 19th century. In Europe, after the loss of the Roman system, the common use of family names started quite early in some areas (France in the 13th century, and Germany in the 16th century), but it often did not happen until much later in areas that used a patronymic naming custom, such as the Scandinavian countries, Wales, and some areas of Germany, as well as Russia and Ukraine. The compulsory use of surnames varied greatly. France required a priest to write surnames in baptismal records in 1539 (but did not require surnames for Jews, who usually used patronymics, until 1808). On the other hand, surnames were not compulsory in the Scandinavian countries until the 19th or 20th century (1923 in Norway), and Iceland still does not use surnames for its native inhabitants. In Spain, Portugal and most Latin American countries, two surnames are used, one being the father's family name and the other being the mother's family name. Whereas Spain used to put the father's family name before the mother's family name, Portugal and Brazil keep the inverse order but use the father's family name as the principal one. A Portuguese man named António de Oliveira Guterres would therefore be known commonly as António Guterres. In Spain, though, the second surname is frequently used if the first one is too common to allow an easy identification. For example, Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called Zapatero. In most of the cultures of the Middle East and South Asia, surnames were not generally used until European influence took hold in the 19th century.\n", "BULLET::::2. Occupational. A gatherer of gorse. However most occupational names tend to end with “er” such as Farmer, Carter, Thatcher, Tyler, Potter, Brewer; and I would expect occupational-originating names to be more widespread in origin. The names Chandler, Smith, Baker, Cooper, Joiner, Carpenter, etc., all being occupational, have multiple origins as many villages would have had these occupations. I guess if we read deeper into surname origins some occupations will be localised, or at least the name given to what they do may be of local origin.\n\nSection::::Origin of Whincup.:Summary.\n", "Location names, or habitation names, may be as generic as \"Monte\" (Portuguese for \"mountain\"), \"Górski\" (Polish for \"hill\") or \"Pitt\" (variant of \"pit\"), but may also refer to specific locations. \"Washington\", for instance, is thought to mean \"the homestead of the family of Wassa\", while \"Lucci\" means \"resident of Lucca\". Although some surnames, such as \"London\", \"Lisboa\", or \"Białystok\" are derived from large cities, more people reflect the names of smaller communities, as in Ó Creachmhaoil, derived from a village in County Galway. This is thought to be due to the tendency in Europe during the Middle Ages for migration to chiefly be from smaller communities to the cities and the need for new arrivals to choose a defining surname.\n", "Jewish names have historically varied, encompassing throughout the centuries several different traditions. The most usual last name for those of the priest tribe is \"Cohen\"/\"Kahen\"/\"Kogan\"/\"Kohen\"/\"Katz\" (a Hebrew acronym of Kohen Tzedek, or righteous Kohen) and for those of the Levites, \"Levi\"/\"Levine\". Those who came from Central or Eastern Europe usually have \"Rosen\"(\"rose\"), \"Spiel\", \"Gold\", and other German words as their names' prefixes, and \"man\", \"wyn\"/\"wein\"(\"wine\"), \"berg\"(\"mountain\"), and other German words as their names' suffixes. Many Sephardic Jews adopted Spanish or Arabic names, like “Toledo”, “Bejarano”, \"Azizi\" (\"you're [someones] love\"), \"Hassan\" or added words to their original names, like Beizaee( \"Iza\", God is perfection), \"Kohenzadeh\" (\"[she] bore a Kohen\"). Names like \"Johnson\" and \"Peterson\" may be used in Jewish tradition as they too used the father's name as identification. So \"Johnson\" in Hebrew is \"Ben Yochanon\", meaning \"Yochanon (John)'s son\".\n", "In many cultures, the name of a person refers to the family to which he or she belongs. This is called the \"family name\", \"surname\", or \"last name\". Patronymics are names that identify an individual based on the father's name. For example, Marga Olafsdottir is Marga, daughter of Olaf, and Olaf Thorsson is Olaf, son of Thor. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage. In Iceland, patronymics are used by a majority of the population. In Denmark and Norway patronymics and farm names were generally in use through the 19th century and beyond, though surnames began to come into fashion toward the end of the 19th century in some parts of the country. Not until 1856 in Denmark and 1923 in Norway were there laws requiring surnames.\n", "The order \"given name – family name\", commonly known as the \"Western order\", is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by European culture, including North and South America; North, East, Central and West India; Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines.\n", "Section::::Historical and current use.:Europe.:Romanian.\n\nIn Romanian, the endings \"-escu\" and \"-eanu\" were used, as in \"Petrescu\", 'son of Petre (Peter)'; many modern Romanian family names were formed from such patronymics. Less commonly, matronymics formed with the genitive form (using the prefix \"a-\") were used, as in \"Amariei\", '(son/daughter) of Maria'.\n\nSection::::Historical and current use.:Europe.:Russian.\n", "Other surnames which started off as compounds of two or more surnames, but which merged into one single word, also exist. An example would be the surname Pazmiño, whose members are related to the Paz y Miño, as both descend from the \"Paz Miño\" family of five centuries ago.\n", "BULLET::::- \"da' Marenhide\" is the house or estate she was raised within, the \"da\" or \"dam\" being similar to \"von\" in German. (The usual formation is \"dam\"; \"da\" is used in Sma's name because the house name begins with an M, eliding an awkward phoneme repetition.)\n\nIain Banks gave his own Culture name as \"Sun-Earther Iain El-Bonko Banks of North Queensferry\".\n\nSection::::Citizens.:Death.\n", "BULLET::::- (\"Ivor of the wooden bow\"), a renowned archer and one time resident of Pabay\n\nBULLET::::- (\"Bella who lives by the muddy place\"), used for Isabella McCallum (1822–1915) of /Auchindrain township in Argyll, Scotland: her house was close to the ford where the cattle crossed the burn\n\nSection::::Identifying names.\n", "Section::::Swedish.:Persons.\n\nThe Swedish equivalent of John Doe is \"Sven Svensson\". The common or average Swede is referred to as \"Medelsvensson\". \"Medel\" is Swedish for 'medium' or 'average', and Svensson is a common Swedish surname. \"Svenne\" is a newer term with a similar meaning.\n\nCommon first names used as placeholders are Kalle for boys and Lisa for girls, Anna and Maria for women, Johan and Anders for men. In more formal text the abbreviation \"N.N.\" (for Latin \"nomen nescio\", \"name unknown\") is used.\n\nSection::::Swedish.:Places.\n", "Section::::Categorisation.:Bynames.\n\nBynames, to-names, or other names, were once very common in Scotland. These names were used in areas where there were few names in circulation, and the bynames were added onto the name of person, in order to distinguish them from others who bore the same name. Bynames were particularly prevalent in fishing communities in the northeastern part of Scotland, but were also used in the Borders and the West Highlands. In some cases within fishing communities, the names of fishing boats were tacked onto the names people in order to differentiate them from others.\n", "Section::::\"Nazwisko\" (surname).:History, heraldry, and clan names.\n\nFamily names first appeared in Poland around the 13th century and were only used by the upper social classes of society. Originally the Polish nobility belonged to heraldic clans (Polish \"ród herbowy\") whose names survived in their shared coats of arms. Eventually, members of one clan would split into separate families with different surnames, usually derived from the name of their holdings or estates. Sometimes the family name and the clan name (associated with the arms) would be used together and form a double-barrelled name.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Scottish surnames as given names.\n\nIn recent years, names that have been traditionally surnames have been used as given names, particularly in North America. These names are sometimes given to both males and females (for example, the given name \"Mackenzie\", taken from the Scottish surname \"Mackenzie\", is given to girls more than boys in North America; another North American given name used for both genders is \"Cameron\" derived from the surname \"Cameron\").\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Scottish Gaelic surnames, Scottish Gaelic surnames and their English equivalents\n\nBULLET::::- Scottish Gaelic personal naming system\n\nBULLET::::- Welsh surnames, the surnames of Wales\n", "In Finland, the use of patronymics was a result of relatively recent Swedish influence and remained uncommon outside official documents. Only in the 19th century did the use of patronymics gain any sort of popularity among the Finnish-speaking lower classes. Family names became obligatory in Finland by law in 1920.\n\nHistorically, patronymics were composed in Swedish fashion: the father's name and the suffix -n for genitive plus the word \"poika\" for sons, \"tytär\" for daughters. For example, Tuomas Abrahaminpoika (to be read in English as \"Tuomas, Abraham's son\") and Martta Heikintytär (to be read in English as \"Martta, Heikki's daughter\").\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14050	When the sun was first formed, did it explode first? Or did it just light up and start going?	No, it formed from an accretion disk comprised of gas and other materials. Once the disk was moving fast enough and became denser and denser nuclear fusion started and our star was born. Bit of a quick answer sorry!	[ "The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate because of conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accreted more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion.\n", "Dr. Research continues, telling how science believes the Sun started as a loose cloud of hydrogen gas compressed by gravity and this compression raised the temperature until it reached 30 million degrees and started the thermonuclear reaction. The nuclear reactions expand the Sun and gravity compresses it until the two forces reach a balance. The Sun has only used small portion of its hydrogen and has about 98% of it left which will take about 50 to 100 billion years until it is gone and the Sun dies.\n", "Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century. At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by gravitational contraction. In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Kelvin, who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. However, the Sun only has enough gravitational potential energy to power its luminosity by this mechanism for about 30 million years—far less than the age of the Earth. (This collapse time is known as the Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale.)\n", "Within 50 million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved. This marked the Sun's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the main sequence. Main-sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a main-sequence star today.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Formation of the planets.\n", "The Sun is a Population I, or heavy-element-rich, star. The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second-generation star.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Lyttleton's scenario.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Capture theory.\n\nThe \"capture theory\", proposed by Michael Mark Woolfson in 1964, posits that the Solar System formed from tidal interactions between the Sun and a low-density protostar. The Sun's gravity would have drawn material from the diffuse atmosphere of the protostar, which would then have collapsed to form the planets. However, the capture theory predicts a different age for the Sun than for the planets, whereas the similar ages of the Sun and the rest of the Solar System indicate that they formed at roughly the same time.\n", "The Sun's original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed. Originally it would have contained about 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements. The hydrogen and most of the helium in the Sun would have been produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe, and the heavier elements were produced by previous generations of stars before the Sun was formed, and spread into the interstellar medium during the final stages of stellar life and by events such as supernovae.\n", "Section::::Other proposed explanations.\n\nA minority view, propounded by the Israeli-American physicist Nir Shaviv, uses climatological influences of solar wind, combined with a hypothesis of Danish physicist Henrik Svensmark for a cooling effect of cosmic rays, to explain the paradox. According to Shaviv, the early Sun had emitted a stronger solar wind that produced a protective effect against cosmic rays. In that early age, a moderate greenhouse effect comparable to today's would have been sufficient to explain an ice-free Earth. Evidence for a more active early Sun has been found in meteorites.\n", "However plausible it may appear at first sight, the nebular hypothesis still faces the obstacle of angular momentum; if the Sun had indeed formed from the collapse of such a cloud, the planets should be rotating far more slowly. The Sun, though it contains almost 99.9 percent of the system's mass, contains just 1 percent of its angular momentum. This means that the Sun should be spinning much more rapidly.\n\nSection::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Tidal theory.\n", "Section::::Solar evolution hypotheses.:White dwarfs.\n", "William McCrea, in 1963, divided them into 2 groups also: those that relate the formation of the planets to the formation of the Sun and those where it is independent of the formation of the Sun, where the planets form after the Sun becomes a normal star.\n", "Section::::Types.:Prominences and filaments.\n\nA prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature extending outward from the Sun's surface, often in the shape of a loop. Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the photosphere and extend outwards into the corona. While the corona consists of high temperature plasma, which do not emit much visible light, prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the chromosphere.\n\nProminence plasma is typically a hundred times cooler and denser than coronal plasma.\n", "Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion. The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved: the thermal pressure equalled the force of gravity. At this point, the Sun became a main-sequence star. The main-sequence phase, from beginning to end, will last about 10 billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other phases of the Sun's pre-remnant life combined. Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space, ending the planetary formation process. The Sun is growing brighter; early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70% that of what it is today.\n", "In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colors. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.\n", "The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of nuclear reactions called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:The Chamberlin-Moulton model.\n", "Section::::Solar evolution hypotheses.\n", "One major argument against exploding planets and moons is that there would not be an energy source powerful enough to cause such explosions.\n\nSection::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Herndon's model.\n\nIn J. Marvin Herndon's model,\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Interstellar cloud theory.\n", "Section::::Legend.:First sun.\n", "There are, however, arguments against this hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Formation hypothesis.\n", "BULLET::::- c.4,560–4,550 Ma – Proto-Earth forms at the outer (cooler) edge of the habitable zone of the Solar System. At this stage the solar constant of the Sun was only about 73% of its current value, but liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Proto-Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Early bombardment phase begins: because the solar neighbourhood is rife with large planetoids and debris, Earth experiences a number of giant impacts that help to increase its overall size.\n\nSection::::Precambrian Supereon.\n", "Section::::Formation hypothesis.:Alternative theories.:Urey's model.\n", "Section::::Introduction.:Physics of nuclei.:Solar binding energy.\n\nThe nuclear fusion process works as follows: five billion years ago, the new Sun formed when gravity pulled together a vast cloud of hydrogen and dust, from which the Earth and other planets also arose. The gravitational pull released energy and heated the early Sun, much in the way Helmholtz proposed.\n" ]	[ "The sun formed either by exploding first or lighting up and just kept going.", "The sun's formation was possibly due to explosion or spontaneous appearance." ]	[ "The sun formed from an accretion disk comprised of gas and other materials.", "Neither - it formed from an aggregation of gas and other materials and once this was moving fast enough, nuclear fusion finished the job." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The sun formed either by exploding first or lighting up and just kept going.", "The sun's formation was possibly due to explosion or spontaneous appearance." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The sun formed from an accretion disk comprised of gas and other materials.", "Neither - it formed from an aggregation of gas and other materials and once this was moving fast enough, nuclear fusion finished the job." ]
2018-01693	How do animals develop relationships with their human carers? Animals are giving hugs to their owners and what goes on in an animals brain?	Most of these animals are herd/pack/family animals. They interact socially based on trust, affection and mutual benefit, same as humans. A human carer provides an animal with activity, food, treatment, training, and leadership. Pack animals have a need for all of this, same as humans. We don't really know what goes on in their brains, but it is probably something similar as to what happens in our own. Trust, physical connection and relationships are deeply ingrained instincts in many animals and most mammals, we humans are not special in that regard.	[ "The commensal pathway was traveled by animals that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received little benefit or harm. Those animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the ‘tamer’ individuals: less aggressive, with shorter fight-or-flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans and led to a domestic relationship.\n", "Living With Animals: This exhibit explores our relationship to and with animals. Over 15,000 years ago humans began sharing their meals with wolves, forging the first friendship between humans and animals–but where did we go from there?Since then, we’ve formed all kinds of relationships with all kinds of animals, and we encounter them everywhere in our daily lives: they cuddle up with us on the couch, crawl silently through our walls, sit on our dinner plates, and more. But whether we see an animal as a pet, a pest, or food has changed over time and across cultures, making our relationships with them dynamic and complex, to say the least.\n", "In the early 1980s the term 'human–animal bond' was officially coined by Leo K. Bustad, who delivered a summary lecture on the Human-Pet Relationship on October 28, 1983, at the International Symposium in Vienna. This symposium was held in honour of Konrad Lorenz, and during his lecture, Bustad praised him for his work on the human–animal bond and encouraged others to build on Lorenz's work on the subject. In the early 1970’s, Konrad Lorenz had developed the field of ethology with his landmark research on the imprinting of behaviours in geese.\n", "In some cases, despite its benefits, the human-animal bond can be used for harmful purposes. The 1990s saw an increase in social and scientific awareness of the use of companion animals as a tool for domestic violence. A 1997 study found that 80% of shelters reported women staying with them had experienced their abuser threatening or harming companion animals as a form of abuse.\n", "The \"human–animal bond\" can occur between people and domestic or wild animals; be it a cat as a pet or birds outside one's window. The phrase “Human-Animal Bond” also known as HAB began to emerge as terminology in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Research into the nature and merit of the human–animal bond began in the late 18th century when, in York, England, the Society of Friends established The Retreat to provide humane treatment for the mentally ill. By having patients care for the many farm animals on the estate, society officials theorized that the combination of animal contact plus productive work would facilitate the patients' rehabilitation. In the 1870s in Paris, a French surgeon had patients with neurological disorders ride horses. The patients were found to have improved their motor control and balance and were less likely to suffer bouts of depression.\n", "In 1978, neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp observed that small doses of opiates reduced the distressed cries of puppies that were separated from their mothers. As a result, he developed the brain opioid theory of attachment, which posits that endogenous (internally produced) opioids underlie the pleasure that social animals derive from social connection, especially within close relationships. Extensive animal research supports this theory. Mice who have been genetically modified to not have mu-opioid receptors (mu-opioid receptor knockout mice), as well as sheep with their mu-receptors blocked temporarily following birth, do not recognize or bond with their mother. When separated from their mother and conspecifics, rats, chicks, puppies, guinea pigs, sheep, dogs, and primates emit distress vocalizations, however giving them morphine (i.e. activating their opioid receptors), quiets this distress. Endogenous opioids appear to be produced when animals engage in bonding behavior, while inhibiting the release of these opioids results in signs of social disconnection. In humans, blocking mu-opioid receptors with the opioid antagonist, naltrexone, has been found to reduce feelings of warmth and affection in response to a film clip about a moment of bonding, and to increase feelings of social disconnection towards loved ones in daily life as well as in the lab in response to a task designed to elicit feelings of connection. Although the human research on opioids and bonding behavior is mixed and ongoing, this suggests that opioids may underlie feelings of social connection and bonding in humans as well.\n", "Human-canine bonding was recognized by Boris Levinson, who had an immense influence on the establishment of the field of study. Levinson is known for accidentally discovering the benefits of assisted pet therapy. He found that withdrawn and uncommunicative children would interact positively whenever he brought his dog, Jingles, to their therapy sessions. His discovery was further reinforced by Sam and Elizabeth Corson, who were among the first to research and evaluate pet-facilitated therapy. \n", "The leap from a synanthropic population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, at which point the establishment of a reciprocal relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and then human-controlled breeding. From this perspective, animal domestication is a coevolutionary process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel niche that includes another species with evolving behaviors.\n\nCommensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs.\n\nSection::::Examples of commensal relationships.:Dogs.\n", "Yuin people had, and in many cases still have, spiritual, mutual relationships with an aspect of the natural world. These spiritual connections are represented by animals, and these connections come with obligations and relationships, not just to the animal but to other humans and to places and things associated with that animal.\n", "Animals as pets have a large sense of loyalty to humans. Famous cases include Greyfriars Bobby, a Skye terrier who attended his master's grave for fourteen years; Hachiko, a dog who returned to the place he used to meet his master every day for nine years after his death; and Foxie, the spaniel belonging to Charles Gough, who stayed by her dead master's side for three months on Helvellyn in the Lake District in 1805 (although it is possible that Foxie had eaten Gough's body).\n", "In the 19th century, in Bielefeld, Germany, epileptic patients were given the prescription to spend time each day taking care of cats and dogs. The contact with the animals was found to reduce the occurrence of seizures. As early as the 1920s people were starting to utilize the human-animal bond not just for healing, but also granting independence through service animals. In 1929 The Seeing Eye Inc. school formed to train guide dogs for the blind in the United States, inspired by dogs being trained to guide World War I veterans in Europe. Furthermore, the idea is that the human-animal bond can provide health benefits to humans as the animals \"appeal to fundamental human needs for companionship, comfort, and security...\" In 1980, a team of scientists at the University of Pennsylvania found that human to animal contact was found to reduce the physiological characteristics of stress; specifically, lowered levels of blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, anxiety, and tension were all found to correlate positively with human–pet bonding.\n", "The relationship between a human and a household dog (\"Canis lupus familiaris\") is quite common and said to be similar to the relationship seen between a parent and child. Many people agree that there is an emotional bond between themselves and their dog. An important indicator of the bond between a dog and its caregiver can be seen through separation and reunion incidences. The behaviour of the dog including approach latency and the frequency of initiating physical contact varies according to how familiar the dog is with the person. This can be viewed as a snapshot of their relationship. Behaviours such as tail wagging, lip licking, body shaking and vocalization also indicate this.\n", "Section::::Health.\n\nSection::::Health.:Consequences of disconnection.\n\nA wide range of mammals, including rats, prairie voles, guinea pigs, cattle, sheep, primates, and humans, experience distress and long-term deficits when separated from their parent. In humans, long-lasting health consequences result from early experiences of disconnection. In 1958, John Bowlby observed profound distress and developmental consequences when orphans lacked warmth and love of our first and most important attachments: our parents. Loss of a parent during childhood was found to lead to altered cortisol and sympathetic nervous system reactivity even a decade later, and affect stress response and vulnerability to conflict as a young adult.\n", "An example of the Human-Animal Bond can be seen during World War I on the Western Front with horses. The use of this animal was widespread as over 24,000 horses and mules were used in the Canadian Expeditionary Force in World War I. The horse connection can be seen as horses were used to pull wagons for their drivers, as individual transport mounts for officers, and patients for veterinarians. When researching the human-animal bond there is a danger of anthropomorphism and projections of human qualities.\n", "Historically, animals were domesticated for functional use; for example, dogs for herding and tracking, and cats for killing mice or rats. Today, in Western societies, their function is primarily bonding. For example, current studies show that 60–80% of dogs sleep with their owners at night in the bedroom, either in or on the bed. Moreover, in the past the majority of cats were kept outside (barn cats) whereas today most cats are kept indoors (housecats) and considered part of the family. Currently, in the US, for example, 1.2 billion animals are kept as pets, primarily for bonding purposes. In addition, as of 1995 there were over 30 research institutions looking into the potential benefits of the human–animal bond.\n", "In addition to research in primates, biologists are beginning to explore reconciliation in other animals. Until recently, the literature dealing with reconciliation in non-primates has consisted of anecdotal observations and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post-conflict behavior had been documented going back to the 1960s, it was not until 1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of reconciliation in feral sheep. Reconciliation has since been documented in spotted hyenas, lions, bottlenose dolphins, dwarf mongoose, domestic goats, domestic dogs, and, recently, in red-necked wallabies.\n\nSection::::Education.\n", "In 1980, Berman researched the mother-infant relationship of rhesus monkeys both in the wild and in captivity. She found many similarities between the two parenting styles but some minor differences. The captive mother has been described as more protective and less willing to let their infant out of their control. The difference that likely has to most effect on this relationship is, the wild monkey has kin around which helps with the socialization of the infant, and the mother in captivity does not. This shows how environmental factors can affect the early socialization of infant rhesus monkeys.\n", "In 1965, Harry Harlow conducted his landmark monkey studies. He separated baby monkeys from their mothers, and observed which surrogate mothers the baby monkeys bonded with: a wire \"mother\" that provided food, or a cloth \"mother\" that was soft and warm. Overwhelmingly, the baby monkeys preferred to spend time clinging to the cloth mother, only reaching over to the wire mother when they became too hungry to continue without food. This study questioned the idea that food is the most powerful primary reinforcement for learning. Instead, Harlow's studies suggested that warmth, comfort, and affection (as perceived from the soft embrace of the cloth mother) are crucial to the mother-child bond, and may be a powerful reward that mammals may seek in and of itself. Although historic, it is important to acknowledge that this study does not meet current research standards for the ethical treatment of animals.\n", "Wolves who have been hand reared for 16 weeks showed a different behaviour compared to those hand reared for 3–7 weeks. The wolves that were tested were separated from their mothers and littermates 3–5 days after birth. The wolves were in close contact with their caregiver for 20–24 hours for the first 16 weeks. The wolves were socialized with other wolves and were exposed to novel situations to the extent that they were used to traveling in cars and on public transportation. Due to the hand rearing the wolves lacked wariness and did not actively avoid humans. It was noted that the wolves had a strong interest in strangers. The experiment was tested over seven episodes where the wolves were first exposed to their caregiver, their caregiver and a stranger, just a stranger, their caregiver, were left by themselves, with a stranger and finally their caregiver. The hand reared wolves studied seemed to seek physical contact with the stranger and did not discriminate between following their caregiver or stranger. This result was theorized to be due to the wolves being of a more independent age at the time of testing. After the study the wolves used were able to re-socialize and were allowed to enter into a pack of wolves.\n", "Attachment behaviour is a behaviour which is observed when an animal forms a strong bond to either a human or another animal. The behaviour of the animal that is seeking to be close to its object of attachment characterizes this behaviour. Many studies have shown that dogs show attachment behaviour to their human caregivers. Wolves are highly social animals and their social interactions in their packs fit the criteria of attachment behaviour. As dogs are closely related to wolves many investigators have studied wolf attachment behaviour to humans. Wolves that were raised for 3–7 weeks showed attachment behaviour to their human caregivers. This attachment behaviour was characterized by preferring to be close to their human caregiver, by seeking contact, and by greeting the caregiver more frequently compared to a stranger. As the wolf is a non-domesticated animal this is an example of attachment behaviour without domestication. Another study showed that wolves that were hand-reared for 16 weeks of their lives by human caregivers showed attachment behaviour to a stranger rather than their caregiver.\n", "The commensal pathway was traveled by vertebrates that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received no harm but little benefit. Those animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the tamer, less aggressive individuals with shorter fight or flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans that led to a domestic relationship. The leap from a synanthropic population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, when the relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and human-controlled breeding. From this perspective, animal domestication is a coevolutionary process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel niche that included another species with evolving behaviors. Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs.\n", "BULLET::::- Maternal behavior: Female rats given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior. By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior toward foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise. Oxytocin is involved in the initiation of maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own.\n", "Human–canine bond\n\nHuman–canine bonding is the relationship between dogs and humans. This bond can be traced back at least 15,000 to 30,000 years ago to the Bonn-Oberkassel dog that was found buried with two humans. In the United States, over 48% of households have a pet dog. For centuries, dogs have been labeled as \"man's best friend,\" offering love and loyalty to their human counterparts. This is evident in most homes where dogs are domesticated. Children and adults have cordial relationships with all kinds of dogs. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "Animal dysthanasia is particularly relevant in the context of small animal practice. For centuries, domestic animals in Western societies used to be mainly farm animals. With the industrialization process, humans become increasingly concentrated in urban areas, having preferential contact with companion animals, namely cats and dogs. While farm animals are widely seen as property, companion animals are perceived as family members with whom humans keep close bonds and develop strong emotional relationships.\n", "Section::::Trait selection and convergent evolution.\n\nAnimals often portray many similar characteristics displayed by humans. There looms large belief that while both humans and animals evolve simultaneously, domesticated animals have benefitted the most from human-animal relationships because they have increased in population much further than they ever would have in a natural occurrence because of their selected \"human-like\" characteristics. The selection of behavioural skills provides a typical environment for :convergent evolution.\n\nSection::::Trait selection and convergent evolution.:\"Canis lupus familiaris\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21871	why do airplane staff insist on passengers turning phones off (or airplane mode or whatever) during flight?	It's because they don't want any radio signals being sent or received during takeoff that could cause interference. Your phone has not been proven not to interfere with important signals or devices and there is no feasible way to test every phone in every airplane in every configuration.	[ "A 2003 study involved three months of testing with RF spectrum analyzers and other instruments aboard regular commercial flights, and one passage reads:\n\nA 2000 study by the British Civil Aviation Authority found that a mobile phone, when used near the cockpit or other avionics equipment location, will exceed safety levels for older equipment (compliant with 1984 standards). Such equipment is still in use, even in new aircraft. Therefore, the report concludes, the current policy, which restricts the use of mobile phones on all aircraft while the engines are running, should remain in force.\n", "BULLET::::- The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) announces that airline passengers will be allowed to use their personal electronic devices during all phases of flight, ending the years-long prohibition of their use during takeoff and landing, although a Federal Communications Commission ban on the use of cellphones to make calls or send texts or data in flight is to remain in force. The FAA states that pilots may still require personal electronic devices to be turned off under certain conditions, but that it expects airlines to implement new procedures to accommodate the gate-to-gate use of such devices by the end of 2013.\n", "In Europe, regulations and technology have allowed the limited introduction of the use of passenger mobile phones on some commercial flights, and elsewhere in the world many airlines are moving towards allowing mobile phone use in flight. Many airlines still do not allow the use of mobile phones on aircraft. Those that do often ban the use of mobile phones during take-off and landing.\n", "In any case, there are inconsistencies between practices allowed by different airlines and even on the same airline in different countries. For example, Delta Air Lines may allow the use of mobile phones immediately after landing on a domestic flight within the US, whereas they may state \"not until the doors are open\" on an international flight arriving in the Netherlands. In April 2007 the US Federal Communications Commission officially prohibited passengers' use of cell phones during a flight.\n", "This FAA press release was quickly followed up by an FCC press release entitled \"Chairman Wheeler Statement on In-Flight Mobile Services Proposal\" in which FCC Chairman Tom Wheeler states, \"modern technologies can deliver mobile services in the air safely and reliably, and the time is right to review our outdated and restrictive rules.\" This has led to media speculation that the use of cell phones for voice communication on board an aircraft in flight will soon be allowed.\n", "Since these regulations were originally imposed by various international aviation agencies, ultra-low-power devices, such as picocells, have been developed. Reasons for this include improved security, reduction of interference, reduced health risks and to allow safe in-flight use of mobile phones. Many airline companies have now added such equipment to their aircraft. More are expected to do so in the coming years.\n\nSection::::The debate on safety.:Electromagnetic interference.\n", "On 31 October 2013, the FAA issued a press release entitled \"FAA to Allow Airlines to Expand Use of Personal Electronics\" in which it announced that \"airlines can safely expand passenger use of Portable Electronic Devices (PEDs) during all phases of flight.\" This new policy does not include cell phone use in flight, because, as the press release states, \"The FAA did not consider changing the regulations regarding the use of cell phones for voice communications during flight because the issue is under the jurisdiction of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).\"\n", "In the U.S., Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations prohibit the use of mobile phones aboard aircraft in flight. Contrary to popular misconception, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) does not actually prohibit the use of personal electronic devices (including cell phones) on aircraft. Paragraph (b)(5) of 14 CFR 91.21 leaves it up to the airlines to determine if devices can be used in flight, allowing use of \"Any other portable electronic device that the operator of the aircraft has determined will not cause interference with the navigation or communication system of the aircraft on which it is to be used.\"\n", "Some airlines have installed technologies to allow phones to be connected within the airplane as it flies. Such systems were tested on scheduled flights from 2006 and in 2008 several airlines started to allow in-flight use of mobile phones.\n\nSection::::Current status.:Status of specific regions and individual airlines.\n\nBULLET::::- China\n\nAs of 2018, Chinese regulations (and major carriers including China Southern Airlines, China Eastern Airlines and Air China) permit phone usage in flight mode.\n\nBULLET::::- Emirates Airline\n\nOn 20 March 2008, Emirates flights began allowing in-flight voice calls on some commercial airline flights.\n\nBULLET::::- European services\n", "More modern systems allow passengers to call fellow passengers located in another seat by simply keying in the recipient's seat number.\n\nSection::::In-flight connectivity.:Data communication.\n", "The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) currently prohibits the use of mobile phones aboard \"any\" aircraft in flight. The reason given is that cell phone systems depend on frequency reuse, which allows for a dramatic increase in the number of customers that can be served within a geographic area on a limited amount of radio spectrum, and operating a phone at an altitude may violate the fundamental assumptions that allow channel reuse to work.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Air-ground radiotelephone service\n\nBULLET::::- Airplane mode\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Study: Up To 15 Phones Are Left On During Every Flight\n", "Several reports argue both sides of the issue in the same article; on the one hand they highlight the lack of definite evidence of mobile phones causing significant interference, while on the other hand they point out that caution in maintaining restrictions on using mobile phones and other PEDs in flight is the safer course to take.\n\nSection::::The debate on other issues.\n\nSection::::The debate on other issues.:Social resistance to mobile phone use on flights.\n", "Skeptics of the ban have suggested that the airlines support the ban because they do not want passengers to have an alternative to the in-flight phone service such as GTE's Airfone. Andy Plews a spokesman for UAL's United Airlines was quoted as saying \"We don't believe it's a good safety issue\"...\"We'd like people to use the air phones.\"\n\nSection::::Current status.\n\nSection::::Current status.:In flight technology.\n", "In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restricts cell phone usage on aircraft in order to prevent disruption to cellular towers on the ground. As mentioned above, the FAA allows the in-flight use of wireless devices but only after the airline has determined that the device will not interfere with aircraft communication or navigation.\n", "After the attempted Christmas Day bombing of 2009, the United States Transportation Security Administration (TSA) briefly ordered the live-map shut-off on international flights landing in the United States. Some airlines complained that doing so may compel the entire IFE system to remain shut. After complaints from airlines and passengers alike, these restrictions were eased.\n\nSection::::Varieties of in-flight entertainment.:Audio entertainment.\n", "Mobile phone use on aircraft is starting to be allowed with several airlines already offering the ability to use phones during flights. Mobile phone use during flights used to be prohibited and many airlines still claim in their in-plane announcements that this prohibition is due to possible interference with aircraft radio communications. Shut-off mobile phones do not interfere with aircraft avionics. The recommendation why phones should not be used during take-off and landing, even on planes that allow calls or messaging, is so that passengers pay attention to the crew for any possible accident situations, as most aircraft accidents happen on take-off and landing.\n", "BULLET::::- some airlines may require passengers to also turn off all devices during taxi, take-off, and landing (such as Kenya Airways and Malaysia Airlines) in addition to having these devices set to airplane mode\n\nBULLET::::- if present, most airlines may also require passengers to unplug these devices from charging ports during these times\n\nBULLET::::- some newer aircraft have separate “please turn off electronic devices” signs in place of the now unnecessary “no smoking” signs (as smoking is never allowed anyway) and that electronics should be completely shut off and put away when these signs are illuminated\n", "Many people may prefer a ban on mobile phone use in flight as it prevents undue amounts of noise from mobile phone chatter. AT&T has suggested that in-flight mobile phone restrictions should remain in place in the interests of reducing the nuisance to other passengers caused by someone talking on a mobile phone near them.\n\nSection::::The debate on other issues.:Competition for airlines' in-flight phone service.\n", "One report asserts correlations between the use of mobile phones and other portable electronic devices in flight, and various problems with avionics. Another study concluded that some \"portable electronic devices\", including laptops, electronic toys and laser pointers, used in the cabin can exceed the aircraft manufacturer's permissible emission levels for safety with regard to some avionics, while they were unsuccessful in duplicating any of the errors suspected to be caused by PED use in controlled lab conditions.\n", "AeroMobile and OnAir allow the use of personal electronics devices aboard flights. The services are most readily available in Europe and are licensed to specific airlines.\n\nBULLET::::- Qantas\n\nSince 26 August 2014 Qantas permits mobile phones (and other portable electronic devices weighing less than 1 kg) to be switched on during the entire flight, if the devices are in flight mode while on board the aircraft. Jetstar (owned by Qantas) adopted the same arrangements on 30 August 2014.\n\nBULLET::::- Ryanair\n", "On 14 October 2016, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of Transportation's Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration banned the Note 7 from being taken aboard any airline flight, even if powered off. Qantas, Virgin Australia and Garuda Indonesia issued similar bans, while Transport Canada issued a notice stating that the Galaxy Note 7 was banned from flights under Special Provision 137 prohibitions, banning the carriage of damaged or defective lithium-ion batteries onto flights. In response to these air travel bans, Samsung announced that it would set up dedicated kiosks at selected airports, to allow travelers to exchange or receive a refund for their Galaxy Note 7 on-site before they depart, rather than having their phone confiscated by security or airport staff.\n", "BULLET::::- Affected airlines began taking measures to try and mitigate effects of the ban:\n\nBULLET::::- Emirates, Qatar Airways and Turkish Airlines allowed passengers to use their large electronic equipment at the gate, up to the moment of boarding.\n\nBULLET::::- Etihad Airways and Qatar Airways offered free Wifi to all business and first class passengers traveling to the US. Turkish Airlines offered free Wifi for all passengers traveling to the US or UK.\n", "Many passengers are pressing airlines and their governments to allow and deregulate mobile phone use, while some airlines, under the pressure of competition, are also pushing for deregulation or seeking new technology which could solve the present problems. On the other hand, official aviation agencies and safety boards are resisting any relaxation of the present safety rules unless and until it can be conclusively shown that it would be safe to do so. There are both technical and social factors which make the issues more complex than a simple discussion of safety versus hazard.\n\nSection::::The debate on safety.\n", "Aircraft were equipped with Verizon Airfone in every row of seats. Since Verizon ended this service, the airline has deactivated the service and as of 2007, has removed the phones or has covered them in all aircraft.\n", "The FAA in 14 C.F.R § 91.21 prohibits the use of portable electronic devices, including mobile phones, for all commercial flights and for those private flights being made under instrument flight rules (IFR). It does allow that the airline (or, for privately operated aircraft, the pilot) can make an exception to this rule if the operator deems that device safe. This effectively gives the airline, or the private pilot, the final word as to what devices may safely be used aboard an aircraft as far as the FAA is concerned although the FCC restriction still applies.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02275	how come bears and other hibernating animals don’t succumb to muscular atrophy?	Bears in particular don't truly hibernate: it's not a winter's worth of staying still. They toss and turn, and even get up and stir in their dens, throughout the winter. Their "hibernation" is more like some really screwed up sleep patterns. What bears do is more properly termed "torpor". That said, they still lose less muscle mass for their size than a human that was confined to bedrest for that long, and it's not totally known why. Theories include that they can synthesize protein during it with the help of stored nitrogen in urea (bears don't pee all winter), or that muscle contractions (shivering... it's still cold in that den!) compensate. Animals that really REALLY hibernate, like frogs, have bodies that truly slow down to a crawl when they're down for the winter. They don't atrophy because all their bodily processes are slowed down, including those that would cause muscle wasting to happen.	[ "Bears are an exception to this rule; species in the family Ursidae are famous for their ability to survive unfavorable environmental conditions of low temperatures and limited nutrition availability during winter by means of hibernation. During that time, bears go through a series of physiological, morphological, and behavioral changes. Their ability to maintain skeletal muscle number and size during disuse is of significant importance.\n", "Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content. In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats.\n", "Grizzly bears are at the weakest point into their annual cycle following emergence from hibernation, in terms of lacking mineral and protein nutrition. Grizzly bears (\"Ursus arctos\"), after emerging from hibernation, may be experiencing a skewed phosphorus-to-calcium ratio due to the lack of consumption of animal resources during the period of hibernation.\n", "American black bears were once not considered true or \"deep\" hibernators, but because of discoveries about the metabolic changes that allow American black bears to remain dormant for months without eating, drinking, urinating or defecating, most biologists have redefined mammalian hibernation as \"specialized, seasonal reduction in metabolism concurrent with scarce food and cold weather\". American black bears are now considered highly efficient hibernators. The physiology of American black bears in the wild is closely related to that of bears in captivity. Understanding the physiology of bears in the wild is vital to the bear's success in captivity.\n", "In individuals affected by SMA, the \"SMN1\" gene is mutated in such a way that it is unable to correctly code the SMN protein – due to either a deletion occurring at exon 7 or to other point mutations (frequently resulting in the functional conversion of the \"SMN1\" sequence into \"SMN2\"). Almost all people, however, have at least one functional copy of the \"SMN2\" gene (with most having 2–4 of them) which still codes small amounts of SMN protein – around 10–20% of the normal level – allowing some neurons to survive. In the long run, however, reduced availability of the SMN protein results in gradual death of motor neuron cells in the anterior horn of spinal cord and the brain. Muscles that depend on these motor neurons for neural input now have decreased innervation (also called denervation), and therefore have decreased input from the central nervous system (CNS). Decreased impulse transmission through the motor neurons leads to decreased contractile activity of the denervated muscle. Consequently, denervated muscles undergo progressive atrophy (waste away).\n", "During their time in hibernation, an American black bear's heart rate drops from 40–50 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute and the metabolic rate can drop to a quarter of the bear's (non-hibernating) basal metabolic rate (BMR). These reductions in metabolic rate and heart rate do not appear to decrease the bear's ability to heal injuries during hibernation.\n", "Some general conclusions that can be drawn from the above human studies are as follows. First, terrestrial unloading models produce selective atrophy in the muscles of the lower limbs, especially the anti-gravity muscles; second, this response is greater in the extensor muscles than in the flexor muscles; third, muscle atrophy occurs quickly (within 7–14 days) in response to unloading; fourth, loss of muscle mass is paralleled by decrements in muscle strength and endurance, but strength losses typically are greater than volume losses; fifth, if atrophy is specific to a myofiber type within these muscles, it seems to be Type II myofibers; and sixth, terrestrial unloading does not seem to produce a slow-to-fast shift in absolute myofiber characteristics but does alter the expression of MHC isoforms in human muscle so that an increase in MHC hybrid myofibers is observed, resulting in a faster phenotype.\n", "The resulting phosphorus deficiency in grizzly bear diets results in a skewed calcium to phosphorus ratio and creates an appetite for bone. Because this deficiency is associated with the cycle of the seasons, osteophagy in bears is likely to be a seasonal phenomenon rather than a constant dietary supplement.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Giraffes.\n", "During hibernation, bears spend 4-7 months of inactivity and anorexia without undergoing muscle atrophy and protein loss. A few known factors contribute to the sustaining of muscle tissue. During the summer, bears take advantage of the nutrition availability and accumulate muscle protein. The protein balance at time of dormancy is also maintained by lower levels of protein breakdown during the winter. At times of immobility, muscle wasting in bears is also suppressed by a proteolytic inhibitor that is released in circulation. Another factor that contributes to the sustaining of muscle strength in hibernating bears is the occurrence of periodic voluntary contractions and involuntary contractions from shivering during torpor. The three to four daily episodes of muscle activity are responsible for the maintenance of muscle strength and responsiveness in bears during hibernation.\n", "Willis has shown how hibernators derive some of their ability to survive low temperatures by having a Na+K+-ATPase which is able to transport sodium and potassium actively across their cell membranes, at 5 °C, about six times faster than in non-hibernators; this transport rate is sufficient to prevent cell swelling.\n", "Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content. Muscle atrophy may also result from the natural aging process or from disease.\n", "A novel class of drugs, called selective androgen receptor modulators, is being investigated with promising results. They would have fewer side effects, while still promoting muscle and bone tissue growth and regeneration. These claims are, however, yet to be confirmed in larger clinical trials.\n\nOne important rehabilitation tool for muscle atrophy includes the use of functional electrical stimulation to stimulate the muscles. This has seen a large amount of success in the rehabilitation of paraplegic patients.\n\nSection::::Hibernation.\n", "Nervous system, cardiovascular and musculoskeletal examinations are unremarkable as is routine blood analysis at rest and during an episode of collapse.\n\nThrough grants from the AKC CHF a patented DNA test was developed by the University of MN. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals provides a public database for those dogs that are DNA tested.\n\nThe UMN VBS Genetics Lab is also investigating cases of \"atypical collapse\" and also \"Border Collie Collapse]\" where the dog is a carrier or clear of the disease on the DNA test, but continues to exhibit signs of the EIC disease.\n", "Myoglobin, the oxygen-binding protein used in muscles, is absent from all icefish skeletal muscles. In 10 species, myoglobin is found in the heart muscle, specifically ventricles. Loss of myoglobin gene expression in icefish heart ventricles has occurred at least four separate times.\n\nSection::::Respiratory and circulatory system.:Cardiovascular system.\n", "Piedmontese beef is meat from cattle having one or two copies of the \"inactive\" myostatin gene. This attribute provides a higher lean-to-fat ratio, as well as less marbling with less connective tissue than meat from cattle having the \"active\" version of the gene. The active-myostatin gene acts as a \"governor\" on muscle growth; myostatin is a protein that instructs muscles to stop growing. In effect, when inactive, as it is with Piedmontese cattle, it no longer prevents muscle development which is what allows for the hypertrophic condition sometimes referred to as \"double muscling\".\n", "The bile can be harvested using several techniques, all of which require some degree of surgery, and may leave a permanent fistula or inserted catheter. A significant proportion of the bears die because of the stress of unskilled surgery or the infections which may occur.\n", "\"Disuse atrophy\" of muscles and bones, with loss of mass and strength, can occur after prolonged immobility, such as extended bedrest, or having a body part in a cast (living in darkness for the eye, bedridden for the legs etc.). This type of atrophy can usually be reversed with exercise unless severe. Astronauts in microgravity must exercise regularly to minimize atrophy of their limb muscles.\n", "In winter conditions, while grizzly bears may be able to continue to maintain calcium intake with the ingestion of plants and maintain levels of vitamin D from solar radiation, low protein availability results in phosphorus deficiency in grizzly bear diets. This lack of protein during winter conditions can be attributed to the scarcity of animal proteins, a phenomenon that occurs in many ecosystems prior to green-up, or the ending of winter conditions. Therefore, overall, bones can serve as a valuable source of minerals at times where animal protein availability is low.\n", "Farmed bile bears live to an average age of five years old whereas healthy captive bears can live up to 35 years of age and wild bears for between 25 and 30 years.\n\nSection::::Legislation.\n\nSection::::Legislation.:China.\n", "During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass. This condition is called \"sarcopenia\", and may be distinct from atrophy in its pathophysiology. While the exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, it may be induced by a combination of a gradual failure in the satellite cells which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors which are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.\n\nSection::::Dystrophies, myositis, and motor neuron conditions.\n", "To cope with limited food resources and low temperatures, some mammals hibernate during cold periods. To remain in \"stasis\" for long periods, these animals build up brown fat reserves and slow all body functions. True hibernators (e.g., groundhogs) keep their body temperatures low throughout hibernation whereas the core temperature of false hibernators (e.g., bears) varies; occasionally the animal may emerge from its den for brief periods. Some bats are true hibernators and rely upon a rapid, non-shivering thermogenesis of their brown fat deposit to bring them out of hibernation.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the diet of the cave bears from four MIS 3 sites in the Carpathian Mountains, based on isotopic data, is published by Robu \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Multifold coverage genomic data from four Late Pleistocene cave bears is presented by Barlow \"et al.\" (2018), who report that cave bears hybridized with brown bears during the Pleistocene, and that segments of cave bear DNA still persist in the genomes of living brown bears.\n", "Heart problems are virtually nonexistent in the breed. Some Glen of Imaal Terriers suffer from allergies and skin itching, especially on paws, the typical problem with paws is redness, itching and sores during spells of wet weather. The Glen is not generally affected by the back problems common in certain other long-backed breeds. Hip dysplasia, though occasionally seen, is usually mild, and does not often result in lameness due to the breed's typically muscular build. Responsible breeders use OFA or PennHIP evaluations to ensure that their breeding stock's hips are healthy.\n", "Muscle atrophy occurs by a change in the normal balance between protein synthesis and protein degradation. During atrophy, a down-regulation of protein synthesis pathways occurs, and an activation of protein degradation. The particular protein degradation pathway that seems to be responsible for much of the muscle loss seen in a muscle undergoing atrophy is the ATP-dependent ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. In this system, particular proteins are targeted for destruction by the ligation of at least four copies of a small peptide called ubiquitin onto a substrate protein. When a substrate is thus \"poly-ubiquitinated\", it is targeted for destruction by the proteasome. Particular enzymes in the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway allow ubiquitination to be directed to some proteins, but not others; specificity is gained by coupling targeted proteins to an \"E3 ubiquitin ligase\". Each E3 ubiquitin ligase binds to a particular set of substrates, causing their ubiquitination.\n", "Historically there was a question of whether or not [[bears]] truly hibernate since they experience only a modest decline in body temperature (3–5 °C) compared with the much larger decreases (often 32 °C or more) seen in other hibernators. Many researchers thought that their deep sleep was not comparable with true, deep hibernation, but recent research has refuted this theory in captive black bears.\n\nHibernating bears are able to recycle their proteins and urine, allowing them both to stop urinating for months and to avoid [[muscle atrophy]].\n\nSection::::Birds.\n" ]	[ "Bears are hibernating animals." ]	[ "Bears do not hibernate, they torpor, an example of a true hibernating animal is the frog." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bears are hibernating animals.", "Bears are hibernating animals." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Bears do not hibernate, they torpor, an example of a true hibernating animal is the frog.", "Bears do not hibernate, they torpor, an example of a true hibernating animal is the frog." ]
2018-02002	Why does it take longer to cook 2 burritos in the oven than it takes to cook 1? How does heat distribution work?	This is usually true in a microwave oven. The machine converts electricity into microwave energy, which is absorbed by the food and turns into heat. The more food you're heating, the more heat energy it takes to reach a certain temperature. It's actually true in a conventional oven too, but conventional ovens waste so much energy that the effect is harder to notice.	[ "BULLET::::- Carl and Dana prefer x to w to z to y.\n\nThe agents have equal rights so we apply PS with equal and uniform eating speed of 1 unit per minute.\n\nInitially, Alice and Bob go to w and Carl and Dana go to x. Each pair eats their item simultaneously. After 1/2 minute, Alice and Bob each have 1/2 of w, while Carl and Dana each have 1/2 of x.\n", "Section::::Culinary convection ovens.:Effectiveness.\n\nA convection oven allows a reduction in cooking temperature compared to a conventional oven. This comparison will vary, depending on factors including, for example, how much food is being cooked at once or if airflow is being restricted, for example by an oversized baking tray. This difference in cooking temperature is offset as the circulating air transfers heat more quickly than still air of the same temperature. In order to transfer the same amount of heat in the same time, the temperature must be lowered to reduce the rate of heat transfer in order to compensate.\n", "Ovens have a recovery time after being opened. Opening an oven door can reduce the temperature within an oven by up to 50° F (30° C). Methods to reduce oven recovery time include the placement of a baking stone or pizza stone, tiles made of ceramic, or a brick insert device in an oven, all of which serve to reduce recovery time through their heat retention properties.\n", "\"Thermal energy method\" (TEM), also known as \"thermal deburring\", is a deburring process used to remove hard-to-reach burrs or burrs from multiple surfaces at the same time. The process uses an explosive gas mixture to provide thermal energy to burn off the burrs. It is the fastest burr removal process, requiring only 20 milliseconds to remove a burr.\n", "Combining convection and steam heat utilizes the advantages provided by each cooking method, yielding tender meat with a crisp outer crust. Users also have complete control over the cooking environment, as the devices allow manual regulation of both temperature and humidity within the cooking chamber.\n\nThe variety of cooking programs available, and the fact that they can be combined, provides users with practically limitless options.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "In the centipede game, two players take turns choosing either to expand a slowly increasing pot, or to end the game and keep a larger fraction of the pot. In this example, the players are Alice and Bob. Alice chooses first, and also has the highest reward if Bob chooses to expand the pot on the final round.\n", "The proportional, integral, and differential terms of the two controllers will be very different. The outer PID controller has a long time constant – all the water in the tank needs to heat up or cool down. The inner loop responds much more quickly. Each controller can be tuned to match the physics of the system \"it\" controls – heat transfer and thermal mass of the whole tank or of just the heater – giving better total response.\n\nSection::::Alternative nomenclature and PID forms.\n\nSection::::Alternative nomenclature and PID forms.:Standard versus parallel (ideal) PID form.\n", "In addition to providing more temperature options, multi-position and digital controllers developed more refined auger duty cycles. The shorter auger-on period allows the pellet grill to achieve and maintain a wider range of temperatures. It also keeps large amounts of pellets from pilling up in the fire pot, helping to prevent sudden, sharp temperature swings.\n\nSection::::Function.:PID controllers (adjustable duty cycle).\n", "Section::::Recording and composition.\n", "More recently, ovens have become slightly more high-tech in terms of cooking strategy. The microwave as a cooking tool was discovered by Percy Spencer in 1946, and with the help from engineers, the microwave oven was patented. The microwave oven uses microwave radiation to excite the molecules in food causing friction, thus producing heat.\n\nSection::::Types of ovens.\n\nBULLET::::- Double oven: a built-in oven fixture that has either two ovens, or one oven and one microwave oven. It is usually built into the kitchen cabinet.\n", "Heat transfer to the food when using a grill is primarily through thermal radiation. Heat transfer when using a grill pan or griddle is by direct conduction. In the United States, when the heat source for grilling comes from above, grilling is called broiling. In this case, the pan that holds the food is called a broiler pan, and heat transfer is through thermal radiation.\n", "A heat flux boundary condition attributed to Rosenthal is to consider the rate of energy (power) transferred from the arc to the plate as equal to the heat transferred outward from a cylinder with height equal to the plate thickness and an infinitely small radius at the origin:\n\nformula_4\n\nwhere: \n\nBULLET::::- P = power,\n\nBULLET::::- r = distance from point source,\n\nBULLET::::- h = plate thickness.\n", "Section::::The Dunlap ovens and the coking process.\n\nThe Dunlap coke ovens facility consists of five batteries— four \"double\" batteries of ovens built back-to-back in staggered formation, and one \"single\" battery of ovens resting against an embankment. The batteries are all approximately tall and wide, and range in length from to . The largest battery contains 100 ovens built back-to-back, and the smallest battery contains 24 built back-to-back. The lone \"single\" battery contains 38 ovens, and measures . Each battery rests on a foundation of clay.\n", "flow direction in the headers, as shown in manifold arrangement. Bassiouny and Martin developed the previous theory of design. In recent years Wang unified all the main existing models and developed a most completed theory and design tool.\n\nThe total rate of heat transfer between the hot and cold fluids passing through a plate heat exchanger may be expressed as:\n\nQ = UA∆Tm\n\nwhere U is the Overall heat transfer coefficient, A is the total plate area, and ∆Tm is the Log mean temperature difference. U is dependent upon the heat transfer coefficients in the hot and cold streams.\n", "We assume that a generic heat exchanger has two ends (which we call \"A\" and \"B\") at which the hot and cold streams enter or exit on either side; then, the LMTD is defined by the logarithmic mean as follows:\n\nwhere \"ΔT\" is the temperature difference between the two streams at end \"A\", and \"ΔT\" is the temperature difference between the two streams at end \"B\". With this definition, the LMTD can be used to find the exchanged heat in a heat exchanger:\n", "The local exchanged heat flux at \"z\" is proportional to the temperature difference:\n\nwhere \"D\" is the distance between the two fluids.\n\nThe heat that leaves the fluids causes a temperature gradient according to Fourier's law:\n\nwhere k and k are the thermal conductivities of the intervening material at points A and B respectively. Summed together, this becomes\n\nwhere \"K=k+k\".\n\nThe total exchanged energy is found by integrating the local heat transfer \"q\" from \"A\" to \"B\":\n\nUse the fact that the heat exchanger area \"Ar\" is the pipe length \"B\"-\"A\" multiplied by the interpipe distance \"D\":\n", "The standard solution to the centipede game is determined by backward induction. According to this method, if Bob reaches his final decision, he will prefer to keep a larger share of a smaller pot to the smaller share of a larger pot, so he will end the game instead of expanding the pot. Alice knows that Bob will end the game on his last move, so she decides to end the game one step before then. However, Bob knows that Alice will end early, so he decides to end just before she does. This process repeats until Alice is confronted with her decision on the first round; knowing that Bob will end the game at the first opportunity, Alice ends the game on the first round, and they walk home with the smallest possible total payoff.\n", "An important parameter to PS is the \"eating speed\" of each agent. In the simplest case, when all agents have the same entitlements, it makes sense to let all agents eat in the same speed all the time. However, when agents have different entitlements, it is possible to give the more privileged agents a higher eating speed. Moreover, it is possible to let the eating speed change with time.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nThere are four agents and four items (denoted w,x,y,z).\n\nThe preferences of the agents are:\n\nBULLET::::- Alice and Bob prefer w to x to y to z.\n", "Now consider the game in which we alternate the two profiles while judiciously choosing the time between alternating from one profile to the other.\n", "The DOE test cycle starts with both the block and the cooktop at room temperature: 77 °F ± 9 °F (25 °C ± 5 °C). The cooktop is then switched to maximum heating power. When the test block temperature reaches + 144 °F (+80 °C) above the initial room temperature, the cooktop power is immediately reduced to 25% ± 5% of its maximum power. After 15 minutes of operation at this lower power setting, the cooktop is turned off and the heat energy in the test block is measured. Efficiency is given by the ratio between energy in the block and input (electric) energy.\n", "When this question is asked, to be time-consistent, one must make the same choice for (b) as for (a). According to George Loewenstein and Drazen Prelec, however, people are not always consistent. People tend to choose \"500 dollars today\" and \"505 dollars 366 days later\", which is different from the time-consistent answer.\n", "Product testing has not demonstrated that convection cooking within a toaster oven results in notable advantages to toasting or baking.\n\nSection::::Culinary convection ovens.:Variants.\n\nAnother form of a convection oven is called an \"impingement oven\". This type of oven is often used to cook pizzas in restaurants. Impingement ovens have a high flow rate of hot air from both above and below the food. The air flow is directed onto food that usually passes through the oven on a conveyor belt. Impingement ovens can achieve a much higher heat transfer than a conventional oven.\n", "In Mexico, meat and refried beans are frequently the only fillings. In the United States, however, burrito fillings may include a large combination of ingredients such as Spanish rice or plain rice, boiled beans or refried beans, lettuce, salsa, meat, guacamole, cheese, sour cream and various vegetables. Burrito sizes vary greatly and some can be very large, such as with the \"burro percherón\" variant of the burrito.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "BULLET::::- Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior.\n", "BULLET::::- Moment of inertia: At the moment a piece of toast begins flipping towards the kitchen floor, it has inertia—it doesn't want to stop flipping if it doesn't have to. Its moment of inertia is determined by the speed at which the toast is flipping, combined with the size and mass of the toast. Most breakfast toast is about the same size and mass, unless you're in Texas—home of the giant slices that carry the state name. But any way you slice it, the same rules apply. Add a little velocity to the spin as your breakfast goes sliding off your plate—give it a smack to add some inertia and see how it lands.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04736	What stops cells from producing too many cells	Correct me if I’m wrong but isn’t that cancer? Or tumors?	[ "There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G/S checkpoint, the G/M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint.\n\nG/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point. This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.\n", "In labile cells, it is not a speed-up in the segments of the cell cycle (i.e. G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase and M phase), but rather a short or absent G0 phase that is responsible for the cells' constant division.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nConstantly dividing cells have a higher risk of becoming malignant and develop cancer, dividing uncontrollably. This is why muscle cancer is very rare, even though muscle tissue accounts for ~50% of total body weight, since muscle cells are not constantly dividing cells, and therefore not considered labile.\n", "For the majority of isolated primary cells, they undergo the process of senescence and stop dividing after a certain number of population doublings while generally retaining their viability (described as the Hayflick limit).\n", "Section::::In cancer.\n\nCancer can be seen as a disruption of normal restriction point function, as cells continually and inappropriately reenter the cell cycle, and do not enter G. Mutations at many steps in the pathway towards the restriction point can result in cancerous growth of cells. Some of the genes most commonly mutated in cancer include Cdks and CKIs; overactive Cdks or underactive CKIs lower the stringency of the restriction point, allowing more cells to bypass senescence.\n", "Many cell lines exhibit differences in growth rate or gene expression depending on the degree of confluence. Cells are typically passaged before becoming fully confluent in order to maintain their proliferation phenotype. Some cell types are not limited by contact inhibition, such as immortalized cells, and may continue to divide and form layers on top of the parent cells. To achieve optimal and consistent results, experiments are usually performed using cells at a particular confluence, depending on the cell type.\n\nSection::::Estimation.\n\nSection::::Estimation.:Rule of thumb.\n", "Hayflick limit\n\nThe Hayflick limit or Hayflick phenomenon is the number of times a normal human cell population will divide before cell division stops.\n\nThe concept of the Hayflick limit was advanced by American anatomist Leonard Hayflick in 1961, at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US. Hayflick demonstrated that a normal human fetal cell population will divide between 40 and 60 times in cell culture before entering a senescence phase. This finding refuted the contention by Nobel laureate Alexis Carrel that normal cells are immortal.\n", "Section::::Function.:Cell Volume Regulation.\n", "BULLET::::- some population heterogeneity may be maintained, as size separation may not always be accurate for measuring phase and not all cells may be at the same point within each phase (early G1 vs late G1)\n\nBULLET::::- for DNA-edited cells, the process may take an extended period of time\n\nSection::::Chemical blockade.\n", "Section::::Cell size.:Yeast cell size regulation.\n\nThe relationship between cell size and cell division has been extensively studied in yeast. For some cells, there is a mechanism by which cell division is not initiated until a cell has reached a certain size. If the nutrient supply is restricted (after time t = 2 in the diagram, below), and the rate of increase in cell size is slowed, the time period between cell divisions is increased. Yeast cell-size mutants were isolated that begin cell division before reaching a normal/regular size (\"wee\" mutants).\n", "BULLET::::1. In tumor mass dormancy, the tumor mass will continue to divide until it is physically limited by size, does not have access to the blood supply, or the immune system acts on it. Here the cells are not completely inactive, but they cannot expand and sit in a balance between proliferation and apoptosis. An emerging Hippo (Hpo) signaling pathway is thought to be responsible for controlling organ size, cell contact inhibition, and tumorigenesis by stopping cell proliferation and promoting cell death. Tumor mass dormancy is also often associated with angiogenic dormancy. This occurs when tumors enter a hypoxic state because they cannot get to blood vessels. If the number of cells still proliferating is balanced by the number dying from no blood supply, the tumor sits in angiogenic dormancy.\n", "The research that is accumulating about amitosis suggests that such processes are, indeed, involved in the production of the breathtaking 37 trillion or so cells in humans, perhaps particularly during the fetal and embryonic phases of development when the majority of these cells are produced, perhaps within the complexity of implantation, perhaps when large numbers of cells are being differentiated, and perhaps in cancerous cells.\n", "Even within humans and other mortal species, there are cells with the potential for immortality: cancer cells which have lost the ability to die when maintained in a cell culture such as the HeLa cell line, and specific stem cells such as germ cells (producing ova and spermatozoa). In artificial cloning, adult cells can be rejuvenated to embryonic status and then used to grow a new tissue or animal without ageing. Normal human cells however die after about 50 cell divisions in laboratory culture (the Hayflick Limit, discovered by Leonard Hayflick in 1961).\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "BULLET::::3. All the granulosa cells in a Graafian follicle are in fact clones.\n\nBULLET::::4. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria is a disorder of bone marrow cells resulting in shortened life of red blood cells, which is also a result of clonal expansion, i.e., all the altered cells are originally derived from a single cell, which also somewhat compromises the functioning of other \"normal\" bone marrow cells.\n\nSection::::Basis of clonal proliferation.\n", "Section::::List of hallmarks.:Limitless replicative potential.\n\nCells of the body don't normally have the ability to divide indefinitely. They have a limited number of divisions before the cells become unable to divide (senescence), or die (crisis). The cause of these barriers is primarily due to the DNA at the end of chromosomes, known as telomeres. Telomeric DNA shortens with every cell division, until it becomes so short it activates senescence, so the cell stops dividing. Cancer cells bypass this barrier by manipulating enzymes that increase the length of telomeres. Thus, they can divide indefinitely, without initiating senescence.\n", "In 1985, Zetterberg and Larsson discovered that, in all stages of the cell cycle, serum deprivation results in inhibition of protein synthesis. Only in postmitotic cells (i.e. cells in early G) did serum withdrawal force cells into quiescence (G). In fact, Zetterberg found that virtually all of the variability in cell cycle length can be accounted for in the time it takes the cell to move from the restriction point to S phase.\n\nSection::::Extracellular signals.\n", "Errors can occur during mitosis, especially during early embryonic development in humans. Mitotic errors can create aneuploid cells that have too few or too many of one or more chromosomes, a condition associated with cancer. Early human embryos, cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can also suffer from pathological division into three or more daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis), resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements.\n", "The cancerous cell in ALL is the lymphoblast. Normal lymphoblasts develop into mature, infection-fighting B-cells or T-cells, also called lymphocytes. Signals in the body control the number of lymphocytes so neither too few nor too many are made. In ALL, both the normal development of some lymphocytes and the control over the number of lymphoid cells become defective.\n", "L. Hayflick has shown that a cell has a limited number of divisions, equal to the so called \"Hayflick's Limit.\" However, L. Franks and others (Loo et al. 1987; Nooden and Tompson 1995; Frolkis 1988a), have shown that the number of cell divisions can be considerably greater than that stipulated by the \"Hayflick Limit\", having practically no limit at all.\n", "BULLET::::- Each row and each column must contain an equal number of 0s and 1s. Therefore, if the required number of 0s or 1s is reached in a row or a column, the remaining cells must contain the other digit (1xx101 → 100101).\n", "Section::::End-stopped Cells.\n", "Restriction point\n\nThe restriction point (R) is a point in G of the animal cell cycle at which the cell becomes \"committed\" to the cell cycle and after which extracellular proliferation stimulants are no longer required.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Except for early embryonic development, most cells in multicellular organisms persist in a quiescent state known as G, where proliferation does not occur, and cells are typically terminally differentiated; other specialized cells continue to divide into adulthood. For both of these groups of cells, a decision has been made to either exit the cell cycle and become quiescent (G), or to reenter G.\n", "It is possible for errors to occur during this process of repetitive cell division. Common among these errors is for the genetic material to not be divided evenly. Normally, when a cell divides each daughter cell has the same genetic material as the parent cell. If the genetic material does not split evenly between the two daughter cells, an event called \"nondisjunction\" occurs. Since this event occurs in only one of the several cells that exist at this point, the embryo will continue to develop but will have some normal cells and some abnormal cells. The people are \"mosaics\" of normal and abnormal cells, so this disorder is called \"numerical mosaicism\".\n", "Most other cells cannot divide indefinitely as after a few cycles of cell division the cells stop expressing an enzyme telomerase. The genetic material, in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), continues to shorten with each cell division, and cells eventually stop dividing when they sense that their DNA is critically shortened. However, this enzyme in \"youthful\" cells replaces these lost bits (nucleotides) of DNA, thus making almost unlimited cycles of cell division possible. It is believed that the above-mentioned tissues have a constitutional elevated expression of telomerase. When ultimately many cells are produced by a single cell, \"clonal expansion\" is said to have taken place.\n", "BULLET::::2. Coupling the cell cycle to DNA damage. As long as there is damaged DNA in the cell, it should not divide. If the damage can be repaired, the cell cycle can continue.\n\nBULLET::::3. If the damage \"cannot\" be repaired, the cell should initiate apoptosis (programmed cell death) to remove the threat it poses for the greater good of the organisms produced\n\nBULLET::::4. Some proteins involved in cell adhesion prevent tumor cells from dispersing, block loss of contact inhibition, and inhibit metastasis. These proteins are known as metastasis suppressors.\n" ]	[ "Cells are always stopped from reproducing into to many cells." ]	[ "This isn't always true. Cancer is the runaway of cell reproduction into to many cells. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cells are always stopped from reproducing into to many cells." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "This isn't always true. Cancer is the runaway of cell reproduction into to many cells. " ]
2018-04184	Why do men bald, but women don’t?	Women do go bald, but we don't notice it as much. Women most often go bald by losing hair from all over their heads, while in men it usually starts at the crown or at the hairline.	[ "Although men grow hair faster than women, baldness is much more common in males than in females. The main cause for this is \"male pattern baldness\" or androgenic alopecia. Male pattern baldness is a condition where hair starts to get lost in a typical pattern of receding hairline and hair thinning on the crown, and is caused by hormones and genetic predisposition.\n\nSection::::Skin and hair.:Color.\n", "From 1682 to 1801 there was a strict \"man–woman\" sequence on the Russian throne: Peter I the Great, Catherine I, Peter II, Anna, Ivan VI, Elizabeth, Peter III, Catherine II the Great, Paul. Emperor Paul changed the rules of succession to the throne so that only men could rule the country, and the \"man–woman\" interchange was terminated. If Tsarina Sophia (a sister of Peter I and Ivan V and a powerful regent during their minority), is counted as a \"de facto\" ruler, then the sequence could be traced from 1676, when another of Sophia's brothers, Feodor III, succeeded to the throne.\n", "Levels of free testosterone are strongly linked to libido and DHT levels, but unless free testosterone is virtually nonexistent, levels have not been shown to affect virility. Men with androgenic alopecia are more likely to have a higher baseline of free androgens. However, sexual activity is multifactoral, and androgenic profile is not the only determining factor in baldness. Additionally, because hair loss is progressive and free testosterone declines with age, a male's hairline may be more indicative of his past than his present disposition.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Frequent ejaculation causes baldness.\n", "Although baldness is not as common in women as in men, the psychological effects of hair loss tend to be much greater. Typically, the frontal hairline is preserved, but the density of hair is decreased on all areas of the scalp. Previously, it was believed to be caused by testosterone just as in male baldness, but most women who lose hair have normal testosterone levels.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "There are various reasons for hair loss, most commonly hormonal issues. Fluctuations in hormones will often show in the hair. Not all hair loss is related to what is known as male pattern baldness, women can suffer from baldness just as men do. Formulas for addressing this specific cause of lack of hair growth yet typically they require around three months of consistent use for results to begin to appear. Cessation may also mean that gained growth may dissipate.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Myths.\n\nMany myths exist regarding the possible causes of baldness and its relationship with one's virility, intelligence, ethnicity, job, social class, wealth, and many other characteristics.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Baldness is inherited from the mother's father.\n\nA 50% chance exists for a person to share the same X chromosome as his maternal grandfather. Because women have two X chromosomes, they have two copies of the androgen receptor gene, while men only have one.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Weight training and other types of physical activity cause baldness.\n", "Section::::Position.\n", "Testosterone levels are not a good marker of baldness, and many studies actually show paradoxical low testosterone in balding persons, although research on the implications is limited.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Baldness can be caused by emotional stress, sleep deprivation, etc..\n\nEmotional stress has been shown to accelerate baldness in genetically susceptible individuals.\n", "Section::::The Taney County chapter.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of androgenic alopecia can be usually established based on clinical presentation in men. In women, the diagnosis usually requires more complex diagnostic evaluation. Further evaluation of the differential requires exclusion of other causes of hair loss, and assessing for the typical progressive hair loss pattern of androgenic alopecia. Trichoscopy can be used for further evaluation. Biopsy may be needed to exclude other causes of hair loss, and histology would demonstrate perifollicular fibrosis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Androgen-dependent.\n", "Like most other male mammals, a man's genome typically inherits an X chromosome from his mother and a Y chromosome from his father. The male fetus produces larger amounts of androgens and smaller amounts of estrogens than a female fetus. This difference in the relative amounts of these sex steroids is largely responsible for the physiological differences that distinguish men from women.\n", "Section::::Teaching career.:Graduate Education.\n", "The only published study to test correlation between ejaculation frequency and baldness was probably large enough to detect an association (1390 subjects) and found no correlation, although persons with only vertex androgenetic alopecia had fewer female sexual partners than those of other androgenetic alopecia categories (such as frontal or both frontal and vertex). One study may not be enough, especially in baldness, where there is a complex with age. Marital status has been shown in some studies to influence hair loss in cross-sectional studies (NHANES1), although the direction of effect cannot be inferred from a cross sectional study.\n", "Hair follicles form the basis of the two primary methods of hair transplantation in hair restoration, Follicular Unit Transplantation (FUT) and follicular unit extraction (FUE). In each of these methods, naturally occurring groupings of one to four hairs, called follicular units, are extracted from the hair restoration patient and then surgically implanted in the balding area of the patient's scalp, known as the recipient area. These follicles are extracted from donor areas of the scalp, or other parts of the body, which are typically resistant to the miniaturization effects of the hormone DHT. It is this miniaturization of the hair shaft that is the primary predictive indicator of androgenetic alopecia, commonly referred to as male pattern baldness or male hair loss. When these DHT-resistant follicles are transplanted to the recipient area, they continue to grow hair in the normal hair cycle, thus providing the hair restoration patient with permanent, naturally-growing hair. More than 60% of men and 10% of women suffer from hair loss.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative therapies.\n\nMany people use unproven treatments. Regarding female pattern alopecia, there is no evidence for vitamins, minerals, or other dietary supplements. As of 2008, there is little evidence to support the use of lasers to treat male-pattern hair loss. The same applies to special lights. Dietary supplements are not typically recommended. A 2015 review found a growing number of papers in which plant extracts were studied but only one randomized controlled clinical trial, namely a study in 10 people of saw palmetto extract.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Psychological.\n", "Stress due to sleep deprivation in military recruits lowered testosterone levels, but is not noted to have affected SHBG. Thus, stress due to sleep deprivation in fit males is unlikely to elevate DHT, which is one cause of male pattern baldness. Whether sleep deprivation can cause hair loss by some other mechanism is not clear.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Myths.:Bald men are more 'virile' or sexually active than others.\n", "Studies have been inconsistent and not stable across cultures how balding men rate on the attraction scale. While a study from South Korea showed most people rated balding men as less attractive, a more recent survey of 1,000 Welsh women rated bald and gray haired men quite desirable.\n", "Section::::Toupées and wigs.\n\nWhile most toupées are small and designed to cover bald spots at the top and back of the head, large toupées are not unknown.\n\nToupées are often referred to as hairpieces, units, or hair systems. Many women now wear hairpieces rather than full wigs if their hair loss is confined to the top and crown of their heads.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Alopecia is a hair loss disease that can occur in anyone at any stage of life. Specifically Alopecia areata is an autoimmune disease that causes hair to spontaneously fall out. It is mainly characterized by bald patches on the scalp or other parts of the body, and can ultimately cause baldness across the entire body. This disease interferes with the hair growth cycle by causing a follicle to prematurely leave the anagen, or active growth, phase and enter the resting, or telogen phase. The hair growth in the affected follicles is lessened or stopped completely.\n", "During the 2015-16 CWHL season, Baldin was named an alternate captain with the Toronto Furies. Of note, she would score the first game-winning goal of her CWHL career, and would also register her first career CWHL playoff points.\n\nSection::::Playing career.:Inline hockey.\n", "The fact that hair loss is cumulative with age while androgen levels fall as well as the fact that finasteride does not reverse advanced stages of androgenetic alopecia remains a mystery but some possible explanations have been put forward: Higher conversion of testosterone to DHT locally with age as higher levels of 5-alpha reductase are noted in balding scalp, and higher levels of DNA damage in the dermal papilla as well as senescence of the dermal papilla due to androgen receptor activation and environmental stress. The mechanism by which the androgen receptor triggers dermal papilla permanent senescence is not known but may involve IL6, TGFB-1 and oxidative stress. Senescence of the dermal papilla is measured by lack of mobility, different size and shape, lower replication and altered output of molecules and different expression of markers. The dermal papilla is the primary location of androgen action and its migration towards the hair bulge and subsequent signaling and size increase are required to maintain the hair follicle so senescence via the androgen receptor explains much of the physiology.\n", "Genes which are specific to the X or Y chromosome are called sex-linked genes. For example, the genes which create red and green retinal photoreceptors are located on the X chromosome, which men only have one of. Thus red-green color blindness is an X-linked recessive trait and is much more common in men. However, sex-limited genes on any chromosome can be expressed to indicate, for example, \"if in a male body, do X; otherwise, do not.\"\n", "There are two types of identification tests for female pattern baldness: the Ludwig Scale and the Savin Scale. Both track the progress of diffused thinning, which typically begins on the crown of the head behind the hairline, and becomes gradually more pronounced. For male pattern baldness, the Hamilton–Norwood scale tracks the progress of a receding hairline and/or a thinning crown, through to a horseshoe-shaped ring of hair around the head and on to total baldness.\n", "Transgenic studies have shown that growth and dormancy of hair follicles are related to the activity of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) at the dermal papillae, which is affected by DHT. Androgens are important in male sexual development around birth and at puberty. They regulate sebaceous glands, apocrine hair growth, and libido. With increasing age, androgens stimulate hair growth on the face, but can suppress it at the temples and scalp vertex, a condition that has been referred to as the 'androgen paradox'.\n", "Testosterone, along with its metabolite dihydrotestosterone, is extremely important to normal sexual functioning in men and women. Dihydrotestosterone is the most prevalent androgen in both men and women. Testosterone levels in women at age 60 are, on average, about half of what they were before the women were 40. Although this decline is gradual for most women, those who’ve undergone bilateral oophorectomy experience a sudden drop in testosterone levels; this is because the ovaries produce 40% of the body's circulating testosterone.\n" ]	[ "Women don't go bald.", "Men bald, but women do not. " ]	[ "Women do bald over time.", "Both men and women go bald. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Women don't go bald.", "Men bald, but women do not. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Women do bald over time.", "Both men and women go bald. " ]
2018-04457	why motion sensors don't react to sudden light changes and shadows?	Motion sensors use a PIR sensor. PIR stands for Passive InfraRed, which is basically a 1- or 2-pixel thermal camera. Since it's only looking at changes in infrared light (which is emitted by mammals and other warm things), it's not going to notice actual visible light changes.	[ "More complex algorithms are necessary to detect motion when the camera itself is moving, or when the motion of a specific object must be detected in a field containing other movement which can be ignored. An example might be a painting surrounded by visitors in an art gallery. For the case of a moving camera, models based on optical flow are used to distinguish between apparent background motion caused by the camera movement and that of independent objects moving in the scene.\n\nSection::::Devices.\n", "Many modern motion detectors use combinations of different technologies. While combining multiple sensing technologies into one detector can help reduce false triggering, it does so at the expense of reduced detection probabilities and increased vulnerability. For example, many dual-tech sensors combine both a PIR sensor and a microwave sensor into one unit. For motion to be detected, both sensors must trip together. This lowers the probability of a false alarm since heat and light changes may trip the PIR but not the microwave, or moving tree branches may trigger the microwave but not the PIR. If an intruder is able to fool either the PIR or microwave, however, the sensor will not detect it.\n", "Occupancy sensors for lighting control typically use infrared (IR), ultrasonic, tomographic motion detection, microwave sensors, or camera-based sensors (image processing). The field of view of the sensor must be carefully selected/adjusted so that it responds only to motion in the space served by the controlled lighting. For example, an occupancy sensor controlling lights in an office should not detect motion in the corridor outside the office. Tomographic motion detection systems have the unique benefit of detecting motion through walls and obstructions, yet do not trigger as easily from motion on the outside of the detection area like traditional microwave sensors.\n", "There are very few full-body motion capture systems that can capture full hand and finger motion data at the same time as the full body. An optical system gets accurate data using reflective markers and high resolution cameras. However, if the cameras cannot see the markers then they are unable to measure them. Mounting the many reflective markers on each individual joint of the hand so that they stay within the camera's views is difficult.\n", "BULLET::::- Video camera software: With the proliferation of low-cost digital cameras able to shoot video, it is possible to use the output of such a camera to detect motion in its field of view using software. This solution is particularly attractive when the intent is to record video triggered by motion detection, as no hardware beyond the camera and computer is needed. Since the observed field may be normally illuminated, this may be considered another \"passive\" technology. However it can also be used together with near-infrared illumination to detect motion in the \"dark\", that is, with the illumination at a wavelength undetectable by a human eye.\n", "The use of optical sensors is widespread in industry. Unfortunately they do have two fundamental weaknesses that have always made it very difficult to get them to function reliably over a number of years, namely\n\n– the optical components are extremely susceptible to dirt, and\n\n– the light source ages too quickly.\n", "Section::::PIR-based motion detector.:Differential detection.\n", "Section::::PIR-based motion detector.:Differential detection.:Practical Implementation.\n", "Section::::PIR-based motion detector.:Focusing.:Mirrors.\n\nSome PIRs are manufactured with internal, segmented parabolic mirrors to focus the infrared energy. Where mirrors are used, the plastic window cover generally has no Fresnel lenses molded into it.\n\nSection::::PIR-based motion detector.:Security applications.\n", "Typical alarm systems are designed to not miss true positives (real crime events) and to have as low of a false alarm rate as possible. In that regard, burglar alarms miss very few true positives but have a very high false alarm rate even in the controlled indoor environment. Motion detecting cameras miss some true positives but are plagued with overwhelming false alarms in an outdoor environment. Rule-based analytics reliably detect most true positives and have a low rate of false positives but cannot perform in active environments, only in empty ones. Also they are limited to the simple discrimination of whether an intruder is present or not.\n", "A difficulty with modern megapixel network cameras is the variety of standards and industry compliance with those standards. If a VMS does not have built-in motion detection, and a camera that is only accessible via ONVIF does not expose a motion control interface, and the camera manufacturer has not provided a custom API to the VMS authors, then motion detection will not be possible even if the camera is theoretically capable of it.\n\nSection::::Additional capabilities.:Distributed processing.\n", "Manufacturers often engineer their optical mice—especially battery-powered wireless models—to save power when possible. To do this, the mouse dims or blinks the laser or LED when in standby mode (each mouse has a different standby time). A typical implementation (by Logitech) has four power states, where the sensor is pulsed at different rates per second:\n\nBULLET::::- 11500: full on, for accurate response while moving, illumination appears bright.\n\nBULLET::::- 1100: fallback active condition while not moving, illumination appears dull.\n\nBULLET::::- 110: standby\n\nBULLET::::- 12: sleep state\n", "Self-Shadowing methods have trade-offs between quality and speed depending on the desired result. To keep speed up, some techniques rely on fast and low resolution solutions which could result in wrong looking shadows which may be out of place in a scene. Others require the CPU and GPU to calculate with algorithms the exact location and shape of a shadow with a high level of accuracy. This requires a lot of computational overhead, which older machines could not handle.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Height Field Self-Shadowing.\n", "With CMOS sensor technology, black balancing may not be as necessary as it is with CCD type devices. It is common to talk about how clean and relatively noise free CMOS sensors are by design.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n", "A PIR-based motion detector is used to sense movement of people, animals, or other objects. They are commonly used in burglar alarms and automatically-activated lighting systems. \n\nSection::::PIR-based motion detector.:Operation.\n", "There are many challenges associated with the accuracy and usefulness of gesture recognition software. For image-based gesture recognition there are limitations on the equipment used and image noise. Images or video may not be under consistent lighting, or in the same location. Items in the background or distinct features of the users may make recognition more difficult.\n", "BULLET::::- In step 6, we use the context of the particular task activities to establish the distances and, therefore, the resolutions at which the relevant objects and entities must be measured and recognized by the sensory processing component. This establishes a set of requirements and/or specifications for the sensor system to support each subtask activity.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "The chief applications for such detection are detection of unauthorized entry, detection of cessation of occupancy of an area to extinguish lighting, and detection of a moving object which triggers a camera to record subsequent events.\n\nA simple algorithm for motion detection by a fixed camera compares the current image with a reference image and simply counts the number of different pixels. Since images will naturally differ due to factors such as varying lighting, camera flicker, and CCD dark currents, pre-processing is useful to reduce the number of false positive alarms.\n", "Motion detection can now be distributed, so that the cameras do motion detection themselves and only send video when motion is detected.\n\nAlternately, motion detection can still also occur in the VMS. Some VMS do not have motion detection and rely exclusively on it being done in the camera. \n", "BULLET::::- Gesture detector: Photodetectors and infrared lighting elements can support digital screens to detect hand motions and gestures with the aid of machine learning algorithms.\n\nSection::::Dual-technology motion detectors.\n", "Sensor fusion combines data from several tracking algorithms and can yield better outputs than only one technology. One of the variants of sensor fusion is to merge inertial and optical tracking. While optical tracking would be the main tracking method, but when an occlusion occurs, inertial tracking would estimate the position till the objects would visible to the optical camera again. Inertial tracking could also generate position data in-between optical tracking position data because inertial tracking has higher update rate. Optical tracking helps to cope with a drift of inertial tracking.\n\nSection::::Acoustic Tracking.\n", "Optical models outperform mechanical mice on uneven, slick, soft, sticky, or loose surfaces, and generally in mobile situations lacking mouse pads. Because optical mice render movement based on an image which the LED (or infrared diode) illuminates, use with multicolored mouse pads may result in unreliable performance; however, laser mice do not suffer these problems and will track on such surfaces.\n", "The accuracy of this approach is dependent on speed of movement in the scene. Faster movements may require higher thresholds.\n\nSection::::Conventional approaches.:Mean filter.\n\nFor calculating the image containing only the background, a series of preceding images are averaged. For calculating the background image at the instant \"t\",\n", "Principles of Motion Sensing\n\nSensors able to detect three-dimensional motion have been commercially available for several decades and have been used in automobiles, aircraft and ships. However, initial size, power consumption and price had prevented their mass adoption in consumer electronics. While there are other kinds of motion detector technologies available commercially, there are four principle types of motion sensors which are important for motion processing in the consumer electronics market.\n\nSection::::Motion Sensors.\n\nSection::::Motion Sensors.:Accelerometers.\n", "Manufacturers recommend careful placement of their products to prevent false alarms (i.e., any detection not caused by an intruder).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14852	How come electric car batteries, aren't recharged by the keneitc energy of the wheels moving?	They sometimes are; it's called regenerative braking. It's only used for braking, because it slows that car down as the kinetic energy is converted to electrical and then to chemical energy.	[ "Researchers from Singapore have 2014 developed a battery that can be recharged after 2 minutes to 70 percent. The batteries rely on lithium-ion technology. However, the anode and the negative pole in the battery is no longer made of graphite, but a titanium dioxide gel. The gel accelerates the chemical reaction significantly, thus ensuring a faster charging. In particular, these batteries are to be used in electric cars. Already in 2012 researchers at the Ludwig-Maximilian-University in Munich have discovered the basic principle.\n", "Scientists at Stanford University in California have developed a battery that can be charged within one minute. The anode is made of aluminum and the cathode made of graphite (see Aluminium-ion battery).\n\nThe electric car Volar-e of the company Applus + IDIADA, based on the Rimac Concept One, contains lithium iron phosphate batteries that can be recharged in 15 minutes.\n\nAccording to the manufacturer BYD the lithium iron phosphate battery of the electric car e6 is charged at a fast charging station within 15 minutes to 80%, after 40 minutes at 100%.\n\nSection::::Specifics.:Charging.:Connectors.\n", "Once electric power is supplied to the motor (from the controller), the magnetic field interaction inside the motor will turn the drive shaft and ultimately the vehicle's wheels.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- All-electric range\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive battery\n\nBULLET::::- Battery balancer\n\nBULLET::::- Car battery\n\nBULLET::::- Electric boat\n\nBULLET::::- Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA)\n\nBULLET::::- Electric-vehicle battery\n\nBULLET::::- Electric vehicle warning sounds\n\nBULLET::::- Global Electric Motorcars\n\nBULLET::::- Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles\n\nBULLET::::- Greenpower\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- List of electric cars currently available\n\nBULLET::::- List of electric vehicle battery manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- List of production battery electric vehicles\n", "The Cross Coupe GTE can drive approximately twenty miles on electric power alone. Once the lithium ion battery pack is depleted, it can be recharged using the gasoline engine while driving, or by plugging it in. The gasoline engine only powers the front wheels. The rear wheels are driven by the electric motors.\n\nSection::::Performance.\n", "Under these circumstances, formula_26 being the energy flux arriving at the electric engine, formula_27 the energy flux lost while braking and formula_28 the recuperated energy flux, an equilibrium is reached according to the equations\n\nformula_29 and formula_30\n\nthus formula_31\n\nIt is as though the old energy flux formula_26 was replaced by a new one formula_33\n\nThe expected gain amounts to formula_34\n\nThe higher the recuperation efficiency, the higher the recuperation.\n\nThe higher the efficiency between the electric motor and the wheels, the higher the recuperation.\n\nThe higher the braking proportion, the higher the recuperation.\n", "Energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy. Approximately 90% of the energy from the battery is converted to mechanical energy, the losses being in the motor and drivetrain.\n\nUsually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.\n", "Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe usage of \"battery\" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of cannon (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term \"battery\" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together).\n", "In regards to electric cars, the DoE explains that the efficiency between the electric motor and the wheels amounts to 60% . The efficiency of an electric vehicle is about 50%, when heating and air conditioning are taken into account (losses due to the electric network being included) according to Jean-Marc Jancovici (however for the overall conversion see Embodied energy#Embodied energy in the energy field).\n\nConsider the electric motor efficiency formula_21 and the braking proportion in towns formula_22 and on motorways formula_23.\n\nLet us introduce formula_24 which is the recuperated proportion of braking energy. Let us assume formula_25.\n", "Ideally, a car traveling at a constant velocity on level ground in a vacuum with frictionless wheels could travel at any speed without consuming any energy beyond what is needed to get the car up to speed. Less ideally, any vehicle must expend energy on overcoming road load forces, which consist of aerodynamic drag, tire rolling resistance, and inertial energy that is lost when the vehicle is decelerated by friction brakes. With ideal regenerative braking, the inertial energy could be completely recovered, but there are few options for reducing aerodynamic drag or rolling resistance other than optimizing the vehicle's shape and the tire design. Road load energy, or the energy demanded at the wheels, can be calculated by evaluating the vehicle equation of motion over a specific driving cycle. The vehicle powertrain must then provide this minimum energy in order to move the vehicle, and will lose a large amount of additional energy in the process of converting fuel energy into work and transmitting it to the wheels. Overall, the sources of energy loss in moving a vehicle may be summarized as follows:\n", "Some battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can be recharged while the user drives. Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. For example, some of the battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation.\n", "Like other electric vehicles with use of the motor for regeneration of battery power, the Active E had a different driving experience from a car powered by an internal combustion engine: taking pressure off of the accelerator pedal results in deceleration as the motor brakes and regenerates electricity. Many drivers rarely used the brakes except to hold the car at a stop.\n\nSection::::EPA ratings.\n", "Conventional brakes dissipate kinetic energy as heat, which is irrecoverable. Regenerative braking, used by hybrid/electric vehicles, recovers some of the kinetic energy, but some energy is lost in the conversion, and the braking power is limited by the battery's maximum charge rate and efficiency.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Coasting or gliding.\n", "An electric car has a higher embodied energy than a combustion engine one, owing to the battery and electronics. According to Science & Vie, the embodied energy of batteries is so high that rechargeable hybrid cars constitute the most appropriate solution, with their batteries smaller than those of an all-electric car.\n\nSection::::In transportation.:In automobiles.:Fuel.\n", "Zebra batteries have been used in the Modec commercial vehicle since it entered production in 2006.\n\nSection::::Battery types.:Lithium-ion.\n", "BULLET::::- Electric vehicles – Because flow batteries can be rapidly \"recharged\" by replacing the electrolyte, they can be used for applications where the vehicle needs to take on energy as fast as a combustion engined vehicle. A common problem found with most RFB chemistries in the EV applications is their low energy density which translated into a short driving range. Flow batteries based on highly soluble halates are a notable exception.\n", "Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and temperature range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before recharge.\n", "Electric-vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries because they are designed to give power over sustained periods of time. Deep-cycle batteries are used instead of SLI batteries for these applications. Traction batteries must be designed with a high ampere-hour capacity. Batteries for electric vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight ratio, specific energy and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries reduce the weight of the vehicle and improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximal all-electric range of the vehicles. However, metal-air batteries have high specific energy because the cathode is provided by the surrounding oxygen in the air. Rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid (\"flooded\", deep-cycle, and VRLA), NiCd, nickel–metal hydride, lithium-ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less commonly, zinc–air and molten-salt batteries. The most common battery type in modern electric cars are lithium-ion and Lithium polymer battery, because of their high energy density compared to their weight. The amount of electricity (i.e. electric charge) stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs, with the total energy often measured in watt hours.\n", "Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuel to a wind or tidal primary source of energy. Thus, when \"well-to-wheels\" is cited, one should keep in mind that the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure – in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.\n", "Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electrical storage. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion efficiency can be improved over the hybrids already discussed, by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are easy to reverse, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.\n\nSection::::Lithium-ion battery.\n", "Electric cars such as the Tesla Roadster (2008) can brick if the battery is completely discharged.\n", "When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking depending on the type of transmission, and mode. An EV would coast when the accelerator is similarly released, if it was not for regenerative braking which mimics the familiar response, and recharges the battery to an extent. Regenerative brakings also reduces the use of the conventional brakes just as engine braking would in an internal combustion vehicle, reducing brake wear and maintenance costs.\n\nSection::::Batteries.\n", "In order for the hybrid to run on electrical power, the car must perform the action of braking in order to generate some electricity. The electricity then gets discharged most effectively when the car accelerates or climbs up an incline.\n", "The only work into the generator is the initial kinetic energy of the car and the only work produced by the generator is the electrical energy. Rearranging this equation to solve for the power produced by the generator gives this equation:\n\nWhere:\n\nThe efficiency of the battery can be described as:\n\nWhere:\n\nThe work out of the battery represents the amount of energy produced by the regenerative brakes. This can be represented by:\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.:Cars.\n", "Lithium-ion (and similar lithium polymer) batteries, widely known for their use in laptops and consumer electronics, predominate in use for the most recent group of EVs in development. The traditional lithium-ion chemistry involves a lithium cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite anode. This yields cells with an impressive 200+ Wh/kg specific energy and high specific power with 80 to 90% charge/discharge efficiency. The downside of traditional lithium-ion batteries include short cycle lives (hundreds to a few thousand charge cycles) and significant degradation with age. The cathode material is also somewhat toxic. Traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly. These early cells will not accept or supply charge when extremely cold, and so heaters can be necessary in some climates to warm them. The maturity of this technology is moderate. The Tesla Roadster (2008) uses groups of traditional lithium-ion \"laptop battery\" cells that can be replaced individually as needed.\n", "The electric drive motor is located in the rear wheel and can be configured with either 1kW, 2kW or 3kW engine. All three engines offer less than 4kW power and a maximum speed of 45 km/h, putting the scooter in the L1e (a moped). The vehicle can actively recharge the battery during braking.\n\nSection::::Market.\n" ]	[ "Wheels do not recharge the batteries of electric cars. ", "Electric car batteries are not charged by the wheels. " ]	[ "Wheels do recharge the batteries of electric cars through regenerative breaking.", "Some electric cars are charged by the wheels moving. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wheels do not recharge the batteries of electric cars. ", "Electric car batteries are not charged by the wheels. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wheels do recharge the batteries of electric cars through regenerative breaking.", "Some electric cars are charged by the wheels moving. " ]
2018-00058	How and where does acid in our stomach come from?	Sure, we start out as a mass of cells, but that doesn't really say much. Cells are capable of a variety of tasks. Detecting light, moving the body, pumping blood, firing electrical impulses, creating new cells. Producing acid isn't especially unique as a 'cool thing cells can do,' cells do all kinds of crazy things including synthesizing lots of chemicals. Our stomach itself has gastric glands, with cells called parietal cells. These cells produce the hydrochloric acid we use in our stomachs, by combining hydrogen ions (derived from a combination of water and carbon dioxide we have taken in) and chloride ions (which we have also taken in, for instance in salts). This is secreted along with potassium chloride and sodium chloride to form the stew we call stomach acid. This process occurs continuously, to replenish our stomach acid as it is depleted.	[ "BULLET::::- Gastrin: This is an important hormone produced by the \"G cells\" of the stomach. G cells produce gastrin in response to stomach stretching occurring after food enters it, and also after stomach exposure to protein. Gastrin is an endocrine hormone and therefore enters the bloodstream and eventually returns to the stomach where it stimulates parietal cells to produce hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Intrinsic factor (IF).\n\nOf note is the division of function between the cells covering the stomach. There are four types of cells in the stomach:\n\nBULLET::::- Parietal cells: Produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.\n", "BULLET::::2. The gastric phase: About sixty percent of the total acid for a meal is secreted in this phase. Acid secretion is stimulated by distension of the stomach and by amino acids present in the food.\n\nBULLET::::3. The intestinal phase: The remaining 10% of acid is secreted when chyme enters the small intestine, and is stimulated by small intestine distension and by amino acids. The duodenal cells release entero-oxyntin which acts on parietal cells without affecting gastrin.\n\nSection::::Regulation of secretion.\n", "A typical adult human stomach will secrete about 1.5 liters of gastric acid daily. Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen of the gastric gland and gradually reaches the main stomach lumen. The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric mucus layer.\n", "Acidogenesis\n\nAcidogenesis is the second stage in the four stages of anaerobic digestion:\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrolysis: A chemical reaction where particulates are solubilized and large polymers converted into simpler monomers;\n\nBULLET::::- Acidogenesis: A biological reaction where simple monomers are converted into volatile fatty acids;\n\nBULLET::::- Acetogenesis: A biological reaction where volatile fatty acids are converted into acetic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen\n\nBULLET::::- Methanogenesis: A biological reaction where acetates are converted into methane and carbon dioxide, while hydrogen is consumed.\n", "The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8, but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.\n\nThere is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq/hour.\n\nThere are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:\n", "Hormones or compounds produced by the stomach and their respective function:\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrochloric acid (HCl): This is in essence positively charged hydrogen atoms (H+), or in lay-terms \"stomach acid\", and is produced by the cells of the stomach called parietal cells. HCl mainly functions to denature the proteins ingested, to destroy any bacteria or virus that remains in the food, and also to activate pepsinogen into pepsin.\n", "Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.\n", "The gastric chief cell (also known as a zymogenic cell or peptic cell) is a cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and chymosin. Pepsinogen is activated into the digestive enzyme pepsin when it comes in contact with acid produced by gastric parietal cells. This type of cell also secretes gastric lipase enzymes, which help digest triglycerides into free fatty acids and di- and mono-glycerides. There is also evidence that the gastric chief cell secretes leptin in response to the presence of food in the stomach. Leptin has been found in the pepsinogen granules of chief cells.\n", "The cephalic phase is the stage in which the stomach responds to the mere sight, smell, taste, or thought of food. About 30% of total acid secretion occurs before food enters the stomach. These sensory and mental inputs converge on the hypothalamus, which relays signals to the medulla oblongata. Vagus nerve fibers from the medulla stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system of the stomach which, in turn, stimulates gastric secretion (via parietal and G cells).\n\nSection::::Cephalic Phase.:Chain of Events.\n", "BULLET::::1. The cephalic phase: Thirty percent of the total gastric acid secretions to be produced is stimulated by anticipation of eating and the smell or taste of food. This signalling occurs from higher centres in the brain through the vagus nerve (Cranial Nerve X). It activates parietal cells to release acid and ECL cells to release histamine. The vagus nerve (CN X) also releases gastrin releasing peptide onto G cells. Finally, it also inhibits somatostatin release from D cells.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of disease.:Intestinal absorption of bile acids.\n", "The production of gastric acid in the stomach is tightly regulated by positive regulators and negative feedback mechanisms. Four types of cells are involved in this process: parietal cells, G cells, D cells and enterochromaffine-like cells. Besides this, the endings of the vagus nerve (CN X) and the intramural nervous plexus in the digestive tract influence the secretion significantly.\n", "Gastric chief cells are primarily activated by ACh. However the decrease in pH caused by activation of parietal cells further activates gastric chief cells. Alternatively, acid in the duodenum can stimulate S cells to secrete secretin which acts on an endocrine path to activate gastric chief cells.\n\nSection::::Gastric Phase.\n\n50-60% of total gastric acid secretion occurs during this phase.\n", "A fourth phase of acid secretion is known as the basal state which occurs in the times between meals (interdigestive phase). The level of acid secretion during these times is regulated by body weight, individual, number of parietal cells, and time of day. Acid secretion is lowest in the morning before awakening and highest at night.\n\nSection::::Cephalic Phase.\n", "The third stage of anaerobic digestion is acetogenesis. Here, simple molecules created through the acidogenesis phase are further digested by acetogens to produce largely acetic acid, as well as carbon dioxide and hydrogen.\n\nBULLET::::- Methanogenesis\n", "The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.\n", "BULLET::::- Gastric chief cells: Produce pepsinogen. Chief cells are mainly found in the body of stomach, which is the middle or superior anatomic portion of the stomach.\n\nBULLET::::- Mucous neck and pit cells: Produce mucin and bicarbonate to create a \"neutral zone\" to protect the stomach lining from the acid or irritants in the stomach chyme.\n\nBULLET::::- G cells: Produce the hormone gastrin in response to distention of the stomach mucosa or protein, and stimulate parietal cells production of their secretion. G cells are located in the antrum of the stomach, which is the most inferior region of the stomach.\n", "Excess concentrations of bile acids in the colon are a cause of chronic diarrhea. It is commonly found when the ileum is abnormal or has been surgically removed, as in Crohn's disease, or cause a condition that resembles diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS-D). This condition of bile acid diarrhea/bile acid malabsorption can be diagnosed by the SeHCAT test and treated with bile acid sequestrants.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Bile acids and colon cancer.\n", "As a result of the cellular export of hydrogen ions, the gastric lumen is maintained as a highly-acidic environment. The acidity aids in digestion of food by promoting the unfolding (or denaturing) of ingested proteins. As proteins unfold, the peptide bonds linking component amino acids are exposed. Gastric HCl simultaneously cleaves pepsinogen, a zymogen, into active pepsin, an endopeptidase that advances the digestive process by breaking the now-exposed peptide bonds, a process known as proteolysis.\n\nSection::::Function.:Regulation.\n\nParietal cells secrete acid in response to three types of stimuli:\n\nBULLET::::- Histamine, stimulates H histamine receptors (most significant contribution).\n", "Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.\n", "Section::::Clinical studies.:Primary biliary cholangitis.\n", "BULLET::::- Secretin, a hormone produced by the duodenal \"S cells\" in response to the stomach chyme containing high hydrogen atom concentration (high acidicity), is released into the blood stream; upon return to the digestive tract, secretion decreases gastric emptying, increases secretion of the pancreatic ductal cells, as well as stimulating pancreatic acinar cells to release their zymogenic juice.\n", "Gastric chief cell\n\nA gastric chief cell (or peptic cell, or gastric zymogenic cell) is a type of cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and gastric lipase and is the cell responsible for secretion of chymosin in ruminants. The cell stains basophilic upon H&E staining due to the large proportion of rough endoplasmic reticulum in its cytoplasm. Gastric chief cells are generally located deep in the mucosal layer of the stomach lining.\n", "BULLET::::- To a small extent water-soluble vitamins (most are absorbed in the small intestine)\n\nThe parietal cells of the human stomach are responsible for producing intrinsic factor, which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12. B12 is used in cellular metabolism and is necessary for the production of red blood cells, and the functioning of the nervous system.\n\nSection::::Function.:Control of secretion and motility.\n\nThe movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive hormones of the digestive system:\n", "Food sources of PABA include liver, brewer's yeast (and unfiltered beer), kidney, molasses, mushrooms, and whole grains.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Biochemistry.\n\nPABA is an intermediate in the synthesis of folate by bacteria, plants, and fungi.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12401	If seahorse males carry the baby, why are they considered males?	They don't lay the eggs, they pick them up and hold them afterwards until they hatch. They're male because they produce sperm and don't lay eggs. The female produces the eggs.	[ "Section::::Male pregnancy.\n\nThe male fishes of seahorses, pipefishes, weedy and leafy sea dragons (Syngnathidae) are unusual as the male, rather than the female, incubates the eggs before releasing live fry into the surrounding water. To achieve this, male seahorses protect eggs in a specialized brood pouch, male sea dragons attach their eggs to their legs, and male pipefish may do either.\n", "The Syngnathidae family of fish has the unique characteristic of a highly derived form of male brood care referred to as \"male pregnancy\". The family is highly diverse, containing around 300 different species of fish. Included in Syngnathidae are seahorses, the pipefish, and the weedy and leafy seadragons. The males of some of these species possess a brood pouch on the trunk or tail; in other species, the eggs are merely attached to the male's trunk or tail when the female lays them. Although biologists' definitions of pregnancy differ somewhat, all members of the family are considered by ichthyologists to display male pregnancy, even those without an external brood pouch.\n", "When a female's eggs reach maturity, she squirts them from a chamber in her trunk via her ovipositor into his brood pouch or egg pouch, sometimes called a \"marsupium\". During a mammalian pregnancy, the placenta allows the female to nourish her progeny in the womb, and remove their waste products. If male pipefish and seahorses provide only a simple pouch for fish eggs to develop and hatch, it might not fully qualify as bona-fide pregnancy. However, current research suggests that in syngnathid species with well developed brood pouches, males do provide nutrients, osmoregulation and oxygenation to the embryos they carry.\n", "Male pregnancy\n\nMale pregnancy is the incubation of one or more embryos or fetuses by male members of some species. Most species that reproduce by sexual reproduction are heterogamous—females producing larger gametes (ova) and males producing smaller gametes (sperm). In nearly all animal species, offspring are carried by the female until birth, but in fish of the Syngnathidae family (pipefish, seahorses and the leafy seadragon), males perform this function.\n", "Section::::Male pregnancy.:Seahorse.\n", "In seahorses and pipefish, it is the male that becomes pregnant.\n\nSection::::Types of reproduction and pregnancy.\n", "Section::::Implications.:Male vs. Female.\n\nThe POP burden carried by male and female marine mammals tends to increase with time until they reach the age of sexual maturity. After that point, the burden in males continues to grow, as they continue to absorb POPs from their food. However, with female marine mammals, the POP burden carried decreases after birth but can then increase until the next reproductive cycle.\n", "The Syngnathidae family of fish has the unique characteristic whereby females lay their eggs in a brood pouch on the male's chest, and the male incubates the eggs. Fertilization may take place in the pouch or before implantation in the water. Included in Syngnathidae are seahorses, the pipefish, and the weedy and leafy sea dragons. Syngnathidae is the only family in the animal kingdom to which the term \"male pregnancy\" has been applied.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Evolution of mammals (for the evolution of gestation-related features in humans and other mammals)\n\nBULLET::::- Male pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- Nesting instinct\n\nBULLET::::- Pregnancy\n", "Seahorses and pipefish can be defined as livebearers, although in these cases the males incubate the eggs rather than the females. In many cases, the eggs are dependent on the male for oxygen and nutrition, so these fish can be further defined as viviparous livebearers.\n", "This period of incubation can take much longer than the production of another clutch of eggs by the female, especially in temperate regions where pregnancies last longer, leading to a reproductive environment in which sexual selection can be stronger on females than on males due to increased male parental investment. This reversal of traditional sex roles has only been found in pipefishes, whereas seahorses have largely been accepted as monogamous. Some pipefish species display classical polyandry because of this unique situation. Male syngnathids usually prefer females with large body size and prominent ornaments such as blue skin pigmentation or skin folds. Syngnathid males in some species are apparently capable of absorbing eggs or embryos while in the brood pouch. In these cases, embryos with the highest survival rate are those whose mothers display the preferred phenotype.\n", "Male pregnancy is a common feature in the family Syngnathidae, which includes pipefish, seahorses, and sea dragons. This type of polyandry has been demonstrated by analyzing the genetic composition of Gulf pipefish, \"Sygnathus scovelli\" and straightnose pipefish, \"Nerophis ophidion\", which shows that males only mate once during their pregnancy, whereas females mate multiple times. This extreme form of polyandry indicates that this species has a much stronger intensity of sexual selection on females than on males, in which females tend to be larger and more adorned than males. Evidence for stronger sexual selection in females in Gulf pipefish, \"Syngnathus scovelli\", include having secondary sexual characteristics, such as longer abdomens and stripes that are not found in males. Males are usually capable of combining uniparental care with defending their territories or nest, attracting females for copulation.\n", "BULLET::::- Example: The clownfish (genus \"Amphiprion\") are colorful reef fish found living in symbiosis with sea anemones. Generally one anemone contains a 'harem', consisting of a large female, a smaller reproductive male, and even smaller non-reproductive males. If the female is removed, the reproductive male will change sex and the largest of the non-reproductive males will mature and become reproductive. It has been shown that fishing pressure can change when the switch from male to female occurs, since fishermen usually prefer to catch the larger fish. The populations are generally changing sex at a smaller size, due to natural selection.\n", "Why the male seahorse (and other members of the Syngnathidae) carries the offspring through gestation is unknown, though some researchers believe it allows for shorter birthing intervals, in turn resulting in more offspring. Given an unlimited number of ready and willing partners, males have the potential to produce 17% more offspring than females in a breeding season. Also, females have “time-outs” from the reproductive cycle 1.2 times longer than those of males. This seems to be based on mate choice, rather than physiology. When the female’s eggs are ready, she must lay them in a few hours or eject them into the water column. Making eggs is a huge cost to her physically, since they amount to about a third of her body weight. To protect against losing a clutch, the female demands a long courtship. The daily greetings help to cement the bond between the pair.\n", "When mating, the female seahorse deposits up to 1,500 (average of 100 to 1,000) eggs in the male's pouch, located on the ventral abdomen at the base of the tail. Male juveniles develop pouches when they are 5–7 months old. The male carries the eggs for 9 to 45 days until the seahorses emerge fully developed, but very small. The number born maybe as few as five for smaller species, or 2,500 for larger species. A male seahorse's body has large amounts of prolactin, the same hormone that governs milk production in pregnant mammals and although the male seahorse does not supply milk, his pouch provides oxygen as well as a controlled-environment.\n", "\"P. elongata\", \"P. turneri\" and \"P. presidionis\" form another clade which could be considered an outgroup to the \"P. monacha\", \"P.lucida\", and \"P. prolifica\" clade. These three species are very highly matrotrophic – so much so that in 1947, C. L. Turner described the follicular cells of \"P. turneri\" as \"pseudo-placenta, pseudo-chorion, and pseudo-allantois\".\n\nSection::::Guppy.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Reproduction and life cycle.:Sexual dimorphism.\n\nIn a variety of marine organisms, it is seen that females are larger in size compared to the males in some closely related species. In some lineages, such as the blanket octopus, males become structurally smaller and smaller resembling a term, \"dwarfism\" dwarf males usually occurs at low densities. The blanket octopus male is an example of sexual-evolutionary dwarfism; females grow 10,000 to 40,000 times larger than the males and the sex ratio between males and females can be distinguished right after hatching of the eggs.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Reproduction and life cycle.:Embryology.\n", "In any group of anemonefish, there is a strict sized based dominance hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male.\n", "Many fish change sex over the course of their lifespan, a phenomenon called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasses the opposite is true—most fish are initially female and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.\n", "Accordingly, sex is defined operationally across species by the type of gametes produced (i.e.: spermatozoa vs. ova) and differences between males and females in one lineage are not always predictive of differences in another.\n\nMale/female dimorphism between organisms or reproductive organs of different sexes is not limited to animals; male gametes are produced by chytrids, diatoms and land plants, among others. In land plants, \"female\" and \"male\" designate not only the female and male gamete-producing organisms and structures but also the structures of the sporophytes that give rise to male and female plants.\n\nSection::::Symbol.\n", "BULLET::::- Only one pregnant female is known to have been caught; she was carrying six unborn young.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 per uterine horn\n\nSection::::\"Poeciliopsis\".\n", "Male mammals can compete for harems as well with elephant seals competing fiercely for harems. As mammals reach sexual maturity, secondary sexual characteristic arise. Elephant seals have a proboscis in the adult male, which is used to project loud noises, frequently heard during the mating season. Elephant seals with a bigger proboscis emit lower sounds than males with a smaller proboscis and are the bigger of the males in a colony.\n", "Several groups of fish have evolved parental care. The ratio of fish genera that exhibit male-only: biparental: female-only care is 9:3:1. Some fish such as pipefish, sea dragons and seahorses (Syngnathidae) have a form of male pregnancy, where the female takes no part in caring for the young once she has laid her eggs. Males in other species may take a role in guarding the eggs before they hatch.\n", "Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex-determination system, as opposed to the mammalian XY system. Male progeny prove Flora's unfertilised eggs were haploid (n) and doubled their chromosomes later to become diploid (2n) (by being fertilised by a polar body, or by chromosome duplication without cell division), rather than by her laying diploid eggs by one of the meiosis reduction-divisions in her ovaries failing. When a female Komodo dragon (with ZW sex chromosomes) reproduces in this manner, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes. This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg, which develops parthenogenetically. Eggs receiving a Z chromosome become ZZ (male); those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop, meaning that only males are produced by parthenogenesis in this species.\n", "In any group of anemonefish, there is a strict sized based dominance hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male.\n", "Section::::Elasmobranchs.\n" ]	[ "Carrying seahorse babies makes a seahorse female." ]	[ "Producing and laying eggs makes a seahorse female, not carrying the seahorse babies." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Carrying seahorse babies makes a seahorse female.", "seahorse males carry the baby." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Producing and laying eggs makes a seahorse female, not carrying the seahorse babies.", "seahorse males don't make the eggs they still make sperm but they pick up they egg from the female after it is made and hold it from then till birth." ]
2018-03788	Who decided that the standards were 4:3 16:9 21:9 for aspect ratio?	It's because 4:3 is closest to our vision and is best to relay information, 21:9 was already the standard of cinema and is best to describe scenery. 16:9 is just the compromise between those two. And for where those numbers came from, there's only 1 word: compromise. The artist, engineers, and the market all fought with eachother with their own aspect ratios. Those that survive are the ones we use today. Example: there now exist mobile phones with 17:9 and 18:9 resolutions, due to how applications are layed out on the screen (vertical scrolling). Only time can tell if they survive and become the new standards.	[ "Section::::Still photography.:5:4.\n\nCommon in large and medium format photography, and still in common use for prints from digital cameras in the 8\"×10\" size.\n\nSection::::Still photography.:4:3.\n\nIs used by most digital point-and-shoot cameras, Four Thirds system, Micro Four Thirds system cameras and medium format 645 cameras. The 4:3 digital format popularity was developed to match the then prevailing digital displays of the time, 4:3 computer monitors.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Adoption by TV channels.:UK.\n", "Section::::Current video standards.:1.85:1.\n\nWhen cinema attendance dropped, Hollywood created widescreen aspect ratios in order to differentiate the film industry from TV, with one of the most common being the 1.85:1 ratio.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:2:1.\n\nThe 2:1 aspect ratio was first used in the 1950s for the RKO Superscope format.\n", "Section::::Aspect ratio releases.:Modified aspect ratio (MAR).\n", "Section::::Usage.:Adoption by TV channels.:Argentina.\n\nIt is also used on the ISDB-Tb HD service of the Argentinian public television, TV Pública, in order to adjust their old programs and 4:3 SD studio cameras to 16:9 format.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Adoption by TV channels.:Portugal.\n", "4:3 (1.:1) (generally read as \"\"Four-Three\"\", \"\"Four-by-Three\"\", or \"\"Four-to-Three\"\") for standard television has been in use since the invention of moving picture cameras and many computer monitors used to employ the same aspect ratio. 4:3 was the aspect ratio used for 35 mm films in the silent era. It is also very close to the 1.375:1 Academy ratio, defined by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as a standard after the advent of optical sound-on-film. By having TV match this aspect ratio, movies originally photographed on 35 mm film could be satisfactorily viewed on TV in the early days of the medium (i.e. the 1940s and the 1950s). \n", "is another format that can find its roots in the APS film camera. Known as APS-P (30.2 × 9.5 mm), with the -P\" denoting \"Panorama\", the 3:1 format was used for panorama photography. The APS-P panorama standard is the least adhered to any APS standard, and panoramic implementation varies with by manufacturer on different cameras, with the only commonality being that the image is much longer than it is tall, in the classic \"panorama\" style.\n", "Aware of Fox's upcoming CinemaScope productions, Paramount introduced this technique in March's release of \"Shane\" with the 1.66:1 aspect ratio, although the film was not shot with this ratio originally in mind. Universal-International followed suit in May with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio for \"Thunder Bay\". By summer of 1953, Paramount, Universal, MGM, Columbia, and even Fox's B-unit contractors, under the banner of \"Panoramic Productions\" had switched from filming flat shows in a 1.37:1 format, and used variable flat wide-screen aspect ratios in their filming, which would become the standard of that time.\n", "21:9 aspect ratio\n\n21:9 (\"Twenty-One by Nine\") is a consumer electronics (CE) marketing term to describe the ultra-widescreen aspect ratio of 64:27 (2.:1), designed to show films recorded in CinemaScope and equivalent modern anamorphic formats. The main benefit of this screen aspect ratio, compared to the more common , is the absence of the black bars at the top and bottom of the screen when viewing content in this format, and a constant display height when displaying other content with a lesser aspect ratio.\n", "From studio to studio, the common attempt to reduce the image back to a 1.33:1 ratio by decreasing the projector aperture in-house met with conflicting results. Each movie theater chain, furthermore, had its own designated house ratio. The first standards set for the new sound-on-film motion pictures were accepted in November 1929, when all major US studios agreed to compose for the Society of Motion Picture Engineers' (SMPE) designated size of returning to the aspect ratio of 1.3:1.\n", "Super 16 mm film was frequently used for television production due to its lower cost, lack of need for soundtrack space on the film itself (as it is not projected but rather transferred to video), and aspect ratio similar to 16:9 (the native ratio of Super 16 mm is 15:9). It also can be blown up to 35 mm for theatrical release and therefore is sometimes used for feature films.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:1:1 (Square).\n", "With the adoption of high definition television, the majority of modern televisions are now produced with 16:9 displays instead. Apple's iPad series of tablets, however, continue to use 4:3 displays (despite other Apple products typically using widescreen aspect ratios) to better suit use as an e-reader.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:16:9 standard.\n", "The 64:27 aspect ratio is an extension of the existing video aspect ratios 4:3 and 16:9, as it is the third power of 4:3, where 16:9 of traditional HDTV is 4:3 squared. This allows electronic scalers and optical anamorphic lenses to use an easily implementable 4:3 (1.3:1) scaling factor.\n\nformula_1\n\nformula_2\n", "Most televisions were built with an aspect ratio of 4:3 until the early 2010s, when widescreen TVs with 16:9 displays became the standard. This aspect ratio was chosen as the geometric mean between 4:3 and 2.35:1, an average of the various aspect ratios used in film. While 16:9 is well-suited for modern HDTV broadcasts, older 4:3 video has to be either padded with bars on the left and right side (pillarboxed), cropped or stretched, while movies shot with wider aspect ratios are usually letterboxed, with black bars at the top and bottom.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Computer monitor\n\nBULLET::::- Display resolution\n", "Section::::Problems in film and television.\n", "Netflix production and post-production requirements state that they prefer content up to 2:1 aspect ratio anything wider must be evaluated and discussed.\n\nSection::::Univisium in use.:Aspect ratio used in music videos.\n\nBULLET::::- Miranda Cosgrove: \"Kissin U\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Girls' Generation: \"Hoot\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Shawn Mendes and Camila Cabello: \"Señorita\" (2019)\n\nSection::::Univisium in use.:Aspect ratio used in devices.\n", "The major benefit in shooting 16:9 with protection for 14:9 (rather than 4:3) is improving the usable screen real-estate for titles, logos and scrolling text. The visible enhancement is significant due to the restrictive requirements of overscan. When shooting in 16:9 for potential 4:3 distribution the \"Shoot And Protect\" method (from the BBC's \"Widescreen Book\") is employed. As the name suggests footage is shot in 16:9 but important visual information is protected inside the 14:9 or 4:3 safe areas.\n\nSection::::Usage.:With native 4:3 material.\n", "Section::::History.:Tablets.\n\nTablets started to enjoy mainstream popularity beginning late 2010/early 2011 and remain popular to present day. Aspect ratios for tablets typically include 16:10, 16:9 and 4:3. Tablets have caused a shift in production away from purely 16:9 aspect ratios, and a resurgence of \"productivity\" aspect ratios (including 16:10 and 4:3) in place of \"media\" aspect ratios (16:9 and ultra wide screen formats). 16:9 is less suited for laptops, PC monitors and tablets. The format remains widely popular in the TV and smartphone industries, where it is more suited.\n", "BULLET::::- 12:1: Circle-Vision 360° developed by the Walt Disney Company in 1955 for use in Disneyland. Uses nine 4:3 35 mm projectors to show an image that completely surrounds the viewer. Used in subsequent Disney theme parks and other past applications.\n\nSection::::Aspect ratio releases.\n\nSection::::Aspect ratio releases.:Original aspect ratio (OAR).\n", "Anamorphic format is the cinematography technique of shooting a widescreen picture on standard 35 mm film or other visual recording media with a non-widescreen native aspect ratio. When projected, image have an approximated 2.35:1, 2.39:1 or 2.4:1 aspect ratio. \"21:9 aspect ratio\" is actually 64:27 (= 4:3), and is a near cinematic movie ratio.\n\nMobile devices are now starting to use the 21:9 format, such as the Sony Xperia 1.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:Vertical video.\n", "In 1932, in refining this ratio, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences expanded upon this 1930 standard. The camera aperture became , and the projected image would use an aperture plate size of , yielding an aspect ratio of 1.375:1. This became known as the \"Academy\" ratio, named so after them. Since the 1950s the aspect ratio of some theatrically released motion picture films has been 1.85:1 (1.66:1 in Europe) or 2.35:1 (2.40:1 after 1970). The image area for \"TV transmission\" is slightly smaller than the full \"Academy\" ratio at , an aspect ratio of 1.33:1. Hence when the \"Academy\" ratio is referred to as having an aspect ratio of 1.33:1, it is done so mistakenly.\n", "For example, in a group of images that all have an , one image might be 16 inches wide and 9 inches high, another 16 centimeters wide and 9 centimeters high, and a third might be 8 yards wide and 4.5 yards high. Thus, aspect ratio concerns the \"relationship\" of the width to the height, not an image's actual size.\n\nSection::::Some common examples.\n", "The term \"21:9\" was chosen as a marketing term, first used by Philips in January of 2009. Due to its common denominator, 21:9 is more relatable to 16:9, the aspect ratio of regular HDTVs, rather than the correct 64:27 or 21formula_3:9. If it actually were 21:9 (2.:1), the fraction could also be expressed in the reduced form as 7:3, relating to the 4:3 of standard-definition TVs.\n", "A 21:9 display allows to present all content up to 'Scope aspect ratios at equal height, with changing vertical bars to the left and right of the image. This constant image height (CIH) allows for a more balanced and immersive viewing experience. Note how the large center circle, representing the main image area, remains at a constant size on the 21:9 display, while it changes on the other two depending on the aspect ratio of the content.\n\nSection::::Motion Picture film formats and 21:9.\n", "BULLET::::- Jean George Auriol, 43, French film critic and screenwriter, was killed in an automobile accident\n\nBULLET::::- Recep Peker, 61, Prime Minister of Turkey 1946–1947\n\nSection::::April 3, 1950 (Monday).\n\nBULLET::::- The standard ratio for the dimensions of television receivers was set at 4:3 (with the length of the screen being 4/3 of the height) after originally having been 5:4, and would remain the standard for nearly half a century. With the advent of digital television, the ratio would be changed to the wider 16:9 dimensions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Those aspect ratios are the de facto standard to be used." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Those are just current industry standards. They may change and evolve over time including smartphones at 18:9 or 17:9." ]
2018-00878	Why are there still around 20 cases of Polio per year? Why not zero, or thousands?	There are not thousands because the vaccine is cheap, safe, effective, and widespread. There are not zero because there are some parents who do not vaccinate their children. This is especially a problem in areas where the poliovirus is endemic.	[ "Polio is one of only two diseases currently the subject of a global eradication program, the other being Guinea worm disease. So far, the only diseases completely eradicated by humankind are smallpox, declared so, in 1980, and rinderpest, likewise, in 2011.\n\nA number of eradication milestones have already been reached, and several regions of the world have been certified polio-free.\n", "The following world regions have been declared polio-free:\n\nBULLET::::- The Americas (1994)\n\nBULLET::::- Indo-West Pacific region (1997)\n\nBULLET::::- Europe (1998)\n\nBULLET::::- Western Pacific region, including China (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- Southeast Asia region (2014), including India\n", "In late April 2013, the WHO announced a new $5.5 billion, 6-year cooperative plan (called the 2013–18 Polio Eradication and Endgame Strategic Plan) to eradicate polio from its last reservoirs. The plan called for mass immunization campaigns in the three remaining endemic countries, and also dictated a switch to inactivated virus injections, to avoid the risk of the vaccine-derived outbreaks that occasionally occur from use of the live-virus oral vaccine.\n", "BULLET::::4. Expanded environmental surveillance to detect the presence of poliovirus in communities. Sewage samples are collected at regular and random sites and tested in laboratories for the presence of WPV or cVDPV. Since most polio infections are asymptomatic, transmission can occur in spite of the absence of polio-related AFP cases, and such monitoring helps to evaluate the degree to which virus continues to circulate in an area.\n\nBULLET::::5. Targeted \"mop-up\" campaigns once poliovirus transmission is limited to a specific focal area.\n\nSection::::Factors influencing eradication of polio.:Vaccination.\n", "Environmental surveillance is used to supplement AFP surveillance. This entails the routine testing of sewage samples for the presence of virus. This not only allows the effectiveness of vaccination efforts to be evaluated in countries with active transmission, but also allows the detection of new outbreaks in countries without known transmission. The GPEI currently conducts environmental surveillance in 44 countries, 24 of which are in Africa.\n\nSection::::Factors influencing eradication of polio.:Obstacles.\n", "Section::::Factors influencing eradication of polio.:Surveillance.\n\nA global program of surveillance for the presence of polio and the poliovirus plays a critical role in assessment of eradication and in outbreak detection and response. Two distinct methods are used in tandem: Acute Flaccid Paralysis (AFP) surveillance and environmental surveillance.\n", "The Pulse Polio Initiative (PPI) aims at covering every individual in the country. It aspires to reach even children in remote communities through an improved social mobilisation plan.\n\nBULLET::::- Not a single child should miss the immunization, leaving no chance of polio occurrence.\n\nBULLET::::- Cases of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) to be reported in time and stool specimens of them to be collected within 14 days. Outbreak response immunisation (ORI) to be conducted as early as possible.\n\nBULLET::::- Maintaining a high level of surveillance.\n\nBULLET::::- Performance of good mop-up operations where polio has disappeared.\n\nSection::::Steps involved.\n", "In April 2012, the World Health Assembly declared the completion of polio eradication a programmatic emergency for global public health.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Americas.\n\nThe Americas were declared polio-free in 1994.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Western Pacific.\n\nIn 2000 polio was declared to have been officially eliminated in 37 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia.\n\nDespite eradication ten years before, an outbreak was confirmed in China in September 2011 involving a strain prevalent in neighboring Pakistan.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Europe.\n\nEurope was declared polio-free in 2002. On 1 September 2015, WHO confirmed 2 cases of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 1 in Ukraine.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:South-East Asia.\n", "World Polio Day (24 October) was established by Rotary International to commemorate the birth of Jonas Salk, who led the first team to develop a vaccine against poliomyelitis. Use of this inactivated poliovirus vaccine and subsequent widespread use of the oral poliovirus vaccine developed by Albert Sabin led to establishment of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) in 1988. Since then, GPEI has reduced polio worldwide by 99 percent.\n\nSection::::History.:Etymology.\n", "Polio vaccination is also important in the development of \"herd immunity\". For polio to occur in a population, there needs to be an infecting organism (poliovirus), a susceptible human population, and a cycle of transmission. Poliovirus is transmitted only through person-to-person contact and the transmission cycle of polio is from one infected person to another person susceptible to the disease, and so on. If the vast majority of the population is immune to a particular agent, the ability of that pathogen to infect another host is reduced; the cycle of transmission is interrupted, and the pathogen cannot reproduce and dies out. This concept, called community immunity or herd immunity, is important to disease eradication, because it means that it is not necessary to inoculate 100% of the population—a goal that is often logistically very difficult—to achieve the desired result. If the number of susceptible individuals can be reduced to a sufficiently small number through vaccination, then the pathogen will eventually die off.\n", "Monitoring for AFP aims at identifying outbreaks of polio by screening patients displaying symptoms consistent with but not exclusive to severe poliovirus infection. Stool samples are collected from children presenting with AFP and evaluated for the presence of poliovirus by accredited laboratories in the Global Polio Laboratory Network. Since rates of non-polio AFP are expected to be constant and large compared to polio cases, the frequency of non-polio AFP reported in a population is indicative of the effectiveness of surveillance, as is the proportion of AFP patients from whom high-quality stool samples are collected and tested, with a target of at least 80%.\n", "BULLET::::- Rotary International's contribution to the global fight against Polio exceeds US$1.2 billion while by end of 2018 it is projected to reach US$2 billion in contribution by the service organization.\n\n2013: January, en route to regional Polio-free certification in 2014, India completes two years without a case of Polio.\n", "\"The Final Inch\" focuses on the efforts that were ongoing to eradicate polio in India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan (it has since been eradicated in India; efforts continue in Pakistan and Afghanistan). The corollary goal of worldwide eradication of polio has attracted attention, but \"getting rid of the last 1 percent has been like trying to squeeze Jell-O to death.\"\n", "Section::::Documentary.\n\nThe title of the documentary film \"The Final Inch\" refers to the fact that polio, which can paralyse a child for life within hours, is on the brink of being eliminated—thanks to mass immunisation, the world is mere \"inches\" from achieving that ultimate achievable goal. Eradication of worldwide polio has attracted attention, but \"getting rid of the last 1 percent has been like trying to squeeze Jell-O to death.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Standardize and compile polio’s maps of marginalized populations to provide them with additional services\n\nBULLET::::- Fund routine immunization in locations with frequent polio campaigns\n\nBULLET::::- Build staff capacity in a variety of areas beyond polio\n\nBULLET::::- Share pertinent information gathered during polio campaigns with other health programs\n\nBULLET::::- Add questions on key health indicators of interest to post campaign monitoring\n\nBULLET::::- Communicate to workers why repeated campaigns are necessary in high intensity areas\n\nBULLET::::- Raise monetary incentives for campaign workers to a living wage or eliminate them entirely\n", "In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to eradicate polio. It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since which partnered WHO with Rotary International, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and smaller organizations. , it has been working to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared \"polio-free\". In 2017, a study was conducted where why Polio Vaccines may not be enough to eradicate the Virus & conduct new technology. Polio is now on the verge of extinction, thanks to a Global Vaccination Drive. the World Health Organization (WHO) stated the eradication programme has saved millions from deadly disease. \n", "Section::::Polio eradication criteria.\n", "BULLET::::- On 11 February, Govt. of India celebrates 'India's victory over Polio' at a historic event graced by the President of India, the Prime Minister of India, leader of ruling political party, leader of the opposition party in parliament, Health Minister & RI President.\n\nBULLET::::- In March, India is declared Polio-free country along with the SEAR-WHO region.\n\nBULLET::::- Rotary International hosts a big event 'Polio-Free Conclave 2014' where India is joined by South East Asian Countries in celebrating Polio-free regional certification.\n\nSection::::Political front.\n", "In 1995, followingthe Global Polio Eradication Initiative of the World Health Organization (1988), India launched Pulse Polio immunization program with Universal Immunization Program which aimed at 100% coverage.\n\nThe last reported cases of wild polio in India were in West Bengal and Gujarat on 13 January 2011. On 27 March 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared India a polio free country, since no cases of wild polio been reported in for five years.\n\nSection::::Preventive Pulse Polio.\n", "through investigation of acute flaccid paralysis cases among children under 15 years old (in order to determine areas where the virus is truly eradicated), and conducting \"mop up\" campaigns in areas where cases of polio have been identified.\n\nSection::::Funding.\n", "Section::::Timeline.:2011–2015.\n\nIn 2011, 650 WPV cases were reported in sixteen countries: the four endemic countries—Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria and India—as well as twelve others. Polio transmission recurred in Angola, Chad and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kenya reported its first case since 2009, while China reported 21 cases, mostly among the Uyghurs of Hotan prefecture, Xinjiang, the first cases since 1994.\n", "BULLET::::2. Organization of \"national immunization days\" to provide supplementary doses of oral polio vaccine to all children less than five years old.\n\nBULLET::::3. Active surveillance for poliovirus through reporting and laboratory testing of all cases of acute flaccid paralysis. Acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) is a clinical manifestation of poliomyelitis characterized by weakness or paralysis and reduced muscle tone without other obvious cause (e.g., trauma) among children less than fifteen years old. AFP is also associated with a number of other pathogenic agents including enteroviruses, echoviruses, and adenoviruses, among others.\n", "BULLET::::- A large scale mop up launched within 7 days of notification of the case and 3 mop up rounds conducted in 7 weeks from confirmation of the case. All States/UTs prepare Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan to respond to any wild poliovirus as a public health emergency.\n\n2012: February, Rotary International jointly with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, hosts Polio Summit 2012 to renew commitment and efforts to ending Polio. On 25 February, during the Summit, India is removed from the list of polio endemic countries by WHO.\n", "Herd immunity is an important supplement to vaccination. Among those individuals who receive oral polio vaccine, only 95 percent will develop immunity. That means five of every 100 given the vaccine will not develop any immunity and will be susceptible to developing polio. According to the concepts of herd immunity this population whom the vaccine fails, are still protected by the immunity of those around them. Herd immunity can only be achieved when vaccination levels are high. It is estimated that 80–86 percent of individuals in a population must be immune to polio for the susceptible individuals to be protected by herd immunity. If routine immunization were stopped, the number of unvaccinated, susceptible individuals would soon exceed the capability of herd immunity to protect them.\n", "By 2001, 575 million children (almost one-tenth the world's population) had received some 2 billion doses of oral polio vaccine. The World Health Organization announced that Europe was polio-free on 21 June 2002, in the Copenhagen Glyptotek.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02196	why does it seem like flies move slower at night?	They’re cold blooded and how warm they are translates to how much energy they have. They DO move slower at night.	[ "However, it has been found that large LNv working with other circadian neurons is sufficient to rescue the morning anticipation behavior and startle response in s-LNv-ablated flies. Thus, PDF's role in setting the free-running rhythm and the timing of light-dark cycles comes from both types of lateral ventral neurons.\n", "Clock gene expression\n\nMany organisms including the copepod \"C. finmarchicus\", has genetic material devoted to maintaining its biological clock. The expression of these genes varies temporally with the expression significantly increasing following dawn and dusk at times of greatest vertical migration seen in this species. These finding may indicate they work as a molecular stimulus for vertical migration.\n\nBody size\n", "They also looked at two other single missense period mutations, per and per. These mutations cause the peak of the evening activity to occur earlier and later, respectively, compared to wildtype per flies. They found that RNA levels for per and per also display clear rhythmicity. Like locomotor activity the peak expression is shifted earlier for per and later for per.\n", "In a series of experiments done at Washington University School of Medicine and Brandeis University, \"pdf\" was shown to be critical for circadian output coordination. Flies mutant at the \"pdf\" gene locus displayed arrhythmic circadian oscillation. Wild type flies, over the 24-hour LD cycle, are active at dawn, quieter at midday and active again at the evening, and their rhythmic behavior persists in constant dark (DD). Flies with the \"pdf\"-null (\"pdf\") mutation displayed disrupted circadian behavior. Locomotor activity rhythms of homozygous and hemizygous \"pdf\" flies were well entrained during LD cycles, but their evening activity peak was advanced by approximately 1 hr and they lacked anticipatory morning rhythms. However, in constant darkness free running rhythms were much less rhythmic than in wild type flies. This demonstrates PDF’s role as a coupling factor between the M and E oscillators and its role in generating anticipation for morning rhythms.\n", "This mechanism allows entrainment of flies to environmental light cues. When \"Drosophila\" receive light inputs in the early subjective night, light-induced TIM degradation causes a delay in TIM accumulation, which creates a phase delay. When light inputs are received in the late subjective night, a light pulse causes TIM degradation to occur earlier than under normal conditions, leading to a phase advance.\n", "In a 12:12 light-dark cycle, normal flies exhibited locomotor behavior with a morning peak around dawn and an evening peak around dusk. Loss of PDF or loss of PDF-secreting LNvs resulted in weak or no morning peak, and an approximately 2-hour advance in the evening peak in a light-dark cycle. In constant conditions, loss of the PDF receptor or PDF secreting-cells resulted in desynchrony among the clock neurons.\n", "Recently, the Taghert lab reported that each of the five major pacemaker groups in the fly brain exhibits a daily large calcium transient. The transients are distributed across the 24 hr day such that the PDF-expressing s-LNv (small lateral neuron) peak around dawn and the LNd (which are implicated in control of the evening locomotor behavior) peak in the late day. Other pacemaker groups peak at mid-day or mid-night phases. In the absence of PDF signaling, all pacemakers still exhibit a daily calcium transient, but two groups are anomalously phase-shifted to peak in the morning, synchronous with the s-LNv. These observations indicate PDF signaling is required to produce large (many-hour) phase differences to ensure a normal sequence of temporal outputs in the circadian neural circuit.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Telotaxis\" requires paired receptors. The movement occurs along the direction where the intensity of the stimuli is stronger. Telotaxis is clearly seen in the movement of bees when they leave their hive to look for food. They balance the stimuli from the sun as well as from flowers but land on the flower whose stimulus is most intense for them.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Menotaxis\" describes organisms' maintenance of a constant angular orientation. A clear demonstration is shown by bees returning to their hive at night and the movement of ants with respect to the sun.\n", "Section::::Research.:Redeye.\n\nSehgal's lab recently identified a new gene involved in the regulation of sleep in fruit flies, \"redeye\". The \"redeye \"gene was discovered through random mutation of the fruit fly chromosome 3. Sehgal found the longer a fly is awake, the higher the level of \"redeye\" becomes in the fly. \"Redeye\" levels showed changes throughout the day even when the genes which are part of the circadian clock were mutated. This observation indicates \"redeye\" is controlled by factors outside of the circadian clock.\n\nSection::::Awards and positions.\n\nSection::::Awards and positions.:Positions.\n\nBULLET::::- Director of Penn Chronobiology Program-Present\n", "Contemporary sleep researchers, including Paul Shaw of Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, have been pursuing development of biological indicators, or biomarkers, of sleepiness. In December 2006, Shaw reported online in \"The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" that his lab had shown that levels of amylase increased in fruit fly saliva when the flies were sleep-deprived. He then showed that human amylase also increased as human subjects were deprived of sleep.\n", "Section::::Timing.\n\nIn the \"ultradian sleep cycle\" an organism alternates between deep sleep (slow, large, synchronized brain waves) and paradoxical sleep (faster, desynchronized waves). Sleep happens in the context of the larger circadian rhythm, which influences sleepiness and physiological factors based on timekeepers within the body. Sleep can be distributed throughout the day or clustered during one part of the rhythm: in nocturnal animals, during the day, and in diurnal animals, at night. The organism returns to homeostatic regulation almost immediately after REM sleep ends.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Flight.\n\nFlight in insects refer to a process in which an organism moves from one place to another with the usage of its wings. \"S. littoralis\" can fly up to distances of 1.5 km over a four-hour period. Since the species is nocturnal, its peak flight activity is usually between the hours of 20:00 and midnight. The flight activity for the moth can extend up to 10 days while an adult. Research has also shown that wind direction seems to have an effect on the moth’s flight activity.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Antennal lobe.\n", "Pupation, on average, take around 32 hours, but can take up to 48. This state can last as long as 3 weeks in wet, dark,and highly oxygenated conditions. Dry conditions tend to increase mortality rates. Emergence typically happens at dawn when environmental conditions are more humid, and more favorable to young flies. \"C. stygia\" don't appear to have a seasonal dependence for emergence; however they do have light and temperature cues. These flies are capable of emerging in the absence of those cues, and this is thought to be done with circadian rhythms that are set during the last instar before pupation. \"C. stygia\"s circadian rhythm tends to be 23 hours on average.\n", "Further evidence of distinct E and M peaks in \"Drosophila\" was provided by Grima et al. This work confirmed that the small lateral ventral neurons, which express PDF, are necessary for the morning peak in \"Drosophila\" circadian rhythms. Flies lacking functional s-LNv did not possess a lights-on anticipatory activity for the morning peak. The evening bout of activity was advanced, demonstrating the necessity of s-LNv neurons to both establish morning rhythms and couple these rhythms to the evening activity rhythms.\n", "Biological clocks are an ancient and adaptive sense of time innate to an organism that allows them to anticipate environmental changes and cycles so they are able to physiologically and behaviorally respond to the expected change. Evidence of circadian rhythms controlling DVM, metabolism, and even gene expression have been found in copepod species, \"Calanus finmarchicus\". These copepods were shown to continue to exhibit these daily rhythms of vertical migration in the laboratory setting even in constant darkness, after being captured from an actively migrating wild population. An experiment was done at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography which kept organisms in column tanks with light/dark cycles. A few days later the light was changed to a constant low light and the organisms still displayed diel vertical migration. Thus suggestions that some type of internal response was causing the migration.\n", "Further research was conducted on selective ablation of the lateral ventral neurons that express the \"pdf\" gene. Fly lines with ablated PDF neurons were created using Gal4-UAS-regulated transgenes and crossing two fly lines: UAS-\"rpr\" control group or UAS-\"hid\". Ablation did not affect the flies' ability to entrain to LD cycles, but their evening locomotor phases showed a 0.5 hour advance. This indicates the \"rpr\" and \"hid\" ablation individuals that were persistently rhythmic in DD showed shorter period length. In addition, utilizing time-series immunostainings, Lin et al. showed that PDF does not function to maintain circadian rhythmicity in protein levels, but rather that it is required to coordinate rhythms among the various \"Drosophila\" pacemakers. These experiments thereby confirmed the importance of the coordination role \"pdf\" expression plays in regulating circadian locomotor activity in \"Drosophila\".\n", "Mating activity of \"P. mellyi\" is interrelated to its patrolling behavior. An observation study has shown that a male is typically active for 3 weeks or more (up to 32 days), rarely lands while hovering (but does so more frequently towards the end of a patrolling session by walking along the edges of leaves nearby), and feeds themselves at food sources at the end of activity and returns to its nests or communal resting points. In contrast, female \"P. mellyi\" appears at patrolling landmarks around the second hour of male activity to engage in sexual interactions.\n", "As another example, studies of the Pied Flycatcher (ficedula hypoleuca) have shown that their spring migration timing is triggered by an internal circannual clock that is fine tuned to day length. These particular birds overwinter in dry tropical forest in Western Africa and breed in temperate forests in Europe, over 4,500 km away. From 1980-2000, temperatures at the time of arrival and the start of breeding have warmed significantly. They have advanced their mean laying date by ten days, but have not advanced the spring arrival on their breeding grounds because their migration behavior is triggered by photoperiod rather than temperature.\n", "Sometimes, especially if without prey for a week or more, \"Phaeacius\" may approach insects faster, from away, and if necessary turning round to face the prey. Often \"Phaeacius\" then adopts the flattened pose after the turn, but sometimes it walks faster than usual and, without pausing, lunges from about half its body length. \n\nIn a test on a background matching its own coloration, \"Phaeacius\" was most successful against other salticids and then against moths, and was also successful against flies and hunting spiders. On a non-matching background, \"Phaeacius\" was most successful against moths.\n", "The adults are typically nocturnal, though they orient themselves around lights and may appear to be attracted to light and odors. They are erratic fliers, and are often seen walking or running rapidly as well as taking flight. They are most active at night, but may also be seen during daylight, or near windows, lights, or illuminated display panels.\n", "Movement rates were higher during the summer than during the fall and winter, and rates were greater at night than at dawn during both seasons. The temperature greatly affects their moving rates and their ability to range their home turf. When the water is warmer during the spring and summer, they travel more often than during the cold seasons. Spotted gars eat 70% of their food intake at night compared to dusk and dawn.\n", "Section::::Eye.\n\nThere has been a great deal of research on the eye of \"N. glauca\". These insects use their eyes for both day and night vision, which is used for prey capture and flight when searching for new habitats. \"Notonecta glauca\", like other insects, have a compound eye. \n", "\"Myotis volans\" are insectivorous and their diet consists mainly of moths. They will eat other insects such as flies and lacewings or some smaller sized beetles. They will leave their day roosts to forage just before sunset and peak foraging takes place in the first four hours after emergence. They have been known to forage all hours of the night.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Roosting.\n", "The circadian rhythm can further be broken down into routine cycles during the 24-hour day:\n\nBULLET::::- Diurnal, which describes organisms active during daytime\n\nBULLET::::- Nocturnal, which describes organisms active in the night\n\nBULLET::::- Crepuscular, which describes animals primarily active during the dawn and dusk hours (ex: white-tailed deer, some bats)\n", "This species is active and easy to find during the night, sometimes it is possible to find it in the late afternoon.\n\nSection::::Description.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06695	Why do knifes go blunt in the dishwasher but not when you wash them by hand.	Dishwasher detergents are much more abrasive than regular dish soap. Over time, the soap will actually wear down the knife's edge.	[ "BULLET::::- Plastic handles are more easily cared for than wooden handles and do not absorb microorganisms. However, plastics may also be less resistant to ultraviolet damage and may become brittle over time, resulting in cracking. Some plastics are also slippery in the hand. The material is lighter than most other materials, which may result in a knife that is off-balance or too light for some tastes.\n", "Blades may also be damaged by being corroded by acid (as when cutting lemons or tomatoes) or by high temperatures and corrosive chemicals in a dishwasher.\n\nIf a knife is used as a scraper, a pry-bar, or encounters hard particles in softer materials, there may be a sideways load at the tip, causing bending damage.\n\nBlade damage is avoided by:\n", "Hand dishwashing is generally performed in the absence of a dishwashing machine, when large \"hard-to-clean\" items are present, or through preference. Some dishwashing liquids can harm household silver, fine glassware, anything with gold leaf, disposable plastics, and any objects made of brass, bronze, cast iron, pewter, tin, or wood, especially when combined with hot water and the action of a dishwasher. When dishwashing liquid is used on such objects it is intended that they be washed by hand.\n", "Knives and other cooking tools that are made of carbon steel, semi-stainless steels like D2, or specialized, highly hardened cutlery steels like ZDP189 corrode in the extended moisture bath of dishwashers, compared to briefer baths of hand washing. Cookware is made of austenitic stainless steels, which are more stable.\n", "Billhooks are almost universally made from ordinary steel of a moderate carbon content. High-carbon steel is not often used since an extremely sharp and hard edge is not necessary, and a slightly lower carbon content makes the hook easier to sharpen in the field. Hygiene and cosmetic appearance are unimportant so more expensive stainless steel is not used.\n", "BULLET::::- Plastic blades are usually not very sharp and are mainly used to cut through vegetables without causing discolouration. They are not sharp enough to cut deeply into flesh, but can cut or scratch skin.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Blade manufacturing.\n\nSteel blades can be manufactured either by being forged or stamped.\n", "Section::::Running water or sink.\n", "A knife block is a common way to store knives safely and close at hand in the kitchen. This is an angled block of wood, steel, or other material, with slots for inserting knife blades, and sometimes other accessories, like kitchen scissors.\n\nSection::::Accessories.:Cut-resistant gloves.\n", "Handle making can be done in several different ways depending on the tang of the knife. Full tang knives usually have handle scales either pinned, riveted, or screwed on to the tang itself while knives without a full tang may be inserted into a solid handle and then attached in one of the previously stated methods. Handle materials can range from natural materials including wood or elk horn to man-made materials like brass, plastic, polymer or micarta. A knife makers grinder may have additional attachments for making knife handles, such as small diameter contact wheels. \n", "Bread knives are usually between 15 cm and 25 cm (6 and 10 inches).\n", "An automatic OTF knife blade travels within an internal track or channel in the same manner as a manual slider or gravity knife. But the automatic main spring drive and button mechanism enclosed within requires a switchblade handle to be thicker or longer than a similar size gravity or sliding knife. The term \"Slider\" is usually not applied \n", "Section::::Specialty knives.:Oyster.\n\nAn oyster knife has a short, thick blade that is used to pry open oysters and separate their meat from the shell (shucking). Some models have a shield built into the handle that prevents the knife (and hand) from slipping and going too far into the shell. The handle is normally thick and short, with a bulbous end.\n\nSome notable styles include:\n\nBULLET::::- French: This has a straight, thin blade suited to \"Ostrea edulis\", a common oyster in France.\n\nBULLET::::- Providence: This type is long and narrow.\n", "A boning knife is used to remove bones from cuts of meat. It has a thin, flexible blade, usually about 12 cm to 15 cm (5 or 6 inches) long, that allows it to get in to small spaces. A stiff boning knife is good for beef and pork, and a flexible one is preferred for poultry and fish.\n\nSection::::Meat knives.:Fillet.\n\nFillet knives are like very flexible boning knives that are used to fillet and prepare fish. They have blades about 15 cm to 28 cm (6 to 11 inches) long, allowing them to move easily along the backbone and under the skin of fish.\n", "In any table setting, the knife will typically be the piece to bear the maker's stamp on the blade. The English city of Sheffield is noted for its cutlery manufacture and many knives bear the city's name in addition to the maker's.\n\nIn the past the blades were typically of carbon steel, with handles of bone, wood or ivory, but many modern examples are now made from a single piece of stainless steel for both handle and blade as per the example pictured.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The edge of a knife gradually loses its sharpness, which can be restored by sharpening. For many types of knives (e.g., butter knives) this is not relevant. Knives with smooth edges can be sharpened by the user; knives with any form of serrated edge should ideally be sharpened with specialist equipment, although the useful life of a serrated knife can be extended by simple sharpeners, even if they damage the edge.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Handle.\n\nThe handles of kitchen knives can be made from a number of different materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages.\n", "Because of the angles that can be cut, part programs may need to have additional cuts to free the part from the sheet. Attempting to slide a complex part at a severe angle from a plate can be difficult without appropriate relief cuts.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- CryoJet\n\nBULLET::::- Laser cutting\n\nBULLET::::- Plasma cutting\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical discharge machining\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- How Water Jets Work, HowStuffWorks.com video\n\nBULLET::::- Fabric Cutting by Water Jet Cutting Machine\n\nBULLET::::- Waterjet Cutting – How it Works, A look inside the physics of achieving high pressure water for waterjet cutting.\n", "BULLET::::- Stainless steel handles are the most durable of all handles, as well as the most sanitary. Many argue, however, that they are very slippery in the hand, especially when wet. To counter this, many premium knife makers make handles with ridges, bumps, or indentations to provide extra grip. One disadvantage of some all-metal handles is that knife weight usually goes up considerably, affecting the knife's balance and increasing hand and wrist fatigue. Knife manufacturers, most notably Japan's Global, have begun addressing this issue by producing hollow-handled knives.\n\nSection::::Common kitchen knives.\n\nSection::::Common kitchen knives.:Chef's knife.\n", "Methods of heat treatment: atmosphere furnace, molten salt, vacuum furnace, coal (coke) forge, oxy/acetylene torch. Quenching after heat treatment differs according to type of metal and personal preferences. Quenching can be done with oil, animal tallow, water, air, or brine.\n\nSection::::Blade making process.:Blade finishes.\n", "Other names for the tool are \"box cutter\" or \"boxcutter\", \"razor blade knife\", \"razor knife\", \"carpet knife\", \"pen knife\", \"stationery knife\", \"sheetrock knife\", or \"drywall knife\".\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Fillet knives operate in wet conditions. The handles must be shaped for maximum grip and use materials that are not affected by wet conditions. Older knives consisted of wooden handles, but rubber and plastics are now being used as well. The shape of the handle is often an elongated teardrop shape with an indention near the base of the blade. This creates a smooth surface to grip, and a place for the user's index finger to rest and prevent the user's hand from accidentally sliding onto the blade. While the basic shape is similar, most manufactures modify the shape to make a unique handle with its own specific features.\n", "The size of the equipment, and particularly the height and diameter, is important in determining the possibility of flow channeling that would reduce the contact area between the liquid and vapor streams. If flow channeling is suspected to be occurring, a redistribution plate is often necessary to, as the name indicates, redistribute the liquid flow evenly to reestablish a higher contact area.\n", "The blade is usually made from a medium-carbon steel in varying weights and lengths, but typically long. Blades are straight near the handle but have an increasingly strong curve towards the end. The blade is generally sharpened only on the inside of the curve, but double-edged billhooks, or \"broom hooks\", also have a straight secondary edge on the back.\n", "Section::::Design.:Features.\n\nMid-to-higher end North American dishwashers often come with hard food disposal units, which behave like miniature garbage (waste) disposal units that eliminate large pieces of food waste from the wash water. One manufacturer that is known for omitting hard food disposals is Bosch, a German brand; however, Bosch does so in order to reduce noise. If the larger items of food waste are removed before placing in the dishwasher, pre-rinsing is not necessary even without integrated waste disposal units.\n", "The variables and design considerations for strippers are many. Among them are the entering conditions, the degree of recovery of the solute needed, the choice of the stripping agent and its flow, the operating conditions, the number of stages, the heat effects, and the type and size of the equipment.\n\nThe degree of recovery is often determined by environmental regulations, such as for volatile organic compounds like chloroform.\n", "Usually about 5 cm to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) long, a fluting knife has a small blade that is very straight. Fluting knives are ideal for small tasks such as decorating and peeling.\n\nSection::::Specialty knives.\n\nCertain knives are specialized for a particular food. For example, oyster knives are necessary to shuck oysters (which cannot safely be opened otherwise), but are not used outside of shellfish.\n\nSection::::Specialty knives.:Tomato.\n\nA tomato knife is a small knife with a serrated blade. Typically about the size of a utility knife, tomato knives are ideal for cutting through the tough skin and soft flesh of tomatoes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08238	how come we are told that flat shoes or ballet pumps in women causes foot problems, but it doesn't seem to in men?	Women's "flats" are really flat. They tend to not have much cushion in the sole and not much in the way of arch support. This is what causes foot problems. Men's dress shoes may not be the most comfortable in the world, but they are more cushioned and have more arch support (and a wider toe box, which I'm jealous of). In addition, they tend to be the type of shoes that one wears with socks, which may not be the case for women's shoes.	[ "This leaves humans more vulnerable to medical problems that are caused by poor leg and foot alignments. Also, the wearing of shoes, sneakers and boots can impede proper alignment and movement within the ankle and foot. For example, High-heeled footwear are known to throw off the natural weight balance (this can also affect the lower back). For the sake of posture, flat soles with no heels are advised.\n", "Female hormone estrogen and genetic inheritance are the two primary factors behind the weak ligaments of bunion feet. Bunion deformity was found more common in people wearing shoes by a study in Hong Kong and increased in Japan due to changing in footwear to Western style. Aging, degeneration and trauma have also been attributed to weakening of the responsible ligaments.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "Section::::Womenswear.\n\nPumps for women are usually heeled. The shape has varied through time. In the UK, a closed toe and wide (non-stiletto) heel have been worn by the very fashion-conscious, but most still wore stilettos of mainly 'kitten' height to medium height.\n\nIn the UK, outside the fashion trade, the term \"pumps\" would normally imply flat or low-heel dancing or ballerina pumps, or even rubber-soled canvas plimsolls. In the U.S., \"pumps\" exclusively refers to women's shoes with a kitten or higher heel.\n", "In 2015, a group of women were turned away from a film première at the Cannes Film Festival in France for wearing flat shoes, including a woman physically unable to wear heels due to an operation on one of her feet. The women complained that this was a sexist policy which forced women into a stereotyped appearance; festival organisers later responded that there was no official policy on footwear and stated that they would remind red carpet officials of this.\n\nSection::::Feminist attitudes.:Dress codes.\n", "Three studies (see citations below in Military performance section) of military recruits have shown no evidence of later increased injury, or foot problems, due to flat feet, in a population of people who reach military service age without prior foot problems. However, these studies cannot be used to judge possible future damage from this condition when diagnosed at younger ages. They also cannot be applied to persons whose flat feet are associated with foot symptoms, or certain symptoms in other parts of the body (such as the leg or back) possibly referable to the foot.\n\nSection::::Children.\n", "It has not been popular for men to wear high heels since the late 18th century. Some men see the cultural norm, which often mandates that women must wear heels to look professional, as completely unproblematic. However, women report that they are often painful to walk in, and commonly result in negative side effects to joints and veins after prolonged use.\n", "Section::::Possible health impacts.:Postural Effects.\n", "Some women have challenged the expectation that women should wear high heels in formal social situations. In 2015, a group of women were turned away from a film première at the Cannes Film Festival in France for wearing flat shoes, including a woman physically unable to wear heels due to an operation on one of her feet. The women complained that this was a sexist policy which forced women into a stereotyped appearance; festival organisers later responded that there was no official policy on footwear and stated that they would remind red carpet officials of this.\n", "Increased risk of developing knee and hip osteoarthritis was found among those who work with manual handling (e.g. lifting), have physically demanding work, walk at work, and have climbing tasks at work (e.g. climb stairs or ladders). With hip osteoarthritis in particular, increased risk of development over time was found among those who work in bent or twisted positions. For knee osteoarthritis in particular, increased risk was found among those who work in a kneeling or squatting position, experience heavy lifting in combination with a kneeling or squatting posture, and work standing up. Women and men have similar occupational risks for the development of osteoarthritis.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nThe most common cause of foot pain is wearing ill fitting shoes. Women often wear tight shoes that are narrow and constrictive, and thus are most prone to foot problems. Tight shoes often cause overcrowding of toes and result in a variety of structural defects. The next most common cause of foot disease is overuse or traumatic injuries.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The long-term effect of these gait changes due to footwear on growth and development are currently unknown. The impact of footwear on gait should be considered when assessing children’s gait and evaluating the effect of shoe or in-shoe interventions.\n\nChildren who go barefoot have a lower incidence of flat feet and deformity while having greater foot flexibility than children who wear shoes.\n\nSection::::Medical problems.\n", "From New York in 1936, the Associated Press observed that \"in recent years well-dressed men have been discarding spats because they have become the property of the rank and file.\" A revival of high-top shoes with cloth uppers was forecast to replace them.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSymptoms usually include:\n\nBULLET::::- Knee buckles and can no longer support your weight\n\nBULLET::::- Kneecap slips off to the side\n\nBULLET::::- Knee catches during movement\n\nBULLET::::- Pain in the front of the knee that increases with activity\n\nBULLET::::- Pain when sitting\n\nBULLET::::- Stiffness\n\nBULLET::::- Creaking or cracking sounds during movement\n\nBULLET::::- Swelling\n\nPatellar subluxation was once thought to occur mainly in women, due to the frequency of genu valgum and lax ligaments. However, now the frequency of this condition in any athletic person, man or woman, is apparent.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Conservative Treatment.\n", "Patients with foot deformities may benefit from corrective surgery, which, however, is usually a last resort. Most such surgeries include straightening and pinning the toes, lowering the arch, and sometimes, fusing the ankle joint to provide stability. Recovering from these surgeries is oftentimes long and difficult. Proper foot care including custom-made shoes and leg braces may minimize discomfort and increase function.\n\nWhile no medicines are reported to treat the disorder, patients are advised to avoid certain medications as they may aggravate the symptoms.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Osteotomies are either used in conjunction with arthroplasty or by themselves to correct misalignment.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nDetermining the incidence can be difficult. In addition there is a wide margin in diagnostic results. A German study comparing two methods resulted in twice the usual rate for one method. The condition is eight times more frequent in females than in males.\n", "Most flexible flat feet are asymptomatic, and do not cause pain. In these cases, there is usually no cause for concern. Flat feet were formerly a physical-health reason for service-rejection in many militaries. However, three military studies on asymptomatic adults (see section below), suggest that persons with asymptomatic flat feet are at least as tolerant of foot stress as the population with various grades of arch. Asymptomatic flat feet are no longer a service disqualification in the U.S. military, but symptomatic flat feet are cause for disqualification during the enlistment process.\n", "Many medical professionals can diagnose a flat foot by examining the patient standing or just looking at them. On going up onto tip toe the deformity will correct when this is a flexible flat foot in a child with lax joints. Such correction is not seen in adults with a rigid flat foot.\n", "Section::::Military performance.\n", "BULLET::::- Incorrect posture can have a strong impact on available strength arm strength pipetting\n\nBULLET::::- Elbow strength pipetting\n\nUnlike traditional axial pipettes, ergonomic pipetting can affect posture and prevent common pipetting injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis and other musculoskeletal disorders. To be \"ergonomically correct\" significant changes to traditional pipetting postures are essential, like:\n\nminimizing forearm and wrist rotations, keeping a low arm and elbow height and relaxing the shoulders and upper arms.\n\nSection::::Pipette stand.\n", "It is generally assumed by running professionals (primarily including some physical trainers, podiatrists, and shoe manufacturers) that a person with flat feet tends to overpronate in the running form. However, some also assert that persons with flat feet may have an underpronating if they are not a neutral gait. With standard running shoes, these professionals claim, a person who overpronates in his or her running form may be more susceptible to shin splints, back problems, and tendonitis in the knee. Running in shoes with extra medial support or using special shoe inserts, orthoses, may help correct one's running form by reducing pronation and may reduce risk of injury.\n", "Transfemoral amputees, on average, have more variability in stride length and walking speed, more asymmetry in temporal measures between limbs, and have an overall slower walking speed than transtibial amputees.\n\nSection::::Compensatory Behaviors.\n", "Because wear on the hip joint traces to the structures that support it (the posture of the legs, and ultimately, the feet), proper fitting shoes with adequate support are important to preventing GTPS. For someone who has flat feet, wearing proper orthotic inserts and replacing them as often as recommended are also important preventive measures.\n\nStrength in the core and legs is also important to posture, so physical training also helps to prevent GTPS. But it is equally important to avoid exercises that damage the hip.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Flat feet (Pes planus foot) essentially means that the arch inside the foot is flat. This very common painless disorder may occur at birth or after pregnancy. Flat feet generally do not cause problems but may sometimes cause the foot to rotate inwards (pronation). There are orthotic shoe insoles (foot orthotics) that help correct flat feet. Surgery does not correct flat feet and should be avoided.\n", "BULLET::::- Women are more likely to suffer from osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. The density of bones depends upon the stresses that are put on them through exercise. Exercise and activity in childhood helps to build up higher density bones. Although in Britain women's bones are less dense even before menopause, in some African societies, men and women are equally susceptible to osteoporosis.\n\nInfectious disease prevalence varies - this is largely due to cultural and exposure factors. In particular the WHO notes that:\n", "A doctor who specializes in the treatment of the feet practices podiatry and is called a podiatrist. A pedorthist specializes in the use and modification of footwear to treat problems related to the lower limbs.\n\nFractures of the foot include:\n\nBULLET::::- Lisfranc fracture – in which one or all of the metatarsals are displaced from the tarsus\n\nBULLET::::- Jones fracture – a fracture of the fifth metatarsal\n\nBULLET::::- March fracture – a fracture of the distal third of one of the metatarsals occurring because of recurrent stress\n\nBULLET::::- Calcaneal fracture\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Men's shoes are completely flat." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Men's shoes are more cushioned and have more arch support." ]
2018-01386	Why is it hard to speak when we are emotional?	Emotions are caused by chemicals being released in the brain. These chemicals can cause love, panic, fear, nostalgia, etc. When surprising information hits your brain, it can get flooded by these chemicals and can hinder other non essential brain operations.	[ "Section::::Validity.\n\nSome studies show that there is no link between expressed emotion and first episode psychosis, illness severity, age of onset, and illness length.\n\nThere is also literature that links EE to the course and outcome of numerous major childhood psychiatric disorders. One study showed that one component, high parental dimensions of criticism (CRIT), can be used as an index of problematic parent–child interactions, though the quantifiable effects of emotional overinvolvement (EOI), though doubtlessly existent and having huge effects, are not as salient in that study and need to be observed by further studies.\n", "One influence on emotional granularity is language, because one's ability to access emotional language in their memory impacts their labels when making emotional judgments. The speed and accuracy that one exhibits when verbalizing discrete emotion labels for oneself or another depends on the available emotion words.\n\nSection::::Experiments.\n\nTo further research this concept, studies are being conducted to unveil what components contribute to one’s level of emotional granularity. Some of the aspects being looked at are an individual’s emotional intelligence, the method of self-reporting, and making emotional judgments about others.\n\nSection::::Experiments.:Experience sampling.\n", "According to the biosocial model, individuals with borderline personality disorder develop intense emotional expression in part because they have been reinforced throughout development. For instance, a teenager with heightened emotional sensitivity is not taken seriously by her family until she threatens a suicide attempt. If her family responds with attention to extreme emotional expressions, she will learn to continue to express emotions in this way. Venting is another interpersonal emotion regulation strategy that is associated with personality disorder symptoms.\n\nSection::::In psychopathology.:Psychotherapy.\n", "BULLET::::5. Questioning: asking more information or clarifying things about the experience\n\nThese responses could vary depending on the magnitude of the emotional episode heard. Subjects who listened to highly emotional experiences exhibited less verbal expression, attempted less de-dramatization, and much more nonverbal comforting.\n", "Studies have found that some emotions, such as fear, joy and anger, are portrayed at a higher frequency than emotions such as sadness.\n\nBULLET::::- Anger: Anger can be divided into two types: \"anger\" and \"hot anger\". In comparison to neutral speech, anger is produced with a lower pitch, higher intensity, more energy (500 Hz) across the vocalization, higher first formant (first sound produced) and faster attack times at voice onset (the start of speech). \"Hot anger\", in contrast, is produced with a higher, more varied pitch, and even greater energy (2000 Hz).\n", "Rhea Zakich, then a young mother from Garden Grove, California, was forced not to speak for months after her doctor found polyps on her vocal cords. Although the polyps were removed and she made a full recovery, the experience affected her: unable to speak for that long period, and afraid that the problem might return, she felt emotionally estranged from her family. This led her to the realization that, as she put it, \"we all spend so much time talking... but we never really communicate.\"\n", "Emotional prosody was considered by Charles Darwin in \"The Descent of Man\" to predate the evolution of human language: \"Even monkeys express strong feelings in different tones – anger and impatience by low, – fear and pain by high notes.\" Native speakers listening to actors reading emotionally neutral text while projecting emotions correctly recognized happiness 62% of the time, anger 95%, surprise 91%, sadness 81%, and neutral tone 76%. When a database of this speech was processed by computer, segmental features allowed better than 90% recognition of happiness and anger, while suprasegmental prosodic features allowed only 44%–49% recognition. The reverse was true for surprise, which was recognized only 69% of the time by segmental features and 96% of the time by suprasegmental prosody. In typical conversation (no actor voice involved), the recognition of emotion may be quite low, of the order of 50%, hampering the complex interrelationship function of speech advocated by some authors. However, even if emotional expression through prosody cannot always be consciously recognized, tone of voice may continue to have subconscious effects in conversation. This sort of expression stems not from linguistic or semantic effects, and can thus be isolated from traditional linguistic content. Aptitude of the average person to decode conversational implicature of emotional prosody has been found to be slightly less accurate than traditional facial expression discrimination ability; however, specific ability to decode varies by emotion. These emotional have been determined to be ubiquitous across cultures, as they are utilized and understood across cultures. Various emotions, and their general experimental identification rates, are as follows:\n", "Non-verbal leakage is a prominent concept in the study of body language. Others are often able to pick up any incongruity between your verbal and non-verbal messages, which can be confusing and can cause cognitive dissonance.\n\nEven when an individual attempts to suppress his own non-verbal leakage, there are some aspects that are out of his voluntary control and will still be expressed despite efforts to the contrary. As many as 98.3% of participants in studies of deception and facial expressions have been seen to express emotional leakage in some capacity, especially when trying to conceal a high-intensity emotion.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "In going with Darwin's inhibition hypothesis, Ekman proposed that those facial movements that cannot be voluntary controlled when one is experiencing intense emotions can be seen through micro-expressions; such expressions are almost impossible to see with the naked eye because of their usual expression time of less than half of a second.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Inhibition hypothesis.:Role of intensity of emotion.\n\nEmotional leakage has been found to be very difficult to prevent or conceal, and high-intensity emotions are much more likely to result in unintended emotional leakage compared to low-intensity emotions.\n\nSection::::Relationship to mental disorders.\n", "Pressure of speech is a classic hallmark of mania and is often seen during manic periods in patients with bipolar disorder. The pace of the speech indicates an underlying thought disorder known as “Flight of ideas” wherein the flowing of ideas and information through one's mind is so fast that it is difficult to follow their train of thought. This is also tied to an inability to focus on one topic or task.\n", "The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) is a subdivision of the prefrontal cortex. Its involvement in modulating existing behavior and emotional output given contextual demands has been studied extensively using cognitive reappraisal studies and emotion-attention tasks. Cognitive reappraisal studies indicate the vlFPC’s role in reinterpreting stimuli, and reducing or augmenting responses. Studies using emotion-attention tasks demonstrate the vlFPC’s function in ignoring emotional distractions while the brain is engaged in performing other tasks.\n\nSection::::Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC).\n", "An alternative measures of expressed emotion is the Five Minutes Speech Sample (FMSS), where the relatives are asked to talk about the patient for five uninterrupted minutes. Although this measure requires more training, it becomes a quicker form of assessment than the CFI.\n\nSection::::High expressed emotion.\n", "In a large 19th-century mansion with red walls and carpets, Agnes is dying of uterine cancer. Her sisters, Maria and Karin, arrive at their childhood home and take turns with the maid, Anna, watching over Agnes. Anna, more religious than the sisters, prays after she lost her young daughter. While Agnes' sisters remain emotionally distant, Anna comforts the suffering Agnes by baring her breasts and holding her at night. When Agnes' doctor David visits, he sees his former lover Maria. Maria remembers their affair and her failed marriage with her husband Joakim, who stabbed himself non-fatally in response to the adultery. David tells her that she has become more indifferent. Agnes remembers their mother, who neglected and teased her and favoured Maria, with greater understanding and recalls sharing a moment of sorrow with her.\n", "When working alongside Howarth, Lozano never felt as though she was simply reciting lines. She said, \"I feel like we're just talking, listening and responding to each other. And that makes it relatively easy to concentrate. I feel like we're connecting.\" She called on her imagination, adding, \"I do a lot of substituting. I think, 'What if Todd were a real person in my life?' The situations are so dramatic that in some ways it's easy to feel worked up.\"\n", "Some researchers have argued for disembodied cognition when it comes to processing emotion. The idea of disembodied cognition comes from research, which shows that less emotion is shown by a bilingual person when using a second language. This may illustrate that less emotionality is attached to second language, which then leads to the reduction of biases such as decision bias or framing bias. One study examining the anxiety effects of L2 words such as \"death\" found that those with lower levels of proficiency in L2 were more likely than L1 speakers to experience feelings of anxiety. Because the emotion is less interpreted during second language processing, speakers will be more likely to ignore or fail to comprehend the emotion of a situation when making decisions or analyzing situations. However, others have found that such and similar results may be due not so much to an emotions-based explanation, as the fact that speaking in a second/foreign language seems to release the speaker from the social norms, limitations and political correctness imposed by their mother tongue.\n", "The lack of social and emotional cues over virtual communication platforms can result in increased instances of misinterpreting emotion and intentions. Kruger, Epley, Parker, and Ng (2005) found that individuals overestimate both their ability to clearly relay and interpret emotions via email. They attribute this inability to relay emotions effectively to others over CMC to a combination of egocentrism and a lack of paralinguistic cues including gestures, emphasis, and intonations.\n", "Fear specifically causes heightened arousal in liars, which manifests in more frequent blinking, pupil dilation, speech disturbances, and a higher pitched voice. The liars that experience guilt have been shown to make attempts at putting distance between themselves and the deceptive communication, producing “nonimmediacy cues” These can be verbal or physical, including speaking in more indirect ways and showing an inability to maintain eye contact with their conversation partners. Another cue for detecting deceptive speech is the tone of the speech itself. Streeter, Krauss, Geller, Olson, and Apple (1977) have assessed that fear and anger, two emotions widely associated with deception, cause greater arousal than grief or indifference, and note that the amount of stress one feels is directly related to the frequency of the voice.\n", "Assertiveness training encourages people to not engage in fruitless back-and-forths or power struggles with the emotional blackmailer but instead to repeat a neutral statement, such as \"I can see how you feel that way,\" or, if pressured to eat, say \"No thank you, I'm not hungry.\" They are taught to keep their statements within certain boundaries in order not to capitulate to coercive nagging, emotional blackmail, or bullying.\n\nSection::::Recovery.\n", "BULLET::::- Sadness: In comparison to neutral speech, sad emotions are produced with a higher pitch, less intensity but more vocal energy (2000 Hz), longer duration with more pauses, and a lower first formant.\n\nSection::::Perception of vocal emotion.\n", "Charles Darwin hypothesized that humans cannot consciously control strong emotions and therefore cannot inhibit the facial muscles associated with intense emotions, thus limiting our ability to voluntary control our non-verbal facial cues associated with intense emotion. The results of multiple studies of non-verbal leakage have been seen to support Darwin's inhibition hypothesis. Studies have also found that it may be impossible to completely hide one's emotions because of the non-verbal leakage that is involuntarily expressed, especially in the face, when one is creating a falsified emotion.\n", "Tolerance of ambiguity: Complex emotions are likely to occur because of emotional labor (the process of controlling emotions during interactions at work). Bounded emotionality entails tolerance of these complex emotions. Contradictory feelings must coexist. This constitutes a new norm that wants to be aware of different positions, and even those directly opposite among its organizational members. \n", "Hence, according to Matthews, emotional literacy is a social process that takes place in a social setting, is something that is never really achieved, and has to be seen in conjunction with others. This indicates that key components of emotional literacy, which is a continual process, that includes dialogue, acceptance of ambiguity and the ability to reflect. Judgments are made on a person's individual-in-group emotional literacy. He argues:\n", "Section::::Interactions with other phenomena.:Job performance.\n", "Winokur (1978) is one example of research about echoic relations.\n\nSection::::Tacts.\n", "A particularly interesting response to stress is talking to an imaginary friend. A child may feel angry with a parent or their peers who they feel brought this change on them. They need someone to talk to but it definitely would not be the person with whom they are angry. That is when the imaginary friend comes in. They “talk” to this imaginary friend but in doing so they cut off communication with the real people around them.\n\nSection::::Social impacts of stress.:Social support and health.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14146	How does a pull-start motor operate such that it sometimes needs many pulls to start it?	The smaller the engine, the more exact the balance has to be between the air, fuel and spark. Also, bigger engines have electric starters that spin the motor faster and longer allowing for the mixture to hit the right combo to explode. Modern car engines have the elements computer controlled so a multicylinder car engine will fire right away--all things equal. I've been a mechanic my whole life, but small engines, like mowers and weed trimmers are always a pain. Brand new, they should fire in 2 or 3 pulls, once the gas gets flowing. But, after a while, dust gets in the carb, the gas gets watered down due to condensation, or the gas goes bad because its got ethanol in it ( worse idea Congress ever had, less power, less mpg, and erosion of the internal fuel delivery system). Also, on a 2 cycle engine like a weed trimmer, gas has to be mixed with 2 cycle oil in a specific ratio to combust and to keep the engine from overheating. A small engine may fire once but until it gets a constant consistent delivery of fuel air and spark, it won't keep running. Each of those elements have a myriad of problems that can arise. On your 27th pull, everything finally mixed to create an explosion every 2nd rpm (2 cycle) or every 4th (4cycle) rpm. And, the engine has to go through enough cycles to get everything functioning before it can keep running on its own. Always use fresh fuel, drain the fuel before storing for more than a month (if using car gasoline) and replace the air filter as needed. The nice thing is that the carburetors are usually cheap enough on eBay, that it's easier and more effective to simply replace the carb, than to clean it or rebuild it. Feeling your frustration....	[ "DOL starting is sometimes used to start small water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor belts. In the case of an asynchronous motor, such as the 3-phase squirrel-cage motor, the motor will draw a high starting current until it has run up to full speed. This starting current is typically 6-7 times greater than the full load current. To reduce the inrush current, larger motors will have reduced-voltage starters or variable speed drives in order to minimise voltage dips to the power supply.\n", "The majority of 1857 model Waltham movements are keywind from the rear and keyset from the front. A small amount of the total production of 1857 model movements were fitted with a stemwind mechanism from the factory. The earliest stemwind 1857 movements were fitted with no reversing clutch on the winding stem, and had no setting mechanism; these early movements required using a key to set the time. Later stemwind movements were lever setting, with a unique design of set lever which pivoted out from the movement rather than pulling out. Later 1857 movements also added a reversing clutch, a feature ubiquitous on all subsequent Waltham stemwind watches. All stemwind 1857 movements have the winding stem located at 3:00.\n", "Reduced-voltage, star-delta or soft starters connect the motor to the power supply through a voltage reduction device and increases the applied voltage gradually or in steps.Two or more contactors may be used to provide reduced voltage starting of a motor. By using an autotransformer or a series inductance, a lower voltage is present at the motor terminals, reducing starting torque and inrush current. Once the motor has come up to some fraction of its full-load speed, the starter switches to full voltage at the motor terminals. Since the autotransformer or series reactor only carries the heavy motor starting current for a few seconds, the devices can be much smaller compared to continuously rated equipment. The transition between reduced and full voltage may be based on elapsed time, or triggered when a current sensor shows the motor current has begun to reduce. An autotransformer starter was patented in 1908.\n", "A direct on line starter can be used if the high inrush current of the motor does not cause excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. The maximum size of a motor allowed on a direct on line starter may be limited by the supply utility for this reason. For example, a utility may require rural customers to use reduced-voltage starters for motors larger than 10 kW.\n", "Section::::Easy start feature.\n\nMost modern engines have an easy start feature where one of the engine valves is held open by a special cam while the rope is being pulled, avoiding the need to overcome compression. This cam is deactivated at the end of the \"pull\" so that the engine can fire and run by itself.\n", "BULLET::::- As the motor picks up speed counter-emf is built up; the arm is moved slowly to short.\n\nSection::::DC motor starters.:Four-point starter.\n\nThe four-point starter eliminates the drawback of the three-point starter. In addition to the same three points that were in use with the three-point starter, the other side of the line, L1, is the fourth point brought to the starter when the arm is moved from the \"Off\" position. The coil of the holding magnet is connected across the line. The holding magnet and starting resistors function identical as in the three-point starter.\n", "As soon as the ignition is switched on current flows to the first \"Startix\" solenoid and current flows from battery to starter. The generator delivers current once the engine starts and part of it goes to a second \"Startix\" solenoid that switches off the current from battery to starter. If the engine and generator stop, then that second solenoid switches on the current from the battery to the starter. There are many further refinements associated with the plain relay.\n\nSection::::Market.\n", "Small engines, used to power lawn mowers, portable generators, and lawn and garden tractors, are equipped with a governor to limit fuel to the engine to a maximum safe speed when unloaded and to maintain a relatively constant speed despite changes in loading. In the case of generator applications, the engine speed must be closely controlled so the output frequency of the generator will remain reasonably constant.\n\nSmall engine governors are typically one of three types:\n", "Section::::Diesel engines.:Starter motor.\n", "A \"direct on line\" (DOL) or \"across the line\" starter applies the full line voltage to the motor terminals, the starters or cubicle locations, can usually be found on an ELO drawing. This is the simplest type of motor starter. A DOL motor starter also contains protection devices, and in some cases, condition monitoring. Smaller sizes of direct on-line starters are manually operated; larger sizes use an electromechanical contactor (relay) to switch the motor circuit. Solid-state direct on line starters also exist.\n", "Max Korndörfer claimed four methods of using an autotransformer for reduced voltage motor starting. Three of the methods are not used by the industry and it is the 4th method of starting that has been in use for more than a hundred years\n\nThe fourth method is with the star switch closed and as the motor accelerates a change over is made from the reduced voltage tap on the autotransformer to direct-on-line.\n\nThe starting sequence is :-\n\nBULLET::::- The Star switch is closed\n\nBULLET::::- The Start switch is closed to energise the autotransformer\n", "Ribbon movement, which also occurs at every keypress, automatically reverses direction when there is no ribbon left on the feed reel; two mechanical sensors, situated next to each wheel, move when the ribbon is put under tension (indicating ribbon end), attaching the appropriate wheel to the ribbon transport mechanism and detaching the other.\n", "1541 drives at power up always default to device #8. If multiple drives in a chain are used, then the startup procedure is to power on the first drive in the chain, alter its device number via a software command to the highest number in the chain (if three drives were used, then the first drive in the chain would be set to device #10), then power on the next drive, alter its device number to the next lowest, and repeat the procedure until the final drive at the end of the chain was powered on and left as device #8.\n", "Mounted inside a pull switch, there could be two types of two-position toggle switches. (In both cases the stable physical open- or closed -situation would be switch in outer and string in upper position.) One type would switch to closed (alternatively open) already during the initial pull in the string. The other type would switch to closed (or open) only when releasing \"after\" a full pull. With the first type, the weight of the string and handle could accidentally switch the load intermittently on and off, when still around the initial position (depending on the internal spring). This could potentially increase the danger of overheating in the switch.\n", "When the \"start\" button is pressed, the motor is not powered directly, rather the electromagnet in the contactor is energized. The magnetic switch in the contactor then engages, simultaneously switching current to the motor and providing self-sustaining current to maintain its own state. Thus when the start button is released, the magnetic switch remains engaged and the motor remains running.\n\nPressing the \"stop\" button breaks the circuit to the contactor which consequently de-energizes its electromagnet thus cutting current to the motor.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Pullback motor\n\nA pullback motor (also \"pull back\" or \"pull-back\") is a simple clockwork motor used in toy cars. A patent for them was granted to Bertrand 'Fred' Francis in 1952 as a keyless clockwork motor.\n", "For example, the handwheel of a typical CNC control will move any of the slides of the machine by one minimum increment, such as 1 micrometre or 1 ten-thousandth of an inch, for each pulse, and the handwheel will give one ratchet-like click or other haptic click to confirm to the user that a single increment occurred. Several selector switches control the handwheel's output: one allows each of the machine's axes (X, Y, Z, and so on) to be selected in turn; another shifts through several ranges of output, so that one click of the wheel is either one minimum increment, 10 times that, or 100 times that. \n", "Typically however it is the size of the maximum load that has to be connected and the acceptable maximum voltage drop which determines the set size, not the ratings themselves. If the set is required to start motors, then the set will have to be at least three times the largest motor, which is normally started first. This means it will be unlikely to operate at anywhere near the ratings of the chosen set.\n", "The motor continues to increase its speed until the motor torque and the load torque balance each other and a steady speed is achieved. At this stage switch 2 is opened and momentarily the motor is supplied by even lower voltage, because the windings of the autotransformer act as inductors connected in series with motor. This time is short - just enough to disconnect the switch 1 and engage switch 3, which connects the full voltage to the motor. Further increase in speed begins and motor reaches its full rated speed.\n", "Dahlander pole changing motor\n\nA Dahlander motor (also known as a pole changing motor, dual- or two speed-motor) is a type of multispeed induction motor, in which the speed of the motor is varied by altering the number of poles; this is achieved by altering the wiring connections inside the motor. The motor may have fixed or variable torque depending on the stator winding. It is named after its inventor Robert Dahlander (1870–1935).\n\nSection::::Invention.\n", "BULLET::::- The motor is connected at a selected reduced voltage tap on the autotransformer and starts to turn and accelerate\n\nBULLET::::- After a predetermined period the Star switch will open\n\nBULLET::::- After a milli-second delay the Run switch will close, connecting full line voltage to the motor\n\nBULLET::::- The Start switch will then open and the motor will be at operational speed\n\nSince 1920, the autotransformer starter has been the most popular device for reducing the starting current inrush for induction motors; it provides maximum starting torque with minimum line current.\n", "At this point the \"soft start\" is ended and motor can work under full load. The autotransformer is no longer required and is de-energized by opening switch 1 . The motor is supplied directly from the three-phase network. To stop the motor, switch 3 is opened.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n\nThe Korndorfer starter limits significantly the inrush current. It is used for large motors, in which start by direct connection to the network is not possible. For large motors also the star-delta starter cannot be used, especially if they are started with a significant load.\n", "Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the rotor from stopped to synchronous speed, these motors normally require some sort of special feature to get started. Some include a squirrel-cage structure to bring the rotor close to synchronous speed. Various other designs use a small induction motor (which may share the same field coils and rotor as the synchronous motor) or a very light rotor with a one-way mechanism (to ensure that the rotor starts in the \"forward\" direction). In the latter instance, applying AC power creates chaotic (or seemingly chaotic) jumping movement back and forth; such a motor will always start, but lacking the anti-reversal mechanism, the direction it runs is unpredictable. The Hammond organ tone generator used a non-self-starting synchronous motor (until comparatively recently), and had an auxiliary conventional shaded-pole starting motor. A spring-loaded auxiliary manual starting switch connected power to this second motor for a few seconds.\n", "For large engines, muscle powered barring is sufficiently difficult that \"barring engines\" are frequently installed. These are small engines with gear teeth cut to mate with the teeth on the flywheel. Generally, the drive gears of the barring engine are designed to automatically disengage if the engine begins running under its own power while the barring gears are engaged.\n\nSection::::Company history.\n", "As the ignition system is normally arranged to produce sparks before top dead centre there is a risk of the engine kicking back during hand starting, to avoid this problem one of the two magnetos used in a typical aero engine ignition system is fitted with an 'impulse coupling', this spring-loaded device delays the spark until top dead centre and also increases the rotational speed of the magneto to produce a stronger spark. When the engine fires, the impulse coupling no longer operates and the second magneto is switched on.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23098	How can we make an educated guess about the time it is when we wake up without seeing a clock?	Light through the window puts you in the ballpark. But also take into consideration the times you’ve been out by a mile. I’m a shift worker but on days for a project and after 2 weeks my body now wakes me up 5-10 minutes before the alarm goes off, every flipping day, even on weekends.	[ "Section::::Case studies.:\"Maison\" study.\n", "The English word \"clock\" comes from an Old French word for \"bell,\" for the striking feature of early clocks was a greater concern than their dials. Shakespeare's Sonnet XII begins, \"When I do count the clock that tells the time.\" Even after the introduction of the clock face, clocks were costly, and found mostly in the homes of aristocrats. The vast majority of urban dwellers had to rely on clock towers, and outside the sight of their dials or the sound of their bells, clock time held no sway. Clock towers did define the time of day, at least for those who could hear and see them. As the saying goes, \"a person with a clock always knows what time it is; a person with two clocks is never sure.\"\n", "The accuracy of the clock was measured on 5 May 2011 for a period of 3 hours and 22 minutes. The clock's accuracy varied from +10 to -40 seconds, but it is very hard to make any predictions on the day-to-day accuracy of the clock.\n", "A rare item of great interest held by the Bachelors' Club is a wooden instrument known as a 'Nocturnal', which means 'night time'. This artifact is related to a Moondial and allows you to tell the time at night using a combination of the Pole star and one other star. You set the instrument to the right time of year, then look for the Pole Star through the hole in the middle. Adjust the index arm to align with one of the 'pointer stars', which seem to point to the Pole Star. Where the arm meets the hour scale, you read off the time. The provenance of this nocturnal is not recorded.\n", "The perception of time is temporarily suspended during sleep, or more often during REM sleep. This can be attributed to the altered state of consciousness associated with sleep where the person is kept unaware of their surroundings, which would make it difficult to remain informed of the passing of time. When the person awakes in the morning, they have the memory of going to bed the night before, but new memories are rarely made during sleep.\n", "Let us assume that we wand to modelize an elevator in a building with ten floors. Our model may have formula_1 clocks formula_2, such that the value of the clock formula_3 is the time someone had wait for the elevator at floor formula_4. This clock is started when someone calls the elevator on floor formula_4 (and the elevator was not already called on this floor since last time it visited that floor). This clock can be turned off when the elevator arrives at floor formula_4. In this example, we actually need ten distinct clocks because we need to track ten independent events. Another clock formula_7 may be used to check how much time an elevator spent at a particular floor.\n", "Section::::Reason for accuracy.\n", "At the age of eleven Simon began to study horology, showing some inherent aptitude for it. A year later, Benjamin hired an Englishman named Morris to teach horology -- particularly to Simon. Years afterward, Simon revealed that Morris did not actually know much on the matter and that his brother Benjamin had been his actual mentor. After one more year, Simon built his first tall clock.\n", "The Cronin House in John Bellairs's hometown of Marshall, Michigan was the inspiration for his book. The house received a historical plaque in 1992. With the film adaptation debuting in 2018, Marshall's population embraced the fame with walking tours and other activities related to the book and its film.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Calibration.:Tip calibration.:Total evidence dating.\n", "Not a servant so faithful he found;br\n\nFor it wasted no time, and had but one desire —br\n\nAt the close of each week to be wound.br\n\nAnd it kept in its place — not a frown upon its face,br\n\nAnd its hands never hung by its side.br\n\nBut it stopped short — never to go again —br\n\nWhen the old man died.\n\nbr\n\nIt rang an alarm in the dead of the night —br\n\nAn alarm that for years had been dumb;br\n\nAnd we knew that his spirit was pluming for flight —br\n", "Vole clock\n\nThe Vole clock is a method of dating archaeological strata using vole teeth. Investigations at sites across Europe have allowed construction of a detailed framework of how different vole species evolved over the last million years, and where and when specific species became extinct.\n\nFor many sites it is considered the most accurate way of dating, and also provides information on the climate and local environment e.g. in the Pleistocene. Dr. Francis Wenban-Smith of Southampton University, a Stone Age specialist on assignment for Oxford Archaeology, described the Vole clock as \"one of the wonders of modern science\".\n", "Section::::Recent accuracy measurement.\n", "For every two different events formula_8 and formula_9 occurring in the same process, and formula_10 being the timestamp for a certain event formula_11, it is necessary that formula_12 never equals formula_13.\n\nTherefore it is necessary that:\n\nBULLET::::- The logical clock be set so that there is a minimum of one clock \"tick\" (increment of the counter) between events formula_8 and formula_9;\n", "Section::::Calibration.:Tip calibration.\n", "Section::::Evolution of methodology.:Posner's letter matching studies.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nA nocturnal is a simple analog computer, made of two or more dials, that will provide the local time based on the time of year and a sighting of Polaris, the North Star, and one or more other stars. In the northern hemisphere, all stars will appear to rotate about the North Star during the night, and their positions, like the progress of the sun, can be used to determine the time. The positions of the stars will change based on the time of year.\n", "In 1845, John Hazelhurst Boneval Latrobe, an American lawyer, inventor and future president of the American Colonization Society, read a \"Memoir of Benjamin Banneker\" at a meeting of the Maryland Historical Society. Latrobe's memoir, presented 39 years after Banneker's death, contains the first known account of Banneker's clock. The memoir stated:It was at this time, when he (Banneker) was about thirty years of age, that he contrived and made a clock, which proved an excellent time–piece. He had seen a watch, but not a clock, such an article having not yet having found its way into the quiet and secluded valley in which he lived. The watch was therefore his model.\n", "According to Robert Lamm, \"Does Anybody Really Know What Time It Is?\" was the first song recorded for their debut album. The song was not released as a single until two tracks from the band's second album, \"Make Me Smile\" and \"25 or 6 to 4\", had become hits. It became the band's third straight Top 10 single, peaking at in the U.S. and No. 2 in Canada. Because the song straddled years in its chart run, it is not ranked on the major U.S. year-end charts. However, in Canada, where it charted higher, it is ranked as both the 59th biggest hit of 1970 and the 37th biggest hit of 1971. \n", "Section::::Adjustments to calculate clock time from a sundial reading.\n", "The first he records occurred in 1898, in which he dreamed of his watch stopping at an exact time before waking up and finding that it had in fact done so. Later dreams appeared to foretell several major disasters; a volcanic eruption in Martinique, a factory fire in Paris, and the derailing of the Flying Scotsman express train from the embankment approaching the Forth Railway Bridge in Scotland.\n", "Section::::Evolution of methodology.:Donders' experiment.\n\nThe first scientist to measure RT in the laboratory was Franciscus Donders (1869). Donders found that simple RT is shorter than recognition RT, and that choice RT is longer than both.\n\nDonders also devised a subtraction method to analyze the time it took for mental operations to take place. By subtracting simple RT from choice RT, for example, it is possible to calculate how much time is needed to make the connection.\n\nThis method provides a way to investigate the cognitive processes underlying simple perceptual-motor tasks, and formed the basis of subsequent developments.\n", "Section::::Interpretation.\n\nAfter the test is completed a \"scorer\" analyzes the data by reviewing the study in 30-second \"epochs\".\n\nThe score consists of the following information:\n\nBULLET::::- Onset of sleep from time the lights were turned off: this is called \"sleep onset latency\" and normally is less than 20 minutes. (Note that determining \"sleep\" and \"awake\" is based solely on the EEG. Patients sometimes feel they were awake when the EEG shows they were sleeping. This may be because of sleep state misperception, drug effects on brain waves, or individual differences in brain waves.)\n", "I Didn't Know What Time It Was\n\n\"I Didn't Know What Time It Was\" is a popular song composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Lorenz Hart for the musical \"Too Many Girls\" (1939). Early hit versions were recorded by Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw. The Crampton Sisters 1964 revival for the DCP label was a Hot 100 entry.\n", "For home-testing for an unusually low sleep latency and potential sleep deprivation, the authors point to a technique developed by Nathaniel Kleitman, the \"father of sleep research.\" The subject reclines in a quiet, darkened room and drapes a hand holding a spoon over the edge of the bed or chair, placing a plate on the floor beneath the spoon. After checking the time, the subject tries to relax and fall asleep. When sleep is attained, the spoon will fall and strike the plate, awakening the subject, who then checks to see how much time has passed. The number of minutes passed is the sleep onset latency at that particular hour on that particular day.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09941	Who owns the right to a show that's cancelled on a network and are then being shopped around for a new home?	There is no real universal answer. Could be the studio, could be some network, or the producer. Individual rights could be owned by different people/companies like one could own broadcast, streaming, or DVD.	[ "Occasionally, a show may be \"revived\", or brought back into production after being previously cancelled. Such was the case with \"Unforgettable\", a CBS crime drama that was canceled in 2012, but was revived in the summer of 2013. Sometimes, one network may decide to air a series previously cancelled by another network. For example, \"Family Matters\" and \"Step by Step\" both moved from ABC to CBS in its ninth and final season of production. This is an uncommon occurrence, and few programs have successfully made audience gains when changing networks.\n", "Shows that are successful with audiences and advertisers receive authorization from the network to continue production, until the plotline ends (only for scripted shows) or if the contract expires. Those that are not successful are often quickly told to discontinue production by the network, known as \"cancellation\". There are instances of initially low-rated shows surviving cancellation and later becoming highly popular, but these are rare. For the most part, shows that are not immediately or even moderately successful are cancelled by the end of November sweeps, if not shortly thereafter or earlier. Usually if a show is canceled, there is little chance of it ever coming back again especially on the same network it was canceled from; the only show in the U.S. to ever come back from cancellation on the same network is \"Family Guy\" (which was cancelled by Fox in 2002 and was revived by the network in 2005 due to the increased popularity of the series through reruns on cable and DVD releases). However, canceled shows like \"Scrubs\", \"Southland\", \"Medium\" and \"Wonder Woman\" have been picked up by other networks, which is becoming an increasingly common practice; similarly, in the 2010s, some programs cancelled by traditional television networks like \"Arrested Development\", \"Community\" and \"The Mindy Project\" have been picked up or revived by internet television streaming services. It is also somewhat common for series to continue production for the purpose of completing a DVD set, even if these episodes will never air on television (these episodes would, in years past, be \"burned off\" by airing them in less-prominent time slots).\n", "Once a television series reaches a threshold of approximately 88 to 100 episodes, it becomes a candidate to enter reruns in off-network syndication. Reruns are a lucrative business for television producers, who can sell the rights to a \"used\" series without the expenses of producing it (though they may have to pay royalties to the affected parties, depending on union contracts). The sale of previously aired programs to other outlets, including the Internet, television stations outside the United States and traditional off-network syndication, constitutes up to half of an individual show's revenue stream as of 2017, with the other half coming from first-run advertising.\n", "After production, the show is handed over to the television network, which sends it out to its affiliate stations, which broadcast it in the specified broadcast programming time slot. If the Nielsen ratings are good, the show is kept alive as long as possible. If not, the show is usually canceled. The show's creators are then left to shop around remaining episodes, and the possibility of future episodes, to other networks. On especially successful series, the producers sometimes call a halt to a series on their own like \"Seinfeld\", \"The Cosby Show\", \"Corner Gas\", and \"MAS*H\" and end it with a concluding episode, which sometimes is a big series finale.\n", "In some situations, a television series may be revived years after being cancelled. Often this is in the form of a spin-off show featuring new characters (such as \"\" which premiered eighteen years after the original series went off the air). \"Doctor Who\", which was cancelled by the BBC in 1989, was brought back in 2005 as a continuation of the original run of shows. Both franchises also produced spin-off films in the periods they were cancelled. This approach has seen increased exposure in the 2010s, with shows such as \"Girl Meets World\" (a follow-up to \"Boy Meets World\"), \"Fuller House\" (a follow-up to \"Full House\"), \"Will & Grace\" and \"Roseanne \" all returning to television approximately a full generation after the original series aired.\n", "On rare occasions, a series that has not attracted particularly high ratings and has been canceled can be given a reprieve if home video viewership has been particularly strong. This has happened in the cases of \"Family Guy\" in the US and \"Peep Show\" in the UK.\n", "More recently, \"Clueless\" had reasonable success in syndication, especially on cable, even though only 62 episodes had been produced by the time the series ended in 1999. \"Chappelle's Show\" entered syndication despite only producing 33 episodes, five of which were clip shows. Series which have entered the public domain, such as \"Dusty's Trail\", \"Meet Corliss Archer\", and \"Life with Elizabeth\" are sometimes aired regardless of the number of episodes because there is no licensing fee.\n", "BULLET::::- ABC's \"One Life to Live\" and \"All My Children\" were originally owned by their creator, Agnes Nixon, who chose to archive all episodes. However, early episodes of \"AMC\" were only saved as black-and-white kinescopes despite being produced and telecast in color. ABC purchased the shows in late 1974; different sources report that Nixon's archive was either lost in a fire or erased. A few black-and-white kinescopes of both series' early years exist, as well as a few color episodes. ABC began full archiving of these soaps at Nixon's insistence when they expanded from 30 minutes to an hour—\"AMC\" in 1977, and \"OLTL\" in 1978.\n", "Shows whose runs end due to a mutual creative decision by its creators, producers, cast, and the network it airs on (such as \"Seinfeld\", \"The Sopranos\", or \"The Cosby Show\") are not considered to be \"cancelled\" but rather \"concluded\" or \"ended\", with a special last episode called its series finale. Even so, programs that end their runs in this manner are sometimes incorrectly stated to have been cancelled, even if the program was renewed for a final season (such as with \"American Idol\", by which the term was incorrectly applied upon the announcement of Fox, Fremantle Media and 19 Entertainment's decision to renew the show for a 15th and final season in May 2015 to air in 2016); shows that are cancelled traditionally end their runs during the television season in which the program airs first-run episodes at the time, either effective immediately after the announcement is made by the network or until all remaining episodes are broadcast.\n", "Mergers, acquisitions and other business deals between television networks and other companies sometimes require a network to sell off an O&O in order to stay under the ownership cap. In addition, networks may choose to sell off O&Os in smaller markets in order to concentrate on their stations in larger markets, or to give themselves leeway to purchase stations in other growing markets. The following are examples of transactions involving owned-and-operated stations in the United States:\n\nSection::::Ownership and network changes.:DuMont Television Network.\n", "UPN occasionally acquired series cancelled by the other broadcast networks, including former WB series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" and \"Roswell\" (both of which moved to UPN in 2001, \"Buffy\" was picked up after The WB chose not to renew it due to issues with license fees while \"Roswell\" joined UPN after that same network also cancelled the series), and former ABC series \"Clueless\" and \"The Hughleys\". The first program that UPN acquired from another network was \"In the House\", which moved to the network from NBC (which cancelled the LL Cool J sitcom after its second season) in 1996. In its later years, as part of the network's desire to maintain its own identity with its own unique shows, UPN instituted a policy of \"not picking up other networks' scraps\", which was a strong argument when fan pressure was generated in 2004 for them to pick up \"Angel\", the spin-off of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" which had been dropped from The WB.\n", "In other cases, overwhelming fan response may lead to a show's revival. The original series of \"\" was given an additional season after a letter-writing campaign from fans. Another successful letter-writing campaign helped revive \"Cagney & Lacey\". In 2007, \"Jericho\" was given an additional seven-episode order after fans mailed thousands of pounds of nuts to network executives (a reference to a pivotal line in the season finale).\n", "Date started: 2007\n\nCreator: Chris Niel\n\nFirst network to broadcast: Channel 4\n\nFirst country to adapt: United States (2011)\n\nSection::::Sitcoms.:\"The Golden Girls\".\n\nOriginal name: The Golden Girls\n\nOrigin: United States\n\nDate started: 1985\n\nDate ended: 1993\n\nCreator: Susan Harris\n\nFirst network to broadcast: NBC\n\nFirst network to adapt: United Kingdom\n\nRelated series: \"Empty Nest\", \"Nurses\"\n\nSection::::Sitcoms.:\"Happy Days\".\n\nOriginal name: New Family in Town (original pilot)\n\nOrigin: United States\n\nDate started: February 25, 1972\n\nDate ended: September 24, 1984\n\nCreator: Garry Marshall\n\nFirst network to broadcast: ABC\n", "Another case involving cable television had the final five episodes of Syfy's \"Caprica\" being burned off on January 4, 2011 after the network determined that it would neither renew the series nor be able to support a traditional finale due to scheduling factors.\n\nIn March 2014, the A&E series \"Those Who Kill\" was moved to Lifetime Movie Network after A&E canceled the show following two low-rated episodes.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ashcan copy – comic books created to secure trademarks to titles rather than for popular distribution\n", "The originally produced episodes were burned off by ABC over a period of six weeks on Sunday afternoons as counterprogramming for NFL games on CBS and Fox (depending on market and television restrictions, the show often went up against meaningless games in some markets where a poorly performing team may be mandated to be covered in that market) after the October 2011 Las Vegas tragedy, and there was no indication that any new episodes would be produced in the future, despite critical acclaim by critics and game show fans alike.\n", "Strong home video sales and viewership on cable have also helped revive a series. \"Firefly\" and \"Police Squad!\" were revived in the form of theatrical films (an uncommon occurrence, since failed television series are usually not considered bankable movie material), \"Family Guy\" was returned to Fox, and \"Futurama\" (the volume 5 DVD cover touts the tag line \"back by popular harassment!\") returned in the form of straight to video films and a subsequent series of new television episodes for Comedy Central (although Comedy Central would later cancel the show itself). \"Arrested Development\" was revived for a fourth season in 2013 (seven years after being canceled by Fox) as a Netflix Original Series, after episodes of its initial run proved popular on the streaming service.\n", "Once a series is no longer performing well enough to be sold in syndication, it may still remain in \"barter\" syndication, in which television stations are offered the program for free in exchange for a requirement to air additional advertisements (without compensation) bundled with the free program during other shows (barter syndication is far more common, if not the norm, in radio, where only the most popular programs charge rights fees). The Program Exchange was once the most prominent barter syndicator in United States television, offering mostly older series from numerous network libraries. Barter syndicated series may be seen on smaller, independent stations with small budgets or as short-term filler on larger stations; they tend not to be as widely syndicated as programs syndicated with a rights fee.\n", "Universal sold reruns of \"\" and \"\" to USA Network for $300,000 each. And even long-forgotten shows can find new life: The Nashville Network bought \"The Dukes of Hazzard\" from Warner Bros. in 1997 for well over $10 million. USA Network paid $750,000 for the rights to \"Walker, Texas Ranger\"; while USA's reruns of the show drew an average of 2.3 million viewers – outstanding by cable standards – Perth says the show will need \"an enormous number of airings to have any sort of profitability.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dramatic reruns: Rerun Prices at a Glance\n", "The most recent episodes of the network's shows are usually made available on NBC.com and Hulu the day after their original broadcast. In addition, NBC.com and certain other partner websites (including Hulu) provide complete back catalogs of most of its current series as well as a limited selection of episodes of classic series from the NBCUniversal Television Distribution program library – including shows not broadcast by NBC during their original runs (including the complete or partial episode catalogs of shows like \"30 Rock\", \"The A-Team\", \"Charles in Charge\", \"Emergency!\", \"Knight Rider\" (both the original series and the short-lived 2008 reboot), \"Kojak\", \"Miami Vice\", \"The Office\", \"Quantum Leap\" and \"Simon & Simon\").\n", "Television production companies either commission teleplays for television pilots or buy spec scripts. Some of these scripts are turned into pilots for proposed television programs. The production company markets those they consider commercially viable to television networks – or television distributors for first-run syndication (for example, CBS Television Distribution distributes \"Dr. Phil\" in first-run syndication, because that show is syndicated – it is not carried on a particular network). A few things that a television network takes under consideration in deciding to order a show is if the show itself is compatible with the network's target audience, the cost of production, and if the show is well liked among network executives, and in many cases, test audiences.\n", "NBC sold the distribution rights to programs it produced prior to that year to National Telefilm Associates in 1973; those rights are currently owned by CBS Paramount Television through Republic Pictures and Spelling Entertainment Group, although NBC still owns the copyrights to the episodes. As a result, NBC, in a way, now owns several other series aired on the network prior to 1973, such as \"Wagon Train\". NBC continues to own its entire library of programs produced after 1973, through corporate sister NBCUniversal Television Group (the successor to Universal Television).\n\nSection::::Stations.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dark Shadows\", created by Dan Curtis, which ran from 1966 to 1971, has the distinction of being one of the few soap operas to have nearly all of its original episodes preserved. As a result of kinescope, many earlier episodes of which the master film was lost are still available. However, episode #1219 was lost but reconstructed with an audio recording for home video release.\n\nBULLET::::- Two long-running soaps have full archives: \"Days of Our Lives\", which premiered in 1965, and \"The Young and the Restless\", which premiered in 1973. Both series were originally distributed by Screen Gems.\n", "When the series ended, the production company declared bankruptcy after having spent the residuals developing pilots that didn't fly. Nick-At-Nite’s parent company, Viacom, became owner of the show, but had to pay those back residuals before it could air the series again. Supposedly this is why the series has never gone into syndication. Apparently the cost of paying the writers, actors, and others the residuals involved makes re-airing the series cost-prohibitive.\n", "Most of NTV's entertainment programming since 2002 has been received pursuant to a program supply agreement with the Global Television Network; for example, \"Survivor\", \"Family Guy',' and \"The Young and the Restless\". NTV's last public comment on the arrangement, at a CRTC hearing in 2002, was to the effect that it would expire at the end of the 2005-2006 season. However, with the addition of new Global programs to the NTV schedule during the spring and summer of 2006, all indications are that the agreement has been extended.\n", "Date started: 2011\n\nDate ended: 2018\n\nCreator: Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz\n\nFirst network to broadcast: ABC (United States, as they are the co-producers), although CTV in Canada aired it an hour before the US telecast during its first three seasons, which would make them the first international network to air the series\n\nRelated series: \"Once Upon a Time in Wonderland\"\n\nOther franchise ties: \"Lost\" and Disney-related franchises\n\nSection::::Primetime dramas.:\"The Practice\".\n\nOriginal name: The Practice\n\nOrigin: United States\n\nDate started: March 4, 1997\n\nDate ended: December 8, 2008\n\nCreator: David E. Kelley\n\nFirst network to broadcast: ABC\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04300	How did Ancient Greek fountains work?	Gravity my friend, the water was taken from an elevation above the fountain, most likely in a water tank. They would use pipes to transfer the water from a tank down to the elevation of the fountain, the pipes were narrow so that the pressure increased in the pipes. Water is then forced through the pipes into the fountain which gives it enough pressure to create a stream and thus you have a fountain. Not sure what they did with the water afterwards, or how they made the pipes / what they were made of. The system is still in use today, and i've even heard theorys that the egyptians used a similar system to hoist the blocks for the pyrimids.	[ "Greek fountains were made of stone or marble, with water flowing through bronze pipes and emerging from the mouth of a sculpted mask that represented the head of a lion or the muzzle of an animal. Most Greek fountains flowed by simple gravity, but they also discovered how to use principle of a siphon to make water spout, as seen in pictures on Greek vases.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient Roman fountains.\n", "From the Middle Ages onwards, fountains in villages or towns were connected to springs, or to channels which brought water from lakes or rivers. In Provence, a typical village fountain consisted of a pipe or underground duct from a spring at a higher elevation than the fountain. The water from the spring flowed down to the fountain, then up a tube into a bulb-shaped stone vessel, like a large vase with a cover on top. The inside of the vase, called the \"bassin de répartition\", was filled with water up to a level just above the mouths of the canons, or spouts, which slanted downwards. The water poured down through the canons, creating a siphon, so that the fountain ran continually.\n", "The ancient Greeks used aqueducts and gravity-powered fountains to distribute water. According to ancient historians, fountains existed in Athens, Corinth, and other ancient Greek cities in the 6th century BC as the terminating points of aqueducts which brought water from springs and rivers into the cities. In the 6th century BC, the Athenian ruler Peisistratos built the main fountain of Athens, the \"Enneacrounos\", in the Agora, or main square. It had nine large cannons, or spouts, which supplied drinking water to local residents.\n", "Ancient civilizations built stone basins to capture and hold precious drinking water. A carved stone basin, dating to around 2000 BC, was discovered in the ruins of the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash in modern Iraq. The ancient Assyrians constructed a series of basins in the gorge of the Comel River, carved in solid rock, connected by small channels, descending to a stream. The lowest basin was decorated with carved reliefs of two lions. The ancient Egyptians had ingenious systems for hoisting water up from the Nile for drinking and irrigation, but without a higher source of water it was not possible to make water flow by gravity, and no Egyptian fountains or pictures of fountains have been found.\n", "In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers, a trio of Persian Inventors, were commissioned by the Caliph of Baghdad to summarize the engineering knowledge of the ancient Greek and Roman world. They wrote a book entitled the \"Book of Ingenious Devices\", describing the works of the 1st century Greek Engineer Hero of Alexandria and other engineers, plus many of their own inventions. They described fountains which formed water into different shapes and a wind-powered water pump, but it is not known if any of their fountains were ever actually built.\n", "The Roman street fountains were free-standing stone blocks connected to lead pipes beneath the street; water flowed through the pipes and then upward to spouts in the blocks, pushed by water pressure from the higher sources of the water and drawn by the siphon effect of the water flowing out of the spigots. The water emerged from the mouth of a mask shaped like an animal or human face. The water flowed continually, was collected into pots or jars, and was taken home.\n", "The Persian rulers of the Middle Ages had elaborate water distribution systems and fountains in their palaces and gardens. Water was carried by a pipe into the palace from a source at a higher elevation. Once inside the palace or garden it came up through a small hole in a marble or stone ornament and poured into a basin or garden channels. The gardens of Pasargades had a system of canals which flowed from basin to basin, both watering the garden and making a pleasant sound. The Persian engineers also used the principle of the syphon (called \"shotor-gelu\" in Persian, literally 'neck of the camel) to create fountains which spouted water or made it resemble a bubbling spring. The garden of Fin, near Kashan, used 171 spouts connected to pipes to create a fountain called the \"Howz-e jush\", or \"boiling basin\".\n", "In Russia, Peter the Great founded a new capital at St. Petersburg in 1703 and built a small Summer Palace and gardens there beside the Neva River. The gardens featured a fountain of two sea monsters spouting water, among the earliest fountains in Russia.\n", "By the middle Renaissance, fountains had become a form of theater, with cascades and jets of water coming from marble statues of animals and mythological figures. The most famous fountains of this kind were found in the Villa d'Este (1550–1572), at Tivoli near Rome, which featured a hillside of basins, fountains and jets of water, as well as a fountain which produced music by pouring water into a chamber, forcing air into a series of flute-like pipes. The gardens also featured \"giochi d'acqua\", water jokes, hidden fountains which suddenly soaked visitors.\n", "The Ancient Romans built an extensive system of aqueducts from mountain rivers and lakes to provide water for the fountains and baths of Rome. The Roman engineers used lead pipes instead of bronze to distribute the water throughout the city. The excavations at Pompeii, which revealed the city as it was when it was destroyed by Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, uncovered free-standing fountains and basins placed at intervals along city streets, fed by siphoning water upwards from lead pipes under the street. The excavations of Pompeii also showed that the homes of wealthy Romans often had a small fountain in the atrium, or interior courtyard, with water coming from the city water supply and spouting into a small bowl or basin.\n", "The Romans were able to make fountains jet water into the air, by using the pressure of water flowing from a distant and higher source of water to create hydraulic head, or force. Illustrations of fountains in gardens spouting water are found on wall paintings in Rome from the 1st century BC, and in the villas of Pompeii. The Villa of Hadrian in Tivoli featured a large swimming basin with jets of water. Pliny the Younger described the banquet room of a Roman villa where a fountain began to jet water when visitors sat on a marble seat. The water flowed into a basin, where the courses of a banquet were served in floating dishes shaped like boats.\n", "Once the water arrived in the cities, it was channelled into lead pipes which distributed it to street fountains, or direct to Roman baths and villas. Examples of these fountains can be seen in the ruins of Glanum and the museum at Vaison-La-Romaine.\n", "All fountains during the Renaissance depended upon gravity, and the elevation of the water source above the fountain, to make the water shoot upwards. Because the water source for the fountain of Hercules and Antaeus was on the hillside high above the fountain, a jet of water spouted a full three meters above his mouth.\n", "In the nineteenth century, the development of steam engines allowed the construction of more dramatic fountains. In the middle of the century the Earl of Stamford built the Great Fountain, Enville, which jetted water 150 feet above the surface of a lake on his estate. He used two steam engines to pump water to a reservoir at the top of the hill above his estate. The fountain could spout water for several minutes, until the reservoir was empty.\n", "The city had one of the most advanced aqueduct systems in the ancient world, with at least six aqueducts of various sizes supplying different areas of the city. They fed a number of water mills, one of which has been identified as a sawmill for marble.\n", "In cities and towns, residents filled vessels or jars of water jets from the canons of the fountain or paid a water porter to bring the water to their home. Horses and domestic animals could drink the water in the basin below the fountain. The water not used often flowed into a separate series of basins, a lavoir, used for washing and rinsing clothes. After being used for washing, the same water then ran through a channel to the town's kitchen garden. In Provence, since clothes were washed with ashes, the water that flowed into the garden contained potassium, and was valuable as fertilizer.\n", "Besides these two monumental fountains, the Gardens over the years contained dozens of other fountains, including thirty-nine animal fountains in the labyrinth depicting the fables of Jean de La Fontaine.\n", "Section::::The earliest choreographed musical fountains.\n\nSection::::The earliest choreographed musical fountains.:The Bodor Fountain.\n\nPéter Bodor was a Hungarian gadgeteer and mechanical engineer (born on June 22, 1788, died August 17, 1849) who built a musical or chiming fountain in the Transylvanian town of Marosvásárhely (now Târgu Mureş, Romania) between 1820 and 1822.\n", "The water continued to jet for several minutes, until the water in the reservoir was exhausted.\n\nThe Great Fountain was the early ancestor of similar fountains located in lakes or bays, such as the Jet d'Eau in Geneva, Switzerland, which was first created in 1886, and more modern fountains, such as King Fahd's Fountain in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, opened in 1985, which uses mechanical pumps to jet water upwards 312 metres (1,024 ft) above the surface of the Red Sea. \n\nIt is not known if the fountain still exists or operates today.\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "While few fountains were built in French cities, where water was usually taken directly from the river or from wells. many fountains were built in villages, particularly in Provence. These fountains were originally located just outside or at the entrance to a village, at a spring, or close by, connected by an underground gallery. They were often built on the same site as an earlier Roman fountain, and the same basic designs were used from medieval times until the 19th century. Wall fountains were built at the spring, or against the wall of the building. They had a reservoir of water which was filled by gravity, and then the water poured out spouts, or \"canons\", which were often decorated with mascarons, or masks, in the form of the heads of humans, animals or monsters.\n", "The cloister of a monastery was supposed to be a replica of the Garden of Eden, protected from the outside world. Simple fountains, called lavabos, were placed inside Medieval monasteries such as Le Thoronet Abbey in Provence and were used for ritual washing before religious services.\n\nFountains were also found in the enclosed medieval \"jardins d'amour\", \"gardens of courtly love\" – ornamental gardens used for courtship and relaxation. The medieval romance The \"Roman de la Rose\" describes a fountain in the center of an enclosed garden, feeding small streams bordered by flowers and fresh herbs.\n", "Section::::History.:Hydrostatics in ancient Greece and Rome.:Heron's fountain.\n", "Section::::The monument today.\n", "Besides these two monumental fountains, the Gardens over the years contained dozens of other fountains, including thirty-nine animal fountains in the labyrinth depicting the fables of Jean de La Fontaine.\n", "Musical fountains were first described in the 1st century AD by the Greek scientist and engineer Hero of Alexandria in his book \"Pneumatics\". Hero described and provided drawings of \"A bird made to whistle by flowing water,\" \"A Trumpet sounded by flowing water,\" and \"Birds made to sing and be silent alternately by flowing water.\" In Hero's descriptions, water pushed air through musical instruments to make sounds. It is not known if Hero made working models of any of his designs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00608	Why is it that certain weapons, like poisonous gasses, are banned from use in warfare by the Geneva convention, yet countries and governments can still use them against their own population, such as tear gas to control riots?	Geneva convention is largely a gentlemen agreement. No one wants their soldiers getting gassed or having to patch up wounds from hollow points. Its easier to just say no one gets chemical weapons and fight with conventional weapons, then it is to say "there are no rules" and everyone have them. Its already illegal for citizens to use tear gas on cops, so there is no objective reason to outlaw it for law enforcement. The question of its something is humane or not doesnt really tend to stand in the way of most governments.	[ "International humanitarian law now includes several treaties that outlaw specific weapons. These conventions were created largely because these weapons cause deaths and injuries long after conflicts have ended. Unexploded land mines have caused up to 7,000 deaths a year; unexploded bombs, particularly from cluster bombs that scatter many small \"bomblets\", have also killed many. An estimated 98% of the victims are civilian; farmers tilling their fields and children who find these explosives have been common victims. For these reasons, the following conventions have been adopted:\n", "There have been differing interpretations over whether the protocol covers the use of harassing agents, such as adamsite and tear gas, and defoliants and herbicides, such as Agent Orange, in warfare. The 1977 Environmental Modification Convention prohibits the military use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects. Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of herbicides in warfare, but it does require case-by-case consideration. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention effectively banned riot control agents from being used as a method of warfare, though still permitting it for riot control.\n", "Protocol III on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons prohibits, in all circumstances, making the civilian population as such, individual civilians or civilian objects, the object of attack by any weapon or munition which is primarily designed to set fire to objects or to cause burn injury to persons through the action of flame, heat or a combination thereof, produced by a chemical reaction of a substance delivered on the target. The protocol also prohibits the use of air-delivered incendiary weapons against military targets within a concentration of civilians, and limits the use of incendiary weapons delivered by other means. Forest and other plants may not be a target unless they are used to conceal combatants or other military objectives.\n", "This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are \"justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world\". And while the treaty prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons, it does not address the production, storage, or transfer of these weapons. Treaties that followed the Geneva Protocol did address those omissions and have been enacted.\n\nSection::::International law.:Modern agreements.\n", "Certain types of explosive weapon have been subject to prohibition in international treaties. The Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868 prohibits the use of certain explosive rifle projectiles. This prohibition has evolved into a ban on 'exploding bullets' under customary international humanitarian law binding on all States. The 1997 Mine Ban Treaty and the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions also prohibit types of explosive weapons, anti-personnel landmines and cluster munitions, for states parties to these treaties.\n", "Syria is a party to the 1925 Geneva Gas protocol, which bans the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices. The use of chemical weapons is also prohibited as a matter of customary international humanitarian law, or the laws of war. The prohibition on the use of chemical weapons applies to all armed conflicts, including so-called non-international armed conflicts such as the current fighting in Syria. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, in the Tadic case, stated \"there undisputedly emerged a general consensus in the international community on the principle that the use of [chemical] weapons is also prohibited in internal armed conflicts.\"\n", "The use of white phosphorus, as a marker, smokescreen layer or as a weapon, is not banned by . What is prohibited is the use of incendiary weapons against targets in close proximity to civilians or civilian property. The protocol specifically excludes weapons whose incendiary effect is secondary, such as smoke and tracer rounds. The United States is among the nations that are parties to the convention but have not signed Protocol III.\n", "The amendment adds to article 8(2)(e) three clauses which make it a war crime to employ poison, \"asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and all analogous liquids, materials or devices,\" or expanding bullets in an armed conflict not of an international character. The Rome Statute already makes the use of such means of warfare a war crime in international armed conflicts.\n\nSection::::Amendment to article 8 (2010).:States parties to the amendment.\n", "Other weapons, such as land mines, have been banned in many countries under specific legal instruments for several years, notably the Ottawa Treaty to ban land mines, and some of the Protocols in the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons that also help clearing the lands contaminated by left munitions after the end of conflicts and provides international assistance to the affected populations. However, until the recent adoption of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in Dublin in May 2008 cluster bombs were not banned by any international treaty and were considered legitimate weapons by some governments.\n", "Distinction is covered by Protocol I (\"Additional to the Geneva Conventions\"), Chapter II: \"Civilians and Civilian Population\". Article 50 defines who is a civilian and what is a civilian population; article 51 describes the protection which should be given to civilian populations; and chapter III regulates the targeting of civilian objects. Article 8(2)(b)(i) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court also prohibits attack directed against civilians. Not all states have ratified Protocol I or the Rome Statute, but it is an accepted principle of international humanitarian law that the direct targeting of civilians is a breach of the customary laws of war and is binding on all belligerents.\n", "BULLET::::- The Convention on Cluster Munitions (2008), which prohibits the use of bombs that scatter bomblets, many of which do not explode and remain dangerous long after a conflict has ended.\n\nSection::::International Committee of the Red Cross.\n\nThe ICRC is the only institution explicitly named under international humanitarian law as a controlling authority. The legal mandate of the ICRC stems from the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, as well as from its own Statutes.\n\nSection::::Violations and punishment.\n", "BULLET::::- The Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (1980), which prohibits weapons that produce non-detectable fragments, restricts (but does not eliminate) the use of mines and booby-traps, prohibits attacking civilians with incendiary weapons, prohibits blinding laser weapons, and requires the warring parties to clear unexploded ordnance at the end of hostilities;\n", "firstly, shootings in defence of property is not allowed. The signatory states did not incorporate the 4th derogation of shooting to stop access to certain facilities which was suggested at the time or writing the treaty.\n", "Taken in combination, Amended Protocol II and Protocol V to the United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons establish a responsibility on the users of explosive weapons to record and retain information on their use of such weapons (including the location of use and the type and quantity of weapons used), to provide such information to parties in control of territory that may be affected by UXO, and to assist with the removal of this threat.\n", "The Italians' deployment of mustard gas prompted international criticism. In April 1936, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told Parliament: \"If a great European nation, in spite of having given its signature to the Geneva Protocol against the use of such gases, employs them in Africa, what guarantee have we that they may not be used in Europe?\" Mussolini initially denied the use of chemical weapons; later, Mussolini and Italian government sought to justify their use as lawful retaliation for Ethiopian atrocities.\n", "A number of sections of the Protocol on explosive remnants of war (Protocol V to the 1980 Convention), 28 November 2003 occasionally address some of the problems associated with the use of cluster munitions, in particular Article 9, which mandates States Parties to \"take generic preventive measures aimed at minimising the occurrence of explosive remnants of war\". In June 2006, Belgium was the first country to issue a ban on the use (carrying), transportation, export, stockpiling, trade and production of cluster munitions, and Austria followed suit on 2007-12-07.\n", "The convention distinguishes three classes of controlled substance, chemicals that can either be used as weapons themselves or used in the manufacture of weapons. The classification is based on the quantities of the substance produced commercially for legitimate purposes. Each class is split into Part A, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B, which are chemicals useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Separate from the precursors, the convention defines toxic chemicals as \"[a]ny chemical which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm to humans or animals. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere.\"\n", "Observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests. Since the 1970s, riot police have fired at protesters using guns with rubber bullets or plastic bullets. Tear gas, which was developed for riot control in 1919, is widely used against protesters in the 2000s. The use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed; however, its law enforcement or military use for domestic or non-combat situations is permitted.\n", "Lachrymatory agents are commonly used for riot control. Their use in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties. During World War I, increasingly toxic and deadly lachrymatory agents were used.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "International law has prohibited the use of chemical weapons since 1899, under the Hague Convention: Article 23 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land adopted by the First Hague Conference \"especially\" prohibited employing \"poison and poisoned arms\". A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers, the parties would abstain from using projectiles \"the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases\".\n", "The protocol prohibits, in all circumstances, making the civilian population as such, individual civilians or civilian objects, the object of attack by any weapon or munition which is primarily designed to set fire to objects or to cause burn injury to persons through the action of flame, heat or a combination thereof, produced by a chemical reaction of a substance delivered on the target. The protocol also prohibits the use of air-delivered incendiary weapons against military targets within a concentration of civilians, and limits the use of incendiary weapons delivered by other means. Forest and other plants may not be a target unless they are used to conceal combatants or other military objectives.\n", "In armed conflict, the general rules of international humanitarian law governing the conduct of hostilities apply to the use of all types of explosive weapons as means or methods of warfare.\n", "Article 50 of Protocol 1 defines a civilian as a person who is not a privileged combatant. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to civilians (unless they are unprivileged combatants) and civilian populations. Chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. Article 8(2)(b)(i) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court also prohibits attacks directed against civilians.\n\nWhile not all states have ratified Protocol I or the Rome Statute, these provisions reiterated existing customary laws of war which is binding of all belligerents in an international conflict.\n", "BULLET::::- Articles 51 and 54 outlaw indiscriminate attacks on civilian populations, and destruction of food, water, and other materials needed for survival. \"Indiscriminate\" attacks include directly attacking civilian (non-military) targets, but also using technology such as biological weapons, nuclear weapons and land mines, whose scope of destruction cannot be limited. A total war that does not distinguish between civilian and military targets is considered a war crime.\n", "Protocol III lists certain munition types like smoke shells which only have a secondary or additional incendiary effect; these munition types are not considered to be incendiary weapons.\n\nSection::::Protocol IV: Blinding Laser Weapons.\n\nProtocol IV on Blinding Laser Weapons prohibits the use of laser weapons specifically designed to cause permanent blindness. The parties to the protocol also agree to not transfer such weapons to any state or non-state entity. The protocol does not prohibit laser systems where blinding is an incidental or collateral effect, but parties that agree to it must take all feasible precautions to avoid such effects.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08004	What causes the physical sensation of having knots in your back/muscles/etc?	The physical sensation is a nerve impulse from within your muscle from a sensitive spot called a trigger point. Okay so imaginal you have a box of spaghetti, you spread the strands of spaghetti so that they are all aligned the same way. Than you take a few strands (with the help of olive oil) and wrap them into bundles of cheese, you do this until you get a few bundles (than dip them in oil of course). That you take all your bundles of spaghetti and wrap them all together in some mozzarella again. So you have a large cheese roll of spaghetti mozzarella bundles all align in the same direction. Now what happens when you stretch into your cheese roll? Youve got mozzarella adhering to other bundles and going into different directions, spaghetti is sticking to spaghetti theres no oils being flowed, its just a big mess. Sorry about the food analogy I am hungry. So the spaghetti is like your muscle fibers. Now spaghetti isn't just spaghetti its has stuff in it. Muscle fibers have muscles spindles, golgi tendon organs and other receptors which relay the information to our brain about what are muscles are doing, when or when to contract etc. The bundles would be the fascicle (our cheese), and when a bunch of fascicles group together, you get a skeletal muscle which moves or stabilizes a joint. So say your sitting at a computer desk, your neck is stretched in a prolonged position that is not ideal. The muscle fibers become taut and contract. This contraction squeezes the nerves around it, than the whole fascicle becomes inflamed. The fascicle irritates the connective tissue around it. This irritates more nerves (referred pain), than you get spasms etc. There is limited evidence really on a myofasical release; theories suggest that the mechanoceptors (pressure) reduce signals which produce the contraction or a gating effect which relieves the pain. HOPE that is ELI5.	[ "Erector spinae muscles\n\nThe erector spinae ( ) or spinal erectors is a set of muscles that straighten and rotate the back.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "A peer-reviewed 2007 study with Schechter, Smith and Stanley Azen, Professor and Co-Director of Biostatistics in the Department of Preventative Medicine at the USC Keck School of Medicine, found a 54% success rate for treatment of TMS (\"P\".00001). The treatment consisted of office visits, at-home educational materials, writing about emotional issues and psychotherapy. The average pain duration for the study's patients was 9 years. Patients with less than 6 months of back pain were excluded to \"control for the confounder that most back pain episodes typically resolve on their own in a few weeks.\"\n", "The underlying anatomical distortion causing torticollis is a shortened sternocleidomastoid muscle. This is the muscle of the neck that originates at the sternum and clavicle and inserts on the mastoid process of the temporal bone on the same side. There are two sternocleidomastoid muscles in the human body and when they both contract, the neck is flexed. The main blood supply for these muscles come from the occipital artery, superior thyroid artery, transverse scapular artery and transverse cervical artery. The main innervation to these muscles is from cranial nerve XI (the accessory nerve) but the second, third and fourth cervical nerves are also involved. Pathologies in these blood and nerve supplies can lead to torticollis.\n", "Massage therapy using trigger-point release techniques may be effective in short-term pain relief. Physical therapy involving gentle stretching and exercise maybe useful for recovering full range of motion and motor coordination. Once the trigger points are gone, muscle strengthening exercise can begin, supporting long-term health of the local muscle system.\n\nMyofascial release, which involves gentle fascia manipulation and massage, may improve or remediate the condition.\n", "Sarno is a vocal critic of conventional medicine with regard to diagnosis and treatment of back pain, which is often treated by rest, physical therapy, exercise and/or surgery.\n\nSection::::Notable patients.\n\nNotable patients who have been treated for TMS include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Radio personality Howard Stern credited TMS treatment with the relief of his \"excruciating back and shoulder pain\", as well as his obsessive-compulsive disorder.\n", "BULLET::::- Muscles – One of the greatest contributors is uneven muscles. Because all muscles have a muscle that works in opposition to it, it is imperative that to keep all muscles protected, the opposite muscle is not stronger than the muscle at risk. In the situation of lumbar lordosis, abdominal muscles are weaker than the muscles in the lumbar spine and the hamstring muscles. The muscular imbalance results in pulling down the pelvis in the front of the body, creating the swayback in the spine.\n", "BULLET::::- \"20/20\" co-anchor John Stossel was treated by Sarno for his chronic debilitating back pain. In a \"20/20\" segment on his former doctor, Stossel stated his opinion that the TMS treatment \"cured\" his back pain, although he admitted that he continues to have relapses of pain.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.:Scoliosis.\n\nScoliosis, is a medical condition where a person's spine has several irregular curves that are located between the neck and the pelvis. Symptoms of scoliosis in mild cases usually exhibit abnormal posture, back pain, tingling or numbness in the legs and in worse cases can exhibit breathing problems, fatigue, permanent deformities and in rare cases heart problems.\n\nSection::::Functional and pathological muscle imbalance.\n\nSection::::Functional and pathological muscle imbalance.:Functional imbalance.\n", "There is evidence to support two different approaches to muscular imbalance, the first is a biomechanical approach that believed the cause was due from repeated movements in one direction or sustained postures, this was widespread by Kendall. The second is a neuromuscular imbalance due to certain muscle groups being tight or weak, popularized by Janda this approach is based on movement patterns that evolve from birth. Today there are many different types of therapists who treat muscle imbalance, these include chiropractors, osteopaths, physical therapists, medical doctors and massage therapists each assessing tightness or weakness as the primary cause of muscular imbalance.\n", "Beach muscles\n\nBeach muscles, more formally known as the \"anterior chain\", are a group of muscles that lie on the front of the human body. These include the major muscles of the chest, shoulders, quadriceps, abdominals and biceps.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Discontinuation of physical treatments -\" Sarno advises patients to stop using spinal manipulation, physical therapy and other physical treatments because \"they tend to reinforce erroneously a structural causation for the chronic pain.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Resumption of normal physical activity -\" Schechter states that patients are encouraged to \"gradually be more active, and begin to resume a normal life.\" In addition, patients are encouraged \"to discontinue the safety behaviours aimed at protecting their 'damaged' backs\".\n\nBULLET::::- Support meetings\n", "The lumbar (or lower back) region is made up of five vertebrae (L1–L5), sometimes including the sacrum. In between these vertebrae are fibrocartilaginous discs, which act as cushions, preventing the vertebrae from rubbing together while at the same time protecting the spinal cord. Nerves come from and go to the spinal cord through specific openings between the vertebrae, providing the skin with sensations and messages to muscles. Stability of the spine is provided by the ligaments and muscles of the back and abdomen. Small joints called facet joints limit and direct the motion of the spine.\n", "Laing expanded the view of the “double bind” hypothesis put forth by Bateson and his team, and came up with a new concept to describe the highly complex situation that unfolds in the process of “going mad” – an “incompatible knot”.\n", "The basic functional movement of tensor fasciae latae is walking. The tensor fasciae latae is heavily utilized in horse riding, hurdling and water skiing. Some problems that arise when this muscle is tight or shortened are pelvic imbalances that lead to pain in hips, as well as pain in the lower back and lateral area of knees.\n", "In skeletal muscles, muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness, the \"unconscious\" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception. The cerebellum and red nucleus in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure smooth motion.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Energy consumption.\n", "Diffuse tightness and tenderness over the entire belly of the tibialis anterior muscle that does not respond to elevation or pain medication can be early warning signs and suggestive of Anterior Compartment Syndrome. Other common symptoms include excessive swelling that causes the skin to become hot, stretched and glossy. Pain, paresthesias, and tenderness in both the ischemic muscles and the region supplied by the deep common fibular nerve are exhibited by patients suffering from this condition. Sensitivity to passive stretch and active contraction are common, and tend to increase the symptoms.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "Once voluntary movement has returned to the muscle, recovery and treatment continues by the participation in active exercises. Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy are common sources of treatment during these early stages of restoration of active movement. Almost all cases of neurapraxia can be completely treated by non-operative means.\n\nSection::::Treatment and recovery.:Treating cervical cord neurapraxia on the field.\n", "The anterior and middle scalene muscles can be involved in certain forms of thoracic outlet syndrome as well as myofascial pain syndrome, the symptoms of which may mimic a spinal disc herniation of the cervical vertebrae.\n\nSince the nerves of the brachial plexus pass through the space between the anterior and middle scalene muscles, that area is sometimes targeted with the administration of regional anesthesia by physicians. The nerve block, called an interscalene block, may be performed prior to arm or shoulder surgery.\n", "Sarno's protocol for treatment of TMS is used by the Harvard RSI Action Group, a student volunteer organization, as part of their preventative education and support program for people with repetitive strain injury, also referred to as \"RSI\".\n\nBULLET::::- Education\n", "BULLET::::- spinalis thoracis which originates from the spinous process of L3-T10 and inserts in the spinous process of T8-T2.\n\nBULLET::::- spinalis cervicis originates from the spinous process of T2-C6 and inserts in the spinous process of C4-C2.\n\nBULLET::::- spinalis capitis is an inconstant muscle fiber that runs from the cervical and upper thoracic and then inserts in the external occipital protuberance.\n\nFrom lateral to medial, the erector spinae muscles can be remembered using the mnemonic, I Love Spine. I lliocostalis, Love Longissimus and Spine Spinalis.\n\nSection::::Training.\n", "Section::::Kink movement.\n", "Section::::Tonic labyrinthine reflex.\n\nThe tonic labyrinthine reflex is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans. With this reflex, tilting the head back while lying on the back causes the back to stiffen and even arch backwards, the legs to straighten, stiffen, and push together, the toes to point, the arms to bend at the elbows and wrists, and the hands to become fisted or the fingers to curl. The presence of this reflex beyond the newborn stage is also referred to as abnormal extension pattern or extensor tone.\n", "Historically, to temporarily alleviate symptoms, patients have tried positional maneuvers, such as tilting their head to one side or upside down, lie down on their backs, or sit in a chair with their head between their knees. Similarly, a routine of lying down four times per day with legs elevated to around 20 inches for at least two weeks has been attempted as well. Depending on the underlying cause of the disorder, the individual may need to remove caffeine from their diet, reduce exercise, or gain weight. It may be the case that the symptoms are induced by anxiety; anxiolytic drugs or supplements (e.g., GABA) combined with the removal of caffeine from the diet could offer a simple strategy to determine if anxiety is the root cause.\n", "The erector spinae is not just one muscle, but a group of muscles and tendons which run more or less the length of the spine on the left and the right, from the sacrum or sacral region (the bony structure beneath your lower back [lumbar] vertebrae and between your hips/glutes) and hips to the base of the skull. They are also known as the sacrospinalis group of muscles. These muscles lie on either side of the vertebral column spinous processes (the bony points up and down the middle of your back) and extend throughout the lumbar, thoracic, and cervical regions (lower, middle, and upper back and the neck). The erector spinae is covered in the lumbar and thoracic regions (lower back and lower middle back) by the thoracolumbar fascia, and in the cervical region (neck) by the nuchal ligament.\n", "If a sudden pull or stretch occurs, the body responds by automatically increasing the muscle's tension, a reflex which helps guard against danger as well as helping maintain balance. Such near-continuous innervation can be thought of as a \"default\" or \"steady state\" condition for muscles. Both the extensor and flexor muscles are involved in the maintenance of a constant tone while at rest. In skeletal muscles, this helps maintain a normal posture.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01300	Why are upload speeds significantly lower than download speeds?	In short, because ISPs (Internet Service Providers) prioritize download speeds rather than upload speeds. This is because they assume most people are downloading than uploading.	[ "The higher data rate dial-up modems and many broadband services are \"asymmetric\"—supporting much higher data rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet).\n", "Upstream (networking)\n\nIn computer networking, upstream refers to the direction in which data can be transferred from the client to the server (uploading). This differs greatly from downstream not only in theory and usage, but also in that upstream speeds are usually at a premium. Whereas downstream speed is important to the average home user for purposes of downloading content, uploads are used mainly for web server applications and similar processes where the \"sending\" of data is critical. Upstream speeds are also important to users of peer-to-peer software.\n", "The marketing reasons for an asymmetric connection are that, firstly, most users of internet traffic will require less data to be uploaded than downloaded. For example, in normal web browsing, a user will visit a number of web sites and will need to download the data that comprises the web pages from the site, images, text, sound files etc. but they will only upload a small amount of data, as the only uploaded data is that used for the purpose of verifying the receipt of the downloaded data or any data inputted by the user into forms etc. This provides a justification for internet service providers to offer a more expensive service aimed at commercial users who host websites, and who therefore need a service which allows for as much data to be uploaded as downloaded. File sharing applications are an obvious exception to this situation. Secondly internet service providers, seeking to avoid overloading of their backbone connections, have traditionally tried to limit uses such as file sharing which generate a lot of uploads.\n", "A similar calculation can be performed using upstream bandwidths. Typically, advertised upload rates are 1/4 the download rates however the available upload bandwidth using DOCSIS 1.1 or 2.0 is also lower. If 100 users allocated 1.75 Mbit/s of upload bandwidth share a single DOCSIS 1.1 upstream, the upload oversubscription ratio is 17:1. One article found a typical DOCSIS download oversubscription ratio to be 28.125:1, while a best case oversubscription may be 12:1.\n", "There are both technical and marketing reasons why ADSL is in many places the most common type offered to home users. On the technical side, there is likely to be more crosstalk from other circuits at the DSLAM end (where the wires from many local loops are close to each other) than at the customer premises. Thus the upload signal is weakest at the noisiest part of the local loop, while the download signal is strongest at the noisiest part of the local loop. It therefore makes technical sense to have the DSLAM transmit at a higher bit rate than does the modem on the customer end. Since the typical home user in fact does prefer a higher download speed, the telephone companies chose to make a virtue out of necessity, hence ADSL.\n", "Space segment based telecom systems are the only widely known cases where segmented uploading technologies have emerged. This is mainly due to the limited bandwidth and other space segment constraints.\n\nBULLET::::- CCSDS software uploading protocols have the capability of segmented uploading, but current deployed systems have not been in need of the protocol being used in its most BitTorrent like capability.\n", "ADSL and cable modems are asymmetric, with the upstream data rate much lower than that of its downstream. Symmetric connections such as Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) and T1, however, offer identical upstream and downstream rates.\n", "BULLET::::- Satellite direct to home subscription systems deployed in Europe and North America have employed an approach of upgrading software on customer devices by only sending a few bytes at a time (~2k or less) over a long period of time. Generally these segmented upload approaches are proprietary and related to the SIM card security and subscription mechanism.\n", "In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction (the direction to the service provider) is lower, hence the designation of \"asymmetric\" service. In symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) services, the downstream and upstream data rates are equal. Researchers at Bell Labs have reached speeds over 1 Gbit/s for symmetrical broadband access services using traditional copper telephone lines, though such speeds have not yet been deployed elsewhere.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The new HTML5 features could be a good basis for implementing upload components with a sophisticated user interface and the ability to upload any amount of data. Unfortunately, at the moment browsers support those features partially and differently, which is a serious obstacle. The situation becomes worse if we remember that large numbers of users still use Windows XP (28%) and obsolete Internet Explorer versions (11%).\n\nSection::::Technologies for creating upload components.\n", "In 2006 the top three ISPs stated that they did not discriminate between peer-to-peer internet activity and normal internet activity. Peer-to-peer activity is counted towards a customer's limit and if the customer exceeds that limit then they will have their account shaped. However, Unwired and iBurst confirmed at the same time that they do shape peer-to-peer activity to \"smooth the flow of data\". In 2007 Optus changed their policy so that uploads as well as downloads would be counted towards the customers limit. This has been seen as a move to curb the amount of peer-to-peer activity, since other services which upload such as multiplayer computer games are not counted towards the limit if played through certain servers.\n", "Upload components\n\nUpload components are software products that are designed to be embedded into a web site to add upload functionality to it. Upload components are designed to replace the standard HTML4 upload mechanism. Compared with HTML4, Upload Components have a more user-friendly interface and support a wider range of features.\n\nSection::::HTML file uploads.\n", "Most IP networks are designed for users to download more than they upload, usually with an expected (Download:Upload) ratio of 3:1 or more.\n\nSegmented downloading, when used by only 20% of an ISP's user base, can upset the ISP's network to a point of requiring substantial reprogramming of routers and a rethink of network design.\n\nBULLET::::- Traditional \"web object\" caching technology (like the Squid proxy) is of no use here.\n", "Upload\n\nIn computer networks, to upload is to send data to a remote system such as a server or another client so that the remote system can store a copy.\n\nSection::::Remote upload.\n\nTransferring data from one remote system to another under the control of a local system is remote uploading. \n", "In a group of users that has insufficient upload-bandwidth, with demand higher than supply. Segmented downloading can however very nicely handle traffic peaks, and it can also, to some degree, let uploaders upload \"more often\" to better utilize their connection.\n\nData integrity issues\n\nBULLET::::- Very simple implementations of segmented downloading technology can often result in varying levels of file corruption, as there often is no way of knowing if all sources are actually uploading segments of the same file.\n", "With respect to Direct To Home TV systems using segmented uploading to outwit \"hackers\" — only SkyTV (UK) and DirecTV (USA) have been possibly linked to having the capability to do so or have done so in the past. However, one can assume that any modern MPEG2 DVB DTH mass subscriber system has the ability to accept software upgrades trickled to it at the rate of 8kb/day or less.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- BitTorrent\n\nBULLET::::- Direct Connect (file sharing)\n\nBULLET::::- Download Manager\n\nBULLET::::- eMule\n\nBULLET::::- iMule\n\nBULLET::::- Swarmcast\n\nBULLET::::- KaZaA\n\nBULLET::::- RetroShare\n\nBULLET::::- RevConnect\n\nBULLET::::- Metalink\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Peercasting\n\nBULLET::::- Peer-to-peer\n", "HTML5 support has been steadily improving. The best coverage of HTML5 features is provided by the latest version of Chrome, Firefox, Safari and Opera. Internet Explorer provides the least support. Internet Explorer 10 has less support than versions of other browsers; however the coverage will be twice as good as Internet Explorer 9.\n\nSection::::Technologies for creating upload components.:HTML5.:Mobile platforms HTML5 support.\n\niOS 5 has a sufficiently high level of HTML5 support; however, its level of support remains lower than for desktop browsers.\n", "In the 2000s, larger ISPs began taking over more of the delivery infrastructure themselves by taking advantage of regulated access to the unconditioned local loop. As well as significantly reducing costs, it gave the service providers complete control of their own service networks, other than the copper pair (phone line from the exchange to the customer).\n", "G-PON and XG-PON access networks are typically oversubscribed, with typical load-factors of approaching 256:1, due its point-to-multipoint architecture.\n\nSection::::Telecommunications.:Internet.\n\nISPs regularly sell more bandwidth or connectivity than they have. When Internet bandwidth becomes overused, all customers' service tends to be degraded without necessarily failing completely.\n\nSection::::Telecommunications.:Web hosting.\n", "U.S. internet service providers have most recently asserted that data caps are needed in order to provide \"fair\", tiered services at different price points based on speed and usage.\n", "The P2P industry also says that P4P may slow down transfers for some users. BitTorrent, for example, is designed to favor the fastest peers available – if that is changed to favor the closest peers instead then it must affect the speed. The equality and balance of peers would be lost – clients on networks with a good \"backbone\" but slow upload speeds would download slower, and clients using ISPs who do not support P4P would not benefit from using local peers.\n", "However, the nature of peer to peer serving means that each user of the system is also a server. The upload speed of standard home broadband connections is usually a fraction of the download speed, so several upload sources may be required by each additional peer. Additionally, on services with high contention ratios or poorly configured switches, large numbers of people attempting to use the service may slow all internet usage to unusable speeds. Acting as an upload server to the limit of ones upload bandwidth increases the round trip time for webpage requests, making web browsing while using PPS.tv difficult.\n", "BULLET::::- Bandwidth and quality of service: In some countries it is difficult or expensive to get a high quality connection that is fast enough for good-quality video conferencing. Technologies such as ADSL have limited upload speeds and cannot upload and download simultaneously at full speed. As Internet speeds increase higher quality and high definition video conferencing will become more readily available.\n", "In the past, files were distributed by point-to-point technology: with a central uploader distributing files to downloaders. With these systems, a large number of downloaders for a popular file uses an increasingly larger amount of bandwidth. If there are too many downloads, the server can become unavailable. The opposite is true for peer-to-peer networking; the \"more\" downloaders the \"faster\" the file distribution is. With swarming technology as implemented in file sharing systems like eDonkey2000 or BitTorrent, downloaders help the uploader by picking up some of its uploading responsibilities. There are many sites with links to One-click hosting websites and other sites where one can upload files that contribute to the growing amount of warez.\n", "High-bandwidth applications need significantly higher broadband-speeds. Certain broadband technologies including Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), high-speed digital subscriber line (DSL) and cable broadband are paving the way for increased broadband speeds. FTTH can offer broadband-speeds that are ten times (or even a hundred times) faster than DSL or cable.\n\nSection::::Internet service providers in the Zettabyte Era.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13038	How does your router upload data on a fiber connection?	Each side of a fiber optic connection has an optical transmitter and an optical receiver. How they are implemented will vary depending on the technology. Most fiber applications use a dedicated fiber for sending light in the A- > Z direction and another dedicated fiber for the Z- > A direction. However, some systems have been designed to use a single fiber in both directions. In these cases, one direction will use a particular color (think "red") and the other direction will use a notably different color ("green"). These optics are generally referred to as bidirectional optics.	[ "BULLET::::1. A special \"Route Request\" (RREQ) messages is broadcast through the MANET. Each RREQ keeps an ordered list of all nodes it passed through, so every host receiving an RREQ message can immediately record a route back to the origin of this message.\n", "Data mules have been used to offer internet connectivity to remote villages. Computers with a disk and wifi link are attached to buses on a bus route between villages. As a bus stops at the village to pick up passengers and cargo, the DTN router on the bus communicates with a DTN router in the bus station over Wi-Fi. Email is down-loaded to the village and up-loaded for transport to the Internet or to other villages along the bus route.\n", "What type of machine you have determines what process you have to take to get the CNC machine running. Typically you have to upload a picture or file into a drawing software (CAD) and then have it converted to vectors [if you don’t have a file or picture, you can also use a drawing software to create your own image or drawing]. After uploading the file and tracing the file with vectors, now you are ready to select the tool and toolpath that you want the machine to make. This is where you have a lot of control over the system. First, you want to select the tool that you want to use, whether it be a .25 inch v-bit or a .75 inch core box bit. This is also where you have the option of changing the speed of the router along with the cut depth. After selecting the tool, you have to select the toolpath that you want to use. In most cases, you can either trace the vectors, cut outside the vectors, or cut inside the vectors. This is up to the discretion of the machinist depending on what they need. After selecting the toolpath, it’s time to upload the vectors into a G-code software [typically this is the control panel of the CNC router itself]. By doing this task, you will convert the vectors into a script of G-code. In this G-code, you will see coordinates for X, Y, and Z [X being horizontal to the table, Y being vertical to the table, and Z being perpendicular to the table]. After having the vectors converted to G-code, you then need to determine where the center point of the part is [doing this is very key in the next few steps]. After finding the center of the part, you then load the part onto the table and secure it with clamps [it’s very important that the part doesn’t move during this cutting process]. After securing the part to the table, you then need to jog the machine over until the router bit is directly above the center point that you marked. Once you have it properly aligned, you need to jog the machine down until the router bit is on the face of the part [make sure not to dig into the part with the bit]. Once this step is complete, you need to mark this point as your absolute zero. Doing this will create the start point once the machine is up and running. Once the absolute zero point is set, jog the machine up a few inches and you’re ready to begin. Once you’re off the part, select the run G-code function and the machine will begin to cut your design.\n", "BULLET::::- Voice/Data/Fax/Video Processing Routers: Commonly referred to as access servers or gateways, these devices are used to route and process voice, data, video and fax traffic on the Internet. Since 2005, most long-distance phone calls have been processed as IP traffic (VOIP) through a voice gateway. Use of access server type routers expanded with the advent of the Internet, first with dial-up access and another resurgence with voice phone service.\n", "When an Interest packet arrives, an NDN router first checks the Content Store for matching data; if it exists in the router returns the Data packet on the interface from which the Interest came. Otherwise the router looks up the name in its PIT, and if a matching entry exists, it simply records the incoming interface of this Interest in the PIT entry. In the absence of a matching PIT entry, the router will forward the Interest toward the data producer(s) based on information in the FIB as well as the router's adaptive Forwarding Strategy. When a router receives Interests for the same name from multiple downstream nodes, it forwards only the first one upstream toward the data producer(s).\n", "BULLET::::- Multiprotocol router - The computer running RRAS can route IP, IPX, and AppleTalk simultaneously. All routable protocols are configured from the same administrative utility. RRAS included two unicast routing protocols, Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) as well as IGMP routing and forwarding features for IP multicasting.\n\nBULLET::::- Demand-dial router - IP and IPX can be routed over on-demand or persistent WAN links such as analog phone lines or ISDN, or over VPN connections.\n", "BULLET::::- AVM FRITZ!Box, the newer revisions of these residential gateway devices come with a UPnP/DLNA compliant media server\n\nBULLET::::- Billion 7800xxx series modem-routers come with a built in uPnP/DLNA compliant media server\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo WBMR-HP-G300H ADSL2+ Modem Router, supports USB drive media sharing, possible to install Open-/DD-WRT. Fast NAS sharing too. (Dual Band WIFI, 10/100/1000 Mbit's)\n\nBULLET::::- D-Link DNS-323 2-Bay Network Attached Storage Enclosure.\n\nBULLET::::- D-Link DNS-325 Share Centre]2-Bay Network Attached Storage Enclosure.\n\nBULLET::::- Linksys WRT610N gigabit Wifi-N router supports UPnP with a USB hard drive, as a Storage feature\n\nBULLET::::- MELCO N1 UPnP ripping server\n", "A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the network address information in the packet to determine the ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey.\n", "Depending on the user’s needs, FTTE can be deployed in low-density or high-density configurations. A low-density system might use one or two inexpensive 8-port Ethernet mini-switches as an example (these switches have eight 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet copper ports and one 1 Gbit/s Ethernet fiber uplink). \n", "Routers that incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or a cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point, often set up in homes and other buildings, provide Internet access and internetworking to all devices connected to them, wirelessly or via cable.\n", "For FTTC and FTTN, the combined internet, video and telephone signal travels to the building over existing telephone or cable wiring until it reaches the end-user's living space, where a VDSL or DOCSIS modem converts data and video signals into ethernet protocol, which is sent over the end-user's category 5 cable.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- National broadband plans from around the world\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber to the Home Council: Asia-Pacific\n\nBULLET::::- Fibre to the Home Council: Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber to the Home Council: North America\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber to the Home Council: Latin America Chapter\n", "Step 7: There is cache miss on P2 and a BusRd is posted. The snooper on P1 and P3 sense this and both will attempt a flush. Whichever gets access of the bus first will do that operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Read For Ownership.\n", "BULLET::::- So far the PHY-Chips for the WNICs are generally distinct chips on the PCB. Dependent on the mode the WNIC supports, i.e. 1T1R, 2T2R or 3T3R, one WNIC have up to 3 PHY-Chips connected to it. Each PHY-Chip is connected to a Hirose U.FL-connector on the PCB. A so-called pigtail cable connects the Hirose U.FL either to a RF connector, in which case the antenna can be changed or directly to the antenna, in which case it is integrated into the casing. Common are single-band (i.e. only for 2.4 GHz or only for 5 GHz), dual-band (i.e. for 2.4 and 5 GHz) and tri-band (i.e. for a single 2.4 GHz and two 5 GHz) antennas.\n", "The street cabinet is connected to a point of presence on the national network using long-range wireless or fibre. Where fibre is used, the technology is often referred to as fibre to the cabinet (FTTC)\n", "BULLET::::- 1:170/918 \"(node)\" to 1:170/900 \"(hub)\" to 1:170/0 \"(net coordinator)\" to 1:19/0 \"(region coordinator)\" to 1:1/0 \"(zone coordinator)\". From there, it was distributed 'down stream' to the destination node(s).\n", "A new technique is to stripe a live stream into multiple substreams, akin to RAID striping. Forward error correction and timing information is applied to these substreams such that the original stream can be reformed using at least all but one of the substreams (fountain codes are an efficient way to make and combine the substreams). In turn, these streams are relayed using the first method.\n", "BULLET::::- Neighbor Table: The neighbor table keeps a record of the IP addresses of routers that have a direct physical connection with this router. Routers that are connected to this router indirectly, through another router, are not recorded in this table as they are not considered neighbors.\n", "BULLET::::- Data: Once the Interest reaches a node that has the requested data, the node will return a Data packet that contains both the name and the content, together with a signature by the producer's key which binds the two. This Data packet follows in reverse the path taken by the Interest to get back to the requesting consumer.\n\nFor the complete specification see NDN Packet Format Specification.\n\nSection::::Architecture Overview.:Router Architecture.\n\nTo carry out the Interest and Data packet forwarding functions, each NDN router maintains three data structures, and a forwarding policy:\n", "BULLET::::- Forwarding plane: The router forwards data packets between incoming and outgoing interface connections. It forwards them to the correct network type using information that the packet header contains matched to entries in the FIB supplied by the control plane.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "When a Data packet arrives, an NDN router finds the matching PIT entry and forwards the data to all down-stream interfaces listed in that PIT entry. It then removes that PIT entry, and caches the Data in the Content Store. Data packets always take the reverse path of Interests, and, in the absence of packet losses, one Interest packet results in one Data packet on each link, providing flow balance. To fetch large content objects that comprise multiple packets, Interests provide a similar role in controlling traffic flow as TCP ACKs in today's Internet: a fine-grained feedback loop controlled by the consumer of the data.\n", "The new node becomes the root for its nodeID. The root finds the length of the longest prefix of the ID it shares. Then it sends a multicast message that reaches all existing nodes sharing the same prefix. These nodes then add the new node to their routing tables. The new node may take over being the root for some of the root's objects. The nodes will contact the new node to provide a temporary neighborhood list. The new node then performs an iterative nearest neighbor search to fill all levels in its routing table.\n\nSection::::Algorithm.:Dynamic nodes.:Node departure.\n", "There are various decentralized, delay tolerant peer to peer applications which aim to fully automate this using any available interface, including both wireless (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi mesh, P2P or hotspots) and physically connected ones (USB storage, ethernet, etc.).\n\nSneakernets may also be used in tandem with computer network data transfer to increase data security or overall throughput for big data use cases. Innovation continues in the area to this day, for example AWS has recently announced Snowball, and bulk data processing is also done in a similar fashion by many research institutes and government agencies.\n\nSection::::Pricing and spending.\n", "In another example, a network with three routers and three hosts is connected to the Internet through Router1. The hosts' addresses are:\n\nBULLET::::- PC1 10.1.1.100, default gateway 10.1.1.1\n\nBULLET::::- PC2 172.16.1.100, default gateway 172.16.1.1\n\nBULLET::::- PC3 192.168.1.100, default gateway 192.168.1.96\n\nRouter1:\n\nBULLET::::- Interface 1 5.5.5.2 (public IP)\n\nBULLET::::- Interface 2 10.1.1.1\n\nRouter2:\n\nBULLET::::- Interface 1 10.1.1.2\n\nBULLET::::- Interface 2 172.16.1.1\n\nRouter3:\n\nBULLET::::- Interface 1 10.1.1.3\n\nBULLET::::- Interface 2 192.168.1.96\n", "RoF makes use of the concept of a remote station (RS). This station only consists of an optical-to-electrical (O/E) (and an optional frequency up or down converter), amplifiers, and the antenna. This means that the resource management and signal generation circuitry of the base station can be moved to a centralized location and shared between several remote stations, thus simplifying the architecture.\n\nLower cost\n", "The FTTP system uses an Alcatel-Lucent 7340 ISAM shelf, which is mostly used in areas such as new neighborhoods or large-scale developments where fiber can be run to the household, removing the distance limitations of copper. The 7340 then connects to a Primary Flexibility Point, which distributes service to homes in the neighborhood, via a dual strand fiber, which is then split into 32 customer fiber pairs. In FTTP systems, the fiber pairs are typically led into a customer's residence at the network interface device. In FTTD (fiber to the desk) systems, the fiber can continue to an equipment room or garage, then to a decoder box or residential gateway, then to the customer's TV, computer, and phone lines.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06162	Why are Kings/Queens from Europe countries rich when their country is facing serious economy issues?	There are only 12 Monarchies left in Europe. Andorra, Belgium, Denmark, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, UK, and the Vatican. Of these nations only Spain (to my knowledge) is really facing major economic issues. But that said, the wealth of the monarchy is inherited, and depending on the country also collected via taxes or incomes from the lands that they own. For example: The UK Monarch gets a stipend that supports them from the UK government, which makes it look like they are living off of taxes. But in reality they are not. The Monarch is the owner of all of the Crown Estate lands and are therefore entitled to the rents, and income produced from said land. A former Monarch centuries ago ran out of money so made a deal with Parliament to forfeit the operation and incomes from the Crown Estates (not the ownership) in exchange for his current debts being erased and his future income being a stipend. Every Monarch since has kept the deal, and as of 2011 their stipend is set to 15% of the incomes produced by the Crown Estates. So they are not living off of the taxes of their people, they are taxed at 85% of their income. What that example shows you is that Monarchs own a lot of property and goods, sometimes the entirety of a country and so have a lot of income even if parts of their nations economy is suffering. They have also had it for a long time so that wealth builds up.	[ "BULLET::::- In republics, pension costs of former heads of state are higher, although the figures don't say so;\n\nBULLET::::- The existence of subsidies to family members of the heads of state in some monarchies increases their expenses.\n", "In 2016, Dutch newspaper \"de Volkskrant\" published an overview of the annual expenditure (excluding security expenses) of all European royal houses (not counting Luxembourg and the four monarchical European microstates).\n\nIn 2013, professor Herman Matthijs from Ghent University calculated the costs of the seven EU monarchies plus Norway, and compared them to the EU's two most populous republics, France and Germany. His four main conclusions were:\n\nBULLET::::- The personal salaries of presidents are lower than those of monarchs;\n\nBULLET::::- The transparency differs between republics and monarchies, and is formally regulated in republics;\n", "Extensive conservation work, extensions of buildings and collections have been carried out since 1992. The Italian Cooperation programme has been a generous donor, financing it under the “PREMA-Abomey programme”. Conservation work and the enhancement of buildings and collections has been implemented since 1992. This work was possible due to funds to an amount of US$450,000 arranged through UNESCO trust. Other donors who also contributed to the work were ICCROM's PREMA programme, the Getty Conservation Institute and Sweden.\n", "Members of the royal family, including the king himself, have often courted both internal and international controversy. The king and his household have been criticized for their lavish spending in a country with high poverty rates. Reports have claimed that the king's large number of spouses and children \"take up a huge chunk of the [national] budget\" and that \"The royal family seems to live in its own world that is totally unaffected by the country's struggles\".\n", "Section::::Other Ruritanian settings in fiction.\n\n\"The Grand Budapest Hotel\", a 2014 comedy film written and directed by Wes Anderson, is set in the fictional nation of Zubrowka, a central European alpine state teetering on the outbreak of war.\n\nIn 2015 James Dunford Wood's \"Continental with Juice\" imagined a scenario in which the modern-day Ruritania (a recent ex-Soviet republic) is bankrupt after the European debt crisis. Refused a loan by Germany's Chancellor Merkel, the country is forced to consider resurrecting the monarchy via the long-defunct Elpherg dynasty, in order to earn tourist dollars.\n", "BULLET::::- Expenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They include costs which had been previously been borne by the budgets of three Government Ministries (Interior, Transport and Water Management, Health and Welfare) and which are now attributed to the Royal budget in the interest of transparency. They also include the costs relating to royal flights and the royal yacht, Groene Draeck.\n", "For 2017 the stipends were; for the King €888,000, for Queen Maxima €352,000 and for Princess Beatrix (former Queen) €502,000. These personal stipends are in addition to an allowance for each of those named to meet official expenditure, these were set at €4.6million for the King, €606,000 for Queen Maxima and just over €1million for Princess Beatrix.\n", "This stipend is linked to the development of the wages of Dutch civil servants. At the beginning of 2009 there was some upset in the parliament about the cost of the royal house and the lack of insight into the structure of those costs. At the insistence of the parliament the development of the stipends of the royal house members was then linked to the development of the salaries of the Dutch civil servants. During 2009 it was agreed collectively that the civil servants would receive a pay increase of 1%. In September 2009, at the first budget debate in parliament during the economic crisis, it was pointed out to the parliament that their earlier decision meant that the stipend to the queen would now also increase. This in turn was reason for the parliament to be displeased again.\n", "2015: One million trees planted in Malawi with the local community and schools. This action was supported by the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation.\n\nSection::::Recent TV and other media.\n\n2010: ‘La Belle Humanitaire’ 52 minute documentary, France Television\n\n2011: Autobiography, ‘Beauty as a Weapon’ published, Michel Lafon, Paris, France\n\n2013: Sky News report from London, UK\n\n2013: Monaco television special report from Africa\n\n2013: Sky News report from Monaco\n\n2013: CCTV China, Special Report\n\n2014: Monaco television special report from Monaco\n\n2014: CNN special report, live from London, UK\n\n2014: ‘Arise Africa’ TV special report, live from London, UK\n", "Máxima is also the Honorary Patron of the G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion (GPFI) since June 2011. In this role she works with governments and partners to advance the G20 Action Plan on Financial Inclusion, and the G20 Financial Inclusion Peer Learning Program. Previously, the Queen was a member of the Advisors Group for the United Nations' International Year of Microcredit 2005 and until 2009, was a member of UN Advisors Group on Inclusive Financial Sectors.\n\nSection::::Titles, honours and arms.\n", "One issue that occasionally rises is whether the monarchies are too expensive when compared to republics, or whether particular monarchies are more expensive than others, to maintain. This comparison may be hard to draw, since financial administration may differ radically from country to country, and not all profits and costs are publicly known, and because of different arrangements regarding the private property of the monarch. In the UK, the Crown Estate has a special legal status making it neither government property nor the private property of the monarch. Revenues from these hereditary possessions have been placed at the disposition of the British government (thus proceeding directly to the Treasury) by every monarch since the accession of George III in 1760; the revenues of GBP 304.1 million (fiscal year of 2015/16) far exceed the expenses of the British royal family in this sense resulting in a \"negative cost\" of the British monarchy.\n", "BULLET::::- Allowances paid to the queen, the Prince of Orange and Princess Máxima under the Royal House Finances Act. They total some €7.102 million in 2010.\n\nBULLET::::- Expenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They total some €26.818 million in 2010.\n\nBULLET::::- Other expenses relating to the management of the royal house. They total some €5.723 million in 2010.\n\nSection::::Monarchs of the Netherlands.\n\nSection::::Monarchs of the Netherlands.:Wilhelmina (1890–1948).\n", "2013 in Belgium\n\nEvents in the year 2013 in Belgium'.\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nBULLET::::- Monarch: Albert II (abdicated 21 July), Philippe (ascended 21 July)\n\nBULLET::::- Prime Minister: Elio di Rupo\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- January 1: Bart De Wever (New Flemish Alliance) becomes mayor of Antwerp.\n\nBULLET::::- January 13: Following accusations of tax evasion, Belgium's Dowager Queen Fabiola of Belgium has her annual allowance cut by over 400,000 pounds.\n\nBULLET::::- February 9: Five people killed in a plane crash at Charleroi airport. The airport was closed shortly after the crash.\n", "In 2009, the government decided that the annual State Budget of the Netherlands should show in a transparent way all the costs of the Royal House, some of which had previously been borne by various Government Ministries. Three sets of costs are now separately allocated in the annual budget for the Royal House (Budget I of the annual State Budget). These are: \n\nBULLET::::- Allowances paid under the Royal House Finances Act. They comprise the income and personnel and materials components mentioned above.\n", "In January 2013, the Socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo criticised Queen Fabiola for her plans to set up a private foundation (Fons Pereos), which was widely seen by the public as inheritance tax evasion (although, since the construction was admitted by Di Rupo to be legal, it would more precisely be a case of tax avoidance). Queen Fabiola denied the charges in a rare public statement: \"I have never had the intention of depositing funds I received from the public purse with my foundation. All the monies that I receive from the civil list go on expenditure on my household. The lion's share goes on salaries.\"\n", "Many nobles in Belgium still belong to the elite of society. They sometimes own and manage companies, or have leading positions in cultural society, business, banking, diplomacy, NGOs etc. Many of the older families still own (and reside in) important castles or country houses (see: Castles in Belgium).\n\nThe fortune of the nobility is impressive: only 11 % of the 500 wealthiest families in Belgium are members of the nobility, however: they have more than 56% of this wealth, 79.85 billion euros.\n", "BULLET::::- Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Princess Beatrix, Princess of Orange and Claus Van Amsberg\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Queen Beatrix Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Prince Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange and Máxima Zorreguieta\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the King Willem-Alexander Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Pieter van Vollenhoven:\n\nBULLET::::- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion\n\nBULLET::::- Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Queen Beatrix Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Prince Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange and Máxima Zorreguieta\n", "Queen Máxima is a member of the Committee for Enterprise and Finance, which succeeded the Microfinance Council in 2011. The Queen is committed to extending the reach of various financing opportunities, both through coaching and by providing credit for new and existing small businesses in the Netherlands. She also works to increase the number of women entrepreneurs and the scope they have to expand their businesses.\n\nSection::::Controversy over statement on Dutch identity.\n", "The \"Royal House Finances Act\" (1972) as amended in 2008 sets allowances for the King (or Queen Regnant), the Heir to the Throne, and the former sovereign who has abdicated. Provision is also made for their spouses (and in the case of death, for the surviving spouse). The allowances have two components: income (A-component) and personnel and materials (B-component). Annual increases or decreases are provided for: the A component is linked to changes in the annual salary of the Vice-President of the Council of State; the B-component is linked to changes in civil service pay and the cost of living.\n", "BULLET::::- Recipient of the King Willem-Alexander Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Princess Christina:\n\nBULLET::::- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Silver Wedding Anniversary Medal of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Princess Beatrix, Princess of Orange and Claus Van Amsberg\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Queen Beatrix Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Prince Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange and Máxima Zorreguieta\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the King Willem-Alexander Inauguration Medal\n\nSection::::European foreign honours.\n\nSection::::European foreign honours.:Austria.\n", "BULLET::::- Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands : Honorary Companion of the Order of the Star of Ghana\n\nSection::::African foreign honours.:Ivory Coast.\n\nBULLET::::- Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands : Grand Cross of the National Order (January 1973)\n\nBULLET::::- Princess Margriet of the Netherlands : Grand Cross of the National Order\n\nBULLET::::- Pieter van Vollenhoven : Grand Cross of the National Order\n\nSection::::African foreign honours.:Liberia.\n\nBULLET::::- Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Pioneers of Liberia\n\nSection::::African foreign honours.:Senegal.\n\nBULLET::::- Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands : Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion\n", "BULLET::::- Vietnam\n\nBULLET::::- Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey\n\nBULLET::::- Australia & New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Thailand\n\nBULLET::::- USA (Los Angeles, San Francisco / Silicon Valley)\n\nH.R.H. Princess Astrid has been presiding over the economic missions since October 2013 as the Representative of His Majesty the King.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Angola & South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Saudi Arabia & Oman\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia & Peru\n\nBULLET::::- Malaysia & Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Qatar & United Arab Emirates\n\nSection::::Organisation of trade missions.:Mission results.\n", "BULLET::::- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion\n\nBULLET::::- Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Queen Beatrix Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Prince Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange and Máxima Zorreguieta\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the King Willem-Alexander Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Princess Laurentien:\n\nBULLET::::- Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Prince Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange and Máxima Zorreguieta\n\nBULLET::::- Recipient of the King Willem-Alexander Inauguration Medal\n\nBULLET::::- Princess Irene:\n", "The royal family's fortune seems to have been hit by declines in real estate and equities after 2008. They were also rumored to have lost up to $100 million when Bernard Madoff's Ponzi scheme collapsed, though the royal house denies the allegations. In 2009, \"Forbes\" estimated Queen Beatrix's wealth at US$300 million. This could also have been due to splitting the fortune between Queen Beatrix and her 3 sisters, as there is no right of the eldest to inherit the whole property. A surge in export revenue, recovery in real estate and strong stock market have helped steady royal family’s fortunes, but uncertainty over the new government and future austerity measures needed to bring budget deficits in line may dampen future prospects. In July 2010, \"Forbes\" magazine estimated her net worth at $200 million This estimate was unchanged in April 2011.\n", "Section::::Seminary's continuation.:Outcomes for the Monarchy, Patriarchate and Seminary.:The royal family and others retreat to the hills.\n" ]	[ "Monarchs are rich while their countires are facing economic issues." ]	[ "Only 1 country with monarchs is facing economic issues. The rest are doing well. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Monarchs are rich while their countires are facing economic issues." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only 1 country with monarchs is facing economic issues. The rest are doing well. " ]
2018-10125	Why do flat mirrors make words backwards, but not upside-down?	Just imagine the light as literal lines going from you to the mirror. The lines on your left hit the mirror’s right, because its facing you, and the right hits the mirrors left. The same is not true of top and bottom, the easiest proof is again to just imagine the lines. Do it physically with string if you like.	[ "If the calculator is instead rotated 90 degrees counterclockwise from upright to create a vertical display, a different, but less useful, set of letters can be reproduced, including:\n\nIf the calculator is instead rotated 90 degrees clockwise from upright to create a vertical display, \"still\" a different, but similarly less useful, set of letters can be reproduced, including:\n\nPlacing a calculator in front of a mirror produces the following character set, including:\n\nVertical (and mirrored)\n\n90° CCW (and mirrored)\n\n90° CW (and mirrored)\n\nUpside-down (and mirrored)\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "It is also possible to create a non-reversing mirror by placing two first surface mirrors at 90º to give an image which is not reversed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Anamorphosis\n\nBULLET::::- Chirality, a property of asymmetry important in several branches of science\n\nBULLET::::- Flipped image\n\nBULLET::::- Flopped image\n\nBULLET::::- Handedness\n\nBULLET::::- Infinity mirror\n\nBULLET::::- Kaleidoscope\n\nBULLET::::- Plane mirror\n\nBULLET::::- Reflection (physics)\n\nBULLET::::- Relative direction\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Why do mirrors reverse images left to right? Why not up and down?\n\nBULLET::::- The same question explained a little differently, with examples\n\nBULLET::::- Why do mirrors flip horizontally (but not vertically)?\n", "The reversal of images by a plane mirror is perceived differently depending on the circumstances. In many cases, the image in a mirror appears to be reversed from left to right. If a flat mirror is mounted on the ceiling it can appear to reverse \"up\" and \"down\" if a person stands under it and looks up at it. Similarly a car turning \"left\" will still appear to be turning \"left\" in the rear view mirror for the driver of a car in front of it. The reversal of directions, or lack thereof, depends on how the directions are defined. More specifically a mirror changes the handedness of the coordinate system, one axis of the coordinate system appears to be reversed, and the chirality of the image may change. For example, the image of a right shoe will look like a left shoe.\n", "Two-dimensional mirror images can be seen in the reflections of mirrors or other reflecting surfaces, or on a printed surface seen inside-out. If we look at an object that is effectively two-dimensional (such as writing) and then turn it towards a mirror, the object turns through an angle of 180º and we see a left-right reversal in the mirror. In this example, it is the change in orientation rather than the mirror itself that causes the observed reversal. Another example is when we stand with our backs to the mirror and face an object that's in front of the mirror. Then we compare the object with its reflection by turning ourselves 180º, towards the mirror. Again we perceive a left-right reversal due to a change in orientation. So, in these examples the mirror does not actually cause the observed reversals.\n", "When the structure is pronounced, it linearises in the following order: specifiers precede heads, and heads precede their complements. So when a sentence like that in the diagram below is pronounced, 'John' precedes the V-v-T chain, which in turn precedes 'Mary', the latter being the specifier of V. However, English is a VO language, which means that the morphological word 'loves' associated with the V-v-T chain is spelled in v, deriving the correct word order.\n\nAdger, D., Harbour, D., and Watkins, L. \"Mirrors and Microparameters: Phrase Structure beyond Free Word Order\" \n\nBrody, M. \"Mirror Theory\"\n", "If a point of an object has coordinates (\"x\", \"y\", \"z\") then the image of this point (as reflected by a mirror in the \"y\", \"z\" plane) has coordinates (-\"x\", \"y\", \"z\"). Thus reflection is a reversal of the coordinate axis perpendicular (normal) to the mirror's surface. Although a plane mirror reverses an object only in the direction normal to the mirror surface, there is usually a \"perception\" of a left-right reversal. Hence, the reversal is called \"lateral inversion\". The perception of a left-right reversal is probably because the left and right of an object are defined by its perceived top and front, but there is still some debate about the explanation amongst psychologists. The psychology of the perceived left-right reversal is discussed in \"Much ado about mirrors\" by Professor Michael Corballis (see \"external links\", below).\n", "For things that may be considered as two-dimensional objects (like text), front-back reversal cannot usually explain the observed reversal. In the same way that text on a piece of paper appears reversed if held up to a light and viewed from behind, text held facing a mirror will appear reversed, because the observer is behind the text. Another way to understand the reversals observed in images of objects that are effectively two-dimensional is that the inversion of left and right in a mirror is due to the way human beings turn their bodies. To turn from viewing the side of the object facing the mirror to view the reflection in the mirror requires the observer to look in the opposite direction. To look in another direction, human beings turn their heads about a vertical axis. This causes a left-right reversal in the image but not an up-down reversal. If a person instead turns by bending over and looking at the mirror image between their legs, up-down will appear reversed but not left-right. This sort of reversal is simply a change relative to the observer and not a change intrinsic to the image itself, as with a three-dimensional object.\n", "Objects viewed in a (plane) mirror will appear laterally inverted (e.g., if one raises one's right hand, the image's left hand will appear to go up in the mirror), but not vertically inverted (in the image a person's head still appears above their body). However, a mirror does not usually \"swap\" left and right any more than it swaps top and bottom. A mirror typically reverses the forward/backward axis. To be precise, it reverses the object in the direction perpendicular to the mirror surface (the normal). Because left and right are defined relative to front-back and top-bottom, the \"flipping\" of front and back results in the perception of a left-right reversal in the image. (If you stand side-on to a mirror, the mirror really does reverse your left and right, because that's the direction perpendicular to the mirror.)\n", "Mirror canon\n\nThe mirror canon (also called a canon by contrary motion) is a type of canon which involves the leading voice being played alongside its own inversion (i.e. upside-down). The realisation from the 'closed' (unrealised) form can be effected by placing the page in front of a mirror, thus upside down, and beginning with the already progressing first voice.\n", "Reflection in a mirror \"does\" result in a change in chirality, more specifically from a right-handed to a left-handed coordinate system (or vice versa). As a consequence, if one looks in a mirror and lets two axes (up-down and front-back) coincide with those in the mirror, then this gives a reversal of the third axis (left-right).\n", "Section::::Mirror writing.\n\nIn mirror writing a text is deliberately displayed in mirror image, in order to be read through a mirror. For example, emergency vehicles such as ambulances or fire engines use mirror images in order to be read from a driver's rear-view mirror. Some movie theaters also take advantage of mirror writing in a Rear Window Captioning System used to assist individuals with hearing impairments watching the film.\n\nSection::::Systems of mirrors.\n", "BULLET::::- The Voice – an authoritative male voice sometimes speaks to Shane and David, generally reminding the duo to knock before entering a room (i.e. \"You forgot to knock,\" or, \"Aren't you forgetting something?\", followed by \"Come in\" when they do so). Based on the off-screen Tina from Speedmouse, The Voice sometimes demands specific types of knocks before giving the boys consent to enter a room (in episodes \"Camping\", \"Picnic\", and \"Beach\"). Another voice narrates when the boys finally reach their intended destination \"for the very first time\".\n", "A non-reversing mirror (sometimes referred to as a flip mirror) is a mirror that presents its subject as it would be seen from the mirror. A non-reversing mirror can be made by connecting two regular mirrors at their edges at a 90 degree angle. If the join is positioned so that it is vertical, an observer looking into the angle will see a non-reversed image. This can be seen in places such as public toilets when there are two mirrors mounted on walls which meet at right angles. Such an image is visible while looking towards the corner where the two mirrors meet. The problem with this type of non-reversing mirror is that there is usually a line down the middle interrupting the image. However, if first surface mirrors are used, and care is taken to set the angle to exactly 90 degrees, the join can be made almost invisible.\n", "The Canon a 2 'Quaerendo invenietis' from J. S. Bach's \"The Musical Offering\", BWV 1079, is a fine example of the process. In its original closed form the alto clef and an upside-down bass clef indicate both the mirror procedure and the appropriate pitches of the voices for the purpose of realisation.\n", "Mirror writing\n\nMirror writing is formed by writing in the direction that is the reverse of the natural way for a given language, such that the result is the mirror image of normal writing: it appears normal when it is reflected in a mirror. It is sometimes used as an extremely primitive form of cipher. A common modern usage of mirror writing can be found on the front of ambulances, where the word \"AMBULANCE\" is often written in very large mirrored text, so that drivers see the word the right way around in their rear-view mirror.\n", "The prism is sometimes simply called a \"roof prism\", although this is ambiguous, because other roof prisms exist, such as the Amici and Schmidt–Pechan designs.\n\nA variant of the Abbe–Koenig prism replaces the \"roof\" section of the prism with a single mirror-coated reflecting surface. This type of prism flips the image vertically, but not laterally, changing the handedness of the image to the opposite sense.\n", "Another type of non-reversing mirror can be made by making the mirror concave (curved inwards like a bowl). At a certain distance from the mirror a non-reversed image will appear. The disadvantage of this is that it only works at a certain distance.\n", "BULLET::::- The short story \"Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius\" by Jorge Luis Borges begins with the phrase \"I owe the discovery of Uqbar to the conjunction of a mirror and an encyclopedia\" and contains other references to mirrors.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Trap\", a short story by H.P. Lovecraft and Henry S. Whitehead, centers around a mirror. \"It was on a certain Thursday morning in December that the whole thing began with that unaccountable motion I thought I saw in my antique Copenhagen mirror. Something, it seemed to me, stirred—something reflected in the glass, though I was alone in my quarters.\"\n", "If a person stands side-on to a mirror, left and right will be reversed \"directly\" by the mirror, because the person's left-right axis is then normal to the mirror plane. However, it's important to understand that there are \"always\" only two enantiomorphs, the object and its image.Therefore, no matter how the object is oriented towards the mirror, all the resulting images are fundamentally identical (as Professor Corballis explains in his paper \"Much ado about mirrors\", mentioned above).\n", "After a reading, the querent will be asked to \"open the heart\". This is done by placing the right thumb at the inside bottom of the cup and twisting clockwise slightly. This will leave an impression behind that the fortune teller will interpret as the querent's inner thoughts or emotions.\n\nIn 2007, a coffee-reading fortune teller from Israel was charged with fraud, a crime punishable by up to five years in jail. The fortune teller in question was acquitted of the charges after the Israeli government deemed it too hard to prove she was knowingly \"faking it\".\n\nSection::::Symbols.\n", "When light strikes an interface between two materials, the reflected light is generally partially polarized. However, if the light strikes the interface at Brewster's angle, the reflected light is \"completely\" linearly polarized parallel to the interface. Brewster's angle is given by\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Reflected images.\n\nThe image in a flat mirror has these features:\n\nBULLET::::- It is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.\n\nBULLET::::- It is the same size as the object.\n\nBULLET::::- It is the right way up (erect).\n\nBULLET::::- It is reversed.\n", "A third type of non-reversing mirror was created by mathematics professor R. Andrew Hicks in 2009. It was created using computer algorithms to generate a \"disco ball\" like surface. The thousands of tiny mirrors are angled to create a surface which curves and bends in different directions. The curves direct rays from an object across the mirror's face before sending them back to the viewer, flipping the conventional mirror image.\n\nA patent for a non-reversing mirror was issued to John Joseph Hooker in 1887.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Corner reflector\n\nBULLET::::- Retroreflector\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"check your real image\", free-non-reverse-mirror-site\n", "Mirror fugue\n\nA mirror fugue is a fugue, or rather two fugues, one of which is the mirror image of the other. It is as though a mirror were placed above or below an existing fugue, producing inversions of each interval in each part, as well as inverting the position of the parts within the texture, so that, for example, the topmost part in one fugue is inverted to produce the lowest part in the other. This is well demonstrated by the two four-part fugues of Contrapunctus 12 in \"The Art of Fugue\".\n", "The Image in the Mirror\n\n\"The Image in the Mirror\" is short story by Dorothy L. Sayers, featuring Lord Peter Wimsey and published as the first story in \"Hangman's Holiday\" in 1933.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n\nThis story is notable for its inaccurate depiction of right/left mirror image twins, and more generally for its use of popular science to explore the subject of inversion.\n", "Mirrors are a popular design theme in architecture, particularly with late modern and post-modernist high-rise buildings in major cities. Early examples include the Campbell Center in Dallas, which opened in 1972, and the John Hancock Tower in Boston.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16652	If surface area has no effect on fricton, why are some wheels so wide	While the friction is the same, the composition of the tires can be made differently for a tire with a larger contact patch (wider tire). A small narrow tire has to carry the weight of the car on a very small contact patch, which means the tire has to be stiffer and harder and must be run at a higher pressure to avoid wheel damage, and won't deal with the imperfections of the asphalt very well. A wide soft tire can carry the same load on a much larger area, allowing it to be of a softer composition and to be run at lower tire pressures without risk of damage or rollover. Therefore the tire will conform to the road or track much better than will a harder tire at higher pressures, and the larger contact patch will ensure good contact with the asphalt.	[ "Several factors affect these stiffnesses to varying degrees. These include wheel radius, rim bending and torsional stiffness, number of spokes, spoke gauge, lacing pattern, hub stiffness, hub flange spacing, hub radius. In general lateral and radial stiffness decreases with the number of spoke crossings and torsional stiffness increases with the number of spoke crossings. One factor that has little influence on these stiffnesses is spoke tension. \n", "Small wheels, all else being equal, have slightly higher rolling resistance. On the other hand, they may have lower aerodynamic drag due to their smaller area, which is proportional to their radius.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bike Friday\n\nBULLET::::- Birdy (bicycle)\n\nBULLET::::- Brompton Bicycle\n\nBULLET::::- Folding bicycle\n\nBULLET::::- Moulton Bicycle\n\nBULLET::::- Portable bicycle\n\nBULLET::::- Strida\n\nBULLET::::- List of bicycle manufacturing companies\n\nBULLET::::- Outline of cycling\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Usenet quote: \"A larger wheel rides better on average roads and always corners better because it brings a longer contact patch to the road.\" Mechanical engineer Jobst Brandt on optimal wheel sizes\n", "One item that is often raised is tire contact patch size and shape. All else being equal, such as tire width, rim width, inflation pressure and rider weight, the contact patch of a 29\" wheel has the same area and is slightly longer (~5%) than that of a 26\" wheel.\n\nSection::::Performance.:Advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Larger wheels roll over obstacles more easily. The ability of a wheel to roll over obstacles is proportional to its size. A 29\" wheel, which is about 10% larger than a 26\" wheel, can roll over 10% larger obstacles.\n", "The additional height and weight of plus sized wheels may reduce vulnerability to rollovers, particularly by changing the center of gravity. During rapid tire deflation at speed, reduced sidewall height may decrease rollovers.\n", "Modern road tourers may employ 700C (622 mm) wheels — the same diameter as a road (racing) bicycle. Other road touring bikes may feature wider rims and more clearance in the frame for wider bicycle tires. Before the 1980s, many touring bikes for the North American market were built with 27-inch (630 mm) wheels which have a slightly larger diameter.\n", "Traditionally, there were four different sizes of 28-inch diameter wheels, from the narrow tires to the widest, they all measured the same outside diameter, which coincide with four different families of 700 tire sizes, these are 700, 700A, 700B and 700C. The largest of these rims (ISO 647mm/642mm) with the narrower tires are no longer available.\n\nSection::::Technical aspects.:Rolling resistance.\n\nThere are a number of variables that determine rolling resistance: tire tread, width, diameter, tire construction, tube type (if applicable), and pressure are all important.\n\nSmaller diameter wheels, all else being equal, have higher rolling resistance than larger wheels.\n", "Semi-aerodynamic and aerodynamic wheelsets are characterized by greater rim depth, which is the radial distance between the outermost and the innermost surfaces of the rim; a triangular or pyramidal cross-section; and by fewer numbers of spokes, or no spokes at all—with blades molded of composite material supporting the rim. The spokes are also often flattened in the rotational direction to reduce wind drag. These are called \"bladed spokes\". However, semi-aerodynamic and aerodynamic wheelsets tend to be heavier than more traditional spoked wheelsets due to the extra shapings of the rims and spokes. More importantly, the rims must be heavier when there are fewer spokes, as the unsupported span between spokes is greater. A number of wheel manufacturers are now producing wheels with roughly half the spokes of the highest performance traditional wheel from the 1980s, with approximately the same rotational inertia and less total weight. These improvements have been made possible primarily through improved aluminium alloys for the rims.\n", "Bicycle wheel sizes are not precise measurements: a 29-inch mountain bike wheel with a bead seat diameter (the term, bead seat diameter (BSD), is used in the ETRTO tire and rim sizing system), and the average 29\" mountain bike tire is (in ISO notation) 59-622 corresponds to an outside diameter of about 29.15 inches (740 mm).\n", "Touring, race, and cyclo-cross bicycles may have vastly different design goals for their wheels. Aerodynamic performance and low weight are beneficial for road bicycles, while for cyclo-cross strength gains importance, and for touring bicycles, strength becomes more important again. However, this diameter of rim, identical in diameter to the \"29er\" rim, is by far the most common on these styles of bicycles. Road wheels may be designed for tubular or clincher tires, commonly referred to as \"700C\" tires.\n\nSection::::Types.:Mountain bike wheels.\n\nMountain bike wheels are described by the approximate outer diameter of the rim plus a wide, ~2+ inch tire.\n", "Strength and rigidity is also provided by the edge treatment such as flanging or wiring, after the fabrication of the correct surface contour has been achieved. The flange is so important to the shape of the finished surface that it is possible to fabricate some panels by shrinking and stretching of the flange alone, without the use of surface stretching or shrinking at all.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Adjustment.\n", "The widest wheel/tire widths, typically 3.8 in (97 mm) or larger, are sometimes used by icebikers who use their mountain bikes for winter-time riding in snowy conditions.\n", "Total wheel weight (tyre & rim) represents ”unsprung“ weight. Standard fit wheels and tyres tend to have less unsprung weight than oversized rims and tyres. With less unstrung weight, the shock absorbers and dampers are much better able to control the lower inertia and consequently, the vertical “bounce“ of a wheel over a bumpy road surface, resulting in better and more consistent tyre contact with the road surface.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Tire code\n\nBULLET::::- Uniform Tire Quality Grading (UTQG)\n\nBULLET::::- Wheel sizing\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Effects of Upsized Wheels and Tires Tested, Car and Driver, April, 2010\n", "BULLET::::- In tires, tread thickness and shape has much to do with rolling resistance. The thicker and more contoured the tread, the higher the rolling resistance Thus, the \"fastest\" bicycle tires have very little tread and heavy duty trucks get the best fuel economy as the tire tread wears out.\n\nBULLET::::- Diameter effects seem to be negligible, provided the pavement is hard and the range of diameters is limited. See dependence on diameter.\n", "Wheel sizing\n\nThe wheel size for a motor vehicle or similar wheel has a number of parameters.\n\nSection::::Wheel size.\n", "Smaller pitch target wheels with module m = 1 are often used to get a higher time resolution or to make the construction more compact. In this case the maximum possible air gap is only 0.5 to 0.8 mm.\n", "Section::::Reduction of weight and rotating mass.:Advantages of light wheels.\n\nThe mass of tires and rims must be accelerated linearly \"and\" rotationally. It can be shown that the effect of rim and tire mass of typical spoked wheels is effectively doubled.\n\nReducing their mass is thus especially noticeable in the case of sprints and corner \"jumps\" in a criterium.\n\nSection::::Power required.\n", "Tires have a large influence over bike handling, especially on motorcycles, but also on bicycles. Tires influence bike dynamics in two distinct ways: finite crown radius and force generation. Increase the crown radius of the front tire has been shown to decrease the size or eliminate self stability. Increasing the crown radius of the rear tire has the opposite effect, but to a lesser degree.\n", "Caliper Clearance (X-factor): The amount of clearance built into the wheel to allow for the vehicle's disc brake and caliper assembly.\n\nSection::::Load capacity.\n", "Pacejka gives a rule of thumb that \"at nominal vertical load the relaxation length is of the order of magnitude of the wheel radius\". Relaxations lengths have been found to be between 0.12 and 0.45 meters, with higher values corresponding to higher velocities and heavier loads. Tests on motorcycle tires have found that the ratio of cornering stiffness over lateral stiffness produces values 20-25% higher than those calculated as 63% of the steady state-value. The relaxation length associated with camber thrust has been found to be nearly zero.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n", "BULLET::::- The risk of over stretching/thinning an over-large high crown panel or sectionbr(It is no good having the correct contour if the metal is too thin and weak.)\n\nBULLET::::- As the size of the panel or section increases, the work involved and the level of difficulty increases disproportionately\n", "Wheel moment of inertia is a controversial subject. In this article: wheel theory, the author does some calculations on wheel effects. Moment of inertia changes result in a decrease in watts of between .004 and .022%, while lower mass provided between .2 and .46%, and better aerodynamics provided between .6 and 1.8% decrease in power. Therefore, wheel moment of inertia effects are neither noticeable nor important. At the same time, a product launched in 2008 to dynamically alter the rotating inertia of bicycle wheels claims to have \"outperformed the standard, equivalent wheel by 5.6sec/mile.\"\n\nSection::::Racing components.\n", "Conventional metallic bicycle wheels for single rider bikes commonly have 28, 32 or 36 spokes, while wheels on tandems have as many as 40 or 48 spokes to support the weight of an additional rider. BMX bikes commonly have 36 or 48 spoke wheels. Lowrider bicycles may have as many as 144 spokes per wheel.\n", "Section::::Technical aspects.:Dish.\n\nThe hub flanges of modern tension-spoked bicycle wheels are always spaced wider than where the spokes attach to the rim. When viewed in cross section, the spokes and hub form a triangle, a structure that is stiff both vertically and laterally. In three dimensions, if the spokes were covered, they would form two cones or \"dishes\". The greater the separation between the hub flanges, the deeper the dishes, and the stiffer and stronger the wheel can be laterally. The more vertical the spokes, the shallower the dish, and the less stiff the wheel will be laterally.\n", "In the early 1980s, the size of the wheels for the emerging mountain bikes was undecided. So when English off-road cycling pioneer Geoff Apps contacted Gary Fisher and Charlie Kelly with news that he had built a prototype off-road bicycle that used large-diameter 28 x 1¾ (ISO 47-622), 47mm wide Nokian Hakkapeliitta snow tires from Finland, they were intrigued. In a letter to the December 2006 issue of Bike Biz magazine, Gary Fisher, speaking about the growing popularity of 29ers, gives his perspective: \"We got some tires from Geoff Apps really early on and we [Fisher and Kelly] said ‘Holy Toledo!'\" But the poor supply situation of the larger diameter tires meant the fledgling MTB industry stuck with the smaller wheel size.\" The first Geoff Apps-designed 700C wheeled off-road bicycle was made in 1981.\n", "For example, a study at the University of Oldenburg found that Schwalbe Standard GW HS 159 tires, all with a width of 47 mm and an inflation pressure of , but made for various diameter rims, had the following rolling resistances:\n\nThe author of the cited paper concludes, based on the data presented therein, that Crr is inversely proportional to inflation pressure and to wheel diameter.\n\nSection::::Parameters.:Forces and moments generated.:Cornering force and camber thrust.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01371	How does the animal kingdom deal with “mistakes” or accidents where an animal blunders and accidentally harms another animal? Can animals comprehend sorrow or forgiveness in relation to such an event?	When rough play goes too far, cats and dogs that are affectionate will often start licking the one who they hurt. Many people see that as 'apologetic' behavior.	[ "In addition to research in primates, biologists are beginning to explore reconciliation in other animals. Until recently, the literature dealing with reconciliation in non-primates has consisted of anecdotal observations and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post-conflict behavior had been documented going back to the 1960s, it was not until 1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of reconciliation in feral sheep. Reconciliation has since been documented in spotted hyenas, lions, bottlenose dolphins, dwarf mongoose, domestic goats, domestic dogs, and, recently, in red-necked wallabies.\n\nSection::::Education.\n", "There was once a lioness who had two cubs. One day, she left her cubs in their cave and went hunting. During this time, a horseman rode past the caves and killed the cubs and took their pelts. When the lioness returned and saw what had been done to her children, she shrieked and roared in grief. A neighbouring jackal visited her and told her that she had had it coming as what goes around comes around. The lioness distressed and confused asked the jackal to explain. The jackal told her that the action of the horseman was no different to the lioness’ own actions, as her prey also had parents who grieved the loss of their children.\n", "In 1879, Arthur E. Brown studied how a male chimpanzee reacted after the death of his female counterpart. He saw the male chimpanzee display grief and \"a cry which the keeper of the animals assures [Brown] he had never heard before\"). Continuing to the next day, the chimpanzee sulked and barely moved. Brown deciphered that the male chimpanzee was depressed after the female chimpanzee died. However, Brown concluded that any permanent grief is only found in man, as the chimpanzee seemed fine after a couple of days.\n", "Section::::Marc Bekoff's Recent Research on Animal Grief.\n\nMarc Bekoff is a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Colorado-Boulder. He has spent his life studying animals and their emotions, finding that animals grieve quite frequently. Such examples of grieving animals are:\n\nBULLET::::- Bekoff found that sea lion mothers squeal eerily when they watch their babies be eaten by killer whales.\n\nBULLET::::- Even after their calves have died, dolphin mothers have been seen to save them and grieve when they confirm the death.\n", "At the behavioral level it is evident from the descriptions of comparative psychologists and ethologists that behaviors homologous to empathic concern can be observed in other mammalian species. Notably, a variety of reports on ape empathic reactions suggest that, apart from emotional connectedness, apes have an explicit appreciation of the other's situation. A good example is consolation, defined as reassurance behavior by an uninvolved bystander towards one of the combatants in a previous aggressive incident.\n\nSection::::Developmental origins.\n", "Because the avoidance response is adaptive, humans have learned to use it in training animals such as dogs and horses. B.F. Skinner (1938) believed that animals learn primarily through rewards and punishments, the basis of operant conditioning. The avoidance response comes into play here when punishment is administered. An animal will presumably learn to avoid the behavior that preceded this punishment. A naturally occurring example for humans would be that after a child has been burned by a red stove, he or she learns not to touch the stove when it is red. The child avoids that behavior in the future. For a non-human animal, an example would be that of invisible fences which prompt a dog to learn not to cross a certain (invisible) boundary because its collar shocks it when it does.\n", "In a study that used this approach, rats that were playfully tickled responded differently than rats that were simply handled. The rats that had been tickled were more optimistic than the handled rats. The authors suggested that they had demonstrated \"...for the first time a link between the directly measured positive affective state and decision making under uncertainty in an animal model\".\n\nThere is some evidence for cognitive bias in a number of species, including rats, dogs, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings and honeybees.\n\nSection::::Research questions.:Language.\n", "Various ways in which humans interpret the behaviour of animals, or give commands to them, are consistent with the definition of interspecies communication. Skillful interpretation of animal communications may be critical to the welfare of animals that are being cared for or trained by humans. For example, behaviours indicating pain need to be recognized. Indeed, the survival of both the animal and its human caretaker may be at stake if, for example, a human fails to recognize a signal for imminent attack. It is also important to take into account that non-human animal species may interpret the signals of humans differently than humans themselves. For instance, a pointing command refers to a location rather than an object in dogs.\n", "Minimizing human–wildlife conflict is a persistent challenge in wildlife management and conservation. Behavioral manipulation can help mitigate some conflicts such as livestock depredation or agricultural destruction by repelling animals with strobe lights, sounds, aversive conditioning, or taste aversion. Not only are humans frequently coming into conflict with animals, but humans can also induce environmental stress on animals. Humans can begin to mitigate these stresses by understanding behaviors, such as the effect tourists have on wildlife in reserves.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Reducing the decline of species.\n", "Human wildlife conflict also has a range of 'hidden' dimensions that are not typically factored in when the focus is on visible impacts. These can include health impacts, opportunity and transaction costs. Case studies include work on elephants in northeast India, where elephant-man interactions are seen to lead to cases of increased imbibing of alcohol by crop guardians with resultant enhanced mortality in encounters., and issues related to gender in northern India.\n\nSection::::Conflict resolution or management.\n", "A case is shown with one named Amos. The day before he died he spent the day in his nest and did not move until a female chimpanzee Daisy went up to him (Safina, 2015). When Amos died, one of the chimpanzees who was more sociable than the rest as well as a “higher rank” than the rest did not want to be with the group for weeks. As shown here it also depends on who passed away on how long an animal can grieve. Though through the time spent mourning many signs can appear of an animals grief and agony of the loss of their companion.\n", "This is easy to observe when multiple dogs are interacting with each other. When tensions rise a bit between two dogs, a third dog might try to put his body between the two dogs. Dogs do this when they perceive tensions to rise between people too. If a dog is getting tense about something he sees at a distance, people can step between the dog and the disturbing view to \"Split\" and achieve the same result\n\nSection::::When do dogs stop giving calming signals.\n\nAccording to Rugaas, dogs stop using calming signals in the following situations:\n", "The aim of conflict resolution or management is to reduce the potential for human-wildlife conflicts in order to protect life and limb, safety and security of animal populations, habitat and general biodiversity, and also to minimise damage to property. The preference is always for passive, non-intrusive prevention measures but often active intervention is required to be carried out in conjunction.\n\nSection::::Management techniques.\n", "Though Bekoff is the face of recent research on animal grief, other scientists are starting to look more into it. Some studies have looked at depression in animals, with Paul Willner finding that there are eighteen animal models of depression. Peter J. Fashing & Nga Nguyen (2012) found that a group of chimpanzees groomed and caressed a grieving, older chimpanzee. They also found that \"the dying female [elephant] was approached by the matriarch of another group who repeatedly attempted to bring her to her feet using her tusks\". Even otters grieve, where members of a group caught fish for months and brought them to the matriarch who had failing vision and poor mobility.\n", "Conflict management strategies earlier comprised lethal control, translocation, regulation of population size and preservation of endangered species. Recent management approaches attempt to use scientific research for better management outcomes, such as behaviour modification and reducing interaction. As human-wildlife conflicts inflict direct, indirect and opportunity costs, the mitigation of human-wildlife conflict is an important issue in the management of biodiversity and protected areas.\n\nSection::::Meaning.\n", "BULLET::::- A ram and blind cow exhibited interspecies friendship in which the ram would protect the cow by making sure she did not bump into anything and feeding beside her every day. When the cow gave birth to a calf, the ram exhibited these protective behaviours on the calf as well.\n", "Section::::Implications of Research.\n", "Section::::In animals.\n", "Occurrences of elephants behaving this way around human beings are common throughout Africa. On many occasions, they have buried dead or sleeping humans or aided them when they were hurt.\n", "Meanwhile, Adder comes across a female adder and tries to impress her with the story of his attack by the Beast, but she shows no interest in him and Adder slides away from her. Adder later tries to find the female adder but is unable to. The next day Whistler discovers that the Warden is setting up a pen by the perimeter of the reserve, and when Tawny Owl tells the animals that the deer are being rounded up they realise that the humans have decided to watch over them to keep them safe. The Beast also realises what the Warden is doing and decides to bide its time so the Warden will think it has left the Park.\n", "A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Potential solutions to these conflicts include electric fencing, land use planning, community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), compensation, payment for environmental services, ecotourism, wildlife friendly products, or other field solutions.\n", "Section::::Philosophical status.:Relevance to the theological problem of evil.\n\nThe problem of evil has been extended beyond human troubles to include the suffering of animals over the course of evolution.\n\nSection::::Interventions to reduce suffering.\n\nSection::::Interventions to reduce suffering.:Arguments for intervention.\n", "Section::::Damage caused without criminality.:Agents in their abnormal condition.\n\nThe principal distinction in the second class is between harmless (\"\"tam\"\") and warned (\"\"mu'ad\"\"). The law of compensation in these two cases is as follows: In the case of an animal previously reputed harmless (\"tam\"), the owner has to compensate for half the damage, unless half the damage exceeds the whole value of the animal causing the damage. In a case where the owner has been warned (\"mu'ad\"), he must give full compensation for the damage, without regard to the value of the damaging animal (compare ).\n", "The two animals emerge from the hole in the earth; the weasel first, and then Chauntecleer. Chauntecleer attacks the weasel with his spur, cutting at John Wesley's haunch, which he just brushes off and continues running through the canyon. The rooster in all of his rage, leaps onto the black stag that had carried him there, and commands him to take after the weasel, reinforcing it with a sharp jab of his other spur, deep into the stag's side. The animal reacts to the pain by starting a stampede of all the confused animals that had come along with Chauntecleer. The weasel manages to stay ahead of them just long enough to reach the coyote's den where one of the young coyotes comes to John Wesley's rescue. The Weasel tries to warn the young coyote of the incoming danger, but not before his mother, Ferric's wife Rachel comes out to see him as well. In the end, the stampede of animals comes rushing after John Wesley, and though he manages to escape with his life, the coyotes are crushed under the stampeding herd. The animals scatter, and the rooster reclaims the skull from where John Wesley left it and begins his long walk home, leaving the two dead coyotes and a hidden general alone.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07457	these 2 questions. How does/did dial up internet work? Why and how did making a phone call affect the internet connection?	It was literally like making a phone call. One computer to another. The sender would convert 1’s and 0’s into ‘analogue noise’ as if talking and the computer at the other end would covert them back into 1’s and 0’s again. You can only make one phone call at a time. If you picked up the phone while an internet call was in place. The background noise from the phone mic added to conversation. Therefore this would confuse a computer when listening as it failed to understand the extra noise. So it would freak out and disconnect. History: the first modems; you had to place a phone handset onto a ‘mic and speaker’ and manually dial a phone number on the phone for the computer.	[ "The signal is sent from the telco's central office as an Ethernet style signal and is demuxed at the customer's premises by a POTS/Ethernet splitter. The box itself contains all the circuitry needed to split the data and voice channels. An Ethernet cable is run directly to the customer's PC or router, and the POTS lines within the home are connected to the POTS terminals inside the customer-premises equipment (CPE) unit. The CPE unit is powered from the telco's central office, and will continue to work during a power outage, and supports failover-to-POTS.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- HVDL vendor Charles\n", "BULLET::::- 1988: First transatlantic fiber optic cable TAT-8, carrying 40,000 circuits\n\nBULLET::::- 1990: analog AMPS was superseded by Digital AMPS.\n\nBULLET::::- 1991: the GSM mobile phone network is started in Finland, with the first phone call in Tampere.\n\nBULLET::::- 1993: Telecom Relay Service available for the disabled\n\nBULLET::::- 1994: The IBM Simon becomes the first smartphone on the market.\n\nBULLET::::- 1995: Caller ID implemented nationally in USA\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: creation of the Asterisk Private branch exchange\n\nSection::::2000 to present.\n", "BULLET::::1. The client computer calls the server computer.\n\nBULLET::::2. After a greeting the client identifies itself, usually with a user name.\n\nBULLET::::3. The server then disconnects the call.\n\nBULLET::::4. Based upon the user name and a list of users' phone numbers, the server will then establish a second call back to the client computer.\n\nBULLET::::5. The client computer, expecting this returned call, will then answer and communications between the two computers will proceed normally.\n\nSometimes callback modem setups can also be used for billback purposes, allowing the originator to avoid lengthy toll charges.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Dial-up Internet access uses a modem and a phone call placed over the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect to a pool of modems operated by an ISP. The modem converts a computer's digital signal into an analog signal that travels over a phone line's local loop until it reaches a telephone company's switching facilities or central office (CO) where it is switched to another phone line that connects to another modem at the remote end of the connection.\n", "Dial-up Internet access\n\nDial-up Internet access is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to establish a connection to an Internet service provider (ISP) by dialing a telephone number on a conventional telephone line. The user's computer or router uses an attached modem to encode and decode information into and from audio frequency signals, respectively.\n", "The client-side system worked by manipulating the game's memory in a way similar to Game Genie and third-party computer game modifications such as Multi Theft Auto.\n\nA problem of most online services of the time was that the connection would be lost whenever a phone on the same line was picked up. The XBand operating system was designed to ensure that connections are not lost due to phone activity; in the case of call waiting, the system would alert the user to the call and allow the game to be resumed.\n", "Each plane of the timeswitch occupies one shelf in a three-shelf group – the lower shelf is plane 0, the upper shelf is plane 1 and the middle shelf is occupied by up to 32 DLTs (Digital Line Terminations). The DLT is a 2048 kb/s 32-channel PCM link in and out of the exchange.\n", "Section::::Dial-up modem.:History.:Using digital lines and PCM (V.90/92).\n", "O'Neil would later repeat the claim with further specifics: \"I heard it was a lawyer who was using a MacIntosh and lived in California—I obviously don't have hard information on this, but I heard someone out there programmed his computer to dial it every couple of minutes, and since there was only about 65 votes that made the difference, if that story is true, that guy, that guy killed Jason Todd!\"\n", "Section::::Changes.\n", "Section::::Decoupling.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Amazing Things Happen When High Speed Switched Digital Lines Connect Computers\" - Project DIANE, MCI Customer Newsletter 120%, July 1994\n\nBULLET::::- \"NationsBank Small Business Center\" - DIANE Project, Community Reinvesting, July 1994\n\nBULLET::::- \"Computer Lets People Talk To, See Each Other\" by Kevin Pollard,Tennessean Close Up, June 1, 1994\n\nBULLET::::- \"Observation Deck\"- Project DIANE by Vince Vittore, \"America's Network\", May 15, 1994, page 6\n\nBULLET::::- \"Telemedicine Putting Rural Areas On-Line to Care\" - Project DIANE by Judy Holland, Nashville Banner, May 9, 1994, page B4.\n", "Section::::Music video.:Reception.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nHistorically, voice and data communications were based on methods of circuit switching, as exemplified in the traditional telephone network, wherein each telephone call is allocated a dedicated, end to end, electronic connection between the two communicating stations. Such stations might be telephones or computers. The temporarily dedicated line typically comprises many intermediary lines which are assembled into a chain that reaches from the originating station to the destination station. With packet switching, a network could share a single communication link for communication between multiple pairs of receivers and transmitters.\n", "After Bamber telephoned the police, a British Telecom operator checked the White House Farm line—at 3:56 am according to the police log, and at 4:30 am according to the Court of Appeal—and found that the line was open. The operator could hear a dog barking. According to British Telecom, if Nevill had telephoned Bamber without replacing the receiver, the line between them would have remained open for between eight and 16 minutes. Bamber would therefore not have been able to use his telephone to report the call to the police immediately, as he said he did in one statement; in another statement he said he had first telephoned his girlfriend, Julie Mugford, in London. That the line would not have cleared is one of several disputed points.\n", "BULLET::::- 3 April 1973: Motorola employee Martin Cooper placed the first hand-held cell phone call to Joel Engel, head of research at AT&T's Bell Labs, while talking on the first Motorola DynaTAC prototype.\n\nBULLET::::- 1973: packet switched voice connections over ARPANET with Network Voice Protocol (NVP).\n\nBULLET::::- 1976: Kazuo Hashimoto invented Caller ID\n\nBULLET::::- 1978: Bell Labs launched a trial of the first commercial cellular network in Chicago using Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).\n\nBULLET::::- 1978: World's first NMT phone call in Tampere, Finland.\n\nBULLET::::- 1979: VoIP – NVP running on top of early versions of IP\n", "BULLET::::- Touch-tone telephones (then practically new to Europe) for both voice and data entry\n\nBULLET::::- Call rerouting from multiple extensions to answer points\n\nBULLET::::- Camp on to a busy extension or external circuit with automatic call back\n\nBULLET::::- Short-code dialling to national and international numbers\n\nBULLET::::- Temporary call barring\n\nBULLET::::- Distinctive ring cadences (different cadences for internal and incoming external calls)\n\nBULLET::::- Dialled paging\n\nBULLET::::- Group answering\n\nBULLET::::- Authorised user intrusion\n\nBULLET::::- Add-on third party\n\nBULLET::::- Call pick-up\n\nBULLET::::- Non-dialled connection (an off-hook extension automatically dials an extension).\n\nSection::::Management facilities.\n\nMost management facilities were new to the PABX market:\n", "In addition to the traditional method of placing a telephone call, new technologies allow different methods for initiating a telephone call, such as voice dialing. Voice over IP technology allows calls to be made through a PC, using a service like Skype. Other services, such as toll-free dial-around enable callers to initiate a telephone call through a third party without exchanging phone numbers. Originally, no phone calls could be made without first talking to the Switchboard operator. Using 21st century mobile phones does not require the use of an operator to complete a phone call.\n", "Section::::PSTN integration.:Emergency calls.\n\nA telephone connected to a land line has a direct relationship between a telephone number and a physical location, which is maintained by the telephone company and available to emergency responders via the national emergency response service centers in form of emergency subscriber lists. When an emergency call is received by a center the location is automatically determined from its databases and displayed on the operator console.\n", "Mass call events can also be caused by planned events. In 1982, Eddie Murphy's Larry the Lobster shtick on Saturday Night Live resulted in record call volume, as Murphy held a live lobster and declared that the show's audience would determine whether he lived or died via telephone calls. The gathering in Washington, D.C. for the 2009 U.S. Presidential Inauguration of Barack Obama also created a MCE. In this case, network overload was avoided by deploying multiple cell-on-wheels (CoW) units with their own wireless backhauls. This was a particularly major situation for cell carriers because many attendees wanted to be live on the phone (via voice call or video chat) with others who could not attend the ceremony, further increasing network usage.\n", "Section::::History.:The telecom crisis.\n", "By June 1984 Version 7 of the system was being run in production, and nodes were rapidly being added to the network. By August there were almost 30 systems in the nodelist, 50 by September, and over 160 by January 1985. As the network grew, the maintenance of the nodelist became prohibitive, and errors were common. In these cases people would start receiving phone calls at 4 AM, from a caller that would say nothing and then hang up. In other cases the system would be listed before it was up and running, resulting in long distance calls that accomplished nothing.\n", "The international access code also changed on PhONEday, from 010 to 00 thus meeting the international call prefix standard set by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "In 1995, Peter Garza, a Special Agent with the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, conducted the first court-ordered Internet wiretap in the United States while investigating Julio Cesar Ardita (\"El Griton\").\n", "Section::::Common functions.:By connection type.\n\nComputer-phone connections can be split into two categories:\n\nBULLET::::- First-party call control\n\nBULLET::::- Third-party call control\n\nSection::::History and main CTI technologies.\n\nThe origins of CTI can be found in simple screen population (or \"screen pop\") technology. This allows data collected from the telephone systems to be used as input data to query databases with customer information and populate that data instantaneously in the customer service representative screen. The net effect is the agent already has the required screen on his/her terminal before speaking with the customer.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02370	Why is hot food described as "piping hot"?	From the [Online Etymology Dictionary:]( URL_0 ) > Piping hot is in Chaucer, a reference to hissing of food in a frying pan; to pipe up (early 15c.)	[ "It is often thought that the \"hot pot\" referred to is a pottery dish used to cook casseroles in British cuisine. However, it is more likely to refer to the idea of a jumble or hodge podge of ingredients in the filling. Sir Kenelm Digby's 1677 \"The Closet Opened\" contains a recipe for the \"Queen Mothers Hotchpot of Mutton\". Similarly, \"Mrs Beeton's Cookery Book\" contains a recipe for \"Hotch Potch\", calling for neck of mutton, onion, carrot, peas, cauliflower and lettuce.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Pot roast\n\nBULLET::::- Scotch broth\n\nBULLET::::- Scouse\n\nBULLET::::- Betty's hotpot\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Coddling\n\nIn cooking, to coddle food is to heat it in water kept just below the boiling point. In the past, recipes called for coddling fruit, but in recent times the term is usually only applied to coddled eggs. The process is either done in a regular pan or pot, or through the use of a special device such as an \"egg coddler\" (originally known as a \"pipkin\").\n\nThe word \"coddle\" evolved from the name of a warm drink, \"caudle\", and ultimately deriving from the Latin word for warm drink, \"calidium\".\n", "The masculine French noun \"pâté\" in combination with \"chaud\" (hot) was the name of the \"hot pie\" in French colonial Vietnam. It was the same usage as in France at the time; for example, Urbain Dubois (1818-1901), in his \"La Cuisine classique\" of 1868, describes Pâté-chaud à la Marinière as a moulded meat pie. However, this wording is now obsolete in modern French where a pie is designated \"tourte\", and \"pâté\" simply means \"mixture of finely chopped meat\". However, the more appropriate translation for the Vietnamese \"bánh patê sô\" would be \"pâté en croûte\", aka \"mixture of meat in crust\".\n", "Sous vide, French for \"under vacuum\", implies that food should be sealed in a plastic bag with all the air removed. An alternative method is to place the food in an open-sided plastic bag and partially submerge the bag into the water, forcing out the air. This method involves clipping the open side of the bag to the side of the pot to keep water from leaking into the opening. The goal is to have the food completely in contact with the hot water to assure even cooking while reducing off-flavors from oxidation.\n", "Chafing dish\n\nA chafing dish (from the French \"chauffer\", \"to make warm\") is a kind of portable grate raised on a tripod, originally heated with charcoal in a brazier, and used for foods that require gentle cooking, away from the \"fierce\" heat of direct flames. The chafing dish could be used at table or provided with a cover for keeping food warm on a buffet. Double dishes that provide a protective water jacket are known as \"bains-marie\" and help keep delicate foods, such as fish, warm while preventing overcooking.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Potage\n\nPotage (, ; ) is a category of thick soups, stews, or porridges, in some of which meat and vegetables are boiled together with water until they form into a thick mush.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nPotage has its origins in the medieval cuisine of northern France and increased in popularity from the High Middle Ages onward. A course in a medieval feast often began with one or two potages, which would be followed by roasted meats.\n", "BULLET::::- Pressure cooking – cooking in a sealed vessel that does not permit air or liquids to escape below a preset pressure, which allows the liquid in the pot to rise to a higher temperature before boiling.\n\nBULLET::::- Simmering – foods are cooked in hot liquids kept at or just below the boiling point of water, but higher than poaching temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- Poaching – process of gently simmering food in liquid, generally milk, stock or wine.\n\nBULLET::::- Steaming – boiling water continuously so it vaporizes into steam and carries heat to the food being steamed, thus cooking the food.\n", "BULLET::::- Chafing dish – a kind of portable grate raised on a tripod, originally heated with charcoal in a brazier, and used for foods that require gentle cooking, away from the \"fierce\" heat of direct flames. The chafing dish could be used at table or provided with a cover for keeping food warm on a buffet.\n\nBULLET::::- Chip pan – a deep-sided cooking pan used for deep-frying\n", "Hotchpot\n\nIn civil and property law, hotchpot (sometimes referred to as hotchpotch or the hotchpotch rule) is the blending, combining or offsetting of property (typically gifts) to ensure equality of a later division of property.\n\nThe name hotch-pot is taken from a kind of pudding, and is derived from the French word \"hocher\", or \"shake.\" It was used as early as 1292 as a legal term, and from the 15th century in cooking for a sort of broth with many ingredients (see Hodge-Podge soup), and so it is used figuratively for any heterogeneous mixture.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "The other predominate theory regarding the etymology of the name deals with the composition of the dish. In preparing Hot Mash, many of the ingredients, especially the starches, will need to be mashed in order to facilitate the dining experience. \n\nSection::::Initial reactions.\n", "Moist cooking methods were characteristic of this stage of the meal, typical preparations being sautés, ragoûts, and fricassées. Meat or fowl (but not fish) might be roasted, but it was first wrapped in paper, or stuffed with a forcemeat, or barded with herbs or anchovies, or finished in a sauce, or prepared in some other way to keep the dish from browning and crisping like a true roast. Savory pies and pastries were baked in dry heat, but the enclosed meat cooked in its own steam and juices. \n", "Dish (food)\n\nA dish in gastronomy is a specific food preparation, a \"distinct article or variety of food\", ready to eat, or be served.\n\nA dish may be served on tableware, or may be eaten out of hand.\n\nInstructions for preparing a dish are called recipes. \n\nSome dishes, for example \"vanilla ice cream with fudge sauce\", rarely have their own recipes printed in cookbooks, as they are made by simply combining two ready to eat foods.\n\nSection::::Naming.\n", "BULLET::::- Boiling – the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding environmental pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- Blanching – cooking technique which food substance, usually a vegetable or fruit, is plunged into boiling water, removed after a brief, timed interval, and finally plunged into iced water or placed under cold running water (shocked) to halt the cooking process.\n", "Section::::Variants.\n\nVariants of thermal cooking, though a better name would be \"heat retention\" cooking:\n\nBULLET::::- Wonderbag is an insulated bag to put around pots you already own.\n\nBULLET::::- Haybox cooking uses hay or sawdust to provide the insulation around the pot.\n\nA different kind of vacuum cooker is used in the candy manufacturing industry to cook candies at low air pressures.\n\nSous-vide cooking is cooking at temperatures under boiling, usually in a plastic bag.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Low-temperature cooking\n\nBULLET::::- Sous-vide\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal Insulated Cookware — Thermos Stainless Steel Cook & Carry System\n", "Braising\n\nBraising (from the French word \"braiser\") is a combination-cooking method that uses both wet and dry heats: typically, the food is first sautéed or seared at a high temperature, then finished in a covered pot at a lower temperature while sitting in some (variable) amount of liquid (which may also add flavor). Braising of meat is often referred to as pot roasting, though some authors make a distinction between the two methods, based on whether additional liquid is added.\n\nSection::::Method.\n", "Low-temperature cooking\n\nLow-temperature cooking is a cooking technique using temperatures in the range of about for a prolonged time to cook food. Low-temperature cooking methods include sous vide cooking, slow cooking using a slow cooker, cooking in a normal oven which has a minimal setting of about , and using a combi steamer providing exact temperature control. The traditional cooking pit also cooks food at low temperature.\n\nCooking food by a low-temperature method does not necessarily imply that the \"internal\" temperature of the food is lower than by traditional cooking.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The moisture may be from the food itself or from an added moisture source, such as water, wine, or stock.\n\nThis method is most often used to cook fish or vegetables, but lamb and poultry can also be cooked \"en papillote\". Choice of herbs, seasonings and spices depend on the particular recipe being prepared.\n\nThe pouch should be sealed with careful folding.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.:In Asia.\n", "Cooking often involves water, frequently present in other liquids, which is both added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (typically water, stock or wine), and released from the foods themselves. A favorite method of adding flavor to dishes is to save the liquid for use in other recipes. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in steaming, simmering, boiling, braising and blanching. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased evaporation, which concentrates the remaining flavor and ingredients – this is a critical component of both stewing and sauce making.\n", "Carryover cooking\n\nCarryover cooking (sometimes referred to as resting) is when food retains heat and continues to cook even after being removed from the source of heat. Carryover cooking is often used as a finishing step in preparation of foods that are roasted or grilled, and must be accounted for in recipes as it can increase the internal temperature of foods by temperatures between 5 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit (3–14°C). The larger and denser the object being heated, the greater the amount of temperature increase due to carryover cooking.\n", "Also known as \"boil-in-bag\", this involves heating or cooking ready-made foods sealed in a thick plastic bag. The bag containing the food, often frozen, is submerged in boiling water for a prescribed time. The resulting dishes can be prepared with greater convenience as no pots or pans are dirtied in the process. Such meals are available for camping as well as home dining.\n\nSection::::Contrast with evaporation.\n", "The word \"potpourri\" comes into English from the French word \"pot-pourri\". The French term has two connotations. It is the French name for a Spanish stew with a wide variety of ingredients called \"\"olla podrida\"\", a specialty of the town of Burgos. The word was taken and copied by the French military during the Napoleonic occupation of Burgos (1808–1813). The word \"pot\" in French has the same meaning as it does in Spanish and English, while the word \"pourri\" means rotten.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Parcooking\n\nPar-cooking refers to the technique of partially cooking foods so that they can be finished later. There are two primary reasons for using this technique. First, it allows foods to be prepared ahead of time, and quickly heated prior to serving. Since the second reheat finishes the cooking process, foods are not overcooked as leftovers often are. This is a common technique in the processed food industry, and most frozen and prepared foods are par-cooked.\n", "Historians and journalists of the era often cite two possible sources for Hot Mash's unique name. A characteristic Hot Mash generally is very thick when prepared correctly using a condensed soup as the base with the butter and chocolate. This thickness often became the go-to signature of a good Hot Mash, so much so, that local eateries and journalists primarily judge a good Hot Mash based upon the viscosity of the finished product. In a particularly famous exchange, one Hot Mash cook in the Des Moines Register once claimed that his Hot Mash was \"so thick it could fix a pothole better than hot slurry.\"\n", "The higher temperature causes food to cook faster; cooking times can typically be reduced to one-third of the time for conventional cooking methods. The actual cooking time also depends on the pressure release method used after timing \"(see Pressure release methods for details)\" and the thickness and density of the food, since thicker (and denser) foods take longer to cook. Meat joints and some other foods like sponge puddings and Christmas puddings are typically timed according to their weight. Frozen foods need extra cooking time to allow for thawing.\n", "Sous-vide (; French for 'under vacuum'), also known as low temperature long time (LTLT) cooking, is a method of cooking in which food is placed in a plastic pouch or a glass jar and cooked in a water bath for longer than usual cooking times (usually 1 to 7 hours, up to 48 or more in some cases) at an accurately regulated temperature. The temperature is much lower than usually used for cooking, typically around for meat, higher for vegetables. The intent is to cook the item evenly, ensuring that the inside is properly cooked without overcooking the outside, and to retain moisture.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17698	Why is the default tattoo color that awful dull blue?	It's just black ink that has faded. Some inks will fade and turn blue more than others, while some stay quite black. It all depends on the ink manufacturer. It also depends on how the person takes care of their ink. Exposure to the sun will fade tattoos and give black ink that dull blue appearance.	[ "Studies of various tattoo pigments have shown that a number of pigments (most containing iron oxide or titanium dioxide) change color when irradiated with Q-switched laser energy. Some tattoo colors including flesh tones, light red, white, peach and light brown containing pigments as well as some green and blue tattoo pigments, changed to black when irradiated with Q-switched laser pulses. The resulting gray-black color may require more treatments to remove. If tattoo darkening does occur, after 8 weeks the newly darkened tattoo can be treated as if it were black pigment.\n", "BULLET::::- Q-switched Ruby: 694 nm. This laser creates a red light which is highly absorbed by green and dark tattoo pigments. Because it is more highly absorbed by melanin this laser may produce undesirable side effects such as pigmentary changes for patients of all but white skin. This is the best wavelength for blue ink.\n", "BULLET::::- Green, Terisa. \"Ink: The Not-Just-Skin-Deep Guide to Getting a Tattoo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Green, Terisa. \"The Tattoo Encyclopedia: A Guide to Choosing Your Tattoo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Kraków, Amy. \"Total Tattoo Book\"\n\nBULLET::::- Medical\n\nBULLET::::- Paola Piccinini, Laura Contor, Ivana Bianchi, Chiara Senaldi, Sazan Pakalin: \"Safety of tattoos and permanent make-up\", Joint Research Centre, 2016, , .\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tattoos, The Permanent Art Documentary produced by Off Book (web series)\n\nBULLET::::- History, Ink produced by Meghan Glass Hughes for The Valentine Richmond History Center\n", "Damage to the compounds in tattoo ink cause the color of the resulting tattoo to change over time. For UV tattoos this may mean the tattoo becomes more visible under visible light or may not glow in black lighting. Blue UV inks are known to yellow or turn slightly brown with sun exposure.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.\n", "Topical anesthetics are often used by technicians prior to cosmetic tattooing and there is the potential for adverse effects if topical anesthetics are not used safely. In 2013 the International Industry association CosmeticTattoo.org published a detailed position and general safety precautions for the entire industry.\n\nThe causes of a change of colour after cosmetic tattooing are both complex and varied. As discussed in the detailed industry article \"Why Do Cosmetic Tattoos Change Colour\", primarily there are four main areas that have influence over the potential for a cosmetic tattoo to change colour;\n\nBULLET::::1. Factors related to the pigment characteristics\n", "A variety of medical problems, though uncommon, can result from tattooing.\n\nMedical workers have observed rare but severe medical complications from tattoo pigments in the body, and have noted that people acquiring tattoos rarely assess health risks \"prior\" to receiving their tattoos.\n\nA recent case report also showed that tattoo pigments migrate into lymph nodes. These can show up on some types of medical scans as tumors. One woman was given a complete hysterectomy only to find out later that the lymph nodes contained tattoo pigment.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.:Glow in the dark ink and blacklight ink.\n", "Colored inks are also available, where the ink is visible in normal light (as with a regular tattoo) and the ink will glow vividly under UV light. Due to the mixing of visible and UV pigments the resulting color is not as vibrant in either lighting situation as a dedicated ink.\n", "Typically, black and other darker-colored inks can be removed completely using Q-switched lasers while lighter colors such as yellows and greens are still very difficult to remove. Success can depend on a wide variety of factors including skin color, ink color, and the depth at which the ink was applied.\n", "Section::::Medical aspects.\n\nMedical practitioners who administer anesthesia have questioned whether epidural analgesia should be provided to women with lower-back tattoos. Concerns have emerged that epidural catheters may cause tattoo pigment to enter interspinous ligaments and other areas, potentially leading to health problems. There is consensus that epidural catheters should not be placed through irritated or infected tattoos. However, harm has not been clearly documented when placing epidural catheters through healthy tattooed skin; a review in the \"American Association of Nurse Anesthetists Journal\" concluded that \"epidural catheter placement through lumbar tattoos is a\n", "Mike Dowis contacted us to detail the struggle he and some of his colleagues have undertaken to decriminalize their line of work in their home state. You see, the state of South Carolina made tattooing illegal in the 1960s as a result of a hepatitis epidemic, and that law still remains on the books even though modern sterilization methods make the tattoo application process at least as safe as piercing. He and the other members of South Carolina Advocates for Safe Tattooing took this opportunity to make the rest of the country aware of their legislative plight.\n\nSingle Teen Mom\n", "Permanent Makeup is typically done with some form of tattoo machine. There are machines now that are needle-less which should result in less painful procedures. These needle-free devices are considered safer and more sterile to use than traditional tattoo machines. They are designed to create a more comforting experience during the application process and eliminate the possibility of spreading disease like HIV, hepatitis and other healthcare issues. The needle-less device is also capable of inserting the pigment deeper into the skin than machines that use needles. \n", "Tattoo ink manufacturers typically blend the heavy metal pigments and/or use lightening agents (such as lead or titanium) to reduce production costs.\n\nSection::::Carriers.\n", "Causes or reasons for corneal tattooing vary from patient to patient. Most patients receive treatment to alter the cosmetic appearance of their eyes following disease or accident. Others receive treatment for optical purposes, including decreasing circumstantial glare within the iris. Corneal opacities are the leading reason for undergoing cosmetic tattooing.\n\nSection::::Reasons for corneal tattooing.:Reconstructive cosmetic purposes.\n", "There are several different ways to get rid of these tattoos, the most common being laser removals. It is suggested that different color pigments should be removed with different lasers in order to reduce the risk of scarring and ink retention. The needle-free machines also have the capability of removing or lightening the pigment from the skin as well by adding in a removal solution into the skin. \n", "Some wearers decide to cover an unwanted tattoo with a new tattoo. This is commonly known as a cover-up. An artfully done cover-up may render the old tattoo completely invisible, though this will depend largely on the size, style, colors and techniques used on the old tattoo and the skill of the tattoo artist.\n\nCovering up a previous tattoo necessitates darker tones in the new tattoo to effectively hide the older, unwanted piece.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Inks.\n\nMany different types of inks are used throughout history and today for the dyeing of the cornea. Today, Indian ink is the most commonly used, providing safe and long-lasting effects, but other dyes include metallic colors in powder form, various organic dyes, and uveal pigment from animal eyes. Two different methods exist: dyeing with gold or platinum chloride and carbon impregnation.\n", "In terms of subject matter, new school tattoos are not restricted to traditional subjects (such as hearts and eagles). They feature fantastical subjects, novel patterns, and generally allow for a great deal of customization. However, old school subjects are commonly done in a new school style as a way of expressing homage or irony.\n\nSection::::Changes in artist secrecy.\n", "Tattoos made in a Russian prison often have a distinct bluish color (due to being made with ink from a ballpoint pen) and usually, appear somewhat blurred because of the lack of instruments to draw fine lines. The ink is often created from burning the heel of a shoe and mixing the soot with urine, and injected into the skin utilizing a sharpened guitar string attached to an electric shaver.\n", "In the United States, tattoo inks are subject to regulation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as cosmetics and color additives. This regulatory authority is, however, not generally exercised. The FDA and medical practitioners have noted that many ink pigments used in tattoos are \"industrial strength colors suitable for printers' ink or automobile paint\".\n\nIn California, Proposition 65 requires that Californians be warned before exposure to certain harmful chemicals; tattoo parlors in California must warn their patrons that tattoo inks contain heavy metals known to cause cancer, birth defects, and other reproductive harm.\n\nSection::::Pigment bases.\n", "Dermatologists have observed rare but severe medical complications from tattoo pigments in the body, and have noted that people acquiring tattoos rarely assess health risks \"prior\" to receiving their tattoos. Some medical practitioners have recommended greater regulation of pigments used in tattoo ink. The wide range of pigments currently used in tattoo inks may create unforeseen health problems.\n\nSection::::Infection.\n", "Many tattoos are too dark to cover up and in those cases patients may receive laser tattoo removal to lighten the existing ink to make themselves better candidates for a cover up tattoo.\n\nSection::::Laser removal.\n", "Traditional metallic salts are prevalent in tattoo inks. A tattoo may contain from of lead, but there is insufficient evidence to assess whether the metallic salts are harmful at this dosage and via this method. However, in 2005, there were no reports of metal toxicity from tattoo ink.\n\nOrganic pigments (i.e., non-heavy metal pigments) may also pose health concerns. A European Commission noted that close to 40% of organic tattoo colorants used in Europe had not been approved for cosmetic use, and that under 20% of colorants contained a carcinogenic aromatic amine.\n\nSection::::MRI complications.\n", "BULLET::::- Q-switched Alexandrite: 755 nm. The weakest of all the q-switched devices and somewhat similar to the Ruby laser in that the Alexandrite creates a red light which is highly absorbed by green and dark tattoo pigments. However, the alexandrite laser color is slightly less absorbed by melanin, so this laser has a slightly lower incidence of unwanted pigmentary changes than a ruby laser. This laser works well on green tattoos but because of its weaker peak power it works only moderately well on black and blue ink. It does not work at all (or very minimally) on red, orange, yellow, brown, etc. This laser wavelength is also available in a picosecond speed with anecdotal claims that it removes ink faster.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n", "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n" ]	[ "Tattooists use dull blue as a default tattoo color.", "The most common tattoo ink color is a dull blue." ]	[ "The blue seen on tattoos is actually black ink that has faded, not blue ink.", "The tattoo ink is actually black that has faded over time." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Tattooists use dull blue as a default tattoo color.", "The most common tattoo ink color is a dull blue." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The blue seen on tattoos is actually black ink that has faded, not blue ink.", "The tattoo ink is actually black that has faded over time." ]
2018-02872	Why does your ring finger bend at the same time when you bend your pinky?	Imagine if your hand was a guitar. The tendons are the strings. Just like how a string when moved creates a sound a tendons moves a finger when moved. The problem is: The tendons are connected to each other. Like if there were small strings between the strings of the guitar. Instead of: \| \| \| \|, Your hand is like: \|--\|--\|--\|. Now when one string moves, the ones next to it do too. Edit: Changed muscles to tendons	[ "The presence of an additional tendon may result in a condition called fourth compartment syndrome. Supernumerary tendons are common in the fourth extensor tendon compartment. Supernumerary tendons can refer to the additional tendons of normal structures or tendons of rare anatomical variants such as the extensor medii proprius or the extensor digitorum brevis manus. The increased pressure in the synovial sheath is known to directly or indirectly compress the posterior interosseous nerve of radial nerve. Also, the extra pressure causes synovitis which results in pain in the dorsal part of the wrist.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Misdiagnosis of rare anatomical variants.\n", "In order for the thumb to maintain a normal position, a strict balance between these groups is required. Weak or absent extensors and/or abductors (the extensor pollicis brevis tendon, the extensor pollicis longus tendon or, rarely, the abductor pollicis longus tendon), can cause a disbalance, leading to an abnormal position of the thumb: congenital clasped thumb. There is also the possibility that two tendons are affected simultaneously.\n\nThe following tendon deviations can induce congenital clasped thumb:\n\nBULLET::::- The flexor tendons are too short (the thumb is drawn into the palm)\n\nBULLET::::- The abductor tendons are hypoplastic or absent\n", "The extrinsic hand muscles are located in the forearm where their bellies form the proximal fleshy roundness. When contracted, most of the tendons of these muscles are prevented from standing up like taut bowstrings around the wrist by passing under the flexor retinaculum on the palmar side and the extensor retinaculum on the dorsal side. On the palmar side the carpal bones form the carpal tunnel through which some of the flexor tendons pass in tendon sheaths that enable them to slide back and forth through the narrow passageway (see carpal tunnel syndrome).\n", "Section::::Functions.:Mechanics.\n", "All four non-thumb digits (index finger, middle finger, ring finger and little finger) contain three bones called the \"phalanges\" that are aligned in a linear row like box cars in a train. These bones are designated the proximal phalanx (closest to the palm), the middle phalanx, and the distal phalanx (farthest from the palm). The joints between these bones are referred to as the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP, between the proximal and middle phalanx) and the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP, between the middle and distal phalanx). muscles that begin in the forearm send long tendons to the fingers and these tendons attach at different points on these bones. Flexing and extending these digits occurs when these muscles contract and their tendons pull on their bony attachments. The deepest of the flexor muscles in the anterior forearm is called the flexor digitorum profundus muscle (FDP); it gives off four tendons that travel through the carpal tunnel into the hand and attach to the distal phalanx in each of the four non-thumb digits.\n", "Multiple types of the connection between the flexor pollicis longus and the flexor digitorum profundus were described: \n\nBULLET::::- A tendinous connection between the flexor digitorum profundus of the index to the flexor pollicis longus\n\nBULLET::::- A muscle with a bifurcated (split into two) tendon for the thumb and index finger\n\nBULLET::::- A common muscle with five tendons for the thumb and the long fingers\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Anatomical snuff box.\n\nThe EPL tendon crosses obliquely the tendons of the ECRL and ECRB, and is separated from the EPB by a triangular interval, the anatomical snuff box, in which the radial artery is found.\n\nSection::::Insertion and action.\n", "The SDFT is narrower in its middle third than its top or bottom sections, making it weaker. The top and bottom of the SDFT has a better supply of blood as well, with the top third supplied by the vessels from the knee, and the bottom third supplied by the vessels in the fetlock. The middle third has a poor supply of blood, relying on the tiny vessels of the peritendon (the membrane that surrounds the tendons). If this supply is for some reason compromised, the collagen fibers in the area may die, weakening the tendon in that area and making it more likely to tear.\n", "Normal pressure of the carpal tunnel has been defined as a range of 2–10 mm, and wrist flexion increases this pressure 8-fold, while extension increases it 10-fold. Repetitive flexion and extension in the wrist significantly increase the fluid pressure in the tunnel through thickening of the synovial tissue that lines the tendons within the carpal tunnel.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Genetics.\n", "At the proximal phalanx, the tendon is joined by expansions from abductor pollicis brevis and adductor pollicis.\n\nThe tendon is finally inserted on the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Relations.\n\nTogether with the tendons of the extensor pollicis brevis and the abductor pollicis longus, its tendon crosses the radial artery.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n", "The median nerve supplies the palmar side of the thumb, index, middle, and half ring fingers. Dorsal branches innervates the distal phalanges of the index, middle, and half ring fingers.\n\nThe ulnar nerve supplies the ulnar third of the hand, both at the palm and the back of the hand, and the little and half ring fingers.\n", "BULLET::::- Type I: Also called a \"spade hand\". The most common and least severe type of deformation. The thumb shows radial deviation and clinodactyly but is separated from the index finger. The index, long and ring finger are fused together in the distal interphalangeal joints and form a flat palm. During the embryonic stage, the fusion has no effect on the longitudinal growth of these fingers, so they have a normal length. In the fourth webspace, we always see a simple syndactyly, either complete or incomplete.\n", "The anterior interosseous nerve (a branch of the median nerve) and the anterior interosseous artery and vein pass downward on the front of the interosseous membrane between the flexor pollicis longus and flexor digitorum profundus.\n\nInjuries to tendons are particularly difficult to recover from due to the limited blood supply they receive.\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Actions.\n\nThe flexor pollicis longus is a flexor of the phalanges of the thumb; when the thumb is fixed, it assists in flexing the wrist.\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Innervation.\n\nThe flexor pollicis longus is supplied by the anterior interosseous(C8-T1) branch of the median nerve (C5-T1).\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Variations.\n", "Proper palmar digital nerves of median nerve\n\nIn the palm of the hand the median nerve is covered by the skin and the palmar aponeurosis, and rests on the tendons of the Flexor muscles. Immediately after emerging from under the transverse carpal ligament the median nerve becomes enlarged and flattened and splits into a smaller, lateral, and a larger, medial portion.\n", "BULLET::::- The posterior lamina of the tendon receives the attachment of the greater part of the sternal portion and the deep fibers, i. e., those from the costal cartilages.\n\nThese deep fibers, and particularly those from the lower costal cartilages, ascend the higher, turning backward successively behind the superficial and upper ones, so that the tendon appears to be twisted.\n\nThe posterior lamina reaches higher on the humerus than the anterior one, and from it an expansion is given off which covers the intertubercular groove of the humerus and blends with the capsule of the shoulder-joint.\n", "When the arm is extended, with the palm facing forward or up, the bones of the upper arm (humerus) and forearm (radius and ulna) are not perfectly aligned. The deviation from a straight line occurs in the direction of the thumb, and is referred to as the \"carrying angle\" (visible in the right half of the picture, right).\n", "Dorsal branch of ulnar nerve\n\nThe dorsal branch of ulnar nerve arises about 5 cm. proximal to the wrist; it passes backward beneath the Flexor carpi ulnaris, perforates the deep fascia, and, running along the ulnar side of the back of the wrist and hand, divides into two dorsal digital branches; one supplies the ulnar side of the little finger; the other, the adjacent sides of the little and ring fingers.\n", "During abduction of the arm the middle and inferior ligaments become taut while the superior ligament relaxes. The radius of curvature of the head of the humerus is greater superiorly than inferiorly, which further stretches these ligaments so that they keep the articular surfaces of the joint in their close-packed position.\n", "The fibers end at the upper third of the forearm in a flat tendon, which runs along the lateral border of the radius, beneath the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis; it then passes beneath the dorsal carpal ligament, where it lies in a groove on the back of the radius common to it and the extensor carpi radialis brevis, immediately behind the styloid process.\n", "The relative length of the digit varies during motion of the IP joints. The length of the palmar aspect decreases during flexion while the dorsal aspect increases by about 24 mm. The useful range of motion of the PIP joint is 30–70°, increasing from the index finger to the little finger. During maximum flexion the base of the middle phalanx is firmly pressed into the retrocondylar recess of the proximal phalanx, which provides maximum stability to the joint. The stability of the PIP joint is dependent of the tendons passing around it.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "After the injury occurs, the torn FDP tendon may retract slightly, remaining in the finger near the PIP joint, or can retract more fully into the palm of the hand. A person who suffers a jersey finger injury in which the FDP tendon is completely ruptured cannot flex the affected digit at the DIP joint without assistance.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "A simple way of differentiating between significant median and ulnar nerve injury is by testing for weakness in flexing and extending certain fingers of the hand. Median nerve injuries are associated with difficulty flexing the index and middle finger when attempting to make a fist. However, with an ulnar nerve lesion, the pinky and ring finger cannot be \"unflexed\" when attempting to extend the fingers.\n\nSome people are affected by multiple nerve compressions, which can complicate diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "For patients with low median nerve palsy, it has been shown that the flexor digitorum superficialis of the long and ring fingers or the wrist extensors best approximate the force and motion that is required to restore full thumb opposition and strength. This type of transfer is the preferred method for median nerve palsy when both strength and motion are required. In situations when only thumb mobility is desired, the extensor indicis proprius is an ideal transfer.\n", "The carpal bones form two transversal rows, each forming an arch concave on the palmar side. Because the proximal arch simultaneously has to adapt to the articular surface of the radius and to the distal carpal row, it is by necessity flexible. In contrast, the capitate, the \"keystone\" of the distal arch, moves together with the metacarpal bones and the distal arch is therefore rigid. The stability of these arches is more dependent of the ligaments and capsules of the wrist than of the interlocking shapes of the carpal bones, and the wrist is therefore more stable in flexion than in extension. The distal carpal arch affects the function of the CMC joints and the hands, but not the function of the wrist or the proximal carpal arch. The ligaments that maintain the distal carpal arches are the transverse carpal ligament and the intercarpal ligaments (also oriented transversally). These ligaments also form the carpal tunnel and contribute to the deep and superficial palmar arches. Several muscle tendons attaching to the TCL and the distal carpals also contribute to maintaining the carpal arch.\n", "Its tendon passes through a compartment of the extensor retinaculum, posterior to distal radio-ulnar joint, then divides into two as it crosses the dorsum of the hand, and finally joins the extensor digitorum tendon. All three tendons attach to the dorsal digital expansion of the fifth digit (little finger). There may be a slip of tendon to the fourth digit.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nAn additional fibrous slip from the lateral epicondyle; the tendon of insertion may not divide or may send a slip to the ring finger.\n\nAbsence of muscle rare; fusion of the belly with the extensor digitorum communis not uncommon.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01986	Why is it when we go outside when it is bright out and go back inside, you see everything in a yellow or blue "filter?"	Just like a camera, your brain has a "white balance" too, adjusting the colors your eyes are seeing so that it's neutral. When you go inside, the change in light color is drastic so your eyes have to adjust to the new colors, and that takes a couple of minutes.	[ "In general, filters are used so that each dye is imaged separately (for example, a blue filter is used to image Hoechst, then rapidly switched to a green filter to image GFP). For consumption, the images are often displayed in false color by showing each channel in a different color, but these may not even be related to the original wavelengths used. In some cases, the original image could even have been acquired in non-visible wavelengths (infrared is common).\n", "Different light sources produce differing amounts of visual sky glow. The dominant effect arises from the Purkinje shift, and not as commonly claimed from Rayleigh scattering of short wavelengths (see ). When observing the night sky, even from moderately light polluted areas, the eye becomes nearly or completely dark-adapted or scotopic. The scotopic eye is much more sensitive to blue and green light, and much less sensitive to yellow and red light, than the light-adapted or\n", "\"Rheinberg illumination\" is a special variant of dark field illumination in which transparent, colored filters are inserted just before the condenser so that light rays at high aperture are differently colored than those at low aperture (i.e., the background to the specimen may be blue while the object appears self-luminous red). Other color combinations are possible, but their effectiveness is quite variable.\n\nSection::::Optical microscopy.:Techniques.:Dispersion staining.\n", "Section::::Color Images.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "The intent of selective yellow is to improve vision by removing short, blue to violet wavelengths from the projected light. These wavelengths are difficult for the human visual system to process properly, and they cause perceived dazzle and glare effects in rain, fog and snow. Removing the blue-violet portion of a lamp's output to obtain selective yellow light can entail filter losses of around 15%, though the effect of this reduction is said to be mitigated or countervailed by the increased visual acuity available with yellow rather than white light in bad weather. \n", "Visible wavelengths pass largely unattenuated through the Earth's atmosphere via the \"optical window\" region of the electromagnetic spectrum. An example of this phenomenon is when clean air scatters blue light more than red light, and so the midday sky appears blue. The optical window is also referred to as the \"visible window\" because it overlaps the human visible response spectrum. The near infrared (NIR) window lies just out of the human vision, as well as the medium wavelength infrared (MWIR) window, and the long wavelength or far infrared (LWIR or FIR) window, although other animals may experience them.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Ultra-violet light has more energy and is more damaging colour than visible light. In an effort to mitigate this, some ophthalmologists may recommend that the patient wears a broad-brimmed hat or sunglasses when they are outdoors. Sometimes, doctors also instruct their patients to wear yellow-tinted glasses (which filter out blue light) when indoors and in artificial light or in front of a digital screen. \n", "As with infrared filters there is a potential ambiguity between UV-blocking and UV-passing filters; the latter are much less common, and more usually known explicitly as UV pass filters and UV bandpass filters.\n\nSection::::Neutral density.\n", "In the mid-1960s, there was a group of similar size to Bryce's group working down the hall from Bryce's group. They were working on psycho-physics related to user assessment of digital image quality, color perception, etc. The Bayer filter enables a digital imaging system to do what the eye does. The extra green sensors provide more luminance information, as the rods in the eye do, when it is dark. When the digital imaging system and the eye encounter situations with low levels of illumination, both systems can provide and use more luminance information and less chrominance information.\n\nSection::::Honors and awards.\n", "Light is transmitted to the retina through the lens. In humans, the amount of light transmitted by the lens is age-dependent. In young children, more than 65% of blue light is transmitted. This transmission rate decreases over time; at age 25, only 20% of blue light is transmitted to the retina. The decreased transmission of blue light occurs as our eyes’ lens naturally yellows and absorbs more blue light over time, thus preventing blue light from reaching the retina. As a result of this natural process, younger people are more susceptible to the effects of blue light.\n", "Section::::Window tradeoffs.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n", "Humans cannot see ultraviolet light directly because the lens of the eye blocks most light in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. The photoreceptor cells of the retina are sensitive to near ultraviolet light, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) see near ultraviolet light (down to 300 nm) as whitish blue, or for some wavelengths, whitish violet, probably because all three types of cones are roughly equally sensitive to ultraviolet light; however, blue cone cells are slightly more sensitive.\n", "While monochromatic photos make this effect appear white, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute scientist Steven Haddock (an author of a milky seas effect study) has commented, \"the light produced by the bacteria is actually blue, not white. It is white in the graphic because of the monochromatic sensor we used, and it can appear white to the eye because the rods in our eye (used for night vision) don't discriminate color.\" In Shetland (where generally caused by \"Noctiluca scintillans\"), mareel has sometimes been described as being green, rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green.\n", "Hold the filter an inch or two from the eye. Light the stone with a strong incandescent light bulb or torch, not LED. The stone may appear to change colour. The filter must be held near to the eye but there is no need to hold the filter close to the stone, even items in showcases can be examined providing they are lit by strong lights.\n", "BULLET::::- Seborrhoeic dermatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmune bullous diseases (immunobullous diseases)\n\nBULLET::::- Mycosis fungoides\n\nBULLET::::- Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Porphyria cutanea tarda\n\nAlso, many conditions are aggravated by strong light, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic lupus erythematosus\n\nBULLET::::- Sjögren’s syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Sinear Usher syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Rosacea\n\nBULLET::::- Dermatomyositis\n\nBULLET::::- Darier’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Kindler-Weary syndrome\n\nSection::::Fluorescent lamps.\n\nThe Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) in 2008 reviewed the connections between light from fluorescent lamps, especially from compact fluorescent lamp, and numerous human diseases, with results including:\n", "Beginning in 1998, Rivera traveled throughout Latin America, Africa and Asia to establish 30 filter microenterprises in Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Cambodia, Bangladesh, Ghana, Nigeria, El Salvador, the Darfur region of Sudan, Myanmar and other countries. These factories have produced over 300,000 filters, and the filters are used by about 1.5 million people to date. An additional 13 filter workshops are scheduled to begin operating by the end of next year.\n", "BULLET::::- CA-II \"Ca-K/Ca-H\": (393 and 396 nm) For solar observing, shows the sun with the K and H Fraunhofer lines\n\nBULLET::::- N-II (658 nm and 654 nm) Often included in wider H-alpha filters\n\nBULLET::::- Methane (889 nm) allowing clouds to be seen on the gas giants, Venus and (with filter) the Sun.\n\nSection::::Nebular filters.:Narrowband.:Ultra-High Contrast filters.\n\nKnown commonly as UHC filters, these filters consist of things which allow multiple strong common emission lines to pass through, which also has the effect of the similar Light Pollution Reduction filters (see below) of blocking most light sources.\n", "Clear filters, also known as window glass filters or optical flats, are transparent and (ideally) perform no filtering of incoming light. The only use of a clear filter is to protect the front of a lens.\n\nUV filters are used to block invisible ultraviolet light, to which most photographic sensors and film are at least slightly sensitive. The UV is typically recorded as if it were blue light, so this non-human UV sensitivity can result in an unwanted exaggeration of the bluish tint of atmospheric haze or, even more unnaturally, of subjects in open shade lit by the ultraviolet-rich sky.\n", "Narrow-band imaging\n\nNarrow-band imaging is an imaging technique for endoscopic diagnostic medical tests, where light of specific blue and green wavelengths is used to enhance the detail of certain aspects of the surface of the mucosa. A special filter is electronically activated by a switch in the endoscope leading to the use of ambient light of wavelengths of 415 nm (blue) and 540 nm (green). Because the peak light absorption of hemoglobin occurs at these wavelengths, blood vessels will appear very dark, allowing for their improved visibility and in the improved identification of other surface structures.\n", "BULLET::::- Angiography is a process of photographing/recording vascular flow within the retina and surrounding tissue by injecting a fluorescent dye into the blood stream. This dye fluoresces a different colour when light from a specific wavelength (excitation colour) reaches it. Barrier filters then only allow the autoflourescent wavelengths of light to be photographed. Using this method a sequence of photographs can be produced that show the movement, and pooling of blood over time (“Phases”) as the dye passes though the retina and choroid.\n", "Professional filters are also colored, but their bandpass centers are placed around other midpoints (such as in the UBVRI and Cousins systems).\n\nSome of common color filters and their uses are:\n\nBULLET::::- Chromatic aberration filters: Used for reduction of the purplish halo, caused by chromatic aberration of refracting telescopes. Such halo can obscure features of bright objects, especially Moon and planets. These filters have no effect on observing faint objects.\n", "The next component in an atomic line filter is the vapor cell; this is common to all atomic line filters. It either absorbs and re-emits the incident light, or rotates its polarization by the Faraday or Voigt effect. Following the vapor cell is a low-pass filter, designed to block all of the light that the first filter did not, except the designated frequency of light which came from the fluorescence. In Faraday and Voigt filters, a second polarizing plate is used here.\n", "An example of vesicle fusion in chromaffin cells using IRM is shown in movie 1. Upon stimulation with 60 mM potassium, multiple bright spots begin to appear inside the dark footprint of the chromaffin cell as a result of exocytosis of dense core granules. Because IRM doesn't require a fluorescent label, it can be combined with other imaging techniques, such as epifluorescence and TIRF microscopy to study protein dynamics together with vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis. Another benefit of the lack of fluorescent labels is reduced phototoxicity.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01955	why does your voice crack when you are upset or nervous?	When you get stressed, the muscles in your body get tighter, and more rigid. Your vocal cord muscles tighten too, and make your voice higher pitched, this is not a natural state for them. Likewise your throat and jaw can tighten too. This all combines to cause fluctuations in the voice or "cracking" as it is described.	[ "BULLET::::- \"air humidity\" - dry air is thought to increase the stress experienced in the vocal folds, however, this has not been proven\n\nBULLET::::- \"hydration\" - dehydration may increase effects of stress inflicted on the vocal folds\n\nBULLET::::- \"background noise\" - people tend to speak louder when background noise is present, even when it isn't necessary. Increasing speaking volume increases stress inflicted on the vocal folds\n\nBULLET::::- \"pitch\" - Using a higher or lower pitch than normal will also increase laryngeal stress.\n", "BULLET::::- \"voice quality\" - Using a vocal quality which differs from that habitually used is thought to increase laryngeal stress.\n\nIn addition, smoking and other types of air pollution might have a negative effect on voice production organs.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "A similar effect is a voice crack, during which a person's voice suddenly and unintentionally enters a higher register (usually falsetto) for a brief period of time. This may be caused by singing or talking at a pitch outside the person's natural vocal range, stress, emotional tension, or the physical changes associated with puberty. An instance of a voice crack (when associated with puberty) lasts for only a moment and generally occurs less frequently as a person grows into maturity.\n\nSection::::Anatomical changes.\n", "Vocal loading\n\nVocal loading is the stress inflicted on the speech organs when speaking for long periods.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nOf the working population, about 13% have professions where their voice is their primary tool. That includes professions such as teachers, sales personnel, actors and singers, and TV and radio reporters. Many of them, especially teachers, suffer from voice-related medical problems. In a larger scope, this involves millions of sick-leave days every year, for example, both in the US and the European Union. Still, research in vocal loading has often been treated as a minor subject.\n\nSection::::Voice organ.\n", "A key aspect of preventing vocal fold cysts is good vocal hygiene. Good vocal hygiene promotes the healthy use of the vocal apparatus and the avoidance of phonotrauma. Good vocal hygiene practices involve the avoidance of:\n\nBULLET::::- Shouting\n\nBULLET::::- Whispering loudly or for long periods of time\n\nBULLET::::- Large quantities of talking over loud background noise\n\nBULLET::::- Talking while yawning\n\nBULLET::::- Continual clearing of the throat\n\nBULLET::::- Speaking in an unnatural voice (i.e. too high or low)\n\nBULLET::::- Talking with a cold or laryngitis\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking tobacco or marijuana\n\nBULLET::::- The consumption of alcohol and coffee\n", "Unhealthy or \"nervous\" laughter comes from the throat. This nervous laughter is not true laughter, but an expression of tension and anxiety. Instead of relaxing a person, nervous laughter tightens them up even further. Much of this nervous laughter is produced in times of high emotional stress, especially during times where an individual is afraid they might harm another person in various ways, such as a person's feelings or even physically.\n", "People with vocal cord dysfunction often complain of \"difficulty in breathing in” or “fighting for breath”, which can lead to subjective respiratory distress, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. They may report tightness in the throat or chest, choking, stridor on inhalation and wheezing, which can resemble the symptoms of asthma. These episodes of dyspnea can be recurrent and symptoms can range from mild to severe and prolonged in some cases. Agitation and a sense of panic are not uncommon and can result in hospitalization.\n", "Pressure of speech is a classic hallmark of mania and is often seen during manic periods in patients with bipolar disorder. The pace of the speech indicates an underlying thought disorder known as “Flight of ideas” wherein the flowing of ideas and information through one's mind is so fast that it is difficult to follow their train of thought. This is also tied to an inability to focus on one topic or task.\n", "Raising My Voice\n\nRaising My Voice is a 2009 book by Malalai Joya with Derrick O'Keefe about the life of Malalai Joya the 'Bravest woman in Afghanistan' and suspended Member of Afghan Parliament.\n", "There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production. Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.\n\nSection::::Vocal cord nodules and polyps.\n", "Vocal articulation is controlled by a variety of tissues, muscles, and structures (place of articulation), but can be basically understood as the effects of the lips, the teeth, and the tip of the tongue. Often we also try and use our jaw for articulation, which creates unnecessary tension in the facial muscles and tongue. A good vocal warm up will relax the jaw, while activating the lips and the tongue in a variety of exercises to stretch the muscles and prepare for the more defined vocal articulation that is required when singing or acting. These exercises may include tongue twisters, or the famous \"me, may, ma, moh, moo\" that many actors are seen doing in film.\n", "BULLET::::- The Taming Move - it is of utmost important to the Monster Tamer. The hand movement strengthens the orders of the voice and helps direct the flow of power. But it can work both ways: an incorrect gesture can ruin even the most persuasive orders of the voice.\n", "Vocal loading also includes other kinds of strain on the speech organs. These include all kinds of muscular strain in the speech organs, similarly as usage of any other muscles will experience strain if used for an extended period of time. However, researchers' largest interest lies in stress exerted on the vocal folds.\n\nSection::::Effect of speaking environment.\n\nSeveral studies in vocal loading show that the speaking environment does have a significant impact on vocal loading. Still, the exact details are debated. Most scientists agree on the effect of the following environmental properties:\n", "There are several possible causes of vocal fold cysts: \n\nBULLET::::1. They can be congenital.\n\nBULLET::::2. They can result from the blockage of a mucous gland's excretory duct. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as retention cysts.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Reinke’s edema.\n\nA voice pathology called Reinke’s edema, swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid, occurs in the superficial lamina propria or Reinke’s space. This causes the vocal fold mucosa to appear floppy with excessive movement of the cover that has been described as looking like a loose sock. The greater mass of the vocal folds due to increased fluid lowers the fundamental frequency (\"f\") during phonation.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Wound healing.\n", "Holding the vocal folds more tightly together results in a creaky voice. The tension in across the vocal folds is less than in modal voice, but they are held tightly together resulting in only the ligaments of the vocal folds vibrating. The pulses are highly irregular, with low pitch and frequency amplitude.\n\nSection::::Articulatory models.\n", "Recordings of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who came from a privileged New York City family and was educated at Groton, a private Massachusetts preparatory school, had a number of characteristic patterns. His speech is non-rhotic; one of Roosevelt's most frequently heard speeches has a falling diphthong in the word \"fear\", which distinguishes it from other forms of surviving non-rhotic speech in the United States. \"Linking \"r\"\" appears in Roosevelt's delivery of the words \"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself\"; this pronunciation of \"r\" is also famously recorded in his Pearl Harbor speech, for example, in the phrase \"naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan\".\n", "The causes of vocal process granulomas are quite varied, and as such prevention must target the individual causes. Education on lifestyle factors such as habitual vocal abuse and habits that may aggravate gastro-esophageal reflux should be implemented to lower risk, and those who use their voice professionally should use vocal hygiene techniques to ensure safe voice use. Vocal hygiene may include increasing water intake, eliminating external irritants such as smoking or airborne chemicals, controlling loudness, and balancing periods of increased vocal use with periods of rest. Since intubation can also cause vocal process granulomas, proper muscle relaxing medications should be used before insertion and removal of tubes, that smaller tubes are used and with proper lubrication, and that patient movement is controlled during intubation.\n", "Indicators of facial leakage include facial expressions that last too long, that are too intensive, or that are too monotonous, lacking the natural combination of various emotions. For instance, a liar may exhibit an abnormally long-lasting smile, an extremely serious frown, or an expression of fear without any surprise. Compared with faces, hands and legs are less obvious in sending deception cues, but are also under weaker control of the deceiver. Liars may consciously control facial expression to reveal confidence and comfort, but their hands and feet can speak out fear and discomfort. Leakage in hand movements includes tearing at fingernails, poking of cheeks, defensive holding of knees, tight fists, anxious tapping of cigarettes, or snapping of a pencil. Leakage in feet and legs movements includes restless foot kicks, frequent leg shifts and squeezing, and repetitive or flirtatious leg and foot acts.\n", "Objective evaluation or measurement of vocal loading is very difficult due to the tight coupling of the experienced psychological and physiological stress. However, there are some typical symptoms that can be objectively measured. Firstly, the pitch range of the voice will decrease. Pitch range indicates the possible pitches that can be spoken. When a voice is loaded, the upper pitch limit will decrease and the lower pitch limit will rise. Similarly, the volume range will decrease.\n", "Glottal insufficiency (when the vocal folds cannot close completely, often due to vocal fold paralysis) can also be an underlying cause of contact granulomas.\n\nContact trauma can occur when a person frequently speaks at a pitch that is lower than their modal voice, especially in vocally-demanding professions like acting, teaching and singing. Research suggests that men are more commonly affected than women.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Inflammatory issues.\n", "Vocal fold cysts cause the properties of the vocal folds to change. When a cyst is present on a vocal fold, the cover of the vocal fold becomes more stiff and increases in mass. The increased mass and stiffness tends to result in hyperkinetic muscular movement during phonation. Hyperkinetic movement is characterized by increased rigidity in the affected vocal fold(s). This hyperkinetic movement results in the voice being perceived as hoarse. (see Signs and Symptoms) Specifically, the presence of a vocal fold cyst leads to an asynchronous mucosal wave of the vocal folds during phonation.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "The facial bones begin to grow as well. Cavities in the sinuses, the nose, and the back of the throat grow bigger, thus creating more space within the head to allow the voice to resonate. Occasionally, voice change is accompanied by unsteadiness of vocalization in the early stages of untrained voices. Due to the significant drop in pitch to the vocal range, people may unintentionally speak in head voice or even strain their voices using pitches which were previously chest voice, the lowest part of the modal voice register.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Variable expression.\n\nThe disorder is variable, which means that in certain situations, such as talking on the telephone, the stuttering might be more severe or less, depending on the anxiety level connected with that activity. In other situations, such as singing (as with country music star Mel Tillis or pop singer Gareth Gates) or speaking alone (or reading from a script, as with actor James Earl Jones and broadcast journalist John Stossel), fluency improves. (It is thought that speech production in these situations, as opposed to normal spontaneous speech, may involve a different neurological function.) \n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nThe following increase an individual's chances for acquiring VCD:\n\nBULLET::::- Upper airway inflammation (allergic or non-allergic rhinitis, chronic sinusitis, recurrent upper respiratory infections)\n\nBULLET::::- Gastroesophageal reflux disease\n\nBULLET::::- Past traumatic event that involved breathing (e.g. near-drowning, suffocation)\n\nBULLET::::- Severe emotional trauma or distress\n\nBULLET::::- Female gender\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a wind instrument\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a competitive or elite sport\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Your voice cracks when you are upset or nervous." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Not all voices crack when they are upset or nervous." ]
2018-01545	Why do our joints and bones hurt when the wearther is changing?	Changes in weather are accompanied, and in fact usually preceded, by changes in atmospheric pressure. Changes in atmospheric pressure affect the fluid pressure in your joints. Changes in fluid pressure in your joints hurts.	[ "BULLET::::- Law 1 – The mass involved in wear is proportional to the distance traveled in the rubbing between the surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Law 2 – The mass involved in wear is proportional to the applied load.\n\nBULLET::::- Law 3 – The mass involved in wear is inversely proportional to the hardness of the less hard material.\n\nAn important aspect of wear is emission of wear particles into the environment which increasingly threatens human health and ecology. The first researcher who investigated this topic was Ernest Rabinowicz. \n\nSection::::Physics.:Wear.:Abrasive Wear.\n", "Muscle attachment sites (also called entheses) have been thought to be impacted in the same way causing what were once called musculoskeletal stress markers, but now widely named entheseal changes. These changes were widely used to study activity-patterns, but research has shown that processes associated with aging have a greater impact than occupational stresses. It has also been shown that geometric changes to bone structure (described above) and entheseal changes differ in their underlying cause with the latter poorly affected by occupation. Joint changes, including osteoarthritis, have also been used to infer occupations but in general these are also manifestations of the aging process.\n", "BULLET::::- Polyethylene synovitis - Wear of the weight-bearing surfaces: polyethylene is thought to wear in weight-bearing joints such as the hip at a rate of 0.3mm per year. This may be a problem in itself since the bearing surfaces are often less than 10 mm thick and may deform as they get thinner. The wear may also cause problems, as inflammation can be caused by increased quantities of polyethylene wear particles in the synovial fluid.\n\nThere are many controversies. Much of the research effort of the orthopedic-community is directed to studying and improving joint replacement. The main controversies are\n", "On February 10, 2011, the U.S. FDA issued a patient advisory on metal-metal hip implants, stating it was continuing to gather and review all available information about metal-on-metal hip systems. On June 27–28, 2012, an advisory panel met to decide whether to impose new standards. No new standards, such as routine checking of blood metal ion levels, were set, but guidance was updated.\n\nSection::::Patient selection.\n", "Other, less common types of wear are impact-, cavitation- and diffusive wear.\n\nEach wear type is caused by one or more wear mechanisms. For example, the primary wear mechanism of adhesive wear is adhesion. Wear mechanisms and/or sub-mechanisms frequently overlap and occur in a synergistic manner, producing a greater rate of wear than the sum of the individual wear mechanisms. \n\nSection::::Wear types and mechanisms.:Adhesive wear.\n", "Increased corneal curvature is yet another change known to arise from long-term contact lens wear; this increase in corneal curvature can be as much as 0.5 diopters greater than normal. Corneal surface irregularity and asymmetry are also caused by long-term contact lens wear; these problems are sometimes correlated with astigmatism in contact lens wearers and are thought to be caused by hypoxia, surface molding, and chronic and mild trauma to the cornea from contact lens use.\n\nLong-term use of PMMA or thick hydrogel contact lenses have been found to cause corneal warpage (shape distortion).\n", "Modic changes\n\nModic changes are pathological changes in the bones of the spine, the vertebrae. These changes are situated in both the body of the vertebrae and in the end plate of the neighboring disc.\n\nSection::::Causes of back pain.\n\nIn 20% of the patients we can identify an anatomical reason for the pain, such as a lumbar disc herniation, or stenosis which is a reduction in the circumference of the spinal canal.\n", "BULLET::::- Kleis I. and Kulu P.: \"Solid Particle Erosion\". Springer-Verlag, London, 2008, 206 pp.\n\nBULLET::::- Zum Gahr K.-H.: \"Microstructure and wear of materials\", Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1987, 560 pp.\n\nBULLET::::- Jones J. R.:\"Lubrication, Friction, and Wear\", NASA-SP-8063, 1971, 75 pp. A nice, free and good document available here.\n\nBULLET::::- S. C. Lim. Recent Development in Wear Mechanism Maps. Trib. Intl. 1998; 31; 87-97.\n\nBULLET::::- H.C. Meng and K. C Ludema. Wear 1995; 183; 443-457.\n\nBULLET::::- R. Bosman and D. J. Schipper. Wear 2012; 280; 54-62.\n\nBULLET::::- M. W. Akram, K. Polychronopoulou, A. A. Polycarpou. Trib. Int.: 2013; 57;9 2-100.\n", "The firm or flexible models might require a period of adjustment. Depending on the severity of the arch collapse and the body's previous conditioning in response to that collapse, sudden readjustment can seem painful. Many attribute the feeling to walking on a walnut. It is recommended new users build up to wearing firm arch supports, starting with only a couple of hours the first day and adding an hour each successive day until the foot is adjusted to full-time usage. To mitigate this adjustment period, many manufacturers sell covering pads or have different gradations to build up to solid support. Some manufacturers cover their products in leather, which somewhat moderates the intensity of the correction while also adding to the stylistic look.\n", "Like many other joints throughout the human body, facets can experience natural degeneration from normal aging. Over time, the cartilage within the joints can naturally begin to wear out, allowing it to become thin or disappear entirely which, in turn, allows the conjoining vertebrae to rub directly against one another with little or no lubricant or separation. A result of this rubbing is often swelling, inflammation causing pain.\n\nOver time, the body will naturally respond to the instability within the spine by developing bone spurs, thickened ligaments or even synovial cysts that contact nerve roots exiting the spinal column.\n", "One such previously suspected complication was coxa magna, which is an overgrowth of the femoral head and broadening of the femoral neck, accompanied by changes in the acetabulum, which may lead to subluxation of the femur. There was also some controversy about whether continuous high intra-articular pressure in transient synovitis could cause avascular necrosis of the femoral head (Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease), but further studies did not confirm any link between the two conditions.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The nerve may become painful over a period of time as weight gain makes underwear, belting or the waistband of pants gradually exert higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\n", "BULLET::::- Weakness;\n\nBULLET::::- Indolent infection.\n\nSection::::Risks and complications.:Long-term risks.\n\nBULLET::::- Loosening of the components: the bond between the bone and the components or the cement may break down or fatigue. As a result, the component moves inside the bone, causing pain. Fragments of wear debris may cause an inflammatory reaction with bone absorption which can cause loosening. This phenomenon is known as osteolysis.\n", "Wear of metals occurs by plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material and by detachment of particles that form wear debris. The particle size may vary from millimeters to nanometers. This process may occur by contact with other metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids, solid particles or liquid droplets entrained in flowing gasses.\n", "Because wear on the hip joint traces to the structures that support it (the posture of the legs, and ultimately, the feet), proper fitting shoes with adequate support are important to preventing GTPS. For someone who has flat feet, wearing proper orthotic inserts and replacing them as often as recommended are also important preventive measures.\n\nStrength in the core and legs is also important to posture, so physical training also helps to prevent GTPS. But it is equally important to avoid exercises that damage the hip.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The large forces, which the CMC1 joint has to withstand, are considered to be another cause of CMC OA. During daily manual activities, such as grabbing and pinching, the thumb is constantly being used. The forces generated by these movements have an enlarged impact on the CMC1 joint because of the leverage within the thumb. This makes the joint even more sensitive to wear and tear.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Risk factors.\n", "Section::::Wear types and mechanisms.:Surface fatigue.\n\nSurface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of general material fatigue. Fatigue wear is produced when the wear particles are detached by cyclic crack growth of microcracks on the surface. These microcracks are either superficial cracks or subsurface cracks.\n\nSection::::Wear types and mechanisms.:Fretting wear.\n", "BULLET::::2. Shear (usually twisting forces between the skin and footwear)\n\nBULLET::::3. Repetitive stresses (for example, from walking)\n\nBULLET::::4. Peripheral neuropathy (damage to the nerves in the feet).\n\nThese factors rarely cause problems in healthy people but the accompanying neuropathy means that the “pain feedback loop” that induces humans to limp or keep their weight off an injury no longer functions properly in diabetic patients. The result is that pressure and abrasion injuries, such as bruising and blisters caused by poor footwear, are not noticed and often ignored, and the continual use of the limb disrupts and damages the healing process.\n", "Injury can cause adaptation in a number of ways. Compensation is a large factor in injury adaptation. Compensation is a result of one or more weakened muscles. The brain is given the task to perform a certain motor task, and once a muscle has been weakened, the brain computes energy ratios to send to other muscles to perform the original task in the desired fashion. Change in muscle contribution is not the only byproduct of a muscle-related injury. Change in loading of the joint is another result which, if prolonged, can be harmful for the individual.\n\nSection::::Adaptation.:Fatigue.\n", "The main symptom is pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. The pain is typically made worse by prolonged activity and relieved by rest. Stiffness is most common in the morning, and typically lasts less than thirty minutes after beginning daily activities, but may return after periods of inactivity. Osteoarthritis can cause a crackling noise (called \"crepitus\") when the affected joint is moved, especially shoulder and knee joint. A person may also complain of joint locking and joint instability. These symptoms would affect their daily activities due to pain and stiffness. Some people report increased pain associated with cold temperature, high humidity, or a drop in barometric pressure, but studies have had mixed results.\n", "As well as attempting to find disease-modifying agents for osteoarthritis, there is emerging evidence that a system-based approach is necessary to find the causes of osteoarthritis. Changes may occur before clinical disease is evident due to abnormalities in biomechanics, biology or structure of joints that predispose them to develop clinical disease. Research is thus focusing on defining these early pre-osteoarthritis changes using biological, mechanical, and imaging markers of osteoarthritis risk, emphasising multi-disciplinary approaches, and looking into personalized interventions that can reverse osteoarthritis risk in healthy joints before the disease becomes evident.\n", "Another main factor is the tension placed on the ligaments that support the navicular bone. Some experts believe that the degenerative process begins with excess tension placed on these ligaments, causing strain and inflammation. Inflammation from strain of the impar ligament can decrease blood flow to and from the navicular bone, as the major blood vessels supplying the bone run up and down this area. If the ligament continues to be strained, it can thicken and permanently reduce blood flow to the navicular bone.\n", "BULLET::::- Osteoarthritis: Osteoarthritis is a disease of the whole joint, however one of the most affected tissues is the articular cartilage. The cartilage covering bones (articular cartilage—a subset of hyaline cartilage) is thinned, eventually completely wearing away, resulting in a \"bone against bone\" within the joint, leading to reduced motion, and pain. Osteoarthritis affects the joints exposed to high stress and is therefore considered the result of \"wear and tear\" rather than a true disease. It is treated by arthroplasty, the replacement of the joint by a synthetic joint often made of a stainless steel alloy (cobalt chromoly) and ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). Chondroitin sulfate or glucosamine sulfate supplements, have been claimed to reduce the symptoms of osteoarthritis but there is little good evidence to support this claim.\n", "Section::::Formation of exfoliation joints.:Chemical weathering.\n\nMineral weathering by penetrating water can cause flaking of thin shells of rock since the volume of some minerals increases upon hydration. However, not all mineral hydration results in increased volume, while field observations of exfoliation joints show that the joint surfaces have not experienced significant chemical alteration, so this theory can be rejected as an explanation for the origin of large-scale, deeper exfoliation joints.\n\nSection::::Formation of exfoliation joints.:Compressive stress and extensional fracture.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Pain.\n\nPain symptoms in TMD can be thought of as originating from the joint (arthralgia), or from the muscles (myofascial), or both. There is a poor correlation between TMD pain severity and evidence of tissue pathology.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Pain.:Arthralgia.\n\nGenerally, degenerative joint changes are associated with greater pain.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Pain.:Myofascial pain.\n\nPain originating from the muscles of mastication as a result of abnormal muscular function or hyperactivity. The muscular pain is frequently, but not always, associated with daytime clenching or nocturnal bruxism.\n" ]	[ "Changing weather causes joints and bones to hurt. " ]	[ "Changes in atmospheric pressure due to changing weather is what causes bones and joints to hurt. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Changing weather causes joints and bones to hurt. ", "Changing weather causes joints and bones to hurt. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Changes in atmospheric pressure due to changing weather is what causes bones and joints to hurt. ", "Changes in atmospheric pressure due to changing weather is what causes bones and joints to hurt. " ]
2018-08199	Why is coolant (antifreeze) added to a car’s radiator?	It's not just anti-freeze, even though that's what we call it. The additives also act as an anti-corrosive, and can make the mixture more thermally conductive than just water. Modern engines are built using a variety of different metals and alloys, and they don't always get along that well when they become electrically conductive with each other.	[ "Before World War II, engine coolant was usually plain water. Antifreeze was used solely to control freezing, and this was often only done in cold weather.\n\nDevelopment in high-performance aircraft engines required improved coolants with higher boiling points, leading to the adoption of glycol or water-glycol mixtures. These led to the adoption of glycols for their antifreeze properties.\n\nSince the development of aluminium or mixed-metal engines, corrosion inhibition has become even more important than antifreeze, and in all regions and seasons.\n\nSection::::Automobiles and motorcycles.:Boiling or overheating.\n", "Most automotive engines are \"water\"-cooled to remove waste heat, although the \"water\" is actually antifreeze/water mixture and not plain water. The term engine coolant is widely used in the automotive industry, which covers its primary function of convective heat transfer for internal combustion engines. When used in an automotive context, corrosion inhibitors are added to help protect vehicles' radiators, which often contain a range of electrochemically incompatible metals (aluminum, cast iron, copper, brass, solder, et cetera). Water pump seal lubricant is also added.\n", "The phenomenon became known as the \"Meredith effect\" and was quickly adopted by the designers of prototype fighter aircraft then under development, including the Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricane whose Rolls-Royce PV-12 engine, later named the Merlin, was cooled by ethylene glycol. An early example of a Meredith effect radiator was incorporated in the design of the Spitfire for the first flight of the prototype on 5 March 1936.\n", "Antifreeze was developed to overcome the shortcomings of water as a heat transfer fluid. In some engines freeze plugs (engine block expansion plugs) are placed in areas of the engine block where coolant flows in order to protect the engine from freeze damage if the ambient temperature drops below the freezing point of the antifreeze/water mixture. These should not be confused with core plugs, whose purpose is to allow removal of sand used in the casting process of engine blocks (core plugs will be pushed out if the coolant freezes, though, assuming that they adjoin the coolant passages, which is not always the case).\n", "The change of air cooling to liquid cooling occurred at the start of World War II when the US military needed reliable vehicles. The subject of boiling engines was addressed, researched, and a solution found. Previous radiators and engine blocks were properly designed and survived durability tests, but used water pumps with a leaky graphite-lubricated \"rope\" seal (gland) on the pump shaft. The seal was inherited from steam engines, where water loss is accepted, since steam engines already expend large volumes of water. Because the pump seal leaked mainly when the pump was running and the engine was hot, the water loss evaporated inconspicuously, leaving at best a small rusty trace when the engine stopped and cooled, thereby not revealing significant water loss. Automobile radiators (or heat exchangers) have an outlet that feeds cooled water to the engine and the engine has an outlet that feeds heated water to the top of the radiator. Water circulation is aided by a rotary pump that has only a slight effect, having to work over such a wide range of speeds that its impeller has only a minimal effect as a pump. While running, the leaking pump seal drained cooling water to a level where the pump could no longer return water to the top of the radiator, so water circulation ceased and water in the engine boiled. However, since water loss led to overheat and further water loss from boil-over, the original water loss was hidden.\n", "Early engine coolant antifreeze was methanol (methyl alcohol). Methanol was widely used in windshield fluids, however, in Europe, due to new REACH legislation, the use of methanol in windshield fluids is limited to 5% and in the near future will be further reduced to 3%. As radiator caps were vented, not sealed, the methanol was lost to evaporation, requiring frequent replenishment to avoid freezing of the coolant. Methanol also accelerates corrosion of the metals, especially aluminum, used in the engine and cooling systems. Ethylene glycol was developed, and soon replaced methanol as an engine cooling system antifreeze. It has a very low volatility compared to methanol and to water. Before the 1950s, coolant systems were unpressurized and the engine was often cooler than modern automotive engines. By pressurizing the coolant system with a radiator cap, the boiling point of the fluid is increased, permitting higher engine temperatures and better fuel efficiency. Pressurized systems do not appreciably change the freezing point. Later propylene glycol was introduced due to its environmental credentials.\n", "The internal combustion engine in most cars and trucks is cooled by a water and antifreeze mixture that is circulated through the engine and radiator by a water pump to enable the radiator to give off engine heat to the atmosphere. Some of that coolant can be diverted through the heater core to give some engine heat to the cabin, or adjust the temperature of the conditioned air.\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n\nThe most common water-based antifreeze solutions used in electronics cooling are mixtures of water and either ethylene glycol (EGW) or propylene glycol (PGW). The use of ethylene glycol has a longer history, especially in the automotive industry. However, EGW solutions formulated for the automotive industry often have silicate based rust inhibitors that can coat and/or clog heat exchanger surfaces. Ethylene glycol is listed as a toxic chemical requiring care in handling and disposal.\n", "According to the DEX-COOL manufacturer, \"mixing a 'green' [non-OAT] coolant with DEX-COOL reduces the batch's change interval to 2 years or 30,000 miles, but will otherwise cause no damage to the engine\". DEX-COOL antifreeze uses two inhibitors: sebacate and 2-EHA (2-ethylhexanoic acid), the latter which works well with the hard water found in the United States, but is a plasticizer that can cause gaskets to leak.\n", "During the first Russian winter on the Eastern Front in the Second World War, the \"Luftwaffe\" could not stop the oil freezing in the engines of their Messerschmitts because of the extreme cold. A captured Soviet airman showed them how pouring aviation fuel into the aircraft's oil sump would thaw the oil. Another solution, also learned from the Soviets, was to ignite fuel in the space around the engine.\n", "Section::::Automobiles and motorcycles.:Coolant pressure.\n\nBecause the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines increases with internal temperature, the coolant is kept at higher-than-atmospheric pressure to increase its boiling point. A calibrated pressure-relief valve is usually incorporated in the radiator's fill cap. This pressure varies between models, but typically ranges from .\n", "Research in the 1920s showed that cylinder wear was aggravated by condensation of fuel when it contacted a cool cylinder wall which removed the oil film. The development of the automatic thermostat in the 1930s solved this problem by ensuring fast engine warm-up.\n", "An example of a new source of heat \"turning on\" within an object, causing transient conduction, is an engine starting in an automobile. In this case, the transient thermal conduction phase for the entire machine is over, and the steady state phase appears, as soon as the engine reaches steady-state operating temperature. In this state of steady-state equilibrium, temperatures vary greatly from the engine cylinders to other parts of the automobile, but at no point in space within the automobile does temperature increase or decrease. After establishing this state, the transient conduction phase of heat transfer is over.\n", "Radiators first used downward vertical flow, driven solely by a thermosyphon effect. Coolant is heated in the engine, becomes less dense, and so rises. As the radiator cools the fluid, the coolant becomes denser and falls. This effect is sufficient for low-power stationary engines, but inadequate for all but the earliest automobiles. All automobiles for many years have used centrifugal pumps to circulate the engine coolant because natural circulation has very low flow rates.\n\nSection::::Automobiles and motorcycles.:Heater.\n", "In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia systems or LiBr-water was popular and widely used. After the development of the vapor compression cycle, the vapor absorption cycle lost much of its importance because of its low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor compression cycle). Today, the vapor absorption cycle is used mainly where fuel for heating is available but electricity is not, such as in recreational vehicles that carry LP gas. It is also used in industrial environments where plentiful waste heat overcomes its inefficiency.\n", "BULLET::::- Silicone oils and fluorocarbon oils (like fluorinert) are favored for their wide range of operating temperatures. However their high cost limits their applications.\n\nBULLET::::- Transformer oil is used for cooling and additional electric insulation of high-power electric transformers. Mineral oils are usually used. Silicone oils are employed for special applications. Polychlorinated biphenyls were commonly used in old equipment, which now can possess risk of contamination.\n", "Cars and trucks using direct air cooling (without an intermediate liquid) were built over a long period from the very beginning and ending with a small and generally unrecognized technical change. Before World War II, water-cooled cars and trucks routinely overheated while climbing mountain roads, creating geysers of boiling cooling water. This was considered normal, and at the time, most noted mountain roads had auto repair shops to minister to overheating engines.\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – General Electric Company introduced the first hermetic compressor refrigerator\n\nBULLET::::- 1929 - David Forbes Keith of Toronto, Ontario, Canada received a patent for the Icy Ball which helped hundreds of thousands of families through the Dirty Thirties.\n\nBULLET::::- 1933 – William Giauque and others – Adiabatic demagnetization refrigeration\n\nBULLET::::- 1937 – Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, John F. Allen, and Don Misener discover superfluidity using helium-4 at 2.2 K\n\nBULLET::::- 1937 – Frans Michel Penning invents a type of cold cathode vacuum gauge known as Penning gauge\n\nBULLET::::- 1944 – Manne Siegbahn, the Siegbahn pump\n", "Salts are frequently used for de-icing, but salt solutions are not used for cooling systems because they can cause severe corrosion to metals. Instead, non-corrosive antifreezes are commonly used for critical de-icing, such as for aircraft wings.\n\nSection::::Automotive and internal combustion engine use.\n", "Section::::Automotive use.\n\nWaterless coolant is most prominently used in the cooling systems for motorsports, classic car, ATVs, UTVs, snowmobiles and older cars. Older cars often have nonpressurized cooling systems, and the coolant can boil and overflow. Traditionally, this issue has been solved by topping off the radiator with water. This dilutes the coolant and the water can contain minerals harmful to the vehicle. Classic car owners have adopted waterless coolant to solve this problem. Jay Leno uses waterless coolant for his replica 1937 Bugatti Type 57SC Atlantic vehicle.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n", "To make the ATEG's efficiency more consistent, coolant is usually used on the cold-side heat exchanger rather than ambient air so that the temperature difference will be the same on both hot and cold days. This may increase the radiator's size since piping must be extended to the exhaust manifold, and it may add to the radiator's load because there is more heat being transferred to the coolant. Proper thermal design does not require an up-sized cooling system.\n", "According to internal GM documents, the ultimate culprit appears to be operating vehicles for long periods of time with low coolant levels. The low coolant is caused by pressure caps that fail in the open position. (The new caps and recovery bottles were introduced at the same time as DEX-COOL). This exposes hot engine components to air and vapors, causing corrosion and contamination of the coolant with iron oxide particles, which in turn can aggravate the pressure cap problem as contamination holds the caps open permanently.\n", "Ethylene glycol solutions became available in 1926 and were marketed as \"permanent antifreeze\" since the higher boiling points provided advantages for summertime use as well as during cold weather. They are used today for a variety of applications, including automobiles, but there are lower-toxicity alternatives made with propylene glycol available.\n", "The use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require the use of a water and antifreeze mixture to lower the freezing point to a temperature unlikely to be experienced. Antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a water-only cooling system. The heated coolant mixture can also be used to warm the air inside the car by means of the heater core.\n", "At around the same time engineers at Midvale Steel and The Ohio Crankshaft Company in America were attempting to use the surface-heating effect of the MF current to produce localized surface case hardening in crankshafts. Much of this work took place at the frequencies of 1920 and 3000 Hz as these were the easiest frequencies to produce with the equipment available. As with many technology-based fields it was the advent of World War II which led to huge developments in the utilization of induction heating in the production of vehicle parts and munitions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01092	Why do calories matter when losing weight but the weight of the food doesn't?	A large portion of foods weight can be made up of dietary neutral things like fibre and and water. So weighing food tells you nothing about how much energy is in it.	[ "Considering energy foods as adequate nutrition was first scientifically demonstrated to be false by François Magendie by experiments on dogs and described in his \"Précis élémentaire de Physiologie\". He showed that eating only sugar, olive oil, or butter, each led to the death of his test animals in 30 to 40 days.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThe following foods are often considered to contain mostly empty calories and may lead to weight gain:\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar: cake, cookies, sweets, candy, soft drinks, fruit-flavored sweet beverages and other foods containing mostly added sugars (including High-fructose corn syrup).\n", "Food energy intake must be balanced with activity to maintain a proper body weight. Sedentary individuals and those eating less to lose weight may suffer malnutrition if they eat food supplying empty calories but not enough nutrients. In contrast, people who engage in heavy physical activity need more food energy as fuel, and so can have a larger amount of calorie-rich, essential nutrient-poor foods. Dietitians and other healthcare professionals prevent malnutrition by designing eating programs and recommending dietary modifications according to patient's needs.\n", "Section::::Key components of weight management.:Thermogenic Effect of Food.\n\nThe thermogenic effect of food is another component of a person's daily energy expenditure and refers to the amount of energy it takes the body to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients in the diet. The amount of energy expended while processing food differs by individual but on average it amounts to about 10% the number of calories consumed during a given time period. Processing proteins and carbohydrates has more of a thermogenic effect than does processing fats.\n\nSection::::Key components of weight management.:Genetics.\n", "The glycemic effect of foods depends on a number of factors such as the type of starch (amylose versus amylopectin), physical entrapment of the starch molecules within the food, fat and protein content of the food and organic acids or their salts in the meal — adding vinegar, for example, will lower the glcyemic response. The presence of fat or soluble dietary fiber can slow the gastric emptying rate, thus lowering the glycemic response. In general, foods with higher amounts of fiber and/or resistant starch have a lower glycemic response. \n", "Postingestive feedback factors such as energy density and nutrient composition could affect the palatability of a food which in turn would inhibit or facilitate \"sensory-specific satiety\". Studies done by Birch & Deysher (1986) and B.J. Rolls \"et al.\", summarized in a paper by Raynor and Epstein, show that postingesitive feedback does not influence \"sensory-specific satiety\" very much. Since postingestive feedback seems to have little effect of sensory-specific satiety, it is probable that sensory-specific satiety is more driven by external factors, such as the sensory properties of the food, than internal factors.\n\nSection::::Obesity in relation to sensory-specific satiety.\n", "The weight of eating companions may also influence the volume of food consumed. Obese individuals have been found to eat significantly more in the presence of other obese individuals compared to normal-weight others, while normal-weight individuals' eating appears unaffected by the weight of eating companions.\n", "Liquids, such as fuel, readily flow within their containers, causing changes in the vehicle's CoM. As fuel is consumed, not only does the position of the CoM change, but the total weight of the vehicle is also reduced.\n", "For a long time it has been recognised that attitude can have an impact upon the maintenance of a healthy weight. In 1978 Susie Orbach published her book “Fat is a Feminist Issue” one of the first texts to highlight the relationship between behavior, culture and weight gain. In her book Susie looks at how food becomes associated with love, comfort and nurture and how this can manifest in over eating behaviors. This was the start of an acceptance that the calories in = calories out equation may have been an oversimplification and that diets were not a long-term solution.\n", "Fat has more nutritional energy per cup, but researchers found that in general low fat milk drinkers do absorb less fat, and will compensate for the energy deficit by eating more carbohydrates. They also found that the lower milk fat drinkers also ate more fruits and vegetables, while the higher milk fat drinkers also ate more meat and sweets.\n", "Body weight regulation requires a balance between food intake and energy expenditure. Two mechanisms are required to maintain a relatively constant body weight: one must increase motivation to eat if long-term reservoirs are being depleted, and the other must restrain food intake if more calories than needed are being consumed.\n\nSection::::Initiating ingestion.:Signals from environment.\n", "Changing the food energy intake from one food will not necessarily change a person's overall food energy intake or cause a person to lose weight. One study at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, reported by Sharon Fowler at the ADA annual meeting, actually suggested the opposite, where consumption of diet drinks correlated with weight gain. While Fowler did suggest that the undelivered expected calories from diet drinks may stimulate the appetite, the correlation does not prove that consumption of diet drinks caused the weight gain. The ADA has yet to issue an updated policy concerning diet drinks.\n", "Taken together, this means that not using weights is a decision in itself – richer people receive de facto a bigger weight. As to compensate for this difference in valuation and in order to take into account distributional issues, it is possible to use different methods. The two most common ones are taxation, e.g. through a progressive tax, and the addition of weights into the CBA itself. There are a number of different approaches for calculating these weights. Often, a Bergson-Samuelson Social Welfare Function is used and weights are calculated according to the Willingness-to-Pay of people.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Roberts argued that weight is controlled by maintaining body fat at a certain amount, referred to as a \"set point.\" When weight is above the set point, appetite decreases, and it takes less food to feel full. When weight is below the set point, appetite increases, and it takes more food to feel full. He further stated that eating strongly flavored foods (like soda or donuts) can raise the set point, whereas flavorless foods (like sugar water, canola oil, extra light olive oil) can lower the set point. These flavorless foods must be consumed in a \"flavorless window,\" at least one hour after and one hour before consuming flavors. Consumption of 100-400 flavorless calories per day lowers the set point, and therefore, lowers weight.\n", "Individuals who are overweight or obese may suffer from stigmatization or discrimination related to their weight, also called weightism or weight bias. There is emerging evidence that experiences with weight stigma may be a type of stereotype threat which leads to behavior consistent with the stereotype; for example, overweight and obese individuals ate more food after exposure to a weight stigmatizing condition. Additionally, in a study of over 2,400 overweight and obese women, 79 percent of women reported coping with weight stigma on multiple occasions by eating more food.\n\nSection::::Cognitive dietary restraint.\n", "Many boosting algorithms rely on the notion of a margin to give weights to examples. If a convex loss is utilized (as in AdaBoost, LogitBoost, and all members of the AnyBoost family of algorithms) then an example with higher margin will receive less (or equal) weight than an example with lower margin. This leads the boosting algorithm to focus weight on low margin examples. In nonconvex algorithms (e.g. BrownBoost), the margin still dictates the weighting of an example, though the weighting is non-monotone with respect to margin. There exists boosting algorithms that provably maximize the minimum margin (e.g. see ).\n", "The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called \"Calories\" and written with a capital \"C\" to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.\n", "The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material can also be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called \"Calories\" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.\n", "Section::::Deficiencies.\n", "Weight in the form of food can also be reduced by choosing foods that have the highest ratio of calories per weight. Proteins and carbohydrates have approximately 4 kcal per gram whereas fat has 9 kcal per gram, thus carrying foods high in fat content can reduce weight, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter (5.89 kcal/gram)\n\nBULLET::::- Nuts (Pecans are 6.87 kcal/gram, toasted coconut is 5.92 kcal/gram)\n\nBULLET::::- Pemican (5.7 kcal/gram)\n\nBULLET::::- Dried whole egg (5.92 kcal/gram)\n", "The science behind weight management is complex, but one of the key concepts that governs weight management is Energy Balance. Energy Balance is the phrase used to describe the difference between the number of calories a person consumes and the number of calories that same person expends (a.k.a. burns) in a given time period. There are three possible scenarios when it comes to the energy balance equation:\n\nBULLET::::- Calories consumed (food, drink) = Calories expended (basal metabolic rate, physical activity, thermogenic effect of food, acute illness)\n\nBULLET::::- Outcome: Weight remains unchanged\n\nBULLET::::- Calories consumed Calories expended\n", "Calorie amounts found on food labels are based on the Atwater system. The accuracy of the system is disputed, despite no real proposed alternatives. For example, a 2012 study by a USDA scientist concluded that the measured energy content of a sample of almonds was 32% lower than the estimated Atwater value. Furthermore, it is known that some calories are lost in waste, without ever having been chemically converted or stored. The driving mechanism behind caloric intake is absorption, which occurs largely in the small intestine and distributes nutrients to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries by means of osmosis, diffusion and active transport. Fat, in particular is emulsified by bile produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder where it is released to the small intestine via the bile duct. A relatively lesser amount of absorption, composed primarily of water, occurs in the large intestine.\n", "Section::::Strategies for maintaining a healthy weight.:Incorporating more vegetables into meals.\n\nFruits and vegetables have been shown to increase satiety and decrease hunger. These foods have a low energy density, which is mainly due to the high water content and partly due to the fiber content. The reduction of energy density has been shown to enhance satiety. The water adds weight, without adding calories and the fiber slows gastric emptying. Both of these factors contribute to the satiating effect of vegetables and fruits. Studies have also shown that fiber decreases hunger and also decreases total energy intake.\n", "Depending on quantities, the number of grams of carbohydrate in a food can have a bigger impact on blood sugar levels than the glycemic index does. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index can have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the glycemic load (GL) where GL= GI% x grams of carbohydrate per serving (Louie JCY, \"et al\"., 2015]. Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.\n", "Any evaluation is subject to change and often the cells are inter-connected. For example, looking at the table above, if something were to happen in the individual's marital life (an argument or the partner leaves or becomes pregnant or has an accident), the event can either increase or decrease how much weight the person gives to the elements in the balance sheet that refer to the relationship.\n", "For conservation of weight, the task involves two lumps of clay and a balance. The experimenter places two equal balls of clay onto either side of a balance and shows that the weights are the same. The experimenter then molds one ball of clay into an oblong shape, and asks the child if the two pieces of clay will still weigh the same amount. A child that cannot conserve will answer that they now weigh a different amount, while a child that can conserve will recognize that shape does not affect weight and respond that they weigh the same amount.\n" ]	[ "The weight of food should play a role in how a human gains or loses weight." ]	[ "Many foods weight can be made up of lots of water and fibers which has very low caloric content, therefore weight can't determine how many calories are within a food." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The weight of food should play a role in how a human gains or loses weight.", "The weight of food should play a role in how a human gains or loses weight." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Many foods weight can be made up of lots of water and fibers which has very low caloric content, therefore weight can't determine how many calories are within a food.", "Many foods weight can be made up of lots of water and fibers which has very low caloric content, therefore weight can't determine how many calories are within a food." ]
2018-01875	why did older bikes have one large wheel in the front and a smaller one in the back	Before derailleur drive chains and geared hubs that allowed a varying ratio between the rider's legs' rotation and the wheel's rotation became common, the only way to change that ratio was to use a different sized wheel (a larger wheel requires a greater effort to turn, but moves more per turn). (Such a setup like you describe could also me manufactured relatively simply, as the cranks were fixed to the wheel: no ratcheting mechanisms or chains needed).	[ "The first bicycles with two wheels of equal size were called \"safety bicycles\" because they were easier to handle than the then-dominant style that had one large wheel and one small wheel, which then became known as an \"ordinary\" bicycle. Since the end of the 19th century, most bicycles have been expected to have two equal sized wheels, and the other type has been renamed \"penny-farthing\" or \"high-wheeler\" bicycle.\n", "The bullmoose style was common on early mountain bikes. The stem and bars are a single unit and where the single top section of the stem would be, there are instead 2 bars joined at the quill to the rear and connected to the conventional handlebar section in the front, at two off-center locations, forming a triangle. This type of handlebar is usually very large, allowing for an easy breath intake under stress. However, being heavier than contemporary flat or riser bars and being less customizeable in height and distance from the body of the rider, they progressively disappeared.\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – 1962 The \"Shaw Manufacturing Co.\" () of Galesburg, Kansas advertises a 241cc chain-drive engine kit (1903 – 1915) for motorizing a bicycle in \"Popular Mechanics\" magazine for $90.\n\nBULLET::::- 1914 – The Smith Motor Wheel was introduced, similar in concept to the Singer, but was designed to be fixed to the rear of the bicycle, rather than to replace the front wheel. The design was later picked up by Briggs & Stratton. \n\nBULLET::::- 1918 – Evans Power Cycle\n\nBULLET::::- 1919 – Johnson Motor Wheel\n", "The first popular bicycles were the large penny-farthings. The pioneering inventor, W. H. J. Grout of Stoke Newington, invented a portable version in which the large front wheel could be dismantled into four pieces so that they would fit into a carrying bag.\n", "The \"dwarf ordinary\" addressed some of these faults by reducing the front wheel diameter and setting the seat further back. This, in turn, required gearing—effected in a variety of ways—to efficiently use pedal power. Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. Englishman J.K. Starley (nephew of James Starley), J.H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the chain drive (originated by the unsuccessful \"bicyclette\" of Englishman Henry Lawson), connecting the frame-mounted cranks to the rear wheel. These models were known as safety bicycles, dwarf safeties, or upright bicycles for their lower seat height and better weight distribution, although without pneumatic tires the ride of the smaller-wheeled bicycle would be much rougher than that of the larger-wheeled variety. Starley's 1885 Rover, manufactured in Coventry is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon the \"seat tube\" was added, creating the modern bike's double-triangle \"diamond frame\".\n", "A more innovative design was known in the UK as the Cyclemaster. This had a complete powered rear wheel which was simply substituted for the bicycle rear wheel, which originated from a design by two DKW engineers in Germany. Slightly larger machines, commonly with a engine were known as autocycles. On the other hand, some mopeds, such as the Czech-made Jawa, were derived from motorcycles.\n", "In 1962 Peter Mole of John T Bill & Co contacted Huffy Corp about making a new bicycle called High Rise. The bikes had a long seat called a banana seat with strut and taller handlebars. Huffy hesitated for several months before agreeing to make the bike with the stipulation that if it was a flop Peter Mole would buy all the left over parts and bikes. The new bike, called the \"Penguin\", was finally being sold in stores by March 1963 and was the first of this type to market.\n", "These vehicles all had a , , single horizontal cylinder, four-stroke engine, and a seat height less than . The first Monkey bikes did not have any suspension, but the front forks were soon added. By 1974, when the Z50J was introduced (US 1972 Z50AK3), suspension had been added to the rear, as well. The first Monkey bikes had wheels, but later models had wheels.\n", "In 1970, a lever was added to the front end, which made it easy and simple to rotate the handlebars. This feature made it more convenient to store the motorcycle, or to carry it in a rack, truck bed, or even the back of a station wagon. Fold-down handlebars had been introduced on the Honda Z50A Mini Trail in 1968, and had proven popular among owners with space constraints. Though this feature would eventually be dropped from the Mini Trail, the easy-swivel handlebars would be one of the definitive features of the full-size Honda Trail series throughout the rest of production.\n", "With the advent of small wheel bicycles, pioneered by Alex Moulton in 1962, Dick Pashley developed a simple 'shopping' tricycle, now known as the Pashley Picador. Many thousands of these have been sold since, users benefiting from the stability and low step-through frame. Its all welded construction was very unusual for the cycle industry at the time, and many years passed before other manufacturers adopted it. A similar two-wheeled shopping bicycle, the Piccolo, was also manufactured.\n", "Section::::Power sources.\n\nHistorically, internal combustion engine (ICE) designs dominated the motorized bicycle market, and still do today. Most still use small two stroke or four stroke IC engines.\n\nPower can be applied to the drive wheel in a number of ways:\n\nBULLET::::- the front or rear wheel may be powered directly by a motor built into the hub (e.g. Singer Motor Wheel, Copenhagen Wheel). This avoids the need to transfer power to wheel by some other means. The downside of this system is that often, the original wheel must be replaced for the wheel with the hub motor.\n", "Prior to Marx, children's steel tricycles were modified by removing the fork from headset and reversing it, then removing the seat and fixing it to the step. This enabled children to continue using the tricycle, having outgrown the original configuration.\n\nSection::::Imitations.\n", "Giant road frames were originally made of 6061 (ALUXX) aluminium alloy and were also characterised by bladed forks and seatposts to reduce air resistance. Frames came in three sizes (small, medium, and large), with riders fitted through the use of stems and seatposts of different lengths. By 2018, Giant road frames were available in up to six sizes (X-Small, Small, Medium, Medium/Large, Large and X-Large). \n", "Harley-Davidson began production of their single-cylinder motorcycle for 1926 and continued them until 1934.\n\nIn 1933, the Prince frame and forks were revived for use in the Motoplane and Pony Scout V-twin motorcycles. The Pony Scout was later renamed the Junior Scout and continued until the beginning of World War II. Girder forks were used on the 1934-1942 Sport Scout and on the 1945-1948 Chief.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe first commercial motorcycles were built like bicycles, with wire wheels as bicycles had traditionally been fitted with. The Steffey motorcycle in 1902, essentially a bicycle with a two-stroke engine attached, used wooden, rims with wire spokes. This style of wheel evolved into a stouter motorcycle-specific wheel, still with spokes, up to the 1960s and beyond.\n\nIn April, 1922, Borrani started production of motorcycle wheels with an aluminium rim.\n\nAlthough cast wheels had already been used on automobiles previously, it was not until the 1927 that the Böhmerland, a motorcycle built in Czechoslovakia was fitted with cast wheels.\n", "An early proponent of small-wheeled adult bicycles was Paul de Vivie, better known by his pen name \"Velocio\". His approach was to use a balloon-width tire of about 2.25\" (57 mm) on a 20\" (500 mm) rim, giving a wheel of approximately 24\" (600 mm) in diameter.\n", "Aside from the obvious safety problems, the high-wheeler's direct front wheel drive limited its top speed. One attempt to solve both problems with a chain-driven front wheel was the dwarf bicycle, exemplified by the Kangaroo. Inventors also tried a rear wheel chain drive. Although Harry John Lawson invented a rear-chain-drive bicycle in 1879 with his \"bicyclette\", it still had a huge front wheel and a small rear wheel. Detractors called it \"The Crocodile\", and it failed in the market.\n", "The first freight bicycles were used by tradesmen to deliver mail, bread and milk amongst other things. Early freight bicycles were heavy-duty standard bicycles, with heavy carriers at front or rear, sometimes with a smaller front wheel to accommodate a large front carrier. During the early part of the 20th century these were commonly used by tradesmen for local deliveries. In the UK this style is still sometimes known as a \"butcher's bike\" or \"delibike\", although the Post Office have by far the largest fleet.\n", "In 1928, the Indian Ace was replaced by the Indian 401, a development of the Ace designed by Arthur O. Lemon, former Chief Engineer at Ace, who was employed by Indian when they bought Ace. The Ace's leading-link forks and central coil spring were replaced by Indian's trailing-link forks and quarter-elliptic leaf spring.\n\nIn 1929, the Indian 401 was replaced by the Indian 402 which received a stronger twin-downtube frame based on the 101 Scout frame and a sturdier five-bearing crankshaft than the Ace, which only had a three-bearing crankshaft.\n", "The man credited with being the father of modern small-wheel bicycles is Alex Moulton who pioneered the field with his F-framed Moulton Bicycle in 1962. His original small-wheeled design notably featured full suspension. Raleigh introduced the RSW-16 as a direct competitor, but it lacked the suspension of the Moulton and compensated for this by using very wide 2-inch \"balloon\" tires. The RSW-16 \"Compact\" was a folding version. In 1968 Raleigh introduced the Raleigh Twenty, which later went on to become one of Raleigh's biggest sellers. A large number of European manufacturers made U-frame small-wheeled and folding bicycles in the 1970s.\n", "As early as 1903, motorized bicycles were being fitted with larger and heavier loop frames designed to specifically accommodate larger displacement engines, which produced higher speeds. These new motorbike frame designs soon incorporated a new riding position that no longer centered the rider over the pedals, but instead moved the rider's feet forward, where they rested on pegs or platforms. The new riding position was designed to increase rider comfort and control when using the motor for propulsion, and soon owners began relying on the gasoline motor for all but emergency use. Front suspension and (on some machines) rear suspension increased control at high speeds. By 1915, some manufacturers were omitting pedal propulsion entirely, resulting in the introduction of the first true modern motorcycle.\n", "The earliest mopeds were bicycles with a helper motor in various locations, for example on top of the front wheel; they were also called cyclemotors. An example of that type is the VéloSoleX brand, which simply has a roller driving the front tire.\n", "Bicycles continued to evolve to suit the varied needs of riders. The derailleur developed in France between 1900 and 1910 among cyclotourists, and was improved over time. Only in the 1930s did European racing organizations allow racers to use gearing; until then they were forced to use a two-speed bicycle. The rear wheel had a sprocket on either side of the hub. To change gears, the rider had to stop, remove the wheel, flip it around, and remount the wheel. When racers were allowed to use derailleurs, racing times immediately dropped.\n\nSection::::20th century.:World War II.\n", "In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the \"dustbin fairing\" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.\n\nNSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing.\n", "The frame includes the head tube that holds the front fork and allows it to pivot. Some motorcycles include the engine as a load-bearing stressed member; this has been used all through motorcycle history but is now becoming more common.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04012	Why does breath smell bad after not eating anything for a while, even after using mints/gum/etc?	Even if you haven't ate in a while the bacteria in your mouth continue to multiply and the more bacteria the stronger the odor. Mints and gum only mask the smell.	[ "BULLET::::- Type 4 (blood-borne)\n\nBULLET::::- Type 5 (subjective)\n\nAny halitosis symptom is potentially the sum of these types in any combination, superimposed on the physiologic odor present in all healthy individuals.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nEfforts may include physical or chemical means to decrease the numbers of bacteria, products to mask the smell, or chemicals to alter the odor creating molecules. It is recommended that in those who use tobacco products stop. Evidence does not support the benefit of dietary changes or chewing gum.\n\nSection::::Management.:Mechanical measures.\n", "Mouthwash or breath mints are not particularly effective, since the sulfurous compounds are absorbed into the bloodstream, and exit the body through the lungs and skin. Consuming parsley is a common folk remedy, though its effectiveness is unverified . Studies conducted at Ohio State University have shown that drinking milk can reduce garlic breath. Lettuce, chicory, celery, potato, parsley, mint leaves, peppermint, and basil were shown to be the best remedy according to the study. Eating these food raw is more effective than heated. Indeed, enzymes that degrade the sulphuric compound responsible for garlic breath are heat sensitive and found in previously mentioned food.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Mouth.:Other causes.\n\nOther less common reported causes from within the mouth include:\n\nBULLET::::- Deep carious lesions (dental decay) – which cause localized food impaction and stagnation\n\nBULLET::::- Recent dental extraction sockets – fill with blood clot, and provide an ideal habitat for bacterial proliferation\n", "BULLET::::- Medication – often medications can cause xerostomia (dry mouth) which results in increased microbial growth in the mouth.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nose and sinuses.\n\nIn this occurrence, the air exiting the nostrils has a pungent odor that differs from the oral odor. Nasal odor may be due to sinus infections or foreign bodies.\n\nHalitosis is often stated to be a symptom of chronic rhinosinusitis, however gold standard breath analysis techniques have not been applied. Theoretically, there are several possible mechanisms of both objective and subjective halitosis that may be involved.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Tonsils.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Mouth.:Gums.\n", "Patients must carry out plaque removal regularly to prevent and treat peri-implant mucositis by the act of tooth-brushing. Dentists must deliver oral hygiene instruction to ensure their patients are removing plaque sufficiently as well as removing their calculus which is a known plaque-retentive factor. The prognosis for implants are significantly higher in those who don’t smoke compared to those who do, therefore patients should be encouraged to quit smoking in order to achieve the best results.\n", "BULLET::::- Smoking – Smoking is linked with periodontal disease, which is the second most common cause of oral malodor. Smoking also has many other negative effects on the mouth, from increased rates of dental decay to premalignant lesions and even oral cancer.\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol\n\nBULLET::::- Volatile foods – e.g. onion, garlic, durian, cabbage, cauliflower and radish. Volatile foodstuffs may leave malodorous residues in the mouth, which are the subject to bacterial putrefaction and VSC release. However, volatile foodstuffs may also cause halitoisis via the blood borne halitosis mechanism.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Testing.\n\nIf bad breath is persistent, and all other medical and dental factors have been ruled out, specialized testing and treatment is required. Hundreds of dental offices and commercial breath clinics now claim to diagnose and treat bad breath. They often use some of several laboratory methods for diagnosis of bad breath:\n", "Diabetes mellitus is a serious chronic illness that affects how the body uses food, and is a life-threatening human disease if left untreated. It affects more than 171 million people worldwide.\n", "The intensity of bad breath may differ during the day, due to eating certain foods (such as garlic, onions, meat, fish, and cheese), smoking, and alcohol consumption. Since the mouth is exposed to less oxygen and is inactive during the night, the odor is usually worse upon awakening (\"morning breath\"). Bad breath may be transient, often disappearing following eating, drinking, tooth brushing, flossing, or rinsing with specialized mouthwash. Bad breath may also be persistent (chronic bad breath), which affects some 25% of the population in varying degrees.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Mouth.:Tongue.\n", "BULLET::::- Gas chromatography: portable machines are being studied. This technology is designed to digitally measure molecular levels of major VSCs in a sample of mouth air (such as hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, and dimethyl sulfide). It is accurate in measuring the sulfur components of the breath and produces visual results in graph form via computer interface.\n\nBULLET::::- BANA test: this test is directed to find the salivary levels of an enzyme indicating the presence of certain halitosis-related bacteria.\n\nBULLET::::- β-galactosidase test: salivary levels of this enzyme were found to be correlated with oral malodor.\n", "BULLET::::- The presence of \"Helicobacter pylori\" (in peptic ulcer disease) can be tested for with the urea breath test.\n\nBULLET::::- Exhaled nitric oxide is a breath test that might signal airway inflammation such as in asthma.\n", "Daily brushing must include brushing of both the teeth and gums. Effective brushing itself, will prevent progression of both dental decay and gum diseases. Neutralising acids after eating and at least twice a day brushing with fluoridated toothpaste will assist preventing dental decay. Stimulating saliva flow assists in the remineralisation process of teeth, this can be done by chewing sugar free gum. Using an interdental device once daily will assist prevention of gum diseases.\n", "The habitat of the oral microbiome is essentially the surfaces of the inside of the mouth. Saliva plays a considerable role in influencing the oral microbiome. More than 800 species of bacteria colonize oral mucous, 1,300 species are found in the gingival crevice, and nearly 1,000 species comprise dental plaque. The mouth is a rich environment for hundreds of species of bacteria since saliva is mostly water and plenty of nutrients pass through the mouth each day. When kissing, it takes only 10 seconds for no less than 80 million bacteria to be exchanged by the passing of saliva. However, the effect is transitory, as each individual quickly returns to their own equilibrium.\n", "In and \"\" (1919), the following recipe is offered: \"[One] teaspoonful of the following mixture after each meal: One ounce chloride of soda, one ounce liquor of potassa, one and one-half ounces phosphate of soda, and three ounces of water.\"\n", "The stomach is considered by most researchers as a very uncommon source of bad breath. The esophagus is a closed and collapsed tube, and continuous flow of gas or putrid substances from the stomach indicates a health problem—such as reflux serious enough to be bringing up stomach contents or a fistula between the stomach and the esophagus—which will demonstrate more serious manifestations than just foul odor.\n\nIn the case of allyl methyl sulfide (the byproduct of garlic's digestion), odor does not come from the stomach, since it does not get metabolized there.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Systemic diseases.\n", "Garlic is known to cause bad breath (halitosis) and body odor, described as a pungent \"garlicky\" smell to sweat. This is caused by allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth, causing bad breath; see garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath. Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward. Plain water, mushrooms and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective.\n", "Practitioners and purveyors of alternative medicine sell a vast range of products that claim to be beneficial in treating halitosis, including dietary supplements, vitamins, and oral probiotics. Halitosis is often claimed to be a symptom of \"candida hypersensitivity syndrome\" or related diseases, and is claimed to be treatable with antifungal medications or alternative medications to treat fungal infections.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "The most common location for mouth-related halitosis is the tongue. Tongue bacteria produce malodorous compounds and fatty acids, and account for 80 to 90% of all cases of mouth-related bad breath. Large quantities of naturally occurring bacteria are often found on the posterior dorsum of the tongue, where they are relatively undisturbed by normal activity. This part of the tongue is relatively dry and poorly cleansed, and the convoluted microbial structure of the tongue dorsum provides an ideal habitat for anaerobic bacteria, which flourish under a continually-forming tongue coating of food debris, dead epithelial cells, postnasal drip and overlying bacteria, living and dead. When left on the tongue, the anaerobic respiration of such bacteria can yield either the putrescent smell of indole, skatole, polyamines, or the \"rotten egg\" smell of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) such as hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, allyl methyl sulfide, and dimethyl sulfide. The presence of halitosis-producing bacteria on the back of the tongue is not to be confused with tongue coating. Bacteria are invisible to the naked eye, and degrees of white tongue coating are present in most people with and without halitosis. A visible white tongue coating does not always equal the back of the tongue as an origin of halitosis, however a \"white tongue\" is thought to be a sign of halitosis. In oral medicine generally, a white tongue is considered a sign of several medical conditions. Patients with periodontal disease were shown to have sixfold prevalence of tongue coating compared with normal subjects. Halitosis patients were also shown to have significantly higher bacterial loads in this region compared to individuals without halitosis.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Leaf colonization.\n", "BULLET::::- Acrylic dentures (plastic false teeth) – inadequate denture hygiene practises such as failing to clean and remove the prosthesis each night, may cause a malodour from the plastic itself or from the mouth as microbiota responds to the altered environment. The plastic is actually porous, and the fitting surface is usually irregular, sculpted to fit the edentulous oral anatomy. These factors predispose to bacterial and yeast retention, which is accompanied by a typical smell.\n\nBULLET::::- Oral infections\n\nBULLET::::- Oral ulceration\n\nBULLET::::- Fasting\n\nBULLET::::- Stress/anxiety\n\nBULLET::::- Menstrual cycle – at mid cycle and during menstruation, increased breath VSC were reported in women.\n", "\"Does Your Chewing Gum...\" has been a popular song on the Dr. Demento Show, appearing 54 times between the show's premiere and 2006 and selected for the \"Dr. Demento 20th Anniversary Collection\" double CD.\n\nIn Ken Kesey's novel \"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest\", the character Randle Patrick McMurphy also sings a few lines of this song when he realizes the Chief is storing used gum under his bed.\n", "The environment present in the human mouth allows the growth of characteristic microorganisms found there. It provides a source of water and nutrients, as well as a moderate temperature. Resident microbes of the mouth adhere to the teeth and gums to resist mechanical flushing from the mouth to stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.\n", "Though classified as breath mints, it is unknown if the mints contain active antibacterial ingredients. The new packaging now claims to have a 'natural ingredient' that is scientifically proven to help kill the germs that cause bad breath. Such ingredient is not specified but the label points to a pending patent for this ingredient. Wrigley's product website for Eclipse describes the ingredient as Magnolia bark extract (MBE), which has its origins in traditional Chinese medicine. In lab tests, MBE is said to have killed almost all oral bacteria, including the types that cause bad breath and cavities. Eclipse is the first product in the US to contain MBE.\n", "BULLET::::- Minor enzymes include salivary acid phosphatases A+B, N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase, NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone), superoxide dismutase, glutathione transferase, class 3 aldehyde dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, and tissue kallikrein (function unknown)\n\nBULLET::::- Cells: possibly as many as 8 million human and 500 million bacterial cells per mL. The presence of bacterial products (small organic acids, amines, and thiols) causes saliva to sometimes exhibit foul odor\n\nBULLET::::- Opiorphin, a pain-killing substance found in human saliva\n\nBULLET::::- Haptocorrin, a protein which binds to Vitamin B12 to protect it against degradation in the stomach, before it binds to intrinsic factor\n\nSection::::Daily salivary output.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02098	How does a wireless access point work? If I buy a second one can I use it as a sort of secondary router to connect devices via a ethernet cable?	If you already have wireless and need to connect a wired device to the network via the wireless, you need a bridge, not a router or access point. They’re often called wireless gaming adaptors because they were often used to connect gaming consoles to wireless before the consoles came standard with wireless.	[ "BULLET::::- A wireless access point is required for connecting wireless devices to a network. Most home networks rely on a wireless router, which has a built in wireless access point, to fill this role.\n\nBULLET::::- A home automation controller enables low-power wireless communications with simple, non-data-intensive devices such as smart light bulbs (Philips Hue) and smart locks (August Home).\n\nBULLET::::- A network bridge connects two networks, often in order to grant a wired-only device, e.g. Xbox, access to a wireless network medium.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure devices.:Triple play.\n", "The standard was initiated in early 2004 and developed by 37 HART Communications Foundation (HCF) companies that - amongst others - included ABB, Emerson, Endress+Hauser, Pepperl+Fuchs, Siemens, Freescale Semiconductor, Software Technologies Group (which developed the initial WirelessHART WiTECK stack), and AirSprite Technologies which went on to form WiTECK, an open non-profit membership organization whose mission is to provide a reliable, cost-effective, high-quality portfolio of core enabling system software for industrial wireless sensing applications, under a company and platform-neutral umbrella.\n", "Section::::Product line.\n\nAs of March 2016, the XBee radio family consists of\n\nBULLET::::- XBee 802.15.4 — The initial point-to-point topology or star topology module running the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol\n\nBULLET::::- XBee-PRO 802.15.4 — A higher power, longer range version of the XBee 802.15.4\n\nBULLET::::- XBee DigiMesh 2.4 — A 2.4 GHz XBee module that uses DigiMesh, a sleeping mesh networking protocol developed by Digi International\n\nBULLET::::- XBee-PRO DigiMesh 2.4 — A higher power, longer range version of the XBee DigiMesh 2.4\n\nBULLET::::- XBee ZB — An XBee module that incorporates the ZigBee PRO mesh networking protocol\n", "BULLET::::- Some wireless routers have a USB port specifically designed for connecting mobile broadband modem, aside from connecting the wireless router to an Ethernet with xDSL or cable modem. A mobile broadband USB adapter can be connected to the router to share the mobile broadband Internet connection through the wireless network.\n\nSection::::List of wireless data standards used in wireless routers.\n", "WirelessHART was approved by a vote of the 210 member general HCF membership, ratified by the HCF Board of Directors, and introduced to the market in September 2007. On September 27, 2007, the Fieldbus Foundation, Profibus Nutzerorganisation, and HCF announced a wireless cooperation team to develop a specification for a common interface to a wireless gateway, further protecting users' investments in technology and work practices for leveraging these industry-pervasive networks. Following its completed work on the WirelessHART standard in September 2007, the HCF offered International Society of Automation (ISA) an unrestricted, royalty-free copyright license, allowing the ISA100 committee access to the WirelessHART standard.\n", "BULLET::::- XBee ZigBee (S2C) — Incorporates an upgrade to the transceiver chip, replacing the Silicon Labs EM250 with the Silicon Labs EM357, effectively adding more RAM, more flash, faster clock speed and lowering the current draw.\n\nBULLET::::- XBee-PRO ZigBee (S2C) — A higher power, longer range version of the XBee ZigBee (S2C)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bluetooth\n\nBULLET::::- 6LoWPAN\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of 802.15.4 radio modules\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of wireless data standards\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- XBee on official Digi website\n\nBULLET::::- XBee on Arduino Blog\n\nBULLET::::- XBee Project Gallery\n\nBULLET::::- XBee Examples Site\n\nBULLET::::- Open Source XBee Internet Gateway\n", "BULLET::::- On July 17, 2018, Ruckus Networks announced an IoT- and LTE-ready 802.11AX (Wi-Fi 6) access point, also known as the R730. The R730 shipped in September 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- On April 29, 2019, Cisco announced 802.11ax access point. The ax enabled access point are Catalyst 9115, Catalyst 9117, Catalyst 9120, Meraki MR45 and MR55.\n\nBULLET::::- On June 25, 2019, Juniper Networks, through their Mist Systems subsidiary, announced their Wi-Fi 6 compatible AP-43 as part of its AI-driven enterprise initiative.\n\nSection::::Products.:Devices.:Routers.\n", "BULLET::::- Device-as-infrastructure: In 2013 the Open Technology Institute released the Commotion Wireless mesh network firmware, which allows Wi-Fi enabled mobile phones and computers to join a wireless community network by establishing a peer-to-peer network that still works when not connected to the wide area network.\n\nSection::::Technical approach.:Firmware.\n", "BULLET::::- XBee-PRO ZB — A higher power, longer range version of the XBee ZB\n\nBULLET::::- XBee ZB SMT — A surface mount XBee running the ZigBee protocol\n\nBULLET::::- XBee-PRO ZB SMT — A higher power, longer range version of the XBee ZB SMT\n\nBULLET::::- XBee SE — An XBee ZB module that incorporates the security cluster for the ZigBee Smart Energy public profile\n\nBULLET::::- XBee-PRO SE — A higher power, longer range version of the XBee SE\n\nBULLET::::- XBee-PRO 900HP — A 900 MHz XBee-PRO module with up to 28 mile range with high-gain antenna that supports DigiMesh networking protocol\n", "An AP connects directly to a wired local area network, typically Ethernet, and the AP then provides wireless connections using wireless LAN technology, typically Wi-Fi, for other devices to use that wired connection. APs support the connection of multiple wireless devices through their one wired connection.\n\nSection::::Wireless access point vs. ad hoc network.\n", "BULLET::::- E-802.11n Dual Radio Access Points\n\nBULLET::::- E-802.11n Single Radio and Dual Radio n/abg Access Points\n\nBULLET::::- E-MSM317 Access Devices\n\nBULLET::::- E802.11a/b/g Access Points\n\nBULLET::::- E-Mobility Integrated Services Access Points\n\nBULLET::::- V-M200 802.11n Access Points\n\nSection::::Wireless Mobility Products.:Wireless Controllers.\n\nBULLET::::- A3000G Wireless Switch\n\nBULLET::::- A-WX5000 Access Controller\n\nBULLET::::- E-Series MultiService Mobility (MSM) Controllers\n\nBULLET::::- MSM310 - Single 802.11a/b/g radio. Includes 2.4 GHz dipole antennas\n\nBULLET::::- MSM310-R - External use. Single 802.11a/b/g radio. Includes 2.4 GHz dipole antennas\n\nBULLET::::- MSM313 - Integrated MSM Controller + single radio Access Point\n\nBULLET::::- MSM313-R - External Use. Integrated MSM Controller + single radio Access Point\n", "By 2012, 802.11n based access points and client devices have already taken a fair share of the marketplace and with the finalization of the 802.11n standard in 2009 inherent problems integrating products from different vendors are less prevalent.\n\nSection::::Security.\n\nWireless access has special security considerations. Many wired networks base the security on physical access control, trusting all the users on the local network, but if wireless access points are connected to the network, anybody within range of the AP (which typically extends farther than the intended area) can attach to the network.\n", "BULLET::::- List of wireless router firmware projects\n\nBULLET::::- LWAPP – Lightweight Access Point Protocol used to manage a large set of APs\n\nBULLET::::- Wi-Fi Array System of multiple APs\n\nBULLET::::- Wi-Fi Direct – a Wi-Fi standard that enables devices to connect with each other without requiring a (hardware) wireless access point and to communicate at typical Wi-Fi speeds\n\nBULLET::::- WiMAX – wide-area wireless standard that has a few elements in common with Wi-Fi\n\nBULLET::::- Wireless LAN – networks consisting of one or more access points plus one or more devices\n", "Intel included Wi-Fi Direct on the Centrino 2 platform, in its My WiFi technology by 2008. Wi-Fi Direct devices can connect to a notebook computer that plays the role of a software Access Point (AP). The notebook computer can then provide Internet access to the Wi-Fi Direct-enabled devices without a Wi-Fi AP. Marvell Technology Group, Atheros, Broadcom, Intel, Ralink and Realtek announced their first products in October 2010. Redpine Signals's chipset was Wi-Fi Direct certified in November of the same year.\n\nSection::::Commercialization.:Mobile devices.\n", "The Miracast standard for the wireless connection of devices to displays is based on Wi-Fi direct.\n\nSection::::Technical description.\n\nWi-Fi Direct essentially embeds a software access point (\"Soft AP\"), into any device that must support Direct. The soft AP provides a version of Wi-Fi Protected Setup with its push-button or PIN-based setup.\n\nWhen a device enters the range of the Wi-Fi Direct host, it can connect to it, and then gather setup information using a Protected Setup-style transfer. Connection and setup is so simplified that it may replace Bluetooth in some situations.\n", "BULLET::::- A main base station is typically connected to the (wired) Ethernet.\n\nBULLET::::- A relay base station relays data between remote base stations, wireless clients, or other relay stations; to either a main, or another relay base station.\n\nBULLET::::- A remote base station accepts connections from wireless clients and passes them on to relay stations or to main stations. Connections between \"clients\" are made using MAC addresses.\n", "However, to facilitate migration from wired to wireless, WUSB introduced a new \"Device Wire Adapter (DWA)\" class. Sometimes referred to as a \"WUSB hub\", a DWA allows existing USB 2.0 devices to be used wirelessly with a WUSB host.\n\nWUSB host capability can be added to existing PCs through the use of a \"Host Wire Adapter (HWA)\". The HWA is a USB 2.0 device that attaches externally to a desktop or laptop's USB port or internally to a laptop's MiniCard interface.\n", "BULLET::::- So far the PHY-Chips for the WNICs are generally distinct chips on the PCB. Dependent on the mode the WNIC supports, i.e. 1T1R, 2T2R or 3T3R, one WNIC have up to 3 PHY-Chips connected to it. Each PHY-Chip is connected to a Hirose U.FL-connector on the PCB. A so-called pigtail cable connects the Hirose U.FL either to a RF connector, in which case the antenna can be changed or directly to the antenna, in which case it is integrated into the casing. Common are single-band (i.e. only for 2.4 GHz or only for 5 GHz), dual-band (i.e. for 2.4 and 5 GHz) and tri-band (i.e. for a single 2.4 GHz and two 5 GHz) antennas.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wireless area controller (WAC):\" Hardware that manages the wireless network, contains the control algorithms that converts sensing data into commands to ballasts and luminaires, tracks devices and stores their states, and detects issues and repairs the system.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wireless adapter:\" Hardware that enables traditional wired devices to communicate wirelessly within the network. It interfaces wireless signals to wired controls, and can be used in conjunction with devices such as wired sensors, LED drivers, ballasts and switches.\n", "On October 20, 2009, Apple unveiled an updated AirPort Extreme base station with antenna improvements.\n\nOn June 21, 2011, Apple unveiled an updated AirPort Extreme base station, referred to as \"AirPort Extreme 802.11n (5th Generation)\".\n\nSection::::AirPort routers.:AirPort Express.\n", "To allow for wireless keypads, remote switches, motion sensors, et cetera, an RF protocol is also defined. X10 wireless devices send data packets that are nearly identical to the NEC IR protocol used by many IR remotes, and a radio receiver then provides a bridge which translates these radio packets to ordinary X10 power line control packets. The wireless protocol operates at a frequency of 310 MHz in the U.S. and 433.92 MHz in European systems.\n\nThe devices available using the radio protocol include:\n\nBULLET::::- Keypad controllers (\"clickers\")\n\nBULLET::::- Keychain controllers that can control one to four X10 devices\n", "Wi-Fi Direct can provide a wireless connection to peripherals. Wireless mice, keyboards, remote controls, headsets, speakers, displays and many other functions can be implemented with Wi-Fi Direct. This has begun with Wi-Fi mouse products, and Wi-Fi Direct remote controls that were shipping circa November 2012.\n\nFile sharing applications on Android and BlackBerry 10 devices could use Wi-Fi Direct, with most Android version 4.1 (Jellybean), introduced in July 2012, and BlackBerry 10.2 supported. Android version 4.2 (Jellybean) included further refinements to Wi-Fi Direct including persistent permissions enabling two-way transfer of data between multiple devices.\n", "With Bluetooth mesh networking the range and number of devices is extended by using mesh networking techniques to relay information from one to another. Such a network doesn't have a master device and may or may not be treated as a WPAN.\n\nSection::::Wireless personal area network.:IrDA.\n\nInfrared Data Association (IrDA) uses infrared light, which has a frequency below the human eye's sensitivity. Infrared is used in other wireless communications applications, for instance, in remote controls. Typical WPAN devices that use IrDA include printers, keyboards, and other serial communication interfaces.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 6LoWPAN\n\nBULLET::::- Ambient networks\n\nBULLET::::- DASH7\n", "Backward compatibility with the HART “user layer” allows transparent adaptation of HART compatible control systems and configuration tools to integrate new wireless networks and their devices, as well as continued use of proven configuration and system-integration work practices. It is estimated that 25 million HART field devices are installed worldwide, and approximately 3 million new wired HART devices are shipping each year. In September 2008, Emerson became the first process automation supplier to begin production shipments for its WirelessHART enabled products.\n", "BULLET::::- U.S. military forces are now using wireless mesh networking to connect their computers, mainly ruggedized laptops, in field operations.\n\nBULLET::::- Electric smart meters now being deployed on residences, transfer their readings from one to another and eventually to the central office for billing, without the need for human meter readers or the need to connect the meters with cables.\n\nBULLET::::- The laptops in the One Laptop per Child program use wireless mesh networking to enable students to exchange files and get on the Internet even though they lack wired or cell phone or other physical connections in their area.\n" ]	[ "Can buy a secondary router to connect devices to an ethernet cable.", "One might possibly need two wireless access points in order to connect devices via ethernet cable." ]	[ "You need a network bridge not a router. ", "Having a secondary router is not necessary to connect a wireless access point to a wired device, a bridge is necessary." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Can buy a secondary router to connect devices to an ethernet cable.", "One might possibly need two wireless access points in order to connect devices via ethernet cable." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "You need a network bridge not a router. ", "Having a secondary router is not necessary to connect a wireless access point to a wired device, a bridge is necessary." ]
2018-08117	How do fish survive tall waterfalls?	Couple things contribute. Fish are fairly small so they don't gather much kinetic energy. They're also shaped much more streamlined than most animals so they enter water much more smoothly and gracefully. The surface tension of the water, which is usually what would kill, say, a human, is broken by the water tumbling down onto the pool underneath. That "impact" is more or less gone as long as the fish can reach the water "inside" the stream of the waterfall. Usually there's also enough depth underneath for them to decelerate without dangerously impacting rocks. That being said, it's not always a given that a fish will survive a fall. Whenever one of these conditions no longer exist, such as if the fish leaves the stream of falling water into falling through the air, there's a good chance of the fish being killed or at least stunned on impact. In fact, they can be stunned even when all of those conditions are favorable, simply if the fall is big enough.	[ "BULLET::::- John Horgan, Premier of British Columbia, worked at the Oceans Falls pulp mill as a university student\n\nBULLET::::- Ralph Hutton, silver medalist at the 1968 Olympics in swimming\n", "Fisherman Matt Boyd is fishing in Lake Victoria when a small earthquake hits, splitting the lake floor and causing a whirlpool. Boyd falls in, and is ripped apart by a school of piranhas that emerge from the chasm.\n", "In January, 2011, a selective fish kill affecting an estimated 2 million juvenile spot fish was attributed to a combination of cold stress and overpopulation after a particularly large spawn.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Underwater explosions.\n", "Some species of fish exhibit mass simultaneous mortality as part of their natural life cycle.\n\nFish kill due to spawning fatalities can occur when fish are exhausted from spawning activities such as courtship, nest building, and the release of eggs or milt (sperm). Fish are generally weaker after spawning and are less resilient than usual to smaller changes in the environment. Examples include the Atlantic salmon and the Sockeye salmon where many of the females routinely die immediately after spawning.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Water temperature.\n", "The species is protected under Thai law, and is found within a National Park (Pai Basin NP), but this does not necessarily protect the species as there is little restrictions on agricultural practices and regulation of tourism is needed to reduce the potential impacts to the species habitat at some sites. Human disturbance from tourism activity (some of the habitat sites are popular for caving tourism and sightseeing) may threaten the species. Agriculture and deforestation are future major threats.\n", "The explorer Henry Morton Stanley, who visited the falls on April 6, 1880, wrote that over a five or six mile stretch the incline was only , but that the \"general fury of the water is caused by the obstructions which the giant volume meets in the bed of the narrow defile.\" Sir Harry Johnston, who visited the falls in 1883, called the river \"the last grand fall of Yellala\" and detailed the sight and sounds of his impression of the falls.\n\nSection::::Ecological importance.\n", "BULLET::::- Victoria Falls, on the Zambezi river along the border between Zimbabwe and Zambia, is among the largest waterfalls in the world. During periods of high flow, it creates an unbroken sheet of water more than a mile wide.\n\nBULLET::::- Virginia Falls (Northwest Territories) on South Nahanni River, Northwest Territories, Canada, is the world's 14th-largest waterfall located in Nahanni National Park Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n\nBULLET::::- Waihilau Falls, at , is located in the Waimanu Valley, Hawaii, United States.\n\nBULLET::::- Yosemite Falls, , located in Yosemite National Park, United States.\n", "\"C. microps\", which has previously been recorded in rivers originating from the Andes mountains, clings to rocks. The fish are primarily algae-feeders.\n\nRecently, the fish was recorded underground from limestone caves containing streams, near Tena, Napo Province, Ecuador. The fish was observed and filmed climbing the cave wall reaching up to above the water level.\n\nClimbing fish are known in epigean astroblepids and loricariids. A fish that climbs waterfalls and rapids, \"Cryptotora thamicola\", has been recorded from Thailand.\n", "Section::::County park.\n", "BULLET::::- Jog Falls in Karnataka, India, is the second-highest plunge waterfall in India.\n\nBULLET::::- Kaieteur Falls (Potaro River in central Guyana), located in the Kaieteur National Park, is .\n\nBULLET::::- Niagara Falls are the widest, most powerful falls in North America.\n\nBULLET::::- Nohkalikai Falls is India's tallest plunge waterfall, located in Meghalaya state, India.\n\nBULLET::::- Pissing Mare Falls, at , is one of the tallest waterfalls in eastern North America.\n\nBULLET::::- Ramnefjellsfossen in Stryn, Nesdalen, Norway, is the world's third-tallest waterfall at .\n", "BULLET::::- Fish regularly swim down the falls. The rapids upstream are rich in nutrients which draw fish in, and the currents can disorient them sufficiently to cause them to go over the falls. More fish survive the fall over Horseshoe Falls than the American Falls, due to the latter's talus. At one point, a tourist was grazed at the Cave of the Winds when a salmon was swept over the falls and hit him.\n\nBULLET::::- Instances of waterfowl being swept over the falls have been recorded, particularly when disoriented in foggy weather.\n", "Salmon negotiate waterfalls and rapids by leaping or jumping. They have been recorded making vertical jumps as high as 3.65 metres (12 ft). The height that can be achieved by a salmon depends on the position of the standing wave or hydraulic jump at the base of the fall, as well as how deep the water is.\n", "Section::::Biology and fish.\n", "BULLET::::- East Gill Force – Swaledale in the Yorkshire Dales\n\nBULLET::::- Falling Foss – ; near Whitby, North Yorkshire\n\nBULLET::::- Gaping Gill – ; highest unbroken waterfall in England, with water falling from the surface into an underground cavern\n\nBULLET::::- Hardraw Force – ; highest unbroken waterfall above ground, in Wensleydale in the Yorkshire Dales\n\nBULLET::::- High Force – ; largest volume of water falling over an unbroken drop; one of the more popular waterfalls in England\n\nBULLET::::- Kisdon Force – Swaledale in the Yorkshire Dales\n\nBULLET::::- Low Force – downstream from High Force\n", "On the other hand, drop structures may also become barriers to fish. The downstream channel may erode and slowly and unexpectedly increase the height of the structure, to a point where migratory fish, such as salmon, cannot pass over the structure. Other causes may be that the plunge pool is obstructed or the water flow is too shallow. However, many properly functioning drop structures themselves may impede the upstream and downstream migration of fish.\n\nUnless the structure is designed to maintain them, existing fish spawning pools will be impacted or lost.\n\nSection::::Environmental effects.:Erosion control.\n", "Section::::Navigability of the Wisconsin River.\n", "BULLET::::- Jerrold Marsden, Caltech professor, was born here August 17, 1942\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Pound, gold medalist at the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in swimming, and former president of the World Anti-Doping Agency, was resident during his youth\n\nBULLET::::- Olive Sturgess, former actress of television and film, born in Ocean Falls in 1933\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Oceanfalls.org, with rich photographic material\n\nBULLET::::- Ocean Falls - a cruising destination along the BC Inside Passage\n\nBULLET::::- A brief history of Ocean Falls\n\nBULLET::::- Travel Ocean Falls\n\nBULLET::::- Musimentary on Youtube by Tony Papa\n\nBULLET::::- Memories from Ocean Falls-Photographs,Anecdotes,Paper mill description\n", "On April 12, 2012, Phillip S. Mann from Scottsmoot, FL fell down the falls during an evening hike alone. Hikers heard cries for help that evening, but search parties did not locate a person. The following day, hikers discovered his body at the bottom of the river bed. The young man likely died on impact.\n", "A round trip hike provides access to the falls. Prior to 2014, the falls were very difficult to reach due to the private Vulcan Materials quarry in the mouth of Fish Canyon, which required a long and exposed bypass hike over the neighboring ridge. In the summer of 2014 a new trail opened through the quarry allowing hikers a much easier path to the falls.\n\nSection::::2016 Complex Fire.\n", "BULLET::::6. Gundar Falls at A dangerous sheer cliff that drops over , to the first level, then drops off a couple more times to the plains.\n\nBULLET::::7. Neptune Falls and Pool at, are down a pine needle path through large pines beginning on left of road past Forest Dept. Nursery, from Kodaikanal on Poombrai Road.\n", "The falls are a barrier to upstream migration of some fish species. For example, the Warner sucker is only found downstream from the falls while the falls divide the creek's native redband trout into two distinct populations, one above the falls and another below. However, the falls do not appear to be a barrier for brook trout or hatchery fish released in Deep Creek.\n", "BULLET::::- Gocta, the sixteenth-tallest in the world at , is located in the province of Chachapoyas, Peru.\n\nBULLET::::- Huangguoshu Waterfall in Anshun, Guizhou, China, is the largest waterfall in East Asia.\n\nBULLET::::- Iguazu Falls is an extensive series of waterfalls along a stretch of escarpment on the Argentina-Brazil border.\n\nBULLET::::- James Bruce Falls, the tallest waterfall in North America at , is located in the Princess Louisa Marine Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada.\n\nBULLET::::- Jiao Lung Waterfall in Alishan, Chiayi, Taiwan, is the tallest waterfall in East Asia at .\n", "Fossil Falls originally started downstream from where it sits today; it moved upstream as waterfalls typically do. Water falling over the edge of the waterfall undercut the falls and caused them to move upstream and grow taller. This process is called plunge-pool erosion.\n\nSection::::Native Americans near Fossil Falls.\n", "Depending on habitat, Yellowstone cutthroat can range from six to twenty-six inches as adults, with six to ten inches common in high-elevation, high-gradient tributary streams and the largest fish found only in lakes or in spawning tributaries that feed lakes or emerge from them, such as the Yellowstone River in Hayden Valley in Yellowstone National Park. As a general rule, cutthroat in streams and small ponds run from ten to eighteen inches as adults, with a weight of one half to two pounds. Before habitat destruction, the threats presented by introduced species, and overfishing, they could run much larger, with fish over thirty inches reported, especially in the strain present in Heart Lake in the southeastern portion of Yellowstone National Park.\n", "Rainfall can at times be intense, and two feet of rain in a few hours has been recorded in historic times, and presumably even heavier rains can occur, and the further up-slope, the more intense the rainfall. Such rainfalls can swell the rivers to huge flows, moving boulders and rocks downstream.\n" ]	[ "Fish survive tall waterfalls." ]	[ "Usually fish will survive impacts of waterfalls due to having low kinetic energy upon falling, but in some circumstances fishes can be killed. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fish survive tall waterfalls.", "All fish survive tall waterfalls." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Usually fish will survive impacts of waterfalls due to having low kinetic energy upon falling, but in some circumstances fishes can be killed. ", "When fish go over a waterfall, it is possible for a fish to leave the safety of the stream of water, and be killed upon impact." ]
2018-01852	How do stock traders determine how the price of a stock would fluctuate in the course of a day?	I’m gonna give you a honest answer... a lot of the time it’s a hunch. Of course it’s based on the stocks history, what’s going on currently in the company... things like that. But a lot of it is a guess based on a gut decision.	[ "Price discovery as it relates to equities is the process in which a security’s market value is determined by way of buyers and sellers agreeing on a price suitable enough for a transaction to take place. On the New York Stock Exchange alone, it is not uncommon for over $1.5 trillion of stocks to be traded in a single day. Due to the large amount of transactions that take place every day, experienced traders, and computer using algorithmic trading make trades based on the slightest up-ticks and down-ticks in price, and subtle changes in the bid–ask spread. When trading halts for any amount of time, the flow of information is reduced due to a lack of market activity, adversely causing larger than normal bid-ask spreads which slows down the price discovery process. When stock specific trading halts occur in order for press releases to be announced, the market has to then make a very quick assessment of how the new information affects the value of the underlying asset leading to abnormal trading volume and volatility.\n", "Researchers have found that some of the biggest price deviations from random walks result from seasonal and temporal patterns. In particular, returns in January significantly exceed those in other months (January effect) and on Mondays stock prices go down more than on any other day. Observers have noted these effects in many different markets for more than half a century, but without succeeding in giving a completely satisfactory explanation for their persistence.\n", "Using a simplification of the above formula it is possible to estimate annualized volatility based solely on approximate observations. Suppose you notice that a market price index, which has a current value near 10,000, has moved about 100 points a day, on average, for many days. This would constitute a 1% daily movement, up or down.\n", "The total buying pressure over the past 7 days is expressed as a fraction of the total true range over the same period. If formula_3 is today, formula_4 is yesterday, etc., then\n\nThe same is done for the past 14 days and past 28 days and the resulting three ratios combined in proportions 4:2:1, and scaled to make a percentage 0 to 100. The idea of the 7-, 14- and 28-day periods is to combine short, intermediate and longer time frames.\n\nWilliams had specific criteria for a buy or sell signal. A buy signal occurs when,\n", "BULLET::::5. LPP (Last Purchase Price) method\n\nBULLET::::6. BNM (Bottle neck method)\n\nThe calculation can be done for different periods.\n\nIf the calculation is done on a monthly basis, then it is referred to the periodic method.\n\nIn this method, the available stock is calculated by:\n\nADD Stock at beginning of period\n\nADD Stock purchased during the period\n\nAVERAGE total cost by total qty to arrive at the Average Cost of Goods for the period.\n\nThis Average Cost Price is applied to all movements and adjustments in that period. \n", "Price action trading relies on technical analysis but does not rely on conventional indicators. These traders rely on a combination of price movement, chart patterns, volume, and other raw market data to gauge whether or not they should take a trade. This is seen as a \"simplistic\" and \"minimalist\" approach to trading but is not by any means easier than any other trading methodology. It requires a solid background in understanding how markets work and the core principles within a market, but the good thing about this type of methodology is it will work in virtually any market that exists (stocks, foreign exchange, futures, gold, oil, etc.).\n", "where H5 and L5 are the highest and lowest prices in the last 5 days respectively, while %D is the 3-day moving average of %K (the last 3 values of %K). Usually this is a simple moving average, but can be an exponential moving average for a less standardized weighting for more recent values.\n\nThere is only one valid signal in working with %D alone — a divergence between %D and the analyzed security.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "In the stock market indices, large trend days tend to display few signs of emotional trading with an absence of large bars and overshoots and this is put down to the effect of large institutions putting considerable quantities of their orders onto algorithm programs.\n", "2. Even in overall equilibrium markets there can be days in which the market prices jump out of bounds (false breakouts) and then return later in the day or the next day. A single day's Profile does not provide a reliable measure of market condition (3). Research indicates that a three-day measure is the minimum preferred (4).\n", "Market rules set the times and duration for trades and settlement. Some markets may not have many participants as the assets being traded do not have much appeal (the formal term is \"market interest\" in which participants express interest in the underlying asset). Such markets are often called illiquid, for example minor currencies. In illiquid markets, price discovery might take place at a predefined auction time or even whenever participant wants to trade. In such cases there may be no executions for days or months. In such examples there is no price discovery for long periods so the last traded price is used. This can have significant risk as the market for the illiquid may have moved. Another characteristic of illiquid markets is that the cost of trading can be higher due to the lack of competition.\n", "Some market speculators \"Fade\" the gap on the opening of a market. This means for example that if the S&P 500 closed the day before at 1150 (16:15 EST) and opens today at 1160 (09:30 EST), they will short the market expecting this \"upgap\" to close. A \"downgap\" would mean today opens at, for example, 1140, and the speculator buys the market at the open expecting the \"downgap to close\". The probability of this happening on any given day is around 70%, depending on the market. Once the probability of \"gap fill\" on any given day or technical position is established, then the best setups for this trade can be identified. Some days have such a low probability of the gap filling that speculators will trade in the direction of the gap.\n", "In-between trend line break-outs or swing highs and swing lows, price action traders watch for signs of strength in potential trends that are developing, which in the stock market index futures are with-trend gaps, discernible swings, large counter-trend bars (counter-intuitively), an absence of significant trend channel line overshoots, a lack of climax bars, few profitable counter-trend trades, small pull-backs, sideways corrections after trend line breaks, no consecutive sequence of closes on the wrong side of the moving average, shaved with-trend bars.\n", "As prices move down, the close of the day has a tendency to crowd the lower portion of the daily range. Just before you get to the absolute price low, the market does not have as much push as it did. The closes no longer crowd the bottom of the daily range. Therefore, Stochastics turns up at or before the final price low.\n", "At the start of each day, the NYSE sets three circuit breaker levels at levels of 7% (Level 1), 13% (Level 2) and 20% (Level 3). These thresholds are the percentage drops in value that the S&P 500 Index would have to suffer in order for a trading halt to occur. Base price levels for which these thresholds will be applied are calculated daily based on the preceding trading day’s closing value of the S&P 500. Depending on the point drop that happens and the time of day when it happens, different actions occur automatically: Level 1 and Level 2 declines result in a 15-minute trading halt unless they occur after 3:25pm, when no trading halts apply. A Level 3 decline results in trading being suspended for the remainder of the day.\n", "Counting the Hs and Ls is straightforward price action trading of pull-backs, relying for further signs of strength or weakness from the occurrence of all or any price action signals, e.g. the action around the moving average, double tops or bottoms, ii or iii patterns, outside bars, reversal bars, microtrend line breaks, or at its simplest, the size of bull or bear trend bars in amongst the other action. The price action trader picks and chooses which signals to specialise in and how to combine them.\n", "Stock reporting services (such as Yahoo! Finance, MS Investor, Morningstar, etc.), commonly offer moving averages for periods such as 50 and 100 days. While reporting services provide the averages, identifying the high and low prices for the study period is still necessary.\n\nSection::::Strategies.:Scalping.\n\nScalping is liquidity provision by non-traditional market makers, whereby traders attempt to earn (or \"make\") the bid-ask spread. This procedure allows for profit for so long as price moves are less than this spread and normally involves establishing and liquidating a position quickly, usually within minutes or less.\n", "Watching whether a stock is trending up or down can be a sure sign as to sell or buy in the short run. This is called the moving average or the average price of a stock over a specific period of time. As a stock is trending upward throughout a day or two it could be an opportunity for gains and as a stock trends downward it could be a great opportunity to short the stock. Many analysts use chart patterns in an attempt to forecast the market. Formulas and market theories have been developed to conquer short term trading. According to Masteika and Rutkauskas (2012), when viewing a stock's chart pattern over a few days, the investor should buy shortly after the highest chart bar and then place a trailing stop order which lets profits run and cuts losses in response to market price changes (p. 917-918). Historically, on average the stock markets lowest weekday is Mondays which offers a potential sale on any given stock (Lynch, 2000). Along with that, since 1950 most of the stock market's gains have occurred from November to April. Investor’s can use these known trends and averages to their advantage when trading. \n", "The Laspeyres Formula is the weighted arithmetic mean based on the fixed value-based weights for the base period.\n\nThe Ten-Day Price Index is a procedure under which, “sample prices” with high intra-month fluctuations are selected and surveyed every ten days by phone. Utilizing the data retrieved by this procedure, and with the assumption that other non-surveyed “sample prices” remain unchanged, a “ten-day price index” is compiled and released.\n\nMonthly price indexes are compiled by calculating the simple arithmetic mean of three ten-day “sample prices” in the month.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Consumer price index\n\nBULLET::::- Inflation\n", "The vast majority of day traders will chart prices in some kind of charting software. Many charting vendors also supply data feeds.\n\nCharting packages all tend to offer the same basic technical analysis indicators. Advanced packages often include a complete programming language for creating more indicators, or testing different trading strategies.\n\nSection::::Types of software.:Trade Execution.\n", "At the beginning of the day the first hour of trading creates a range (the Initial Balance). Then, as additional information on the day's trading continued, certain chart formations, called day types, are recognized. These formations have names (1), (2), such as 'neutral day', non-trend day, trend day, etc. Another concept, the 'third standard deviation' or Steidlmayer Distribution has been discussed (1) possibly in support of day types. The Steidlmayer Distribution begins as the current, equilibrium, distribution moves out of equilibrium (1, p 175).\n\nSection::::Objective and Subjective Elements in a Market Profile.\n", "This is a type of trend characterised as difficult to identify and more difficult to trade by Brooks. The spike is the beginning of the trend where the market moves strongly in the direction of the new trend, often at the open of the day on an intraday chart, and then slows down forming a tight trend channel that moves slowly but surely in the same direction.\n", "At that point when the trader is satisfied that the price action signals are strong enough, the trader will still wait for the appropriate entry point or exit point at which the signal is considered 'triggered'. During real-time trading, signals can be observed frequently while still building, and they are not considered triggered until the bar on the chart closes at the end of the chart's given period.\n", "This trading or \"betting with positive edge\" method involves a [[Money management\|risk management]] component that uses three elements: number of shares or [[Futures contracts\|futures]] held, the current market price, and current market [[Volatility (finance)\|volatility]]. An initial risk rule determines position size at time of entry. Exactly how much to buy or sell is based on the size of the trading account and the volatility of the issue. Changes in price may lead to a gradual reduction or an increase of the initial trade. On the other hand, adverse price movements may lead to an exit from the entire trade.\n", "For stock prediction with ANNs, there are usually two approaches taken for forecasting different time horizons: independent and joint. The independent approach employs a single ANN for each time horizon, for example, 1-day, 2-day, or 5-day. The advantage of this approach is that network forecasting error for one horizon won't impact the error for another horizon—since each time horizon is typically a unique problem. The joint approach, however, incorporates multiple time horizons together so that they are determined simultaneously. In this approach, forecasting error for one time horizon may share its error with that of another horizon, which can decrease performance. There are also more parameters required for a joint model, which increases the risk of overfitting.\n", "When establishing trend lines it is important to choose a chart based on a price interval period that aligns with your trading strategy. Short term traders tend to use charts based on interval periods, such as 1 minute (i.e. the price of the security is plotted on the chart every 1 minute), with longer term traders using price charts based on hourly, daily, weekly and monthly interval periods.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07142	How did the legend of El Dorado start?.	It almost certainly came from the Europeans. The early Spanish and Portuguese explorers were able to find lightly defended cities with heaps of gold just laying around. The Spanish had a whole system of treasure fleets to convoy valuables back from the New World. Every subsequent explorer was hoping to find new, untapped cities full of riches. Legends about a city made of gold is a very natural extension of this.	[ "El Dorado is applied to a legendary story in which precious stones were found in fabulous abundance along with gold coins. The concept of El Dorado underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the previous myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost city. The resulting El Dorado myth enticed European explorers for two centuries. Among the earliest stories was the one told on his deathbed by Juan Martinez, a captain of munitions for Spanish adventurer Diego de Ordaz, who claimed to have visited the city of Manoa. Martinez had allowed a store of gunpowder to catch fire and was condemned to death, however his friends let him escape downriver in a canoe. Martinez then met with some local people who took him to the city:\n", "The fable of Juan Martinez was founded on the adventures of Juan Martin de Albujar, well known to the Spanish historians of the Conquest; and who, in the expedition of Pedro de Silva (1570), fell into the hands of the Caribs of the Lower Orinoco.\n", "Section::::The search for El Dorado.:Expeditions of Pedro de Ursúa and Lope de Aguirre.\n", "The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Mesoamerica, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. The Aztecs regarded gold as the product of the gods, calling it literally \"god excrement\" (\"teocuitlatl\" in Nahuatl), and after Moctezuma II was killed, most of this gold was shipped to Spain. However, for the indigenous peoples of North America gold was considered useless and they saw much greater value in other minerals which were directly related to their utility, such as obsidian, flint, and slate. El Dorado is applied to a legendary story in which precious stones were found in fabulous abundance along with gold coins. The concept of El Dorado underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the previous myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost city. El Dorado, was the term used by the Spanish Empire to describe a mythical tribal chief (zipa) of the Muisca native people in Colombia, who, as an initiation rite, covered himself with gold dust and submerged in Lake Guatavita. The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to a city, to a kingdom, and then finally to an empire.\n", "El Dorado\n\nEl Dorado (, ; Spanish for \"the golden one\"), originally \"El Hombre Dorado\" (\"The Golden Man\") or \"El Rey Dorado\" (\"The Golden King\"), was the term used by the Spanish Empire to describe a mythical tribal chief (\"zipa\") of the Muisca people, an indigenous people of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of Colombia, who, as an initiation rite, covered himself with gold dust and submerged in Lake Guatavita. The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to a city, to a kingdom, and then finally to an empire.\n", "A second location for El Dorado was inferred from rumors, which inspired several unsuccessful expeditions in the late 1500s in search of a city called Manõa on the shores of Lake Parime. Two of the most famous of these expeditions were led by Sir Walter Raleigh. In pursuit of the legend, Spanish conquistadors and numerous others searched Colombia, Venezuela, and parts of Guyana and northern Brazil for the city and its fabulous king. In the course of these explorations, much of northern South America, including the Amazon River, was mapped. By the beginning of the 19th century, most people dismissed the existence of the city as a myth.\n", "Meanwhile, the name of \"El Dorado\" came to be used metaphorically of any place where wealth could be rapidly acquired. It was given to El Dorado County, California, and to towns and cities in various states. It has also been anglicized to the single word \"Eldorado\", and is sometimes used in product titles to suggest great wealth and fortune, such as the Cadillac Eldorado line of luxury automobiles.\n", "In 1560, Basque \"conquistadors\" Pedro de Ursúa and Lope de Aguirre journeyed down the Marañón and Amazon Rivers, in search of El Dorado, with 300 Spaniards and hundreds of natives; the actual goal of Ursúa was to send idle veterans from the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire away, to keep them from trouble-making, using the El Dorado myth as a lure. A year later, Aguirre participated in the overthrow and killing of Ursúa and his successor, Fernando de Guzmán, whom he ultimately succeeded. He and his men reached the Atlantic (probably by the Orinoco River), destroying native villages on the way.\n", "In 1637-38, two monks, Acana and Fritz, undertook several journeys to the lands of the Manoas, indigenous peoples living in western Guyana and what is now Roraima in northeastern Brazil. Although they found no evidence of El Dorado, their published accounts were intended to inspire further exploration.\n", "During the 16th and 17th centuries, Europeans, still fascinated by the New World, believed that a hidden city of immense wealth existed. Numerous expeditions were mounted to search for this treasure, all of which ended in failure. The illustration of El Dorado's location on maps only made matters worse, as it made some people think that the city of El Dorado's existence had been confirmed. The mythical city of El Dorado on Lake Parime was marked on numerous maps until its existence was disproved by Alexander von Humboldt during his Latin America expedition (1799–1804).\n", "During the mid to late 16th century, several expeditions were made by various groups of people in order to locate what they believed to be a city rich with gold; El Dorado. In 1541 Gonzalo Pizarro, governor of Quito, Ecuador, banded together 340 soldiers and about 4000 natives and led them in search of the fabled city. That same year, Philipp von Hutten led an exploring party from Coro on the coast of Venezuela. Despite having been disproven by Alexander von Humboldt during his Latin-America expedition (1799–1804). There are some people who still believe El Dorado is yet to be found.\n", "El Dorado City was the site of the El Dorado Mills or Colorado Mills, first stamp mill in the canyon, and perhaps in all of Arizona Territory. In late 1863, Col. James Russell Vineyard at the time a State Senator from Los Angeles, completed a mill from parts of abandoned or closed mills brought from in California, at what became El Dorado City, to process the ore of the Techatticup Mine and other mines in the canyon. That cut out the cost of shipping the ore down the Colorado River by steamboat, and by sea to San Francisco for processing, thus cutting costs in half for those mine owners. \n", "There is also an account, titled \"The Quest of El Dorado\", by poet-priest and historian of the Conquest Juan de Castellanos, who had served under Jiménez de Quesada in his campaign against the Muisca, written in the mid-16th century but not published until 1850:\n\nAccording to Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo (1478–1557):\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dora and the Lost City of Gold\" (2019)\n\nSection::::El Dorado in popular culture.:Television.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eldorado\" (1992-1993)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mysterious Cities of Gold\" (1982-1983, 2012-2016)\n\nSection::::El Dorado in popular culture.:Comics.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Last Lord of Eldorado\" (1998)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Gilded Man (comics)\" (1952 Donald Duck's story by Carl Barks based on the legend)\n\nSection::::El Dorado in popular culture.:Poems.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eldorado\" (1849)\n\nSection::::El Dorado in popular culture.:Literature.\n\nVoltaire's 1759 satire \"Candide\" describes a place called El Dorado, a geographically isolated utopia where the streets are covered with precious stones, there exist no priests, and all of the king's jokes are funny.\n", "Section::::The search for El Dorado.:Post-Elizabethan expeditions.\n\nIn early 1611 Sir Thomas Roe, on a mission to the West Indies for Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, sailed his 200-ton ship, the \"Lion's Claw\", some up the Amazon, then took a party of canoes up the Waipoco (probably the Oyapock River) in search of Lake Parime, negotiating thirty-two rapids and traveling about one hundred miles before they ran out of food and had to turn back.\n", "Section::::Gold and greed.\n\nSpanish conquistadores had noticed the native people's fine artifacts of gold and silver long before any legend of \"golden men\" or \"lost cities\" had appeared. The prevalence of such valuable artifacts, and the natives' apparent ignorance of their value, inspired speculation as to a plentiful source for them.\n", "In El Dorado's debut episode \"Alien Mummy\" it is revealed that he is of Mexican descent. The narrator sets the scene by describing the location as 'ancient Aztec ruins in the Mexican wilderness'. One of El Dorado's lines is \"these are the mysterious ruins of my people\".\n\nHowever, in the Prime Earth continuity El Dorado first appeared as part of the New 52 DC Universe in \"Suicide Squad Most Wanted: El Diablo and Amanda Waller\" #5 by Jai Nitz and Cliff Richards.\n", "Roraima's well-known Pedra Pintada is the site of numerous pictographs dating to the pre-Columbian era. Designs on the sheer exterior face of the rock were most likely painted by people standing in canoes on the surface of the now-vanished lake. Gold, which was reported to be washed up on the shores of the lake, was most likely carried by streams and rivers out of the mountains where it can be found today.\n\nSection::::El Dorado in popular culture.\n\nSection::::El Dorado in popular culture.:Music.\n\nBULLET::::- \"El Dorado\", by The Jayhawks (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- \"El Dorado\", album by Shakira (2017)\n", "The earliest reference to the name \"El Dorado\" was in 1535 or 1536, before Spanish contact with the Muisca people.\n", "In 1540, Gonzalo Pizarro, the younger half-brother of Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish conquistador who toppled the Incan Empire in Peru, was made the governor of the province of Quito in northern Ecuador. Shortly after taking lead in Quito, Gonzalo learned from many of the natives of a valley far to the east rich in both cinnamon and gold. He banded together 340 soldiers and about 4000 natives in 1541 and led them eastward down the Rio Coca and Rio Napo. Francisco de Orellana accompanied Pizarro on the expedition as his lieutenant. Gonzalo quit after many of the soldiers and natives had died from hunger, disease, and periodic attacks by hostile natives. He ordered Orellana to continue downstream, where he eventually made it to the Atlantic Ocean. The expedition found neither cinnamon nor gold, but Orellana is credited with discovering the Amazon River (so named because of a tribe of female warriors that attacked Orellana's men while on their voyage).\n", "The original narrative can be found in the rambling chronicle \"El Carnero\" of Juan Rodriguez Freyle. According to Freyle, the \"zipa\" of the Muisca, in a ritual at Lake Guatavita near present-day Bogotá, was said to be covered with gold dust, which he then washed off in the lake while his attendants threw objects made of gold, emeralds, and precious stones into the lake - such as tunjos.\n\nIn 1638, Freyle wrote this account of the ceremony, addressed to the \"cacique\" or governor of Guatavita:\n", "Section::::The search for El Dorado.:Lake Guatavita gold.\n\nWhile the existence of a sacred lake in the Eastern Ranges of the Andes, associated with Indian rituals involving gold, was known to the Spaniards possibly as early as 1531, its location was only discovered in 1537 by conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada while on an expedition to the highlands of the Eastern Ranges of the Andes in search of gold.\n", "El Dorado, \"The Gilded One\", was first known as Mud Springs from the boggy quagmire the cattle and horses made of a nearby watering place. Originally an important camp on the old Carson Trail, by 1849-50 it had become the center of a mining district and the crossroads for freight and stagecoach lines. At the height of the rush its large gold production supported a population of several thousand. It was incorporated as the town of El Dorado in 1856.\n", "El Dorado is also sometimes used as a metaphor to represent an ultimate prize or \"Holy Grail\" that one might spend one's life seeking. It could represent true love, heaven, happiness, or success. It is used sometimes as a figure of speech to represent something much sought after that may not even exist, or, at least, may not ever be found. Such use is evident in Edgar Allan Poe's poem \"\"El Dorado\".\" In this context, El Dorado bears similarity to other myths such as the Fountain of Youth and Shangri-la. The other side of the ideal quest metaphor may be represented by \"Helldorado\", a satirical nickname given to Tombstone, Arizona (United States) in the 1880s by a disgruntled miner who complained that many of his profession had traveled far to find El Dorado, only to wind up washing dishes in restaurants. The South African city Johannesburg is commonly interpreted as a modern-day El Dorado, due to the extremely large gold deposit found along the Witwatersrand on which it is situated.\n", "In 1535, Captains Anasco and Ampudia were dispatched by Spanish conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, one of Francisco Pizarro's chief lieutenants, to discover the valley of \"Dorado\" in pursuit of the splendid riches of the Zaque, or chieftain of Cundinamarca, described by a wandering Indian of Tacumga.\n\nIn 1536 Gonzalo Díaz de Pineda had led an expedition to the lowlands to the east of Quito and had found cinnamon trees but no rich empire.\n\nSection::::The search for El Dorado.:Quesada brothers' expeditions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12767	Why can’t a clothes dryer dry a very wet object more efficiently than air drying?	No. A dryer is designed to evaporate off the trace amounts of moisture left after a wash/spin cycle. By hanging it outside not only do you have evaporation but most of the water probably just dripped off.	[ "Below 5 °C, drying times significantly increase.\n\nAs with condensation dryers, the heat exchanger will not dry the internal air to as low a level of humidity as the typical ambient air. With respect to ambient air, the higher humidity of the air used to dry the clothes has the effect of increasing drying times; however, because heat pump dryers conserve much of the heat of the air they use, the already-hot air can be cycled more quickly, possibly leading to shorter drying times than tumble dryers, depending on the model.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Mechanical steam compression dryers.\n", "Because the heat exchange process simply cools the internal air using ambient air (or cold water in some cases), it will not dry the air in the internal loop to as low a level of humidity as typical fresh, ambient air. As a consequence of the increased humidity of the air used to dry the load, this type of dryer requires somewhat more time than a tumble dryer. Condenser dryers are a particularly attractive option where long, intricate ducting would be required to vent the dryer.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Heat pump dryers.\n", "Japanese manufacturers have developed highly efficient clothes dryers that use microwave radiation to dry the clothes (though a vast majority of Japanese air dry their laundry). Most of the drying is done using microwaves to evaporate the water, but the final drying is done by convection heating, to avoid problems of arcing with metal pieces in the laundry. There are a number of advantages: shorter drying times (25% less), energy savings (17–25% less), and lower drying temperatures. Some analysts think that the arcing and fabric damage is a factor preventing microwave dryers from being developed for the US market.\n", "Like heat pump dryers, mechanical steam compression dryers recycle much of the heat used to dry the clothes, and they operate in a very similar range of efficiency as heat pump dryers. Both types can be over twice as efficient as conventional tumble dryers. The considerably higher temperatures used in mechanical steam compression dryers result in drying times on the order of half as long as those of heat pump dryers.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Convectant drying.\n", "The regeneration of the desiccant vessel can be during three different methods:\n\nBULLET::::- Heatless \"pressure-swing\" drying, which uses part of the dry compressed air coming from the other vessel to dry the desiccant in the vessel being regenerated at lower pressure. 17-20% purge rate\n\nBULLET::::- Heated dryer, which uses a hot air blower, so there is no loss of compressed air. 7% Purge Rate.\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of compression, which can only be used with an oilfree compressor.\n\nSection::::Membrane dryer.\n", "These types of dryers are also referred to as absorption systems or getters. Because these dryers get and hold the water, they are minimally effective as a first stage dryer. If a desiccant is used in this role, the media quickly becomes saturated and the effectiveness of the dryer is negated. Desiccant dryers are best applied in a second stage or polishing role. They are usually used down-stream from a refrigerated dryer or some other primary dryer. When applied as a second stage dryer, they can easily and reliably produce dew points in the sub zero range.\n", "Solvents are a major source of contamination in chemical reactions. Although traditional drying techniques involve distillation from an aggressive desiccant, molecular sieves are far superior. \n", "Some manufacturers, Namely LG Electronics, have introduced hybrid dryers, that offer the user the option of using either a heat pump or a traditional electric heating element for drying the user's clothes.\n\nSection::::Static electricity.\n\nClothes dryers can cause static cling, through the triboelectric effect. This can be a minor nuisance and is often a symptom of over-drying textiles to an extremely low humidity level. Fabric conditioners and dryer sheets are marketed to correct this condition.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Effect on environment.\n", "A closed-cycle heat pump clothes dryer uses a heat pump to dehumidify the processing air. Such dryers typically use under half the energy per load of a condenser dryer.\n", "BULLET::::2. The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.\n\nBULLET::::- This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital sits for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing, operating and maintaining an industrial kiln is expensive.\n\nBULLET::::- In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.\n\nBULLET::::3. In air drying, there is little control over the drying conditions, so drying rates cannot be controlled.\n", "Section::::Ventless dryers.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Spin dryers.\n\nThese centrifuge machines simply spin their drums much faster than a typical washer could, in order to extract additional water from the load. They may remove more water in two minutes than a heated tumbler dryer can in twenty, thus saving significant amounts of time and energy. Although spinning alone will not completely dry clothing, this additional step saves a worthwhile amount of time and energy for large laundry operations such as those of hospitals.\n", "Section::::Ventless dryers.:Ultrasonic dryers.\n\nUltrasonic dryers use high-frequency signals to drive piezoelectric actuators in order to mechanically shake the clothes, releasing water in the form of a mist which is then removed from the drum. They have the potential to significantly cut energy consumption while needing only one-third of the time needed by a conventional electric dryer for a given load. They also don't have the same issues related with lint in most other types of dryers. \n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Hybrid dryers.\n", "Furthermore, this treatment can be applied on the waste stream prior the disposal. Drying greatly reduce the total volume mass of the solid waste, which simplify the handling process and reduce the transportation cost.\n\nThe list below states the examples of dryers available for industrial process:\n\nBULLET::::- Rotary dryers\n\nBULLET::::- Tunnel dryers\n\nBULLET::::- Tray or shelf dryers\n\nBULLET::::- Drum dryers\n\nBULLET::::- Spray dryers\n\nSection::::Post-treatment and waste production.:Waste production.\n", "The task of the desiccant is to bring the pressure dew point of the compressed air to a level in which the water will no longer condense, or to remove as much water from the compressed air as possible. A standard dew point that is expected by a regenerative dryer is −40 °C (−40 °F); this means that when the air leaves the dryer there is as much water in the air as if the air had been \"cooled\" to −40 °C (−40 °F). Required dew point is dependent on application and −70 °C is required in some applications. Many newer dryers come equipped with a dew dependent switching (DDS) which allows for the dryer to detect dew point and shorten or lengthen the drying cycle to fulfill the required dew point. Oftentimes this will save significant amounts of energy which is one of the largest factors when determining the proper compressed air system.\n", "Section::::Factors that determine the drying duration.\n\nVarious factors determine the duration of drying and can help to decide rather to use a drier or a clothes line\n\nBULLET::::- The environmental temperature - increase of temperature decreases the drying duration\n\nBULLET::::- The environmental humidity - decrease of humidity will decrease the drying duration\n\nBULLET::::- Wind velocity - Sometimes people put a fan near the clothes when drying them indoors\n\nBULLET::::- Direct sun - usually only the external line will be exposed to direct sun, so usually people put the thickest clothes on the most external line.\n\nBULLET::::- Cloth thickness\n", "A new type of dryer in development, these machines are a more advanced version of heat pump dryers. Instead of using hot air to dry the clothing, mechanical steam compression dryers use water recovered from the clothing in the form of steam. First, the tumbler and its contents are heated to 100 °C. The wet steam that results purges the system of air and is the only remaining atmosphere in the tumbler.\n", "BULLET::::- Plates feeding\n\nSection::::Typical applications.\n\nBelt dryers are predominantly used in the following industries:\n\nBULLET::::- Biomass\n\nBULLET::::- Pelleting\n\nBULLET::::- Anaerobic digestate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmaceutical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Food and feeding-stuff industry\n\nBULLET::::- Non-metallic minerals industry\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics industry\n\nBULLET::::- Wood industry\n\nBULLET::::- Ceramics industry\n\nSection::::Typical applications.:Product examples.\n", "In general there are two ways of gas flow pattern. The drying air can flow, according to the treatment process, either through or over the product.\n\nSection::::Design features.:Heat Sources.\n\nHEAT EXCHANGERS:\n\nBULLET::::- These are commonly used for application where a biomass heat source is available such as woodchip boilers to produce hot water or if there is a steam heat source available.\n\nOIL OR GAS FIRED BURNERS:\n", "As wet steam exits the tumbler, it is mechanically compressed (hence the name) to extract water vapor and transfer the heat of vaporization to the remaining gaseous steam. This pressurized, gaseous steam is then allowed to expand, and is superheated before being injected back into the tumbler where its heat causes more water to vaporize from the clothing, creating more wet steam and restarting the cycle.\n", "Marketed by some manufacturers as a \"static clothes drying technique\", convectant dryers simply consist of a heating unit at the bottom, a vertical chamber, and a vent at top. The unit heats air at the bottom, reducing its relative humidity, and the natural tendency of hot air to rise brings this low-humidity air into contact with the clothes. This design is slow, but relatively energy-efficient. It is only marginally faster than line-drying.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Solar clothes dryer.\n", "In some cases, dryers may use spin alone. Larger gyms and swimming pools may have small spin dryers for the convenience of exiting patrons. Extracting much of the water from a swimsuit reduces the risk of damp gym bags and later, laundry hampers.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Condenser dryers.\n", "Washer dryer combinations are normally built with a number of sensors and systems to automate much of the washing and drying cycles. Some of the higher-end model washer dryer combos have sensors that monitor water level, suds levels, temperature levels, and garment dryness. The information gathered by these sensors are used to control the spin speed, cycle settings, draining systems, and other functions.\n\nSection::::Typical features.:Child lock features.\n", "BULLET::::- When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind. In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.\n\nBULLET::::- The Matki/Matka, a traditional Indian porous clay container used for storing and cooling water and other liquids.\n\nBULLET::::- The botijo, a traditional Spanish porous clay container designed to cool the contained water by evaporation.\n", "Section::::Implementation and operation.:Operation technique.\n" ]	[ "Clothes dryers are built to dry very wet objects." ]	[ "Clothes dryers are only built to remove trace moisture." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Clothes dryers are built to dry very wet objects.", "Clothes dryers are built to dry very wet objects. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Clothes dryers are only built to remove trace moisture.", "Clothes dryers are only built to remove trace moisture. " ]
2018-00134	Clean coal. Is coal ever a clean energy source?	No. Clean coal is not a thing. "Clean coal" is really "marginally less dirty coal," and the "marginally less dirty" part comes from regulations being placed on coal companies.	[ "Before being adopted in this fashion, historically \"clean coal\" was used to refer to clean-burning coal with low levels of impurities, though this term faded after rates of domestic coal usage dropped. The term appeared in a speech to mine workers in 1918, in context indicating coal that was \"free of dirt and impurities.\" In the early 20th century, prior to World War II, clean coal (also called \"smokeless coal\") generally referred to anthracite and high-grade bituminous coal, used for cooking and home heating.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate\n", "U.S. Senate Bill 911 in April, 1987, defined clean coal technology as follows:\n\n\"The term clean coal technology means any technology...deployed at a new or existing facility which will achieve significant reductions in air emissions of sulfur dioxide or oxides of nitrogen associated with the utilization of coal in the generation of electricity.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Round 3 CCPI Projects\n\nBULLET::::- American Electric Power Project\n\nBULLET::::- Antelope Valley Station Post-Combustion CO Project\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen Energy California Project\n\nBULLET::::- NRG Energy Project\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Company Carbon Capture Kemper Project (switching to natural gas)\n\nBULLET::::- Summit Texas Clean Energy Project\n", "\"Clean\" coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal. Historically, the primary focus was on SO and NO, the most important gases which caused acid rain; and particulates which cause visible air pollution, illness and premature deaths. SO can be removed by flue-gas desulfurization and NO by selective catalytic reduction (SCR). Particulates can be removed with electrostatic precipitators. Although perhaps less efficient wet scrubbers can remove both gases and particulates. And mercury emissions can be reduced up to 95%. However capturing carbon dioxide emissions is generally not economically viable.\n\nSection::::Coal pollution mitigation.:Standards.\n", "The term Clean Coal in modern society often refers to the carbon capture and storage process. The term has been used by advertisers, lobbyists, and politicians such as Donald Trump.\n\nSection::::Clean coal.:Prior terminology.\n\nThe industry term \"clean coal\" is increasingly used in reference to carbon capture and storage, an advanced theoretical process that would eliminate or significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions from coal-based plants and permanently sequester them. More generally, the term has been found in modern usage to describe technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation, and use.\n", "In its original usage, the term \"Clean Coal\" was used to refer to technologies that were designed to reduce emission of pollutants associated with burning coal, such as washing coal at the mine. This step removes some of the sulfur and other contaminants, including rocks and soil. This makes coal cleaner and cheaper to transport. More recently, the definition of clean coal has been expanded to include carbon capture and storage. Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal. Historically, the primary focus was on SO and NO, the most important gases in causation of acid rain, and particulates which cause visible air pollution and have deleterious effects on human health. \n", "Section::::Criticism of the approach.\n\nEnvironmentalists such as Dan Becker, director of the Sierra Club's Global Warming and Energy Program, believes that the term \"clean coal\" is misleading: \"There is no such thing as clean coal and there never will be. It's an oxymoron.\" The Sierra Club's Coal Campaign has launched a site refuting the clean coal statements and advertising of the coal industry.\n", "BULLET::::- Oxy-fuel combustion – Fossil fuels such as coal are burned in a mixture of recirculated flue gas and oxygen, rather than in air, which largely eliminates nitrogen from the flue gas enabling efficient, low-cost CO capture.\n", "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) began conducting a joint program with the industry and State agencies to demonstrate clean coal technologies large enough for commercial use. The program, called the Clean Coal Technology & Clean Coal Power Initiative (CCPI), has had a number of successes that have reduced emissions and waste from coal-based electricity generation. The National Energy Technology Laboratory has administered three rounds of CCPI funding and the following projects were selected during each round:\n\nBULLET::::- Round 1 CCPI Projects\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced Multi-Product Coal Utilization By-Product Processing Plant\n", "According to United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the burning of coal, a fossil fuel, is a major contributor to global warming. (See the UN IPCC Fourth Assessment Report). As 26% of the world's electrical generation in 2004 was from coal-fired generation (see World energy resources and consumption), reaching the carbon dioxide reduction targets of the Kyoto Protocol will require modifications to how coal is utilized.\n", "Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide (CO) and other greenhouse gases, and radioactive materials, that arise from the use of coal, mainly for electrical power generation, using various technologies. Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies. These efforts have been very successful in countries with strong environmental regulation, such as the US, where emissions of acid-rain causing compounds and particulates have been reduced by up to 90% since 1995. More recent developments include carbon capture and storage, which pumps and stores CO emissions underground, and integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) involve coal gasification, which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO emissions.\n", "Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on the planet, and widely used as the source of energy in thermal power stations and is a relatively cheap fuel. Coal is an impure fuel and produces more greenhouse gas and pollution than an equivalent amount of petroleum or natural gas. For instance, the operation of a 1000-MWe coal-fired power plant results in a nuclear radiation dose of 490 person-rem/year, compared to 136 person-rem/year, for an equivalent nuclear power plant including uranium mining, reactor operation and waste disposal.\n\nSection::::Fuels.:Coal.:Transport and delivery.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biochar\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon capture and storage\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon sequestration\n\nBULLET::::- Coal phase out\n\nBULLET::::- Coal-water slurry fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Energy development\n\nBULLET::::- Fluidized bed combustion\n\nBULLET::::- Futuregen\n\nBULLET::::- Greenwash\n\nBULLET::::- James E. Hansen\n\nBULLET::::- JEA Northside Generating Station (Jacksonville)\n\nBULLET::::- Kyoto Protocol\n\nBULLET::::- Mitigation of global warming\n\nBULLET::::- Mountaintop removal mining\n\nBULLET::::- Refined coal\n\nBULLET::::- Syngas\n\nBULLET::::- Waste management\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental impact of the coal industry\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- The Economist (2009) \"The illusion of clean coal\" - Climate change, Mar 5th 2009, From The Economist print edition, section\n", "Coal pollution mitigation is a process whereby coal is chemically washed of minerals and impurities, sometimes gasified, burned and the resulting flue gases treated with steam, with the purpose of removing sulfur dioxide, and reburned so as to make the carbon dioxide in the flue gas economically recoverable, and storable underground (the latter of which is called \"carbon capture and storage\"). The coal industry uses the term \"clean coal\" to describe technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use, but has provided no specific quantitative limits on any emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. Whereas contaminants like sulfur or mercury can be removed from coal, carbon cannot be effectively removed while still leaving a usable fuel, and clean coal plants without carbon sequestration and storage do not significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. James Hansen in an open letter to then U.S. President Barack Obama advocated a \"moratorium and phase-out of coal plants that do not capture and store CO\". In his book \"Storms of My Grandchildren\", similarly, Hansen discusses his \"Declaration of Stewardship\" the first principle of which requires \"a moratorium on coal-fired power plants that do not capture and sequester carbon dioxide\".\n", "A few Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) coal-fired power plants have been built with coal gasification. Although they burn coal more efficiently and therefore emit less pollution, the technology has not generally proved economically viable for coal, except possibly in Japan although this is controversial.\n\nSection::::Coal pollution mitigation.:Carbon capture and storage.\n", "BULLET::::- Ship propulsion and idling can be switched to much cleaner fuels like natural gas. (Ideally a renewable source but not practical yet)\n\nBULLET::::- Combustion of fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.\n\nBULLET::::- Electric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be replaced by power generation from nuclear and renewables. For poor nations, heating and home stoves that contribute much to regional air pollution can be replaced by a much cleaner fossil fuel like natural gas, or ideally, renewables.\n", "Other carbon capture and storage technologies include those that dewater low-rank coals. Low-rank coals often contain a higher level of moisture content which contains a lower energy content per tonne. This causes a reduced burning efficiency and an increased emissions output. Reduction of moisture from the coal prior to combustion can reduce emissions by up to 50 percent.\n", "Emissions from electricity generation account for the largest share of U.S. greenhouse gases, 38.9% of U.S. production of carbon dioxide in 2006 (with transportation emissions close behind, at 31%). Although coal power only accounted for 49% of the U.S. electricity production in 2006, it was responsible for 83% of CO emissions caused by electricity generation that year, or 1,970 Tg of CO emissions. Further 130 Tg of CO were released by other industrial coal-burning applications.\n\nClick Here to see a graph displaying CO emissions from coal powered plants.\n\nSection::::Environmental impacts.:Mercury pollution.\n", "Section::::Transition away from coal.:Switch to cleaner fuels and lower carbon electricity generation.\n\nCoal-fired generation puts out about twice the amount of carbon dioxide—around a tonne for every megawatt hour generated—than electricity generated by burning natural gas at 500 kg of greenhouse gas per megawatt hour. In addition to generating electricity, natural gas is also popular in some countries for heating and as an automotive fuel.\n", "Coal pollution mitigation\n\nCoal pollution mitigation, often called clean coal, is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning (though not the mining or processing) of coal, which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation.\n", "Coal can be found in abundance in the USA and many other countries and its price has remained relatively constant in recent years. Of the traditional fossil fuels - oil, coal, and natural gas - coal is used as a feedstock for 40% of global electricity generation. Fossil fuel consumption and its contribution to large-scale, detrimental environmental changes is becoming a pressing issue, especially in light of the Paris Agreement. In particular, coal contains more CO per BTU than oil or natural gas and is responsible for 43% of CO emissions from fuel combustion. Thus, the lower emissions that IGCC technology allows through gasification and pre-combustion carbon capture is discussed as a way to addressing aforementioned concerns.\n", "Former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has said that \"we should strive to have new electricity generation come from other sources, such as clean coal and renewables,” and former Energy Secretary Dr. Steven Chu has said that “It is absolutely worthwhile to invest in carbon capture and storage\", noting that even if the U.S. and Europe turned their backs on coal, developing nations like India and China would likely not.\n\nDuring the first 2012 United States presidential election debate, Mitt Romney expressed his support for clean coal, and claimed that current federal policies were hampering the coal industry.\n", "BULLET::::- Demonstration of Integrated Optimization Software at the Baldwin Energy Complex\n\nBULLET::::- Gilberton Coal-to-Clean Fuels and Power Co-Production Project\n\nBULLET::::- Increasing Power Plant Efficiency: Lignite Fuel Enhancement\n\nBULLET::::- TOXECON Retrofit for Mercury and Multi-Pollutant Control on Three 90-MW Coal-Fired Boilers\n\nBULLET::::- Western Greenbrier Co-Production Demonstration Project\n\nBULLET::::- Commercial Demonstration of the Airborne Process\n\nBULLET::::- Integration of Advanced Emission Controls to Produce Next-Generation Circulating Fluid Bed Coal Generating Unit\n\nBULLET::::- Round 2 CCPI Projects\n\nBULLET::::- Airborne Process Commercial Scale Demonstration Program\n\nBULLET::::- Demonstration of a Coal-Based Transport Gasifier\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury Species and Multi-Pollutant Control Project\n\nBULLET::::- Mesaba Energy Project\n", "Section::::Coal as fuel to generate electricity.:Power plant combustion.\n\nCoal burnt as a solid fuel in coal power stations to generate electricity is called thermal coal. Coal is also used to produce very high temperatures through combustion. Efforts around the world to reduce the use of coal have led some regions to switch to natural gas and electricity from lower carbon sources.\n", "Coal, which is primarily used for the generation of electricity, is the second largest domestic contributor to carbon dioxide emissions in the US. The public has become more concerned about global warming which has led to new legislation. The coal industry has responded by running advertising touting clean coal in an effort to counter negative perceptions and claiming more than $50 billion towards the development and deployment of \"traditional\" clean coal technologies over the past 30 years; and promising $500 million towards carbon capture and storage research and development. There is still concern about clean coal technology being perceived as more environmentally friendly than it is, and the term \"Clean Coal\" has been used as an example of \"greenwashing\". According to the Sierra Club, \"Despite the industry's hype, there's no such thing as 'clean coal.' But new technologies and policies can help reduce coal plants' deadly emissions.\"\n" ]	[ "Clean coal can be a positive energy source. " ]	[ "Clean coal does not exist, therefore clean coal cannot be an energy source." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Clean coal can be a positive energy source. ", "Clean coal can be a positive energy source. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Clean coal does not exist, therefore clean coal cannot be an energy source.", "Clean coal does not exist, therefore clean coal cannot be an energy source." ]
2018-05051	Why do humans eyes roll up into our head when something feels good?	Your eyes are relaxing. The brain is getting a signal that something feels good and it attempts to 'savour' the feeling by not really bothering to look at stuff. When your eyes relax and aren't attempting to take in information, they might close, roll upward, or just glaze over.	[ "Section::::In society.\n", "Normally, one's eyes need to instinctively blink at around 6-10 times per minute, but merely looking at a person or object the viewer finds \"attractive\" can slow this rate down. “can be a good indicator that a person is attracted to the person they're talking to, and is for this reason used as a sign of flirting.” \n\nSection::::Physical expressions.:Body postures.\n", "In a study conducted by John Gottman, it was determined that eye-rolling is one of the #1 factors of predicting divorce, followed by criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling. The gesture shows the other party that what they are doing is so undesirable that it is not even worth looking at or giving a thought, which is why many relationships are destroyed by excessive use of the action.\n\nIn 2010, members of the city council of Elmhurst, Illinois, wished to make a law outlawing eye-rolling.\n", "Displays of emotions can generally be categorized into two groups: negative and positive. Negative emotions usually manifest as increased tension in various muscle groups: tightening of jaw muscles, furrowing of forehead, squinting eyes, or lip occlusion (when the lips seemingly disappear). In contrast, positive emotions are revealed by the loosening of the furrowed lines on the forehead, relaxation of the muscles around the mouth, and widening of the eye area. When individuals are truly relaxed and at ease, the head will also tilt to the side, exposing our most vulnerable area, the neck. This is a high-comfort display, often seen during courtship, that is nearly impossible to mimic when tense or suspicious.\n", "Section::::Origins.:Darwin's principles.\n\nIn the 1872 work, Darwin proposed three principles. The first of the three is the \"principle of serviceable habits,\" which he defined as useful habits reinforced previously, and then inherited by offspring. He used as an example contracting of eyebrows (furrowing the brow), which he noted is serviceable to prevent too much light from entering the eyes. He also said that the raising of eyebrows serves to increase the field of vision. He cited examples of people attempting to remember something and raising their brows, as though they could \"see\" what they were trying to remember.\n", "Section::::Saccades and vision.:Spatial updating.\n", "Section::::Saccades and vision.\n\nSection::::Saccades and vision.:Saccadic masking.\n", "In a well known Hadith (saying of the prophet Muhammad) the prophet said:\n\nSection::::Eastern religions.\n\nIn Yoga (Yoga Sutras of Patanjali), movement or positions, breathing practices, and concentration, as well as the yamas and niyamas, can contribute to a physical state of contentment (santosha).\n", "The cooperative eye hypothesis was first proposed by H. Kobayashi and S. Kohshima in 2002 and was subsequently tested by Michael Tomasello and others at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany. Researchers examined the effect of head and eye movement on changing gaze direction in humans and great apes. A human experimenter, observed by either a human infant, a gorilla, a bonobo, or a chimpanzee, did one of four actions:\n\nBULLET::::- Tilted his head up while closing his eyes\n\nBULLET::::- Looked at the ceiling with his eyes while keeping his head stationary\n", "Section::::In humans.\n\nLordosis behavior became secondary in hominidae and is non-functional in humans. There is no human analogue to the lordosis reflex, although lordosis-like positions can be observed in women being mounted from behind. \n", "Vaginal contractions are caused by both the activity of certain brain regions and the release of the hormone oxytocin. It has been suggested that vaginal contractions during orgasm can increase the chances of pregnancy as they transport sperm up the reproductive tract from the vagina to the oviducts, which decreases the distance it has to travel. Additionally, when the woman is fertile, sperm is only transported to the side of the dominant ovary.\n\nInvoluntary vaginal contractions may arise from non-sexual causes. Involuntary spasm of the muscles around the vagina, usually caused by anxiety, can result in vaginismus.\n", "Displays of amusement have been distinguished from related emotions like embarrassment and shame. More recent studies have confirmed that laughter is a distinct signal of amusement and is recognizable across cultures.\n\nSection::::Emotional expression of amusement.:Facial expression.\n\nAn amused facial expression typically has these characteristics:\n\nBULLET::::- Head: Thrown back with jaw lifted\n\nBULLET::::- Eyes: Crow's feet at the eyes indicating that the muscles have tightened\n\nBULLET::::- Mouth: Open, jaw dropped with relaxed muscles\n\nSection::::Emotional expression of amusement.:Vocal burst.\n", "Additionally, \"Aristotle tells us that the region round the eyes was the region of the head most fruitful of seed (\"most seedy\" σπερματικώτατος), pointing to generally recognised effects upon the eyes of sexual indulgence and to practices which imply that seed comes from liquid in the region of the eyes.\" This may be explained by the belief of the Pythagoreans that \"semen is a drop of the brain [τὸ δε σπέρμα εἶναι σταγόνα ἐγκέφαλου].\"\n", "In 1970, Farkas published a second text which contradicted his earlier writing. Out of 40 subjects, Farkas showed that 39 subjects directed the air downward to varying degrees and one subject directed the air in an upward direction at various degrees. The lower jaw position seen in these photographs show more variation from his earlier text as well.\n", "Section::::Cognitive functions.:Emotion.\n\nThe caudate nucleus has been implicated in responses to visual beauty, and has been suggested as one of the \"neural correlates of romantic love\".\n", "Section::::Controversy.:Efficiency and adaptation.\n", "Primatologist Signe Preuschoft traces the smile back over 30 million years of evolution to a \"fear grin\" stemming from monkeys and apes who often used barely clenched teeth to portray to predators that they were harmless, or to signal submission to more dominant group members. The smile may have evolved differently among species and especially among humans. Apart from Biology as an academic discipline that interprets the smile, those who study kinesics and psychology such as Freitas-Magalhaes view the smile as an affect display that can communicate feelings such as love, happiness, glee, pride, contempt, and embarrassment. Also, other types of primates can express this gesture as a symbol of happiness and fun.\n", "Ekman noted that while universal expressions do not necessarily prove Darwin's theory that they evolved, they do provide strong evidence of the possibility. He mentioned the similarities between human expressions and those of other primates, as well as an overall universality of certain expressions to back up Darwin's ideas. The expressions of emotion that Ekman noted as most universal based on research are: anger, fear, disgust, sadness, and enjoyment.\n", "The music video was directed by Wes Edwards and premiered in July 2014.\n", "Eye-rolling has been present in literature since at least the 16th century, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. William Shakespeare periodically would use the gesture in his works to portray lust or passion for another character, as used in his poem \"The Rape of Lucrece\". In this time period, eye-rolling was used commonly as an expression of desire or flirtation, and it continued to be used this way in literature for centuries. Up until about the 1950s this same meaning was used in music and films, but began translating to the meaning known today. The widespread use of eye-rolling in a negative connotation wasn't present until the 1980s.\n", "BULLET::::- The lack of rotational movement freedom. Affect detection works very well with frontal use, but upon rotating the head more than 20 degrees, \"there've been problems\".\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Body gesture.\n", "Speaking about the video, Lambert said, “The one thing that I was really excited about was maybe something sort of science fiction. Something kind of New World Order, in the future. Something not of this reality. When we put that out there, a gentleman called Dori Oskowitz came back with an amazing treatment. This director is a really cool guy, totally on the same page as me.”\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Tonic labyrinthine reflex.\n\nThe tonic labyrinthine reflex is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans. With this reflex, tilting the head back while lying on the back causes the back to stiffen and even arch backwards, the legs to straighten, stiffen, and push together, the toes to point, the arms to bend at the elbows and wrists, and the hands to become fisted or the fingers to curl. The presence of this reflex beyond the newborn stage is also referred to as abnormal extension pattern or extensor tone.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "Section::::Visual dominance in animals.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16987	What happened at the Library of Alexandria?	Caesar burned it to the ground, and humans lost an innumerable amount of knowledge stored within.	[ "In 272 AD, the emperor Aurelian fought to recapture the city of Alexandria from the forces of the Palmyrene queen Zenobia. During the course of the fighting, Aurelian's forces destroyed the Broucheion quarter of the city in which the main library was located. If the Mouseion and Library still existed at this time, they were almost certainly destroyed during the attack as well. If they did survive the attack, then whatever was left of them would have been destroyed during the emperor Diocletian's siege of Alexandria in 297.\n\nSection::::Successors to the Mouseion.\n\nSection::::Successors to the Mouseion.:Serapeum.\n", "The Library of Alexandria was the most important collection of ancient knowledge ever assembled. The building stood for six hundred years and contained more than half a million manuscripts. Then suddenly it vanished. No trace of this literary treasure has ever been unearthed.\n", "Section::::Decline.:Burning by Julius Caesar.\n", "Section::::Decline.\n\nSection::::Decline.:After Ptolemy VIII's expulsions.\n", "Section::::Under Ptolemaic patronage.:Peak of literary criticism.\n", "Section::::Successors to the Mouseion.:Later schools and libraries in Alexandria.\n", "Many French scholars accompanied Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1799, where they made many important finds. When forced to surrender to the British in 1801, the scholars initially strongly resisted the claim made by the British to have the collections of the expedition handed over. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire ominously threatened that, were that British demand persisted in, history would record \"a second burning of a library in Alexandria\". The threat was, however, not carried out, and the finds were finally handed over and ended up in the British Museum.\n\nSection::::Industrial Revolution period.\n", "BULLET::::- Ⅰ, \"The Disappearance of Pharaonic Egypt\" () evoking the deplorable events that were the destruction of the Library of Alexandria (it is said that there were seven hundred thousand volumes) and the temple of Serapis in the same city, missing in any of the buildings those precious texts which could clarify the gaps that exist today about the history of Pharaonic Egypt. Fortunately other sources remained available, the Bible being one of them, as the author well mentioned.\n", "In the late 4th century, persecution of pagans by Christians had reached new levels of intensity. Temples and statues were destroyed throughout the Roman empire: pagan rituals became forbidden under punishment of death, and libraries were closed. In 391, Emperor Theodosius I ordered the destruction of all pagan temples, and the Patriarch Theophilus complied with his request. The Serapeum of the Great Library was destroyed, possibly effecting the final destruction of the Library of Alexandria. The neoplatonist philosopher Hypatia was publicly murdered by a Christian mob.\n", "It has been reasonably established that the library, or parts of the collection, were destroyed by fire on a number of occasions (library fires were common and replacement of handwritten manuscripts was very difficult, expensive, and time-consuming). To this day the details of the destruction (or destructions) remain a lively source of controversy.\n\nThe Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002, near the site of the old Library.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Museums.\n", "BULLET::::- The Library at Pergamon, founded by Attalus I; it contained 200,000 volumes which were moved to the Serapeion by Mark Antony and Cleopatra, after the destruction of the Museion. The Serapeion was partially destroyed in 391, and the last books disappeared in 641 CE following the Arab conquest.\n\nBULLET::::- The Library at Athens, the \"Ptolemaion\", which gained importance following the destruction of the Library at Alexandria ; the Library of Pantainos, around 100 CE; the library of Hadrian, in 132 CE.\n\nBULLET::::- The Library at Rhodes, a library that rivaled the Library of Alexandria.\n", "Scattered references indicate that, sometime in the fourth century, an institution known as the \"Mouseion\" may have been reestablished at a different location somewhere in Alexandria. Nothing, however, is known about the characteristics of this organization. It may have possessed some bibliographic resources, but whatever they may have been, they were clearly not comparable to those of its predecessor. For much of the late fourth century AD, the library of the Serapeum was probably the largest collection of books in the city of Alexandria. In the 370s and 380s, the Serapeum was still a major pilgrimage site for many pagans.\n", "The film contains a scene, based on the final episode of Carl Sagan's \"Cosmos\", in which Christians burn the \"Great Library of Alexandria\", but the historical Library of Alexandria had actually ceased to exist in any recognizable form centuries before Hypatia was even born. The last references to anyone having held membership in the Mouseion (the larger research institute which contained the library) date to the 260s AD. Theon was the head of a school called the \"Mouseion\", but it was a different school named after the Hellenistic Mouseion. Although Christians under the decree of the bishop Theophilus did destroy the Serapeum of Alexandria in 391 AD, which, at one time, had housed scrolls from the Library of Alexandria, the Serapeum probably no longer had any scrolls in it at the time of its destruction, since sources prior to 391 speak of its libraries in the past tense. Also, the Christians completely demolished the Serapeum to the ground, leaving no part of its structure intact; whereas, in the film, they merely knock over all the statues and burn the (probably nonexistent) scrolls. \"Agora\" also strongly implies that Hypatia was an atheist, which directly contradicts the historical fact that she was a Neoplatonist follower of the teachings of Plotinus, who believed that the goal of philosophy was \"a mystical union with the divine.\"\n", "They set out to Egypt, where they find an underground chamber with a million bronze tubes containing the original scrolls of the Library of Alexandria. Unfortunately, it turns out that the scrolls have long crumbled to dust. Cleopatra had however founded a special organization, \"The Guardians of the Great Library\", to protect the unique book collection. Still in operation centuries later, the Guardians had complete parchment copies made shortly before the burning of the library which were shipped to Byzantium, Greece around 400AD, to become known as the Library of Constantinople.\n", "While there were many reports of texts surviving into the Ottoman era, no substantive portion of the library has ever been recovered. Professor Carlyle was provided access in 1800 to the Seraglio, the supposed repository of post-Ottoman conquest surviving texts, but no texts from the Imperial Library were located. A notable exception is the Archimedes Palimpsest, that surfaced in 1840, was translated in 1915 and was unaccountably found in a private collection and sold in 1998.\n\nSection::::Existence of a single Library of Constantinople.\n", "Section::::Under Ptolemaic patronage.:Early scholarship.\n", "In 391 AD, a group of Christian workmen in Alexandria uncovered the remains of an old Mithraeum. They gave some of the cult objects to the Christian bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus. Theophilus had the cult objects paraded through the streets so they could be mocked and ridiculed. The pagans of Alexandria were incensed by this act of desecration, especially the teachers of Neoplatonic philosophy and theurgy at the Serapeum. The teachers at the Serapeum took up arms and led their students and other followers in a guerilla attack on the Christian population of Alexandria, killing many of them before being forced to retreat. In retaliation, the Christians vandalized and demolished the Serapeum, although some parts of the colonnade were still standing as late as the twelfth century. However, none of the accounts of the Serapeum's destruction mention anything about it having a library and sources written before its destruction speak of its collection of books in the past tense, indicating that it probably did not have any significant collection of scrolls in it at the time of its destruction.\n", "The Royal Library of Antioch was destroyed in 363 AD by the Christian Emperor Jovian, who \"at the urging of his wife, burned the temple with all the books in it with his concubines laughing and setting the fire\", which greatly displeased the citizens of the city as they could only watch angrily as the collection went up in smoke. Johannes Hahn in his work \"Gewalt und religiöser Konflikt\" (pp. 178–180) relates:\n", "The Library dwindled during the Roman Period, due to lack of funding and support. Its membership appears to have ceased by the 260s AD. Between 270 and 275 AD, the city of Alexandria saw a rebellion and an imperial counterattack that probably destroyed whatever remained of the Library, if it still existed at that time. The daughter library of the Serapeum may have survived after the main Library's destruction. The Serapeum was vandalized and demolished in 391 AD under a decree issued by Coptic Christian Pope Theophilus of Alexandria, but it does not seem to have housed books at the time and was mainly used as a gathering place for Neoplatonist philosophers following the teachings of Iamblichus.\n", "Section::::Middle Ages.:Repeated destruction of Alexandria libraries.\n\nThe library of the Serapeum in Alexandria was trashed, burned and looted, 392, at the decree of Theophilus of Alexandria, who was ordered so by Theodosius I. Around the same time, Hypatia was murdered. One of the largest destructions of books occurred at the Library of Alexandria, traditionally held to be in 640; however, the precise years are unknown as are whether the fires were intentional or accidental.\n\nSection::::Middle Ages.:Iconoclast writings (by Byzantine authorities).\n", "Davis has said: \"... [I spent some time] researching in the British Library – and since I always enjoy double use of experiences, you may find my observations reflected in scenes in the new book which are set in the legendary Great Library of Alexandria. ... Not that there could ever be academic back-stabbing, murder, arson and fraud at that wonderful building on the Euston Road and I certainly never came across an on-site autopsy of a librarian who would end up mummified!\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Catoblepas, \"not appearing, but deserves a mention\" (from list of Principal Characters)\n", "Section::::Historical background.:Christian book burnings.:Burning of the Library of Alexandria.\n\nThe stories surrounding the loss of the great Library of Alexandria include:\n\nBULLET::::- Emperor Aurelian's (270–275 CE) sack of Alexandria in 272 CE, which badly damaged the section of the city which housed part of the library.\n\nBULLET::::- Supposedly (but incorrectly) the religious riots aimed against pagan temples and their rituals in 391 CE, sanctioned by decree of Emperor Theodosius I and led by Coptic Pope Theophilus.\n", "Despite the widespread modern belief that the Library was burned once and cataclysmically destroyed, the Library actually declined gradually over the course of several centuries, starting with the purging of intellectuals from Alexandria in 145 BC during the reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon, which resulted in Aristarchus of Samothrace, the head librarian, resigning from his position and exiling himself to Cyprus. Many other scholars, including Dionysius Thrax and Apollodorus of Athens, fled to other cities, where they continued teaching and conducting scholarship. The Library, or part of its collection, was accidentally burned by Julius Caesar during his civil war in 48 BC, but it is unclear how much was actually destroyed and it seems to have either survived or been rebuilt shortly thereafter; the geographer Strabo mentions having visited the Mouseion in around 20 BC and the prodigious scholarly output of Didymus Chalcenterus in Alexandria from this period indicates that he had access to at least some of the Library's resources.\n", "Section::::Under Ptolemaic patronage.\n\nSection::::Under Ptolemaic patronage.:Founding.\n", "In 1995 art history teacher Anthony Melnikas from Ohio State University stole three leaves from a medieval manuscript once owned by Francesco Petrarch. One of the stolen leaves contains an exquisite miniature of a farmer threshing grain. A fourth leaf from an unknown source was also discovered in his possession by the U.S. Customs agents. Melnikas was trying to sell the pages to an art dealer, who then alerted Father Leonard E. Boyle, the librarian director.\n\nSection::::Location and building.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02238	How does the power grid differentiate what customer is using what suppliers power, when it's all going through the same transmission lines?	It does not. All of the producers submit power to the same grid, and all of the customers get power form the same grid. Even in countries where the power production market is a free market, the distribution grid is managed by a single company as it is considered a natural monopoly. Every producer sells power to the grid at a certain price, then the grid sells that power to the customers. The thing is that in the case of little private customers, instead of buying from the grid they have a contract with an wholesale company that buys power from the grid and ensures the power supply for its customers.	[ "Section::::Wholesale electricity market.:Bid-based, security-constrained, economic dispatch with nodal prices.\n\nThe system price in the day-ahead market is, in principle, determined by matching offers from generators to bids from consumers at each node to develop a classic supply and demand equilibrium price, usually on an hourly interval, and is calculated separately for subregions in which the system operator's load flow model indicates that constraints will bind transmission imports.\n", "The price of electricity from the grid is complex. Most power sources in the developed world are generated in industrial scale plants developed by private or public consortia. The company providing the power and the company delivering that power to the customers are often separate entities who enter into a Power Purchase Agreement that sets a fixed rate for all of the power delivered by the plant. On the other end of the wire, the local distribution company (LDC) charges rates that will cover their power purchases from the variety of producers they use.\n", "The modern electricity market is an important example of a two-sided smart market., Electricity markets clear every few minutes, and require coordination to ensure that power generation matches demand, and that power flows do not exceed network line capacities. Generators offer to supply tranches of power at a range of prices. Wholesale power distributors bid to buy tranches of power at a range of prices. To clear the market, the market manager solves a linear program in which the decision variables are how much power to accept from each generator, the flow of power on each line, and how much power to provide to each distributor. \n", "At a high level, the SEM includes a centralised gross pool (or spot) market which, given its mandatory nature for key generators and suppliers, is fully liquid. In this pool electricity is bought and sold through a market clearing mechanism, whereby generators bid in the Short Run Marginal Cost (SRMC) and receive the System Marginal Price (SMP) for each trading period for their scheduled market quantities. Generators also receive separate payments for the provision of available generation capacity through a capacity payment mechanism, and constraint payments for differences between the market schedule and the system dispatch. Suppliers purchasing energy from the pool pay the SMP for each trading period along with capacity costs and system charges.\n", "Data from the DC (EAC/ AA's) is provided to the non half hourly data aggregator, which aggregates the individual values provided into a single figure split in a number of ways e.g. geographically or by supplier. This aggregated data is then provided to the Central Systems, maintained by Elexon, to determine the value of energy which has been used by suppliers so that they are able to settle with the distribution network which generated the energy. The process is known as balancing and settlement and is regulated according to the Balancing and Settlement Code (BSC).\n\nSection::::Payment.\n", "Electricity from Transpower's national grid is distributed to local lines companies and large industrial users via 180 grid exit points (GXPs) at 147 locations. Large industrial companies, such as New Zealand Steel at Glenbrook, the Tasman Pulp and Paper Mill at Kawerau, and the Tiwai Point Aluminium Smelter near Bluff, draw directly from Transpower substations and not the local lines companies' local grids.\n\nDistribution of electricity to local consumers is the responsibility of one of about 30 local line companies. Each company supplies electricity to a set geographic area based on the grid exit points they draw from.\n", "The System Operator is required to maintain a continuous (second-by-second) balance between electricity supply from power stations and demand from consumers, and also ensure the provision of reserves that will allow for sudden contingencies. The System Operator achieves this by determining the optimal combination of generating stations and reserve providers for each market trading period, instructing generators when and how much electricity to generate, and managing any contingent events that cause the balance between supply and demand to be disrupted. System Operations staff undertake this work using sophisticated energy modelling and communications systems.\n", "The System Operator is required to maintain a continuous (second-by-second) balance between electricity supply from power stations and demand from consumers, and also ensure the provision of reserves that will allow for sudden contingencies. The System Operator achieves this by determining the optimal combination of generating stations and reserve providers for each market trading period, instructing generators when and how much electricity to generate, and managing any contingent events that cause the balance between supply and demand to be disrupted. System Operations staff undertake this work using sophisticated energy modelling and communications systems.\n", "The electric power industry comprises electricity generation (AC power), electric power transmission and ultimately electric power distribution to an electricity meter located at the premises of the end user of the electric power. The electricity then moves through the wiring system of the end user until it reaches the load. The complexity of the system to move electric energy from the point of production to the point of consumption combined with variations in weather, generation, demand and other factors provide many opportunities for the quality of supply to be compromised.\n", "BULLET::::- whether the units and the grid are all handled by a Monopolistic Operator (MO), or a separate Transmission System Operator (TSO) manages the grid providing fair and not discriminatory access to Generating Companies (GenCos) that compete to satisfy the production on the (or, most often, several interconnected) energy market(s);\n\nBULLET::::- the different kinds of energy production units, such as thermal/nuclear ones, hydro-electric ones, and renewable sources (wind, solar, ...);\n", "There is therefore a physical requirement for a controlling agency, the transmission system operator, to coordinate the dispatch of generating units to meet the expected demand of the system across the transmission grid. If there is a mismatch between supply and demand the generators speed up or slow down causing the system frequency (either 50 or 60 hertz) to increase or decrease. If the frequency falls outside a predetermined range the system operator will act to add or remove either generation or load.\n", "Generally, electricity retail reform follows from electricity wholesale reform. However, it is possible to have a single electricity generation company and still have retail competition. If a wholesale price can be established at a node on the transmission grid and the electricity quantities at that node can be reconciled, competition for retail customers within the distribution system beyond the node is possible. In the German market, for example, large, vertically integrated utilities compete with one another for customers on a more or less open grid.\n", "This relationship is not straightforward; for instance, an LDC may buy large amounts of base load power from a nuclear plant at a low fixed cost and then buy peaking power only as required from natural gas peakers at a much higher cost, perhaps five to six times. Depending on their billing policy, this might be billed to the customer at a flat rate combining the two rates the LDC pays, or alternately based on a time-based pricing policy that tries to more closely match input costs with customer prices.\n", "New Zealand's national electricity transmission grid connects its generating facilities to its demand centres, which are often more than from each other. The national grid is owned, operated and maintained by state-owned enterprise Transpower New Zealand. The grid contains of high-voltage lines and 178 substations.\n", "The proportion of electricity lost in transmission and the level of congestion on any particular branch of the network will influence the economic dispatch of the generation units.\n\nMarkets may extend beyond national boundaries.\n\nSection::::Wholesale electricity market.\n", "ISOs and RTOs coordinate generation and transmission across wide geographic regions, matching generation to the load instantaneously to keep supply and demand for electricity in balance. The grid operators forecast load and schedule generation to assure that sufficient generation and back-up power is available in case demand rises or a power plant or power line is lost. They also operate wholesale electricity markets that enable participants to buy and sell electricity on a day-ahead or a real-time spot market basis. These markets provide electricity suppliers with more options for meeting consumer needs for power at the lowest possible cost.\n", "In most systems the algorithm used is a \"DC\" model rather than an \"AC\" model, so constraints and redispatch resulting from thermal limits are identified/predicted, but constraints and redispatch resulting from reactive power deficiencies are not. Some systems take marginal losses into account. The prices in the real-time market are determined by the LMP algorithm described above, balancing supply from available units. This process is carried out for each 5-minute, half-hour or hour (depending on the market) interval at each node on the transmission grid. The hypothetical redispatch calculation that determines the LMP must respect security constraints and the redispatch calculation must leave sufficient margin to maintain system stability in the event of an unplanned outage anywhere on the system. This results in a spot market with \"bid-based, security-constrained, economic dispatch with nodal prices\".\n", "Distribution of electricity from the grid exit points to the end consumers' premises is the responsibility of about 30 distributors, also known as lines companies, who have monopoly control of the lines services on their networks. Ownership of distributors is through trust-owned companies, such as Auckland Energy Consumer Trust, and public companies. Some major industrial users are directly connected to the grid, such as New Zealand Steel and the Tiwai Point Aluminium Smelter.\n", "and in Singapore.\n\nIn practice, the LMP algorithm described above is run, incorporating a security-constrained, least-cost dispatch calculation (see below) with supply based on the generators that submitted offers in the day-ahead market, and demand based on bids from load-serving entities draining supplies at the nodes in question.\n", "Electricity is traded at a wholesale level in a spot market.\n\nThe market operation is managed by several service providers under agreements with the Electricity Authority. The physical operation of the market is managed by Transpower in its role as System Operator.\n", "Distribution network operators are also responsible for allocating the core Meter Point Administration Number used to identify individual supply points in their respective areas, as well as operating and administering a Meter Point Administration System that manages the details relating to each supply point. These systems then populate ECOES (Electricity Central Online Enquiry Service), the central online database of electricity supply points. Their trade association is the Energy Networks Association.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The owner of the national transmission grid is Transpower, a state-owned enterprise. Transpower is also the System Operator, responsible for ensuring real time electricity supply security and quality. Transpower is the market scheduler, predicting demand to help generators make offers, as well as the dispatcher, in charge of matching demand and supply in real time.\n", "Under this arrangement, two uni-directional meters are installed—one records electricity drawn from the grid, and the other records excess electricity generated and fed back into the grid. The user pays retail rate for the electricity they use, and the power provider purchases their excess generation at its avoided cost (wholesale rate). There may be a significant difference between the retail rate the user pays and the power provider's avoided cost.\n", "As a result of these policies, the exact definition of \"grid parity\" varies not only from location to location, but customer to customer and even hour to hour.\n\nFor instance, wind power connects to the grid on the distribution side (as opposed to the customer side). This means it competes with other large forms of industrial-scale power like hydro, nuclear or coal-fired plants, which are generally inexpensive forms of power. Additionally, the generator will be charged by the distribution operator to carry the power to the markets, adding to their levelized costs.\n", "BULLET::::- The incentives and disincentives are prefixed (annually/periodically) by the electricity regulator (CERC) for the variation in the grid frequency which may not reflect the actual situation temporally and spatially on day-to-day basis. There is a need to decide the electricity tariff by the grid participants (generators, discoms, transcos & final consumers) on day-to-day basis for achieving further fine tuning. To correct these anomalies, CERC has proposed 100% sale and purchase of power produced in day ahead market.\n" ]	[ "Power grid differentiates between different customers using power." ]	[ "The power grid does not do this tracking. This is done by power companies that directly service the customer. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Power grid differentiates between different customers using power." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The power grid does not do this tracking. This is done by power companies that directly service the customer. " ]
2018-07420	Do genetics change by each generation?	The answer to your question is yes and no. You actually have two copies of every gene, one you inherit from your mother and one you inherit from your father. These copies are called alleles. The genetics for weight are complicated. There is no one single gene responsible for it and it is strongly influenced by environment (both external things like stress and internal things like what you eat and how much you exercise). The set of alleles you have regarding propensity for weight are not going to be identical to you mother, because you have the contribution from your father, as well. So the exact combination of alleles you inherit from each parent will determine the genetic (but not environmental) contribution to your weight. In that regard, the genetics does change from one generation to the next. As I already mentioned, though, weight is not just genetic. It is strongly influenced by diet and exercise. If you maintain a healthy weight through doing those things, then even if both of your parents are heavy set, you might not be. That being said, you are not affecting your genetics. You may affect how your genes are expressed to some degree, but you cannot actually change your genes through diet and exercise.	[ "Section::::Allele and genotype frequencies.:Genetic drift.:Extensive binomial sampling – is panmixia restored?\n", "BULLET::::- The discovery of additional deep rooting mutations in known lineages could lead to a rearrangement of the family tree.\n\nBULLET::::- Revision of the Y-chromosome mutation rate (see below) can change the estimate of the time when he lived.\n", "Section::::Inheritance of epigenetic marks.:Decay.\n\nWhereas the mutation rate in a given 100-base gene may be 10 per generation, epigenes may \"mutate\" several times per generation or may be fixed for many generations. This raises the question: do changes in epigene frequencies constitute evolution? Rapidly decaying epigenetic effects on phenotypes (i.e. lasting less than three generations) may explain some of the residual variation in phenotypes after genotype and environment are accounted for. However, distinguishing these short-term effects from the effects of the maternal environment on early ontogeny remains a challenge.\n\nSection::::Contribution to phenotypes.\n", "The most commonly studied human haplogroups are Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, both of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while mtDNA is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to both daughter or son. The Y-DNA and mtDNA may change by chance mutation at each generation.\n\nSection::::Measures of variation.:Variable number tandem repeats.\n", "Autosomal DNA is contained in the 22 pairs of chromosomes not involved in determining a person's sex. Autosomal DNA recombines each generation, and new offspring receive one set of chromosomes from each parent. These are inherited exactly equally from both parents and roughly equally from grandparents to about 3x great-grand parents. Therefore, the number of markers (one of two or more known variants in the genome at a particular location – known as Single-nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs) inherited from a specific ancestor decreases by about half each generation; that is, an individual receives half of their markers from each parent, about a quarter of their markers from each grandparent; about an eighth of their markers from each great grandparent, etc. Inheritance is more random and unequal from more distant ancestors. Generally, a genealogical DNA test might test about 700,000 SNPs (specific points in the genome).\n", "The only modifications necessary (for each individual in turn) are in Γ and are due to the shift to \"shared common ancestry\" rather than \"individual total ancestry\". For this, define Ρ (in lieu of Γ) ; m = number of ancestors-in-common at the node (i.e. m = 1 or 2 only) ; and an \"individual index\" k. Thus:\n\nformula_120\n\nwhere, as before, \"n = number of sexual generations\" between the individual and the ancestral node.\n", "Over time, one allele will be fixed when the frequency of that allele reaches 1 and the frequency of the other allele reaches 0. The probability that any allele is fixed is proportional to the frequency of that allele. For two alleles with frequencies p and q, the probability that p will be fixed is p. The expected number of generations for an allele with frequency p to be fixed is:\n\nformula_2\n\nWhere \"N\" is the effective population size.\n\nSection::::Measuring variation.:Measuring genetic variation.:Single-nucleotide polymorphism.\n", "Graphs to the left show these three genic variances, together with the three quasi-dominance variances, across all values of f, for p = 0.5 (at which the quasi-dominance variance is at a maximum). Graphs to the right show the Genotypic variance partitions (being the sums of the respective \"genic\" and \"quasi-dominance\" partitions) changing over ten generations with an example \"f = 0.10\".\n", "There is growing evidence that there is transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic changes in humans and other animals.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Dominant and recessive alleles.\n", "An analysis of autosomal SNP data from the International HapMap Project (Phase II) and CEPH Human Genome Diversity Panel samples was published in 2009.\n\nThe study of 53 populations taken from the HapMap and CEPH data (1138 unrelated individuals) suggested that natural selection may shape the human genome much more slowly than previously thought, with factors such as migration within and among continents more heavily influencing the distribution of genetic variations.\n\nA similar study published in 2010 found strong genome-wide evidence for selection due to changes in ecoregion, diet, and subsistence\n", "Methods of estimating the age of the Y-MRCA for a population of human males whose Y-chromosomes have been sequenced are based on applying the theories of molecular evolution to the Y chromosome. Unlike the autosomes, the human Y-chromosome does not recombine often with the X chromosome during meiosis, but is usually transferred intact from father to son; however, it can recombine with the X chromosome in the pseudoautosomal regions at the ends of the Y chromosome. Mutations occur periodically within the Y chromosome, and these mutations are passed on to males in subsequent generations.\n", "The Överkalix study noted sex-specific effects; a greater body mass index (BMI) at 9 years in sons, but not daughters, of fathers who began smoking early. The paternal grandfather's food supply was only linked to the mortality RR of grandsons and not granddaughters. The paternal grandmother's food supply was only associated with the granddaughters' mortality risk ratio. When the grandmother had a good food supply was associated with a twofold higher mortality (RR).\n", "In heredity the genes of the parents are passed on to their offspring unchanged. That is why the organisms which carry the same genotype should be identical in every feature. However, this is not the case. Due to environmental conditions they can vary from each other up to a certain point. There are two types of modifications: the continuous modification and the switching modification.\n", "Advanced paternal age may be associated with a higher risk for certain single-gene disorders caused by mutations of the \"FGFR2\", \"FGFR3\" and \"RET\" genes. These conditions are Apert syndrome, Crouzon syndrome, Pfeiffer syndrome, achondroplasia, thanatophoric dysplasia, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b. The most significant effect concerns achondroplasia (a form of dwarfism), which might occur in about 1 in 1,875 children fathered by men over 50, compared to 1 in 15,000 in the general population. However, the risk for achondroplasia is still considered clinically negligible. The \"FGFR\" genes may be particularly prone to a paternal age effect due to selfish spermatogonial selection, whereby the influence of spermatogonial mutations in older men is enhanced because cells with certain mutations have a selective advantage over other cells (see § DNA mutations).\n", "Whether a species has overlapping generations or not can influence the genetic diversity in the new generation. Changes in the genetic variance in populations due to genetic drift have been shown to been twice as great when they are overlapping generations as opposed to there being non-overlapping generations.\n\nSection::::Effects of overlapping generations.:Assumptions in population genetic models.\n", "Section::::Development.:Paternal lineage (2009–2013).\n", "A 2001 review on variation in semen quality and fertility by male age concluded that older men had lower semen volume, lower sperm motility, and a decreased percent of normal sperm. One common factor is the abnormal regulation of sperm once a mutation arises. It has been seen that once taking place, the mutation will almost always be positively selected for and over time will lead to the mutant sperm replacing all non-mutant sperm. In younger males, this process is corrected and regulated by the growth factor receptor-RAS signal transduction pathway.\n", "Risch has conducted significant work on the nature of human differences on a geographical scale. For instance, he used social and genetic data to analyse genetic admixture from White, African, and Native American ancestry in Puerto-Rico, as well as relating this to geographical variation in social status.\n\nRisch considers that genetic drift is a more compelling explanation for the carrier frequency of lysosomal storage diseases in Ashkenazi Jews than heterozygote advantage, in light of analysis of the results of recent genetic testing by his collaborators and himself.\n", "BULLET::::- 2007: Lee C, Iafrate AJ, Brothman AR. Copy number variations and clinical cytogenetic diagnosis of constitutional disorders. Nat Genet. 2007; 39: S48-S54\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Perry GH, Ben-Dor A, Tsalenko A, Sampas N, Rodriguez-Revenga L, Tran CW, Scheffer A, Steinfeld I, Tsang P, Yamada NA, Park HS, Kim JI, Seo JS, Yakhini Z, Laderman S, Bruhn L, Lee C. The fine-scale and complex architecture of human copy number variation. Am J Hum Genet. 2008; 82: 685-95\n", "Section::::Software.\n\nBULLET::::- PHYLIP uses GENDIST\n\nBULLET::::- Nei's standard genetic distance 1972\n\nBULLET::::- Cavalli-Sforza and Edwards 1967\n\nBULLET::::- Reynolds, Weir, and Cockerham's 1983\n\nBULLET::::- TFPGA\n\nBULLET::::- Nei's standard genetic distance (original and unbiased)\n\nBULLET::::- Nei's minimum genetic distance (original and unbiased)\n\nBULLET::::- Wright's (1978) modification of Roger's (1972) distance\n\nBULLET::::- Reynolds, Weir, and Cockerham's 1983\n\nBULLET::::- GDA\n\nBULLET::::- POPGENE\n\nBULLET::::- POPTREE2 Takezaki, Nei, and Tamura (2010, 2014)\n\nBULLET::::- Commonly used genetic distances and gene diversity analysis\n\nBULLET::::- DISPAN\n\nBULLET::::- Nei's standard genetic distance 1972\n\nBULLET::::- Nei's D distance between populations 1983\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Coefficient of relationship\n\nBULLET::::- Degree of consanguinity\n", "Testing of the Y-DNA lineage from father to son may reveal complications, due to unusual mutations, secret adoptions, and non-paternity events (i.e., that the perceived father in a generation is not the father indicated by written birth records). According to the Ancestry and Ancestry Testing Task Force of the American Society of Human Genetics, autosomal tests cannot detect \"large portions\" of DNA from distant ancestors because it has not been inherited.\n", "BULLET::::- Disparities between mutations and a Mendelian model of inheritance: if carriers of a mutation do not show the pattern of phenotypes expected under Mendelian inheritance, other models may better explain observed patterns of inheritance\n", "One famous study examined the lineage of descendants of Thomas Jefferson’s paternal line and male lineage descendants of the freed slave, Sally Hemmings.\n\nBryan Sykes, a molecular biologist at Oxford University tested the new methodology in general surname research. His study of the Sykes surname obtained results by looking at four STR markers on the male chromosome. It pointed the way to genetics becoming a valuable assistant in the service of genealogy and history.\n\nSection::::History.:Direct to consumer DNA testing.\n", "Research has shown that non-SNP (structural) variation accounts for more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. Structural variation includes copy-number variation and results from deletions, inversions, insertions and duplications. It is estimated that approximately 0.4 percent of the genomes of unrelated people differ, apart from copy number. When copy-number variation is included, human-to-human genetic variation is estimated to be at least 0.5 percent.\n\nSection::::Research methods.\n\nSection::::Research methods.:Trait, protein and gene studies.\n", "Recent research has illuminated genetic factors underlying IQ stability and change. Genome-wide association studies have demonstrated that the genes involved in intelligence remain fairly stable over time. Specifically, in terms of IQ stability, \"genetic factors mediated phenotypic stability throughout this entire period [age 0 to 16], whereas most age-to-age instability appeared to be due to non-shared environmental influences\". These findings have been replicated extensively and observed in the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands. Additionally, researchers have shown that naturalistic changes in IQ occur in individuals at variable times.\n\nSection::::Estimates.:Influence of parents genes that are not inherited.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02326	Why do humans associate the color red with danger?	It's the color of blood. When you discover blood on yourself you immediately look for the source.	[ "Several studies have indicated that red carries the strongest reaction of all the colors, with the level of reaction decreasing gradually with the colors orange, yellow, and white, respectively. For this reason, red is generally used as the highest level of warning, such as threat level of terrorist attack in the United States. In fact, teachers at a primary school in the UK have been told not to mark children's work in red ink because it encourages a \"negative approach\".\n", "While red is the color most associated with love, it also the color most frequently associated with hatred, anger, aggression and war. People who are angry are said to \".\" Red is the color most commonly associated with passion and heat. In ancient Rome, red was the color of Mars, the god of war—the planet Mars was named for him because of its red color.\n\nSection::::Symbolism.:Warning and danger.\n", "There are several different explanations for this effect. Red is used in stop signs and traffic lights which may associate the color with halting. Red is also perceived as a strong and active color which may influence both the person wearing it and others. An evolutionary psychology explanation is that red may signal health as opposed to anemic paleness, or indicate anger due to flushing instead of paleness due to fear. It has been argued that detecting flushing may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. Primate studies have found that some species evaluate rivals and possible mates depending on red color characteristics. Facial redness is associated with testosterone levels in humans, and male skin tends to be redder than female skin.\n", "Red was long seen as having a dark side, particularly in Christian theology. It was associated with sexual passion, anger, sin, and the devil. In the Old Testament of the Bible, the Book of Isaiah said: \"Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow.\" In the New Testament, in the Book of Revelation, the Antichrist appears as a red monster, ridden by a woman dressed in scarlet, known as the Whore of Babylon:\n", "Because red attracts attention, it is frequently used in advertising, though studies show that people are less likely to read something printed in red because they know it is advertising, and because it is more difficult visually to read than black and white text.\n\nSection::::Symbolism.:Seduction, sexuality and sin.\n\nRed by a large margin is the color most commonly associated with seduction, sexuality, eroticism and immorality, possibly because of its close connection with passion and with danger.\n", "In the 19th-century novel \"The Red Badge of Courage\" by Stephen Crane, a story about the American Civil War, the red badge was the blood from a wound, by which a soldier could prove his courage.\n\nSection::::Symbolism.:Courtly love, the red rose, and Saint Valentine's Day.\n\nRed is the color most commonly associated with love, followed at a great distance by pink. It the symbolic color of the heart and the red rose, is closely associated with romantic love or courtly love and Saint Valentine's Day.\n", "BULLET::::- The sense of sight is the most focused-on sense by marketers. Researchers have found that when consumers see warm colours such as orange or red their blood pressure and heart rate increase. The opposite effect occurs when customers see cool colours such as green or blue. Therefore, fast-food corporations will more than often use the colours red to symbolize fast and speedy for advertising and marketing purposes.\n\nSection::::Case histories.\n", "Red is still commonly associated with prostitution. Prostitutes in many cities were required to wear red to announce their profession, and houses of prostitution displayed a red light. Beginning in the early 20th century, houses of prostitution were allowed only in certain specified neighborhoods, which became known as red-light districts. Large red-light districts are found today in Bangkok and Amsterdam.\n\nIn Roman Catholicism, red represents wrath, one of the seven deadly sins.\n\nIn both Christian and Hebrew tradition, red is also sometimes associated with murder or guilt, with \"having blood on one's hands\", or \"being caught red-handed.\n", "One class of honest signal is the aposematic warning signal, generally visual, given by poisonous or dangerous animals such as wasps, poison dart frogs, and pufferfish. Warning signals are honest indications of noxious prey, because conspicuousness evolves in tandem with noxiousness. Thus, the brighter and more conspicuous the organism, the more toxic it usually is. The most common and effective colours are red, yellow, black and white.\n\nSection::::Dishonest signals.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nSam Brown and W. D. Hamilton and Marco Archetti proposed that autumn leaf colour is a signal from trees to aphids and other pest species that migrate in autumn to the trees. In their theory, bright autumn coloration with pinks and yellows is costly to trees because pigments require energy to synthesize, but the investment may help them to reduce their parasite load.\n\nStotting, for example in Thomson's Gazelle, is cited as an example of signalling: the gazelles jump close to a predator instead of escaping, in what could be a signal of strength.\n\nSection::::Human honest signals.\n", "In 17th-century New England, red was associated with adultery. In the 1850 novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter, set in a Puritan New England community, a woman is punished for adultery with ostracism, her sin represented by a red letter 'A' sewn onto her clothes.\n", "A three-man hit-team is sent to Moses' residence, but he kills them, recognizing the pattern of the attack and realizing his death has been sanctioned. He calls his handler, only to learn that she has been transferred. He informs the Agency that his status has changed from \"Green\" to \"Red\" before leaving his house and going on the hunt.\n", "Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger and courage. Modern surveys in Europe and the United States show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness and good fortune.\n\nSection::::Shades and variations.\n\nSee also below for shades of pink\n\nSection::::In science and nature.\n\nSection::::In science and nature.:Seeing red.\n", "In Christian countries, it is the color traditionally worn at Christmas by Santa Claus, because in the 4th century the historic Saint Nicholas was the Greek Christian Bishop of Myra, in modern-day Turkey, and bishops then dressed in red.\n\nSection::::Symbolism.:Hatred, anger, aggression, passion, heat and war.\n", "Section::::Common associations.\n\nSection::::Common associations.:Red.\n\nRed is a primary color. It is often associated with love, passion, and lust. It is frequently used in relation to Valentine's Day. It can also be used to signify danger or warning but it's also associated with importance. For instance, it is used for stop signs and fire engines. In China, red is often used to symbolize good luck or happiness, and is used for many holidays or weddings.\n\nSection::::Common associations.:Blue.\n", "Section::::Symbolism.:The color that attracts attention.\n\nRed is the color that most attracts attention. Surveys show it is the color most frequently associated with visibility, proximity, and extroverts. It is also the color most associated with dynamism and activity.\n", "BULLET::::- In Buddhism, red is one of the five colors which are said to have emanated from the Buddha when he attained enlightenment, or nirvana. It is particularly associated with the benefits of the practice of Buddhism; achievement, wisdom, virtue, fortune and dignity. It was also believed to have the power to resist evil. In China red was commonly used for the walls, pillars, and gates of temples.\n", "The earliest known appearance of the term in print occurred in 1813, in an article in the Weekly Register quoting a letter dated August 27, 1813. It concerned an expedition during the War of 1812 led by General Benjamin Howard against Indians in the Illinois and Mississippi territories: \"The expedition will be 40 days out, and there is no doubt but we shall have to contend with powerful hordes of red skins ...\"\n", "Section::::Science and technology.:Biology.\n\nSection::::Science and technology.:Biology.:Vertebrates.\n\nBULLET::::- Older elephants that are near death do not leave their herd and instinctively direct themselves toward a specific location known as an elephants' graveyard to die.\n\nBULLET::::- Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional matadors. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the matador that incites it to charge.\n", "One theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking advantage of this new ability, such as the emergence of red faces.\n\nRed light is used to help adapt night vision in low-light or night time, as the rod cells in the human eye are not sensitive to red.\n", "Section::::Plot.:III. What the Red Glare Meant.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Shinto religion of Japan, the gateways of temples, called torii, are traditionally painted vermilion red and black. The torii symbolizes the passage from the profane world to a sacred place. The bridges in the gardens of Japanese temples are also painted red (and usually only temple bridges are red, not bridges in ordinary gardens), since they are also passages to sacred places. Red was also considered a color which could expel evil and disease.\n\nSection::::Military uses.\n", "Both the Greeks and the Hebrews considered red a symbol of love as well as sacrifice.\n\nThe Roman de la Rose, the Romance of the Rose, a thirteenth-century French poem, was one of the most popular works of literature of the Middle Ages. It was the allegorical search by the author for a red rose in an enclosed garden, symbolizing the woman he loved, and was a description of love in all of its aspects. Later, in the 19th century, British and French authors described a specific language of flowers – giving a single red rose meant 'I love you'.\n", "Section::::History and art.:Postclassical history.\n\nSection::::History and art.:Postclassical history.:In Europe.\n\nAfter the fall of the Western Roman Empire, red was adopted as a color of majesty and authority by the Byzantine Empire, the princes of Europe, and the Roman Catholic Church. It also played an important part in the rituals of the Catholic Church – it symbolized the blood of Christ and the Christian martyrs – and it associated the power of the kings with the sacred rituals of the Church.\n", "Quintilian and classical rhetoric used the term \"color\" for the presenting of an action in the most favourable possible perspective. Laurence Sterne in the eighteenth century took up the point, arguing that, were a man to consider his actions, \"he will soon find, that such of them, as strong inclination and custom have prompted him to commit, are generally dressed out and painted with all the false beauties [color] which, a soft and flattering hand can give them\".\n\nSection::::DSM definition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15310	How do genes know where to express themselves? (For example a mole, why does a child have the mole that's placed pretty much on the same spot as the parent's?)	I’ve never heard of your example being a common thing. Genes tend to express themselves under the right conditions and with the correct environmental activators. This is then usually limited by the telomeres. Because of the assumptions in the question, I’m unsure how to ELI5 this one any further than that.	[ "During embryonic development, neural crest cells from each neuromere prompt the development of the nerves and arteries, helping to support the development of craniofacial tissues. If gene expression goes wrong, it can have severe effects on the developing embryo, causing abnormalities like craniofacial clefts, also known as cleft palates. The anatomical boundaries of neuromers are determined by the expression of unique genes known as Hox genes in a particular zone. The Hox genes contain the 183-bp homeobox, which encodes a particular portion of the Hox proteins called the homeodomain. The homeodomain can then bind to other portions of DNA to regulate gene expression. These genes determine the basic structure and orientation of an organism after the embryonic segments have formed. The neural crest cells that are found outside of a given neuromere will express the same proteins as the cells that are found inside the neural tube. The genes that are being expressed fall into two categories, extracellular signaling proteins and intracellular transcription factors. The genes are able to perform different tasks at different times depending on the environment that may or not be changing as well as when they are being activated and expressed.\n", "Local rearrangements affect specific loci only. Such rearrangements, for instance, help create genes that produce a great variation of immunoglobulins in vertebrates. During life, organisms have contact with a large number of antigens. Which means that the immune system needs to synthesize a wide range of antibodies. Each immunoglobulin is a tetramer consisting of four polypeptides connected by disulfide bridges. They form two long heavy chains and two short light chains. But vertebrate genome does not code entire genes of heavy and light immunoglobulins, only gene segments. Segments of heavy chain are located on chromosome 14, they include 11 constant gene segments (C), that are preceded by 123-129 variable segments (V), 27 diversity gene segments (D) and 9 joining segments (J), coding different versions of components V, D, J. Loci of light chains on chromosome 2 (locus κ) and chromosome 22 (locus λ) have similar structure, but they do not contain D segments. At the early stage of lymphocyte B development, loci of immunoglobulins are rearranged. During rearrangement, segment V on heavy chain locus is connected with one D segment, then V-D group is combined with J segment. Eventually, exon with open reading frame coding segments: V, D, J of immunoglobulin. Through RNA splicing during transcription, this exon becomes connected to exon for C segment. Complementary mRNA of heavy chain can be translated into immunoglobulin specific only for one lymphocyte.\n", "Signaling events that establish the neural plate border lead to the expression of a set of transcription factors delineated here as neural plate border specifiers. These molecules include Zic factors, Pax3/7, Dlx5, Msx1/2 which may mediate the influence of Wnts, BMPs, and Fgfs. These genes are expressed broadly at the neural plate border region and precede the expression of bona fide neural crest markers.\n", "The difference in selector gene activity not only establishes two compartments, but also leads to the formation of a boundary between these two that serves as a source of morphogen gradients. In the central dogma of compartments, first, morphogen gradients position founder compartment cells. Then, active/inactive selector genes give a unique genetic identity to cells within a compartment, instructing their fate and their interactions with the neighboring compartment. Finally, border cells, established by short-range signaling from one compartment to its neighboring compartment emit long-range signals that spread to both compartments to regulate the growth and pattering of the entire tissue.\n", "When discussing neural induction, there are several major pathways which ultimately regulate gene expression. Two signaling cascades which appear to effect gene expression early on are the BMP signaling pathway and the Wnt signaling pathway. The BMP pathway starts with BMPs binding to a receptor composed of type 1 and type 2 subunits. This receptor is a major determiner in setting up epidermal cells. When no BMP is present the removal of the animal cap leads to the creation of neurons. When BMP is present, the removal of the animal cap leads to epidermal cells. When the receptor is bound, the type 2 subunit phosphorylates the type 1 subunit. The phosphorylation of the type 1 subunit causes further phosphorylation of RSMAD protein. These phosphorylated RSMADs for a complex with coSMADs forming a RSMAD::coSMAD complex. This complex then moves into the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, the complex binds to DNA sequences called BMP response elements which are present in the promotor regions of genes. This initiates transcription. \n", "The third step is the regional expression of zygotic genes \"decapentaplegic\" (\"dpp\"), \"zerknüllt\", \"tolloid\", \"twist\", \"snail\", and \"rhomboid\" due to the expression of \"dorsal\" in the nucleus. High levels of \"dorsal\" are required to turn on transcription of \"twist\" and \"snail.\" Low levels of \"dorsal\" can activate the transcription of \"rhomboid.\" \"Dorsal\" represses the transcription of \"zerknüllt,\" \"tolloid,\" and \"dpp.\" The zygotic genes also interact with each other to restrict their domains of expression.\n\nSection::::Amphibians.\n\nSection::::Amphibians.:Dorsal/ventral axis and organizer.\n", "Another condition associated with Elk1 is Down syndrome. Fetal and aged mice with this pathophysiological condition have shown a decrease in the activity of calcineurin, the major phosphatase for Elk1. These mice also have age-dependent changes in ERK activation. Moreover, expression of SUMO3, which represses Elk1 activity, increases in the adult Down syndrome patient. Therefore, Down syndrome is correlated with changes in ERK, calcineurin, and SUMO pathways, all of which act antagonistically on Elk1 activity.\n", "BULLET::::- Pattern generation of the hand (digits - interdigits): the gradient of sonic hedgehog (secreted inducing factor) from the zone of polarizing activity in the limb, which creates a gradient of active Gli3, which activates Gremlin, which inhibits BMPs also secreted in the limb, results in the formation of an alternating pattern of activity as a result of this reaction-diffusion system.\n", "Section::::Somatic memory.:Inherited epigenetic memory.\n\nIn genetics, genomic imprinting or other patterns of inheritance that are not determined by DNA sequence alone can form an epigenetic memory that is passed on to subsequent generations through meiosis. In contrast, somatic genetic memories are passed on by mitosis and limited to the individual, but are not passed on to the offspring. Both processes include similar epigenetic mechanisms, e.g. involving histones and methylation patterns.\n\nSection::::Somatic memory.:Microbial memory.\n\nIn microbes, genetic memory is present in the form of inversion of specific DNA sequences serving as a switch between alternative patterns of gene expression.\n\nSection::::Somatic memory.:Evolution.\n", "The expression of young genes has also been found to be more tissue- or condition-specific than that of established genes. In particular, relatively high expression of \"de novo\" genes was observed in male reproductive tissues in \"Drosophila\", mice, and humans (see below), and, in humans, in the cerebral cortex or the brain more generally. In animals with adaptive immune systems, higher expression in the brain and testes may at least in part be a function of the immune-privileged nature of these tissues. An analysis in mice found specific expression of intergenic transcripts in the thymus and spleen (in addition to the brain and testes), and it has been proposed that in vertebrates \"de novo\" transcripts must first be expressed in these tissues before they can be expressed in tissues subject to surveillance by immune cells.\n", "Following the expression of neural plate border specifiers is a collection of genes including Slug/Snail, FoxD3, Sox10, Sox9, AP-2 and c-Myc. This suite of genes, designated here as neural crest specifiers, are activated in emergent neural crest cells. At least in Xenopus, every neural crest specifier is necessary and/or sufficient for the expression of all other specifiers, demonstrating the existence of extensive cross-regulation.\n", "The second step is a signal from the ventral follicle cells back to the oocyte. This signal acts after the egg has left the follicle cells so this signal is stored in the perivitelline space. The follicle cells secrete \"windbeutel,\" \"nudel,\" and \"pipe,\" which create a protease-activating complex. Because the dorsal follicle cells do not express \"pipe,\" they are not able to create this complex. Later, the embryo secretes three inactive proteases (\"gastrulation defective,\" \"snake,\" and \"Easter\") and an inactive ligand (\"spätzle\") into the perivitelline space. These proteases are activated by the complex and cleave \"spätzle\" into an active form. This active protein is distributed in a ventral to dorsal gradient. \"Toll\" is a receptor tyrosine kinase for \"spätzle\" and transduces the graded \"spätzle\" signal through the cytoplasm to phosphorylate \"cactus\". Once phosphorylated, \"cactus\" no longer binds to \"dorsal,\" leaving it free to enter the nucleus. The amount of released \"dorsal\" depends on the amount of \"spätzle\" protein present.\n", "The protein products of the regulatory toolkit are reused not by duplication and modification, but by a complex mosaic of pleiotropy, being applied unchanged in many independent developmental processes, giving pattern to many dissimilar body structures. The loci of these pleiotropic toolkit genes have large, complicated and modular cis-regulatory elements. For example, while a non-pleiotropic rhodopsin gene in the fruit fly has a cis-regulatory element just a few hundred base pairs long, the pleiotropic eyeless cis-regulatory region contains 6 cis-regulatory elements in over 7000 base pairs. The regulatory networks involved are often very large. Each regulatory protein controls \"scores to hundreds\" of cis-regulatory elements. For instance, 67 fruit fly transcription factors controlled on average 124 target genes each. All this complexity enables genes involved in the development of the embryo to be switched on and off at exactly the right times and in exactly the right places. Some of these genes are structural, directly forming enzymes, tissues and organs of the embryo. But many others are themselves regulatory genes, so what is switched on is often a precisely-timed cascade of switching, involving turning on one developmental process after another in the developing embryo.\n", "Imprinting is the process by which one parental allele is silenced while the allele from the other parent is expressed. The human \"GRB10\" gene displays imprinted gene expression, and in mice, this imprinted Grb10 expression is enabled by the presence of bivalent chromatin. The Grb10 gene in mice has a bivalent domain that uses H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 modifications as a tool to express genes from one parent while the other is silenced. This allows the gene to be expressed by only one parent in a specific tissue. In most somatic tissues, the Grb10 gene is expressed from the maternal allele, except in the brain where it is expressed from the paternal allele. H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 marks are used on the paternal allele of the gene to keep it silenced in all tissues except the brain. The same methylation marks are used on the maternal allele of the gene in brain tissue. When the genes are being expressed the H3K27me3 repressive mark is removed from the bivalent domain.\n", "Certain signals set up the spatial pattern of expression of the Hox complex early in development. The Hox complex acts like a stamp, giving cells in each segment a long term positional value. The cell memory of a given positional value depends on two inputs, the first being the ability of many Hox proteins to autoactivate their own transcription, and the second derived from two large groups of transcriptional regulators: The Polycomb group and the Trithorax group. A defect in either of these regulators results in a pattern which is initially correct but is not maintained at later embryonic stages.\n", "Studies done by Oliver and colleagues in 1988 showed that different concentrations of XIHbox 1 antigen was present along the anterior-posterior mesoderm of various developing animal models. One conclusion that this varied concentration of protein expression is actually causing differentiation amongst various tissues and could be one of the culprits behind these so-called \"gradient fields\". While the protein products of Hox genes are strongly involved in these fields and differentiation in amphibians and reptiles, there are other causality factors involved. For example, retinoic acid and other growth factors have been shown to play a role in these gradient fields.\n", "Mesoderm formation comes from two signals: one for the ventral portion and one for the dorsal portion. Animal cap assays were used to determine the molecular signals from the vegetal cap that are able to induce the animal cap to form mesoderm. In an animal cap assay, molecules of interest are either applied in medium that the cap is grown in or injected as mRNA in an early embryo. These experiments identified a group of molecules, the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) family. With dominant negative forms of TGF-β, early experiments were only able to identify the family of molecules involved not the specific member. Recent experiments have identified the \"Xenopus\" nodal-related proteins (Xnr-1, Xnr-2, and Xnr-4) as the mesoderm-inducing signals. Inhibitors of these ligands prevents mesoderm formation and these proteins show a graded distribution along the dorsal/ventral axis.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Immunohistochemistry.\n\nImmunohistochemistry is a technique that uses antibodies with fluorescent staining tags that target a specific antigen present in a certain protein. This high specificity allows us to localize the peptidergic and classical transmitter compounds, their synthetic enzymes and other cell specific antigen in neuronal tissiue.\n", "Almost all the genes at the Kcnq1 loci are maternally inherited, except the paternally expressed antisense ncRNA Kcnqot1. Transgenic mice with truncated Kcnq1ot fail to silence the adjacent genes, suggesting that Kcnqot1 is crucial to the imprinting of genes on the paternal chromosome. It appears that Kcnqot1 is able to direct the trimethylation of lysine 9 (H3K9me3) and 27 of histone 3 (H3K27me3) to an imprinting centre that overlaps the Kcnqot1 promoter and actually resides within a Kcnq1 sense exon. Similar to HOTAIR (see above), Eed-Ezh2 Polycomb complexes are recruited to the Kcnq1 loci paternal chromosome, possibly by Kcnqot1, where they may mediate gene silencing through repressive histone methylation. A differentially methylated imprinting centre also overlaps the promoter of a long antisense ncRNA Air that is responsible for the silencing of neighbouring genes at the Igf2r locus on the paternal chromosome. The presence of allele-specific histone methylation at the Igf2r locus suggests Air also mediates silencing via chromatin modification.\n", "So it is not very clear if domains are co-regulated or not. A very effective way to test this would be by insert synthetic genes into RIDGEs, antiridges and/or random places in the genome and determine their expression. Those expression levels must be compared to each other. Gierman et al. (2007) were the first who proved co-regulation using this approach. As an insertion construct they used a fluorescing GFP gene driven by the ubiquitously expressed human phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) promoter. They integrated this construct in 90 different positions in the genome of human HEK293 cells. They found that the expression of the construct in Ridges was indeed higher than those inserted in antiridges (while all constructs have the same promoter).\n", "PRC2 has been shown in many experiments to be necessary for the proper formation of organs, starting with the maintenance of cellular differentiation and silencing of pluripotency genes. The exact mechanism in early embryogenesis that induces cells to differentiate is still unclear, but this mechanism has been closely linked to protein kinase A (PKA). Since the PRC2 complex has sites able to be phosphorylated and has differentiated behavior based on the level of phosphorylation, a logical hypothesis can be made that PKA affects PRC2 behavior and may phosphorylate PRC2, activating the protein and starting the methylation cascade that silences genes.\n", "Some neural progenitor markers are capable of tracking cells as they undergo expansion and differentiation from rosettes to neurons. The neural rosette is the developmental signature of neuroprogenitors in cultures of differentiating embryonic stem cells; rosettes are radial arrangements of columnar cells that express many of the proteins expressed in neuroepithelial cells in the neural tube. It has been shown that cells within rosettes express multiple cell markers, including among others Nestin, NCAM and Musashi-1, a RNA-binding protein that is expressed in proliferating neural stems cells.\n", "The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin. The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere. Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.\n", "BULLET::::- Interchromosomal inter-ligation PETs\n\nPETs which are mapped to different chromosomes are called interchromosomal inter-ligation PETs.\n\nFigure 7. Proposed mechanism showing how distal regulatory elements can initiate long-range chromatin interactions involving promoter regions of target genes.\n", "Experimentally, PRC2 has been shown to be highly enriched at the Hox genes and near developmental gene regulators, resulting in their methylation. Some time after the second or third cleavage event, PRC2 begins to bind to these developmental genes, even though they have the markers for highly active genes like H3K9me3. This has been described as the “leaking” of PRC2 binding. Variable binding will cause some genes to be silenced before others, causing differentiation, but this is likely regulated by the organism. What causes the specificity of cell differentiation is still unknown but some hypotheses say it largely has to do with the cell environment and the “awareness” of the cells to each other, considering all cells in this stage contain identical genomes at this point. The maintained cell lines after this differentiation event are largely dependent on PRC2. Without it, pluripotency genes will still be active, causing the cells to be unstable and reversion back to a stem cell-like stage where the cell would have to undergo differentiation again in order to return to its normal state. Properly differentiated cells have silenced pluripotency genes.\n" ]	[ "Genes know to express themselves in the same way in children as in parents.", "Children having moles in the same place as a parent is common. " ]	[ "It isn't common for genes to express themselves identically in parents and children; they're activated by environmental activators under the right conditions.", "Children having moles in the same spot as a parent is not common. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Genes know to express themselves in the same way in children as in parents.", "Children having moles in the same place as a parent is common. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It isn't common for genes to express themselves identically in parents and children; they're activated by environmental activators under the right conditions.", "Children having moles in the same spot as a parent is not common. " ]
2018-04708	When an athlete goes for surgery during season due to an injury, what exactly are the surgeons doing?	Cutting out cartilage or getting it sewn up, what they call a meniscectomy, I’ve so heard a medial ligament damage can be repaired quite quickly if partially torn. These injuries are probably the most common in soccer players. You can walk after a couple of weeks then rehab and strength training prior to retuning to ‘normal duties eg first team practice.	[ "This is the last phase of the recovery rehabilitation. Phase V includes returning to sports after being cleared by therapist or surgeon. In order for this to happen the patient must have full range of motion, continue maintaining strength and endurance, and be able to increase proprioception with agility drills. Patient is still to be aware that going down hill or down stairs while the knee is aggravated may cause further injury like a meniscus tear.\n\nSection::::Cost of procedure.\n", "Section::::Career.:Surgery and the 2010 Olympics.\n", "The surgeon may choose which type of incision and implant to use for the subject’s knee. During the surgery, the surgeon may align the instruments to determine the amount of bone to remove. The surgeon removes bone from the (tibia) and thigh bone (femur). The surgeon may decide to check if the appropriate amount of bone was removed during the surgery. In order to make sure that the proper size implant is used, a surgeon may choose to use a temporary trial. After making sure the proper size implant is selected, the surgeon will put the implant on the ends of the bone and secure it with pegs. Finally, the surgeon will close the wound with sutures.\n", "A physical examination and getting the subject’s history is performed before getting surgery. A person with pain in one area of the knee may be a candidate for UKA. However, a person with pain in multiple areas of the knee may not be a good candidate for UKA. The doctor may take some radiographs (e.g., x-rays) to check for degeneration of the other knee compartments and evaluate the knee. The physical exam may also include special tests designed to test the ligaments of the knee and other anatomical structures. Most likely, the surgeon will decide to do a UKA during surgery where he/she can directly see the status of the other compartments.\n", "After the Olympics, Peszek took time off to let her ankle heal before returning to elite competition at the 2009 CoverGirl U.S. Classic, where she placed second on vault. She then competed at the National Championships, hoping to make the World Championships team as a three-event specialist; she planned to postpone surgery to fix a torn labrum in her shoulder. She placed second on beam and seventh on floor exercise at Nationals and made it to the second and final selection camp for Worlds, but pulled out and decided to get her torn labrum fixed.\n\nSection::::NCAA career.\n", "BULLET::::- The recovery depends upon many factors, such as where the tear was located, how severe it was and how good the surgical repair was. It is believed that it takes at least four to six weeks for the labrum to re-attach itself to the scapula bone (shoulder blade), and probably another four to six weeks to get strong. The labrum is a ring of cartilage on the rim of a shallow socket in the scapula into which the head of the upper arm bone normally fits and rotates. Once the labrum has healed to the rim of the shoulder blade, it should see stress very gradually so that it can gather strength. It is important not to re-injure it while it is healing. How much motion and strengthening of the arm is allowed after surgery also depends upon many factors, and it is up to the surgeon to let you know your limitations and how fast to progress. Because of the variability in the injury and the type of repair done, it is difficult to predict how soon someone can to return to activities and to sports after the repair. The type of sport also is important, since contact sports have a greater chance of injuring the labrum repair. However, a vast majority of patients have full function of the shoulder after labrum repair, and most patients can return to their previous level of sports with no or few restrictions. []\n", "The patient is to perform range of motion exercises and hip, knee and ankle strengthening as directed daily. Before the surgery is performed, pre-operative tests are done: usually a complete blood count, electrolytes, APTT and PT to measure blood clotting, chest X-rays, ECG, and blood cross-matching for possible transfusion. About a month before the surgery, the patient may be prescribed supplemental iron to boost the hemoglobin in their blood system. Accurate X-rays of the affected knee are needed to measure the size of components which will be needed. Medications such as warfarin and aspirin will be stopped some days before surgery to reduce the amount of bleeding. Patients may be admitted on the day of surgery if the pre-op work-up is done in the pre-anesthetic clinic or may come into hospital one or more days before surgery. Currently there is insufficient quality evidence to support the use of pre-operative physiotherapy in older adults undergoing total knee arthroplasty.\n", "Surgery is often required for pelvic fractures. Many methods of pelvic stabilization are used including external fixation or internal fixation and traction. There are often other injuries associated with a pelvic fracture so the type of surgery involved must be thoroughly planned.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Rehabilitation.\n\nPelvic fractures that are treatable without surgery are treated with bed rest. Once the fracture has healed enough, rehabilitation can be started with first standing upright with the help of a physical therapist, followed by starting to walk using a walker and eventually progressing to a cane.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "AOSSM offers a per year supplement grant to sports medicine orthopaedic surgeons who have an active Career Development Award (K Award) from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The purpose of this grant is to facilitate the research careers of orthopaedic surgeons who have completed training in sports medicine and who have a faculty position at an academic institution. The award is open to individuals regardless of time since training.\n\nSection::::AOSSM Research Programs and Grants.:MARS Project.\n", "The center's Sports Concussion Program is directed by some of the country's leading researchers in sports concussion management, including Mark Lovell, Ph.D., director of the NFL and NHL's neuro-cognitive testing program. The program's goals involve developing methods of evaluating the short- and long-term effects of concussion so that a better determination can be made as to when it is safe for an athlete to return to active sports following a concussion.\n", "When designing a rehabilitation program, clinicians consider associated injuries such as chipped bones or soft tissue tears. Clinicians take into account the person's age, activity level, and time needed to return to work and/or athletics. Doctors generally only recommend surgery when other structures in the knee have sustained severe damage, or specifically when there is:\n\nBULLET::::- Concurrent osteochondral injury\n\nBULLET::::- Continued gross instability\n\nBULLET::::- Palpable disruption of the medial patellofemoral ligament and the vastus medialis obliquus\n\nBULLET::::- High-level athletic demands coupled with mechanical risk factors and an initial injury mechanism not related to contact\n", "The restoration of the patients' physical abilities can take up to ten months. However, in the majority of cases, patients report a return to their preoperative physical state after roughly six months. Many patients choose to return to work at this point. Despite this physical recovery, patients are recommended to avoid more physical situations such as contact sports until after the bar has been removed.\n", "Section::::Post-operative evaluation.\n\nKnee replacement is routinely evaluated by X-ray, including the following measures:\n\nSection::::Post-operative rehabilitation.\n\nThe length of post-operative hospitalization is 5 days on average depending on the health status of the patient and the amount of support available outside the hospital setting. Protected weight bearing on crutches or a walker is required until specified by the surgeon because of weakness in the quadriceps muscle In the immediate post-operative period, up to 39% of knee replacement patients experience inadequate pain control.\n", "The surgery is done with an arthroscope or tiny camera inserted inside the knee, with additional small incisions made around the knee to insert surgical instruments. This method is less invasive and is proven to result in less pain from surgery, less time in the hospital, and quicker recovery times than “open” surgery (in which a long incision is made down the front of the knee and the joint is opened and exposed).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe surgery was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Dr. Richard Steadman of the Steadman-Hawkins clinic in Vail, Colorado. Steadman slowly refined the procedure through research (including tests on horses). The surgery was soon called \"controversial\" by many sportswriters, due to a lack of studies on the long-term effects and the fact that an unsuccessful surgery could end an athlete's career. Dr. Steadman has also adapted the surgery into a treatment to help reattach torn ligaments (a technique he calls the \"healing response\")\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "Blood clots (also known as deep vein thrombosis) are a common complication after surgery. However, a doctor may prescribe certain medications to help prevent blood clots. Infection may occur after surgery. However, antibiotics may be prescribed by a doctor to help prevent infections. Individual factors (e.g., anatomy, weight, prior medical history, prior joint surgeries) should be addressed with the surgery subject. The causes of long-term failure of UKAs include polyethylene wear, loosening of the implant, and degeneration of the adjacent knee compartment.\n\nSection::::Long-term results.\n", "BULLET::::- Floyd Landis: the 2006 Tour de France winner (until disqualified). His procedure was performed after the Tour win.\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Tierney: completed the 2011, 2012, and 2013 Syllamo's Revenge 50 mile endurance race 18, 30, and 42 months, respectively, after resurfacing surgery on his left hip. This single track course through the Ozark Mountains has been designated as \"epic\" by the International Mountain Bike Association.\n", "According to medical professionals with the Cleveland Clinic, once an athlete suffers from an episode of cervical spinal cord neurapraxia, team physician or athletic trainer first stabilize the head and neck followed by a thorough neurologic inspection. If the injury is deemed severe, injured parties should be taken to a hospital for evaluation. Athletes that suffer from severe episodes of neurapraxia are urged to consult orthopaedic or spinal medical specialists. In mild cases of neurapraxia, the athlete is able to remove themselves from the field of play. However, the athlete is still advised to seek medical consultation.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "After the Olympics, Cairns injured both her ankles while practising on vault. She said, \"I rolled both my ankles—the bones weren't snapped, but everything else was. I was out for at least eighteen months with that injury. I had drilling of the bone, two operations on each ankle, and I couldn't walk properly for six months. Ever since, they've been good, but they will never be great. Every now and then they are too painful and I can't train. I have to have injections to numb my ankles, and I've been told I'll have arthritis in them by the time I'm 30.\"\n", "Hydrogymnastics is also performed by athletes. Athletes use hydrogymnastics as a form of recovery which can help them heal from injuries at a faster rate. Depending on the athlete and which sport that participate in, these injuries can range from serious back, shoulder injuries to hip and knee problems; such as an ACL ligament tear or rupture. The severity of the injury will also determine if the participant is assisted by the therapist, uses specific equipment and/or a form of resistance, how long they spend in the water and the intensity of the activity. These are all also determined by the participants pain levels.\n", "During the season, Kayne experienced increasing pain due to right knee tendinitis, the result of her 2015 injury. She received a new cadaver tendon in an operation at the Vail Valley Medical Center on February 14, 2017 and then refrained from walking for seven weeks. She resumed training by July 2017.\n\nSection::::Career.:2017–2018 season.\n", "At the beginning of the year. Garcia had surgery on her left hand. She said, \"There was an abnormal bone growth due to hard impacts and over-training. So I had surgery, and then had to recover from it and start little by little again. So this year I haven't competed at all. This year is the first year in the Olympic cycle, so we're taking it slow, because next year will be a busy one.\"\n", "If the progression criteria are met, the patient can gradually return to \"high-impact\" activities (like running). However, \"heavier activities\", like running, skiing, basketball etc., generally any activities where knees bear sudden changes of the direction of movement can lead to repeated injuries. When planning sport activities it makes sense to consult a physical therapist and check how much impact the sport will have on the knee.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "The goal of this phase is a return to activity, however it requires an ability to perform some functional performance tests such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Agility Tests\n\nBULLET::::- Illinois Agility Test\n\nBULLET::::- Zig Zag Agility Test\n\nBULLET::::- Standing Vertical Jump\n\nBULLET::::- Heiden Hop Test\n\nBULLET::::- Isokinetic Testing\n\nSection::::Rehabilitation.:Phase 5.\n", "In 2009, Heiden was one of the team of doctors assisting US speed skater J.R. Celski as the latter recovered from a very bad speed skating crash during the U.S. Olympic trials. Despite cutting himself to the bone and requiring 60 stitches, Celski was able to recover in time for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, where he won the bronze medal in both men's 1500 m and 5000 m relay.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08531	Why does the arm get hairy while/after wearing an arm cast?	While your arm is in a cast it's pretty isolated from the world. There's no friction from brushing up against things like your sleeves to cause hairs to break off. There's also no sunlight lightening your hairs. So that combination gives you thicker and darker hair. It goes back to normal pretty quick after taking off the cast.	[ "Terminal hair growth on arms is a secondary sexual characteristic in boys and appears in the last stages of puberty. Vellus arm hair is usually concentrated on the elbow end of the forearm and often ends on the lower part of the upper arm. This type of intense arm vellus hair growth sometimes occurs in young women and people of both sexes until puberty. Even though this causes the arms to appear hairy, it is not caused solely by testosterone. The hair is softer and different from men's arm hair, in texture.\n\nSection::::Distribution.:Feet.\n", "One problem with the residual limb and socket attachment is that a bad fit will reduce the area of contact between the residual limb and socket or liner, and increase pockets between residual limb skin and socket or liner. Pressure then is higher, which can be painful. Air pockets can allow sweat to accumulate that can soften the skin. Ultimately, this is a frequent cause for itchy skin rashes. Over time, this can lead to breakdown of the skin.\n\nArtificial limbs are typically manufactured using the following steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. Measurement of the residual limb\n", "Sikh men are also susceptible to traction alopecia if the hair under the turban is tied too tightly for many years.\n\nOther causes include:\n\nBULLET::::- Hairstyle. Although the aforementioned style is one of the culprits, hairstyles such as dreadlocks and single (extension) braids can also have the same effect. Men and women who have suffered from traction alopecia have found that the hair loss occurs most at the hair line—primarily around the temples and the sides of their heads.\n", "Traction alopecia is a substantial risk in hair weaves, which can be worn either to conceal hair loss, or purely for cosmetic purposes. The former involves creating a braid around the head below the existing hairline, to which an extended-wear hairpiece, or wig, is attached. Since the hair of the braid is still growing, it requires frequent maintenance, which involves the hairpiece being removed, the natural hair braided again, and the piece snugly reattached. The tight braiding and snug hairpiece cause tension on the hair that is already at risk for falling out. Traction Alopecia is one of the most common causes of hair loss in African American women. \n", "BULLET::::- Headgear. Compressive safety helmets worn tightly and closely to the scalp are a cause of traction alopecia. The lining of tightly fitted safety helmets like those worn for activities such as motorcycling, cycling, skiing and snowboarding are responsible for the constant rubbing and tugging of localised areas of the hair and scalp. Frequent wearers or those who use such helmets for prolonged periods seem more likely to suffer traction alopecia.\n", "In some cases, a hip spica may only extend down one or more legs to above the knee. Such casts, called pantaloon casts, are occasionally seen to immobilize an injured lumbar spine or pelvis, in which case the trunk portion of the cast usually extends to the armpits.\n\nSection::::Cast types.:Spica cast.:Mobility and hygiene.\n", "Section::::Cast types.:Cylinder.\n\nIn some cases, a cast may include the upper and lower arm and the elbow, but leave the wrist and hand free, or the upper and lower leg and the knee, leaving the foot and ankle free. Such a cast may be called a cylinder cast. Where the wrist or ankle is included, it may be called a long arm or long leg cast.\n\nSection::::Cast types.:Body.\n", "BULLET::::- The pluck test is conducted by pulling hair out \"by the roots\". The root of the plucked hair is examined under a microscope to determine the phase of growth, and is used to diagnose a defect of telogen, anagen, or systemic disease. Telogen hairs have tiny bulbs without sheaths at their roots. Telogen effluvium shows an increased percentage of hairs upon examination. Anagen hairs have sheaths attached to their roots. Anagen effluvium shows a decrease in telogen-phase hairs and an increased number of broken hairs.\n", "Brockbank in his 1941 paper:\n\nIn most men the bar is on a level with the pubis and groins above the scrotum. In a hot room the spinners in vest and overalls only perspire freely, and this must tend to wash off the natural grease on the skin and allow the oil to get onto it. In over 80% of the cases occur on the left side, this may be due to one or more of the following causes: \n", "EDF differs from Risser casting. EDF casts are either over or under the shoulder, and have a large mushroom opening on the front to allow for proper chest expansion. On the back, there is a small cutout on the concavity of the curve, not going past the midline. It was found that the spine became more aligned with this cutout than without, and that it helped correct rotation.\n\nSection::::Cast types.:Spica cast.\n", "An operation using the forearm as a donor site is the easiest to perform but results in a cosmetically undesirable scar on the exposed area of the arm. Arm function may be hampered if the donor site does not heal properly. Electrolysis and/or laser hair reduction is required for a relatively hairless neophallus.\n", "In May 1984 while on a tour in the UK, Nena made the headlines of the British red-top press for having unshaven armpits. At the time this was not uncommon in continental Europe but was considered unusual in English-speaking countries to the extent that some people consider it explains the commercial failure there of the follow-ups to \"99 Luftballons\". Baffled by the attention generated, Nena asked the girlfriend of her manager to shave her and has remained clean shaven ever since. Referring to the \"huge indignation\" the issue raised, Nena, in her memoirs published in 2005, wrote, \"Can a girl from Hagen, who dreams of the big wide world and is in love with Mick Jagger, have no idea that girls can't under any circumstances have hair under the arm? Yes she can. I simply had no idea!\"\n", "In the feminist movement, the hippie culture, and in the punk rock scene, some women retain their underarm hair for a variety of reasons, from subversion to egalitarianism to comfort. Conversely but uncommonly, some men choose to remove their underarm hair for aesthetic reasons or to reduce friction in sports such as swimming.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nLike other flexion surfaces of large joints (groin, popliteal fossa, cubital fossa and essentially the anterior part of the neck), it is an area where blood vessels and nerves pass relatively superficially, and with an increased amount of lymph nodes.\n", "It is commonly seen with certain hair styles or braiding patterns that pull the hairline forcefully towards the vertex of the scalp, and has been reported more often in African American women (as some wear their hair tightly pulled back), in whom it can cause scarring. It has also been seen in female ballerinas, and in cultural traditions where the hair is voluntarily not cut in religious obeisance, the latter caused by progressively increasing weight of the hair itself. Traction alopecia is mechanical in cause, rather than androgenic, and treatment is typically not pharmaceutical. Management includes cessation of the chronic traction, cosmeses, with surgical restoration reserved for more severe cases.\n", "Section::::Materials.\n\nDue to the nature of the dressing in that the limb is unreachable during treatment; the skin under the plaster becomes dry and scaly because the discarded outer skin cells are not washed or brushed off. Also, plaster of Paris casts can result in cutaneous complications including macerations, ulcerations, infections, rashes, itching, burns, and allergic contact dermatitis, which may also be due to the presence of formaldehyde within the plaster bandages. In hot weather, staphylococcal infection of the hair follicles and sweat glands can lead to severe and painful dermatitis.\n", "In general the elbow extension reconstructions are immobilised for a few weeks and then slowly allowed to flex the elbow in the following weeks, at a rate of 10 degrees per week. \n\nAfter 10 weeks the patient is allowed to move freely again.\n\nAfter the posterior deltoid-triceps transfer, a cast is applied with the elbow at 10 degrees of flexion. The cast should be worn for 4 to 6 weeks and then exchanged for an elbow brace with an adjustable range of motion.\n", "According to the CPSC, even using (listed) twist-on connectors to attach copper pigtails to older aluminum wires as a \"temporary repair\" requires special installation procedures, including abrading and pre-twisting the wires. However, the manufacturer's instructions for the Ideal No. 65 Twister only recommends pre-twisting the wires, and does not state it's required. Also the instructions do not mention physically abrading the wires as recommended by the CPSC, although the manufacturer current literature states the pre-filled \"compound cuts aluminum oxide\". Some researchers have criticized the UL listing/tests for this wire connector, and there have been reported problems with tests (without pre-twisting) and installations. However, it is unknown if the reported installation problems were associated with unqualified persons attempting these repairs, or not using recommended special installation procedures (such as abrading and pre-twisting the wires as recommended by the CPSC for older aluminum wire, or at least pre-twisting the wires as recommended by Ideal for their connectors).\n", "Bulk hair can also be added with thread if bonding is not suitable. This may be because the wearer has excessively oily hair or because there is a need to wash hair daily. Adding hair extensions with thread means that damage to the natural hair can be avoided and that the hair extension attachment areas are not vulnerable to external elements like heat, oils and water.\n\nSection::::Shampooing and styling of integrations.\n", "Kate Flannery did not actually shave her head for the episode. According to her Twitter account, make-up artist Ed French was responsible for the bald cap and Kim M. Ferry designed the shaved hair effect. According to the actress, the prosthetics took three hours to apply. Afterwards, she joked that she has \"newfound respect for the actors in \"Planet of the Apes\"!\"\n", "Arm hair grows on a human's forearms, sometimes even on the elbow area. Terminal arm hair is concentrated on the wrist end of the forearm, extending over the hand. Terminal hair growth in adolescent males is often much more intense than that in females, particularly for individuals with dark hair. In some cultures, it is common for women to remove arm hair, though this practice is less frequent than that of leg hair removal.\n", "Trichobacteriosis axillaris\n\nTrichobacteriosis axillaris is a superficial bacterial colonization of the hair shafts in sweat gland–bearing areas, such as the armpits and the groin. It is a trivial disease of worldwide occurrence that is believed to be caused by the genus \"Corynebacteria\".\n\nThe condition has been called extensively \"trichomycosis axillaris\" in the literature, but because it is a bacterial infection and not a fungal infection, it should be called \"trichobacteriosis\".\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n", "Underarm hair usually grows in the underarms of both females and males, beginning in adolescence.\n", "The whole fabric is supported on a pedestal \"N\", and may be elevated or depressed upon the joint \"O\", to any number of degrees from 0 to 90, by means of the arc \"P\", which is fixed in the strong brass arm \"Q\", and slides in the upright piece \"R\", in which is a screw at \"r\", to fix it at any proper elevation.\n", "Section::::Musical career.:2017: \"'Bad Thing' / 'Aggrophobe Ft Iggy Pop\"'.\n", "BULLET::::- Traction alopecia is most commonly found in people with ponytails or cornrows who pull on their hair with excessive force. In addition, rigorous brushing and heat styling, rough scalp massage can damage the cuticle, the hard outer casing of the hair. This causes individual strands to become weak and break off, reducing overall hair volume.\n\nBULLET::::- Frictional alopecia is hair loss caused by rubbing of the hair or follicles, most infamously around the ankles of men from socks, where even if socks are no longer worn, the hair often will not grow back.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03050	Why sometimes when in resting my eyes start to like cry?	When we yawn, the facial muscles surrounding our eyes pull tight. This may put pressure on our lacrimal glands (the glands that are neatly tucked away deep beneath our upper eyelids just below our eyebrow bones.) These glands produce the watery component to our eyes’ own natural tears. They are working to produce and release tears slowly throughout the day to coat the surface of our eyes at all times, not just when we cry (think about it, that is why our eyes always look so glossy.) When the facial muscles tighten during a yawn, the lacrimal glands may get “squeezed” causing them to release a small amount of tears that they were storing to release later. Should be related though I believe that emotional effects on the brain from sleepiness might be related. I hope this was helpful!	[ "BULLET::::18. \"In the ing there is weeping\". (Occasion or theme: Sorrow followed by Joy.) 19 June 1869, at the Hotel Jungfraublick, Interlaken. \"It rained all day, except a very bright interval before dinner. Curious long soft white clouds went slowly creeping along the Schynige Platte; I wrote \"Evening Tears and Morning Songs.\" (Marg. reading of Ps. xxx. 5.)\" (P. 1870.) Published in \"Under the Surface\", 1874.\n", "\"\"Thus says the Lord of hosts, “Consider and call for the mourning women, that they may come; And send for the wailing women, that they may come! “Let them make haste and take up a wailing for us,That our eyes may shed tears and our eyelids flow with water\" (Jeremiah 9: 17-18 ).\"\n\nThese three quotes from the Bible are just three of many that pertain to professional mourning.\n", "BULLET::::13. Ich hab' im Traum geweinet (Heine no 55). (I wept in my dream, for I dreamt you were in your grave: I woke, and tears ran down my cheeks. I wept in my dreams, thinking you had abandoned me: I woke, and cried long and bitterly. I wept in my dream, dreaming you were still good to me: I woke, and even then my floods of tears poured forth.)\n", "Section::::History.\n", "I cannot let thee rest!’\n\n8. One long look, that sore reproved me\n\nFor the woe I could not bear-\n\nOne mute look of suffering moved me\n\nTo repent my useless prayer:\n\n9. And, with sudden check, the heaving\n\nOf distraction passed away;\n\nNot a sign of further grieving\n\nStirred my soul that awful day.\n\n10. Paled, at length, the sweet sun setting; \n\nSunk to peace the twilight breeze:\n\nSummer dews fell softly, wetting\n\nGlen, and glade, and silent trees.\n\n11. Then his eyes began to weary,\n\nWeighed beneath a mortal sleep;\n\nAnd their orbs grew strangely dreary, \n", "BULLET::::- 1995 by Stanisław Barańczak and Nobel-laureate poet Seamus Heaney\n\nSection::::Translation into English.:\"Lament 1\".\n\nAll Heraclitus' tears, all threnodiesbr\n\nAnd plaintive dirges of Simonides,br\n\nAll keens and slow airs in the world, all griefs,br\n\nWrung hands, wet eyes, laments and epitaphs,br\n\nAll, all assemble, come from every quarter,br\n\nHelp me to mourn my small girl, my dear daughter,br\n\nWhom cruel Death tore up with such wild forcebr\n\nOut of my life, it left me no recourse.br\n\nSo the snake, when he finds a hidden nestbr\n\nOf fledgling nightingales, rears and strikes fastbr\n\nRepeatedly, while the poor mother birdbr\n", "Section::::Controversy.:Lika Mutal's Response to Controversy.\n", "BULLET::::- Lamentations 2:18: \"Their heart cried unto the Lord, O wall of the daughter of Zion, let tears run down like a river day and night: give thyself no rest; let not \"the apple of thine eye\" cease\".\n\nBULLET::::- Zechariah 2:8: \"For thus saith the L of hosts; After the glory hath he sent me unto the nations which spoiled you: for he that toucheth you toucheth \"the apple of his eye\"\".\n", "As many tears as are left to me by my own fortune I do not refuse to shed lamenting yours. For I will manage to find in my eyes, exhausted as they are by my private crying, some that still may pour out, if this will do you any good.\n", "Sighs are an expression of emotion, usually when the dog is lying down with its head on its paws. When the eyes are half-closed it signals pleasure and contentment. When the eyes are fully open it signals displeasure, something the dog expected has not happened, often associated with the dinner table and the food that the dog expected to share did not happen.\n\nSection::::Olfactory.\n", "After the meeting, Munger stated in his blog that:\n\n\"The low point of the evening, the point at which I finally started to quietly weep and whisper to myself \"Oh, dear God!\" was when a courageous young Palestinian-American man was shouted down, with one of the shouters yelling something along the lines of \"Shut up, you're not even human.\" Several people then applauded. I observed two high Republicans, a state representative and a former state party treasurer, apparently nodding affirmation.\"\n\nAccording to Munger \"People were shouting, leaving, arguing, interrupting\" him as he tried to deliver his prepared statement:\n", "there are tears for things and mortal things touch the mind.\n\nRelease your fear; this fame will bring you some safety.\"\n\nVirgil, \"Aeneid\", 1.461 ff./poem\n\nA translation by Robert Fagles renders the quote as: \"The world is a world of tears, and the burdens of mortality touch the heart.\"\n\nRobert Fitzgerald, meanwhile, translates it as: \"They weep here / For how the world goes, and our life that passes \\ Touches their hearts.\"\n\nIn his television series Civilisation, episode 1, Kenneth Clark translated this line as \"These men know the pathos of life, and mortal things touch their hearts.\"\n", "BULLET::::4. Wenn ich in deine Augen seh (Heine no 4). (When I look in your eyes all my pain and woe fades: when I kiss your mouth I become whole: when I recline on your breast I am filled with heavenly joy: and when you say, 'I love you', I weep bitterly.)\n", "\"Your letter of the 7th was handed me yesterday by Mr. Hamilton. In vain, my dear child, should I undertake to explain to you the sensation which the letter created in my heart. Neither have I the courage to attempt to arrest the tears you have so great reason to shed. For a heart so feeling as yours this was the severest of trials, and nothing but time can bring consolation under circumstances so afflicting.\"\n", "All my comforts lie in my destiny.br\n\nJust to realise my life’s worthiest prizebr\n\nDid I sacrifice for those ardent eyes!.br\n\nbr\n\nTranslation by Peter Farnbank\n\nAnother rhythmical translation which is closer to the original\n\nOh you dark black eyes, full-of-passion-eyesbr\n\nOh you burning eyes, how you hypnotisebr\n\nNow I love you so, but I fear you thoughbr\n\nSince you glanced at me not so long ago.br\n\nbr\n\nOh I see you now, you are dark and deepbr\n\nI see grief and feel that my soul will weepbr\n\nI see now in you a winning burning glowbr\n", "\"\"Therefore thus says the LORD God of hosts, the Lord, \"There is wailing in all the plazas, And in all the streets they say, 'Alas! Alas!' They also call the farmer to mourning And professional mourners to lamentation\" (Amos 5:16).\"\n", "The eye is also a source of chronic irritation. Disorders like Sjögren's syndrome, where one does not make tears, can cause a dry eye sensation which feels very unpleasant. The condition is difficult to treat and is lifelong. Besides artificial tears, there is a drug called Restasis which may help.\n\nBlepharitis is dryness and itching on the upper eyelids. This condition is often seeing in young people and can lead to reddish dry eye and scaly eyebrows. To relieve the itching sensation, one may need to apply warm compresses and use topical corticosteroid creams.\n\nSection::::Types.:Skin.\n", "As of November 2010, \"Cry for You\" has been certified Gold in the United States for sales of over 500,000 copies, making September the first Swedish singer to receive a Gold certification in the United States since Ace of Base's 1998 hit \"Cruel Summer\".\n\nIn late 2018, nearly 12 years after its release, the song was turned into a meme on Twitter, thanks to its \"you'll never see me again\" lyrics.\n\nSection::::Composition and release.\n", "Tennyson was inspired to write \"Tears, Idle Tears\" upon a visit to Tintern Abbey in Monmouthshire, an abbey that was abandoned in 1536. He said the convent was \"full for me of its bygone memories\", and that the poem was about \"the passion of the past, the abiding in the transient.\" William Wordsworth also wrote a poem inspired by this location in 1798, \"Tintern Abbey\", which develops a similar theme.\n", "Section::::Poem (original version by Hrebinka).\n\nThe following is a metrical translation (i.e. one that can be sung to the melody).br\n\nbr\n\nOh, these gorgeous eyes, dark and glorious eyes,br\n\nBurn-with-passion eyes, how you hypnotise!br\n\nHow I adore you so, how I fear you though,br\n\nSince I saw you glow! Now my spirit’s low!br\n\nbr\n\nDarkness yours conceal mighty fires real;br\n\nThey my fate will seal: burn my soul with zeal!br\n\nBut my love for you, when the time is due,br\n\nWill refresh anew like the morning dew!br\n\nbr\n\nNo, not sad am I, nor so mad am I;br\n", "Section::::Characterization.:Laurence Friar.\n", "BULLET::::- Closing of eyes - Closing the eyes serves to shut out the world. It can be a reaction to fear or embarrassment. Others may close their eyes as a way to think more sincerely about a particular subject.\n\nBULLET::::- Eye moisture - Tears obviously indicate sadness, but moisture also has a more practical purpose to wash and clean the eyes. Damp eyes can be suppressed crying or an expression of extreme happiness or laughter. Men, in many cultures, are not expected to cry but may experience damp eyes in place of crying.\n", "According to legend, for twenty years whenever water was placed before him, he would weep. One day a servant said to him, ‘O son of Allah’s Messenger! Is it not time for your sorrow to come to an end?’ He replied, ‘Woe upon you! Jacob the prophet had twelve sons, and Allah made one of them disappear. His eyes turned white from constant weeping, his head turned grey out of sorrow, and his back became bent in gloom, though his son was alive in this world. But I watched while my father, my brother, my uncle, and seventeen members of my family were slaughtered all around me. How should my sorrow come to an end?’\n", "A neuronal connection between the lacrimal gland (tear duct) and the areas of the human brain involved with emotion has been established. Scientists debate over whether humans are the only animals that produce tears in response to emotional states. Charles Darwin wrote in \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\" that the keepers of Indian elephants in the London Zoo told him that their charges shed tears in sorrow. \n", "Dowland points out in his dedication that there are different types of tears. “The teares which Musicke weeps” can be pleasant; “neither are teares shed always in sorrow but sometime in joy and gladnesse”.\n\nSection::::Instrumentation.\n\nAs the title suggests, the music is scored for five viols, or violins (that is, members of the violin family) and lute.\n\nSection::::\"Lachrimae\" pavans.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14316	Why does some lightning not strike the ground?	Differences in charges generate higher up in the clouds as well as lower where lightning is close enough to strike the ground. The ground can dissipate a build up of electricity. But a discharge or flow of electric current can occur higher up as long as there is a sufficient difference between positive and negative charges and a conductive path for the electricity to travel.	[ "Section::::Lightning protection systems.\n\nLightning protection systems are designed to mitigate the effects of lightning through connection to extensive grounding systems that provide a large surface area connection to earth. The large area is required to dissipate the high current of a lightning strike without damaging the system conductors by excess heat. Since lightning strikes are pulses of energy with very high frequency components, grounding systems for lightning protection tend to use short straight runs of conductors to reduce the self-inductance and skin effect.\n\nSection::::Bonding.\n", "Lightning is usually produced by cumulonimbus clouds, which have bases that are typically 1–2 km (0.6–1.25 miles) above the ground and tops up to in height.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do not necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar in nature and originating from their respective charge region.\n", "For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a (reasonably) constant potential reference against which other potentials can be measured. An electrical ground system should have an appropriate current-carrying capability to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In electronic circuit theory, a \"ground\" is usually idealized as an infinite source or sink for charge, which can absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential. Where a real ground connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero potential is no longer valid. Stray voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may create noise in signals or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard.\n", "A lightning strike or lightning bolt is an electric discharge between the atmosphere and an object. They mostly originate in a cumulonimbus cloud and terminate on the ground, called cloud to ground (CG) lightning. A less common type of strike, called ground to cloud (GC), is upward propagating lightning initiated from a tall grounded object and reaches into the clouds. About 25% of all lightning events worldwide are strikes between the atmosphere and earth-bound objects. The bulk of lightning events are intra-cloud (IC) or cloud to cloud (CC), where discharges only occur high in the atmosphere. Lightning strikes the average commercial aircraft at least once a year, but modern engineering and design means this is rarely a problem. The movement of aircraft through clouds can even cause lightning strikes.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is either positive or negative, as defined by the direction of the conventional electric current from cloud to ground. Most CG lightning is negative, meaning that a negative charge is transferred to ground and electrons travel downward along the lightning channel. The reverse happens in a positive CG flash, where electrons travel upward along the lightning channel and a positive charge is transferred to the ground. Positive lightning is less common than negative lightning, and on average makes up less than 5% of all lightning strikes.\n", "The parts of a lightning protection system are air terminals (lightning rods or strike termination devices), bonding conductors, ground terminals (ground or \"earthing\" rods, plates, or mesh), and all of the connectors and supports to complete the system. The air terminals are typically arranged at or along the upper points of a roof structure, and are electrically bonded together by bonding conductors (called \"down conductors\" or \"downleads\"), which are connected by the most direct route to one or more grounding or earthing terminals. Connections to the earth electrodes must not only have low resistance, but must have low self-inductance.\n", "BULLET::::- Upward lightning or ground-to-cloud lightning is a lightning flash which originates from the top of a grounded object and propagates upward from this point. This type of lightning can be triggered by a preceding lightning flash, or it may initiate entirely on its own. The former is generally found in regions where spider lightning occurs, and may involve multiple grounded objects simultaneously. The latter usually occurs during the cold season and may be the dominant lightning type in thundersnow events.\n", "A large electric current flows along the plasma channel from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials, they are responsible for more injuries and deaths than the strike itself. Electricity takes every path available to it.\n", "Electrical power distribution systems are often connected to ground to limit the voltage that can appear on distribution circuits. A distribution system insulated from ground may attain a high potential due to transient voltages caused by arcing, static electricity, or accidental contact with higher potential circuits. A ground connection of the system dissipates such potentials and limits the rise in voltage of the grounded system.\n\nIn a mains electricity (AC power) wiring installation, the term \"ground conductor\" typically refers to three different conductors or conductor systems as listed below:\n", "Intra-cloud lightning most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so-called \"sheet lightning\". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.\n", "BULLET::::- Clear-air lightning describes lightning that occurs with no apparent cloud close enough to have produced it. In the U.S. and Canadian Rockies, a thunderstorm can be in an adjacent valley and not observable from the valley where the lightning bolt strikes, either visually or audibly. European and Asian mountainous areas experience similar events. Also in areas such as sounds, large lakes or open plains, when the storm cell is on the near horizon (within ) there may be some distant activity, a strike can occur and as the storm is so far away, the strike is referred to as a bolt from the blue. These flashes usually begin as normal intracloud lightning flashes before the negative leader exits the cloud and strikes the ground a considerable distance away. Positive clear-air strikes can occur in highly sheared environments where the upper positive charge region becomes horizontally displaced from the precipitation area.\n", "Section::::Electronics.\n", "Section::::Flashes and strikes.:Upward streamers.\n\nWhen a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward streamer, can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.\n", "As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already experiencing corona discharge exceed a threshold and form upward streamers.\n\nSection::::Flashes and strikes.:Attachment.\n\nOnce a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as attachment, a low-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High-speed videos can show the attachment process in progress.\n\nSection::::Flashes and strikes.:Discharge.\n", "Distribution power systems may be solidly grounded, with one circuit conductor directly connected to an earth grounding electrode system. Alternatively, some amount of electrical impedance may be connected between the distribution system and ground, to limit the current that can flow to earth. The impedance may be a resistor, or an inductor (coil). In a high-impedance grounded system, the fault current is limited to a few amperes (exact values depend on the voltage class of the system); a low-impedance grounded system will permit several hundred amperes to flow on a fault. A large solidly grounded distribution system may have thousands of amperes of ground fault current.\n", "Cloud-to-ground lightning frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting. Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat. Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion. In areas with a high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning, like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside.\n", "As a result of their greater power, as well as lack of warning, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous. Due to the aforementioned tendency for positive ground flashes to produce both high peak currents and long continuing current, they are capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited.\n", "BULLET::::- Ground current or \"step potential\" – Earth surface charges race towards the flash channel during discharge. Because the ground has high impedance, the current \"chooses\" a better conductor, often a person's legs, passing through the body. The near-instantaneous rate of discharge causes a potential (difference) over distance, which may amount to several thousand volts per linear foot. This phenomenon is responsible for more injuries and deaths than the above three combined, with reports such as \"hundreds of reindeer killed by a lightning storm...\" being a classic example.\n", "Section::::Building wiring installations.:Ungrounded systems.\n", "These conductors are bonded to earth either through the metal structure of a pole or tower, or by additional ground electrodes installed at regular intervals along the line. As a general rule, overhead power lines with voltages below 50 kV do not have a \"static\" conductor, but most lines carrying more than 50 kV do. The ground conductor cable may also support fibre optic cables for data transmission.\n", "In a \"direct hit\", the electrical charge strikes the person first.\n\n\"Splash\" hits occur when lightning jumps to a person (lower resistance path) from a nearby object that has more resistance, striking the person on its way to the ground.\n\nIn \"ground\" strikes, the bolt lands near the person and is conducted by a connection to the ground (usually the feet), due to the voltage gradient in the earth. This can still cause substantial injury.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely-charged well entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in either a cloud-to-air flash or a cloud-to-ground flash. In a typical cloud-to-ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively-charged ground.\n", "An average bolt of lightning carries a negative electric current of 40 kiloamperes (kA) (although some bolts can be up to 120 kA), and transfers a charge of five coulombs and energy of 500 MJ, or enough energy to power a 100-watt lightbulb for just under two months. The voltage depends on the length of the bolt, with the dielectric breakdown of air being three million volts per meter, and lightning bolts often being several hundred meters long. However, lightning leader development is not a simple matter of dielectric breakdown, and the ambient electric fields required for lightning leader propagation can be a few orders of magnitude less than dielectric breakdown strength. Further, the potential gradient inside a well-developed return-stroke channel is on the order of hundreds of volts per meter or less due to intense channel ionization, resulting in a true power output on the order of megawatts per meter for a vigorous return-stroke current of 100 kA .\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03424	Do victims of terror attacks have to pay medical bills?	Just because you're injured beyond your control (stabbed, shot, etc.) doesn't mean you don't have to pay for treatment. Saving lives is a for profit business after all. Not sure if any states have laws that are different but in Maryland, if your hurt/injured as a result of a crime, the state covers a portion but not the entire thing. You can go after the person who injured you through legal action but let's face it, they are already broke so it's pointless to do so.	[ "The New York Times reports that in Baghdad personal terrorism insurance is available. One company offers such insurance for $90, and if the customer is a victim of terrorism in the next year, it pays the heirs $3,500.\n\nSection::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n", "The model includes both the direct and indirect costs, such as the lost life-time earnings, cost of medical treatments and property destruction from incidents of terrorism. The direct costs include those borne by the victim of the terrorist act and associated expenditure, such as medical spending. The indirect costs include lost productivity and earning as well as the psychological trauma to the victims, their families and friends.\n", "BULLET::::- Deshmukh announced ex-gratia payments of 100,000 rupees (about US$2,000) to the next of kin of those who died in the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings. Those injured would be given Rs 50,000 rupees (about US$1,000) each.\n\nBULLET::::- The prime minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Abdullah Haji Ahmad Badawi, announced in June 2008 undisclosed ex gratia payments to the judges who were affected during the 1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis.\n", "Dr. Khan told his family that he was accused of treating dying civilians (women and children), which had been classed as an act of terrorism. Dr. Khan worked as a specialist registrar in orthopaedic surgery at the Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital. The Foreign Office said it was \"extremely concerned\" by reports.\n", "James Curran, dean of the Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University, stated that spy agencies should consider the consequences of using health care institutions for their own ends: \"It is always important to disassociate public health missions from wartime or spy missions that could disrupt the bonds of community trust\".\n\nSection::::Reactions to arrest and sentencing.:Protest by aid groups.\n", "Section::::Countries with long-term terrorism insurance programmes.\n\nAccording to the policy agenda of The Real Estate Roundtable, long-term terrorism insurance is available in the following countries:\n\nBULLET::::1. Australia\n\nBULLET::::2. Austria\n\nBULLET::::3. Finland\n\nBULLET::::4. France\n\nBULLET::::5. Germany\n\nBULLET::::6. Israel\n\nBULLET::::7. Namibia\n\nBULLET::::8. Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::9. Russia\n\nBULLET::::10. South Africa\n\nBULLET::::11. Spain\n\nBULLET::::12. Switzerland\n\nBULLET::::13. Turkey\n\nBULLET::::14. United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::15. India\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Security\n\nBULLET::::- Geneva Association (also known as the International Association for the Study of Insurance Economics)\n\nBULLET::::- Pool Re\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Terrorism from the Insurance Information Institute\n", "Insurance payments related to terrorism are restricted to a billion euro per year for all insurance companies together. This regards property insurance, but also life insurance, medical insurance, etc.\n\nSection::::By country.:United States.\n\nIn 2002, the US Congress enacted the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act, in which the government shared the cost of large insurance losses.\n", "Terrorism insurance\n\nTerrorism insurance is insurance purchased by property owners to cover their potential losses and liabilities that might occur due to terrorist activities.\n", "Talk show host Jon Stewart and others succeeded in pushing for a law passed by Congress in 2015 that permanently extends health care benefits for the responders and adds five years to the victims' compensation program. Stewarts advocacy on the issue continued into 2019, in June 2019 he testified in front of Congress on behalf of 9/11 first responders who did not have proper health care benefits from the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund. During the testimony he was critical that \"Sick and dying, they [first responders] brought themselves down here to speak to no one\" and that it was \"Shameful\" and \"...an embarrassment to the county and it is a stain on this institution.\"\n", "What this means in terms of funding is that the SAMUs and their SMUR response teams are funded by the government, by means of the hospital funding scheme. They do charge a fee for service, and for a typical patient, 65% of this cost will be covered by the government health insurance scheme and the balance covered by optional additional private insurance. By French law, in an emergency any French hospital or SAMU must treat any patient, regardless of their ability to pay.\n", "The casualties occurred in the following locations,\n\nThe government of Maharashtra announced about as compensation to the kin of each of those killed in the terror attacks and about to the seriously injured. In August 2009, \"Indian Hotels Company\" and the \"Oberoi Group\" received about US$28 million as part-payment of the insurance claims, on account of the attacks on \"Taj \" and \"Trident\", from \"General Insurance Corporation of India\".\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "BULLET::::- Member of British Medical Association\n\nBULLET::::- Member of the Royal Society of Medicine\n\nSection::::Charitable activities.\n\nDr Wafik Moustafa has been actively taking part in both local and international charitable causes for over 25 years. Some of which include:\n\nBULLET::::- Patron of Children’s Leukaemia Global Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Goodwill Ambassador of the Unity of Faiths Festivals, a London-based Organisation\n\nBULLET::::- Oversaw transit from Egypt to Gaza of $3 Million consignment of medicine, medical equipment and ambulances on behalf Miles of Smiles 4 in August 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Fundraised for 1992 earthquake in Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- Fundraised for 2011 Pakistan floods\n", "Section::::Legality.\n\nAttacks on medical facilities are forbidden under international humanitarian law unless the facilities \"are being used, outside their humanitarian function, to commit acts harmful to the enemy\". Even if enemy combatants are inappropriately using the facility for shelter, the rule of proportionality usually forbids such attacks because of the high potential for civilian casualties. Human Rights Watch said the laws of war require the attacking force to issue a warning, and wait a reasonable time for a response, before attacking a medical unit being misused by combatants.\n", "Some insurance companies exclude terrorism from general property insurance (e.g. home insurance). An insurance company may include a specific definition of terrorism as part of its policy, for the purpose of excluding at least some loss or damage caused by terrorism. For example, RAC Insurance in Australia defines terrorism thus:\n\nSection::::Social.\n", "In May 2018, the Israeli Defense Ministry estimated that Al-Abed (who already received 12,200 NIS (3,370 USD)), would receive 12,604,000 NIS (3.5 million USD) in payments from the Palestinian Authority by the time he reaches 80, and that he has received. The estimate was prepared in conjunction with Israel legislation which would allow for permanent deductions of transfers to the Palestinian Authority due to such payments, similar to the US Taylor Force Act.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "Stevens was among the Americans honored at a memorial service for the victims of the U.S. embassy bombing, which was held at Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland. U.S. President Ronald Reagan spoke at the service. Stevens's brother, Scott Stevens, later testified before a federal court that the U.S. government charged her family $2,100 to bring her body back from Beirut, because she was not an embassy employee. \n\nSection::::Bombing aftermath.\n\nSection::::Bombing aftermath.:Recognition of bombing survivor PTSD issues.\n", "Section 102(1)(a) of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act contains a definition of terrorism in order for insurance companies to provide coverage to all prospective policy holders at time of purchase and to all current policyholders at renewal and requires that the federal government pay 90 percent of covered terrorism losses exceeding the statutorily established deductible paid by the insurance company providing the coverage. It reads:\n\nSection::::In general insurance policies.\n", "As part of this humanitarian initiative, the hospital has a 24x7 Medical Helpline. The hospital also has tie-ups with several transit homes and other hospitals.\n", "He was arrested by Strathclyde Police (Scotland) in the aftermath of the 2007 Glasgow Airport attack. He was held hospitalised at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary in a critical condition, after he suffered severe burns in the attack. He had suffered burns to 90% of his body, and was not expected to survive—he had already been revived twice by 4 July. \"The Sun\" reported Britain's National Health Service was paying over £5,000 a day to keep him alive, while security sources said this amount reaches £30,000 when security costs are included.\n\nSection::::Death.\n", "BULLET::::- Terrorism insurance provides protection against any loss or damage caused by terrorist activities. In the United States in the wake of 9/11, the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act 2002 (TRIA) set up a federal program providing a transparent system of shared public and private compensation for insured losses resulting from acts of terrorism. The program was extended until the end of 2014 by the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act 2007 (TRIPRA).\n", "BULLET::::- Former NYPD Chief of Detectives William Allee (died May 24, 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- NYPD Detective Luis Alvarez (died June 29, 2019)\n\nSection::::Vulnerable individuals.:First responders.:Legal.\n", "According to the Geneva Convention, military medical facilities, equipment and personnel are non-combatants and may not be attacked as long as they remain in a non combatant role. Medical personnel are allowed weapons for the purpose of self- and patient-defense.\n\nSection::::Army Battalion Surgeon.\n", "Hospitals in southern Israel have been damaged by Qassam rockets from Gaza, and ambulances have been delayed by Palestinians pelting them with rocks. In 2012, a Palestinian man admitted to poisoning a Jewish family, causing two adults and two children to be hospitalized.\n\nSection::::Effects on children.:Medical care.:Palestinian.\n", "As a measure against system abuse, the SAMU physician may refuse to sign the patient's \"treatment certificate\", resulting in the patient being liable for the full cost of services provided, although in practice, this is rarely done. Most French citizens also carry private health insurance in order to cover all co-payment charges.\n", "During the Syrian Civil War a naturalized U.S. citizen of Bosnian origin joined ISIL and died while fighting. In 2015 six Bosnian residents of the U.S. were charged with providing material support for terrorism. The six sent funds ranging from $150 to $1,850, and also \"U.S. military uniforms, tactical clothes and gear, combat boots, military surplus supplies and other items from businesses in St. Louis\" in August 2013.\n" ]	[ "If you're a victim of a terror attack, you can possibly evade paying medical bills. " ]	[ "Just because you suffered an unfortunate event, doesn't mean you don't have to pay for treatment." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If you're a victim of a terror attack, you can possibly evade paying medical bills. ", "If you're a victim of a terror attack, you can possibly evade paying medical bills. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Just because you suffered an unfortunate event, doesn't mean you don't have to pay for treatment.", "Just because you suffered an unfortunate event, doesn't mean you don't have to pay for treatment." ]
2018-00747	How do people develop different laughs?	I definitely won't provide the scientific answer you may be looking for, but a personal experience. Growing up I HATED my laugh, it was obnoxious and made people uncomfortable. Over time I would practice what I wanted my laugh to sound like. Training myself, at first, by myself just watching tv/movies that made me laugh. Eventually around close friends and... Well I can't place an exact pinpoint on when the full 'transformation' occurred but it felt like maybe over a year later. I had my desired laugh down to muscle memory. The only time the original laugh slips out is when I'm right there on the fence of blacking out drunk. By that point though I don't care and this doesn't occur enough to cause concern.	[ "Section::::Development.:Normal aging.\n", "There are a few main regions of the human brain associated with humor and laughter. The production of laughter involves two primary brain pathways, one for involuntary and one for voluntary laughter (i.e., Duchenne and non-Duchenne laughter). Involuntary laughter is usually emotionally driven and includes key emotional brain areas such as the amygdala, thalamic areas, and the brainstem. Voluntary laughter, however, begins in the premotor opercular area in the temporal lobe and moves to the motor cortex and pyramidal tract before moving to the brainstem. Wild et al. (2003) propose that the generation of laughter is mostly influenced by neural pathways that go from the premotor and motor cortex to the ventral side of the brainstem through the cerebral peduncles. It is also suggested that real laughter is not produced from the motor cortex, but that the normal inhibition of cortical frontal areas stops during laughter.\n", "A normal laugh has the structure of \"ha-ha-ha\" or \"ho-ho-ho.\" It is unnatural, and one is physically unable, to have a laugh structure of \"ha-ho-ha-ho.\" The usual variations of a laugh most often occur in the first or final note in a sequence- therefore, \"ho-ha-ha\" or \"ha-ha-ho\" laughs are possible. Normal note durations with unusually long or short \"inter-note intervals\" do not happen due to the result of the limitations of our vocal cords. This basic structure allows one to recognize a laugh despite individual variants.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nThe understanding of humor, humor production, and functionality of humor, evolves in the course of a lifetime and is essentially determined by cognitive, verbal and social abilities. Differences in humor appreciation are seen between individuals and can be attributed to the development of the neural systems underlying humor cognition during early childhood, which can continue through normal aging. Recent investigations have emphasized the importance of the prefrontal cortex for humor processing. Changes to the prefrontal cortex, a consequence of normal aging, can be traced to changes in the ways individuals appreciate humor.\n\nSection::::Development.:Early age.\n", "Section::::Development.:Old age and pathology.\n", "Provine argues that \"Laughter is primitive, an unconscious vocalization.\" Provine argues that it probably is genetic. In a study of the \"Giggle Twins\", two happy twins who were separated at birth and only reunited 43 years later, Provine reports that \"until they met each other, neither of these exceptionally happy ladies had known anyone who laughed as much as they did.\" They reported this even though they both had been brought together by their adoptive parents, who they indicated were \"undemonstrative and dour.\" He indicates that the twins \"inherited some aspects of their laugh sound and pattern, readiness to laugh, and maybe even taste in humor.\"\n", "Section::::Development.:Early age.:Mirth response test.\n", "The psychologist has been very active in the research of humour. He has collaborated with the linguists Raskin and Attardo on their General Theory of Verbal Humour (GTVH) classification system. Their goal is to empirically test both the six autonomous classification types (KRs) and the hierarchical ordering of these KRs. Advancement in this direction would be a win-win for both fields of study; linguistics would have empirical verification of this multi-dimensional classification system for jokes, and psychology would have a standardised joke classification with which they could develop verifiably comparable measurement tools.\n\nSection::::Joke and humour research.:Linguistics.\n", "Section::::Development.:Old age and pathology.:Parkinson's disease.\n", "Section::::Sociological factors.:Social transformation model.\n", "Functional MRI and PET studies further illuminate which parts of the brain are participating in the experience of humor. A study by Ozawa et al. (2000) found that, when participants heard sentences that they rated as humorous, the Broca's area and the middle frontal gyrus were activated. Additionally, Wernicke's area and the transverse temporal gyri were activated, but these areas also were also found to be active in control (non-humorous) conditions.\n", "When the electrical activity of the brain is measured during and after hearing a joke, a prominent response can be seen approximately 300ms after the punchline, followed by a depolarization about 100ms later. The fact that humor response occurs in two separate waves of activity supports the idea that humor processing occurs in two stages.\n", "The General Theory of Verbal Humour or GTVH, developed by the linguists Victor Raskin and Salvatore Attardo, attempts to do exactly this. This classification system was developed specifically for jokes and later expanded to include longer types of humorous narratives. Six different aspects of the narrative, labelled Knowledge Resources or KRs, can be evaluated largely independently of each other, and then combined into a concatenated classification label. These six KRs of the joke structure include: \n", "Humor styles\n\nHumor styles are a topic of research in the field of personality psychology related to the ways in which individuals differ in their use of humor in everyday life. People of all ages and backgrounds engage in humor, but the way they use it can vary greatly. Although humor styles can vary slightly depending on the situation, they tend to be a relatively stable personality characteristic among individuals. That is, individuals are fairly consistent in the ways they use humor over time.\n", "Induction of laughter through direct brain stimulation has been reported in a number of studies, and includes areas such as ACC, globus pallidus, floor of the third ventricle, and most recently left superior frontal gyrus – though these results are hard to draw inferences from (may be inhibitory, may be artefacts, etc.) Because the nature of laughter is so complex—involving facial muscles, respiratory actions, etc.--a control center has been hypothesized in the upper pons.\n\nSection::::Areas.:Play research.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.\n", "It has been claimed that Freud's division is artificial and not very clear. According to Altman (2006), these divisions are more semantic than functional. Hence, all three types of humor may be the result of the dynamic of the conscious and unconscious. For example, hate and anger can be hidden by a false sense of love and compassion, which could be the opposite of what was meant, and which could formulate a joke.\n", "Section::::Joke cycles.:Ethnic jokes.\n", "Section::::Humor recognition in the brain.:Functional behavior.\n", "Section::::Humor recognition in the brain.:Role of the frontal lobe.\n", "Section::::The Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ).:Affiliative humor.\n", "The cognitive component of humor is clearly exemplified during the years of childhood, which is characterized by evolving cognitive structures. As a child advances from one degree of cognition to the next, what is considered humorous and what is not should also manifest a meaningful progression. Understanding any particular joke may call upon an array of cognitive processes such as condensations, awareness of incongruities (the cognitive component), and the ability to comprehend unusual verbal representations. The intrinsic gratification involved in the brain activity underlying humor is also encountered in mental activities such as solving puzzles and decoding mysteries.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Non-verbal.\n", "Section::::Linguistic analysis.:Prosodic features.\n\nThere are many folk theories of how people deliver punchlines, such as punchlines being louder and at a higher pitch than the speech preceding it, or a dramatic pause before the punchline is delivered. In laboratory settings, however, none of these changes are employed at a statistically significant level in the production of humorous narratives. Rather, the pitch and loudness of the punchline are comparable to those of the ending of any narrative, humorous or not.\n\nSection::::Linguistic analysis.:Jokes without a punch line.\n", "There are many theories of humor which attempt to explain what humor is, what social functions it serves, and what would be considered humorous. Among the prevailing types of theories that attempt to account for the existence of humor, there are psychological theories, the vast majority of which consider humor to be very healthy behavior; there are spiritual theories, which consider humor to be an inexplicable mystery, very much like a mystical experience. Although various classical theories of humor and laughter may be found, in contemporary academic literature, three theories of humor appear repeatedly: relief theory, superiority theory, and incongruity theory. Among current humor researchers, there is no consensus about which of these three theories of humor is most viable. Proponents of each one originally claimed their theory to be capable of explaining all cases of humor. However, they now acknowledge that although each theory generally covers its own area of focus, many instances of humor can be explained by more than one theory. Incongruity and superiority theories, for instance, seem to describe complementary mechanisms which together create humor.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15212	What are the major challenges in creating synthetic or lab grown cartilage to help treat arthritis and back problems?	The first major challenge is making the cartilage itself. You could grow human cartilage in a lab, but the cost would be astronomical. The far easier route would be a synthetic alternative, which probably wouldn't be exceptionally difficult as far as these things go, though I imagine animal cartilage would be even easier. The bigger challenge and the fundamental flaw in this approach is actually getting the cartilage where it needs to be. It would require extremely invasive surgery to separate the bones somehow attach new cartilage in each joint where arthritis is present. I don't know if that would be even possible, but undoubtedly the solution, in this case, would be much worse than the problem	[ "Section::::Future work.\n\nIn terms of future work, there is still a lot to be done in this field. Artificial cartilage is a new research topic and much is still unknown. There is a lot of unknown factors involving ASCPs and more studies need to be conducted to make a more supported conclusion about the regenerative functions of ASCPs. Additionally, growth factors have been thoroughly evaluated, however specific combinations still need to be studied further in order to more effectively generate a tissue that can mimic the properties of natural cartilage.\n", "In a 2 to 12 year follow-up of 125 patients, pain, functioning, and activity measures improved in 82% of patients. Eighteen of the 125 patients (14.4%) were considered failures. Histologically, 42 of 66 (63.6%) of biopsies showed strong evidence of replacement of their articular surface, and 18 of 66 biopsies (27.3%) showed development of normal looking hyaline cartilage.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "Vacanti and his brother Joseph successfully used the same technique to grow a chest plate for a 12-year-old boy, Sean McCormack, who had been born without cartilage or bone over his heart and left lung. In 1998, the team at Massachusetts led by Vacanti grew a replacement thumb bone using a scaffold of coral for a man, Raul Murcia, whose thumb had been crushed. The work was approved by the FDA, but they did not approve also growing cartilage and tendons. Vacanti also grew a new trachea for a 14-year-old girl.\n", "Section::::Artificial cartilage.\n\nSynthetic cartilage can be composed of many different materials that mimic its functional properties. Tissue engineering principles include the use of cells, growth factors, and synthetic scaffolds in order to do this.\n\nSection::::Artificial cartilage.:Components.\n", "Until recently, the use of cultured mesenchymal stem cells to regenerate cartilage has been primarily in research with animal models. There are now, however, two published case reports of the above technique being used to successfully regenerate articular and meniscus cartilage in human knees. This technique has yet to be shown effective in a study involving a larger group of patients, however the same team of researchers have published a large safety study (n=227) showing fewer complications than would normally be associated with surgical procedures.\n", "Because of their multi-potent capabilities, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) lineages have been used successfully in animal models to regenerate articular cartilage and in human models to regenerate bone. Recent research demonstrates that articular cartilage may be able to be repaired via percutaneous introduction of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC's).\n\nSection::::Current research.\n\nResearch into MSC's has exploded in recent years. As an example, a PubMed search for the year 1999 reveals about 90 papers published under the MESH heading of “Mesenchymal Stem Cells”, the same search ran for the year 2007 reveals more than 4,000 entries.\n", "Clinical application is extremely important to consider when looking at the efficacy of artificial cartilage. The recent clinical approaches for cartilage regeneration in Osteoarthritis treatment is described below.\n\nSection::::Clinical applications.:MSC based therapy.\n\nIn certain studies, matrix-induces mesenchymal stem cell implantation showed earlier clinical improvements when compared to simple implantation of chondrocytes. The MSCs promoted cartilage regeneration in knees that had osteoarthritis and also reduced pain and disability.\n\nSection::::Clinical applications.:PVP/PVA hydrogels for articular cartilage replacement.\n", "BULLET::::- The trephine is removed and the articular cartilage and cancellous bone is morselized in a graft impactor\n\nBULLET::::- The graft paste is re-loaded into the trephine and impacted into the fractured bed of the chondral defect\n\nBULLET::::- The paste graft is held in place for 1 to 2 minutes\n\nPostoperatively, patients are requested to use a continuous passive motion machine for 6 hours a night for 4 weeks. If the defect is in a weight-bearing region, weight-bearing is restricted for 4 weeks. A guided physical therapy program begins on postoperative day 1.\n\nSection::::Results.\n", "Saw and his team are currently conducting a larger randomized trial and working towards beginning a multicenter study. The work of the Malaysian research team is gaining international attention.\n\nSection::::Different articular cartilage repair procedures.:Osteochondral Autografts and Allografts.\n", "Osteoarthritis is caused by mechanical factors such as joint trauma and mechanical overloading of joints or joint-instability. Since the degeneration of cartilage is an irreversible phenomenon, it is incurable, costly and responds poorly to treatment. Due to the prevalence of this disease, the repair and regeneration of articular cartilage has become a dominant area of research. The growing number of the people suffering from osteoarthritis and the effectiveness of the current treatments attract a great deal of attention to genetic-based therapeutic methods to treat the progression of this chronic disease.\n\nSection::::Vectors for osteoarthritis gene delivery.\n", "Section::::Mesenchymal stem cell applications.\n", "See also Autologous Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplant for Cartilage Growth\n\nSection::::The importance of rehabilitation in articular cartilage repair.\n", "Articular cartilage stem cell paste grafting\n\nCartilage repair techniques are the current focus of large amounts of research. Many different strategies have been proposed as solutions for cartilage defects. Surgical techniques currently being studied include:\n\nBULLET::::- bone marrow stimulation\n\nBULLET::::- osteochondral autograft transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- osteochondral allograft transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- autologous chondrocyte implantation\n\nBULLET::::- cell-based (using chondrocytes or stem-cells) or acellular scaffolding\n\nArticular cartilage stem cell paste grafting is another technique in use and is undergoing continued investigation.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Though articular cartilage damage is not life-threatening, it does strongly affect the quality of life. Articular cartilage damage is often the cause of severe pain, swellings, strong barriers to mobility and severe restrictions to the patient's activities. Over the last decades, however, surgeons and biotech ventures have elaborated promising procedures that contribute to articular cartilage repair.\n", "For years, the concept of harvesting stem cells and re-implanting them into one's own body to regenerate organs and tissues has been embraced and researched in animal models. In particular, mesenchymal stem cells have been shown in animal models to regenerate cartilage[1]. Recently, there has been a published case report of decrease in knee pain in a single individual using autologous mesenchymal stem cells.[2]An advantage to this approach is that a person's own stem cells are used, avoiding transmission of genetic diseases. It is also minimally invasive, minimally painful and has a very short recovery period. This alternative to the current available treatments was shown not to cause cancer in patients who were followed for 3 years after the procedure.\n", "Section::::Natural cartilage.\n\nThere are three types of cartilage in the human body: fibrocartilage, hyaline cartilage and elastic cartilage. Each type of cartilage has varying concentrations of components such as proteoglycans, collagen and water which determine its functional properties and location in the body. Fibrocartilage is most often found in the intervertebral discs, elastic cartilage is found in the external ear and hyaline cartilage is found on many joint surfaces in the body. Replacement of hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage) is the most common application of synthetic cartilage.\n\nSection::::Natural cartilage.:Articular cartilage.\n", "Because mesenchymal stem cells may regenerate cartilage, cartilage growth in human knees using autologous cultured mesenchymal stem cells is under research and preliminary clinical use, and appears to be safe as of 2016. An advantage to this approach is that a person's own stem cells are used, avoiding tissue rejection by the immune system. Stem cells enable surgeons to grow replacement cartilage, which gives the new tissue greater growth potential. While there are few long-term studies as of 2018, a history of knee problems and body weight are factors for how well the procedure will work.\n", "Section::::Veterinary medicine.:Ligament and tendon repair.:Joint repair.\n\nOsteoarthritis is the main cause of joint pain both in animals and humans. Horses and dogs are most frequently affected by arthritis. Natural cartilage regeneration is very limited. Different types of mesenchymal stem cells and other additives are still being researched to find the best type of cell and method for long-term treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Cells: Chondrocytes are an obvious choice to use in the regeneration of cartilage due to their ability to secrete collagen and other ECM components necessary for the functional properties of cartilage. Chondrocytes can be harvested from a non-weight bearing joint space of an individual and cultured. Unfortunately, chondrocytes harvested from individuals may dedifferentiate and lose their properties. Additionally, aging chondrocytes show less metabolic activity and may not produce functional proteins or not enough functional proteins to create a desired ECM. Mesenchymal stem cells can also be used to create chondrocytes and make cartilage regeneration possible.\n", "Marrow nucleated cells are used every day in regenerative orthopedics. The knee microfracture surgery technique relies on the release of these cells into a cartilage lesion to initiate fibrocartilage repair in osteochondral defects. In addition, this cell population has also been shown to assist in the repair of non-union fractures. For this application, bed side centrifugation is commonly used. Again, these techniques produce a very dilute MSC population, usually a yield of 1 in 10,000–1,000,000 of the nucleated cells. Despite this low number of MSC's, isolated bone marrow nucleated cells implanted into degenerated human peripheral joints have shown some promise for joint repair. \n", "The choice of the sub-periosteum site is used because stimulation of the cambium layer using transforming growth factor–beta resulted in enhanced chondrogenesis, i.e., formation of cartilage. In development the formation of bone can either occur via a Cartilage template initially formed by the MSCs that then gets ossified through a process called endochondral ossification or directly from MSC differentiation to bone via a process termed \"intra-membranous ossification\". Upon exposure of the periosteal cells to calcium from the alginate gel, these cells become bone cells and start producing bone matrix through the intra-membranous ossification process, recapitulating all steps of bone matrix deposition. The extension of the IVB paradigm to engineering autologous hyaline cartilage was also recently demonstrated. In this case, agarose is injected and this triggers local hypoxia, which then results in the differentiation of the periosteal MSCs into articular chondrocytes, i.e. cells similar to those found in the joint cartilage. Since this processes occurs in a relative short period of less than two weeks and cartilage can remodel into bone, this approach might provide some advantages in treatment of both cartilage and bone loss. The IVB concept needs to be however realized in humans and this is currently being undertaken.\n", "In a 1994 trial, Swedish doctors repaired damaged knee joints by implanting cells cultured from the patient's own cartilage. In 1999 US chemists created an artificial liquid cartilage for use in repairing torn tissue. The cartilage is injected into a wound or damaged joint and will harden with exposure to ultraviolet light.\n\nSection::::Synthetic cartilage.\n\nResearchers say their lubricating layers of \"molecular brushes\" can outperform nature under the highest pressures encountered within joints, with potentially important implications for joint replacement surgery.\n", "Section::::Different articular cartilage repair procedures.:Cell Based Repairs.\n\nAiming to obtain the best possible results, scientists have striven to replace damaged articular cartilage with healthy articular cartilage. Previous repair procedures, however, always generated fibrocartilage or, at best, a combination of hyaline and fibrocartilage repair tissue. Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) procedures are cell-based repairs that aim to achieve a repair consisting of healthy articular cartilage.\n", "least 36 months. “The sustained benefits on pain and function over three years seen with a single injection of Mesoblast’s cell therapy have the potential to transform the treatment paradigm for chronic low back pain due to disc degeneration,” said trial investigator Dr Hyun Bae, Professor of Surgery and Director of Education at the Cedars Sinai Spine Center, and Director of the Spine Institute in Los Angeles, CA. “Instead of replacing or fusing the disc, there is mounting compelling evidence that we can use this regenerative medicine to heal the disc. We are fast approaching this inflection point in the treatment of low back pain, which is particularly important in view of the epidemic of opioid abuse.\"\n", "The aim of an articular cartilage repair treatment is to restore the surface of an articular joint's hyaline cartilage. Over the last decades, surgeons and researchers have been working hard to elaborate surgical cartilage repair interventions. Though these solutions do not perfectly \"restore\" articular cartilage, some of the latest technologies start to bring very promising results in \"repairing\" cartilage from traumatic injuries or chondropathies. These treatments are especially targeted by patients who suffer from articular cartilage damage. They provide pain relief while at the same time slowing down the progression of damage or considerably delaying joint replacement (knee replacement) surgery. Articular cartilage repair treatments help patients to return to their original lifestyle; regaining mobility, going back to work and even practicing sports again.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04398	Why does Steam Burn but Not Smoke?	Smoke is what’s left after the hot reaction (fire), Steam is water so hot it started to jump out of the pot. A little more in depth... the steam is a physical phase change of water from being sticky to being gassy, while fire is an chemical reaction that just so happens to also produce heat while it’s doing so. The flame itself would be more analogous to steam.	[ "As early as the 15th century Leonardo da Vinci commented at length on the difficulty of assessing smoke, and distinguished between black smoke (carbonized particles) and white 'smoke' which is not a smoke at all but merely a suspension of harmless water particulates.\n\nSmoke from heating appliances is commonly measured in one of the following ways:\n", "For example, if the vapor's partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If the humidity is increased at room temperature, for example, by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about the same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change, and then condenses out as minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Types of steam and conversions.\n\nSteam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, but it is also possible to create steam with solar energy. Water vapor that includes water droplets is described as \"wet steam\". As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates and the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium.\n", "Section::::Spark arrestors.\n\nLocomotives built in Great Britain, where coke was the most common fuel, often used chimneys of cast iron, as they lasted longer than chimneys fabricated from sheet metal. Early North American locomotives often used wood fuel; and large numbers of glowing embers were carried through the boiler and out of the chimney by high velocity exhaust steam. Spark arrestors became a common feature of wood-burning locomotive chimneys to reduce the number of fires started by escaped embers. The difficulty of casting complex spark arrestors encouraged fabrication of sheet metal chimneys for wood-burning locomotives.\n", "Steam\n\nSteam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils or evaporates. Steam is invisible; however, \"steam\" often refers to wet steam, the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as this water vapour condenses. At lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam. \n", "Section::::Production.\n\nThe condensed products from the destructive distillation of wood are called \"liquid smoke\" or \"pyroligneous acid\". There are no standards of identity, prescribed production methods, or tests which distinguish between liquid smoke and pyroligneous acid; they can be considered to be the same. However, the numerous variables that are manipulated during pyrolysis do lead to a wide range of compositions of the condensates. In addition, implementation of many further processing steps by concentration, dilution, distillation, extraction, and use of food additives has led to the many hundreds of unique products on the market worldwide.\n", "Coal briquettes have long been produced as a means of using up 'small coal', the finely broken coal inevitably produced during the mining process. Otherwise this is difficult to burn as it is both hard to arrange adequate airflow through a fire of these small pieces, also it tended to be drawn up and out of the chimney by the draught, giving visible black smoke.\n", "Section::::Types.:Clayton.\n", "During the early days of passenger railroading, cars were heated by a wood or coal fired stove—if any heat was provided at all. It was difficult to evenly heat the long, drafty cars. Passengers near the stove often found it uncomfortably hot, while those further away faced a cold ride. The stoves were also a safety hazard. Often cars were ignited by embers from the stove, especially in a wreck, when a dislodged stove would overturn, dumping burning coals into the car.\n\nSection::::Background.:High pressure steam.\n", "The boiler is fundamentally made up of 3 circuits: water/steam, air/smoke and boiler dust (ash). Each circuit’s function is indispensable and complementary to the others. The water/steam circuit’s function was to transform the liquid water into steam; the air/smoke circuit was of great importance, since the better or worse use of the circuit was reflected in the variation in the boiler’s output; and finally, the ash circuit, from where unburned coal and ash resulting from the boiler’s combustion were recovered.\n", "Section::::Railways.\n\nOn steam locomotives, firemen were not usually responsible for initially preparing locomotives and lighting their fires. As a locomotive boiler takes several hours to heat up, and a too-rapid fire-raising can cause excess wear on a boiler, this task was usually performed by fire lighters working some hours before the fireman's main shift started. Only on small railways, or on narrow-gauge locomotives with smaller and faster-warming boilers, was the fire lit by the fireman. \n", "Boiler\n\nA boiler is a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.\n\nSection::::Heat sources.\n", "Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. NOx species appear in significant amounts above about , and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of NOx is also a function of oxygen excess.\n", "A smokebox is one of the major basic parts of a steam locomotive exhaust system. Smoke and hot gases pass from the firebox through tubes where they pass heat to the surrounding water in the boiler. The smoke then enters the smokebox, and is exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney (or funnel). Early locomotives had no smokebox and relied on a long chimney to provide natural draught for the fire but smokeboxes were soon included in the design for two main reasons. Firstly and most importantly, the blast of exhaust steam from the cylinders, when directed upwards through an airtight smokebox with an appropriate design of exhaust nozzle, effectively draws hot gases through the boiler tubes and flues and, consequently, fresh combustion air into the firebox. Secondly, the smokebox provides a convenient collection point for ash and cinders (\"char\") drawn through the boiler tubes, which can be easily cleaned out at the end of a working day. Without a smokebox, all char must pass up the chimney or will collect in the tubes and flues themselves, gradually blocking them.\n", "Again like the \"Lancashire Witch\", the pistons were connected directly to the driving wheels, an arrangement which is found in subsequent steam locomotives.\n\nSection::::Design.:Innovations.:Separate firebox.\n\nThe firebox was separate from the boiler and was double walled, with a water jacket between them. Stephenson recognised that the hottest part of the boiler, and thus the most effective for evaporating water, was that surrounding the fire itself. This firebox was heated by radiant heat from the glowing coke, not just convection from the hot exhaust gas.\n", "Section::::Types.:Liquid Smoke.\n\nLiquid smoke, a product derived from smoke compounds in water, is applied to foods through spraying or dipping.\n\nSection::::Types.:Smoke roasting.\n", "Section::::Generation and delivery.:Vaporizers and direct liquid injection.\n\nVaporizers atomize water and then combust the small droplets into molecular water. The heat of vaporization is very high and the ability to the get the energy to the water molecule is limited by the heater transfer rate through the vaporizer plate and the carrier gas that is mixed in with the water vapor. In addition, the water is aggressive and can corrode the vaporizer internal components, leading to long term stability and reliability issues.\n", "Section::::Atmospheric condensing engines.:Watt's separate condenser.\n", "In a second stage combustion chamber, more fuel is injected and ignited. As a result of this process, all oxygen is consumed, and what remains is an inert gas.\n\nThis process takes place in a 7 meter long combustion tube, which is cooled by water. The heated water is injected at the end of the cooling tube, and consequently the water is turned into water vapor and steam.\n\nAs a result, the Steamexfire produces up to 25 cubic meters of inert steam and water vapor per second.\n\nThe fore runner of the Steamexfire is called the GAG unit.\n", "The most famous such steam rings were those produced during the mid-20th century by Douglas Leigh's billboard on the Hotel Claridge in New York City's Times Square, advertising Camel cigarettes. An automated steam chamber behind the billboard produced puffs of steam every four seconds, giving the appearance of smoke rings leaving the smoker's open mouth and drifting away. Inspired by a World War II-era prohibition on lighted advertising, the Camel smoker remained a Times Square landmark long afterward.\n", "Aerosol of particles beyond visible size is an early indicator of materials in a preignition stage of a fire.\n\nBurning of hydrogen-rich fuel produces water; this results in smoke containing droplets of water vapor. In absence of other color sources (nitrogen oxides, particulates...), such smoke is white and cloud-like.\n\nSmoke emissions may contain characteristic trace elements. Vanadium is present in emissions from oil fired power plants and refineries; oil plants also emit some nickel. Coal combustion produces emissions containing aluminium, arsenic, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, mercury, selenium, and uranium.\n", "Soon after the power of the steam blast was discovered it became apparent that a smokebox was needed beneath the chimney, to provide a space in which the exhaust gases emerging from the boiler tubes can mix with the steam. This had the added advantage of allowing access to collect the ash drawn through the fire tubes by the draught. The blastpipe, from which steam is emitted, was mounted directly beneath the chimney at the bottom of the smokebox.\n", "Naval ships typically were able to generate a large volume of smoke by changing the fuel mix. Prior to the heavy use of radar, a smoke screen could be used to mask the movement of ships (although smoke screens produced by smoke generators were also used). Coal in particular produced a large amount of black smoke, depending on the grade of coal; generally, the smallest amount of smoke was the most desirable, as it made the vessel harder to spot on the horizon.\n\nSection::::Damage control.\n", "The chimney was usually located above the smokebox at the leading end of the locomotive, furthest away from the driver's cab and firebox. The earliest locomotive chimneys were typically tall enough to sustain temperature-induced density difference draught through a fire-tube boiler while the locomotive was stationary; but following the example of Richard Trevithick's first locomotive in 1804, most designs diverted steam cylinder exhaust upward through the chimney to create a vacuum in the smokebox and accelerate airflow through the firebox while the locomotive was in motion.\n" ]	[ "Steam and smoke are similar and comparable. " ]	[ "Steam and smoke are not comparable because steam is physical change, and smoke is what is left over after a chemical reaction. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Steam and smoke are similar and comparable. ", "Steam and smoke are similar and comparable. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Steam and smoke are not comparable because steam is physical change, and smoke is what is left over after a chemical reaction. ", "Steam and smoke are not comparable because steam is physical change, and smoke is what is left over after a chemical reaction. " ]
2018-06269	What are the consequences of Sinclair Broadcasting Group controlling so many stations?	Democracy only works if the electorate is informed. If all sources of information are actually a single source, that source could be corrupted and it would be very difficult to actually have an informed electorate. The freedom of the press is an illusion if all of our "trusted, local" news sources are actually the tentacles of a national or multinational media conglomerate.	[ "Section::::Political views.:\"Stolen Honor\" documentary.\n", "Sinclair's stations have been known for featuring news content and programming that promote conservative political positions, and have been involved in various controversies surrounding politically-motivated programming decisions, such as news coverage and specials during the lead-ups to elections that were in support of the Republican Party. A 2019 study by Emory University political scientists Gregory J. Martin and Josh McCrain in the \"American Political Science Review\" found that \"stations bought by Sinclair reduce coverage of local politics, increase national coverage and move the ideological tone of coverage in a conservative direction relative to other stations operating in the same market.\"\n", "Section::::Political views.:2012 pre-election special.\n", "Section::::History.:Sinclair Broadcast Group.:2014–16.\n", "Section::::Political views.:Coverage during the 2016 presidential election campaign.\n", "BULLET::::- Howard Stirk Holdings is a licensing holding company formed to acquire certain television stations formerly owned by Barrington Broadcasting. It is owned by Armstrong Williams, founder and CEO of communications firm The Graham Williams Group.\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury Broadcasting Company – a company that previously maintained local marketing agreements for its two stations with other companies; Sinclair took over the agreements for the stations in 2013. Sinclair purchased one of them outright, while its Wichita station KMTW remains under Mercury ownership, albeit operated by Sinclair under an LMA.\n\nSection::::Affiliated companies.:Cunningham Broadcasting.\n", "On July 1, 2017, Sinclair launched a new daily morning kids' TV block called KidsClick, partnering with This TV. The block was moved to TBD in 2018, and was eventually shut down 8 months later due to low ratings.\n\nSection::::Political views.\n", "Section::::History.:Sinclair Broadcast Group.:2017–present.\n", "Section::::History.:Acquisition by Sinclair Broadcast Group.\n", "In March 2018, CNN chief media analyst Brian Stelter obtained an internal memorandum sent by Sinclair, which dictated that its stations must produce and broadcast an \"anchor-delivered journalistic responsibility message\" using a mandated script. The promos contain language decrying “biased and false news”, and accusing unnamed mainstream media figures of bias. Stelter states that the script is written to sound like it's the opinion of the local anchors, despite the text being in fact a mandate from corporate management. At least 66 Sinclair-owned stations produced their own version of the message, with the first being aired on March 23, 2018. Sinclair-owned WMSN-TV refused to air the message (although its news is produced by Morgan Murphy Media-owned WISC-TV).\n", "Section::::Retransmission disputes.:Mediacom.\n", "Section::::History.:Acquisition by Sinclair.\n", "At times, Sinclair has disciplined hosts who have stepped over the line regarding propriety; for example, its host Jamie Allman, from station KDNL in St. Louis, resigned and his show was canceled after he said of Parkland student-turned-activist David Hogg that he was \"getting ready to ram a hot poker up David Hogg's ass.\"\n\nSection::::Political views.:Must-run segments.\n", "As early as January 2013, Sinclair was looking at forming a new subsidiary group for its smaller-market stations. With the February 2013 announcement of the company's purchase of Barrington Broadcasting, Sinclair announced the formation of a subsidiary for this purpose, Chesapeake Television, to be headed by Steve Pruett (former CEO of Communications Corporation of America and the current chairman of the Fox network's affiliate board). The four stations, as well as a fifth acquired through an LMA, that Sinclair purchased from Cox Media Group and the Barrington stations formed the initial nuclei of the group.\n\nSection::::Other holdings.:Sinclair Television Group.\n", "Section::::Political views.:\"Breaking Point\" infomercial.\n", "Section::::Sinclair stations.\n\nMost of the television stations run by Sinclair are owned by the company outright; however, the company operates many others through either a local marketing agreements or shared services agreements. The company's stations are affiliates of various television networks, like ABC, CBS, NBC and Fox.\n", "In May 2017, in response to Sinclair's announced intent to acquire Tribune Media, Craig Aaron, president/CEO of media advocacy group Free Press, accused Sinclair of currying favor with the Trump administration through the interview arrangement with Trump, the group's February hiring of former Trump campaign aide Boris Epshteyn as a political analyst, and executive chair David Smith's meetings with then-FCC commissioner Ajit Pai prior to his appointment as the agency's chair in exchange for deregulating media ownership rules to allow the company to expand its broadcasting portfolio.\n\nSection::::Political views.:2018 journalistic responsibility promos.\n", "Section::::History.:Sinclair Broadcast Group.\n\nSection::::History.:Sinclair Broadcast Group.:1985–2010.\n\nSmith's son David D. Smith began taking a more active role in the company in the 1980s. In 1985, the Chesapeake Television Corporation changed its name to the Sinclair Broadcast Group. In 1990, David Smith and his three brothers bought their parents' remaining stock and went on a buying spree that eventually made it one of the largest station owners in the country, through the purchases of groups such as Act III Broadcasting (in 1995) and River City Broadcasting (in 1996).\n", "Following the approval of Sinclair's purchase of Allbritton, commissioner Ajit Pai further criticized the FCC's new policies and its endorsement of Sinclair's proposal to shut down stations to comply with them. Describing the three Allbritton stations as being \"victims\" of the \"crackdown\" against joint sales agreements, he stated regarding WCIV that \"apparently the Commission believes that it is better for that station to go out of business than for Howard Stirk Holdings to own the station and participate in a joint sales agreement with Sinclair. I strongly disagree. And so too, I'll bet, would consumers in Charleston.\" In September 2014, Sinclair backtracked on its original plans, and reached deals to sell WCIV, WCFT and WJSU's license assets to Howard Stirk Holdings for $50,000 each and lease them studio space, pending FCC approval. Unlike Howard Stirk Holdings' other stations, they are operated and programmed independently, and Sinclair did not enter into any agreements to operate the stations on HSH's behalf.\n", "In April 2017, Sinclair announced it had hired Boris Epshteyn, who was briefly the White House assistant communications director for surrogate operations for the Trump administration, and a senior advisor of Donald Trump's presidential campaign, as chief political analyst. All Sinclair stations are required to air Ephsteyn's commentary nine times per week.\n", "Section::::History.:Acquisition by Sinclair.\n", "Section::::Other holdings.\n\nBULLET::::- Sinclair Networks, LLC – a company created by Sinclair in January 2014, with the hiring of its chief operating officer Doron Gorshein. The company runs:\n\nBULLET::::- American Sports Network/Stadium, an ad-hoc sports programming distributor and multicast network announced on July 17, 2014.\n\nBULLET::::- Charge! (2016) action multicast network\n\nBULLET::::- Comet (2015) sci-fi multicast network\n\nBULLET::::- TBD (2016) short form multicast network\n\nBULLET::::- YES Network (2019) regional sports network acquired in 2019 alongside the Amazon and Yankee Global Enterprises. Yankee Global Enteprises is the majority owner; Amazon and Sinclair hold minority stakes.\n", "It has been reported that Sinclair had made an agreement with the Trump campaign to be given greater access in exchange for favorable coverage. Solomon said that reporting in many mainstream outlets was \"reckless, false, unfair and imbalanced\".\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "In July 2017, the HBO news comedy program \"Last Week Tonight\" devoted a segment to discussing Sinclair, where host John Oliver presented clips of various anchors using an identical script describing the FBI as having a \"personal vendetta\" against Michael Flynn, clips of Mark Hyman editorials (in which he compared multiculturalism and political correctness to a cancer epidemic, and stated that marriage was a solution to domestic abuse), and joked that the \"Terrorism Alert Desk\" segments defined terrorism as \"anything a Muslim does\". Oliver remarked that he \"did not know it was possible to dip below the journalistic standards of Breitbart\", and felt that it was inappropriate for local newscasts to advance political positions.\n", "Further attention to the content in the Sinclair-syndicated news segments was brought about in April 2018, when Deadspin released a compilation of promotions in which anchors from the group's local news departments and certain unaffiliated stations that maintain news share agreements with Sinclair-run stations read a promotional script disseminated by the company that critics noted had echoed talking points long used by many conservatives (including President Donald Trump) and conservative-focused media outlets (including, most prominently, Fox News Channel) accusing the mainstream media of having a liberal slant in and fabricating their coverage, claiming that such an \"agenda\" is \"dangerous to our democracy.\" (Critics of both mainstream media and the Republican Party in independent media have long criticized statements similar to those made in the promotions for being used as a form of conservative propaganda to delegitimize mainstream media platforms and limit their willingness to report on certain political matters in a factual and objective manner and, in turn, have accused mainstream outlets of being cowed into journalistic neutrality to avoid being perceived as having bias against conservatives.)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19756	Why do leftovers taste different than freshly cooked food?	Foods as they heat and cool change structurally and chemically. They continue to break down over time. Things that are higher in acidity more quickly. Sometimes this is a good thing, as flavors meld and sugars are released (its why spaghetti is always better the second day).	[ "The ultimate use of leftovers depends on where the meal was eaten, preferences of the diner, and the prevailing social culture. People often save home cooking leftovers to eat later. This is facilitated by the private environment and convenience of airtight containers and refrigeration. People may eat some leftover food cold from the refrigerator, or reheated it in a microwave or conventional oven, or mix it with additional ingredients and recooked to make a new dish.\n", "The moisture may be from the food itself or from an added moisture source, such as water, wine, or stock.\n\nThis method is most often used to cook fish or vegetables, but lamb and poultry can also be cooked \"en papillote\". Choice of herbs, seasonings and spices depend on the particular recipe being prepared.\n\nThe pouch should be sealed with careful folding.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.:In Asia.\n", "Harvested foods decompose from the moment they are harvested due to attacks from enzymes, oxidation and microorganisms. These include bacteria, mold, yeast, moisture, temperature and chemical reaction. \n\nSection::::Reasons.:Bacteria.\n\nBacteria are responsible for the spoilage of food. When bacteria breaks down the food, acids and other waste products are created in the process. While the bacteria itself may or may not be harmful, the waste products may be unpleasant to taste or may even be harmful to one's health.\n", "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.\n\nTechniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications.\n\nSection::::Modern industrial techniques.:Pasteurization.\n", "The word \"\", meaning a small scrap of food left after a meal is completed, is not commonly heard in conversation, but is frequently encountered in crossword puzzles.\n\nSection::::Leftover cuisine.\n", "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Jellying.\n", "Carryover cooking\n\nCarryover cooking (sometimes referred to as resting) is when food retains heat and continues to cook even after being removed from the source of heat. Carryover cooking is often used as a finishing step in preparation of foods that are roasted or grilled, and must be accounted for in recipes as it can increase the internal temperature of foods by temperatures between 5 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit (3–14°C). The larger and denser the object being heated, the greater the amount of temperature increase due to carryover cooking.\n", "The decomposition of food, either plant or animal, called \"spoilage\" in this context, is an important field of study within food science. Food decomposition can be slowed down by conservation. The spoilage of meat occurs, if the meat is untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied.\n", "Irradiation can also alter the nutritional content and flavor of foods, much like cooking. The scale of these chemical changes is not unique. Cooking, smoking, salting, and other less novel techniques, cause the food to be altered so drastically that its original nature is almost unrecognizable, and must be called by a different name. Storage of food also causes dramatic chemical changes, ones that eventually lead to deterioration and spoilage.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Immediate effects.:Misconceptions.\n", "Leftovers\n\nLeftovers are the uneaten edible remains of a meal after everyone has finished eating. Food scraps that are not directly edible (such as bones or the skins of some vegetables and fruits) are not regarded as leftovers, but rather as waste material. Some only use \"leftovers\" to refer to extra food that constitutes a meal by itself, not just portions of the original (side-dishes, garnishments, etc.).\n", "The earliest form of curing was dehydration or drying, used as early as 12,000 BC. Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the phenols syringol, guaiacol and catechol. Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria. More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic pink colour.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Cooling.\n", "Besides fermentation, microbial food cultures can act on food products to alter their chemical make-up and provide additional flavors. This is especially true in processes such as the making of blue cheese or aged beef.\n\nSection::::Extraction.\n\nIn the case of beverages, such as the aging of wine, beer, or whiskey, storing the beverage for extended periods of time in wooden casks allows the liquid to extract flavor compounds from the wood itself, adding to the complexity and depth of flavor. Traditional Balsamic Vinegar is aged for years in a succession of oak barrels to extract and concentrate flavors.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Climate also affects the supply of fuel for cooking; a common Chinese food preparation method was cutting food into small pieces to cook foods quickly and conserve scarce firewood and charcoal. Foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties even when these preserving techniques are no longer strictly necessary to the maintenance of an adequate food supply.\n\nSection::::Global and regional dishes.\n", "Preservatives can expand the shelf life of food and can lengthen the time long enough for it to be harvested, processed, sold, and kept in the consumer's home for a reasonable length of time. One of the age old techniques for food preservation, to avoid mold and fungus growth, is the process of drying out the food or dehydrating it. While there is a chance of it developing a fungus targeted towards dried food products, the chances are quite low.\n", "Spices and herbs can be preserved in vinegar for short periods of up to a month without losing flavor, creating a flavoured vinegar.\n", "BULLET::::- Tapa a Philippine food made dried or cured beef, mutton or venison, although other meats or even fish may be used. It's prepared using thin slices of meat that are cured with salt and spices as a method of preserving it.\n\nBULLET::::- Tsamarella a Cypriot traditional food. It consists of meat, usually goat meat, that is salted and cured for preservation. The process of preparation traditionally involves drying in the sun.\n", "The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The browning is caused by caramelization of sugars and the Maillard reaction. Maillard browning occurs when \"sugars break down in the presence of proteins. Because foods contain many different types of sugars and proteins, Maillard browning contributes to the flavour of a wide range of foods, including nuts, roast beef and baked bread.\" The moisture is never entirely \"sealed in\"; over time, an item being baked will become dry. This is often an advantage, especially in situations where drying is the desired outcome, like drying herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.\n", "Spices and herbs are today often sold prepackaged in a way that is convenient for pantry storage. The packaging has dual purposes of both storing and dispensing the spices or herbs. They are sold in small glass or plastic containers or resealable plastic packaging. When spices or herbs are homegrown or bought in bulk, they can be stored at home in glass or plastic containers. They can be stored for extended periods, in some cases for years. However, after 6 months to a year, spices and herbs will gradually lose their flavour as oils they contain will slowly evaporate during storage.\n", "The flavor of aseptically processed food products is minimally changed. Dairy products could have a cooked flavor because of exposure to sulfhydryl groups. The flavor is reduced during storage as the sulfhydryl groups oxidize. Severely treated milk could have a bitter flavor because of proteolysis.\n\nSection::::Effects on food quality.:Color.\n\nDairy products could have changes in color, an effect caused by Maillard browning. This depends on the amount of reducing sugar, the formation of pyralysins and melanoidins, the severity of the treatment, and the storage temperature.\n\nPlant pigments, carotene and betanin, are not affected, while chlorophyll and anthocyanins are minimally reduced.\n", "Drying of foods by leaving them in a low-humidity environment has been used as a food preservation technique for millennia. Air-dried meat such as jerky may have been some of the first preserved foods ever eaten by man. Drying also concentrates flavors in foods by removing water from them.\n\nSection::::Fermentation.\n\nFoods may be aged to allow fermentation to occur, such as in the making of alcoholic beverages, in cheesemaking, in pickling, such as kimchi, and in meat or fish products such as fermented sausage or surströmming.\n\nSection::::Culturing.\n", "Section::::Foods with distinct aftertastes.:Wine.\n", "Section::::Methods of preparation.\n\nFresh meat can be cooked for immediate consumption, or be processed, that is, treated for longer-term preservation and later consumption, possibly after further preparation. Fresh meat cuts or processed cuts may produce iridescence, commonly thought to be due to spoilage but actually caused by structural coloration and diffraction of the light. A common additive to processed meats, both for preservation and because it prevents discoloring, is sodium nitrite, which, however, is also a source of health concerns, because it may form carcinogenic nitrosamines when heated.\n", "Section::::Effects on food quality.:Texture.\n\nMeat is less likely to toughen when aseptically processed, compared to canned products.\n\nFruit juice viscosity is unaffected. Processed sliced fruit and vegetable pieces are softer compared to unprocessed pieces as a result of the solubilization of pectic materials and loss of cell turgor.\n\nSection::::Effects on food quality.:Nutritional value.\n", "The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied. Without the application of preservatives and stabilizers, the fats in meat may also begin to rapidly decompose after cooking or processing, leading to an objectionable taste known as warmed over flavor.\n", "Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n\nMaintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.\n\nNew techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Curing.\n" ]	[ "Leftovers should taste the same as freshly cooked food." ]	[ "Food changes taste as it heats and cools." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Leftovers should taste the same as freshly cooked food.", "Leftovers should taste the same as freshly cooked food." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Food changes taste as it heats and cools.", "Food changes taste as it heats and cools." ]
2018-01692	How does Spotify continue to operate if they continue to have net loss every year?	They're not publicly owned yet, and they still have enough money invested to continue. Sorta like if I had $1,000 and you asked me how I can continue to operate even though I lost $100 the last couple years... I still have $800 left. As Spotify grows, their gross margin increases (they get more $$$ back per dollar put in), and their losses decrease yearly. Their hope is to be profitable soon if these trends continue. Keep in mind they're losing a few hundred million out of many billions of dollars taken in. If they can squeeze just a little more margin out, and bring in enough new customers, they'll become profitable quickly.	[ "After going live on the New York Stock Exchange on 3 April 2018, CNBC reported that Spotify opened at $165.90, more than 25 per cent above its reference price of $132.\n\nSection::::History.:Other developments.:Acquisitions.\n", "With the release of Fido's new Pulse plans, FidoDOLLARS are no longer accumulated but existing FidoDOLLARS will remain on your account. However, if you are not on a Pulse plan you will continue to accumulate FidoDOLLARS as normal. To make up for the lack of FidoDOLLARS, Spotify Premium and Daily Vice are offered free of charge for 2 years ($239 value) in all new Pulse plans.\n\nIn January 2016, Fido announced a winddown and termination of the FidoDOLLARS program. See the next section for more details.\n\nSection::::Services.:Perks.\n", "Years after growth and expansion, a November 2012 report suggested strong momentum for the company. In 2011, it reported a near US$60 million net loss from revenue of $244 million, while it was expected to generate a net loss of $40 million from revenue of $500 million in 2012.\n\nAnother source of income was music purchases from within the app. This service was removed in January 2013.\n", "According to \"TechCrunch\", Spotify was planning to launch on the stock market in 2017, but is instead planning on doing the IPO in 2018 in order to \"build up a better balance sheet and work on shifting its business model to improve its margins\". The value of its IPO is estimated to be in a range of $6.3 billion to $23 billion. The latter figure would make Spotify's IPO one of the biggest in the tech sector since 2012. However, unlike in an ordinary public offering, Spotify will not issue new shares, but the company's existing shareholders will be taking their shares directly to the market. This approach is not intended to raise fresh capital, but to let investors get their returns. Morgan Stanley is the company's slated advisor on the matter.\n", "In March 2016, Spotify raised $1 billion in financing by debt plus a discount of 20% on shares once the initial public offering (IPO) of shares takes place. The company was, according to \"TechCrunch\", planning to launch on the stock market in 2017, but in 2017 it was seen as planning on doing the IPO in 2018 in order to \"build up a better balance sheet and work on shifting its business model to improve its margins\".\n\nSection::::Business model.:Advertisements.\n", "Section::::Financial status.:Growing concern warnings.\n\ne.Digital's accountants, Singer Lewak Greenbaum & Goldstein, LLP of Santa Ana, California, state the following in their opinion letter dated June 15, 2009 attached to the company's 10-K annual report for FY 2009: - \n\nAs discussed in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements, the Company has historically suffered recurring losses from operations and has a substantial accumulated deficit. This raises substantial doubt about the Company's ability to continue as a going concern.\n", "BULLET::::- February 23, Fortis dismantles the Foundation that ensured it could not be taken over by a hostile party buying itself large amounts of stock.\n", "The July 2016 release of the \"Pokémon Go\" mobile app by Niantic caused shares in Nintendo to double, due to investor misunderstanding that the software was the property of Nintendo. Later that month, Nintendo released a statement clarifying its relation with Niantic, Nintendo stated it owned 32% of Pokémon intellectual property owner The Pokémon Company, and though it would receive some licensing and other revenues from the game it expected the impact on Nintendo's total income to be limited. As a result of the statement Nintendo's share price fell substantially, losing 17% in one day of trading. After a reduction in shareprice from the \"Pokémon Go\" peak, the company was still valued at over 100 times its net income, a price–earnings ratio greatly exceeding the average on the Nikkei 225. Analysts speaking to Bloomberg L.P. and the \"Financial Times\" both commented on the potential future value of Nintendo's IP if transferred to the mobile phone game business.\n", "In November 2018, Spotify announced it is opening up Spotify Connect to all of the users using its Free service, however these changes still required products supporting Spotify Connect to support the latest SDK.\n\nSection::::Business model.:Monetization.\n\nIn 2007, just after launch, the company made a loss of 31.8 million Swedish kronor ($4.4 million).\n\nIn October 2010, \"Wired\" reported that Spotify was making more money for labels in Sweden than any other retailer \"online or off\".\n", "In taking this conservative perspective, one of the steps taken is to effectively ignore future profits. On the one hand this makes sense - it's not prudent to anticipate future profits. On the other hand, for an entire portfolio of policies, although some may lapse - statistically we can rely on a number to still be around to contribute to the company's future profits.\n", "The impact is that there is an increase in assets (from the financing), but no increase in liabilities. In other words, financial reinsurance increases the company's free assets.\n\nSection::::Different accounting regimes.\n\nFinancial reinsurance is generally intended to impact the regulatory balance sheet on the premise that that balance sheet provides a distorted view of a company's solvency otherwise. Many financial reinsurance transactions, particularly for life insurers, have little impact on GAAP accounts and shareholder-reported profits.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n", "Following the successful IPO of Spotify in April 2018, it was stated that Lakestar had no intention of selling their investment, on the belief that the company could reach a $100 billion valuation in the near future. Their focus on music continued in 2018, when they invested in Swedish-start-up, Amuse. The mobile record label raised $15.5 million via its Series A.\n", "Since 2011, GIC had also published the 5-year and 10-year nominal rates of return to provide a sense of the ongoing medium-term investment performance, even while GIC maintains its sights on the long term. It included two composite portfolios and volatility statistics to reflect the level of portfolio risk and to offer perspective in reading the 5-year and 10-year figures.\n\nFor the year ended 31 March 2017, its annualised 20-year real rate of return was 3.7%. In USD nominal terms, GIC achieved an annualised return of 5.1%, 4.3% and 5.7% for the 5-year, 10-year and 20-year time periods respectively.\n", "In February 2017, Spotify announced a major expansion of its US operations in Lower Manhattan, New York City, at 4 World Trade Center, into one of its largest operations, adding approximately 1,000 new jobs and retaining 832 existing positions. The company's US headquarters are located in New York City's Flatiron District.\n\nIn 14 November 2018, The company announced a total of 13 new markets in the MENA region, including the creation of a new Arabic hub and several playlists, while supporting Right-to-left text in their apps.\n\nSection::::History.:Other developments.\n\nSection::::History.:Other developments.:Streaming records.\n", "In 2011, GTL Infra completed its Corporate Debt Restructuring and in 2016-17 it has completed the first phase of Strategic Debt restructuring, which has brought down the debt of the company to a sustainable Rs. 4,841 crores.\n\nSection::::Shareholding.\n", "In May 2019 Loewe similar to 2013 announced a financial recovery in self-administration, due to \"continuing market weaknesses in televisions\". It was announced that the shareholders are now Clearsight Turnaround Fund of Luxembourg and Tube Capital Partners from Switzerland. Tube Capital Partners is controlled by Bright Capital of Frankfurt. There is no information on when the shares were transferred from Stargate.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nType FEB\n", "New business strain occurs because the initial outgoings (such as commission, expenses, reserves, etc.) will take place when the policy is written, and thus have an immediate negative impact on the company's financial position. Over the life of the contract, future income (premiums, investment income, etc.) is expected to repay this initial outlay. However under some accounting regimes, the insurer may not take credit for such future surpluses.\n\nThe impact is thus an immediate hit to solvency and profitability when a policy is written, followed by surpluses in later years that pay this back.\n", "LIC holds shares worth about ₹2.33 lakh crore in all the Nifty companies put together, but it lowered its holding in a total of 27 Nifty companies during the quarter.\n\nThe cumulative value of LIC holding in these 27 companies fell by little over ₹8,000 crore during the quarter shows the analysis of changes in their shareholding patterns.\n\nIndividually, LIC is estimated to have sold shares worth ₹500-1,000 crore in each of Mahindra & Mahindra, HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank, Tata Motors, L&T, HDFC, Wipro, SBI, Maruti Suzuki, Dr Reddys and Bajaj Auto.\n", "In the summer of 2014 they made decisions that cost their investors to lose their investment value. In July 2014 they issued new shares to grow their balance sheet, but set these shares at a new price and that, after fees, diluted the wealth of existing shareholders. In August 2014 Fifth Street Floating Rate Corp a business development company, managed by the same manager as Fifth Street Finance Corp. issued millions of new shares at a price of $12.14, a 20% discount to the previously reported net asset value per share of $15.13. This led to shareholders losing millions of dollars. \n", "A company's market value will not always be greater than its NAV. For example, analysts and management estimated that Liberty Media Corporation was trading for 30-50% below its net asset value (or \"core asset value\") in June 2007. Where a company's market value is lower than its NAV, it may be considered more profitable to wind the company down and sell off its assets individually rather than continue to run it as a going concern.\n", "From July to September 2018, two out of IL & FS's 256 subsidiaries reported having trouble paying back loans and inter corporate deposits to other banks and lenders, resulting in the RBI requesting its major share holders to rescue it. In July 2018, Hindu Businessline reported that the road arm of IL & FS was having difficulty making payments due on its bonds. In the same month, Business Standard reported that its founder Ravi Parthasarathy would be leaving the firm due to medical reasons, after having headed the firm for 30 years.\n", "As of July 2019, Spotify had 232 million active users, including over 108 million paying subscribers.\n\nSection::::History.:Other developments.:Initial public offering.\n", "S Corporations do not have net operating losses (NOL). Instead, the concept of NOL is handled at the shareholder level. Each shareholder must treat any loss or deduction that exceeds their stock and debt basis as a suspended (disallowed) loss, which carries forward indefinitely until applied toward future earned income pass through by the S Corporation.\n", "The new bond terms were provisionally agreed in January 2019. These terms increased the interest rate to 7%, delayed the payment schedule and enabled prepayment without penalty. In return, the main shareholders agreed to invest $10 million by way of a rights issue, with a promise to invest a further $2 million in bonds if the rights issue to the other shareholders raised less than $2 million. The owners of Team Internet, Rainmaker, also agreed to reduce their expected payment from $18.5 million to $13.5 million.\n\nSection::::History.:2018 Funding crisis.:Cost reductions.\n" ]	[ "A company should not be able to operate if they have net losses every year." ]	[ "A company can operate even if it has net losses because they have enough money invested to continue." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A company should not be able to operate if they have net losses every year." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A company can operate even if it has net losses because they have enough money invested to continue." ]
2018-11449	Why are a series of numbers printed on the first page of a book?	Depends on the context and age of the book, but sequential numbers generally indicate the printing of the book. Look at the lowest number. If you see "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8" then it's the first printing. On subsequent printings, they don't have to typeset a new page to indicate it, they would just cut off (or cover up) the lowest number, so that for the second printing you'd see "2 3 4 5 6 7 8" and know it was the second printing. This was far more common in the past than it is today, as it took more effort to generate a new page in years past.	[ "In some contexts, numbers and letters are used not so much as a basis for establishing an ordering, but as a means of labeling items that are already ordered. For example, pages, sections, chapters, and the like, as well as the items of lists, are frequently \"numbered\" in this way. Labeling series that may be used include ordinary Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, ...), Roman numerals (I, II, III, ... or i, ii, iii, ...), or letters (A, B, C, ... or a, b, c, ...). (An alternative method for indicating list items, without numbering them, is to use a bulleted list.)\n", "Some bookplates were issued by institutions, often religious ones, awarding books to individuals to recognise academic performance, good behaviour and the like. These would be inscribed with the name of the individual by hand. Such plates could be very elaborate, or very simple in their design, reflecting the character of the awarding institution.\n", "Early intact codices were discovered at Nag Hammadi in Egypt. Consisting of primarily Gnostic texts in Coptic, the books were mostly written on papyrus, and while many are single-quire, a few are multi-quire. Codices were a significant improvement over papyrus or vellum scrolls in that they were easier to handle. However, despite allowing writing on both sides of the leaves, they were still foliated—numbered on the leaves, like the Indian books. The idea spread quickly through the early churches, and the word \"Bible\" comes from the town where the Byzantine monks established their first scriptorium, Byblos, in modern Lebanon. The idea of numbering each side of the page—Latin \"pagina\", \"to fasten\"—appeared when the text of the individual testaments of the Bible were combined and text had to be searched through more quickly. This book format became the preferred way of preserving manuscript or printed material.\n", "The first page of the actual text of a book is the opening page, which often incorporates special design features, such as initials. Arabic numbering starts at this first page. If the text is introduced by a second half title or opens with a part title, the half title or part title counts as page one. As in the front matter, page numbers are omitted on blank pages, and are either omitted or a drop folio is used on the opening page of each part and chapter. On pages containing only illustrations or tables, page numbers are usually omitted, except in the case of a long sequence of figures or tables.\n", "Modern books are paginated consecutively, and all pages are counted in the pagination whether or not the numbers appear. The page number, or folio, is most commonly found at the top of the page, flush left verso, flush right recto. The folio may also be printed at the bottom of the page, and in that location it is called a drop folio. Drop folios usually appear either centered on each page or flush left verso and flush right recto.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Front matter.\n", "Until the advent of bookplate collectors and their frenzy for exchange, the devising of bookplates was almost invariably left to the routine skill of the heraldic-stationery salesman. Near the turn of the 20th century, the composition of personal book tokens became recognized as a minor branch of a higher art, and there has come into fashion an entirely new class of designs which, for all their wonderful variety, bear as unmistakable a character as that of the most definite styles of bygone days. Broadly speaking, it may be said that the purely heraldic element tends to become subsidiary and the allegorical or symbolic to assert itself more strongly.\n", "Section::::Terminology.\n\nIn Britain, extra-illustration is frequently called \"Grangerising\" or \"Grangerisation,\" after James Granger whose seminal book \"Biographical History of England from Egbert the Great to the Revolution\"—published in 1769 without illustrations—quickly prompted a fashion for portrait-print collecting and the incorporation prints and drawings into the printed text. However, the term \"Grangerising\" only came into use from the 1880s, more than a century after Granger's death. And ironically for the process of book customization that carries his name, Granger never \"grangerized\" a book.\n\nSection::::Leading examples.\n", "Bookplates typically bear a name, motto, device (coat-of-arms), crest, badge, or another motif that relates to the owner of the book, or is requested by the owner from an artist or designer. The name of the owner usually follows an inscription such as \"from the books of...\" or \"from the library of...\", or in Latin, \"\". Bookplates are important evidence for the provenance of books.\n\nIn the United States, bookplates replaced book rhymes after the 19th century.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early examples.\n", "The first detached, and therefore collectible, bookmarkers began to appear in the 1850s. One of the first references to these is found in Mary Russell Mitford's \"Recollections of a Literary Life\" (1852): \"I had no marker and the richly bound volume closed as if instinctively.\" Note the abbreviation of 'bookmarker' to 'marker'. The modern abbreviation is usually 'bookmark'. Historical bookmarks can be very valuable, and are sometimes collected along with other paper ephemera.\n", "The Latin texts read:\n\nBULLET::::- \"IMMOTA, TRIVMPHANS\" — \"Unmoved, Triumphant\" (scroll around the rock);\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clarior é tenebris\" — \"Brighter through the darkness\" (beam from the clouds);\n\nBULLET::::- \"CRESCIT SUB PONDERE VIRTVS\" — \"Virtue grows beneath weights\" (scroll around the tree);\n\nBULLET::::- \"Beatam & Æternam\" — \"Blessed and Eternal\" (around the heavenly crown marked \"GLORIA\" (\"Glory\")); meant to be contrasted with:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Splendidam & Gravem\" — \"Splendid and Heavy\" (around the Crown of England, removed from the King's head and lying on the ground), with the motto \"Vanitas\" (\"vanity\"); and\n", "Book illustration as we now know it evolved from early European woodblock printing. In the early 15th century, playing cards were created using block printing, which was the first use of prints in a sequenced and logical order. \"The first known European block printings with a communications function were devotional prints of saints.\" \n", "Lithography (invented by Alois Senefelder in1798 and made public in 1818) allowed for more textual variety and accuracy. This is because the artist could now draw directly on the printing plate itself.\n", "BULLET::::- In some books the chapters are grouped into bigger parts, sometimes called modules. The numbering of the chapters can begin again at the start of every module. In educational books, especially, the chapters are often called units.\n", "This is a simple process for the reproduction of any light transmitting document. Engineers and architects used to draw their designs on cartridge paper; these were then traced by hand on to tracing paper using Indian ink, which were kept to be reproduced with the \"cyano-copie\"r whenever they were needed.\n", "BULLET::::- Episode 48: \"Patterns of Five\" (2 December 1999)\n\nBill has been shopping and bought twenty packs of five fish fingers (but forgot the chips, as Bernie finds out once she has put them all in the freezer), while Glimmer is painting a five-dot pattern, and San Flamingo School is holding a jumble sale; this was also the final episode to feature the Dolls' House (and although it credits Victoria Gay at the end of it, she did not appear as Annie in this series).\n\nBULLET::::- Writers: Andrew Bernhardt, Christopher Lillicrap\n", "In books, some pages, known as \"blind folios\", of the front matter and back matter are numbered, but the numbers are not always printed on the pages. Publishers are not consistent about how they number the pages of their books. Some publishers stick with the default numbering of the tool they are using, which is typically to number the first page of the front matter as 1 and all pages after that in a consecutive order. When publishers wish to distinguish between the front matter and the story, the initial title pages are not numbered, the front matter is numbered using lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii...) and the first page of the story or main content begins with 1. The title page of the story is not numbered, but if a story is broken into multiple parts (Part I, Part II...), the title page for the section may be included in the numbering but not shown on the page. The first page of chapter one would then be numbered as page 3 rather than page 1 as would be the normal case.\n", "Another aspect of the \"Cerebus effect\" was that \"Cerebus\" and certain other serialized comics (such as Chester Brown's \"Underwater\", Gilbert Hernandez' \"Poison River\" and Tom Hart's \"The Sands\") would appear in installments that critic Robert Boyd said were \"like they were cut randomly from a larger narrative.\" This hurt the serialized reading experience and further convinced many readers to wait for the collections, to the detriment of the periodical comic sales.\n\nSection::::Printing.\n", "However, in their modern form, they evolved from simple inscriptions in books which were common in Europe in the Middle Ages, when various other forms of \"librarianship\" became widespread (such as the use of class-marks, call-numbers, or shelfmarks). The earliest known examples of printed bookplates are German, and date from the 15th century. One of the best known is a small hand-coloured woodcut representing a shield of arms supported by an angel, which was pasted into books presented to the Carthusian monastery of Buxheim by Brother Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach, about the year 1480—the date being fixed by that of the recorded gift. The woodcut, in imitation of similar devices in old manuscripts, is hand-painted. An example of this bookplate can be found in the Farber Archives of Brandeis University. In France the most ancient ex-libris as yet discovered is that of one Jean Bertaud de la Tour-Blanche, the date of which is 1529. Holland comes next with the plate of Anna van der Aa, in 1597; then Italy with one attributed to the year 1622. The earliest known American example is the plain printed label of Stephen Daye, the Massachusetts printer of the Bay Psalm Book, 1642.\n", "At one time, books were produced as 'letter-books', where the body of text consisted of chapters of solid text, unillustrated. Where illustrations were provided, these were costly and so plates were inserted in sections, either at the end of the body matter, or grouped within the signatures. Development in printing in the early 20th century, and particularly developments in newspaper design and the incorporation of photographs, encouraged the development of the 'picture-book' where images were mixed in the text and formed part of the body matter itself (although in most cases, this was still outside the paragraphs of the typesetter's body text).\n", "In 1893 Francis Galton described a system for sending line drawings through the widely established telegraph system, using simple numeric codes, and printing out the line drawings at the other end from the codes. He referred to this printer as a \"Cyclostyle\". It contained elements of Gestetner's system, and also elements in common with modern computer graphics printing of line drawings.\n", "In the 15th century, commonplace books, popular in England, emerged as a way to compile information that included recipes, quotations, letters, poems and more. Each commonplace book was unique to its creator's particular interests. Friendship albums became popular in the 16th century. These albums were used much like modern day yearbooks, where friends or patrons would enter their names, titles and short texts or illustrations at the request of the album's owner. These albums were often created as souvenirs of European tours and would contain local memorabilia including coats of arms or works of art commissioned by local artisans. Starting in 1570, it became fashionable to incorporate colored plates depicting popular scenes such as Venetian costumes or Carnival scenes. These provided affordable options as compared to original works and, as such, these plates were not sold to commemorate or document a specific event, but specifically as embellishments for albums. In 1775, James Granger published a history of England with several blank pages at the end of the book. The pages were designed to allow the book's owner to personalize the book with his own memorabilia. The practice of pasting engravings, lithographs and other illustrations into books, or even taking the books apart, inserting new matter, and rebinding them, became known as extra-illustrating or \"grangerizing\". Additionally, friendship albums and school yearbooks afforded girls in the 18th and 19th centuries an outlet through which to share their literary skills, and allowed girls an opportunity to document their own personalized historical record previously not readily available to them. For example, college women around the turn of the century used scrapbooks extensively to construct representations of their everyday life as students. Without photograph albums to provide images of these life events, students created unique representations through scrapbooks in order to illustrate their lives using ephemera and memorabilia. A guest list or group of visiting cards might represent a young woman's visit to a party. A playbill and ticket stub might serve as reminders of a trip to New York to see a Broadway show. Solid objects such as plants, silverware, or small trinkets were also used when further visual representation was needed. \n", "BULLET::::- Dr Carol Bolton uses extensive footnotes to provide the modern reader with a cipher for a novel about the travels of the fictional Spanish traveller Don Manuel Alvarez Espriella, an early 19th-century construct of Robert Southey's, designed to provide him with vehicle to critique the societal habits of the day.\n\nBULLET::::- Jasper Fforde's \"Thursday Next\" series exploits the use of footnotes as a communication device (the \"footnoterphone\") which allows communication between the main character’s universe and the fictional bookworld.\n", "In some cases, for instance the Penny Reds of Great Britain and modern United States plate number coils, the plate numbers appear in the stamps themselves, but the more common practice is to include the number in the margin of each sheet, sometimes alongside the name of the printer.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"section\", sometimes called a \"gathering\", or, especially if unprinted, a \"quire\", is a group of bifolia nested together as a single unit. In a completed book, each quire is sewn through its fold. Depending of how many bifolia a quire is made of, it could be called:\n\nBULLET::::- \"duernion\" – two bifolia, producing four leaves;\n\nBULLET::::- \"ternion\" – three bifolia, producing six leaves;\n\nBULLET::::- \"quaternion\" – four bifolia, producing eight leaves;\n\nBULLET::::- \"quinternion\" – five bifolia, producing ten leaves;\n\nBULLET::::- \"sextern\" or \"sexternion\" – six bifolia, producing twelve leaves.\n", "BULLET::::- 6589 Pets\n\nBULLET::::- 6591 Arms and Armour\n\nBULLET::::- 6596 Rare Animals\n\nBULLET::::- 6597 Ancient Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- 6598 Oil\n\nBULLET::::- 6599 Parliament\n\nBULLET::::- 6600 The Ice Age\n\nBULLET::::- 6601 Arab World\n\nEarly editions of the UK volumes had a \"checklist\" on their back covers, similar to American copies. This format was used up until #6536 (Lady of the Lamp); released in 1967. However, soon thereafter, the format of the back cover was revised to show a photo of a random selection of some of the volumes available in the series.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08411	How do police trace bullets back to the gun they were shot from?	You're getting some good explanations as to the theory, but keep one thing in mind; it doesn't always work as well as the theory suggests. Wear and tear from normal use of a firearm changes the patterns left on cartridge pieces that might be used to identify the firearm. The firing pin could leave different marks after another 1000 rounds have been fired, likewise with marks on the bullet from the barrel. Also, markings on casings or bullets aren't like DNA. There is no actual proof that they are always 100% unique. It comes down to degrees of probability. Two models of the exact same pistol for instance, only one number apart in their serial number, meaning they were manufactured one after another, could very well have extremely similar imperfections on the moving surfaces. If they are purchased around the same time, have roughly the same number of rounds through them, and both use the most popular brands of ammunition, there is a good chance the markings on the barrel or firing pin will be pretty similar. Is it similar enough to rule out a different gun? How likely is it that the person who bought the very next gun off the assemble line committed the crime you're accused of with the same gun you own? Well that's for the attorneys to argue about and for the jury to decide. But it's not a perfect science, and it's far from absolute proof.	[ "Section::::ATF firearms databases.\n\nThe ATF Firearms Tracing System (FTS) contains firearm tracing information from millions of traces performed since 1989, and consists of several databases:\n\nSection::::Firearm data sources.\n\nFor newer firearms not yet entered into the tracing system, ATF contacts the manufacturer or importer, wholesaler, and individual dealer to determine the identity of the first retail purchaser.\n\nThe Firearm Tracing System provides manual & automated data retrieval from:\n\nBULLET::::1. All previous firearms traces from all sources,\n\nBULLET::::2. Dealer, Importer, and Manufacturer computer, paper or microfilm “Bound Book” Out-of-Business records (including digital files required by ATF Ruling 2008-2),\n", "Spent cartridges found at a scene can be examined for physical evidence such as fingerprints or compared to samples that match them to a weapon. The examination of the cartridge relies on the unique tool marks left by the various parts of the weapon including the firing pin and the ejector in semi and fully automatic firearms. These markings can be compared and matched to known exemplars fired from the same weapon using the same parts. The examination of the marks left on the cartridge is done using a comparison microscope. Examiners view the questioned cartridge and the known exemplar simultaneously, looking for similar microscopic marks left during the firing process.\n", "When a firearm or a bullet or cartridge case are recovered from a crime scene, forensic examiners compare the ballistic fingerprint of the recovered bullet or cartridge case with the ballistic fingerprint of a second bullet or cartridge case test-fired from the recovered firearm. If the ballistic fingerprint on the test-fired bullet or cartridge case matches the ballistic fingerprint on the recovered bullet or cartridge case, investigators know that the recovered bullet or cartridge case was also fired from the recovered gun. A confirmed link between a specific firearm and a bullet or cartridge case recovered from a crime scene constitutes a valuable lead, because investigators may be able to connect the firearm to a person, who may then become either a suspect or a source of information helpful to the investigation.\n", "Cartridges are also routinely examined for fingerprints as the act of loading the ammunition into the magazine, or chamber, leaves recoverable impressions. These fingerprints can survive the firing processes and, while a rare occurrence, fingerprints have been obtained from cartridges recovered from the scene. Cartridges are subjected to cyanoacrylate fuming and examined for any usable prints. Usable prints are photographed and can be uploaded to fingerprint databases such as IAFIS for comparison with known exemplars. Cartridges can also be swabbed for trace DNA left by the individual who loaded the magazine. The extremely low levels of recoverable DNA present the same issues as swabbing a firearm for DNA.\n", "Particle analysis by scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy detector is the most powerful forensic tool that investigators can use to determine a subject's proximity to a discharging firearm or contact with a surface exposed to GSR (firearm, spent cartridge case, target hole). Test accuracy requires procedures that avoid secondary gunshot residue transfer from police officers onto subjects or items to be tested, and that avoid contamination in the laboratory.\n", "In order to compare individual striations, examiners must obtain a known sample using the seized weapon. For slower-traveling bullets, such as pistols or revolvers, known bullet exemplars are created by firing the weapon into a water tank. The spent bullet can be recovered, intact, as the water slows down the bullet before it can reach the tank walls, allowing for it to be recovered. For faster traveling bullets, such as those fired from high-powered rifles and military style weapons, water tanks cannot be used as the tank will not provide enough stopping power for the projectiles. To examine these weapons, investigators must fire them at a target at a controlled range with enough backing to stop the bullet and collect the spent round after it has been fired.\n", "Section::::Basics of ATF tracing.\n\nATF's tracing system can only trace guns made in the United States or legitimately imported into the United States by a licensed importer in recent years. Guns imported prior to 1968 are extremely difficult or impossible to trace. All war trophy firearms brought back by returning veterans are impossible to trace. However, if such a gun was sold in recent years through a dealer who went out of business, it might be traced.\n\nThe basis for ATF to trace a firearm is Make, Model and Serial Number. \n", "BULLET::::10. Stolen firearms reported to ATF. (Note: Does not include stolen firearms reported to the FBI - NCIC, a separate system)\n\nBULLET::::11. System 2000 automated retrieval system from manufacturers, importers and distributors (100 companies as of 2010)\n\nBULLET::::12. Certain firearms dealers are required by ATF to report certain used firearms transaction to ATF for entry into the Firearms Tracing System.\n\nBULLET::::13. For every firearm reported stolen to the NCIC stolen firearms database, New Jersey now automatically submits a trace to ATF (NJ Trace System). ATF is reported as working on a similar program.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nBefore Drugfire was invented, firearm examiners had to rely on a technique devised in the 1920s to compare ammunition markings. This involved looking at a casing under a microscope and the examiner had to compare the two casings to see if there were similar markings on the bullet which would most likely mean that the bullets had been fired from the same gun.\n", "BULLET::::- John B. Weber 1874 - 1876\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph L. Haberstro 1877 - 1879\n\nBULLET::::- William W. Lawson 1880 - 1882\n\nBULLET::::- Harry H. Koch 1883 -1885\n\nBULLET::::- Frank T. Gilbert 1886 -1888\n\nBULLET::::- Oliver A. Jenkins 1889 - 1891\n\nBULLET::::- August Beck 1892 - 1894\n\nBULLET::::- George H. Lamy 1895 - 1897\n\nBULLET::::- Andrew Kilgallon 1898 - 1900\n\nBULLET::::- Samuel Caldwell 1901 - 1902\n\nBULLET::::- Francis T. Coppins 1902\n\nBULLET::::- Harry M. Kaiser 1903 - 1905\n\nBULLET::::- James Smith 1906 - 1908\n\nBULLET::::- Henry F. Jerge 1909 -1910\n\nBULLET::::- John W. Henry 1911 - 1912\n", "BULLET::::- The Firearm Analysis Unit is part of the Forensic Technology Division. This Unit provides forensic support to the Boston Police Department, Federal Law Enforcement Agencies and area college and university police departments. This unit provides many services including: firearm and ammunition certification, comparison of ballistic evidence, crime scene processing and evidence preservation, evidence collection, evidence & case review, analysis of evidence and reporting.\n", "BULLET::::- Paper shredders can be potentially identified in a similar way, by spacing and wear of their blades.\n\nBULLET::::- Photo identification is used to detect and identify forged digital photos.\n\nBULLET::::- Typewriters can be identified by minor variations of positioning and wear of their letters.\n\nBULLET::::- Illegal drugs can be identified by which color it turns when a reagent is added during a color test. Gas Chromatography, Infrared Spectrometry or Mass Spectrometry is used in combination with the color test to identify the type of drug.\n\nSection::::Networks.\n", "BULLET::::- Lemuel Wasson 1829 - 1831\n\nBULLET::::- Stephen Osborn 1832 - 1834\n\nBULLET::::- Lester Brace 1835 - 1837\n\nBULLET::::- Charles P. Persons 1838 - 1840\n\nBULLET::::- Lorenzo Brown 1841 - 1843\n\nBULLET::::- Ralph Plumb 1844 - 1846\n\nBULLET::::- General Timothy Hopkins 1847 - 1849\n\nBULLET::::- Leroy Farnham 1850 - 1852\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Candee 1853 - 1855\n\nBULLET::::- Orrin Lockwood 1856 - 1858\n\nBULLET::::- Gustavus A. Scroggs 1859 - 1861\n\nBULLET::::- Robert H. Best 1862 - 1864\n\nBULLET::::- Oliver J Eggert 1865 - 1867\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Darcy 1868 - 1870\n\nBULLET::::- Grover Cleveland 1871 - 1873\n", "The ATF's National Tracing Center assists Federal, State, local and foreign law enforcement agencies by tracing the origin of U.S. source firearms (only to the first retail purchaser) that have been recovered in police activities. Law enforcement can trace a firearm to develop investigative leads that may link a suspect to a firearm in a criminal investigation; identify potential traffickers; and detect in-state, interstate and international patterns in the sources and kinds of crime guns.\n", "There are many questions that can be answered from the proper reconstruction of a shooting incident. Some of the questions typically answered by a shooting reconstruction investigation include (but not limited to) the distance of the shooter from the target, The path of the bullet(s), The number of shots fired and possibly the sequence of multiple discharges at a shooting incident.\n\nThe Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners is an international non-profit organization dedicated to the advancement of firearm and tool mark identification, including shooting reconstruction.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Association for Crime Scene Reconstruction\n", "Section::::Product identification.\n\nBULLET::::- Color copiers and maybe some color computer printers steganographically embed their identification number to sa countermeasure against currency forgeries.\n\nBULLET::::- Copiers and computer printers can be potentially identified by the minor variants of the way they feed the paper through the printing mechanism, leaving banding artifacts. Analysis of the toners is also used.\n\nBULLET::::- Documents are characterized by the composition of their paper and ink.\n\nBULLET::::- Firearms can be identified by the striations on the bullets they fired and imprints on the cartridge casings.\n", "In 1971 John Boehm presented some micrographs of gunshot residue particles found during the examination of bullet entrance holes using a scanning electron microscope. If the scanning electron microscope is equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy detector, the chemical elements present in such particles, mainly lead, antimony and barium, can be identified.\n\nIn 1979 Wolten et al. proposed a classification of gunshot residue based on composition, morphology, and size. Four compositions were considered \"characteristic\":\n\nBULLET::::- Lead, antimony, and barium\n\nBULLET::::- Barium, calcium, and silicon\n\nBULLET::::- Antimony\n\nBULLET::::- Barium\n", "Individual trace results can be printed directly from eTrace and summarizes the firearm's trace pedigree to the first purchaser. The Firearms Trace Summary shows the full firearm description, requesting agency information, and possessor and recovery location (if provided by the requestor). If the firearm is traced successfully, the name of the [first] purchaser, the identification used, physical description, place of purchase, and a calculation of the time period between the retail sale and the criminal recovery (time-to-crime) is also given.\n\nWhat Trace Results Look Like:\n", "If the ammunition used was specifically tagged in some way by special elements, it is possible to know the cartridge used to produce the gunshot residue. Inference about the source of gunshot residue can be based on the examination of the particles found on a suspect and the population of particles found on the victim, in the firearm or in the cartridge case, as suggested by the ASTM Standard Guide for gunshot residue analysis by scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. Advanced analytical techniques such as ion beam analysis (IBA), carried out after scanning electron microscopy, can support further information allowing one to infer about the source of gunshot residue particles. Christopher et al. showed as the grouping behaviour of different makes of ammunition can be determined using multivariate analysis. Bullets can be matched back to a gun using comparative ballistics.\n", "Section::::Examination of the firearm.\n\nAny firearm collected during the course of an investigation could yield viable evidence if examined. For forensic firearm examination specific evidence that can be recovered include weapon serial numbers and potentially fingerprints left on the weapon's surface.\n\nSection::::Examination of the firearm.:Fingerprint recovery.\n", "Prior to September 2005, comparative bullet-lead analysis was performed on bullets found at a scene that were too destroyed for striation comparison. The technique would attempt to determine the unique elemental breakdown of the bullet and compare it to seized bullets possessed by a suspect. Review of the method found that the breakdown of elements found in bullets could be significantly different enough to potentially allow for two bullets from separate sources to be correlated to each other. However, there are not enough differences to definitely match a bullet from a crime scene to one taken from a suspect's possession. An additional report in 2004 from the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) found that the testimony given regarding comparative bullet-lead analysis was overstated and potentially \"misleading under the federal rules of evidence\". In 2005, the Federal Bureau of Investigation indicated that they would no longer be performing this type of analysis.\n", "Section::::Examination of bullets.:Individual characteristics.\n", "BULLET::::- Serial Numbers: Serial numbers on guns are not sacrosanct. Recording of serial numbers by ATF, police or dealers is subject to human error, as it is easy to misread a serial (for example: confusing the number 0 with the letter O, 2 with Z, or 5 with S), omit a digit or two, or transpose a couple of numbers. These and similar errors when entering a serial into the tracing system result in false traces. Certain categories of firearms will provide false results because of multiple duplicate serial numbers (German Luger pistols, P.38 pistols, K.98 rifles, for example). To further complicate the issue, it is relatively simple to add letters or numbers to a firearm serial (an illegal act) which will cause the trace to fail or produce a false trace. It is also simple to exchange parts on multiple guns such that (on certain pistols) the frame has one serial, the slide has another number and the barrel yet another number. According to the ATF National Tracing Center data, an invalid serial number was the most common reason for unsuccessful traces from Mexico, but the report doesn't clarify how a serial number can be \"invalid\".\n", "Law enforcement investigators test the clothing and skin of people for gunshot residue to determine if they were near a gun when it discharged. Gunshot residue can travel over 3–5 feet (0.9–1.5 meters) from the gun. At the farthest distance, only a few trace particles may be present.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Preliminary examination of the bullet can exclude a large number of weapons by examining the general characteristics of a recovered bullet. By determining general aspects of the fired ammunition, a number of weapons can be immediately excluded as being incapable of firing that type of bullet. The make and model of the weapon can also be inferred from the combination of different class characteristics that are common to specific manufactures. The three main class characteristics of all bullets are the lands and grooves, the caliber of the bullet, and the rifling twist. All three can be tied directly to the type of barrel that was used to fire the bullet. The lands and grooves of barrel are the bumps and valleys created when the rifling is created. The caliber is the diameter of the barrel. The twist is the direction of the striations left by the barrel's rifling, clockwise (right-handed) or counterclockwise (left-handed). Most barrels will have a right-handed twist with the exception of weapons created by the Colt's Manufacturing Company which uses left-handed twists. Weapon barrels that match the class characteristics of recovered bullets can be examined further for individual characteristics to determine if the bullet came from that particular weapon.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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