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2018-24132	In American football, a popular adage is the defense is “getting tired out there” the longer they stay on the field, which will make them play poorly. Why is this not true for the offense as well, where production drops the longer they are on the field?	The offense knows where the play is going and acts, the defence has to react to where the play goes and this means that they do more running around and get tired quicker.	[ "BULLET::::- Multiple defenses from one look. Kiffin-style defenses try to use the same personnel (or the same kind of personnel) at all times, so that the offense cannot adjust its play call based on the alignment of the defensive personnel.\n", "Professional teams may not have enough defensive backs on the roster to play the quarter or half dollar so wide receivers sometimes fill the extra positions, particularly in late-game situations in which the receiver's offensive skills can be put to good defensive use.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "By nature, blitzes are risky endeavors for the defense. Since the defense is taking away coverage defenders to rush the quarterback, this usually means that the secondary can not afford to miss any coverage assignments. The defense does not and cannot cover all offensive players, but rather through the blitz, is proactively involved in pressuring the quarterback—specifically, trying to sack him, throw off his timing, or force him to make an error such as an interception or fumble.\n", "BULLET::::- If a team is behind in the game, playing a zone can be a poor strategy because zones usually allow the offense to take more time off the clock on each possession, which limits the time remaining for the losing team to reduce the lead. It also reduces the chances of stealing the ball from the attackers and attempting a quick counterstrike across open field. This is not always true; there are pressure zone defenses that can often cause quicker shots by the opponent or result in turnovers.\n", "One of those techniques is called \"throwing hot,\" which entails intentionally leaving one blitzing defensive player unblocked. The offensive line usually makes pre-snap adjustments so that the \"free\" rusher is clearly within the QB's field of vision. This limits devastating blind-side hits on the QB by rushers. When the preparedness of a quarterback allows him to not have to worry about getting hit from behind, it is one less psychological element of the blitz to be taken away, and thus blitz is incrementally made less effective by that particular element.\n", "Defenders that can fall back to a succession of prepared positions can extract a high price from the advancing enemy while themselves avoiding the danger of being overrun or outflanked. Delaying the enemy advance mitigates the attacker's advantage of surprise and allows time to move defending units to make a defence and to prepare a counter-attack.\n", "Also, starters are sometimes rested during a game during garbage time when the outcome is mostly certain. While usually garbage time takes place toward the end of the fourth quarter of a game, in games where there is such a vast difference in talent and the winning team very quickly gains a large lead, the starters will be removed from the game early -- sometimes well before the end of the first half -- and the second- and lower-string players will play the remainder of the contest. As such, the starters play long enough only to gain a significant lead, and giving the reserves extended playing time.\n", "Teams that play Cover 2 shells usually ascribe to the \"bend-but-don't-break\" philosophy, preferring to keep offensive players in front of them for short gains while limiting long passes. This is in stark contrast to a more aggressive Cover 1 type scheme which leaves the offensive team's wide receivers in single man-to-man coverage with only one deep helper. By splitting the deep field between two defenders, the defense can drastically reduce the number of long gains.\n", "The most tired players are generally substituted, but only if their substitutes are well trained to fill in the same role, or if the formation is transformed at the same time to accommodate for the substitution.\n\nCoaches often refrain from substituting defensive players in order not to disrupt the defensive posture of the team. Instead, they often replace ineffective attackers or unimaginative midfielders in order to freshen up the attacking posture and increase their chances of scoring.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "A team on defense has little control over the pace of the game. It may expend its timeouts to ensure that there is adequate time left on the clock, in case the team regains possession. The defense can make decisions on how to stop the ball carrier based on whether the team is trailing or leading: if the offense is trying to conserve time, the defense can foil that by tackling the ball carrier in-bounds before they can get out of bounds. Defenses likewise can safely devote more personnel to the perimeter and leave the center of the field and areas near the line of scrimmage less defended, as an offense that cannot afford to keep the clock running will have to throw toward the sidelines \"(see also: prevent defense)\". The only recourse a team has once the game has progressed to the point where the opposing offense can run out the clock with kneels is to deliberately ram the opposing center into his quarterback, hoping to disrupt the snap and cause a fumble; Greg Schiano is known for this strategy, but it is otherwise considered poor sportsmanship and rarely used.\n", "In American football, fans are most incited by physical play, especially good plays made by the defense. Additionally, the home team can derive energy from the loud noise of their fans; former American football players have described the feeling of their adrenaline pumping after hearing the fans yell, which is \"like you have a reserve energy tank.\"\n", "Being closer to the end zone, play while in the red zone involves closer cramping of the offense and defense. The short field of play means safeties have a smaller area to worry about defending, wide receivers do not have to run as far, and passes are not thrown as far. Though the distance to the goal line is less than other parts of the field, with all defenders being crammed into a smaller space and having less room to worry about defending, advancing the ball and ultimately scoring may be more difficult. \n", "When used late in the fourth quarter to run out the clock, the sidelines become an important area to defend, as a player who receives a pass near the sideline can run out of bounds and stop the clock. The defender's priority is less to prevent a reception than to keep the receiver in bounds following one. This keeps the clock running and reduces the amount of time the offense has to score.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Packages.\n", "BULLET::::- Fewer offensive plays—There are far fewer zone offenses than there are man-to-man offenses to prepare for as a defense. As a result, defenses often have a better idea of what to expect from the offensive team when playing a zone defense.\n\nSection::::Weaknesses of the 2–3 zone.\n\nOn the other hand, there are many reasons why many coaches prefer not to use the zone. Its strengths can easily become its weaknesses, which include:\n", "The defensive lines up in front of the offensive line. The defensive lineman's responsibility is to prevent the offensive line from opening up running lanes for the running back or to sack the quarterback, depending on whether the play is a passing or running play. Most of the time, defensive linemen attack the offensive line but in some plays they drop back in pass coverage to confuse the opposite team.\n", "A potential problem with the Cover 2 is that defensive pressure on the Quarterback must be provided nearly exclusively by the front linemen as all other defenders are involved in pass coverage. If the defensive linemen do not provide adequate pressure on the Quarterback, the offense is afforded plenty of time to create and exploit passing opportunities. Blitzing in the Cover 2 often creates greater areas of weakness in the defense than other coverages. Thus, unsuccessful blitzes can prove to be more productive for the offense than in other schemes.\n\nSection::::Coverage shells.:Cover 3.\n", "On passing plays, the defensive line tries to reach the quarterback. Ideally, the defensive players are able to tackle the quarterback for a loss (a sack), but in practice the quarterback will usually manage to throw the ball before an actual tackle is made; the goal is thus to put pressure on the quarterback as quickly as possible to force him to throw the ball before he can find an open receiver. Defensive ends are usually the most skilled pass rushers on the team. In order to increase the pressure on the quarterback, teams will often have players other than the defensive line attempt to tackle the quarterback; this is called a blitz.\n", "There are times when a defense believes that the best way to stop the offense is to rush the quarterback, which involves sending several players charging at the line of scrimmage in an attempt to tackle the quarterback before he can throw the ball or hand it to another player. Any player on the defense is allowed to rush the quarterback, and many schemes have been developed over 50 years that involve complicated or unusual blitz \"packages\".\n\nSection::::Defensive strategy.:Specific defensive strategies.\n", "Formations with many defensive backs positioned far from the line of scrimmage are susceptible to running plays and short passes. However, since the defense is typically used only in the last few seconds of a game when the defensive team need only keep the offense from scoring a touchdown, giving up a few yards in the middle of the field is inconsequential.\n\nSection::::Defensive formations.:Other variants.\n\nMore extreme defensive formations have been used when a coach feels that his team is at a particular disadvantage due to the opponent's offensive tactics or poor personnel match-ups.\n", "The strong safety is usually larger than the free safety and is positioned relatively close to the line of scrimmage. He is often an integral part of the run defense, but is also responsible for defending against a pass; especially against passes to the tight-ends.\n\nSection::::Teams currently deploying the 4–3 defense.\n", "On passing plays, the offensive line is responsible for stopping defensive players from tackling the quarterback before he has thrown the ball. Stopping these players indefinitely is usually not possible, so the main objective of the offensive line is to slow them down, providing the quarterback with several seconds to identify an open receiver and throw the ball.\n\nSection::::Defensive line.\n", "Though defenses now understand how to stop the wildcat, it does not mean the formation is no longer useful. A defense's practice time is finite. Opponents who prepare to stop the wildcat have less time available to prepare for other offensive approaches. Many teams admit to spending an inordinate amount of time having to prepare for this scheme. The Philly Special, an iconic play during Super Bowl LII, was run out of the wildcat.\n", "Third, if the blitz is picked up, the one deep defender (usually the free safety) has an enormous amount of territory to guard. If two players simultaneously threaten his zone, he must decide which one to cover. The quarterback can read his reaction and throw to the other receiver, usually for a big gain.\n\nFourth, if the pass is caught, there are fewer defenders and larger gaps between defenders, meaning that the receiver can get more yards after catch and possibly turn a minimal gain into a dangerous play.\n\nSection::::Playing against the blitz.\n", "A secondary weakness is inherent in its design: the use of man coverage opens up yards after catch lanes. Man coverage is attacked by offenses in various ways that try to isolate their best athletes on defenders by passing them the ball quickly before the defender can react or designing plays that clear defenders from certain areas thus opening yards after catch lanes.\n\nSection::::Coverage shells.:Cover 2.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21381	Why does it seem like the recent synagogue shooting is being treated more seriously than the other frequent school and church shootings that happen so often?	Because it was racially motivated, against a group that has faced discrimination for as long as they've been showing up in recorded history. A school shooting is monstrous, but it's victims are not generally targeted because of their ethnicity/gender/religion. They're just classmates. These people were killed because they are Jews.	[ "On December 16, 2012, two days after the shooting, Showtime put up a warning before the start of both the season finales of both Homeland (Season 2) and Dexter (Season 7), that read: \"In Light of the tragedy that has occurred in Connecticut, the following program contains images that may be disturbing. Viewer discretion is advised.\"\n", "Section::::Spike in hate crimes (2017).\n\nA United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary hearing entitled \"Responses to the Increase in Religious Hate Crimes\" was held on May 2, 2017 following a \"wave of more than 150 bomb threats against Jewish community centers and day schools\". In his statement to the hearing, Vanita Gupta, of the Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, reported that,\n", "Some sources argued that the incident should be referred to as an act of domestic terrorism.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nTree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation is a Conservative Jewish synagogue. The synagogue describes itself as a \"traditional, progressive, and egalitarian congregation\". It is located in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, east of Carnegie Mellon University and about east of downtown Pittsburgh. The Squirrel Hill neighborhood is one of the largest predominantly Jewish neighborhoods in the United States and has historically been the center of Pittsburgh's Jewish community, with 26 percent of the city's Jewish population living in the area.\n", "BULLET::::- – Prime Minister David Cameron wrote on Twitter: \"My thoughts are with those who've been devastated by the Connecticut shootings.\"\n\nBULLET::::- – UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon voiced his \"deepest condolences\" over the victims, calling the rampage \"shocking murders,\" spokesman Martin Nesirky told reporters in New York. \"The secretary-general said that the targeting of children is heinous and unthinkable, and extended his thoughts and prayers to the families of the victims and all others traumatized by this horrendous crime,\" said the spokesman.\n", "Section::::Reactions.:Neo-Nazis and white supremacists.\n\nAmong American neo-Nazis and white supremacists, figures such as Andrew Anglin of \"The Daily Stormer\", Matthew Heimbach of the now defunct Traditionalist Workers Party, Richard B. Spencer of the National Policy Institute, the freelance writer Tom Sunic, Patrick Casey of Identity Evropa/American Identity Movement, Greg Johnson of Counter-Currents Publishing and the messageboard forum Stormfront expressed fear that the backlash over the attack could derail their efforts to gain mainstream political acceptance.\n", "In October 2015, following the Umpqua Community College shooting, President Obama said that \"thoughts and prayers [do] not capture the heartache and grief and anger that we should feel, and it does nothing to prevent this carnage from being inflicted some place else in America next week or a couple months from now.\" The White House subsequently announced that Obama would continue to take more executive action on the subject of gun control.\n", "BULLET::::- Governor of California Gavin Newsom responded by saying, \"No one should have to fear going to their place of worship, and no one should be targeted for practicing the tenets of their faith.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum released a statement which read \"[M]oving forward this must serve as yet another wake-up call that antisemitism is a growing and deadly menace. All Americans must unequivocally condemn it and confront it whenever it appears.\"\n", "Section::::Reactions.:Fundraising.\n", "BULLET::::- – Foreign Policy Chief Catherine Ashton said in a statement \"I want to express my shock after the tragic shooting at a school in Connecticut today,\" She also said, \"I think of the victims, their families and the American people at this difficult time,\" European Commission Chief José Manuel Barroso said, \"It is with deep shock and horror that I learned of the tragic shooting in Connecticut,\" European Commission Chief José Manuel Barroso said. \"On behalf of the European Commission and myself, I express my sincere condolences to the families of the victims of this terrible tragedy,\"\n", "In recent years, the number of public mass shootings has increased substantially, with a steady increase in gun related deaths. Although mass shootings are covered extensively in the media, they account for a small fraction of gun-related deaths (only 1 percent of all gun deaths between 1980 and 2008).\n\nBetween Jan. 1 and May 18, 2018, 31 students and teachers were killed inside U.S. schools. That exceeds the number of U.S. military servicemembers who died in combat and noncombat roles during the same period.\n\nSection::::Accidental and negligent injuries.\n", "President Barack Obama called the shootings \"horrific\" and said in a statement, \"While we do not know all of the details surrounding today's shooting, the initial reports are heartbreaking.\" U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder also issued a statement in the wake of the shooting, saying, \"I was horrified to learn of this weekend's tragic shootings outside Kansas City. These senseless acts of violence are all the more heartbreaking as they were perpetrated on the eve of the solemn occasion of Passover.\" Governor Sam Brownback issued the statement: \"My heart and prayers are with all those who were affected by today's events. We will pursue justice aggressively for these victims and criminal charges against the perpetrator or perpetrators to the full extent of the law.\" Other politicians issued statements in which they offered their condolences to those killed in the shooting and decried the antisemitic motivations of the shooter. \n", "BULLET::::- At a press conference on the day after the shooting, Rabbi Yisroel Goldstein, who was injured in the shooting, called to \"battle darkness with light.\" He suggested that the United States call for a moment of silence in public schools.\n", "Following the murders at Sandy Hook Elementary School, movie theater in Aurora, Sikh temple in Oak Creek, and Virginia Tech, the victims' families found that questions over the method of distributing charitable contributions caused them even more pain. Questions included how much should go to the family of each murdered victim, how much should go to survivors who witnessed the murders and will need years of therapy, and who should make these decisions. There were also significant delays in the distribution of donations and questions over whether the organization that collected the donations should retain a portion of the donations.\n", "BULLET::::- \"'No Way To Prevent This', Says Only Nation Where This Regularly Happens\", a story republished with minor edits after major mass shootings in the United States. The story was first published in regards to the 2014 Isla Vista killings, and has since been republished after the Charleston church shooting, Umpqua Community College shooting, 2015 San Bernardino attack, 2017 Las Vegas shooting, Sutherland Springs church shooting, Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, Santa Fe High School shooting and Thousand Oaks shooting.\n\nSection::::Editors and writers.\n", "BULLET::::- President of the United States Donald Trump offered \"deepest sympathies to the families of those affected\" by the shooting.\n\nBULLET::::- Vice President of the United States Mike Pence stated \"We condemn in the strongest terms the evil & cowardly shooting at Chabad of Poway today as Jewish families celebrated Passover. No one should be in fear in a house of worship. Antisemitism isn't just wrong - it's evil.\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Democratic Presidential Candidates Bernie Sanders, Kamala Harris, Joe Biden, and Eric Swalwell published statements condemning the attack.\n", "Section::::International reactions.:Political.\n", "BULLET::::- – Secretary of State Tarcisio Bertone issued a letter of condolence on behalf of Pope Benedict XVI, which was read aloud at a Newtown vigil, saying, \"In the aftermath of this senseless tragedy, [the Holy Father] asks God, our Father, to console all those who mourn and to sustain the entire community with the spiritual strength which triumphs over violence by the power of forgiveness, hope and reconciling love.\"\n\nSection::::International reactions.:Leading media and organizations.\n", "Violence is never an acceptable response to hate speech, no matter how inflammatory and uncivilized that speech is. While we do not yet know what motivated these shooters, we urge calm and defer to local, state, and federal authorities to peaceably and justly resolve this.\n", "Speaking on June 19 at a press conference in Baltimore, FBI Director James Comey said, while his agency was investigating the shooting as a \"hate crime\", he did not consider it an \"act of terrorism\", citing the lack of political motivation for the suspect's actions. He said, \"Terrorism is act of violence done or threatened in order to try to influence a public body or citizenry, so it's more of a political act, and again, based on what I know, I don't see this as a political act. Doesn't make it any less horrific, but terrorism has a definition under federal law.\"\n", "Section::::Notable domestic terrorist attacks.:Pittsburgh synagogue shooting (2018).\n\nOn October 27, 2018, 11 people died and 6 more were injured at the Tree of Life - Or L'Simcha Congregation in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania by Robert Bowers. The attack was motivated by anti-Semitism and a belief in the white genocide conspiracy theory.\n\nSection::::Notable domestic terrorist attacks.:Poway synagogue shooting (2019).\n", "Between the 1999 Columbine High School massacre and the 2018 Santa Fe High School shooting in Texas, more than 214,000 students experienced gun violence at 216 schools, and at least 141 children, educators and other people were killed and another 284 were injured. 38% of the students who experienced school shootings were African American although African American students were 16.6% of the school population. Schools in at least 36 states and the District of Columbia have experienced a shooting.\n", "On January 31, the Newtown school board voted unanimously to ask for police officer presence in all of its elementary schools; previously other schools in the district had such protection, but Sandy Hook had not been one of those.\n", "There were 11 firearm-related events that occurred at a school or campus in the first 23 days of 2018. As of May 2018, more people, including students and teachers, were killed in 2018 in schools in the United States than were killed in military service for the United States, including both combat and non-combat military service, according to an analysis by \"The Washington Post\". In terms of the year-to-date number of individual deadly school shootings incidents in the United States, early 2018 was much higher than 2017, with 16 in 2018 and four in 2017, through May; the year-to-day through May number of incidents was the highest since 1999. As of May 2018, thirteen school shootings took place on K–12 school property in 2018 that resulted in firearm-related injuries or deaths, including 32 killed and 65 injured, according to \"Education Week\". 22 school shootings where someone was hurt or killed occurred in the United States in the first 20 weeks of 2018, according to CNN.\n", "The Boston Bruins hockey team scheduled a series of events in the town on February 18, 2013. They presented a street hockey clinic, a clinic with the high school's hockey team and will hold an autograph session with children as well as a meeting with first responders who will be given autographed and framed hockey jerseys.\n", "The Pittsburgh Penguins wore jerseys with a patch that read \"Stronger Than Hate\" for their game against the New York Islanders on October 30. The team announced that, following the game, the team would auction off the jerseys on behalf of the synagogue. Similarly, the University of Pittsburgh Panthers football team displayed a \"Stronger than Hate\" decal on their helmets during the November 2 game visiting the University of Virginia.\n\nSection::::Reactions.:Vigils and rallies.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22284	How do businesses create sales forecasts/projections?	If you collect enough data you can project it forward. Like if you sold 10 items every March every year but this year you sold 11 and every june you sold 5 items you could project sales of 5 or 6. The amount of data you have move the projection closer to 5 or 6. Often times it's just what you would like so last years figures with 15% growth added on.	[ "Sales forecasting uses past sales figures to predict the short-term or long-term future performance to enable sound financial planning. Historical sales and/or economic data is often used to improve the forecast of sales.\n\nFor shops and stores, market research may yield the following indicators for deriving initial forecasts:\n\nBULLET::::- average sales volume per unit area for similar shops in similar locations of similar size\n\nBULLET::::- number of consumers or consumer households in appropriate vicinity of the store and their annual expenses on the product in question\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Choice architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Customer Relationship Management (CRM)\n\nBULLET::::- Customer service\n", "To measure and analyze the migration patterns, a number of approaches can be followed. It can start either by deciding segments and dividing the population in those buckets according to their behavior patterns at the beginning and end of the period to measure the displacement. Example: Loyalists, Under performs, Seasonal, Onetime and two-time buyers and Inactive buyers. Another approach is to form a group of people with shared interests and purchase patterns as one segment, and later analyze their movements and migration after the end of the period.\n", "Section::::Phases of product planning.:Product introduction.\n\nIf the survey results prove favorable, the company may decide to sell the new product on a small scale or regional basis. During this time, the company will distribute the products in one or more cities. The company will run advertisements and sales promotions for the product, tracking sales results to determine the products potential success. If sales figures are favorable, the company will then expand distribution even further. Eventually, the company may be able to sell the product on a national basis.\n\nSection::::Phases of product planning.:Product life cycle.\n", "`Micro-analysis', which is simply the normal management process of investigating detailed problems, then investigates the individual elements (individual products, sales territories, customers and so on) which are failing to meet targets\n\nSection::::Performance analysis.:Market share analysis.\n\nFew organizations track market share though it is often an important metric. Though absolute sales might grow in an expanding market, a firm's share of the market can decrease which bodes ill for future sales when the market starts to drop. Where such market share is tracked, there may be a number of aspects which will be followed:\n\nBULLET::::- overall market share\n", "Often, there may be insufficient historical instances of the series of interest to produce a reliable demand forecast. For an airline, this might happen for flights to new markets, where no history is available to reference. For a retailer, it may simply be sparse data on sales of a particular SKU. A widely used method used to produce the necessary forecasts in such cases is sometimes referred to as \"aggregate and distribute.\" This method decomposes the forecast into two components, a forecast of a more aggregated series and a forecast of how that more aggregated demand is distributed across its components, viz: \n", "When projecting sales for relatively new products, marketers typically use a system of trial and repeat calculations to anticipate sales in future periods. This works on the principle that everyone buying the product will either be a new customer (a 'trier') or a repeat customer. By adding new and repeat customers in any period, we can establish the penetration of a product in the marketplace. It is challenging, however, to project sales to a large population on the basis of simulated test markets, or even full-fledged regional rollouts. Marketers have developed various solutions to increase the speed and reduce the cost of test marketing, such as stocking a store with products (or mock-ups of new products) or giving customers money to buy the products of their choice. These simulate real shopping conditions but require specific models to estimate full-market volume on the basis of test results.\n", "Planning demand involves a full multiple-view process or work flow; including statistical forecast as a baseline from clean \"demand history\" [not shipments], using the most effective statistical models. Kai Trepte developed the Microsoft Excel add-in \"Forecast X\" to provide practitioners with a workstation capability to assess the best matches between data and forecast models. Increasingly \"predictive forecasts\" have moved from a limited use to becoming best practice for more companies. Predictive forecasts use simulation of potential future outcomes and their probabilities rather than history to form the basis for long range (5-10+ years) demand plans. Baseline forecasts are typically developed by demand planners and analysts, who may be regional or centrally located. They work under the guidance of the demand manager. Baseline forecasts are communicated to members of the demand management team. This usually includes regional sales leaders, market managers, and product managers. The team may include customer service leads who manager orders under service agreements with customers and have direct insight into customer demand. For major retailers this is often point of sale data provided to suppliers.\n", "Volume projections enable marketers to forecast sales by sampling customer intentions through surveys and market studies. By estimating how many customers will try a new product, and how often they’ll make repeat purchases, marketers can establish the basis for such projections. . . . Projections from customer surveys are especially useful in the early stages of product development and in setting the timing for product launch. Through such projections, customer response can be estimated without the expense of a full product launch. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 56 percent responded that they found volume projections very useful.\n", "The left-hand-side of the equation is the volume of purchases per unit time (usually taken to be one year). On the right-hand-side, the first parentheses describes trial volume, and the second describes repeat volume. \n", "Section::::Process.:Forecasting.\n\nRevenue management requires forecasting various elements such as demand, inventory availability, market share, and total market. Its performance depends critically on the quality of these forecasts. Forecasting is a critical task of revenue management and takes much time to develop, maintain, and implement; see Financial forecast. \n\nQuantity-based forecasts, which use time-series models, booking curves, cancellation curves, etc., project future quantities of demand, such as reservations or products bought. \n", "Assume that both Beginning Inventory and beginning inventory cost are known. From them the \"Cost per Unit of Beginning Inventory\" can be calculated. During the year, multiple purchases are made. Each time, purchase costs are added to beginning inventory cost to get \"Cost of Current Inventory\". Similarly, the number of units bought is added to beginning inventory to get \"Current Goods Available for Sale\". After each purchase, Cost of Current Inventory is divided by Current Goods Available for Sale to get \"Current Cost per Unit on Goods\".\n", "\"Sales potential forecast\" can be used to determine sales targets and to help identify territories worthy of an allocation of limited resources. A sales potential forecast is a forecast of the number of prospects and their buying power. It does not assess the likelihood of converting \"potential\" accounts. Sales potential can be represented in a number of ways. Of these, the most basic is population, i.e., the number of potential accounts in a territory. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 62 percent responded that they found the \"sales potential forecast\" metric very useful.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "When the application balances demand against supply through direct control of product availability, as is common in many yield management applications, producing good time-phased forecasts requires either capturing the demand which doesn't result in a sale or booking directly (often referred to as \"turndowns\" or \"loss data\"); or using some scientific method to estimate the unobserved demand. Conventionally, these methods are referred to as \"unconstraining methods\", include manual adjustment, averaging methods, Expectation Maximization (EM) methods, exponential smoothing methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Forecasting Methods.:Causal methods.\n", "The next step in the product planning process is studying the competition. Secondary research usually provides details on key competitors and their market share, which is the percent of total sales that they hold in the marketplace. The business can then determine places in which it has an advantage over the competition to identify areas of opportunity. Market research is a complex task. It must include an analysis of products that are indirect competitors products manufactured by the company observed.\n\nSection::::Phases of product planning.:Market research.\n", "Sales development handles two types of leads. The first, often referred to as an inbound lead, is generated by marketing and sent to a Sales Development Representative (SDR). The SDR will then engage that lead, qualify their interest in purchasing a product and determine whether it is worth spending further resources selling to this lead. If an SDR determines a lead is worth spending sales resources on, the lead is handed off to a salesperson to conduct the rest of the sales process. The second type of lead, often referred to as an outbound prospect, is a lead an SDR discovers by identifying potential buyers that would benefit from the product the SDR is selling. The universe of potential buyers a business can sell to is called a total addressable market (TAM). The criteria for companies within that TAM, and buyers within those companies, that a business has defined as an ideal fit is often described in an Ideal Customer Profile (ICP), which an SDR will use to identify outbound prospects.\n", "A bottom-up sales forecast at the SKU-account/POS level requires taking into account product attributes, historical sales levels and store specifics. The large number of different variables which describe the product, the store and the promotion attributes, both quantitative and qualitative, could potentially have many different values. Selecting the most important variables and incorporating them into a prediction model is a challenging task.\n\nDespite these challenges, two-thirds of companies in the consumer supply chain consider forecast accuracy a high business priority. 74 percent said it would be helpful to develop a bottom-up forecast based on stock-keeping unit (SkU) by key customer.\n", "Each sales cycle is essentially a project with associated milestones, tasks, and deliverables that require participation, coordination, and contributions from multiple individuals on both the customer side and sales side.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Do you consider your current overall order books to be? More than sufficient (above normal) / sufficient (normal for the season) / not sufficient (below normal)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"How do you expect your production to develop over the next 3 months? It will increase / remain unchanged / decrease\"\n\nHere are some examples from the harmonised consumer survey: \n", "Section::::The planning process.\n\nS&OP is the result of monthly planning activities. It is usually based on an Annual Operations Plan (AOP) that acts as the company's annual target in terms of sales and supply. Therefore, the sales and operations plans are a means to gradually accomplish the AOP targets – by linking monthly sales and marketing planning directly to the operations side of a business. The process for deciding upon the monthly S&OP is illustrated in the figure below.\n", "Section::::Artificial neural networks.:Forecasting.\n\nSales forecasting “is the process of estimating future events with the goal of providing benchmarks for monitoring actual performance and reducing uncertainty\". Artificial intelligence techniques have emerged to facilitate the process of forecasting through increasing accuracy in the areas of demand for products, distribution, employee turnover, performance measurement and inventory control. An example of forecasting using neural networks is the Airline Marketing Assistant/Tactician; an application developed by BehabHeuristics which allows for the forecasting of passenger demand and consequent seat allocation through neural networks. This system has been used by Nationalair Canada and USAir.\n\nSection::::Artificial neural networks.:Marketing analysis.\n", "Sales target is the minimum sales goal for a set time span. A sales target may be minimum amount of pounds (Monetary Value) or product sold (Volume). Sales targets may also be for sales activities like: number of calls per day. Management usually sets the sales targets and the sales territory. The time span could be set for the day, week, month, fiscal quarter or year.\n\nSection::::Sales territory.\n", "The planning horizon for a typical S&OP process is long term and extends over 18–36 months. The selection of a time horizon is an important decision and there are different factors that influence this decision including type of industry, product characteristics, and the time of the year when S&OP planning takes place.\n\nAdditionally, the S&OP process is conducted at an aggregate level. The focus is commonly on product families and not every single product.\n\nSection::::Best practices.\n\nS&OP best practices share a common set of approaches:\n", "In their \"Advance Monthly Sales for Retail Trade and Food Services\", the US Census Bureau publishes estimates of US retail and food services sales. These \"sales\" are orders that have been filled; payment has been made or is an account receivable.\n\nIn their \"Preliminary Report on Manufacturers' Shipments, Inventories and Orders\", the US Census Bureau publishes statistics for \"new orders\", shipments, \"unfilled orders\" and inventories for manufactured durable goods. This gives an indication whether trade is increasing or decreasing for manufactured durable goods in the US.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Backlog (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Bill of sale\n\nBULLET::::- Contract of sale\n", "BULLET::::1. Annual revenue: There’s usually a clear correlation between how significant a company’s annual earnings are, and whether a buyer would have money in the budget to afford doing business with a company.\n\nBULLET::::2. Executive title: Which titles are proven most likely to need your products and/or services?\n\nBULLET::::3. Average sales cycle: How long does the average sale take to close? What is the official dividing line between prospects who want to make a well-informed buying decision and those who have no real intention of buying.\n\nThe table below represents some other possible variables used in firmographics:\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "These five stages are a framework to evaluate customers' buying decision process. While many consumers pass through these stages in a fixed, linear sequence, some stages such as evaluation of alternatives may occur throughout the purchase decision. The time and effort devoted to each stage depend on a number of factors including the perceived risk and the consumer's motivations. In the case of an impulse purchase, such as the purchase of a chocolate bar as a personal treat, the consumer may spend minimal time engaged in information search and evaluation and proceed directly to the actual purchase.\n\nSection::::Stages.:Problem/need-recognition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01028	How exactly does the skin healing ointment heal the cracks in the skin?	Ointments can work in a variety of ways depending on the ingredients and what you are trying to heal. The most common ingredient is one derived from a type of oil, usually petrolatum. This can vary and some are wax based such as certain lip balms but they all provide the same purpose which is serving as a moisture barrier. It keeps the crack or break in the skin wet. In the case of cracked skin this is usually enough as the cracks are typically caused by overly dry air in the winter. The second is to provide a barrier to foreign particles. Think of it like plastic wrap for food. It can keep dirt and dust out as well as bacteria. This keeps the crack or wound from getting infected so your body doesn't have to use energy to fight a bacteria off and devote more to healing. Lastly are the specialized things that go in there. In burn creams usually its different substances which can cool or soothe the area. In first aid ointment it can be anti-bacterial agents. In the case of cracks usually its just some vitamins or other things that may or may not actually provide any real benefit.	[ "Section::::Secondary healing.:Remodelling.\n", "In extrinsic systems, the healing chemistries are separated from the surrounding polymer in microcapsules or vascular networks, which after material damage/cracking release their content into the crack plane, reacting and allowing the restoration of material functionalities. \n", "Section::::Research.:Mechanism of action.\n\nCantharidin is absorbed by the lipid membranes of epidermal cells, causing the release of serine proteases, enzymes that break the peptide bonds in proteins. This causes the disintegration of desmosomal plaques, cellular structures involved in cell-to-cell adhesion, leading to detachment of the tonofilaments that hold cells together. The process leads to the loss of cellular connections (acantholysis) and ultimately blistering of the skin. Lesions heal without scarring.\n\nSection::::Research.:Bioactivities.\n", "Keratinocytes continue migrating across the wound bed until cells from either side meet in the middle, at which point contact inhibition causes them to stop migrating. When they have finished migrating, the keratinocytes secrete the proteins that form the new basement membrane. Cells reverse the morphological changes they underwent in order to begin migrating; they reestablish desmosomes and hemidesmosomes and become anchored once again to the basement membrane. Basal cells begin to divide and differentiate in the same manner as they do in normal skin to reestablish the strata found in reepithelialized skin.\n\nSection::::Proliferative phase.:Contraction.\n", "Section::::Self-healing cementitious materials.:Chemical additives based healing.\n\nSelf-healing of cementitious materials can be achieved through the reaction of certain chemical agents. Two main strategies exist for housing these agents, namely capsules and vascular tubes. These capsules and vascular tubes, once ruptured, release these agents and heal the crack damage. Studies have mainly focused on improving the quality of these housings and encapsulated materials in this field.\n\nSection::::Self-healing cementitious materials.:Bio-based healing.\n", "Many types of skin conditions have been treated by the application of medicinal clay. Montmorillonite has shown its effectiveness in this area. It has also been used as a base ingredient for tissue engineering. Clay is used in many dermatological over-the-counter remedies, such as in acne treatments (this information may not be mentioned on the label specifically).\n\nSection::::Uses.:Internal use.\n", "Section::::Secondary healing.:Repair.\n", "In this kind of reduction, holes are drilled into uninjured areas of bones around the fracture and special bolts or wires are screwed into the holes. Outside the body, a rod or a curved piece of metal with special ball-and-socket joints joins the bolts to make a rigid support. The fracture can be set in the proper anatomical configuration by adjusting the ball-and-socket joints. Since the bolts pierce the skin, proper cleaning to prevent infection at the site of surgery must be performed.\n", "Osseous defects, whether from trauma or surgical intervention, all follow a similar healing pattern. Within minutes of defect formation, platelets collect at the site of the injury and adhere to the exposed collagen fibers. The release of the platelet contents stimulates additional platelet aggregation and initiates clot formation. This release also has a chemotactic effect and attracts various white blood cells (leukocytes) to the damaged tissues and an acute inflammatory response is initiated. Neutrophils and other leukocytes begin removing any bacteria, foreign material, and dead tissue via a process known as phagocytosis. The inflammatory response and other antigens in the wound also attract lymphocytes. These immune cells release cytokines, such as IL-1 and TNF-α,which can have multiple actions on further physiologic responses. For example, IL-1 amplifies the immune response by inducing the proliferation of T-cells, increases the phagocytic abilities of monocytes and macrophages, and induces the proliferation of fibroblasts. The disruption of the vascular supply, and the subsequent cellular reactions during the inflammatory and immune reactions, result in multiple changes in the local environment, including decreases in pH, oxygen content and the ionic concentrations for calcium, phosphorus, potassium and sodium. If these conditions persist, a chronic inflammatory response may set in, resulting in extensive tissue destruction. With respect to implant materials, chronic inflammation and foreign body reactions are associated with the development of a fibrous capsule around the implant. The goal of a graft material is to aid in tissue healing.\n", "Section::::Inflammatory phase.:Polymorphonuclear neutrophils.\n", "Prostaglandins, specifically PGE2 and PGI2, are important in inflammation and have been implicated in promoting apical resorption. This is because neutrophils, which are rich sources of PGE2, are present when the majority of rapid bone loss occurs during the initial stages of apical periodontitis. It has been illustrated clinically that parenteral administration of indomethacin, an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase, can act to suppress resorption of apical hard tissue.\n", "In folklore, \"Symphytum officinale\" roots were used in traditional medicine internally (as an herbal tea or tincture), vegetables, or externally (as ointment, compresses, or alcoholic digestion) for treatment of various disorders, including commonly as a treatment for reducing the pain of osteoarthritis. A 2013 review of clinical studies assessing the possible effect of comfrey on osteoarthritis found the research quality was too low to allow conclusions about its efficacy and safety. In Europe as of 2015, there were no comfrey products for oral use, and those for topical uses to treat bruises or joint pain were evaluated as having risk of liver toxicity.\n", "In most cases sacroiliitis can be treated without surgery. Often patients will find relief through a combination of rest, heat / ice therapy and anti-inflammatory medication, like ibuprofen. Together these simple treatments help reduce inflammation and allow the body to deliver healing nutrients to the affected SI joints.\n", "Many genes play a role in healing. For instance, in wound healing, P21 has been found to allow mammals to heal spontaneously. It even allows some mammals (like mice) to heal wounds without scars. The LIN28 gene also plays a role in wound healing. It is dormant in most mammals. Also, the proteins MG53 and TGF beta 1 play important roles in wound healing.\n\nSection::::Wound healing.\n\nIn response to an incision or wound, a wound healing cascade is unleashed. This cascade takes place in four phases: clot formation, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation.\n\nSection::::Wound healing.:Clotting phase.\n", "Organic threads (such as polylactide filament for example) are stitched through laminate layers of fiber reinforced polymer, which are then boiled and vacuumed out of the material after curing of the polymer, leaving behind empty channels than can be filled with healing agents.\n\nSection::::Self-healing fibre-reinforced polymer composites.\n", "For materials such as components in microelectronics, polymeric coatings, and adhesives, nanocapsules can reduce damage caused by high loads. The healing of cracks within these materials is alleviated by dispersing nanocapsules within the polymer. The healing substances include dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), which is prepared on site within the material by sonication. The nanoencapsulated material is first emulsified within the host material by creating an oil-in-water self-healing epoxy. The emulsified material is then agitated within the host material to form particles which then bond to the host material.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Concerns of use.\n", "In February 2008 the FDA approved a New Drug Application (NDA) covering Salonpas Pain Relief Patch and Salonpas Arthritis Pain, topical pain-relieving patches. These patches contain recognized analgesic ingredients (menthol, methyl salicylate) called counterirritants, which when applied to the skin, diminish pain signals under areas to which they are administered. To date, the Salonpas Pain Relief Patch and Salonpas Arthritis Pain patch are the only external analgesic patches subject to an approved NDA and sold into the over-the-counter health care market.\n", "BULLET::::- According to \"Medicinal Plants of the Desert and Canyon West\" (a book published in 1989 by Museum of New Mexico Press), a fresh bark tincture can be made by chopping or snipping freshly removed bark into 1/2-inch pieces. It is said to be useful for those symptoms that arise due to fluid congestion and to be absorbed from the intestines into the mesenteric lymph system by way of the lacteals of the small intestinal lining. This is believed to stimulate better visceral lymph drainage into the thoracic duct and improve dietary fat absorption into the lymph system.\n", "OPN has been implicated in pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. For instance, researchers found that OPN-R, the thrombin-cleaved form of OPN, was elevated in the rheumatoid arthritis joint. However, the role of OPN in rheumatoid arthritis is still unclear. One group found that OPN knock-out mice were protected against arthritis. while others were not able to reproduce this observation. OPN has been found to play a role in other autoimmune diseases including autoimmune hepatitis, allergic airway disease, and multiple sclerosis.\n\nSection::::Potential clinical application.:Role in cancers and inflammatory diseases.\n", "Topical steroids have been shown to be effective in short-term treatment of serborrhoeic dermatitis, and is as effective or more effective than azole treatment. There is also evidence for the effectiveness of calcineurin inhibitors and lithium salt treatment.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.:Other treatments.\n\nBULLET::::- Coal tar can be effective, but, although no significant increased risk of cancer in human treatment with coal tar shampoos has been found, caution is advised since coal tar is carcinogenic in animals, and heavy human occupational exposures do increase cancer risks.\n\nBULLET::::- Pimecrolimus topical cream immunosuppressant\n", "Section::::Scar free healing in nature.\n", "Scars can be formed by removing layers of skin through abrasion. This can be achieved using an inkless tattooing device, or any object that can remove skin through friction (such as sandpaper).\n\nChemical scarification uses corrosive chemicals to remove skin and induce scarring. The effects of this method are typically similar to other, simpler forms of scarification; as a result there has been little research undertaken on this method.\n\nSection::::Healing.\n\nThe common practice on healing a scarification wound is use of irritation.\n", "Strands of 2/0 Prolene monofilament thread, with little notches cut into their sides, are placed in the subcutaneous plane under the ptosed facial skin. These are anchored under secure points in fronto-occipitalis and temporalis tissues. Dropped or \"ptosed\" facial skin is then elevated onto the barbed threads, and stay elevated because of the barbs. Thus the patient gets a \"facelift\", without any scalpel work and without any removal of skin.\n", "Crisaborole Topical Ointment 2% is a topical anti-inflammatory product for the treatment of psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. Crisaborole Topical Ointment 2% inhibits PDE4 and reduces the production of TNF-alpha, a precursor of the inflammation associated with psoriasis as well as other cytokines, including IL-12 and IL-23, which are proteins believed to be involved in the inflammation process and immune responses. Crisaborole Topical Ointment 2% is currently in Phase 2b for psoriasis and Phase 3 for atopic dermatitis.\n", "Infection begins in the outer most layer of the skin \"stratum corneum\" and progresses into the epidermis. Once the infection reaches epidermis, the snake's immune response becomes activated and immune cells are recruited at the site of infection, causing the epidermis to become necrotic and thickened after a few days.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21019	Why is it thay when you move at high speeds and look to your side things seem to go by at a certain speed, but when you look forward, things come at you (in what appears to be) a lower speed?	Its basically a combination of our binocular vision, as well as our brains processing the incoming information at different rates. Your eyes want to focus on something. Where that kicks in is when something moves half its width in 100 milliseconds. When an object is far away, its motion relative to your fixed perspective seems slower. When you pass it, it seems super fast, causing the blur. As it gets further away, it slows down to our perspective. It's much easier to focus on a single point further away than a rapidly moving point close to us. The blur effect has been theorized as our brains making up for the fact that binocular vision is better for long distance and stationary targets, not close fast moving ones. This would have been a very useful adaptation for early man/cro magnon to help with being attacked.	[ "Effect of target speed on motion perception in TD\n", "Section::::Smooth-pursuit deficits.:Autism.\n\nAutistic patients show a plethora of visual deficits. One such deficit is to smooth pursuit. Children with autism show reduced velocity of smooth pursuit compared to controls during ongoing tracking. However, the latency of the pursuit response is similar to controls. This deficit appears to only emerge after middle adolescence.\n\nSection::::Smooth-pursuit deficits.:Trauma.\n\nPatients with post traumatic stress disorder, with secondary psychotic symptoms, show pursuit deficits. These patients tend to have trouble maintaining pursuit velocity above 30 degree/second. A correlation has also been found between performance on tracking tasks and a childhood history of physical and emotional abuse.\n", "Section::::Senses during flight.\n", "In the United States, testing for \"horizontal gaze nystagmus\" is one of a battery of field sobriety tests used by police officers to determine whether a suspect is driving under the influence of alcohol. The test involves observation of the suspect's pupil as it follows a moving object, noting\n\nBULLET::::1. lack of smooth pursuit,\n\nBULLET::::2. distinct and sustained nystagmus at maximum deviation, and\n\nBULLET::::3. the onset of nystagmus prior to 45 degrees.\n", "BULLET::::- Depth from motion – One form of depth from motion, kinetic depth perception, is determined by dynamically changing object size. As objects in motion become smaller, they appear to recede into the distance; objects in motion that appear to be getting larger seem to be coming closer. Using kinetic depth perception enables the brain to calculate time-to-crash (aka time-to-collision or time-to-contact – TTC) at a particular velocity. When driving, one is constantly judging the dynamically changing headway (TTC) by kinetic depth perception.\n", "BULLET::::- Hemispatial neglect: where the patient is unaware of the contralesional half of space (that is, they are unaware of things in their left field of view and focus only on objects in the right field of view; or appear unaware of things in one field of view when they perceive them in the other). For example, a person with this disorder may draw a clock, and then label it from 12, 1, 2, ..., 6, but then stop and consider their drawing complete.\n\nBULLET::::- Akinetopsia: inability to perceive motion.\n", "A recent study tries to reconcile these different approaches by approaching perception as an inference mechanism aiming at describing what is happening at the present time. In particular, it could extend the motion extrapolation hypothesis by weighting this prediction by the precision of the current information. Thus, the corrected position of the moving target is calculated by combining the sensory flux with the internal representation of the trajectory, both of which exist in the form of probability distributions. To manipulate the trajectory is to change the precision and therefore the relative weight of these two information when they are optimally combined in order to know where an object is at the present time. For an object that moves predictably, the neural network can infer its most probable position taking into account this processing time. For the flash, however, this prediction can not be established because its appearance is unpredictable. Thus, while the two targets are aligned on the retina at the time of the flash, the position of the moving object is anticipated by the brain to compensate for the processing time: it is this differentiated treatment that causes the flash-lag effect. Moreover, this could also explain related phenomena such as motion reversal.\n", "BULLET::::- Location constancy refers to the relationship between the viewer and the object. A stationary object is perceived as remaining stationary despite the retina sensing the object changing as the viewer moves (due to parallax). Location constancy is largely influenced by the context in which the object is found. An example of this would be looking at a parked car as you walk towards a building; the car is perceived as remaining stationary as you move forward.\n\nSection::::Auditory.\n", "A simple everyday example of parallax can be seen in the dashboard of motor vehicles that use a needle-style speedometer gauge. When viewed from directly in front, the speed may show exactly 60; but when viewed from the passenger seat the needle may appear to show a slightly different speed, due to the angle of viewing.\n\nSection::::Visual perception.\n", "Outside of the laboratory, you can experience this as well, for example when riding on a train or on the lower deck of a bus. Assume one is looking straight out of the train car's window at the adjacent track. If the train is moving fast enough, the track one is seeing will be just a blur - the angular speed of the track's motion on the retina is too fast for the eye to compensate with optokinetic tracking. Then, one starts looking to the left and right along the track - just as if one was to catch something that was either speeding past on the track or lagging behind. Looking right and left along the adjacent track in fact means that one alternates the gaze between the left and right portions of the track. Changing the point of gaze is done as saccades. If, due to the car's motion, the track is 'escaping' to one's left, a left-going saccade will try to 'catch up' with the track's motion.\n", "The effect of interposition and perceived depth on target disappearance in MIB was also shown in a study done by Hsu et al. (2010) where a concave target appearing behind its surrounding disappeared more frequently than a convex one appearing in front of the mask. These effects, albeit being less significant, were replicated in similar settings without the use of motion.\n", "When Gibson was a boy, his father would take him out on train rides. Gibson recalled being absolutely fascinated by the way the visual world would appear when in motion. In the direction of the train, the visual world would appear to flow in the same direction and expand. When Gibson looked behind the train, the visual world would seem to contract. These experiences sparked Gibson's interest in optic flow and the visual information generated from different modes of transportation. Later in life, Gibson would apply this fascination to the study of visual perception of landing and flying planes.\n", "A second proposed explanation is that the visual system processes moving objects more quickly than flashed objects. This latency-difference hypothesis asserts that by the time the flashed object is processed, the moving object has already moved to a new position. The latency-difference proposal tacitly rests on the assumption that awareness (what the subject reports) is an on-line phenomenon, coming about as soon as a stimulus reaches its \"perceptual end-point\".\n\nSection::::Motion integration and postdiction.\n", "The first proposed explanation for the flash-lag effect is that the visual system is predictive, accounting for neural delays by extrapolating the trajectory of a moving stimulus into the future. In other words, when light from a moving object hits the retina, a certain amount of time is required before the object is perceived. In that time, the object has moved to a new location in the world. The motion extrapolation hypothesis asserts that the visual system will take care of such delays by extrapolating the position of moving objects forward in time.\n\nSection::::Latency difference.\n", "The neural circuitry underlying smooth pursuit is an object of debate. The first step towards the initiation of pursuit is to see a moving target. Signals from the retina ascend through the lateral geniculate nucleus and activate neurons in primary visual cortex. Primary visual cortex sends the information about the target to the middle temporal visual cortex, which responds very selectively to directions of movement. The processing of motion in this area is necessary for smooth pursuit responses. This sensory area provides the motion signal, which may or may not be smoothly pursued. A region of cortex in the frontal lobe, known as the frontal pursuit area, responds to particular vectors of pursuit, and can be electrically stimulated to induce pursuit movements. Recent evidence suggests that the superior colliculus also responds during smooth pursuit eye movement. These two areas are likely involved in providing the \"go\"-signal to initiate pursuit, as well as selecting which target to track. The \"go\"-signal from the cortex and the superior colliculus is relayed to several pontine nuclei, including the dorsolateral pontine nuclei and the nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis. The neurons of the pons are tuned to eye velocity and are directionally selective, and can be stimulated to change the velocity of pursuit. The pontine nuclei project to the cerebellum, specifically the vermis and the paraflocculus. These neurons code for the target velocity and are responsible for the particular velocity profile of pursuit. The cerebellum, especially the vestibulo-cerebellum, is also involved in the online correction of velocity during pursuit. The cerebellum then projects to optic motoneurons, which control the eye muscles and cause the eye to move.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nThe SNARC has been observed primarily in two scenarios: attentional and oculomotor. The first of these involves people being faster to detect left probes after smaller numbers are shown and right probes after large numbers, whereas the oculomotor effects are seen when participants look at greater speeds towards the left after detecting small numbers and to the right after detecting large ones.\n", "For a person with SAVT limit of formula_84, the looming motion of a directly approaching object of size , moving at velocity , is not detectable until its distance is\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Advisory speed limit\n\nBULLET::::- Assumption of risk\n\nBULLET::::- Basic speed rule\n\nBULLET::::- Braking distance\n\nBULLET::::- Calculus of negligence\n\nBULLET::::- Duty of care\n\nBULLET::::- Effects of insufficient sight distance\n\nBULLET::::- Heinrich's Law\n\nBULLET::::- Illusory superiority\n\nBULLET::::- International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea—Part B, Section I, Rule 6: Safe speed\n\nBULLET::::- Road traffic safety\n\nBULLET::::- Standard of care\n\nBULLET::::- The man on the Clapham omnibus\n\nBULLET::::- Two-second rule\n", "Moreover, Akira Kurosawa used to take the scene of the driving a horse by telescope from the side to emphasize the speed with the fling away landscape – not of the horse, but the silhouette of the landscape is important as the speed. On the other hand, Steven Spielberg, who has studied much of Kurosawa, makes however the most of wide-angle from the front to astonish the audience with the jumping up figure. Both techniques are based on this silhouette rule.\n", "\"I was driving to work as a computer operator when I turned the corner on the Old Road and saw the gunfire, I saw two CHP cars and a red car. I always say my brain said to get out of the way, but my feet ran the wrong way.\"\n", "As a corollary to the rule that drivers generally must not pose an \"immediate hazard\" upon where or when they cannot assure such distance ahead is clear, it follows that others may presume that no vehicle is posing an \"immediate hazard\" from beyond where they can see with proper lookout. Where there are cross roads or side roads with view obstructions, the assured clear distance terminates at the closest path of potential users of the roadway until there is such a view which assures the intersection will remain clear. In such situations, approach speed must be reduced in preparation for entering or crossing a road or intersection or the unmarked pedestrian crosswalks and bike paths they create because of potential hazards. This jurisprudence arises in-part because of the known difficulty in estimating the distance and velocity of an approaching vehicle, which is psychophysically explained by its small angular size and belated divergence from an asymptotically null rate of expansion, which is beyond the subtended angular velocity detection threshold (SAVT) limits of visual acuity by way of the Stevens' power law and Weber–Fechner law, until the vehicle may be dangerously close; subjective constancy and the visual angle illusion may also play a role.. Hence, an approaching vehicle's looming motion is not perceivable until formula_1, where the term is omitted with small-angle approximation. The units of measurement for size, distance, and velocity variables must be of the same system (i.e. multiply by to convert MPH to ft/s or to convert km/h to m/s or to convert deg to requisite rad). Read more about this topic\|group=\"Note\"}} Vehicles that are approaching an intersection from beyond the SAVT limit cannot be reliably distinguished between moving or parked, though they may be traveling at such an imprudent speed as to pose an immediate hazard. In this circumstance, it is impossible for the entering driver to have fair notice that his or her contemplated conduct is forbidden by such hazard, and any legal expectation to the contrary would implicate violating the vagueness doctrine of the US Constitution. It is the duty of the through-driver to slow down and apply the ACDA principle specifically to the intersection.\n", "The pedantic fourth case applies when the dynamic ACDA \"following distance\" (\"d\") is less than the static ACDA \"line-of-sight\" distance (\"d\"). A classic instance of this occurs when, from a visibility perspective, it would be safe to drive much faster were it not for a slower-moving vehicle ahead. As such, the dynamic ACDA is governing the basic speed rule, because in maintaining this distance, one cannot drive at a faster speed than that matching the forward vehicle. The \"time gap\" \"t\" or \"time cushion\" is the time required to travel the dynamic ACDA or \"following distance\" at the operating speed. Circumstances depending, this cushion might be manifested as a two-second rule or three-second rule.\n", "These factors can allow writers to build dramatic tension by showing characters struggling to reach a jump point, or to recharge their drive, before their foes reach them.\n", "In studies, LM reported some impression of horizontal movement at a speed of 14 degrees of her predetermined visual field per second (deg/s) while fixating in the middle of the motion path, with difficulty seeing motion both below and above this velocity. When allowed to track the moving spot, she had some horizontal movement vision up to 18 deg/s. For vertical movement, the patient could only see motion below 10 deg/s fixated or 13 deg/s when tracking the target. The patient described her perceptual experience for stimulus velocities higher than 18 and 13 deg/s, respectively as \"one light spot left or right\" or \"one light spot up or down\" and \"sometimes at successive positions in between\", but never as motion.\n", "The human body is better at surviving g-forces that are perpendicular to the spine. In general when the acceleration is forwards (subject essentially lying on their back, colloquially known as \"eyeballs in\") a much higher tolerance is shown than when the acceleration is backwards (lying on their front, \"eyeballs out\") since blood vessels in the retina appear more sensitive in the latter direction.\n", "Using an fMRI, Roger B. H. Tootel \"et al.\" were able to identify the area of the brain that is active when experiencing illusory motion. Tootel and his colleagues had participants view a set of concentric rings that appeared to move inward and outward. Participants would experience a motion aftereffect after viewing the moving stimuli for 40 seconds. Participants showed an increased activity in the MT area of the brain.\n\nSection::::Occurrences.\n\nTheoretical example with the Illusion of motion: \"It appears that the sky is falling, while the reality is that the ocean is rising.\"\n\nIllusory motion can occur in different circumstances.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02903	How do people in sky scrapers evacuate during a fire?	They use the stairs. Every multi story building has stairwells for both emergency evacuation and to use in case the elevators break.	[ "Section::::Emergency voice alarm communication systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Some fire alarm systems utilize emergency voice alarm communication systems (EVAC) to provide pre-recorded and manual voice messages. Voice alarm systems are typically used in high-rise buildings, arenas and other large \"defend-in-place\" occupancies such as hospitals and detention facilities where total evacuation is difficult to achieve.\n\nBULLET::::- Voice-based systems provide response personnel with the ability to conduct orderly evacuation and notify building occupants of changing event circumstances.\n", "LFB call handlers collected information from trapped residents and this was relayed to the LFB's command unit that was parked outside. Communicating through radio proved difficult, due to noise, the sheer volume of talk and possibly the concrete building structure. Instead, details of trapped residents were written on slips of paper and ferried by runners from the command unit to the bridgehead on the second floor. At the bridgehead, incoming firefighters were assigned flats to go to and briefed on whom they would need to rescue. They donned breathing apparatus and headed to the flat to search for its residents.\n", "When properly used, ventilation improves life safety, fire extinguishment, and property conservation by 'pulling' fire away from trapped occupants and objects.\n", "Section::::Home oxygen fire incidents.\n\nSome of the incidents involving deaths and injuries to patients, their relatives, fellow residents, as well as firefighters include:\n\nRichmond, Indiana, US. November 19, 2018 \n\nTilford, South Dakota, US. September 7, 2018 \n\nFayetteville, Arkansas, US. July 14, 2018 \n\nMarion County, Indianapolis, US. May 19, 2018\n\nSan Remo, Italy. March 23, 2017\n\nPont-Sainte-Maxence, Oise, France. March 11, 2017\n\nPau, France. February 19, 2017\n\nWinchester, Kentucky, US. March 11, 2016\n\nKnox County, Tennessee, US. February, 2012\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n\nSection::::Regulation.:United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Denver drill: A drill that essentially re-creates the rescue of Denver firefighter Mark Langvardt. It incorporates the use of a leveraged body and an inclined plane (bio-mechanics) to get a victim up and out of a narrow window in a narrow hallway (the Denver Prop).\n", "Section::::Methods.\n", "A modern type of evacuation slide is the vertical spiral escape chute, which is a common means of evacuation for buildings and other structures.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Firefighters often carry personal self-rescue ropes. The ropes are generally 30 feet long and can provide a firefighter (that has enough time to deploy the rope) a partially controlled exit out of an elevated window. Lack of a personal rescue rope is cited in the deaths of two New York City Firefighters, Lt. John Bellew and Lt. Curtis Meyran, who died after they jumped from the fourth floor of a burning apartment building in the Bronx. Of the four firefighters who jumped and survived, only one of them had a self-rescue rope. Since the incident, the Fire Department of New York City has issued self-rescue ropes to their firefighters.\n", "The fire burned on the third floor of the building. When the fire broke out, 19 people were on the third floor and 28 people were on the fourth floor. Three employees jumped out of the building from the third floor and survived, suffering injuries. Witnesses who saw one of the employees called an ambulance.\n\nEmergency responders arriving to treat the jumpers learned of the building fire and evacuation efforts commenced. Firefighters removed the bodies of 44 people (32 men and 12 women) from inside the building, and rescued those who managed to flee to the roof.\n", "BULLET::::- In high rise buildings, different evacuation messages may be played to each floor, depending on the location of the fire. The floor the fire is on along with ones above it may be told to evacuate while floors much lower may simply be asked to stand by.\n\nSection::::Mass notification systems/emergency communication systems.\n", "Those teaching the technique are advised to teach children the proper circumstances for its use. As such, some advice pamphlets regarding the technique suggest reminding children that this technique is only to be used in the event of catching on fire and not when a smoke alarm is sounding in a situation that requires immediate evacuation. Furthermore, some advice on the technique advises the procedure of \"stop, drop and roll and cover your face,\" as this will help to protect the face from any flames.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Alisa Ann Ruch Burn Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Are you Prepared?\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Individual Equipment.\n\nThe basic fire-rescue kit of each firefighter consist of: protective helmet, fireproof balaclava, fireproof garments. For large quantities of smoke the fireman wears a breathing aid: a cylinder of compressed air with a facial mask that covers the entire face of the operator. It lasts an average of 20–25 minutes (200 bar), or higher, if at 300 atmospheres.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Technical Equipment.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Technical Equipment.:Primary vehicles.\n", "John O’Hanlon described the effect of carrying the body of a three-year-old girl, had on him. He said that it reminded him of a YouTube video of a cladding fire in Dubai, he had seen. They had had a slide show, in 2016, of that fire but no training on how to fight that type of fire. He was one of the first officers to enter the flat where the fire started. They pumped at least 240 l/min of water at the burning plastic window surround. The flames would not go out; outside of the building was '“roaring” like a burning gas main'.\n", "By 01:18, 34 of 293 residents had escaped. The busiest phase of evacuations was between 01:18 and 01:38, when 110 escaped, with many being woken up by their smoke alarms when smoke entered their flat. Some residents of unaffected flats also left around this time, after being alerted by their neighbours. Due to Ramadan, many observing Muslim residents were awake for the pre-dawn meal of suhur, which enabled them to alert neighbours and help them to escape.\n", "Crisis plan implementation for emergency situations is assisted by modern technology. There are numerous apps available for smart phones and other mobile technology platforms that promote enhanced crisis plan implementation and situational awareness. One example is the \"CPR & Choking\" app for iPhone and iPad, developed in part by the University of Washington and King County EMS.\n\nSection::::Personal crisis plan.\n", "An alternate form of rapid-exit fire escape developed in the early 1900s was a long canvas tube suspended below a large funnel outside the window of a tall building. A person escaping the fire would slide down the interior of the tube, and could control the speed of descent by pushing outward on the tube walls with their arms and legs. This escape tube could be rapidly deployed from a window and hung down to street level, though it was large and bulky to store inside the building.\n", "In most cases of structural firefighting, a 4x4 foot opening is cut into the roof directly over the fire room. This allows hot smoke and gases to escape through the opening, returning the conditions inside the room to normal. It is important to coordinate the ventilation with an interior fire attack since the opening of a ventilation hole supplies more air, and thus oxygen, to the fire. Ventilation may also \"limit fire spread by channeling fire toward nearby openings and allows fire fighters to safely attack the fire\" as well as limit smoke, heat, and water damage.\n", "The firefighters died after the fire, aided by strong winds, trapped them in the basement of the brownstone and prevented their colleagues from rescuing them. It has also been suggested that the 45-mile-per-hour winds which helped fuel the fire also triggered an explosion, which also trapped them in the basement. The precise reason the firefighters died after getting trapped remains unknown, but one proposed scenario involves the fire burning through their hose line, cutting off their ability to fight the fire around them.\n", "\"The Steel Inferno\": A fire breaks out in a skyscraper and the members of Squad 51 along with other LACoFD members help rescue those who are trapped. Personnel from Rampart General Hospital set up a triage area at the scene to care for the injured awaiting to be transported to the hospital. A Coast Guard helicopter helps firefighters with rooftop evacuations. This television movie was similar to Irwin Allen's \"The Towering Inferno\" (1974).\n", "BULLET::::- Reset: Used variously, a specific technique to quickly knock down a fire from the exterior of a structure before standard offensive operations are initiated. In the case of an attic fire, an \"attic reset\" can be performed by creating a very small hole and introducing a Flamefighter or other penetrating fog nozzle and using short bursts of water to knock down the fire and improve conditions before the roof or ceiling is further opened. An \"exterior reset\" or \"quick hit\" can be used by introducing a pencil stream through the center of an open window or door, directed at the ceiling, and using a short water application. The pencil stream and center-window technique allows the resulting steam to escape. Done correctly, this can dramatically lower interior temperatures before a crew makes entry.\n", "The firefighters encountered thick smoke, zero visibility and extreme heat when they climbed above the fourth floor. Furthermore, some residents had moved location to escape the smoke. Three firefighters who went to rescue a 12-year old girl on the 20th floor were unable to find her. Unknown to them, she had moved up to a flat on the 23rd floor, was on the phone to a control operator who had no means of knowing what the firefighters were doing, and later died in this location. Another two firefighters were sent to a flat on the 14th floor with a single resident, only to find 8 people (four of them eventually escaped).\n", "Stop, drop and roll\n\nStop, drop and roll is a simple fire safety technique taught to children, emergency service personnel and industrial workers as a component of health and safety training in English-speaking North America, and most other English-speaking countries. It involves three steps a fire victim should follow to minimize injury in the event their clothing catches fire.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n\nStop, drop and roll consists of three components.\n\nBULLET::::1. Stop – The fire affected person must stop, ceasing any movement which may fan the flames or hamper those attempting to put the fire out.\n", "BULLET::::- Ladder slide (or ladder bail) A technique used to rapidly bail out of a window and onto a ladder face-first. After exiting the window, the firefighter quickly rotates 180 degrees to descend the ladder normally.\n\nBULLET::::- Layout: Establishing water supply. Usually done by first due engine company. Telling the next due in, to pick it up.\n", "Grenfell firefighter prepared to die when oxygen almost ran out.\n\nChristopher Scarlet reports the fire lift was jammed, how he ran out of oxygen while trying to save Jessica Urbano, and the heat in her flat, 176. He expected flashover, which is when the temperature increases and increases so everything in the room self-combusts. With no air left he asked Baudillo to escort him down. How on the ground how an officer was hit by a body jumping from a high floor, and that the stay put policy was wrong.\n", "In the USA, confined space rescue is covered under the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1670, and under 29 CFR 1910.146 and 29 CFR 1910.147, and must follow Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards or heavy fines will be levied upon the company that violates their regulation and injury occurs in the workplace. Others are often is managed according to the Incident Command System.\n\nIn the UK confined space is governed under by HSE (Health and Safety Executive), which states that those entering a confined space cannot rely on 999 for rescue.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13078	If the Hindu trinity consists of Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva, why are the major traditions Vaishnavism and Shaivism, but none for Brahma?	Well, primarily because Brahma had one of his heads chopped off and was cursed by Shiva that he wouldn't be worshipped. Let me explain why it all went wrong for Brahma. Ok, so, Brahma's the creator of the universe, and along with the universe, Brahma created a female deity, Shatarupa: Someone who can have a hundred forms. At this point of time, Brahma was normal and had one head. But Shatarupa was hot and Brahma became infatuated with her and stared at her wherever he went. So much so that he sprouted 3 more heads to have 4 heads to look at her in all directions(I know, I know, he was a creep). And nobody likes your creator fawning over you (smells like incest). Shatarupa even jumped high in the sky to escape his sight, but he sprouted another head on top of all of them to look at her even there. Brahma was getting attached to material things and flexing his powers for the wrong goals: to manifest control over his creations. These are qualities of a lower Jiva(life form), not a divine being Shiva was having none of it. He was like five is a crowd, but four is good, and chopped off the top facing head of Brahma. And due to Brahma becoming attached to the material objects and ignoring the permanent soul, Shiva cursed Brahma that he would not be worshipped. TL; DR: Brahma was pervy. Created hot female diety and couldn't stop staring at her everywhere she went. Grew four more heads to always follow her in any direction; even in the air. Shiva punished Brahma by cutting off one head, and cursing him that he wouldn't be worshipped because he has become more materialistic than spiritual, and for lusting after his own material creation Edit: There could be other legends as to why Brahma is not allowed to be worshipped. This is the one I was taught.	[ "Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples, such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India. Harihara temples in and outside the Indian subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual.\n", "The Holy Trinity of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti of Hinduism, whose members -- Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva—are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman, or Godhead. The specific formulation of this trinitarian relationship is not identical between the two religions; for example, in Hinduism there is a Parabrahma, or an ultimate creator who created the Trimurti, for which there exists no parallel in Christianity. Some consider Brahma to be more similar to the demiurge of Christian gnosticism, in that he (at least initially) wrongly thought himself as the \"Creator\" and also as the highest or even the only god. In this case, the Hindu version of the Trinity could be seen as Brahma (Father), Sankarshan or Vishnu (Holy spirit), and Mahesh or Shiva (Son; analogous to Christ).\n", "In the Smarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi, and Kali, but they are essentially different forms of the same \"Being\". However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that all individuals were united by the same impersonal, divine power in the form of the Atman.\n", "Halbfass states that, although traditions such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as \"self-contained religious constellations\", there is a degree of interaction and reference between the \"theoreticians and literary representatives\" of each tradition which indicates the presence of \"a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon\". It is common to find Hindus revering Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti, and celebrating festivals related to them at different times of the year. Temples often feature more than one of them, and Hinduism is better understood as polycentric theosophy that leaves the choice of deity and ideas to the individual.\n", "Although \"Vishnu\" was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned more often compared to Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting that he had a major position in the Vedic religion. Other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara (also mentioned as Narayana-Purusha in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas), who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. In the late-Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a metaphysical Brahman grows in prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just like Shaivism and Shaktism consider Shiva and Devi to be Brahman respectively.\n", "Section::::Influence.:Smarta Tradition.\n\nShiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition, sometimes referred to as Smartism, another tradition of Hinduism. The Smarta Hindus are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology, and their practices include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities, which includes Shiva along with Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. This is called the Panchayatana puja. The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.\n", "In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been \"Bhattara Guru\", which is derived from Sanskrit \"Bhattaraka\" which means “noble lord\". He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others. Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms. The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).\n", "Mythologies of both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity. The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu, that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.\n\nSection::::Position within Hinduism.:Shaktism.\n", "The weakness of the Vaishnava origins theory is that it conflates two systems. While it is true that the Vaishnava Hindus in the eastern region of India worshipped the triad of Balarama, Ekanamsa and Krishna, it does not automatically prove that the Jagannath triad originated from the same. Some medieval texts, for example, present the Jagannath triad as Brahma (Subhadra), Shiva (Balarama) and Vishnu. The historic evidence and current practices suggest that the Jagannath tradition has a strong dedication to the Harihara (fusion Shiva-Vishnu) idea as well as tantric Sri Vidya practices, neither of which reconcile with the Vaishnava origins proposal. Further, in many Jagannath temples of central and eastern regions of India, the Shiva icons such as the Linga-yoni are reverentially incorporated, a fact that is difficult to explain given the assumed competition between the Shaivism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism.\n", "Depending on which scriptures (and translations) are quoted, evidence is available to support each of the different arguments. In most cases, even if one personality is taken as being superior over the other, much respect is still offered to both Vishnu and Shiva by the other's worshippers (i.e. Shiva is still regarded as being above the level of an ordinary jiva and 'the greatest of the Vaishnavas' by Vaishnavas who worship only Vishnu).\n\nSection::::Concept.:One and the same.\n", "Hindus venerate deities in the form of the \"murti\", or idol. The \"Puja\" (worship) of the murti is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity (Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, there are sects who have advocated that there is no need of giving a shape to God and it is omnipresent and beyond the things which human can see or feel tangibly. Specially the Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Brahmo Samaj founder by Ram Mohan Roy (there are others also) do not worship deities. Arya Samaj favours Vedic chants and Havan, Brahmo Samaj go for simple prayers.\n", "According to Galvin Flood, that Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly. The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.\n\nSection::::Influence.\n", "Vaishnavism is centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. According to Schweig, it is a \"polymorphic monotheism, i.e. a theology that recognizes many forms (ananta rupa) of the one, single unitary divinity,\" since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. Okita, in contrast, states that the different denominations within Vaishnavism are best described as theism, pantheism and panentheism.\n", "In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period \"golden age\" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita \"dualism\", Advaita Vedanta \"non-dualism\" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as \"Navya Nyaya\" \"Neo-Nyaya\", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ayyavazhi\n\nBULLET::::- Sanamahism\n\nBULLET::::- Donyipoloism\n\nBULLET::::- Sarna/Sari Dhorom/Kherwalism\n\nBULLET::::- Kiratism/Yumaism\n", "Section::::Influence.:Vaishnavism.\n\nVaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the \"Vishnu Purana\" primarily focuses on the theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts that they are one with Vishnu. The Vishnu Sahasranama in the \"Mahabharata\" list a thousand attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.\n", "However, this argument overlooks the obvious correlation of Brahmā with Brahman. The identification of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as one being is strongly emphasized in the \" Purāṇa\", wherein 1.6 Brahman is worshipped as Trimurti; 1.9 especially inculcates the unity of the three gods, and 1.26 relates to the same theme. Historian A. L. Basham explains the background of the Trimurti as follows, noting Western interest in the idea of trinity:There must be some doubt as to whether the Hindu tradition has ever recognized Brahma as the Supreme Deity in the way that Visnu and Siva have been conceived of and worshiped. The concept of Trimurti is also present in the Maitri Upanishad, where the three gods are explained as three of his supreme forms.\n", "It is especially significant to both the Smarta and Bhakti schools wherein practitioners choose to worship the form of God that inspires them. Within Smartism, one of five chief deities are selected. Even in denominations that focus on a singular concept of God, such as Vaishnavism, the Ishta Deva concept exists. For example, in Vaishnavism, special focus is given to a particular form of Lord Vishnu or one of his Avatars (i.e. Krishna or Rama), and similarly within Shaktism, focus is given to a particular form of the Goddess such as Parvati or Lakshmi. The Swaminarayan sect of Vaishnavism has a similar concept, but notably holds that Vishnu and Shiva are different aspects of the same God.\n", "Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by Sri Aurobindo and has been suggested as having influenced Basava's Lingayatism.\n\nSection::::Schools of thought.:In Vedanta school of Hinduism.:Dvaita Vedanta.\n\nThe Dvaita (dualism) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th century Madhva, defines \"Ishvara\" as creator God that is distinct from \"Jiva\" (individual souls in living beings). Narayana (Vishnu) is considered to be \"Ishvara\", and the Vaishnavism movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.\n", "Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting that he had a minor position in the Vedic religion. Other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara (also mentioned as Narayana-Purusha in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas), who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. In the late-Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a metaphysical Brahman grows in prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just like Shaivism and Shaktism consider Shiva and Devi to be Brahman respectively.\n", "Section::::Monistic tritheism.\n\nThe Hindu Trinity of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer have been held to constitute a tritheistic belief system. Like the Christian Trinity, these entities are understood to interact harmoniously. However, this Hindu trinity is not conceived in a firmly doctrinal sense, but is rather posited as one of the ways in which the divine order of the universe can be understood. Ultimately, the Universal Spirit, the \"Paramatman\", the Brahman, or Bhagvan is held to reign supreme as a singular entity.\n\nSection::::\"Monotheistic\" tritheism.\n", "Over time a process of cultural accommodation occurred and the local pantheons of spirits were merged with the foreign. The origin of the major Hindu deities, Vishnu, Shiva, and the various forms of the female consorts or goddess such as Shakti and Durga and the history of their possible converging or merging is not reliably documented. It is likely that in this way, for example, Vishnu collected his long list of Avatars or bodily manifestations. This accounts for the wide range in their divine powers and their rich and contradictory personalities.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence. This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta.\n\nAmong lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism, focusing their worship on one or more personal deities, while granting the existence of others.\n", "The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts. The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (\"Advaita\") and devotional traditions (\"Dvaita\") such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing mythologies and aspects of Shiva.\n", "Section::::Traditions.:Medieval traditions.:Smartism.\n\nThe Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions. According to Flood, Smartism developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. By the time of Adi Shankara, it had developed the \"pancayatanapuja\", the worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal, namely Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya and Devi (Shakti), \"as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices.\"\n", "Radhakrishnan and Moore state that these variations in \"Isvara\" concept is consistent with Hinduism's notion of \"personal God\" where the \"ideals or manifestation of individual's highest Self values that are esteemed\". Riepe, and others, state that schools of Hinduism leave the individual with freedom and choice of conceptualizing Isvara in any meaningful manner he or she wishes, either in the form of \"deity of one's choice\" or \"formless Brahman (Absolute Reality, Universal Principle, true special Self)\".\n\nSection::::Schools of thought.:In Samkhya school of Hinduism.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06024	How are songs from concerts recorded, considering the sheer amount of background noise from the crowd?	The audio is recorded straight from the source. So the mic's, guitars etc all go straight to the sound board and are recorded from there.	[ "For digital production, the band sometimes used an reFX QuadraSid emulator and Native Instruments Reaktor. Commenting on the production of their third album, \"Haha Sound\", Keenan said: \"You know when it feels overworked. We used more of a minimalist approach on this album: There has been less emphasis on decoration and more on repetitive parts that go through the tracks. They are not the focus for your ear, but they are the foundation.\"\n\nSection::::Artistry.:Live performances.\n", "The crowd was recorded at the 2009 Splendour in the Grass for the song \"Think It Over\".\n\nSection::::Singles.\n", "The band's recording gear and methods were profiled in a 2003 article in \"Electronic Musician\", in which it was noted that they recorded many of their guitar arrangements (played at that time on a 1960s Italian Eko Edsel) through microphones, rather than through a DI unit.\n", "\"Plays Live\" concerts were recorded at:\n\nBULLET::::- Braden Auditorium, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, 3 December 1982\n\nBULLET::::- Memorial Hall, Kansas City, Kansas, 4 December 1982\n\nBULLET::::- Evans Field House, Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, Illinois, 6 December 1982\n\nBULLET::::- SIU Arena, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, 7 December 1982\n", "John Bonham's drumming, played on a Ludwig kit, was recorded in the lobby of Headley Grange using two Beyerdynamic M 160 microphones which were hung up a flight of stairs; output from these were passed to a pair of Helios F760 compressor/limiters. A Binson Echorec, a delay effects unit, was also used. \n", "\"A Sort of Homecoming\" is live from Wembley Arena in London, England on 15 November 1984. The song was produced by Tony Visconti and recorded during a soundcheck at the concert, with the crowd noise mixed in later during post-production at Good Earth Studios.\n\n\"The Three Sunrises\" (also listed as \"Three Sunrises\") was produced by the band with Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois. It can also be found on the B-sides disc of the limited edition of \"The Best of 1980–1990\" compilation from 1998.\n", "The album was recorded during Front Line Assembly's first show in London in July 1989 which was probably not well attended. Thus \"the recorded sound of the crowd cheering had to be edited and recycled from track to track just to give the sonic illusion of a packed room.\"\n", "The song \"Stars\" was recorded on May 20 and 21, 1985 with the first session at Sound City Studios and then moving to A&M Records Studios Studio A for the second session where they had recorded \"\"We Are The World\"\". It was Edited and Mixed at Rumbo Recorders and Mastered at Artisan Sound. \n", "The big room (studio A) features an SSL 4064 G+ loaded 48 channels with 30 outboard mic pre-amps.\n", "However, no Irish rock band recorded in the studios until U2. The drums on \"Boy\" were recorded in the reception area of the recording studios, due to producer Steve Lillywhite's desire to achieve \"this wonderful clattery sound\". They had to wait until the receptionist went home in the evenings as the phone rang through the day and even occasionally in the evening.\n", "The seven-track live record was recorded in front of a room full of people in New York City in the autumn of 1984. It has been rumored that the crowd noise was added in a studio rather than recorded on stage. Joel McIver, author of \"The Bloody Reign of Slayer\", asked \"Live Undead\" producer/engineer Bill Metoyer, who had worked on the album in Los Angeles. Metoyer responded: \"I don't know if I should tell you [if the crowd noises were faked]! Isn't that one of those great industry secrets? Let's just say that when you're doing a live record, you want live sound — even if perhaps the microphones didn't pick up the audience properly.\"\n", "A number of the songs on this album appeared on the two previous EPs although most appear as alternate versions. Some of the songs on the album were recorded in Manchester, and co-produced by Gaz Whelan (Happy Mondays), which Laffer describes was more about the songs than the sounds. \"Well the studio we were in most of the time was this old bunker under a block of terraced houses and it was really old and dusty and we squeezed in and just tried our best to rock out. I thought back to the studios we’d bummed around in Perth and how people are always talking about the gear and how they want to upgrade to an international standard and they’ve got these pristine clean places. They’re great I guess if you’re making TV commercials but if you’re capturing a song it’s about standing around and playing it and getting that one take which is fantastic and you can’t do that in those environments. That’s why most of the record we did here we rented a house and just stood in the bedrooms and plugged in and we can’t do it any other way. When you sing it’s kind of easier if you’ve got a beer and if you want to have a cigarette while you’re doing it, you don’t want to be in some hospital atmosphere with the dollar signs clicking over in your head. That’s one thing I hate about commercial studios but people get different results different ways. Ours has been to take our time and do it with friends a lot of the time in our own space. It’s worked for us.\" The majority of the album was however co-produced with Steve Bond and recorded in Australia, with the album mixed by Jeremy Allom (The La's, Massive Attack).\n", "The audio was recorded onto two eight-track recorders in the basement studio at Apple by engineer Alan Parsons. Film director Michael Lindsay-Hogg, working on what would become \"Let It Be\", brought in a camera crew to capture several angles of the performance, including reactions from people on the street.\n", "Thursday recorded their debut album \"Waiting\" in 1999, and Taking Back Sunday recorded \"Tell All Your Friends\" in 2001, which on its 2005 reissue featured a bonus song called \"\"The Ballad of Sal Villanueva\"\". Thursday has continually gone back to Villanueva, including his recording of the breakout album \"Full Collapse\" in 2001.\n\nThroughout its existence, 24 Gold and 10 Platinum records have been mixed or recorded at the 512 Paterson Plank facility; and some of the Gold and Platinum records are displayed in the reception area upon entering the studio.\n\nSection::::Equipment and Features.\n", "The second disc featured audio of most of the songs from the group's DVD, \"\", which documented their tour for \"The Eleventh Hour\". All of the songs on this disc originally appeared on the band's first four albums, except for \"This Road\", which comes from the first of a series of multi-artist worship albums called \"City on a Hill\".\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Disc One (From the Studio).\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Overjoyed\" - 3:40\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Something Beautiful\" - 3:57\n\nBULLET::::3. \"The Valley Song (Sing Of Your Mercy)\" - 4:11\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Liquid\" - 3:38\n\nBULLET::::5. \"The Eleventh Hour\" - 4:09\n", "David \"Shirt\" Nicholls was the audio mixer, using a Digidesign Venue with both the Eventide Anthology Pack, which provided sound effects, and Venue Pro Pack, which was a complete digital mixing console. Nicholls has expressed his admiration for the Venue Pro Pack and also explained that the A-T 4050 microphones which he used on the tour took a battering during shows. Nicholls has called the T6100 vocal microphones he used \"bulletproof\" as they would occasionally \"go flying up into the seats\" during shows but would still work the next show. The Meyer P.A., which accumulates 16 MILO seat boxes, nine Nexo CD-18 subwoofers, and six flown HP700s on the ground per side, was provided by Thunder Audio.\n", "Concerts can take place at a location not served by the public electricity grid. In these cases, the concert promoters set up emergency power generators.\n\nMany open-air concerts are very loud, and without the insulation of a building or arena to contain the noise, this also takes an amount of planning, to assure that the concert does not bother the neighbors. Often, these events are staged at a distance from residential areas. Many areas have noise regulations in place limiting the areas in which these large events can take place.\n", "The band were then licensed to the major label Atlantic Records in December 2004, where they were given the chance to re-record the album in the renowned Abbey Road Studios, among other well known studios, however they went back to the cab office to maintain their sound.\n\nSection::::History.:2005–2006: \"Stars of CCTV\".\n", "Section::::Recording.\n\nThe Dead Kennedys entered tiny Subterranean Studios to record eight songs on June 19, 1981. All tracks were recorded live without overdubs to ½\" 8-track reel and with the band determining some of the songs' arrangements between takes. \n", "The film was storyboarded extensively by MacMahon in advance of the shoot along with detailed diagrams of the lighting designs. He explained; “I’d have an idea in advance of what the set-up might be musically so I painted out lighting design and storyboards in advance. Those were in a constant state of flux,” Producer Allison McGourty commented “It was like a theatrical production—Bernard designed different lighting for each session to give [each song] a different feel.” MacMahon said that he wanted the film to look like a painting “I wanted a rich color palette so it looks like a Velázquez painting,” he said, with the lighting falling off to heavy shadows in the corners of the picture to conceal the dolly tracks in the studio. MacMahon filmed principally on an Arri Alexa on a camera dolly. The decision to have the camera in a constant state of subtle motion was designed to give the film a musical rhythm and momentum. As the musicians in the film were forced to record their tracks in a single unaltered take, MacMahon decided the camera should do the same and choreographed complex single take moves to mirror the tempo of the music whilst landing on the musicians the moment their part came to the foreground. McGourty explained “he would rehearse with our house band before the performers arrived, and rehearse the camera crew with all the dolly moves so they would know when the lead vocalist would be singing; then it would go into a chorus, then the guitar or the banjo. There was a huge amount of preparation, because it was not just the music that had to be captured in one three-minute take—we had to capture the whole experience on film, and make it look natural, and do it smoothly enough that we didn’t interfere with the performers.” MacMahon said he took some of his inspiration from John J. Mescall's cinematography on James Whale productions like the \"Bride of Frankenstein\". MacMahon wanted viewers to feel like they were standing in the studio watching the performance, so the camera never moved lower than a crouch or higher than someone standing on their tip toes, nor did the camera zoom in closer than a guest in the studio would stand. A test session was filmed with Frank Fairfield and The Americans to perfect the cinematic style of the film. In stark contrast to this policy was his use of extreme macro photography when the film discusses the recording system. Shot using macro lenses, the cinematography used in these sections was designed to take the viewer inside the inner workings of the 1920s Western Electric amplifier and microphone and the 1920s Scully cutting lathe, and to give the recording system a larger than life persona. Exterior shots of the dilapidated and nondescript studio building were occasionally employed with pedestrians walking by oblivious to the activities going on inside. MacMahon said this was to “remind people that behind every door there are a thousand stories.”\n", "No post-production overdubbing was done in the studio. Occasional wrong notes can be heard in the final product of the recording. Wednesday 13 admitted, \"First off, let me say this is a live recording. This is not a live recording where we went back into the studio and overdubbed guitar parts or vocals. This is us ... LIVE! If we make a mistake, you will hear it. If my voice cracks, you hear it. This is as close to a live experience as we could give.\"\n\nSection::::Production.:Release.\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Petersen - focus puller\n\nBULLET::::- Gawian Kamelarczyk - camera assistant\n\nBULLET::::- \"Live at Abbey Road\" crew\n\nBULLET::::- Finn Jansen - live sound engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Mads Nørregaard - monitor sound engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Jonas Jacobsen - backline technician\n\nBULLET::::- John Henry's Ltd - stagehands\n\nBULLET::::- CrewCo - stagehands\n\nBULLET::::- Woodlands (Worchestershire) Ltd - generators\n\nBULLET::::- Kasper Christiansen – lighting designer\n\nBULLET::::- Jacob Bækmand - lighting crew, rigger\n\nBULLET::::- Jonas Ritz - lighting crew, rigger\n\nBULLET::::- Nils Laursen - lighting crew, rigger\n\nBULLET::::- Frans Andersen - lighting crew, rigger\n\nBULLET::::- Stine Hein (PDH) - live production\n", "Many shows were recorded during the Roadhouse Blues Tour in 1970 to create the \"Absolutely Live\" Album. The Doors' producer, Paul A. Rothchild, painstakingly edited the album from many different shows to create one cohesive concert, \"the perfect Doors show.\" Many of the songs were pieced together from various performances. Rothchild has said, \"I couldn't get complete takes of a lot of songs, so sometimes I'd cut from Detroit to Philadelphia in midsong. There must be 2,000 edits on that album.\"\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nThe song was recorded at Grouse Lodge, under the supervision of producer Jacknife Lee. Lead vocals, rhythm guitar and piano were provided by Tom Smith, lead guitar and synth by Chris Urbanowicz, bass guitar by Russell Leetch and percussion by Ed Lay. Smith and Lay were also part of the choir, along with producer Jacknife Lee, audio engineer Tom McFall and singer Anne Struther, all of whom were chosen purely because they were in the studio at the time. When performed live, the choir vocals are provided by Smith, Lay and Leetch, rather than using a pre-recorded backing track.\n", "BULLET::::- Artwork designed - Alex Hillbrook, Ryan Clark & Ryan Chang\n\nBULLET::::- Photography - Ryan Chang\n\nBULLET::::- Internal Design & Layout - Cürt Evans\n\nAudio\n\nBULLET::::- Recording - Chris Goddard\n\nBULLET::::- Assistant Engineers - Adam Williams & MJ\n\nBULLET::::- mixing - Colin Richardson & Andy Sneap\n\nBULLET::::- mastering - Andy Sneap\n\nBULLET::::- Mixed and Mastered at - Backstage Studios, Derbyshire, UK\n\nBULLET::::- Vinyl Cut - Greg Moore at Finyl Tweak\n\nBULLET::::- Live Here Now - Noggin & MJ\n\nBULLET::::- Television Facilities - Trickbox TV Ltd\n\nBULLET::::- Unit Manager/Guarantee Engineer - Steve Gould\n\nBULLET::::- Camera Guarantee - Daniel Brown\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00310	What's the explanation behind ancient relics (dead saints) and their "preservation" .	Pre-Christian religions believed that elements of a dead person's body might carry over magical powers if that person had any. In some regions, these ideas were carried over into Christian observances.	[ "Magnificent Corpses\n\nMagnificent Corpses: Searching Through Europe for St. Peter's Head, St. Claire's Heart, St. Stephen's Hand, and Other Saintly Relics (1999) is a book written by Anneli Rufus, concerning relics enshrined in Europe's churches and cathedrals. Rufus relates the stories behind the saints memorialized and the history of relic veneration. As a non-Catholic, she also describes her experiences of visiting the reliquaries of various saints and the pilgrims that still visit them.\n", "The cult of saints and relics was unfamiliar to early Christianity. He does not know and the New Testament story. The traditional Roman legislation that kept the dead in their proper place. From the middle of the 4th century, the cult of saints and relics began in Christianity. Christians begin to dig up the bones and skulls of saints from their graves, making them objects of worship. In the fourth century, among Christians were opponents of the cult of relics, for example, the presbyter Vigilantius. However, at the end of the fourth and fifth centuries, the cult of martyrs and relics grew. The number of relics included not only the remains of the bodies of the saints: bones, skulls, skin, hair, etc.; but also the objects that the saints used in their lives (contact relics): clothing, hats, belts, shoes, etc. Along with the authentic things associated with the names of saints, numerous falsified relics were created in Christianity: both the bodies of the saints themselves and the objects associated with their names. Genuine and fake relics were kept in temples and monasteries. Relics, including fake ones, were actively traded both in the West and in the East. Churches and monasteries gladly bought relics from merchants or accepted them as gifts from rulers. Particularly increased flow of relics sold to the West after the Crusades. Local councils repeatedly spoke out against the trade in fake relics, but these measures did not help much. Relics continued to be forged, forgeries were sold and actively bought; after which the falsified relics were richly decorated with gold, silver, precious stones; and then exhibited in temples and monasteries and became objects of pilgrimage for mass worship of believers, who considered them to be authentic relics. By the middle of the 16th century, the number of relics in Christian churches became enormous, and there was practically no possibility to distinguish the authentic from the falsification, since both of them had been in the temples for centuries and were objects for worship. The most vivid and well-known critical understanding of the history and practice of the veneration of relics was presented at the beginning of the 12th century in the theological and didactic work «On the Saints and Their Relics» () by Guibert of Nogent. The reason for writing this work was a dispute about the relics in the Abbey of Saint-Médard de Soissons. The monks claimed that the Savior's milk tooth was kept in the monastery; in response, Guibert of Nogent explained why the Savior, who had resurrected in the flesh and ascended to heaven, could not leave even a small part of His Body on the earth, neither an umbilical cord nor a foreskin; however, in the Middle Ages, such things were often objects of worship. Guibert cites several examples of fake relics, including the skull of John the Baptist, for the presence of which Angers and Constantinople simultaneously claimed. Several chapters of Guibert's work are devoted to listing the relics that the author considers to be undoubtedly counterfeit. Guibert's work was handwritten and not widely used. There is speculation that Calvin was familiar with this work. Having set itself the task of restoring the apostolic order, the Reformation severely criticized the veneration of saints and relics, i.e., all that was associated with ideas about the earthly existence of Christ, his disciples and saints. In 1543 Calvin answered Pighius, he published a French «Tract on Relics» in Geneva. It was the most popular and effective of his anti-papal writings. He indulged here very freely in his power of ridicule and sarcasm, but the spirit is altogether different.\n", "Section::::Christianity.:Classification and prohibitions in the Catholic Church.\n\nIn Catholic theology, sacred relics must not be worshipped, because only God is worshipped and adored. Instead, the veneration given to them was \"dulia\". Saint Jerome declared, \"We do not worship, we do not adore, for fear that we should bow down to the creature rather than to the Creator, but we venerate the relics of the martyrs in order the better to adore Him whose martyrs they are.\"\n\nThe Catholic church divides relics into three classes:\n", "The veneration of the relics of the saints is of great importance in Orthodoxy, and very often churches will display the relics of saints prominently. In a number of monasteries, particularly those on the Holy Mountain (Mount Athos in Greece), all of the relics the monastery possesses are displayed and venerated each evening at Compline. As with the veneration of icons, the veneration (Greek; δουλια, \"dulia\") of relics in the Orthodox Church is clearly distinguished from adoration (λατρεια, \"latria\"); i.e., that worship which is due to God alone. Thus Orthodox teaching warns the faithful against idolatry and at the same time remains true to scriptural teaching (vis. 2 Kings 13:20–21) as understood by Orthodox Sacred Tradition.\n", "The examination of the relics is an important step in the glorification (canonization) of new saints. Sometimes, one of the signs of sanctification is the condition of the relics of the saint. Some saints will be incorrupt, meaning that their remains do not decay under conditions when they normally would (natural mummification is not the same as incorruption). Sometimes even when the flesh does decay the bones themselves will manifest signs of sanctity. They may be honey colored or give off a sweet aroma. Some relics will exude myrrh. The absence of such manifestations is not necessarily a sign that the person is not a Saint.\n", "Christian use of relics also dates to the catacombs, when Christians found themselves praying in the presence of the bodies of martyrs, sometimes using their tombs as altars for sharing the Eucharist, which was, and in Catholicism, Lutheranism and Eastern Orthodoxy is, the central act of Christian worship. Many stories of the earliest martyrs end with an account of how Christians would gather up the martyr's remains, to the extent possible, in order to retain the martyr's relics. This is shown in the written record of the martyrdom of Saint Polycarp, a personal disciple of Saint John the Apostle.\n", "The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 drew on the teaching of St. John Damascene that homage or respect is not really paid to an inanimate object, but to the holy person, and indeed the veneration of a holy person is itself honour paid to God. The Council decreed that every altar should contain a relic, making it clear that this was already the norm, as it remains to the present day in the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The veneration of the relics of the saints reflects a belief that the saints in heaven intercede for those on earth. A number of cures and miracles have been attributed to relics, not because of their own power, but because of the holiness of the saint they represent.\n", "The collection of relics is the second largest in the United States with 1,100 relics, exceeded in number of relics only by Saint Anthony's Chapel in the Troy Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh with five thousand.\n\nRelics include body parts (usually bones) from saints or objects that belonged to a saint; they are held in high respect because they were individuals who are believed to have led exemplary lives.\n", "Father Francis de Sales Brunner, the missionary who led the Society of the Precious Blood, was a collector of relics. He was responsible for the first collection of relics in Maria Stein. Over the 19th century other relics were added to the core collection as a way of protecting them from the continuous strife of 19th-century Italy. In 1892 a separate \"relic chapel\" was established in which Sisters of the Most Precious Blood conducted a continuous vigil.\n", "In the early church the disturbance, let alone the division, of the remains of martyrs and other saints was not practiced. They were allowed to remain in their often unidentified resting places in cemeteries and the catacombs of Rome, always outside the walls of the city, but martyriums began to be built over the site of the burial, and it was considered beneficial to the soul to be buried close to the remains of saints, several large \"funerary halls\" being built over the sites of martyr's graves, including Old Saint Peter's Basilica. These were initially not regular churches, but \"covered cemeteries\" crammed with graves, and celebrating funerary and memorial services. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia it may have been thought that when the souls of the martyrs went to heaven on resurrection day they would be accompanied by those interred nearby, who would gain favour with God.\n", "The practice of venerating relics seems to have been taken for granted by writers like Augustine, St. Ambrose, Gregory of Nyssa, St. Chrysostom, and St. Gregory Nazianzen. Dom Bernardo Cignitti, O.S.B., wrote, “...[T]he remains of certain dead are surrounded with special care and veneration. This is because the mortal remains of the deceased are associated in some manner with the holiness of their souls which await reunion with their bodies in the resurrection.” Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) pointed out that it was natural that people should treasure what is associated with the dead, much like the personal effects of a relative. In an interview with Catholic News Service, Fr. Mario Conte, executive editor of the Messenger of St. Anthony magazine in Padua, Italy, said, \"Saints' relics help people overcome the abstract and make a connection with the holy. ...Saints do not perform miracles. Only God performs miracles, but saints are intercessors.\"\n", "\"A tribal chief holds a mournful vigil at his adopted daughter's bedside. When the past arrives on their shores in the hands of a stranger, something will awaken.\"\n", "In the early church, the disturbance, let alone the division, of the remains of martyrs and other saints, was not of concern or interest, much less practised. It was assumed that they would remain permanently in their often unidentified resting places in cemeteries and the catacombs of Rome (but always outside the walls of the city, continuing a pagan taboo). Then, martyriums began to be built over the site of the burial of saints. It came to be considered beneficial to the soul to be buried close to saintly remains, and as such, several large \"funerary halls\" were built over the sites of martyr's graves, the primary example being the Old Saint Peter's Basilica. \n", "in Islam.\" It is, however, evident that \"the historical reality of relics in Islam\" was very different, and that the classical Islamic thinkers posed various reasons for why the veneration of the relics of prophets and saints was permissible.\n\nSection::::Islam.:In Istanbul.\n\nWhile various relics are preserved by different Muslim communities, the most important are those known as The Sacred Trusts, more than 600 pieces treasured in the Privy Chamber of the Topkapı Palace Museum in Istanbul.\n\nMuslims believe that these treasures include:\n\nBULLET::::- Hair from Prophet Muhammad's beard and footprint\n\nBULLET::::- Sword of Ali\n\nBULLET::::- Staff of Moses\n", "The relics of saints (traditionally, always those of a martyr) are also sewn into the antimension which is given to a priest by his bishop as a means of bestowing faculties upon him (i.e., granting him permission to celebrate the Sacred Mysteries). The antimens is kept on the High Place of the Holy Table (altar), and it is forbidden to celebrate the Divine Liturgy (Eucharist) without it. Occasionally, in cases of fixed altars, the relics are built in the altar table itself and sealed with a special mixture called wax-mastic.\n", "According to Patrick Geary, \"[t]o the communities fortunate enough to have a saint's remains in its church, the benefits in terms of revenue and status were enormous, and competition to acquire relics and to promote the local saint's virtues over those of neighboring communities was keen\". Local clergy promoted their own patron saints in an effort to secure their own market share. On occasion guards had to watch over mortally ill holy men and women to prevent the unauthorized dismemberment of their corpses as soon as they died. Geary also suggests that the danger of someone murdering an aging holy man in order to acquire his relics was a legitimate concern.\n", "Their tomb in a crypt beneath the church afterwards erected to Saint Pancratius was long a place of resort for pilgrims, as detailed in various documents of the seventh century, such as an Itinerarium (or guide to the holy places of Rome compiled for the use of pilgrims) still preserved at Salzburg, the list, preserved in the cathedral archives of Monza, of the oils gathered from the tombs of the martyrs and sent to Queen Theodelinda in the time of Gregory the Great, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Third-Class Relics: any object that is touched to a first- or second-class relic. Most third-class relics are small pieces of cloth, though in the first millennium oil was popular; the Monza ampullae contained oil collected from lamps burning before the major sites of Christ's life, and some reliquaries had holes for oil to be poured in and out again. Many people call the cloth touched to the bones of saints \"\"ex brandea\"\". But \"ex brandea\" strictly refers to pieces of clothing that were touched to the body or tombs of the apostles. It is a term that is used only for such; it is not a synonym for a third-class relic.\n", "Later churches began to bring the relics of saints to the church, rather than placing the church over the grave; the first translation of relics was in Antioch in 354, when the remains of Saint Babylas, which were in a sarcophagus, were moved to a new church.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Relics have long been important to Buddhists, Christians, Hindus and many other religions. In these cultures, reliquaries are often presented in shrines, churches, or temples to which the faithful make pilgrimages in order to gain blessings. \n\nThe term is sometimes used loosely of containers for the body parts of non-religious figures; in particular the Kings of France often specified that their hearts and sometimes other organs be buried in a different location from their main burial.\n\nSection::::In Christianity.\n", "Section::::Value of work.\n\nThe publication of this work was one of the stages of the Reformation. It dealt a significant blow to the cult of relics, as a result of which the Protestants completely abandoned the veneration of relics. Calvinists have removed icons from their temples, Lutherans admit images of saints, but their icons are not objects of worship.\n", "Many Catholic churches still have areas where such offerings are displayed. Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, Paris, displays over 10,000, with a military specialization, and including many military decorations given by their recipients. The Votive Church, Vienna is a late example of many churches which are themselves votive offerings, in this case built to give thanks for a narrow escape from assassination by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria in 1853.\n\nMedieval examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Several votive crowns, such as those in the Treasure of Guarrazar\n\nBULLET::::- Probably the Iron Crown of Lombardy\n", "While Orthodoxy does not make use of the strict classification system of the Roman Catholic Church, it too recognizes and venerates relics which may pertain to Jesus Christ or a saint, such as a relic of the True Cross, the Chains of Saint Peter (feast day, 16 January), the grapevine cross of Saint Nino of Georgia, etc. Places can also be considered holy. When one makes a pilgrimage to a shrine he may bring back something from the place, such as soil from the Holy Land or from the grave of a saint.\n\nSection::::Christianity.:List of relics.\n", "Reliquary\n\nA reliquary (also referred to as a \"shrine\" or by the French term \"châsse\") is a container for relics. These may be the purported or actual physical remains of saints, such as bones, pieces of clothing, or some object associated with saints or other religious figures. The authenticity of any given relic is often a matter of debate; for that reason, some churches require documentation of the relic's provenance.\n", "By venerating relics through visitation, gifts, and providing services, medieval Christians believed that they would acquire the protection and intercession of the sanctified dead. Relics of local saints drew visitors to sites like Saint Frideswide's in Oxford, and San Nicola Peregrino in Trani.\n\nInstead of having to travel to be near to a venerated saint, relics of the saint could be venerated locally. Relics are often kept on a circular decorated theca, made of gold, silver, or other metal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06908	why do most cleaning products kill 99.9% of bacteria instead of 100%	It’s a marketing gimmick where they ensure that they can’t get sued on grounds of someone falling sick even after using their product.	[ "BULLET::::- Thick Bleach – \"with a variety of fragrances\" – rebranded as \"Domestos 24HR\", with a reformulation to give \"24hr protection from flying germs.\" – rebranded again as \"Domestos Extended Germ-Kill\".\n\nBULLET::::- Domestos 5x – \"a bleach which lasts 5x longer than any other bleach or toilet cleaner\" – Discontinued\n\nBULLET::::- Sink and Pipe Unblocker\n\nBULLET::::- Domestos Blocks-Discontinued\n\nBULLET::::- Domestos Hygienic Wipes-Discontinued\n\nBULLET::::- Domestos Bleach Cleaning Spray\n\nBULLET::::- Domestos Zero Limescale – \"an extra thick hydrochloric acid toilet cleaner that works below the water line to destroy limescale underwater\"\n", "All solvents should be handled with care, and even though there is some hazard associated with all solvents, the level of hazard can vary widely based on solvent selection and application conditions. However, the question still remains, how can you tell which solvents are less hazardous?\n", "The values on this chart indicate that the use of mineral spirits based primers would need 6 to 7 air changes per hour requiring significant ventilation. The use of low-odor, isoparaffinic solvent-based primers would only need 1 to 2 air changes per hour. Finally, the use of water-based primers would need less than 1 air change per hour. Another way to interpret this information is that the margin of safety is 3 to 4 times higher with low-odor, isoparaffinic solvent than with mineral spirits, and 5 to 6 times higher than with toluene. However, proper ventilation is still good practice with any type of primer.\n", "Manufacturers of antimicrobials need to improve the treatment of their wastewater (by using industrial wastewater treatment processes) to reduce the release of residues into the environment.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Management in animal use.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Management in animal use.:Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- Kill greater than 99.9% of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria within two hours of exposure;\n\nBULLET::::- Deliver continuous and ongoing antibacterial action, remaining effective in killing more than 99.9% of the bacteria within two hours;\n\nBULLET::::- Kill more than 99.9% of the bacteria within two hours, and continue to kill 99% of the bacteria even after repeated contamination;\n\nBULLET::::- Help inhibit the buildup and growth of bacteria within two hours of exposure between routine cleaning and sanitizing steps.\n", "Low-odor, isoparaffinic solvent, in addition to being lower in odor than solvents typically used in solvent-based systems, also has a higher margin of safety versus stronger solvents. The following discussion on Air Change Index (ACI) illustrates that less air turnover is needed when using low-odor, isoparaffinic solvent in comparison to other solvent-based systems such as alkyds.\n\nSection::::Volatile organic compounds.:Air Change Index (ACI).\n", "Reduction is often expressed as a percentage. The closer it is to 100%, the better.\n\nLetting and be as before, a reduction by % is achieved, where\n\nBULLET::::- Example:\n\nLet, as in the earlier example, the concentration of some contaminant be 580 ppm before and 0.725 ppm after treatment. Then\n\nSo this is (better than) a 99% reduction, but not yet quite a 99.9% reduction.\n\nThe following table summarizes the most common cases.\n", "BULLET::::6. Micellar cleansers\n\nBULLET::::7. Powder cleansers\n\nBULLET::::8. Bar cleansers\n\nBULLET::::9. Cleansing mitts / clothes / wipes\n\nCleansers that have active ingredients are more suitable for oily skins to prevent breakouts. But they may overdry and irritate dry skin, this may make the skin appear and feel worse. Very dry skin may require a creamy lotion-type cleanser. These are normally too gentle to be effective on oily or even normal skin, but dry skin requires much less cleansing power. It may be a good idea to select a cleanser that is alcohol-free for use on dry, sensitive, or dehydrated skin.\n", "BULLET::::- Organosilanes are used on soft and hard surface, making this antimicrobial coating equally effective on clothing, carpet, and walls.\n\nBULLET::::- Organosilanes can be mixed with quaternary ammonium to achieve a quick microbial kill while leaving a long term antimicrobial coating.\n\nSection::::Antimicrobial activity.:Organosilanes.:Nutrient Uptake.\n", "Chlorinated parabens are removed from WWTPs with only 40% efficiency in comparison to 92-98% efficiency of parent parabens. The decrease in removal efficiency can be attributed to the decreased biodegradability of chlorinated parabens, their increased overall stability throughout WWTPs, and their relatively low sorption to the sludge phase due to low log K values.\n", "On the other hand, several feed additives containing viable spores of \"B. subtilis\" have been positively evaluated by the European Food Safety Authority, regarding their safe use for weight gaining in animal production.\n\nSection::::Safety.:In humans.\n", "Scientific evidence of this is provided through the use of technologies such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bioluminescence rapid-monitoring systems. These systems indicate the presence of organic matter that may host harmful microorganisms on a variety of surfaces. In addition to detecting contaminants, ATP systems also provide “proof of service” that an area has been effectively and thoroughly cleaned. According to scientific studies using ATP technology, spray-and-vac systems have been proven to remove more contaminants and disease-causing germs and bacteria on surfaces when compared to conventional mop, bucket, and cloth style cleaning. Additionally, tests show that spray-and-vac systems do not spread contaminants from surface to surface, as can happen when using conventional cleaning methods.\n", "Microfiber textiles designed for cleaning clean on a microscopic scale. According to tests using microfiber materials to clean a surface leads to reducing the number of bacteria by 99%, whereas a conventional cleaning material reduces this number only by 33%. Microfiber cleaning tools also absorb fat and grease and their electrostatic properties give them a high dust-attracting power.\n", "Studies by 3M show that over 80% of contamination enters the cleanroom through entrances and exits, mostly at or near floor level. To combat this problem, suitable flooring systems are used that effectively attract, retain and inhibit the growth of viable organisms. Studies show that the most effective type of flooring system is one of polymer composition.\n", "Section::::Standard recipe.:First step (SC-1): organic clean + particle clean.\n\nThe first step (called SC-1, where SC stands for Standard Clean) is performed with a solution of (ratios may vary)\n\nBULLET::::- 5 parts of deionized water\n\nBULLET::::- 1 part of ammonia water, (29% by weight of NH)\n\nBULLET::::- 1 part of aqueous HO (hydrogen peroxide, 30%)\n", "According to the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) published by Procter & Gamble for \"PGP Comet Deoderizing Cleanser with Chlorinol\" and Prestige Brands for \"Comet Powdered Cleanser\", Comet cleanser contains 60–100% calcium carbonate (CaCO).\n\nIngredients common to all Prestige Brands Comet Powdered Cleansers are listed as:\n\nBULLET::::- Calcium Carbonate - Scrubbing Agent\n\nBULLET::::- Calcium Hydroxide - pH Adjuster\n\nBULLET::::- Fragrance - Smell\n\nBULLET::::- Green 7 - Colorant (except in \"Comet Lemon Powder\")\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Carbonate - Builder/Sequestering Agent\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Linear Alkylbenzenesulfonate Surfactant - Cleaning Agent\n\nBULLET::::- Trichloro-s-triazinetrione - Bleach\n\nBULLET::::- Trichloroisocyanuric acid (Symclosene) – Disinfectant\n", "BULLET::::7. Microbicidity, especially in life science industries such as pharmaceutics, bio-engineering and medical technology\n\nThe following factors may be responsible for contamination:\n\nBULLET::::1. The cleanroom itself: Staff, although this is becoming less relevant as more and more staff are banned from working in critical areas\n\nBULLET::::2. The use of manufacturing equipment, which is increasing as more and more automated solutions are being implemented.\n\nBULLET::::3. Often in direct contact with the product, manufacturing equipment and the materials used in their construction form a further important contamination factor in a clean production environment.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In Canada, there is no law requiring manufactures to state the health and environmental hazards associated with their cleaning products. Many people buy such products to support a clean and healthy home, often unaware of the products ability to harm both their own health and the surrounding environment. \"Canadians spend more than $275 million on household cleaning products in a year\" Chemicals from these cleaners enter our bodies through air passageways and absorption through the skin and when these cleaning products are washed down the drain they negatively affect aquatic ecosystems. There are also no regulations in place stating that the ingredients be listed on labels of cleaning products leading the users to be ultimately unaware of the chemicals they expose themselves and their surrounding environments to.\n", "Laundry detergents contain a mix of ingredients including surfactants, builders, optical brighteners, etc. Cleaning action arises primarily from the action of the surfactants and other ingredients, which are designed to maximise release and suspension of dirt and microbes into the wash liquid, together with enzymes and/or an activated oxygen-based bleach which digest and remove stains. Although activated oxygen bleach is included in many powder detergents to digest and remove stains, it produces some chemical inactivation of bacteria, fungi and viruses. As a rule of thumb, powders and tablets normally contain an activated oxygen bleach, but liquids and all products (liquid or powder) used for \"coloureds\" do not. Surfactants also exert some chemical inactivation action against certain species although the extent of their action is not known.\n", "2000 Flushes is now packaged as a solid tablet for in-tank use, like many of its rivals. There are multiple product versions and reformulations; some add a detergent, some add a concentrated bleach. In 2008, a disinfectant was added to \"kill 99.9% of bacteria flush after flush\" in an apparent response to competitive pressures; Ty-D-Bol has claimed to \"kill 99.9% of toilet bowl germs with every flush\" since 1994 and crystal bowl cleaners have made claims to \"kill millions of germs\" since Sani-Flush's 1911 introduction.\n\nWhile toxicity varies between the differing 2000 Flushes formulations, most are not pet-safe.\n", "Although many companies that had begun using the biocide in personal care products, such as Kimberly-Clark, Johnson & Johnson, and Unilever are removing methylisothiazolinone from their lotions and wipes, Colgate-Palmolive has added it as an ingredient in a mouthwash put onto the market in August 2014 with the name Colgate Total Lasting White. The New York Times reported that some companies are even considering removing the biocide from products that are routinely rinsed off shortly after application.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 EPA Re-registration Review Docket with Public Commentary\n\nBULLET::::- Reregistration Eligibility Decision of MIT by US EPA\n", "Several methods have been tested for their effectiveness at improving thorough intensive-care unit environmental hygiene. A study conducted in 2010 across 3532 high risk environmental surfaces in 260 intensive care unit rooms in 27 acute-care hospitals (ICUs) assessed the consistency at which these surfaces met base line cleaning standards. Only 49.5% of the high-risk object surfaces were found to meet this baseline criterion. The least-cleaned objects were bathroom light switches, room door knobs, and bed pan cleaners. Significant improvements in ICU room cleaning was achieved through a structured approach that incorporated a simple, highly objective surface targeting method and repeated performance feedback to environmental surface personnel. Specific methods included implementing an objective evaluation process, environmental surfaces staff education, programmatic feedback, and continuous training to minimize the spread of hospital-associated infections. The authors noted an improvement in the thoroughness of cleaning at 71% from baseline for the entire group of hospitals involved.\n", "Section::::Dose-effect relationship and dose-response relationship.:Comparisons.\n\nTo compare the dose-response relationships for different effects caused by the same bacterium, or for the same effect caused by different bacteria, we can of course directly compare the values of r. However, experience shows that it may be easier for the mind to compare the doses causing the effect in 50% or 1% of consumers. Here are some values of D1 (dose causing the effect considered in 1% of consumers exposed to the hazard):\n\nBULLET::::- \"Escherichia coli\" (EHEC), haemolytic-uremic syndrome in children under 6 years: 8.4 bacterial cells;\n", "Along with antibiotic waste, resistant bacteria follow, thus introducing antibiotic-resistant bacteria into the environment. Already in 2011, mapping of sewage and water supply samples in New Delhi showed widespread and uncontrolled infection as indicated by the presence of NDM-1-positive enteric bacteria (New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1).\n", "BULLET::::- Jeyes Fluid – a brand of disinfectant fluid\n\nBULLET::::- Lapyrium\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium hypochlorite\n\nBULLET::::- Lugol's iodine\n\nBULLET::::- Magnesium monoperoxyphthalate\n\nBULLET::::- Methyl violet\n\nBULLET::::- Milton sterilizing fluid\n\nBULLET::::- NAV-CO2 system\n\nBULLET::::- Nitromersol\n\nBULLET::::- Ozone\n\nBULLET::::- Peracetic acid\n\nBULLET::::- Phenols\n\nBULLET::::- Pine oil\n\nBULLET::::- Polyaminopropyl biguanide\n\nBULLET::::- Potassium hypochlorite\n\nBULLET::::- Potassium permanganate\n\nBULLET::::- Povidone-iodine\n\nBULLET::::- Pseudomonas aeruginosa\n\nBULLET::::- Quaternary ammonium cation\n\nBULLET::::- Rideal–Walker coefficient\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium dichloroisocyanurate\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hypochlorite\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium metabisulfite\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium permanganate\n\nBULLET::::- Thymol\n\nBULLET::::- Tincture of iodine\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol\n\nBULLET::::- Vaporized hydrogen peroxide\n\nBULLET::::- Virkon – a multi-purpose disinfectant product\n\nBULLET::::- Wet wipe\n\nSection::::Cleaning products.:Laundry detergents.\n" ]	[ "No cleaning products clean 100% of bacteria. " ]	[ "Most companies just state that cleaning products clean 99.9% of bacteria when in reality this is just stated in order to avoid law suits if a person happens to become sick after using their advertised cleaning product." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "No cleaning products clean 100% of bacteria. ", "No cleaning products clean 100% of bacteria. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most companies just state that cleaning products clean 99.9% of bacteria when in reality this is just stated in order to avoid law suits if a person happens to become sick after using their advertised cleaning product.", "Most companies just state that cleaning products clean 99.9% of bacteria when in reality this is just stated in order to avoid law suits if a person happens to become sick after using their advertised cleaning product." ]
2018-23503	Why are we using kg/cm² as a measuring unit for pressure when it implies mass per unit area not force per unit area?	Where are you seeing that unit used for pressure? The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, which is N/m^2 as you'd expect.	[ "Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm or grams-force/cm (sometimes as kg/cm without properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N).\n\nSection::::Static and dynamic pressure.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Units.\n\nThe SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N/m, or kg·m·s). This name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square metre.\n", "Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely. So measurements in \"millimetres of mercury\" or \"inches of mercury\" can be converted to SI units as long as attention is paid to the local factors of fluid density and gravity. Temperature fluctuations change the value of fluid density, while location can affect gravity.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe gram-force and kilogram-force were never well-defined units until the CGPM adopted a \"standard acceleration of gravity\" of 980.665 cm/s for this purpose in 1901, though they had been used in low-precision measurements of force before that time.\n\nThe kilogram-force has never been a part of the International System of Units (SI), which was introduced in 1960. The SI unit of force is the newton.\n", "Force platforms should be distinguished from pressure measuring systems that, although they too quantify centre of pressure, do not directly measure the applied force vector. Pressure measuring plates are useful for quantifying the pressure patterns under a foot over time but cannot quantify horizontal or shear components of the applied forces.\n", "Over time, 760 millimeters of mercury at 0 °C came to be regarded as the standard atmospheric pressure. In honour of Torricelli, the torr was defined as a unit of pressure equal to one millimeter of mercury at 0 °C. However, since the acceleration due to gravity—and thus the weight of a column of mercury—is a function of elevation and latitude (due to the rotation of the Earth), this definition is imprecise and varies by location.\n", "Although no longer preferred, these manometric units are still encountered in many fields. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (see torr) in most of the world, central venous pressure and lung pressures in centimeters of water are still common, as in settings for CPAP machines. Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water, expressed as \"inches W.C.\" \n", "Presently or formerly popular pressure units include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- atmosphere (atm)\n\nBULLET::::- manometric units:\n\nBULLET::::- centimetre, inch, millimetre (torr) and micrometre (mTorr, micron) of mercury,\n\nBULLET::::- height of equivalent column of water, including millimetre (mm ), centimetre (cm ), metre, inch, and foot of water;\n\nBULLET::::- imperial and customary units:\n\nBULLET::::- kip, short ton-force, long ton-force, pound-force, ounce-force, and poundal per square inch,\n\nBULLET::::- short ton-force and long ton-force per square inch,\n\nBULLET::::- fsw (feet sea water) used in underwater diving, particularly in connection with diving pressure exposure and decompression;\n\nBULLET::::- non-SI metric units:\n\nBULLET::::- bar, decibar, millibar,\n", "In chemistry and in various industries, the reference pressure referred to in “Standard Temperature and Pressure” (STP) was commonly but standards have since diverged; in 1982, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended that for the purposes of specifying the physical properties of substances, “\"standard pressure\"” should be precisely .\n\nSection::::Pressure units and equivalencies.\n\nA pressure of 1 atm can also be stated as:\n\nSection::::Other applications.\n", "Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch (Ibf/in)and bar, are also in common use. The CGS unit of pressure is the barye (Ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm, or 0.1 Pa. Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or kilograms-force per square centimetre (g/cm or kg/cm) and the like without properly identifying the force units. But using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as units of force is expressly forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere (symbol: at) is 1 kgf/cm (98.0665 kPa, or 14.223 psi).\n", "BULLET::::- British media also frequently uses the football pitch for equivalent purposes, although soccer pitches are not of a fixed size, but instead can vary within defined limits ( long, and wide, giving an area of ). However the UEFA Champions League field must be exactly giving an area of or . Example: HSS vessels are aluminium catamarans about the size of a football pitch... - Belfast Telegraph 23 June 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Larger areas are sometimes expressed as a multiple of the areas of certain American states, or subdivisions of the UK etc.\n\nSection::::Non-standard units.:Energy.\n", "Gauge pressure is the relevant measure of pressure wherever one is interested in the stress on storage vessels and the plumbing components of fluidics systems. However, whenever equation-of-state properties, such as densities or changes in densities, must be calculated, pressures must be expressed in terms of their absolute values. For instance, if the atmospheric pressure is , a gas (such as helium) at (gauge) ( [absolute]) is 50% denser than the same gas at (gauge) ( [absolute]). Focusing on gauge values, one might erroneously conclude the first sample had twice the density of the second one.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Scalar nature.\n", "One now adds the requirement that one wants force to be measured in newtons, distance in metres, and charge to be measured in the engineers' practical unit, the coulomb, which is defined as the charge accumulated when a current of 1 ampere flows for one second. This shows that the parameter \"ε\" should be allocated the unit C⋅N⋅m (or equivalent units – in practice \"farads per metre\").\n", "For example, if the original fluid was water and we replaced it with mercury at the same pressure, we would expect to see a rather different value for pressure head. In fact the specific weight of water is 9.8 kN/m and the specific weight of mercury is 133 kN/m. So, for any particular measurement of pressure head, the height of a column of water will be about [133/9.8 = 13.6] 13.6 times taller than a column of mercury would be. So if a water column meter reads \"13.6 cm HO\", then an equivalent measurement is \"1.00 cm Hg\".\n", "Many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In measurement of vacuum and in vacuum engineering, residual pressures are typically given in millibar, although torr or millimeter of mercury (mmHg) were historically common.\n", "It is also used for tension of bicycle spokes, for informal references to pressure in kilograms per square centimeter (1 kp/cm) which is the technical atmosphere (at) and very close to 1 bar and the standard atmosphere (atm), for the draw weight of bows in archery, and to define the \"metric horsepower\" (PS) as 75 metre-kiloponds per second. In addition, kilograms force is the standard unit used for Vickers hardness testing.\n\nSection::::Related units.\n\nThe tonne-force, metric ton-force, megagram-force, and megapond (Mp) are each 1000 kilograms-force.\n", "If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired, except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example, across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.\n", "In principle, there are several equation systems that could be used to set up a system of electrical quantities and units.\n\nSince the late 19th century, the fundamental definitions of current units have been related to the definitions of mass, length, and time units, using Ampère's force law. However, the precise way in which this has \"officially\" been done has changed many times, as measurement techniques and thinking on the topic developed.\n", "Official C.I.P. decisions regarding pressure are specified in the unit bar. Though the bar is not a SI unit like the pascal, nor a cgs unit, it is accepted for use with the SI by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology. The bar is widely used in descriptions of pressure because it is only about 1.3% smaller than \"standard\" atmospheric pressure, and is legally recognized in countries of the European Union.\n\nConversion between the units bar and the MPa is however easy since 10 bar = 1 MPa.\n", "Section::::Unit.\n\nThe SI unit for molality is moles per kilogram.\n\nA solution with a molality of 3 mol/kg is often described as \"3 molal\" or \"3 m\". However, following the SI system of units, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the United States authority on measurement, considers the term \"molal\" and the unit symbol \"m\" to be obsolete, and suggests mol/kg or a related unit of the SI. This recommendation has not been universally implemented in academia yet.\n\nSection::::Usage considerations.\n\nBULLET::::- Advantages:\n", "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a number of non-coherent units of measure based on the gram/kilogram, centimetre/metre, and second, such as the \"Pferdestärke\" (metric horsepower) for power, the darcy for permeability and \"millimetres of mercury\" for barometric and blood pressure were developed or propagated, some of which incorporated standard gravity in their definitions.\n", "The term “equivalent weight” had a distinct sense in gravimetric analysis: it was the mass of precipitate which corresponds to one gram of analyte (the species of interest). The different definitions came from the practice of quoting gravimetric results as mass fractions of the analyte, often expressed as a percentage. A related term was the equivalence factor, one gram divided by equivalent weight, which was the numerical factor by which the mass of precipitate had to be multiplied to obtain the mass of analyte.\n", "Like the gram and the kilogram, the tonne gave rise to a (now obsolete) force unit of the same name, the tonne-force, equivalent to about 9.8 kilonewtons: a unit also often called simply \"tonne\" or \"metric ton\" without identifying it as a unit of force. In contrast to the tonne as a mass unit, the tonne-force or metric ton-force is not acceptable for use with SI, partly because it is not an exact multiple of the SI unit of force, the newton.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ton\n\nBULLET::::- Short ton\n\nBULLET::::- Long ton\n\nBULLET::::- Tonnage\n\nBULLET::::- Ton (volume)\n", "Because pressure is commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid (e.g., centimetres of water, millimetres of mercury or inches of mercury). The most common choices are mercury (Hg) and water; water is nontoxic and readily available, while mercury's high density allows a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer) to be used to measure a given pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of liquid of height \"h\" and density \"ρ\" is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation , where \"g\" is the gravitational acceleration. Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely. When millimetres of mercury or inches of mercury are quoted today, these units are not based on a physical column of mercury; rather, they have been given precise definitions that can be expressed in terms of SI units. One millimetre of mercury is approximately equal to one torr. The water-based units still depend on the density of water, a measured, rather than defined, quantity. These \"manometric units\" are still encountered in many fields. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury in most of the world, and lung pressures in centimetres of water are still common.\n", "This resolution defines weight as a vector, since force is a vector quantity. However, some textbooks also take weight to be a scalar by defining:\n\nThe gravitational acceleration varies from place to place. Sometimes, it is simply taken to have a standard value of , which gives the standard weight.\n\nThe force whose magnitude is equal to \"mg\" newtons is also known as the m kilogram weight (which term is abbreviated to kg-wt)\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Operational definition.\n" ]	[ "We use kg/cm^2 as a unit for pressure.", "kg/cm² is used as a measuring unit for pressure." ]	[ "We use N/m^2 for pressure.", "N/m^2 is used as a measuring unit for pressure." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We use kg/cm^2 as a unit for pressure.", "kg/cm² is used as a measuring unit for pressure." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "We use N/m^2 for pressure.", "N/m^2 is used as a measuring unit for pressure." ]
2018-00829	If water is able to smooth rocks into pebbles over centuries, how come sand at a beach is still rough in shape?	Sand is different all over the world, some is smoother than others. Some is fragments of coral and always building up so you get new bits of sand all the time and the buried bits never have a chance to get "polished".	[ "Anecdotal reports of certain beach placers which are forming in modern times suggest that the greatest enrichment of the sands tends to occur in storm events which are energetic enough to remove most of the beaches sediment load—a process favoring the lighter minerals. The resultant 'clinker' sands which were left behind were mined during low tide following major storm events, suggesting that most beach placer deposits are formed during such cycles.\n\nIn most cases, fossilised dune systems are exploited for heavy mineral sands because they are from the ocean and because they are often remnants of previous intraglacial highstands.\n", "The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO), usually in the form of quartz, which, because of its chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant to weathering.\n", "The relative solidity of rocky shores seems to give them a permanence compared to the shifting nature of sandy shores. This apparent stability is not real over even quite short geological time scales, but it is real enough over the short life of an organism. In contrast to sandy shores, plants and animals can anchor themselves to the rocks.\n", "Apollonius of Rhodes mentions it in his epic poem \"Argonautica,\" describing that the Argonauts rested here during their travels. He writes that signs of their visit were still visible in his day, including skin-coloured pebbles that they dried their hands on and large stones which they used at discus. Strabo (5.2.6) presents a slightly different account: \"because the scrapings, which the Argonauts formed when they used their strigils, became congealed, the pebbles on the shore remain variegated still to this day.\"\n", "Coastlines facing very energetic wind and wave systems will tend to hold only large rocks as smaller particles will be held in suspension in the turbid water column and carried to calmer areas by longshore currents and tides. Coastlines that are protected from waves and winds will tend to allow finer sediments such as clay and mud to precipitate creating mud flats and mangrove forests. The shape of a beach depends on whether the waves are constructive or destructive, and whether the material is sand or shingle. Waves are constructive if the period between their wave crests is long enough for the breaking water to recede and the sediment to settle before the succeeding wave arrives and breaks.\n", "Coastal areas settled by man inevitably become subject to the effects of man-made structures and processes. Over long periods of time, these influences may substantially alter the shape of the coastline, and the character of the beach.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.:Manmade erosion and accretion.:Destruction of flora.\n", "Over the last 30 years, approximately 1 million m³ sand per year has been lost from the Dutch coast to deep water. In most northern coastal sections, erosion occurs in deep water and also in the nearshore zone. In most southern sections, sedimentation occurs in the nearshore zone and erosion in deep water.\n", "Wind and ice both are the favored hypothesis for these sliding rocks. Noted in \"Surface Processes and Landforms\", Don J. Easterbrook mentions that because of the lack of parallel paths between some rock paths, this could be caused by degenerating ice floes resulting in alternate routes. Though the ice breaks up into smaller blocks, it is still necessary for the rocks to slide.\n\nSection::::Research history.:21st-century developments.\n", "BULLET::::1. At the north end, linear transverse ridges of irregular amplitude and wavelength occur with a flint gravel base grading up into medium sand. These ridges are fossil features of Preboreal-Subboreal age.\n\nBULLET::::2. At the south end are symmetrical sandwaves of regular amplitude and wavelength which appear to be stable.\n\nBULLET::::3. To the west of Sandettie Bank there are south-facing asymmetrical sandwaves which are potentially mobile and which later sedimentological investigations revealed to be moving southwards in one area.\n\nSection::::Downs herring.\n", "The longstanding understanding of how some mudstones form has been challenged by geologists at Indiana University (Bloomington) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The research, which appears in the December 14th, 2007, edition of \"Science\", counters the prevailing view of geologists that mud only settles when water is slow-moving or still, instead showing that \"muds will accumulate even when currents move swiftly.\" The research shows that some mudstones may have formed in fast-moving waters: \"Mudstones can be deposited under more energetic conditions than widely assumed, requiring a reappraisal of many geologic records.\"\n", "Tectonic activity, which results in coastlines rising from the ocean, may also cause a beach system to become stranded above the high-water mark and lock in the heavy mineral sands. Similarly, a beach system which is drowned by the subsidence of a coastline may be preserved, often for millions of years, until it is either covered by sedimentation or rises from the ocean.\n", "Section::::Erosion and accretion.:Gradual processes.:Historical accretion of European beaches.\n\nIn the Mediterranean sea, deltas have been continuously growing for the last several thousand years. Six to seven thousand years ago, the sea level stabilized, and continuous river systems, ephemeral torrents, and other factors began this steady accretion. Since intense human use of coastal areas is a relatively recent phenomenon (except in the Nile delta), beach contours were primarily shaped by natural forces until the last centuries.\n\nIn Barcelona, for example, the accretion of the coast was a natural process until the late Middle Ages, when harbor-building increased the rate of accretion.\n", "According to White, \"kames were formed by meltwater which deposited more or less washed material at irregular places in and along melting ice. At places the material is very well washed and stratified; at others it is more poorly washed, with inclusions of till masses that fell from ice but were covered before they were completely washed. Kame gravels thus tend to be variable and range from fine to coarse grained and even to cobbly and boulder.\"\n", "All sediments are at first in an incoherent condition (e.g. sands, clays and gravels, beds of shells, etc.), and they may remain in this state for an indefinite period. Millions of years have elapsed since some of the early Tertiary strata gathered on the ocean floor, yet they are quite friable (e.g. the London Clay) and differ little from many recent accumulations. There are few exceptions, however, to the rule that with increasing age sedimentary rocks become more and more indurated, and the older they are the more likely it is that they will have the firm consistency generally implied in the term \"rock\".\n", "In low energy environments like lakes, wetlands, estuaries, LS are dominated by very fine-grained material, such as silts and clays, and form beaches and beach-dune complexes.\n\nSection::::Types and related landforms.:Source to sink relationships.\n", "BULLET::::- Green sand: In this kind of sand, the mineral olivine has been separated from other volcanic fragments by erosive forces. A famous example is Hawaii's Papakolea Beach, which has sand containing basalt and coral fragments.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.:Natural erosion and accretion.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.:Natural erosion and accretion.:Causes.\n", "The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO), usually in the form of quartz. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example, aragonite, which has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish. For example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nA number of running research projects in Jordan found that the erosion of the main agricultural soil, the Terra Rossa, took place at the end of the last Ice Age and during the Younger Dryas. It seems therefore that erosion of the today intensively used soils was limited during historical periods, and not connected with desertification. \n", "Bedload erosion can also be a major factor in bedrock erosion. It is caused by saltating grains or traction.\n", "When the sand dries out or gets wet, the shape of a structure may change, and \"landslides\" are common. Furthermore, the mixture of fine (mostly sharper) and coarse sand granules is very important to achieve good \"sand construction\" results. Fine granules that have been rounded by the natural influences of seas, rivers or fluvials, in turn negatively influence the bonding between the individual granules as they more easily slide past each other. Research is thus necessary to find the most suitable sand to achieve an optimal, landslide-free construction.\n", "Beaches are changed in shape chiefly by the movement of water and wind. Any weather event that is associated with turbid or fast-flowing water or high winds will erode exposed beaches. Longshore currents will tend to replenish beach sediments and repair storm damage. Tidal waterways generally change the shape of their adjacent beaches by small degrees with every tidal cycle. Over time these changes can become substantial leading to significant changes in the size and location of the beach.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.:Natural erosion and accretion.:Effects on flora.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Sand colors.\n\nThe composition of the sand varies depending on the local minerals and geology. Some of the types of sand found in beaches around the world are:\n\nBULLET::::- White sand: Mostly made of quartz and limestone, it can also contain other minerals like feldspar and gypsum.\n\nBULLET::::- Light-colored sand: This sand gets its color from quartz and iron, and is the most common sand color in Southern Europe and other regions of the Mediterranean Basin, such as Tunisia.\n", "Brighton Beach, on the south coast of England, is a shingle beach that has been nourished with very large pebbles in an effort to withstand the erosion of the upper area of the beach. These large pebbles made the beach unwelcoming for pedestrians for a period of time until natural processes integrated the naturally occurring shingle into the pebble base.\n\nSection::::Access design.\n", "The most important material characteristic is the sediment grain size, which must closely match the native material. Excess silt and clay fraction (mud) versus the natural turbidity in the nourishment area disqualifies some materials. Projects with unmatched grain sizes performed relatively poorly. Nourishment sand that is only slightly smaller than native sand can result in significantly narrower equilibrated dry beach widths compared to sand the same size as (or larger than) native sand. Evaluating material fit requires a sand survey that usually includes geophysical profiles and surface and core samples.\n", "BULLET::::- Gentle Slopes - Gentle slopes are most commonly found in the natural environment and are the most stable under the forces of gravity. Gradually inclined slopes along banks and shorelines allow for the dissipation of wave energy over a greater distance, reducing the force of erosion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15077	Why is there no current flow when connecting the negative terminal of one battery to the positive terminal of another, given the difference in potential?	Potential is not absolute, but relative. Think of those batteries as 'voltage pumps'. They take whatever voltage they're at and 'pump' it up a bit more. So when you have a 6 volt battery and connect another in series, the first pumps voltage from your arbitrarily defined '0 volts' to 6 volts. The second pumps it from 6 volts to 12 volts.	[ "However, a real cell is more complicated, having permeabilities to many ions, each of which contributes to the resting potential. To understand better, consider a cell with only two permeant ions, potassium, and sodium. Consider a case where these two ions have equal concentration gradients directed in opposite directions, and that the membrane permeabilities to both ions are equal. K leaving the cell will tend to drag the membrane potential toward \"E\". Na entering the cell will tend to drag the membrane potential toward the reversal potential for sodium \"E\". Since the permeabilities to both ions were set to be equal, the membrane potential will, at the end of the Na/K tug-of-war, end up halfway between \"E\" and \"E\". As \"E\" and \"E\" were equal but of opposite signs, halfway in between is zero, meaning that the membrane will rest at 0 mV.\n", "To solve this problem, the roles of supplying electrons and providing a reference potential are divided between two separate electrodes. The reference electrode is a half cell with a known reduction potential. Its only role is to act as reference in measuring and controlling the working electrode's potential and at no point does it pass any current. The auxiliary electrode passes all the current needed to balance the current observed at the working electrode. To achieve this current, the auxiliary will often swing to extreme potentials at the edges of the solvent window, where it oxidizes or reduces the solvent or supporting electrolyte. These electrodes, the working, reference, and auxiliary make up the modern three electrode system.\n", "In quadrants 1 and 2, MT2 is positive, and current flows from MT2 to MT1 through P, N, P and N layers. The N region attached to MT2 does not participate significantly. In quadrants 3 and 4, MT2 is negative, and current flows from MT1 to MT2, also through P, N, P and N layers. The N region attached to MT2 is active, but the N region attached to MT1 only participates in the initial triggering, not the bulk current flow.\n", "In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell.\n\nMany battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal. A smart battery has voltage monitoring circuitry built inside.\n", "Normally, even when the load and production are exactly matched, the so-called \"balanced condition\", the failure of the grid will result in several additional transient signals being generated. For instance, there will almost always be a brief decrease in line voltage, which will signal a potential fault condition. However, such events can also be caused by normal operation, like the starting of a large electric motor.\n", "In circuit theory these are called \"active resistors\". Applying a voltage across the terminals causes a proportional current \"out\" of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor. For example, connecting a battery to the terminals would cause the battery to charge rather than discharge.\n\nConsidered as one-port devices, these circuits function similarly to the passive negative differential resistance components above, and like them can be used to make one-port amplifiers and oscillators with the advantages that:\n\nBULLET::::- because they are active devices they do not require an external DC bias to provide power, and can be DC coupled,\n", "Since the electrode potentials are conventionally defined as reduction potentials, the sign of the potential for the metal electrode being oxidized must be reversed when calculating the overall cell potential. Note that the electrode potentials are independent of the number of electrons transferred —they are expressed in volts, which measure energy per electron transferred—and so the two electrode potentials can be simply combined to give the overall \"cell\" potential even if different numbers of electrons are involved in the two electrode reactions.\n", "Battery simulator mimics a battery’s electrical characteristic of outputting a voltage and able to source as well as sink current. A battery simulator is a special kind of power supply that can output positive voltage while can sink and source current. This type of power supply is called two-quadrant power supply. In contrast, a conventional power supply can only source current when the voltage is positive.\n", "In a healthy animal cell Na permeability is about 5% of the K permeability or even less, whereas the respective reversal potentials are +60 mV for sodium (\"E\")and −80 mV for potassium (\"E\"). Thus the membrane potential will not be right at \"E\", but rather depolarized from \"E\" by an amount of approximately 5% of the 140 mV difference between \"E\" and \"E\". Thus, the cell's resting potential will be about −73 mV.\n", "The electrical driving force or formula_4 across the terminals of a cell is known as the \"terminal voltage (difference)\" and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of formula_5 until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would have performed 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.\n", "The original difference in Fermi levels, before contact, is referred to as the emf.\n\nThe contact potential cannot drive steady current through a load attached to its terminals because that current would involve a charge transfer. No mechanism exists to continue such transfer and, hence, maintain a current, once equilibrium is attained.\n", "When a three electrode cell is used to perform electroanalytical chemistry, the auxiliary electrode, along with the working electrode, provides a circuit over which current is either applied or measured. Here, the potential of the auxiliary electrode is usually not measured and is adjusted so as to balance the reaction occurring at the working electrode. This configuration allows the potential of the working electrode to be measured against a known reference electrode without compromising the stability of that reference electrode by passing current over it.\n", "Stacked voltage cell measurements are common with the growing popularity of solar cells and fuel cells. In this application the technician wants to profile the performance of individual series-connected voltages cells, but the need for an isolated amplifier is often overlooked. Each voltage cell (the normal mode voltage) is removed from ground by an amount equal to the sum of the voltage cells below it (the common mode voltage). Unless the amplifiers used to measure individual cell voltages are allowed to float at a level equal to the common mode voltage, measurements are not likely to be accurate for any but the first cell in the string where the common mode voltage is zero.\n", "Another functionally important ion pump is the sodium-calcium exchanger. This pump operates in a conceptually similar way to the sodium-potassium pump, except that in each cycle it exchanges three Na from the extracellular space for one Ca from the intracellular space. Because the net flow of charge is inward, this pump runs \"downhill\", in effect, and therefore does not require any energy source except the membrane voltage. Its most important effect is to pump calcium outward—it also allows an inward flow of sodium, thereby counteracting the sodium-potassium pump, but, because overall sodium and potassium concentrations are much higher than calcium concentrations, this effect is relatively unimportant. The net result of the sodium-calcium exchanger is that in the resting state, intracellular calcium concentrations become very low.\n", "The GTO can be turned on by a gate signal, and can also be turned off by a gate signal of negative polarity.\n\nTurn on is accomplished by a \"positive current\" pulse between the gate and cathode terminals. As the gate-cathode behaves like PN junction, there will be some relatively small voltage between the terminals. The turn on phenomenon in GTO is however, not as reliable as an SCR (thyristor) and small positive gate current must be maintained even after turn on to improve reliability.\n", "BULLET::::- In Panel 3, the membrane voltage has grown to the extent that its \"strength\" now matches the concentration gradients. Since these forces (which are applied to K) are now the same strength and oriented in opposite directions, the system is now in equilibrium. Put another way, the tendency of potassium to leave the cell by running down its concentration gradient is now matched by the tendency of the membrane voltage to pull potassium ions back into the cell. K continues to move across the membrane, but the rate at which it enters and leaves the cell are the same, thus, there is no net potassium current. Because the K is at equilibrium, membrane potential is stable, or \"resting\" (E).\n", "One technique attempted for conversion of direct current from a high transmission voltage to lower utilization voltage was to charge series-connected batteries, then reconnect the batteries in parallel to serve distribution loads. While at least two commercial installations were tried around the turn of the 20th century, the technique was not generally useful owing to the limited capacity of batteries, difficulties in switching between series and parallel connections, and the inherent energy inefficiency of a battery charge/discharge cycle. (A modern battery storage power station includes transformers and inverters to change energy from alternating current to direct current forms at appropriate voltages.)\n", "However it is easily shown that the ratio of voltage to current v/i at the terminals of any power source (AC or DC) is negative. For electric power (potential energy) to flow out of a device into the circuit, charge must flow through the device in the direction of increasing potential energy, conventional current (positive charge) must move from the negative to the positive terminal. So the direction of the instantaneous current is \"out\" of the positive terminal. This is opposite to the direction of current in a passive device defined by the passive sign convention so the current and voltage have opposite signs, and their ratio is negative\n", "Since the sign convention only deals with the directions of the \"variables\" and not with the direction of the actual \"current\", it also applies to alternating current (AC) circuits, in which the direction of the voltage and current periodically reverses. In an AC circuit, even though the voltage and current reverse direction during the second half of the cycle, at any given instant it obeys the PSC: in passive components the instantaneous current flows through the device from the positive to the negative terminal, while in active components it flows through the component from the negative to positive terminal. Since power is the product of voltage and current, and both the voltage and current reverse direction, the two sign reversals cancel each other, and the sign of the power flow is unchanged in both halves of the cycle.\n", "According to the conventional model of current flow (originally established by Benjamin Franklin and still followed by most engineers today), current flows through electrical conductors from the \"positive\" to the \"negative\" pole (defined as \"positive flow\"). In actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the \"negative\" to the \"positive\" pole. In the vast majority of applications, however, the \"actual\" direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained.\n", "On the other hand, the high resting potential in undifferentiated cells can be a metabolic advantage. This apparent paradox is resolved by examination of the origin of that resting potential. Little-differentiated cells are characterized by extremely high input resistance, which implies that few leakage channels are present at this stage of cell life. As an apparent result, potassium permeability becomes similar to that for sodium ions, which places resting potential in-between the reversal potentials for sodium and potassium as discussed above. The reduced leakage currents also mean there is little need for active pumping in order to compensate, therefore low metabolic cost.\n", "This allows the velocity potential to be defined simply as:\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n\nIn an electrochemical half-cell, at the interface between the electrolyte (an ionic solution) and the metal electrode, the standard electric potential difference is:\n", "Typically, the individual cells in a battery have somewhat different capacities and may be at different levels of state of charge (SOC). This is due to manufacturing variances, assembly variances (e.g., cells from one production run mixed with others), different histories experienced amongst the cells in a battery pack (e.g., charging/discharging, heat exposures, etc.) and must be accounted for to maximize life and service of the particular battery pack in use. Each battery cell will be, for these reasons, somewhat different and so every balancing circuit must be able to accommodate those differences. Without effective and appropriate balancing, discharging during use must stop when any cell first runs out of charge (even though other cells don't); this limits the energy that can be taken from and returned to the battery.\n", "Section::::Batteries.:Series-parallel battery interactions.\n\nBattery strings wired in series-parallel can develop unusual failure modes due to interactions between the multiple parallel strings. Defective batteries in one string can adversely affect the operation and lifespan of good or new batteries in other strings. These issues also apply to other situations where series-parallel strings are used, not just in UPS systems but also in electric vehicle applications.\n\nConsider a series-parallel battery arrangement with all good cells, and one becomes shorted or dead:\n\nBULLET::::- The failed cell will reduce the maximum developed voltage for the entire series string it is within.\n", "Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the current is flowing. The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal.\n" ]	[ "Batteries have an absolute potential.", "The difference in potential of a negative and positive battery terminal is absolute." ]	[ "A batteries' potential is relative, not absolute.", "The difference in potential of a negative and positive battery terminal is relative." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Batteries have an absolute potential.", "The difference in potential of a negative and positive battery terminal is absolute." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "A batteries' potential is relative, not absolute.", "The difference in potential of a negative and positive battery terminal is relative." ]
2018-18583	Why do new cars show up so early? 2019 models are being shown and it's not 2019 yet.	Marketing technique. It's so you can sell a car that was actually build and produced in 2018 to people in late 2019 for it to seem still brand new. Even though that 2019 car was already finished and being sold in October (for example), it will seem nice that you're getting a 2019 in 2019. Essentially all 2019 cars are actually 2018 cars, and 2018 cars are actually 2017 cars, and so on.	[ "In the United States, for regulation purposes (such as VIN numbering and EPA emissions certification), government authorities allow cars of a given model year to be sold starting on January 1 of the previous calendar year. For example, this means that a 2019 model year vehicle can legally go on sale on January 1, 2018. This has resulted in a few cars in the following model year being introduced in advertisements during the NFL's Super Bowl in February. A notable example of an \"early\" model year launch would be the Ford Mustang, introduced as an early 1965 model (informally referred to as \"1964½\") in April 1964\n", "Starting in the mid-1950s, new car introductions in the fall once again became an anticipated event, as all dealers would reveal the models for the upcoming year each October. In this era before the popularization of computerization, the primary source of information on new models was the dealer. The idea was originally suggested in the 1930s by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression, as a way of stimulating the economy by creating demand. The idea was reintroduced by President Dwight Eisenhower for the same reasons, and this method of introducing next year's models in the preceding autumn lasted well into the 1990s.\n", "BULLET::::- January 19 — Charity preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 20–28 — Open to the public\n\nSection::::Years.:2018.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Acura RDX (prototype)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi A7 (US debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW i8 Coupe (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 BMW X2\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Chevrolet Silverado\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ford Edge (refresh), Edge ST\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ford Mustang Bullitt\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ford Ranger\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Honda Insight (prototype)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Hyundai Veloster (second generation)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Jeep Cherokee (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Kia Forte sedan\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lamborghini Urus (US debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-AMG CLS53, E53 Coupe/Cabriolet\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-Benz G-Class\n", "BULLET::::- Lincoln Aviator (production preview)\n\nBULLET::::- Mini Cooper S E Countryman Panamericana ALL4\n\nBULLET::::- Mini Electric Classic Cooper\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Atlas Cross Sport concept\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Atlas Tanoak truck concept\n\nSection::::2018.:Concept car introductions.:North American debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- Mazda Kai\n\nBULLET::::- Mini John Cooper Works GP Concept\n\nSection::::2017.\n\nThe 2017 show was held from April 14 through April 23, with press preview days on April 12 and 13.\n\nSection::::2017.:Production car introductions.\n\nSection::::2017.:Production car introductions.:World debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Acura TLX (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Audi R8 Audi Sport special edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Buick Enclave\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Buick Regal\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 Hyundai Tucson (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Infiniti QX60, QX80 Limited\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Jaguar F-Pace SVR\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Kia K900\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Kia Sedona (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Maserati Levante Trofeo\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mazda CX-3 (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-AMG C43 Coupe, Cabriolet (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-AMG C63, C63 S (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupe, Cabriolet (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Nissan Altima\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Subaru Forester\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Toyota RAV4\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Toyota Yaris Sedan (refresh)\n\nSection::::2018.:Production car introductions.:North American debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi A6\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi R8 Rear-Wheel-Series\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW X4\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Bugatti Chiron Sport\n", "BULLET::::- 2020 Range Rover Evoque (North American debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Subaru Legacy\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Land Cruiser Heritage Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota RAV4 TRD Off-Road\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Sequoia TRD Pro\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Tacoma (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volkswagen Jetta GLI\n\nSection::::2018.\n\nThe 2018 Chicago Auto Show was held from February 10 through February 19, with press days starting on February 8 and First Look For Charity taking place February 9.\n\nSection::::2018.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Chevrolet Traverse RS\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Dodge Durango SRT with Mopar performance parts\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Fiat 500 (U.S. spec refresh)\n", "BULLET::::- 2020 Ford Mustang Ecoboost High Performance Package\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Hyundai Venue\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Infiniti Q50 Signature Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Kia Stinger GTS\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Lincoln Corsair\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Mercedes-AMG A 35 Sedan\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Mercedes-AMG CLA 35\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Mercedes-AMG GLC 63 (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Mercedes-Benz EQC Edition 1886\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Mercedes-Benz GLC-Class Coupe (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Mercedes-Benz GLS-Class\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Nissan 370Z, GT-R 50th Anniversary Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Nissan Versa\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Qiantu K50 EV\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Porsche 911 (991) Speedster\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ram 2500HD/3500HD Kentucky Derby Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Subaru Outback\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Highlander\n", "BULLET::::- Volkswagen Cross Coupe GTE Concept\n\nSection::::Years.:2014.\n\nThe 2014 show ran from January 13 to January 26.\n\nBULLET::::- January 13–14 — Press preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 15–16 — Industry preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 17 — Charity preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 18–26 — Open to the public\n\nSection::::Years.:2014.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Audi A8/S8 (facelift) (North American debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Audi Q3 (North American debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 BMW 2 Series\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 BMW M3\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 BMW M4\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Cadillac ATS Coupe\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Chevrolet Corvette Z06\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Chrysler 200\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Ford F-150\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Ford Mustang (auto show debut)\n", "BULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Yaris Hatchback\n\nSection::::2019.:Production car introductions.:North American debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Alfa Romeo Giulia, Stelvio NRING\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi Q3\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Audi R8 (refresh), R8 V10 Decennium\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi TT RS (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Bugatti Chiron Sport \"110 Ans Bugatti\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Genesis G90 (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Hyundai Sonata\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Jaguar XE (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Koenigsegg Jesko\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mazda CX-5 Signature AWD Diesel\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Range Rover Velar SVAutobiography\n\nSection::::2019.:Concept car introductions.\n\nSection::::2019.:Concept car introductions.:World debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- Genesis Mint\n\nBULLET::::- Kia Habaniro\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Atlas Basecamp Concept\n\nSection::::2019.:Concept car introductions.:North American debuts.\n", "BULLET::::- Volkswagen ID Buggy\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Tarok concept\n\nSection::::2018.\n\nThe 2018 show was held from March 30 through April 8, with press preview days on March 28 and 29.\n\nSection::::2018.:Production car introductions.\n\nSection::::2018.:Production car introductions.:World debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Acura MDX A-Spec\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Acura RDX (production version)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Alfa Romeo Giulia, Stelvio Nero Edizione\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi RS5 Sportback\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Cadillac CT6 (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Cadillac XT4\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Fiat 500 Urbana Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ford Fusion (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 GMC Acadia, Terrain Black Editions\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 GMC Sierra AT4\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Honda Insight (production version)\n", "Industry practice varies between markets according both to the level of exports to North America, and to the extent to which US-owned subsidiaries dominate the domestic automarket. In the 1960s and 1970s, many new models were traditionally introduced at the London or Paris motor shows during October, and manufacturers owned by US corporations as well as domestically controlled UK auto-makers tended to follow US auto-industry conventions in respect of model years. The concept was never so universally applied in Europe as in North America, however, and since the 1980s, the more commercially critical European Motor Shows have been the March Geneva Motor Show and the September Frankfurt Motor Show or Paris Motor Show. New models have increasingly been launched in June or July even in the UK, where the two remaining US-owned subsidiaries no longer design and build distinctively British Ford and Vauxhall models. All this has left the US-style model-year concept increasingly absent from the European domestic automarkets.\n", "Section::::2018.:Production model debuts.\n\nSection::::2018.:Production model debuts.:World debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Bentley Continental GT Convertible\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW 8 Series Convertible\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 BMW M340i\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW X7\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Honda Passport\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Hyundai Palisade\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Jeep Gladiator\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Kia Soul\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lexus LX Inspiration Series\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Lincoln Aviator\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mazda3\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-AMG GT R Pro\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-AMG GT 2-door (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Nissan Maxima (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Nissan Murano (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Porsche 911 (992)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Porsche 911 GT2 RS Clubsport (991.2)\n\nBULLET::::- Rivian R1T, R1S\n", "BULLET::::- January 9–10 — Press preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 11–12 — Industry preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 13 — Charity preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 14–22 — Open to the public\n\nSection::::Years.:2017.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Audi A5/S5 Cabriolet\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Audi SQ5\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 BMW 5 Series\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Chevrolet Traverse\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Ford F-150 (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Ford Mustang (refresh- shown during public days)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 GMC Terrain\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Honda Odyssey\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Kia Stinger\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Lexus LS (XF50)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Mercedes-AMG GT (refresh), GT C Coupe\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Mercedes-Benz E-Class Coupe\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Mercedes-Benz GLA-Class (refresh)\n", "BULLET::::- January 12 — Gallery\n\nBULLET::::- January 14–15 – Press preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 14–17 – Automobili-D (mobility and autonomy exposition)\n\nBULLET::::- January 16–17 – Industry preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 18 — Charity preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 19–27 — Open to public\n\nSection::::Years.:2019.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Cadillac XT6\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Ford Explorer\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Ford Mustang Shelby GT500\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Hyundai Elantra GT N-Line\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Kia Telluride\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Lexus RC F Track Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ram 2500/3500 HD\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Subaru WRX STI S209\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Supra\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Volkswagen Passat\n\nSection::::Years.:2019.:Concept car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- GAC Group (Trumpchi) Entranze\n", "Section::::2019.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Alfa Romeo 4C Spider Italia\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Cadillac XT5 Sport package\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Chevrolet Silverado HD\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Chrysler Pacifica, Dodge Grand Caravan 35th Anniversary Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Ford F-Series Super Duty (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Kia Forte GT-Line\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Kia Sportage (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lexus LC 500 Inspiration Series\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lexus NX F Sport Black Line Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mazda MX-5 Miata 30th Anniversary Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Nissan Pathfinder Rock Creek Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Nissan Rogue Sport (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ram 1500 with multifunction tailgate\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Ram 4500/5500 HD Chassis Cab\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 Genesis G70\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Hyundai Kona Electric\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Hyundai Santa Fe\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Jaguar I-Pace\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Kia Optima (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Land Rover Range Rover SV Coupe\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lamborghini Huracan Performante Spyder\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lexus RC F Sport Black Line\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lexus UX\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-AMG G63\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-AMG GT 4-Door\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Porsche 911 GT3RS (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Rimac C_Two\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Toyota Corolla Hatchback\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volkswagen Arteon R-Line package\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volvo V60\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volvo XC40 Inscription\n\nSection::::2018.:Concept car introductions.\n\nSection::::2018.:Concept car introductions.:World debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- Genesis Essentia\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 Subaru Crosstrek Hybrid (plug-in)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Avalon, Camry TRD\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Toyota Corolla Hybrid\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Toyota Prius (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volkswagen Beetle Final Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volvo S60 (auto show debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volvo V60 Cross Country (auto show debut)\n\nSection::::2018.:Production model debuts.:North American debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi e-tron\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW 3 Series\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW 8 Series Coupe\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW X5\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW Z4 M40i\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Fiat 500X (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Kia Niro EV\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Maserati Levante GTS\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-Benz A-Class (sedan)\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 Mercedes-Benz GLE-Class\n", "BULLET::::- Aria Group FXE\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 BMW i8 Roadster\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 BMW M3 CS\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Chevrolet Corvette ZR1 convertible\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Infiniti QX50\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Jeep Wrangler (JL)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Kia Sorento (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Lexus RX L\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lincoln MKC (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Lincoln Nautilus (\"formerly MKX\") (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Mazda6 (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class (C257)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Porsche 718 Boxster/Cayman GTS\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Porsche 911 Carrera T\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Porsche Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid Sport Turismo\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Range Rover SVAutobiography (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Range Rover Sport SVR (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Saleen S1\n", "European and Japanese automakers can utilise the term \"model year\" in respect of model availability dates in North American markets: these often receive updated models significantly later than domestic markets, especially in the event of unforeseen slow sales causing an inventory build-up of earlier versions. \n", "Groups of historic and special-interest cars sometimes appear on the premises to coincide with the main show; an exhibit of classic Mustangs was on display in 2004. In 2003, the date of the show was shifted from December to January, from the end to the beginning of the show year, in order to secure more favorable consideration from exhibitors for the introduction of new production and concept vehicles. \n", "BULLET::::- Nissan Sport Sedan concept\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota FT-1\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Beetle Dune\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Passat BlueMotion Concept\n\nBULLET::::- Volvo Concept XC Coupe\n\nSection::::Years.:2014.:Race car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- Acura TLX GT Race Car\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet Corvette C7.R\n\nSection::::Years.:2013.\n\nThe 2013 show ran from January 14 to January 27.\n\nBULLET::::- January 14–15 — Press preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 16–17 — Industry preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 18 — Charity preview\n\nBULLET::::- January 19–27 — Open to the public\n\nSection::::Years.:2013.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 Audi R8 (facelift)\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 Audi RS5 Cabriolet (North American debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 Audi RS7\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 Audi SQ5 (gasoline version)\n", "BULLET::::- Subaru Ascent SUV Concept\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota FT-4X\n\nSection::::2017.:Concept car introductions.:North American debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes-AMG GT Concept\n\nSection::::2017.:Race car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- Audi R8 LMS GT4\n\nSection::::2016.\n\nThe 2016 show was held from March 25 through April 3, with press preview days on March 23 and 24.\n\nSection::::2016.:Production car introductions.\n\nSection::::2016.:Production car introductions.:World debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Acura MDX (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Audi R8 Spyder\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Buick Enclave Sport Touring Edition\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Buick Encore (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Chevrolet Camaro ZL1\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Chevrolet Sonic (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Chrysler 300S w/ Sport Appearance Packages\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Ford Shelby Mustang GT-H\n", "at the World's Fair, several months before the usual start of the 1965 model year in August 1964.\n\nFor recreational vehicles, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission allows a manufacturer to use a model year up to two years ahead of the date that the vehicle was manufactured.\n\nSection::::Automobiles.:Other countrines.\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 Subaru Ascent\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Volkswagen Tiguan R-Line package\n\nSection::::2017.:Production model debuts.:North American debuts.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Audi A8\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 BMW 6 Series (G32) Gran Turismo\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 BMW i3s\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 BMW M5\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Chevrolet Corvette ZR1 coupe\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Hyundai Kona\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Jaguar E-Pace\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Jaguar XF Sportbrake\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Jaguar XJR575\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Kia Niro PHEV\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Lexus LX 570 two-row\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Mitsubishi Eclipse Cross\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Nissan Kicks\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Range Rover/Range Rover Sport PHEV\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 Volvo XC40\n\nSection::::2017.:Concept cars.\n\nSection::::2017.:Concept cars.:World debuts.\n", "BULLET::::- January 17–25 — Open to the public\n\nSection::::Years.:2015.:Production car introductions.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Acura NSX\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 Alfa Romeo 4C Spider\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Audi Q7\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 BMW 6 Series, M6 (refresh)\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Buick Cascada\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Cadillac CTS-V\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Chevrolet Volt (second generation)\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Ford F-150 Raptor\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Ford GT\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Ford Shelby GT350R Mustang\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid (North American debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Hyundai Sonata Plug-in Hybrid\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Jaguar XE (North American debut)\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Lexus GS F\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Lincoln MKX\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Mercedes-Benz C350 Plug-in Hybrid\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09135	Why does XBox and PS4 charge for multiplayer but pc does not?	Xbox and Playstation are closed ecosystems -- the manufacturers control what can and can't connect to it, so they are in a position to charge for multiplayer access. A PC is an open system -- there's no one company that controls your access to other systems. So, while you may pay for multiplayer games, you'd be paying the company that makes the software and maintains the servers and not a single company that controls access to everything.	[ "After the official announcement of Games for Windows – Live, many PC gamers were upset with Microsoft's move to charge PC gamers a fee of $49.99 to use the service. Many PC gamers felt this move was unfair, as playing online and many of the other services GFWL offered has, for the most part, always been free on the PC. Microsoft later began offering the service free of charge, after many complaints from PC gamers were made.\n", "Section::::Strategic issues.\n\nIf building a bigger network is one reason to subsidize adoption, then stimulating value adding innovations is the other. Consider, for example, the value of an operating system with no applications. While Apple initially tried to charge both sides of the market, like Adobe did in \"figure 2\", Microsoft uncovered a second pricing rule: subsidize those who add platform value. In this context, consumers, not developers are the money side.\n", "The BBC and Microsoft had been unable to reach a deal to add the iPlayer to the Xbox 360 for a number of years, because Microsoft's strategy of charging for all content on its Xbox Live platform is incompatible with the BBC's public service remit. Microsoft wanted to ensure that only those paying for Xbox Live Gold accounts could access its added content services. The BBC is not legally allowed to charge the UK public for access to the iPlayer, as the access charges for it are included in the BBC licence fee already.\n", "PC games are sold predominantly through the Internet, with buyers downloading their new purchase directly to their computer. This approach allows smaller independent developers to compete with large publisher-backed games and avoids the speed and capacity limits of the optical discs which most other gaming platforms rely on.\n", "When the title was launched, one of the main selling points was that there were no extras attached to the magazine, thus keeping the price (£3.99) lower than the competitors, \"PC Zone\" and \"PC Gamer\", who both retailed at £5.99 and were sold in a sealed plastic bag that included a DVD that contained extra content. However, with the release of issue 11, Total PC Gaming had changed to match this format, and had raised the price to £5.49.\n\nSection::::The end.\n", "Section::::PC gaming technology.:Multiplayer.\n\nSection::::PC gaming technology.:Multiplayer.:Local area network gaming.\n\nMultiplayer gaming was largely limited to local area networks (LANs) before cost-effective broadband Internet access became available, due to their typically higher bandwidth and lower latency than the dial-up services of the time. These advantages allowed more players to join any given computer game, but have persisted today because of the higher latency of most Internet connections and the costs associated with broadband Internet.\n", "2004 saw the release of highly rated exclusives \"Fable\" and \"Ninja Gaiden\", both of these games would become big hits for the Xbox. Later that year, \"Halo 2\" was released and became the highest-grossing release in entertainment history, making over $125 million in its first day and became the best-selling Xbox game worldwide. \"Halo 2\" became Xbox Live's third killer app after \"MechAssault\" & \"\". That year Microsoft made a deal to put Electronic Arts's popular titles on Xbox Live to boost the popularity of their service.\n", "PC gaming is popular among the high-end PC market. According to an April 2018 market analysis done by Newzoo, PC gaming has fallen behind both console and mobile gaming in terms of market share sitting at a 24% share of the entire market. The market for PC gaming still continues to grow and is expected to generate $32.3 billion in revenue in the year 2021. PC gaming is at the forefront of competitive gaming, known as Esports with games such as League of Legends and Overwatch leading the industry that is suspected to surpass a billion dollars in revenue in 2019. \n", "Whole corporations and whole alliances can officially declare war on (or \"war-dec\") other corporations or alliances for a weekly fee, permitting all members of the involved corporations or alliances to attack each other without loss of security status or the intervention of CONCORD. The weekly fee can be eliminated if the war declaration is reciprocated. War declarations will clearly flag a player's enemies, so the player can determine who can legally attack and be attacked.\n\nSection::::Players and communities.:Demographics.\n", "Section::::Usage in the video game industry.:Exclusivity in PC gaming.\n", "PC gaming is considered synonymous (by Newzoo and others) with IBM Personal Computer compatible systems; while mobile computers – smartphones and tablets, such as those running Android or iOS – are also personal computers in the general sense. The APAC region was estimated to generate $46.6 billion in 2016, or 47% of total global video game revenues (note, not only \"PC\" games). China alone accounts for half of APAC's revenues (at $24.4 billion), cementing its place as the largest video game market in the world, ahead of the US's anticipated market size of $23.5 billion. China is expected to have 53% of its video game revenues come from mobile gaming in 2017 (46% in 2016).\n", "Better hardware also increases the potential fidelity of a PC game's rules and simulation. PC games often support more players or NPCs than equivalents on other platforms and game designs which depend on the simulation of large numbers of tokens (e.g. \"Guild Wars 2\", \"World of Warcraft\") are rarely seen anywhere else.\n", "BULLET::::- The games are priced at 80, 240, or 400 Microsoft Points (approximately US$1, $3, and $5, respectively). Games larger than 150 MB (previously larger than 50 MB) must be priced at least 240 Microsoft Points as of the January 4, 2012 update. Prior to the August 2009 update, the pricing structure was set at 200, 400, or 800 Microsoft Points (approximately US$2.50, $5, and $10, respectively).\n", "Online multiplayer games have achieved popularity largely as a result of increasing broadband adoption among consumers. Affordable high-bandwidth Internet connections allow large numbers of players to play together, and thus have found particular use in massively multiplayer online role-playing games, \"Tanarus\" and persistent online games such as \"World War II Online\".\n", "With the advent of the Xbox, Microsoft was the second company to implement downloadable content. Many original Xbox Live titles, including \"Splinter Cell\", \"Halo 2\", and \"Ninja Gaiden\", offered varying amounts of extra content, available for download through the Xbox Live service. Most of this content, with the notable exception of content for Microsoft-published titles, was available for free.\n", "Similarly, gaming manufacturers very often subsidize the gamers and sell their consoles at substantial losses (e.g. Sony's PS3 lost $250 per unit sold)in order to penetrate the market and receive royalties of software sold for their gaming console.\n", "The Xbox 360 supports a limited number of the Xbox's game library if the player has an official Xbox 360 Hard Drive. Xbox games were added up until November 2007. Xbox game saves cannot be transferred to Xbox 360, and the ability to play Xbox games through Xbox LIVE has been discontinued since April 15, 2010. It is still possible to play Xbox games with System Link functionality online via both the original console and the Xbox 360 with tunneling software such as XLink Kai. It was announced at E3 2017 that the Xbox One would be gaining support for a limited number of the Xbox's game library.\n", "In February 2017, Microsoft introduced a subscription \"on-demand\" service known as Xbox Game Pass, separate from Xbox Live Gold, which allows users to download and play games from its library at no additional charge for the life of the subscription. In April 2019, Microsoft also introduced Xbox Game Pass Ultimate, which bundles Game Pass with an Xbox Live Gold subscription.\n\nSection::::Games.:Backward compatibility.\n\nSection::::Games.:Backward compatibility.:Xbox 360 compatibility.\n", "The multiplayer function is protected by the Uplay Passport system on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, which requires a code for access. Codes are included in all new copies of the game, but are tied to a single Uplay account. This means that players who purchased their copy second hand will need to purchase a new code to access the multiplayer. Uplay players can buy a new Passport code online or activate a free trial.\n", "On the PC in particular, two problems are video game piracy and high system requirements. The free-to-play model attempts to solve both these problems by providing a game that requires relatively low system requirements and at no cost, and consequently provides a highly accessible experience funded by advertising and micropayments for extra content or an advatange over other players.\n", "The integrated Xbox Live service launched in November 2002 allowed players to play games online with or without a broadband connection. It first competed with Dreamcast's online service but later primarily competed with PlayStation 2's online service. Although these two are free while Xbox Live required a subscription, as well as broadband-only connection which was not completely adopted yet, Xbox Live was a success due to better servers, features such as a buddy list, and milestone titles like \"Halo 2\" released in November 2004, which is the best-selling Xbox video game and was by far the most popular online game for years.\n", "Microsoft has come under some criticism for its attitude to homosexuality and Xbox Live. Users may not use the string \"gay\" in a gamertag (even in a non-homosexual context, for example as part of a surname), or refer to homosexuality in their profile (including self-identifying as such), as the company considers this \"content of a sexual nature\" or \"offensive\" to other users and therefore unsuitable for the service. After banning 'Teresa', a lesbian gamer who had been harassed by other users for being a homosexual, a senior Xbox Live team member, Stephen Toulouse, has clarified the policy, stating that \"Expression of any sexual orientation [...] is not allowed in gamertags\" but that they are \"examining how we can provide it in a way that won't get misused\". GLAAD weighed in on the controversy as well, supporting the steps that Microsoft has taken over the years to engage the LGBT community.\n", "On Windows 10, SmartGlass is succeeded by the Xbox App, which supports the local streaming of games from Xbox One to personal computers and tablets running Windows 10. An Xbox One controller must be used, but Windows-compatible headsets and microphones can be used for voice chat. Games requiring Kinect are not supported, while Game DVR and online streaming are not available while using this functionality.\n", "Section::::Market share and impact.:Legal issues.\n", "The Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows servers were shut down on 29 September 2012. The PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable servers were shut down on an earlier date. \n\nOn 28 September 2014, community members launched a private server for the Microsoft Windows version of the game.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Downloadable content.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Downloadable content.:Xbox 360.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17269	If computers only read 1s and 0s, then isn't downloading anything online just creating instructions? Like isn't everything a computer can do already inside of it?	Yes you are downloading instructions. Extremely complex instructions. Mind bogglingly complex instructions.	[ "Beginning in March 2011, Slice discussed his idea with other community members, resulting in the development of a bootloader that can do both: emulate an EFI firmware of one's choice or use a Real UEFI firmware to boot Mac OS X.\n\nSection::::Hacking approaches.:Live DVD.\n\nIn March 2007, the OSx86 community made some significant progress with the development of a Live DVD. The Live DVD allows booting to a working system with Mac OS X v10.4.8.\n", "In 1999, Jon Lech Johansen released an application called DeCSS, which allowed a CSS-encrypted DVD to play on a computer running the Linux operating system, at a time when no licensed DVD player application for Linux had yet been created. The legality of DeCSS is questionable: one of the authors has been the subject of a lawsuit, and reproduction of the keys themselves is subject to restrictions as illegal numbers.\n", "The bootloader behaves like the Linux kernel: one can use an mboot-compatible (a patched syslinux was used for the hack) bootloader that tells boot-dfe about the .img file (the ramdisk or initrd, as it's known by Linux users), and boot-dfe will then use the kexts (or mkext) from it. This new boot-dfe has been tested with the retail Leopard DVD, and it can boot, install, run Leopard without having to build a modified DVD.\n\nSection::::Hacking approaches.:Boot loaders and emulators.:Chameleon.\n", "BootX is the name of a graphical bootloader developed by Benjamin Herrenschmidt, which runs as an application or an extension to Mac OS 8 and 9 that allows Old World Apple computers to boot Linux. It is no longer maintained by its original author, as it does not work with any current hardware, but it is still available, and further development may be possible. It is one of three Linux bootloaders which may be used on most Old World Apple computers, the others being miBoot (included, but also independently enhanced by Jeff Carr of LinuxPPC, Inc.), and quik. New World Macs use a different bootloader, yaboot, for booting Linux.\n", "Downloading generally transfers entire files for local storage and later use, as contrasted with streaming, where the data is used nearly immediately, while the transmission is still in progress, and which may not be stored long-term. Websites that offer streaming media or media displayed in-browser, such as YouTube, increasingly place restrictions on the ability of users to save these materials to their computers after they have been received.\n\nDownloading is not the same as data transfer; moving or copying data between two storage devices would be data transfer, but receiving data from the Internet is \"downloading\".\n\nSection::::Copyright.\n", "The GWR (New Railway) Act of 1905 authorised the construction of a line from Oxley to Bridgnorth on the Severn Valley Railway, to be joined by an extension from the Kingswinford branch at Himley. This scheme was revised by the 1913 GWR Act which postponed the Bridgnorth extension and authorised construction of the Wombourne branch direct from Oxley Junction to Kingswinford Junction, including upgrading the existing Kingswinford branch. The main stations were to be at Tettenhall, Wombourn and Himley with a number of smaller halts. \n", "On September 2, 2005, \"The Register\" published news that DVD Jon had defeated encryption in Microsoft's Windows Media Player by reverse engineering a proprietary algorithm that was ostensibly used to protect Windows Media Station NSC files from engineers sniffing for the files' source IP address, port or stream format. Johansen had also made a decoder available.\n\nIn September 2005, Johansen announced the release of SharpMusique 1.0, an alternative to the default iTunes program. The program allows Linux and Windows users to buy songs from the iTunes music store without copy protection.\n", "On August 12, 2004 Johansen announced on his website that he defeated Apple's AirPort Express's encryption which lets users stream Apple Lossless files to their AirPort Expresses.\n\nOn November 25, 2004 he released a proof of concept program that allows Linux users (via VLC) to play video encoded with Microsoft's proprietary WMV9 codec, by porting the reference version of the software. This was a significant development as Microsoft had been lobbying to have their codec used with the next DVD standard.\n\nSection::::Other projects.:2005.\n", "The first field here, 01 01 02, means that the packet is a BSDP \"SELECT\" message. The 01 declares that field specifies the BSDP Message Type. The next 01 indicates that the field contents are one byte long — 02 is the code for \"SELECT\".\n\nThe following 08 04 81 00 07 e5 means that the boot image with the ID 2164262885 is selected.\n\nFinally, 82 0a 4e 65 74 42 6f 6f 74 30 30 31 means that a string with 0x0a = 10 characters, namely \"NetBoot001\", is the name of the system to boot.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "The CMU&PR completed its own line from Little Mill to Monmouth, but financial difficulties forced a halt there. The Company decided against conversion of the Monmouth Railway, and in 1861 built a connecting line from its Monmouth station to an interchange wharf at Wyesham, leaving the Monmouth Railway unaltered.\n", "When the Great Western Railway (GWR) opened its first main line from London to Bristol, the ancient Borough of Malmesbury was not on the route, and Chippenham station, ten miles away became the railhead for coach services from the town. A number of railway schemes were put forward in the 1840s, and many of them would have formed a north-south route through Malmesbury, but it was not until 1864 that a viable scheme received Parliamentary approval. This was the Wilts and Gloucestershire Railway (W&GR), which received the Royal Assent on 25 July 1864.\n", "The southern section of the branch, known as the Kingswinford branch, began as a goods-only single track line serving local collieries and brickworks. The first 1½ miles from Kingswinford Junction to Bromley Basin opened in November 1858 at which time it was still part of the Oxford Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway. Following amalgamation with the GWR, the branch extended northwards in stages and by the late 1800s had reached Himley. A pre-First World War Railway Operating appendix still referred to the Kingswingford Branch Line as a 3½ mile single track line used for goods and mineral traffic only.\n", "Unencrypted Mobipocket books can be read on the Amazon Kindle natively, as well as in Amazon Kindle programs on Mac OS X, iOS devices, Android devices, Windows, and Windows Phone devices. By using third-party programs such as Lexcycle Stanza, calibre or Okular, unencrypted Mobipocket books can also be read on Mac OS X, iOS, Android devices and Linux. Third party tools exist to decrypt encrypted Mobipocket books, allowing them to be read using software that does not support encryption.\n", "For general data storage on an already-booted computer, any type of generic network interface may be used to access iSCSI devices. However, a generic consumer-grade network interface is not able to boot a diskless computer from a remote iSCSI data source. Instead, it is commonplace for a server to load its initial operating system from a TFTP server or local boot device, and then use iSCSI for data storage once booting from the local device has finished.\n", "The early versions of the Linuxcare BBC were collections of packages that had been precompiled for other distributions (such as Debian and Red Hat Linux from which subsets of files were copied into the directory from which the BBC was \"mastered\" (the ISO 9660 CD images were built).\n", "On October 12, 2004, the emulator CherryOS was announced by Maui X-Stream (MXS), a startup company based in Lahaina, Hawaii and a subsidiary of Paradise Television. At the time MXS was best known for developing software for video streaming, particularly their VX3 encoder. As a new emulator intended to allow Mac OS X to be utilized on x86 computer architecture, CherryOS was advertised as working on Windows 98, Windows 2000 or Windows XP, with features such as allowing files to be dragged from PC to Mac, the creation of multiple profiles, and support for networking and sound. With development led by MXS employee and software developer Arben Kryeziu, CherryOS was made available for pre-order on the MXS website.\n", "The program is freely available as part of the Darwin operating system under the open-source Apple Public Source License.\n\nBootX was superseded by another nearly identical bootloader named codice_1 and an Extensible Firmware Interface ROM on the release of the Intel-based Mac.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Most computers are also capable of booting over a computer network. In this scenario, the operating system is stored on the disk of a server, and certain parts of it are transferred to the client using a simple protocol such as the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). After these parts have been transferred, the operating system takes over the control of the booting process.\n", "The disk, tape or card deck must contain a special program to load the actual operating system or standalone utility into main storage, and for this specific purpose \"IPL Text\" is placed on the disk by the stand-alone DASDI (Direct Access Storage Device Initialization) program or an equivalent program running under an operating system, e.g., ICKDSF, but IPL-able tapes and card decks are usually distributed with this \"IPL Text\" already present.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre integrated-circuit-ROM examples.:Minicomputers.\n", "Recursive download works with FTP as well, where Wget issues the codice_3 command to find which additional files to download, repeating this process for directories and files under the one specified in the top URL. Shell-like wildcards are supported when the download of FTP URLs is requested.\n", "Because dynamic execution requires a virtual environment, it may be possible to recreate an execution environment on a general purpose computer that feeds the executing code whatever an attacker wants the code to see in terms of digital fingerprints and memory footprints. This allows players running on general purpose computers to emulate any specific model of player, potentially by simply downloading firmware updates for the players being emulated. Once the emulated execution environment has decrypted the content, it can then be stored in decrypted form.\n", "For a fee, SPEC distributes source code files to users wanting to test their systems. These files are written in a standard programming language, which is then compiled for each particular CPU architecture and operating system. Thus, the performance measured is that of the CPU, RAM, and compiler, and does not test I/O, networking, or graphics.\n", "The fact that interpreted code can easily be read and copied by humans can be of concern from the point of view of copyright. However, various systems of encryption and obfuscation exist. Delivery of intermediate code, such as bytecode, has a similar effect to obfuscation, but bytecode could be decoded with a decompiler or disassembler.\n\nSection::::Compilers versus interpreters.:Efficiency.\n", "A copy instruction can be implemented similarly; e.g., the following instructions result in the content at location getting replaced by the content at location , again assuming the content at location is maintained as 0:\n\nAny desired arithmetic test can be built. For example, a branch-if-zero condition can be assembled from the following instructions:\n\nSubleq2 can also be used to synthesize higher-order instructions, although it generally requires more operations for a given task. For example, no fewer than 10 subleq2 instructions are required to flip all the bits in a given byte:\n", "Every stored-program computer may use a form of non-volatile storage (that is, storage that retains its data when power is removed) to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping, often abbreviated to \"booting\" or \"booting up\"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of mutable memory to record changes in its state as it executes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07347	Why are Capybaras so well liked, even by other animals?	I dont know much about capys but it’s my favorite animal by far, i’d assume it’s because they are so chill most of the time and have relaxed body language. Also they are herbivores. they usually don’t really mind other non threatning animals being near them or even sitting on top of them.	[ "Like its relative the guinea pig, the capybara does not have the capacity to synthesize vitamin C, and capybaras not supplemented with vitamin C in captivity have been reported to develop gum disease as a sign of scurvy.\n\nThey can have a lifespan of 8–10 years, but live less than four years in the wild, because they are \"a favourite food of jaguar, puma, ocelot, eagle, and caiman\". The capybara is also the preferred prey of the anaconda.\n\nSection::::Social organization.\n", "The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria asked Drusillas Park in Alfriston, Sussex, England to keep the studbook for capybaras, to monitor captive populations in Europe. The studbook includes information about all births, deaths and movements of capybaras, as well as how they are related.\n", "Section::::Social organization.:Reproduction.\n", "Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America. The meat is considered unsuitable to eat in some areas, while in other areas it is considered an important source of protein. In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week as the Catholic Church previously issued special dispensation to allow it to be eaten while other meats are generally forbidden.\n\nAlthough it is illegal in some states, capybaras are occasionally kept as pets in the United States.\n\nThe image of a capybara features on the 2-peso coin of Uruguay.\n", "Capybaras have adapted well to urbanization in South America. They can be found in many areas in zoos and parks, and may live for 12 years in captivity. Capybaras are gentle and usually allow humans to pet and hand-feed them, but physical contact is normally discouraged, as their ticks can be vectors to Rocky Mountain spotted fever.\n", "Capybaras are known to be gregarious. While they sometimes live solitarily, they are more commonly found in groups of around 10–20 individuals, with two to four adult males, four to seven adult females, and the remainder juveniles. Capybara groups can consist of as many as 50 or 100 individuals during the dry season when the animals gather around available water sources. Males establish social bonds, dominance, or general group consensus. They can make dog-like barks when threatened or when females are herding young.\n", "Birds of prey, snakes, and small carnivores are known to hunt treeshrews. Humans have no interest in killing them for food because of their unpleasant taste, and they are rarely seen as pests.\n\nSection::::Ecology and behaviour.:Reproduction and development.\n", "Capybaras are not considered a threatened species; their population is stable throughout most of their South American range, though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers.\n\nCapybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas, and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock. In some areas, they are farmed, which has the effect of ensuring the wetland habitats are protected. Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly.\n", "BULLET::::- Crab-eating raccoon or aguará pope (\"Procyon cancrivorus\")\n\nBULLET::::- Ring-tailed coati or kuati (\"Nasua nasua\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tayra (\"Eira barbara\")\n\nBULLET::::- Fallow deer (\"Dama dama\")\n\nBULLET::::- Gray brocket (\"Mazama gouazoubira\")\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic goat (\"Capra aegagrus hircus\")\n\nBULLET::::- White-lipped peccary (\"Tayassu pecari\")\n\nBULLET::::- Collared peccary (\"Tayassu tajacu\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tapir (\"Tapirus terrestris\")\n\nBULLET::::- Common hippopotamus (\"Hippopotamus amphibius\")\n\nBULLET::::- African savannah elephant (\"Loxodonta africana\")\n\nBULLET::::- Capybara (\"Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris\")\n\nBULLET::::- Giant anteater (\"Myrmecophaga tridactyla\")\n\nBULLET::::- Honey bear, or ka'aguaré tamandua (\"Tamandua tetradactyla\")\n\nBULLET::::- Common chimpanzee (\"Pan troglodytes\")\n\nBULLET::::- Black-headed spider monkey (\"Ateles fusciceps\")\n\nBULLET::::- Azara's night monkey(\"Aotus azarae\")\n\nBULLET::::- Black howler monkey (\"Alouatta caraya)\")\n", "Section::::Social organization.:Activities.\n\nThough quite agile on land (capable of running as fast as a horse), capybaras are equally at home in the water. They are excellent swimmers, and can remain completely submerged for up to five minutes, an ability they use to evade predators. Capybaras can sleep in water, keeping only their noses out of the water. As temperatures increase during the day, they wallow in water and then graze during the late afternoon and early evening. They also spend time wallowing in mud. They rest around midnight and then continue to graze before dawn.\n\nSection::::Conservation and human interaction.\n", "One particular experiment in which this was made apparent was in the understanding of the tritrophic system between the lima bean plant, two-spotted spider mite, and the carnivorous mite. Here experimenters noticed an increase in HIPVs when the lima bean plant was preyed on by the two-spotted spider mite. Then, when the carnivorous mite was introduced, it had increased prey searching efficacy and overall attraction to the lima bean plant, even once the two-spotted spider mite was removed, but the HIPVs remained high.\n", "In terms of importance value, palms are highly valued by all species of capuchin. In El Tuparro National Park in Colombia, the palm \"Attalea regiae\" was a key species for white-fronted capuchins, the nuts being a principal food. In Manú National Park in Peru the palms \"Astrocaryum\" and \"Attalea\" were the most important palm genera, but perhaps not at the same level as \"Attalea\" in El Tuparro. Also, at Manú various species of \"Ficus\" were very important to white-fronted capuchins; this emphasis on \"Ficus\" was not observed in the El Tuparro study, although this study did not include an entire year. Nevertheless, research on other species suggests the importance of palms as \"key species\" and the lack of importance of \"Ficus\" in such habitats as gallery forests in the llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, contrasts with their high importance in more fertile habitats like Manú.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Carebara sakamotoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sangi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara santschii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sarasinorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sarita\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara satana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sauteri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara semilaevis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sicheli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara silvestrii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara simalurensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara similis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sinhala\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sodalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Carebara sophiae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara spinata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara stenoptera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara striata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sublatro\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara subreptor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sudanensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sudanica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara sundaica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara tahitiensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara taiponica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara taprobanae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara tenua\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara termitolestes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara thoracica\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Carebara thorali\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara traegaordhi\"\n\nBULLET::::- †\"Carebara ucrainica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara ugandana\"\n", "Since \"Tupaia\" species share so many similarities with primates, yet are more abundant and have more plentiful progeny than them, interest is increasing in using them as an alternative model for use in human medical research. Successful psychosocial studies were carried out, and dramatic behavioral, neuroendocrinal, and physiological changes occurred in subordinate males of \"Tupaia\", similar to depressed human patients. Their susceptibility to viruses has also piqued interest in using them to study immune responses to infections such as hepatitis B.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n\nIts common name is derived from Tupi ', a complex agglutination of ' (leaf) + ' (slender) + ' (eat) + \"\" (a suffix for agent nouns), meaning \"one who eats slender leaves\", or \"grass-eater\". Capybaras were called several times \"Cuartins\" in Colombia in 2018: in Eje Cafetero (Alcalà) and near Barranquilla where the meat was offered as \"Cuartin Asado\".\n\nThe scientific name, both \"hydrochoerus\" and \"hydrochaeris\", comes from Greek (' \"water\") and (' \"pig, hog\").\n\nSection::::Classification and phylogeny.\n", "In China, \"C. scarabaeoides\" is sometimes used as fodder, and has shown to be effective in reducing diarrhea in cattle. In addition, the leaves of the plant species have been used to improve indigestion in traditional medicines as well as limit the excessive production of urine.\n\nSection::::Major Pests.\n", "Major species of animals that are hunted by the Aguaruna include the \"sajino\", the \"huangana\", the Brazilian tapir (\"sachavaca\"), the little red brocket, the ocelot and the \"otorongo\" (jaguar). Species which are less commonly hunted include the \"majaz\", the \"ronsoco\", the \"achuni\", the \"añuje\", the \"carachupa\", the otter, diverse classes of monkeys and birds.\n", "Carnauba palm is a very important palm species. It is the source of carnauba wax, which is harvested from the coating on the leaves of the tree. The fruit and pith are eaten, the leaves are variously employed and the wood is used in building. In some places like Ceará State, it is known as the \"Tree of Life\".\n\nSection::::Fauna.\n", "Its karyotype has 2n = 66 and FN = 102.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n\nCapybaras are semiaquatic mammals found throughout almost all countries of South America except Chile. They live in densely forested areas near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds, and marshes, as well as flooded savannah and along rivers in the tropical rainforest. They are superb swimmers and can hold their breath underwater for up to five minutes at a time. Capybara have flourished in cattle ranches. They roam in home ranges averaging 10 hectares (25 acres) in high-density populations.\n", "Piquia: More appreciated by low-income populations that consume it cooked, by extracting its pulp straight from the seed, along with cassava flour, or adding the peeled fruit to beans broth, beef stew or rice. Can also be added to black coffee.\n", "The diet consists mainly of fruit and insects, although small reptiles and frogs have been recorded. The fruits consumed are often from the plant families Lauraceae, Annonaceae, and Rubiaceae, although a few other plant families have also been reported in their diet. They are one of many species recorded following army ants. They occasionally will eat high protein fruits, but they prefer to eat the other fruits on their menu.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Breeding.\n", "Section::::As household pets.\n", "BULLET::::- White-footed saki or buffy saki, \"Pithecia albicans\" (Gray, 1860)\n\nBULLET::::- Cazuza's saki, \"Pithecia cazuzai\" Marsh, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Golden-faced saki, \"Pithecia chrysocephala\" (I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1850) Marsh, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Hairy saki, \"Pithecia hirsuta\" (Spix, 1823)\n\nBULLET::::- Burnished saki, \"Pithecia inusta\" (Spix, 1823)\n\nBULLET::::- Rio Tapajós saki or Gray's bald-faced saki, \"Pithecia irrorata\" (Gray, 1842)\n\nBULLET::::- Isabel's saki, \"Pithecia isabela\" Marsh, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Monk saki, \"Pithecia monachus\" (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812)\n\nBULLET::::- Miller's saki, \"Pithecia milleri\" (J. A. Allen, 1914) Marsh, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Mittermeier's Tapajós saki, \"Pithecia mittermeieri\" Marsh, 2014 (disputed)\n\nBULLET::::- Napo saki, \"Pithecia napensis\" (Lönnberg, 1938) Marsh, 2014\n", "The Ka'apor people of Maranhão (Brazil) use its flowers as a \"hunting fetish\", a magical talisman to facilitate hunting. As the Tulane University anthropologist and historical ecologist William Balée describes it,\n\n\"... flowers of \"Psychotria poeppigiana\" [...] are wrapped in a piece of cloth and affixed to a dog's collar so that it may more easily find the enormous, highly desirable, and decidedly uncommon tapir\"\n", "Section::::Interaction with humans.\n\nTayras are playful and easily tamed. Indigenous people, who often refer to the tayra as \"cabeza del viejo\", or old man's head, due to their wrinkled facial skin, have kept them as household pets to control vermin. Sometimes, they attack domestic animals, such as chickens.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n\nWild tayra populations are slowly shrinking, especially in Mexico, due to habitat destruction for agricultural purposes. The species is listed as being of least concern.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Nowak, Ronald M. (2005). \"Walker's Carnivores of the World\". Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03253	Why does warm air rise?	Density. Warm air has more energy in each particle which means it expands in volume. Equal mass but a higher volume means lower density. Hence,, they rise. Similarly, cold air has less energy per particle and tend to stick closer to each another. Equal mass with lower volume means high density.	[ "If the adiabatic lapse rate is \"lower\" than the ambient lapse rate, an air mass displaced upward cools \"less\" rapidly than the air in which it is moving. Hence, such an air mass becomes \"warmer\" relative to the atmosphere. As warmer air is less dense, such an air mass would tend to continue to rise.\n", "Most materials that are fluid at common temperatures expand when they are heated, becoming less dense. Correspondingly, they become denser when they are cooled. At the heat source of a system of natural circulation, the heated fluid becomes lighter than the fluid surrounding it, and thus rises. At the heat sink, the nearby fluid becomes denser as it cools, and is drawn downward by gravity. Together, these effects create a flow of fluid from the heat source to the heat sink and back again. \n", "Some more localized phenomena than global atmospheric movement are also due to convection, including wind and some of the hydrologic cycle. For example, a foehn wind is a down-slope wind which occurs on the downwind side of a mountain range. It results from the adiabatic warming of air which has dropped most of its moisture on windward slopes. Because of the different adiabatic lapse rates of moist and dry air, the air on the leeward slopes becomes warmer than at the same height on the windward slopes.\n", "Air masses are large bodies of air with similar properties of temperature and humidity that form over source regions. The warm air mass behind a warm front is not only warmer, but often (but not always) also higher in humidity than the colder air preceding it. Because of a warm air mass’s higher temperature and thus lesser density, mixing between the two air masses is unlikely. Being light, the warm air mass is unable to displace the cooler air mass and instead is forced upward along the upper boundary of the colder air in a process known as overrunning. The boundary between the two air masses has a gradual slope of 1:200 and lifting is slow but persistent.\n", "The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by Edmund Halley in 1686. Sir John Leslie observed that the cooling effect of a stream of air increased with its speed, in 1804.\n", "A rising body of fluid typically loses heat when it encounters a cold surface when it exchanges heat with colder liquid through direct exchange, or in the example of the Earth's atmosphere, when it radiates heat. At some point, the fluid becomes denser than the fluid beneath it, which is still rising. Since it cannot descend through the rising fluid, it moves to one side. At some distance, its downward force overcomes the rising force beneath it, and the fluid begins to descend. As it descends, it warms again through surface contact or conductivity and the cycle repeats.\n", "reaching a relatively high velocity before rising due to heat exchange with heat sources (e.g., occupants, computers, lights). Absorbing the heat from heat sources, the cold air becomes warmer and less dense. The density difference between cold air and warm air creates upward convective flows known as thermal plumes. Instead of working as a stand-alone system in interior space, displacement ventilation system can also be coupled with other cooling and heating sources, such as radiant chilled ceilings or baseboard heating.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure applied on a parcel of air is reduced, the air in the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature falls as its internal energy decreases. Adiabatic cooling occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pileus or lenticular clouds.\n", "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation.\n", "A convection cell, also known as a Bénard cell is a characteristic fluid flow pattern in many convection systems. A rising body of fluid typically loses heat because it encounters a colder surface. In liquid, this occurs because it exchanges heat with colder liquid through direct exchange. In the example of the Earth's atmosphere, this occurs because it radiates heat. Because of this heat loss the fluid becomes denser than the fluid underneath it, which is still rising. Since it cannot descend through the rising fluid, it moves to one side. At some distance, its downward force overcomes the rising force beneath it, and the fluid begins to descend. As it descends, it warms again and the cycle repeats itself.\n", "Adiabatic heating occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range. When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Due to this increase in pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air, thus increasing its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the temperature of that mass of air. The parcel of air can only slowly dissipate the energy by conduction or radiation (heat), and to a first approximation it can be considered adiabatically isolated and the process an adiabatic process.\n", "Conversely, if the adiabatic lapse rate is \"higher\" than the ambient lapse rate, an air mass displaced upward cools \"more\" rapidly than the air in which it is moving. Hence, such an airmass becomes \"cooler\" relative to the atmosphere. As cooler air is more dense, the rise of such an airmass would tend to be resisted.\n", "When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes the surrounding air outward, transferring energy in the form of work from that parcel to the atmosphere. As energy transfer to a parcel of air by way of heat is very slow, it is assumed to not exchange energy by way of heat with the environment. Such a process is called an adiabatic process (no energy transfer by way of heat). Since the rising parcel of air is losing energy as it does work on the surrounding atmosphere and no energy is transferred into it as heat from the atmosphere to make up for the loss, the parcel of air is losing energy, which manifests itself as a decrease in the temperature of the air parcel. The reverse, of course, will be true for a parcel of air that is sinking and is being compressed.\n", "Natural convection, or free convection, occurs due to temperature differences which affect the density, and thus relative buoyancy, of the fluid. Heavier (denser) components will fall, while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement. Natural convection can only occur, therefore, in a gravitational field. A common example of natural convection is the rise of smoke from a fire. It can be seen in a pot of boiling water in which the hot and less-dense water on the bottom layer moves upwards in plumes, and the cool and more dense water near the top of the pot likewise sinks.\n", "Usually, within the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it, e.g., by thermals (convective heat transfer).\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the \"mesopause anomaly\"). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.\n", "The presence of water within the atmosphere (usually the troposphere) complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As a parcel of air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated; that is, the vapor pressure of water in equilibrium with liquid water has decreased (as temperature has decreased) to the point where it is equal to the actual vapor pressure of water. With further decrease in temperature the water vapor in excess of the equilibrium amount condenses, forming cloud, and releasing heat (latent heat of condensation). Before saturation, the rising air follows the dry adiabatic lapse rate. After saturation, the rising air follows the moist adiabatic lapse rate. The release of latent heat is an important source of energy in the development of thunderstorms.\n", "In an air mass moving, vertical movements occur when there is convergence and divergence at different levels of the atmosphere. For example, when we are near the jet stream, winds increase when approaching its most intense region and decreases when it moves away. So there are areas where the air accumulates and must come down, while in other areas there is a loss and an updraft from lower layers. These upward or downward flows will be relatively diffused.\n", "The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Heat transfer in the human body.\n", "BULLET::::- At this latitude, the now cool, dry, high altitude air begins to sink. As it sinks, it warms adiabatically, decreasing its relative humidity.\n\nBULLET::::- Near the surface, a frictional return flow completes the loop, absorbing moisture along the way. The Coriolis effect gives this flow a westward component, creating the trade winds.\n", "Fluid that is less dense than its surroundings tends to rise until it has the same density as its surroundings. If there is not much energy input to the system, it will tend to become stratified. On a large scale, Earth's atmosphere is divided into a series of layers. Going upwards from the ground, these are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.\n", "There are five main ways water vapor can be added to the air. Increased vapor content can result from wind convergence over water or moist ground into areas of upward motion. Precipitation or virga falling from above also enhances moisture content. Daytime heating causes water to evaporate from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land. Transpiration from plants is another typical source of water vapor. Lastly, cool or dry air moving over warmer water will become more humid. As with daytime heating, the addition of moisture to the air increases its heat content and instability and helps set into motion those processes that lead to the formation of cloud or fog.\n", "Convection can be \"forced\" by movement of a fluid by means other than buoyancy forces (for example, a water pump in an automobile engine). Thermal expansion of fluids may also force convection. In other cases, natural buoyancy forces alone are entirely responsible for fluid motion when the fluid is heated, and this process is called \"natural convection\". An example is the draft in a chimney or around any fire. In natural convection, an increase in temperature produces a reduction in density, which in turn causes fluid motion due to pressures and forces when fluids of different densities are affected by gravity (or any force). For example, when water is heated on a stove, hot water from the bottom of the pan rises, displacing the colder denser liquid, which falls. After heating has stopped, mixing and conduction from this natural convection eventually result in a nearly homogeneous density, and even temperature. Without the presence of gravity (or conditions that cause a g-force of any type), natural convection does not occur, and only forced-convection modes operate.\n", "There are a few general archetypes of atmospheric instability that are used to explain convection (or lack thereof). A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for convection is that the environmental lapse rate (the rate of decrease of temperature with height) is steeper than the lapse rate experienced by a rising parcel of air. When this condition is met, upward-displaced air parcels can become buoyant and thus experience a further upward force. Buoyant convection begins at the level of free convection (LFC), above which an air parcel may ascend through the free convective layer (FCL) with positive buoyancy. Its buoyancy turns negative at the equilibrium level (EL), but the parcel's vertical momentum may carry it to the maximum parcel level (MPL) where the negative buoyancy decelerates the parcel to a stop. Integrating the buoyancy force over the parcel's vertical displacement yields Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE), the Joules of energy available per kilogram of potentially buoyant air. CAPE is an upper limit for an ideal undiluted parcel, and the square root of twice the CAPE is sometimes called a thermodynamic speed limit for updrafts, based on the simple kinetic energy equation.\n", "Greenhouse effect\n\nThe greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this atmosphere.\n\nRadiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. \n\nThe intensity of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22908	Why does earth spin around its axis specially towards the east, and do other planets in our system spin the same direction?	In our solar system all planets turn counter clockwise (above north pole looking down towards south pole, really dependant on your viewing angle) except for venus and uranus, they turn the opposite way. Venus is a little tricky however, it takes roughly 1.2 venus years to make a full rotation. For why we all rotate that way; well more kinda like chance, we were originally moving that from the start. URL_0	[ "Superior planets, dwarf planets and asteroids undergo a different cycle. After conjunction, such an object's elongation continues to increase until it approaches a maximum value larger than 90° (impossible with inferior planets) and typically very near 180°, which is known as \"opposition\" and corresponds to a heliocentric conjunction with Earth. In other words, as seen by an observer on the superior planet at opposition, the Earth appears at conjunction with the Sun. Technically, the exact moment of opposition is slightly different from the moment of maximum elongation. Opposition is defined as the moment when the apparent ecliptic longitudes of the superior planet and the Sun differ by 180°, which ignores the fact that the planet is outside the plane of the Earth's orbit. For example, Pluto, whose orbit is highly inclined to the Earth's orbital plane, can have a maximum elongation significantly less than 180° at opposition.\n", "Section::::Rotation and axial tilt.:Tidal effects.\n\nFor most planets, the rotation period and axial tilt (also called obliquity) are not known, but a large number of planets have been detected with very short orbits (where tidal effects are greater) that will probably have reached an equilibrium rotation that can be predicted (\"i.e.\" tidal lock, spin–orbit resonances, and non-resonant equilibria such as retrograde rotation).\n", "Because the dynamic motions of the planets are so well known, their nutations can be calculated to within arcseconds over periods of many decades. There is another disturbance of the Earth's rotation called polar motion that can be estimated for only a few months into the future because it is influenced by rapidly and unpredictably varying things such as ocean currents, wind systems, and hypothesised motions in the liquid nickel-iron outer core of the Earth.\n\nSection::::Nutation of the Earth's axis.\n\nSection::::Nutation of the Earth's axis.:Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- Change in the direction of the axis rotation (precession) should not be pronounced. In itself, precession need not affect habitability as it changes the direction of the tilt, not its degree. However, precession tends to accentuate variations caused by other orbital deviations; see Milankovitch cycles. Precession on Earth occurs over a 26,000-year cycle.\n", "Most planets in our solar system, including Earth, spin in the same direction as they orbit the Sun. The exceptions are Venus and Uranus. Uranus rotates nearly on its side relative to its orbit. Current speculation is that Uranus started off with a typical prograde orientation and was knocked on its side by a large impact early in its history. Venus may be thought of as rotating slowly backward (or being \"upside down\"). The dwarf planet Pluto (formerly considered a planet) is anomalous in this and other ways.\n\nSection::::Physics.\n", "Uranus' extreme inclination with respect to the ecliptic is not an instance of true polar wander (a shift of the body relative to its rotational axis), but instead a large shift of the rotational axis itself. This axis shift is believed to be the result of a catastrophic series of impacts that occurred billions of years ago.\n\nSection::::Distinctions and delimitations.\n", "Many exoplanets (especially the close-in ones) are expected to be in spin–orbit resonances higher than 1:1. A Mercury-like terrestrial planet can, for example, become captured in a 3:2, 2:1, or 5:2 spin–orbit resonance, with the probability of each being dependent on the orbital eccentricity.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Moons.\n", "Section::::Rotation and axial tilt.:Origin of spin and tilt of terrestrial planets.\n", "The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the geographic north pole of a planet or any of its satellites in the Solar System as the planetary pole that is in the same celestial hemisphere, relative to the invariable plane of the Solar System, as Earth's north pole. This definition is independent of the object's direction of rotation about its axis. This implies that an object's direction of rotation, when viewed from above its north pole, may be either clockwise or counterclockwise. The direction of rotation exhibited by most objects in the solar system (including Sun and Earth) is counterclockwise. Venus rotates clockwise, and Uranus has been knocked on its side and rotates almost perpendicular to the rest of the Solar System. The ecliptic remains within 3° of the invariable plane over five million years, but is now inclined about 23.44° to Earth's celestial equator used for the coordinates of poles. This large inclination means that the declination of a pole relative to Earth's celestial equator could be negative even though a planet's north pole (such as Uranus's) is north of the invariable plane.\n", "Orbital inclination is the angle between a planet's orbital plane and another plane of reference. For exoplanets, the inclination is usually stated with respect to an observer on Earth: the angle used is that between the normal to the planet's orbital plane and the line of sight from Earth to the star. Therefore, most planets observed by the transit method are close to 90 degrees. Because the word 'inclination' is used in exoplanet studies for this line-of-sight inclination then the angle between the planet's orbit and the star's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin–orbit angle or spin–orbit alignment. In most cases the orientation of the star's rotational axis is unknown. The \"Kepler\" spacecraft has found a few hundred multi-planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane, much like the Solar System. However, a combination of astrometric and radial-velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other. More than half of hot Jupiters have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent star's rotation. A substantial fraction of hot-Jupiters even have retrograde orbits, meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star's rotation. Rather than a planet's orbit having been disturbed, it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.\n", "On a medium-sized, low-gravity planet with a very slow rotational period, the side that is farthest from the sun is always a very hard mixture of frozen carbon dioxide, rock hard ammonia, and solid water ice, and the side that is closest, a sea of turbulent liquids and icebergs. The planet rotates so slowly that the part that is half ice and half ocean, is constantly beset with troubling weather conditions ranging from blizzards to unanticipated ice melts and earthquakes. It takes centuries if not thousands of years for the wobbling of the planet on the ecliptic to melt certain parts of the planet. Even still, it is possible for the planet to have become locked in orbit, so the farthest side never melts. The tidal locking of the planet may have occurred hundreds of millions of years ago, and seasons appear to be limited to the slight wobbling of the planet on the ecliptic. Far from being an uninteresting planet, the ecliptic along which the planet travels is also tilted. Most of the colonies are located along the \"coast\" - the place in a murky half-shadow of constant night and constant day.\n", "All four of the innermost, rocky planets of the Solar System may have had large variations of their obliquity in the past. Since obliquity is the angle between the axis of rotation and the direction perpendicular to the orbital plane, it changes as the orbital plane changes due to the influence of other planets. But the axis of rotation can also move (axial precession), due to torque exerted by the sun on a planet's equatorial bulge. Like Earth, all of the rocky planets show axial precession. If the precession rate were very fast the obliquity would actually remain fairly constant even as the orbital plane changes. The rate varies due to tidal dissipation and core-mantle interaction, among other things. When a planet's precession rate approaches certain values, orbital resonances may cause large changes in obliquity. The amplitude of the contribution having one of the resonant rates is divided by the difference between the resonant rate and the precession rate, so it becomes large when the two are similar. Mercury and Venus have most likely been stabilized by the tidal dissipation of the Sun. Earth was stabilized by the Moon, as mentioned above, but before its capture, Earth, too, could have passed through times of instability. Mars's obliquity is quite variable over millions of years and may be in a chaotic state; it varies as much as 0° to 60° over some millions of years, depending on perturbations of the planets. Some authors dispute that Mars's obliquity is chaotic, and show that tidal dissipation and viscous core-mantle coupling are adequate for it to have reached a fully damped state, similar to Mercury and Venus.\n", "Section::::Dwarf planets.\n\nAll known dwarf planets and dwarf planet candidates have prograde orbits around the Sun, but some have retrograde rotation. Pluto has retrograde rotation; its axial tilt is approximately 120 degrees. Pluto and its moon Charon are both tidally locked to each other. It is suspected that the Plutonian satellite system was created by a massive collision.\n\nSection::::Earth's atmosphere.\n\nRetrograde motion, or retrogression, within the Earth's atmosphere is seen in weather systems whose motion is opposite the general direction of airflow, i.e. from east to west against the westerlies or from west to east through the trade wind easterlies.\n", "For a Counter-Earth orbiting the same path as Earth to always stay 180 degrees from Earth, the two planets would have to have circular orbits, but Earth's orbit is elliptical. According to Kepler's second law, a planet revolves faster when it is close to the star, so a Counter-Earth following the Earth on the same orbit with half a year of delay would sometimes not be exactly 180 degrees from Earth. To remain hidden from Earth, the Counter-Earth would require an orbit symmetrical to Earth's, not sharing the second focus or orbit path.\n\nSection::::Modern era.:References in culture.\n", "The eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth makes the time from the March equinox to the September equinox, around 186 days, unequal to the time from the September equinox to the March equinox, around 179 days. A diameter would cut the orbit into equal parts, but the plane through the Sun parallel to the equator of the Earth cuts the orbit into two parts with areas in a 186 to 179 ratio, so the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth is approximately\n\nwhich is close to the correct value (0.016710219) (see Earth's orbit).\n", "The last few giant impacts during planetary formation tend to be the main determiner of a terrestrial planet's rotation rate. During the giant impact stage, the thickness of a protoplanetary disk is far larger than the size of planetary embryos so collisions are equally likely to come from any direction in three dimensions. This results in the axial tilt of accreted planets ranging from 0 to 180 degrees with any direction as likely as any other with both prograde and retrograde spins equally probable. Therefore, prograde spin with small axial tilt, common for the solar system's terrestrial planets except for Venus, is not common for terrestrial planets in general.\n", "Not every case of tidal locking involves synchronous rotation. With Mercury, for example, this tidally locked planet completes three rotations for every two revolutions around the Sun, a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance. In the special case where an orbit is nearly circular and the body's rotation axis is not significantly tilted, such as the Moon, tidal locking results in the same hemisphere of the revolving object constantly facing its partner.\n", "All other planetary bodies in the Solar System also appear to periodically switch direction as they cross Earth's sky. Though all stars and planets appear to move from east to west on a nightly basis in response to the rotation of Earth, the outer planets generally drift slowly eastward relative to the stars. Asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects (including Pluto) exhibit apparent retrogradation. This motion is normal for the planets, and so is considered direct motion. However, since Earth completes its orbit in a shorter period of time than the planets outside its orbit, it periodically overtakes them, like a faster car on a multi-lane highway. When this occurs, the planet being passed will first appear to stop its eastward drift, and then drift back toward the west. Then, as Earth swings past the planet in its orbit, it appears to resume its normal motion west to east. Inner planets Venus and Mercury appear to move in retrograde in a similar mechanism, but as they can never be in opposition to the Sun as seen from Earth, their retrograde cycles are tied to their inferior conjunctions with the Sun. They are unobservable in the Sun's glare and in their \"new\" phase, with mostly their dark sides toward Earth; they occur in the transition from evening star to morning star.\n", "The previous pole star was Kochab (Beta Ursae Minoris, β UMi, β Ursae Minoris), the brightest star in the bowl of the \"Little Dipper\", located 16 degrees from Polaris. It held that role from 1500 BC to AD 500 . It was not quite as accurate in its day as Polaris is today. Today, Kochab and its neighbor Pherkad are referred to as the \"Guardians of the Pole\" (meaning Polaris).\n", "It is very probable that there were planetary dials, as the complicated motions and periodicities of all planets are mentioned in the manual of the mechanism. The exact position and mechanisms for the gears of the planets is not known. There is no coaxial system but only for the Moon. Fragment D that is an epicycloidal system is considered as a planetary gear for Jupiter (Moussas, 2011, 2012, 2014) or a gear for the motion of the Sun (University of Thessaloniki group).\n", "Giant impacts have a large effect on the spin of terrestrial planets. The last few giant impacts during planetary formation tend to be the main determiner of a terrestrial planet's rotation rate. On average the spin angular velocity will be about 70% of the velocity that would cause the planet to break up and fly apart; the natural outcome of planetary embryo impacts at speeds slightly larger than escape velocity. In later stages terrestrial planet spin is also affected by impacts with planetesimals. During the giant impact stage, the thickness of a protoplanetary disk is far larger than the size of planetary embryos so collisions are equally likely to come from any direction in three-dimensions. This results in the axial tilt of accreted planets ranging from 0 to 180 degrees with any direction as likely as any other with both prograde and retrograde spins equally probable. Therefore, prograde spin with a small axial tilt, common for the Solar System's terrestrial planets except Venus, is not common in general for terrestrial planets built by giant impacts. The initial axial tilt of a planet determined by giant impacts can be substantially changed by stellar tides if the planet is close to its star and by satellite tides if the planet has a large satellite.\n", "Section::::Attributes.:Dynamic characteristics.:Rotation.\n\nThe planets rotate around invisible axes through their centres. A planet's rotation period is known as a stellar day. Most of the planets in the Solar System rotate in the same direction as they orbit the Sun, which is counter-clockwise as seen from above the Sun's north pole, the exceptions being Venus and Uranus, which rotate clockwise, though Uranus's extreme axial tilt means there are differing conventions on which of its poles is \"north\", and therefore whether it is rotating clockwise or anti-clockwise. Regardless of which convention is used, Uranus has a retrograde rotation relative to its orbit.\n", "Planetary magnetic poles are defined analogously to the Earth's North and South magnetic poles: they are the locations on the planet's surface at which the planet's magnetic field lines are vertical. The direction of the field determines whether the pole is a magnetic north or south pole, exactly as on Earth. The Earth's magnetic axis is approximately aligned with its rotational axis, meaning that the geomagnetic poles are relatively close to the geographic poles. However, this is not necessarily the case for other planets; the magnetic axis of Uranus, for example, is inclined by as much as 60°.\n\nSection::::Orbital pole.\n", "Planets also have varying degrees of axial tilt; they lie at an angle to the plane of their stars' equators. This causes the amount of light received by each hemisphere to vary over the course of its year; when the northern hemisphere points away from its star, the southern hemisphere points towards it, and vice versa. Each planet therefore has seasons, changes to the climate over the course of its year. The time at which each hemisphere points farthest or nearest from its star is known as its solstice. Each planet has two in the course of its orbit; when one hemisphere has its summer solstice, when its day is longest, the other has its winter solstice, when its day is shortest. The varying amount of light and heat received by each hemisphere creates annual changes in weather patterns for each half of the planet. Jupiter's axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimal; Uranus, on the other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time of its solstices. Among extrasolar planets, axial tilts are not known for certain, though most hot Jupiters are believed to have negligible to no axial tilt as a result of their proximity to their stars.\n", "Total apsidal precession for isolated very hot Jupiters is, considering only lowest order effects, and broadly in order of importance\n\nwith planetary tidal bulge being the dominant term, exceeding the effects of general relativity and the stellar quadrupole by more than an order of magnitude. The good resulting approximation of the tidal bulge is useful for understanding the interiors of such planets. For the shortest-period planets, the planetary interior induces precession of a few degrees per year. It is up to 19.9° per year for WASP-12b.\n\nSection::::Newton's theorem of revolving orbits.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01448	Why do creole languages always use phonetic spelling?	They use phonetic spelling because there isn't time for irregularities to arise. If you look at the complexities in English spelling, for example, most of them are either remnants of older English (e.g. "knight" was originally pronounced as it was spelt) or copied from other languages. Tracing back far enough, almost all irregularities arise this way (though the occasional mistake is present). They are retained due to the influence of tradition and sense of social status they provided to the writing "elite" in times of lower literacy. In a creole, by contrast, these forces are not generally present. Given that most creoles emerged only in the past few centuries, pronounciation has not shifted sufficiently to override "phonetic spelling". Compounding this is the fact that any such shifts would largely have been smoothed over- any "social status" to be sourced from writing is generally expressed through writing in the parent language(s) of the creole.	[ "Creoles are contact languages usually spoken in rather isolated colonies, the vocabulary of which is mainly taken from a European language (the lexifier). Creoles generally have no initial or final consonant clusters but have a simple syllable structure which consists of alternating consonants and vowels (e.g. \"CVCV\").\n", "Before Haitian Creole orthography was standardized in the late 20th century, spelling varied, but was based on subjecting spoken HaitianCreole to written French, a language whose spelling has not matched its pronunciation since at least the 16thcentury. Unlike the phonetic orthography, French orthography of HaitianCreole is not standardized and varies according to the writer; some use exact French spelling, others adjust the spelling of certain words to represent pronunciation of the cognate in HaitianCreole, removing the silent letters. For example: ( \"He goes to work in the morning\") could be transcribed as:\n\nBULLET::::- , or\n\nSection::::Grammar.\n", "Word internal sequences of two vowels do not occur in SLPC, therefore the creole does not appear to have diphthongs as there are in SP. Again, vowel lengthening seems to take place instead of diphthongization.\n\nChart A shows a vowel chart for SP, where nasality is distinguished from oral vowels, and a vowel chart for SLPC, where vowel length is a distinctive feature. Chart (B) shows both long vowels (such as the word for ‘wax’, , from BrP ‘cerar’) and short vowels (such as in the word for ‘want’, , from BrP ‘querer’).\n", "BULLET::::- When writing Barlavento Creoles, the letter e is written in the place of vowels that would exist in equivalent Sotavento words. If this written vowel was simply omitted, syllables could be left without vowels, or consonants left at the end of a word, in ways deemed improper. For example:\n\nBULLET::::- is written debóxe, not dbóx (compare Sotavento dibaxu)\n", "Since word medial sequences of two or more vowels do not occur in Sri Lanka, as mentioned earlier, a process of vowel elision and glide epenthesis can co-occur to prevent vowels from coming together. Firstly, when there exists a possible combination of two vowels as result of some sort of word construction a glide separates them. Secondly, as a result of this the first vowel of the two may be reduced or elided.\n\nA) Standard Portuguese\n\nB)Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole\n\nConsonants\n", "Vowels\n\nStandard Portuguese (SP) has rich vowel phonology with seven to nine oral vowels (depending on which dialect), five nasal vowels, ten oral diphthongs and five nasal diphthongs. While SLPC has retained the same oral vowels found in Standard Continental Portuguese, it does not make the distinction between nasalized and non-nasalized vowels. While the vowels are derived from Portuguese, the vowel features appear more similar to Tamil, since in both Tamil and the Creole vowels are distinguished by length. \n", "Before a syllabic , the contrast between alveolar and velar consonants has been historically neutralized with alveolar consonants becoming velar so that the word for 'bottle' is and the word for 'idle' is .\n\nJamaican Patois exhibits two types of vowel harmony; peripheral vowel harmony, wherein only sequences of peripheral vowels (that is, , , and ) can occur within a syllable; and back harmony, wherein and cannot occur within a syllable together (that is, and are allowed but and are not). These two phenomena account for three long vowels and four diphthongs:\n\nSection::::Sociolinguistic variation.\n", "In BP, an epenthetic vowel is sometimes inserted between consonants, to break up consonant clusters that are not native to Portuguese, in learned words and in borrowings. This also happens at the ends of words after consonants that cannot occur word-finally (e.g., , , ). For example, \"psicologia\" ('psychology') may be pronounced ; \"adverso\" ('adverse') may be pronounced ; \"McDonald's\" may be pronounced . In northern Portugal, an epenthetic may be used instead, , , but in southern Portugal there is often no epenthesis, , . Epenthesis at the end of a word does not normally occur in Portugal.\n", "Section::::Classification.:Decreolization.\n\nSince creole languages rarely attain official status, the speakers of a fully formed creole may eventually feel compelled to conform their speech to one of the parent languages. This decreolization process typically brings about a post-creole speech continuum characterized by large-scale variation and hypercorrection in the language.\n\nIt is generally acknowledged that creoles have a simpler grammar and more internal variability than older, more established languages. However, these notions are occasionally challenged. (See also language complexity.)\n", "The creation of the orthography was essentially an articulation of the language ideologies of those involved and brought out political and social tensions between competing groups. A large portion of this tension lay in the ideology held by many that the French language is superior, which led to resentment of the language by some Haitians and an admiration for it from others. This orthographical controversy boiled down to an attempt to unify a conception of Haitian national identity. Where and seemed too Anglo-Saxon and American imperialistic, and were symbolic of French colonialism.\n\nSection::::Orthography.:French-based orthography.\n", "BULLET::::- There is some ambiguity in the pronunciation of the high vowels of the letters and when followed in spelling by . Common words such as (\"person\") and (\"car\") end with consonantal , while very few words, mostly adopted from African languages, contain nasalized high vowels as in .\n\nSection::::Orthography.:Haitian orthography debate.\n\nThe first technical orthography for Haitian Creole was developed in 1940 by H.Ormonde McConnell. It was later revised with the help of Frank Laubach, resulting in the creation of what is known as the McConnell–Laubach orthography.\n", "French Guianese Creole is largely written using the French alphabet, with only a few exceptions. 'Q' and 'X' are replaced by 'k' and 'z' respectively. 'C' is not used apart from in the diagraph, ch, where it stands for (the word for horse is \"chouval\", similar to French's \"cheval\"). Otherwise, it is replaced by 'k' when it stands for (Standard French's \"comment\" (how) is written \"kouman\") and 's', when it stands for . Silent 'h' is never written, unlike in Standard French, where it remains for etymological purposes.\n", "3. Short vowels can be stressed only when found in initial syllables.\n\n4. Stress falls on the last underlying long vowel of a word, or on the first vowel of a word having no long vowel.\n", "The lexicon (or, roughly, the base or essential vocabulary – such as \"say\" but not \"said, tell, told\") of a creole language is largely supplied by the parent languages, particularly that of the most dominant group in the social context of the creole's construction. However, there are often clear phonetic and semantic shifts. On the other hand, the grammar that has evolved often has new or unique features that differ substantially from those of the parent languages.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Cape Verdean Creole's phonological system comes mainly from 15th-through-17th-century Portuguese. In terms of conservative features, Creole has kept the affricate consonants and (written “j” (in the beginning of words) and “ch”, in old Portuguese) which are not in use in today’s Portuguese, and the pre-tonic vowels were not reduced as in today’s European Portuguese. In terms of innovative features, the phoneme (written “lh” in Portuguese) has evolved to and the vowels have undergone several phonetic phenomena.\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Vowels.\n\nThere are eight oral vowels and their corresponding nasal counterparts, making a total of sixteen vowels:\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Consonants and semi-vowels.\n", "The native Portuguese consonant clusters, where there is not epenthesis, are sequences of a non-sibilant oral consonant followed by the liquids or , and the complex consonants . Some examples:\n\nSection::::Vowels.:Vowel alternation.:Further notes on the oral vowels.\n\nBULLET::::- Some words with in EP have in BP. This happens when those vowels are stressed before the nasal consonants , , followed by another vowel, in which case both types of vowel may occur in European Portuguese, but Brazilian Portuguese only allows high vowels. This can affect spelling: cf. EP \"tónico\", BP \"tônico\" \"tonic\".\n", "Writers with more linguistic knowledge sometimes employed symbols such as or for , for , macrons or circumflexes for long vowels, breves for short vowels, but these were often applied inconsistently.\n\nSection::::Modern practical orthography.\n\nLinguists working with Australian languages today purposely use unambiguous phonemic orthographies based on detailed phonological analysis of the language in question. In orthographies of this kind each spoken word can only be written one way, and each written word can only be read one way.\n", "However, BP has retained those silent consonants in a few cases, such as \"detectar\" (\"to detect\"). In particular, BP generally distinguishes in sound and writing between \"secção\" (\"section\" as in \"anatomy\" or \"drafting\") and \"seção\" (\"section\" of an organization); whereas EP uses \"secção\" for both senses.\n", "Another factor that may have contributed to the relative neglect of creole languages in linguistics is that they do not fit the 19th-century neogrammarian \"tree model\" for the evolution of languages, and its postulated regularity of sound changes (these critics including the earliest advocates of the wave model, Johannes Schmidt and Hugo Schuchardt, the forerunners of modern sociolinguistics). This controversy of the late 19th century profoundly shaped modern approaches to the comparative method in historical linguistics and in creolistics.\n", "Nasalization is very common in many BP dialects and is especially noticeable in vowels before or before by a vowel. For the same reason, open vowels (which are not normally under nasalization in Portuguese) cannot occur before or in BP, but can in EP. That sometimes affects the spelling of words. For example, \"harmónico\" \"harmonic\" is \"harmônico\" in BP. It also can affect verbal paradigms: Portuguese distinguishes \"falamos\" \"we speak\" from 'falámos' \"we spoke,\" but in BP, it is written and pronounced \"falamos\" for both.\n", "The spelling of Portuguese is largely phonemic, but some phonemes can be spelled in more than one way. In ambiguous cases, the correct spelling is determined through a combination of etymology with morphology and tradition so there is not a perfect one-to-one correspondence between sounds and letters or digraphs. Knowing the main inflectional paradigms of Portuguese and being acquainted with the orthography of other Western European languages can be helpful.\n", "Because of social, political, and academic changes brought on by decolonization in the second half of the 20th century, creole languages have experienced revivals in the past few decades. They are increasingly being used in print and film, and in many cases, their community prestige has improved dramatically. In fact, some have been standardized, and are used in local schools and universities around the world. At the same time, linguists have begun to come to the realization that creole languages are in no way inferior to other languages. They now use the term \"creole\" or \"creole language\" for any language suspected to have undergone creolization, terms that now imply no geographic restrictions nor ethnic prejudices.\n", "Most of the letters are pronounced with the same values as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the exceptions being (approximately English \"j\" but more palatalized), , (a flap). The letter is approximately like English \"ch\" but more palatalized. The palatal nasal is sometimes spelled .\n\nLong consonants are written with double letters; is a trilled . Long vowels are sometimes but inconsistently written with double letter. Nasal vowels are written with a tilde or a following or . In older works, was spelled or . Both and are pronounced as a labiodental nasal before .\n", "For example, Caribbean newspaper columnists use the low variety local creole language to make their opinions more convincing by implying that it is shared by the masses. In such a case, although newspaper editorials are considered a formal domain, the use of the low variety language which is commonly associated with locals suggests that the article written by the columnist is a representation of the public’s opinions. \n", "BULLET::::- by changing the order of the sounds. Example: \"ask\" is rendered as \"aks\"\n\nBULLET::::- by dropping the last sound. Example: \"desk\" pronounced as \"dess\" and \"tourist\" as \"touriss\"\n\nBULLET::::- For words ending in \"-er\", the \"-er\" sound changes to an \"ah\" sound. Example: \"never\" is pronounced as \"nevah\" and clever as \"clevah\"\n\nBULLET::::- For words ending in \"-th\", the soft \"-th\" sound is replaced by the hard \"t\" sound as if the \"h\" were dropped. Example: \"with\" is rendered as \"wit\" and \"earth\" as \"eart\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02801	What makes the Venezuelan national debt of 60 billion so much worse than the US national debt of 20 trillion?	The inability of the Venezuelan government to pay interest on that debt, and keep their own government functional. In the same way that $1M in debt by Microsoft wouldn't really impact anything, but $1M in debt by me would be crippling.	[ "In November 2017, \"The Economist\" estimated Venezuela's debt at US$105 billion and its reserves at US$10 billion. In 2018, Venezuela's debt grew to US$156 billion and as of March 2019, its reserves had dropped to US$8 billion.\n\nWith the exception of PDVSA's 2020 bonds, as of January 2019, all of Venezuela's bonds are in default, and Venezuela's government and state-owned companies owe nearly US$8 billion in unpaid interest and principal. As of March 2019, the government and state-owned companies have US$150 billion in debt.\n\nSection::::Economic.:Oil Industry.\n", "In November 2017, \"The Economist\" estimated Venezuela's debt at US$105 billion and its reserves at US$10 billion. In 2018, Venezuela's debt grew to US$156 billion and as of March 2019, its reserves had dropped to US$8 billion.\n\nWith the exception of PDVSA's 2020 bonds, as of January 2019, all of Venezuela's bonds are in default, and Venezuela's government and state-owned companies owe nearly US$8 billion in unpaid interest and principal. As of March 2019, the government and state-owned companies have US$150 billion in debt.\n", "Section::::Basic needs.:Health care.:2019 Human Rights Watch/Johns Hopkins report.\n", "From an economic standpoint, Cuba relies much more on Venezuela than Venezuela does on Cuba. As of 2012, Venezuela accounted for 20.8% of Cuba's GDP while Cuba only accounted for roughly 4% of Venezuela's. Because of this reliance, the most recent economic Crisis in Venezuela (2012-present), with inflation nearing 800% and GDP shrinking by 19% in 2016, Cuba is not receiving their amount of payment and heavily subsidized oil. Further budget cuts are in the plans for 2018 marking a third straight year.\n\nSection::::Economic freedom.\n", "An article in CNBC said that Chinese investment in Latin America have been burgeoning and that the project has been heavily criticized amid allegations of debt-trap diplomacy and neo-colonialism.\n\nAn article published by Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global Policy said that China's loans in Venezuela are not debt trap diplomacy nor “creditor imperialism,” but simply “lose-lose” financial mistakes where both parties stand to lose. An article in Quartz summarized the Carnegie article accordingly: \"counter to the dominant narrative about Chinese debt ensnaring other countries, the country that needs to fear excessive and unsustainable Chinese lending the most is China.\"\n\nSection::::Malaysia.\n", "Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin said, \"The willingness of Maduro's inner-circle to exploit Venezuela’s institutions knows no bounds. Regime insiders have transformed BANDES and its subsidiaries into vehicles to move funds abroad in an attempt to prop up Maduro. Maduro and his enablers have distorted the original purpose of the bank, which was founded to help the economic and social well-being of the Venezuelan people, as part of a desperate attempt to hold onto power.\" Mnuchin warned, \"The regime's continued use of kidnapping, torture, and murder of Venezuelan citizens will not be tolerated by the U.S. or the international coalition that is united behind President Guaido. Roberto Marrero and other political prisoners must be released immediately.\"\n", "Maduro accused the United States of \"masterminding a 'demonic' plot to force him from power\" according to \"The Guardian\". Maduro prosecutor Tarek Saab called for an investigation of Guaidó, alleging that he had \"sabotaged\" the electric sector. Guaidó said that Venezuela's largest-ever power outage was \"the product of the inefficiency, the incapability, the corruption of a regime that doesn't care about the lives of Venezuelans\", and \"The Guardian\" reported that \"many specialists believe the calamitous nationwide blackout ... is the result of years of mismanagement, corruption and incompetence\".\n", "BULLET::::- – Minister of Foreign Affairs of Canada, John Baird, said \"We are alarmed by the increasing violence and arrests, injuries and deaths during protests. Our deepest condolences to the families of the victims\", he asked that all detainees, all deaths and reports of abuses by the government security forces are investigated.\n", "In July 2017, Standard & Poor's lowered both the domestic and foreign credit ratings of Venezuela to CCC- due to the increasing risk of default. Fitch Ratings followed suit in August 2017, lowering local and foreign credit ratings to CC. In November 2017 Standard & Poor's rated Venezuela in technical default and Fitch ratings rated Venezuela's oil company PDVSA in restrictive default - one rank above full default.\n\nSection::::Economic indicators.:Currency.\n", "Section::::Basic needs.\n\nSection::::Basic needs.:Poverty.\n\nThe \"Wall Street Journal\" reported in March 2019 that poverty was double that of 2014. A study from Andrés Bello Catholic University indicated that at least 8 million Venezuelans did not have enough to eat. A UN report estimated in March 2019 that 94% of Venezuelans live in poverty, and that one quarter of Venezuelans need some form of humanitarian assistance.\n\nSection::::Basic needs.:Food and water.\n", "In 2014, Venezuela's economy entered a recession with its economy contracting by 4.8%, 4.9% and 2.3% in the first three quarters. That year, Venezuela topped the Global Misery Index, which is based on inflation, unemployment, and other economic factors. In December 2014, it was stated that Venezuela had a 93% chance of being in default, while it has also been noted that the government has never failed to meet the country's foreign-debt obligations.\n", "Section::::Economic indicators.:Business environment.:2016.\n\nIn the \"Doing Business 2016\" report, Venezuela remained ranked 186 of 189, with starting a business, international trading and taxes being the worst categories. In February 2016, \"The Washington Post\" stated: \"The political drama in Venezuela, where a populist, authoritarian government is attempting to cling to power despite losing a legislative election by a landslide, tends to obscure a deeper crisis. Though it is awash in oil, the country of 30 million people is facing an economic collapse and a humanitarian disaster\".\n\nSection::::Economic indicators.:Consumer prices and inflation.\n", "Despite the displeasure of the system, in an October 2014 \"Wall Street Journal\" article, it was reported that the fingerprint rationing system expanded to more state owned markets.\n\nSection::::Economic indicators.:Government spending.\n\n\"El Nuevo Herald\" reported that SEBIN has cut down its work due to the lack of money limiting their work to the monitoring of \"potential external threats\" and asked for Cuban intelligence agents to return to Venezuela.\n", "A US State Department spokesperson commented that, \"as the writers themselves concede, the report is based on speculation and conjecture\". The spokesperson added: \"The economic situation in Venezuela has been deteriorating for decades, as Venezuelans themselves will confirm, thanks to Maduro's ineptitude and economic mismanagement.\" Harvard conomist Ricardo Hausmann, Juan Guaidó's representative to the Inter-American Development Bank, asserts that the analysis is flawed because it makes invalid assumptions about Venezuela based on a different country, Colombia, saying that \"taking what happened in Colombia since 2017 as a counterfactual for what would have happened in Venezuela if there had been no financial sanctions makes no sense\". Calling it \"sloppy reasoning\", the authors also state that the analysis failed to rule out other explanations, and failed to correctly account for PDVSA finances.\n", "Maduro's government stopped releasing social and economic indicators, so most data rely on estimates. The Institute of International Finance (IIF) stated in March 2019 that \"Venezuela's economic collapse is among the world's worst in recent history\". A chief economist of the IIF said the crisis resulted from \"policy decisions, economic mismanagement, and political turmoil\", saying it is on a scale that \"one would only expect from extreme natural disasters or military confrontations\". The April 2019 International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Economic Outlook described Venezuela as being in a \"wartime economy\". For the fifth consecutive year, Bloomberg rated Venezuela last on its misery index in 2019.\n", "Estimated to drop by 25% in 2019, the IMF said the contraction in Venezuela's GDP—the largest since the Libyan Civil War began in 2014—was affecting all of Latin America.\n", "Section::::Government policies.:Social spending and public works.:Transportation.\n\nIn late 2013, a major railway project in Venezuela was delayed because Venezuela could not pay US$7.5 billion and owed China Railway nearly US$500 million.\n", "United States National Security Advisor John R. Bolton outlined the policies of the administration of United States President Donald Trump towards Venezuela in a November 2018 speech, describing Venezuela as part of a Troika of tyranny, along with Cuba and Nicaragua. Bolton has alternately described the three countries as the \"triangle of terror\" and the \"three stooges of socialism\", stating that the three are \"the cause of immense human suffering, the impetus of enormous regional instability, and the genesis of a sordid cradle of communism in the western hemisphere\". The United States has condemned actions of the governments of the three Latin American nations and has maintained both broad and targeted sanctions against their leadership.\n", "Several leaders of Caribbean countries supporting Maduro criticized the US sanctions, saying their support for Maduro was based on principles, not oil, and that sanctions were affecting their countries' supply, debt payments, and the region's stability. The director of the Latin America and Caribbean Energy Program at the University of Texas at Austin, Jorge Piñón, said the supply cuts to these Caribbean countries were not due to the sanctions, but the mismanagement of PDVSA. When Chávez was elected, Venezuela was producing 3.5 million barrels per day of crude oil; as of March 2019, production is about 1 million barrels per day, and Piñón says these countries should have seen the problems coming. Gaston Browne, Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda, and others criticized the US intent in the region, saying that \"Washington should provide more aid to these nations and not spend billions on useless wars\". With the Venezuelan crisis dividing Caribbean countries, those countries that did not recognize Maduro were invited to meet with Trump in March 2019. Following the meeting, Trump promised more investment to the countries supporting Guaidó (Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and Saint Lucia), although \"the White House did not specifically tie the carrot of investment to that support\".\n", "Venezuela's inflation rate passed 100 percent by 2015, the world's highest inflation rate and the highest in the country's history. By the end of 2018, this rate would rise to 1.35 million percent.\n\nAccording to a 2018 Gallup analysis, \"[g]overnment decisions have led to a domino-effect crisis that continues to worsen, leaving residents unable to afford basic necessities such as food and housing\", with Venezuelans \"believ[ing] they can find better lives elsewhere\".\n", "A US State Department spokesperson commented that, \"as the writers themselves concede, the report is based on speculation and conjecture\". The spokesperson added: \"The economic situation in Venezuela has been deteriorating for decades, as Venezuelans themselves will confirm, thanks to Maduro's ineptitude and economic mismanagement.\" Economist Ricardo Hausmann, Guaidó's representative to the Inter-American Development Bank, asserts that the analysis is flawed because it makes invalid assumptions about Venezuela based on a different country, Colombia, saying that \"taking what happened in Colombia since 2017 as a counterfactual for what would have happened in Venezuela if there had been no financial sanctions makes no sense\". Calling it \"sloppy reasoning\", the authors also state that the analysis failed to rule out other explanations, and failed to correctly account for PDVSA finances.\n", "\"The Washington Post\" stated that the HRW/Johns Hopkins report \"paints an extremely grim picture of life in Venezuela, whose once-prosperous economy has imploded because of mismanagement and corruption under Maduro\"; it documents rising maternal and infant death, spread of preventable diseases, food insecurity, and child malnutrition. HRW declared that the \"combination of severe medicine and food shortages ... with the spread of disease ... amounts to a complex humanitarian emergency that requires a full-scale response by the United Nations secretary-general.\" The \"Washington Post\" states that the report describes a healthcare system that is in \"utter collapse\", with diseases that are preventable via vaccination spreading, and \"dramatic surges\" in infectious diseases once eradicated in Venezuela.\n", "In early 2019, the monthly minimum salary was the equivalent of US$5.50 (18,000 sovereign bolivars)—less than the price of a Happy Meal at McDonalds. Ecoanalitica estimated that prices jumped by 465% in the first two-and-a-half months of 2019. \"The Wall Street Journal\" stated in March 2019 that the \"main cause of hyperinflation is the central bank printing money to fund gaping public spending deficits\", reporting that a teacher can buy a dozen eggs and two pounds of cheese with a month's wages.\n", "On 14 February 2017, Paraguayan authorities uncovered a 30 metric ton stash of 50 and 100 bolívares fuertes banknotes totaling 1.5 billion Bs.F on its Brazilian border that had not yet been circulated. According to a United States Department of Defense adviser linked to The Pentagon, the 1.5 billion Bs.F was printed by Venezuela and destined for Bolivia, since unlike the implied exchange rate of thousands of bolívares fuertes equaling one United States dollar, the exchange rate was approximately 10 bolívares fuertes per dollar, making the value of the stash 419 times stronger, from US$358,000 to US$150 million. The Pentagon adviser further stated that the Venezuelan government tried to send the newly printed notes to be exchanged by the Bolivian government so Bolivia could pay 20% of its debt to Venezuela, and so Venezuela could use the US dollars for its own disposal.\n", "By 2014, Venezuela had entered an economic recession and by 2016, the country had an inflation rate of 800%, the highest in its history. The International Monetary Fund expects inflation in Venezuela to be 1,000,000% for 2018.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00312	How do TV shows and movie series keep the same feel and style while having multiple directors over the course of their run?	Shows that use multiple directors (which are most) have positions such as producer and showrunner whose jobs entail keeping the themes and feel of the show consistent.	[ "Each ten-episode season of \"Game of Thrones\" has four to six directors, who usually direct back-to-back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod, and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each; MacLaren is also the only female director in the entire series' run. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: \"Blackwater\" and \"The Watchers on the Wall\". Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D. B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.\n", "Some shows have a small stable of directors, but also usually rely on outside directors. Given the time constraints of broadcasting, a single show might have two or three episodes in pre-production, one or two episodes in principal photography, and a few more in various stages of post-production. The task of directing is complex enough that a single director can usually not work on more than one episode or show at a time, hence the need for multiple directors.\n\nSection::::Production.:Principal photography.\n", "The series pilot and finale were directed by Clark Johnson; Johnson had previously starred in \"\" and made his directing debut on that series. Guy Ferland directed episodes for all seven seasons of \"The Shield\".\n\nRohn Schmidt was a cinematographer for all seven seasons and made his television directing debut on the show. Stephen Kay was a frequent director for the series. Gwyneth Horder-Payton was an assistant director for the show's early seasons and made her television directing debut in the fourth season, she continued to regularly direct episodes thereafter.\n", "When filming fell behind schedule, another director came in to assist the main unit director in finishing the episode. Greg Beeman assisted director Chris Long for the two \"visceral visions of the future\" that appeared in the episode \"Hourglass\". \"Jitters\" was an episode with so many changes that its initial scheduling as the second episode of the season was pushed back to the eighth spot. By the time filming for \"Jitters\" was completed, three directors had worked on the project: Greg Beeman, Phil Sgriccia, and Michael Watkins; however, Watkins was given sole directing credit for the episode.\n\nSection::::Production.:Effects.\n", "Cavalier said \"The year of working together changed us [...] I wasn’t in charge the way a director is in charge. And we discovered things gradually. I used to plan the last shot from the start, and thought about that from the beginning. I had studied Greek tragedy, I was influenced by films like Renoir's \"Partie de campagne\" and John Huston's \"Asphalt Jungle\". Now I want to forget all that.\"\n", "In the first four seasons, Larry Shaw and David Grossman have been the most prolific directors, together directing more than half of the episodes.\n\nSection::::Production.:Filming.\n\n\"Desperate Housewives\" was filmed on Panavision 35 mm cameras (except for the final season, which was shot digitally on the Arri Alexa). It was broadcast in standard and 16:9 widescreen high definition, though it was framed for the aspect ratio until the final season.\n", "BULLET::::- 2000: \"Grosse Pointe\" – Director, 2 episodes: \"Boys on the Side,\" \"Star Wars\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: \"Cold Case\" – Director, 1 episode: \"Volunteers\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: \"The L Word\" – Director, 1 episode: \"Last Dance\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: \"Men in Trees\" – Director, 1 episode: \"Power Shift\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: \"What About Brian\" – Director, 2 episodes: \"What About First Steps,\" \"What About the True Confessions?\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: \"SouthLAnd\" – Director, 2 episodes: \"Sideways,\" \"Fallout\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: \"The Mentalist\" – Director, 1 episode: \"The Red Barn\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: \"Orange Is the New Black\" – Director, 1 episode: \"You Also Have a Pizza\"\n", "Executive producer Mel Damski, who had been nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing in a Drama for his work on the series \"Lou Grant\", directed the second and ninth episodes of the season. Michael Zinberg, who was working as a director on \"Monk\", was the only other person who directed more than a single episode; he directed two, the third and tenth episodes. The people who directed a single episode were \"Grey's Anatomy\" director Jeff Melman, \"It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia\" producer Matt Shakman, occasional \"Rescue Me\" director John Fortenberry, frequent \"Dawson's Creek\" director Michael Lange, frequent \"Veronica Mars\" director John T. Kretchmer, Tim Matheson, who played John Hoynes on \"The West Wing\", infrequent \"Weeds\" director Lev L. Spiro, long-time \"Charmed\" executive producer and director James L. Conway, \"Growing Pains\" actress and experienced director Joanna Kerns, and movie writer, director, and actor John Landis.\n", "Many of the directors had previously worked on television series and independent films. The most frequent directors of the series were Tim Van Patten (20 episodes), John Patterson (13 episodes), Allen Coulter (12 episodes), and Alan Taylor (9 episodes), all of whom have a background in television. Recurring cast members Steve Buscemi and Peter Bogdanovich also directed episodes of the series intermittently.\n\nChase directed the pilot episode and the series finale.\n\nBoth episodes were photographed by the show's original director of photography Alik Sakharov, who later alternated episodes with Phil Abraham.\n", "BULLET::::- 1996-1997: \"Men Behaving Badly\" - Director, 16 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 1999-2002: \"Everybody Loves Raymond\" - Director, 5 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 1999-2004: \"The Practice\" - Director, 8 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2003-2009: \"Monk\" - Director, 5 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2004-2005: \"Gilmore Girls\" - Director, 6 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2008-2010: \"Private Practice\" - Director, 5 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2009-2010: \"Lie to Me\" - Director, 4 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2010-2011: \"Rizzoli & Isles\" - Executive Producer, 15 episodes; Director, 5 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2010-2015: \"The Good Wife\" - Director, 13 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2014-2015: \"NCIS\" - Director, 2 episodes\n\nBULLET::::- 2015-2016: \"The Carmichael Show\" - Director, 2 episodes\n", "BULLET::::- TV series \"Mr. Lucky\" - episode 8: \"Little Miss Vow\" (1959) + episode 9: \"A Business Measure\" (1959) + episode 16: \" The Brain Picker\" (1960) + episode 23: \"His Maiden Voyage\" (1960)\n\nBULLET::::- TV series \"Hong Kong\" - episode 2: \"Murder Royal\" (1960) + episode 3 \"Pearl Flower\" (1960) + episode 11: \"Nine Lives\" (1960) + episode 13: \"When Strangers Meet\" (1960) + episode 15: \"Lesson in Fear\" (1961) + episode 16: \"The Survivor\" (1961)\n\nBULLET::::- TV series \"Combat!\" - season 1, episode 11: \"A Day in June\" (1962)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dime with a Halo\" (1963)\n", "+ season 2, episode 3: \"The Ultimate Computer Affair\" (1965)\n\n+ season 2, episode 10: \"The Cherry Blossom Affair\" (1965) \n\n+ season 2, episode 23: \"The Moonglow Affair\" (1966) \n\n+ season 2, episode 25: \"The King of Diamonds Affair\" (1966) \n\n+ season 3, episodes 11 & 12:\"The Concreate Overcoat Affair: Parts 1 & 2\" (1966)\n\nBULLET::::- \"One Spy Too Many\" (1966)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Spy in the Green Hat\" (1967)\n\nBULLET::::- Mario Tosi\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Marcus-Nelson Murders\" (1973, TV)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Friendly Persuasion\" (1975, TV)\n\nBULLET::::- \"MacArthur\" (1977)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coast to Coast\" (1980)\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Rosson\n", "BULLET::::- TV series \"Angel\" — season 3, episode 13: \"Waiting in the Wings\" + season 4, episode 6: \"Spin the Bottle\" (2002) + season 5, episode 1: \"Conviction\" (2003) + season 5, episode 15: \"A Hole in the World\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- TV series \"Dollhouse\" — unaired pilot: \"Echo\" + season 1, episode 1: \"Ghost\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- David Boyd\n\nBULLET::::- TV series \"Firefly\" — episode 1: \"Serenity\" + episode 2: \"The Train Job\" + episode 14: \"Objects in Space\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- TV series \"Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.\" — season 1, episode 1: \"Pilot\" (2013)\n\nBULLET::::- Seamus McGarvey\n", "Niles and Niles Creative Group were responsible for overall concept, complete content production, choice of technology, content delivery system design, fabrication & installation.\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 - OUE US Bank Tower, Los Angeles, CAbr\n\nNiles and Niles Creative Group were responsible for overall concept, complete content production, choice of technology, content delivery system design, fabrication and installation. (screen installation was done by AG Light & Sound). \n", "BULLET::::- \"The Front\" (season 4, episode 19, April 15, 1993)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cape Feare\" (season 5, episode 2, October 7, 1993)\n\nSection::::Television directing credits.:\"The Critic\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pilot\" (season 1, episode 1, January 26, 1994)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lady Hawke\" (season 2, episode 3, March 19, 1995)\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Can't Believe It's a Clip Show\" (season 2, episode 10, May 21, 1995)\n\nSection::::Television directing credits.:\"Futurama\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Space Pilot 3000\" (co-directed with Gregg Vanzo) (season 1, episode 1, March 28, 1999)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hell Is Other Robots\" (season 1, episode 9, May 18, 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- TV series \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\" - season 1, episode 1: \"Revenge\" (1955) + season 1, episode 7: \"Breakdown\" (1955) + season 1, episode 10: \"The Case of Mr. Pelham\" (1955) + season 1, episode 23:\"Back for Christmas\" (1956) + season 2, episode 2: \"Wet Christmas\" (1956) + season 2, episode 13: \"Mr. Blanchard's Secret\" (1956) + season 2, episode 28: \"One More Mile to Go\" (1957) + season 3, episode 3: \"The Perfect Crime\" (1957) + season 3, episode 28, \"Lamb to the Slaughter\" (1958) + season 3, episode 35: \"Dip in the Pool\" (1958) + season 4, episode 1: \"Poison\" (1958) + season 4, episode 29: \"Banquo's Chair\" (1959) + season 5, episode 1: \"Arthur\" (1959) + season 5, episode 2: \"The Crystal Touch\" (1959) + season 6, episode 1: \"Mrs. Bixby and the Colonel's Coat\" (1960) + season 6, episode 22: \"The Horse Player\" (1960) + season 7, episode 2: \"Bang! You're Dead\" (1961)\n", "Second unit director can be a stepping stone for aspiring directors to gain experience. Unlike an assistant director, who is second-in-command to the main director, a second unit director operates independently. Second unit directors who have gone on to become fully-fledged film directors include former editor John Glen (\"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\"), stunt coordinator David R. Ellis (\"Final Destination 2\"), and Frank Marshall, who directed second unit for Steven Spielberg whilst also working as producer, on \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\", \"Empire of the Sun\", and \"The Color Purple\". Some who became directors may return to working predominantly as second unit directors for the remainder of their career. Notable examples include Yakima Canutt (\"Ben-Hur\", 1959) and Michael D. Moore, who worked on more than sixty films, including \"Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid\" (1969), \"Patton\" (1970), and the first three Indiana Jones films in the 1980s.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Around the World with Willy Fog\" – Director, Script Adaptor\n\nBULLET::::- \"Attack of the Super Monsters\" – Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bob in a Bottle\" – Supervising Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Captain Harlock and the Queen of a Thousand Years\" – Dialogue Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dogtanian and the Three Muskehounds\" – Script Adaptor\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fist of the North Star\" – Dialogue Director, Casting Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics\" – Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hunt for the Sword Samurai\" – ADR Writer, ADR Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Littl' Bits\" – ADR Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Favorite Fairy Tales\" – Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Noozles\" – Supervising Director\n", "There were 11 directors through the season. Those who directed multiple episodes were series producer Don Scardino, Gail Mancuso, and Beth McCarthy. There were eight directors who each directed one episode throughout the season: Steve Buscemi, Todd Holland, Constantine Makris, John Riggi, Ken Whittingham, Tricia Brock, Millicent Shelton, and Scott Ellis. Series writers who penned episodes this season include Tina Fey, Robert Carlock, Jack Burditt, John Riggi, and Matt Hubbard.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Weitz\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Weitz\n\nBULLET::::- Orson Welles\n\nBULLET::::- Arthur Wellin\n\nBULLET::::- William Wellman\n\nBULLET::::- Wim Wenders\n\nBULLET::::- Alfred L. Werker\n\nBULLET::::- Lina Wertmüller\n\nBULLET::::- Roland West\n\nBULLET::::- Simon West\n\nBULLET::::- James Whale\n\nBULLET::::- Leopold Wharton\n\nBULLET::::- Joyce Wieland\n\nBULLET::::- Theodore Wharton\n\nBULLET::::- Joss Whedon\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Whelan\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Whorf\n\nBULLET::::- Kanchi Wichmann\n\nBULLET::::- Bernhard Wicki\n\nBULLET::::- Bo Widerberg\n\nBULLET::::- Virgil Widrich\n\nBULLET::::- Erin Wiedner\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Wiene\n\nBULLET::::- Crane Wilbur\n\nBULLET::::- Herbert Wilcox\n\nBULLET::::- Cornel Wilde\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Wilder\n\nBULLET::::- Gene Wilder\n\nBULLET::::- W. Lee Wilder\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon Wiles\n\nBULLET::::- Diane Wilkins\n\nBULLET::::- Irvin Willat\n", "Randall Einhorn is the most frequent director of the series, with 15 credited episodes. The series also had several guest directors, including \"Lost\" co-creator J.J. Abrams, \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" creator Joss Whedon, both of whom are fans of the series, and filmmakers Jon Favreau, Harold Ramis, Jason Reitman, and Marc Webb. Episodes have been directed by several of the actors on the show including Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, Ed Helms, and Brian Baumgartner.\n\nSection::::Production.:Development and writing.\n", "BULLET::::- TV series \"Peter Gunn\" - season 1, episode 18: \"The Missing Night Watchman\" (1959) + season 21: \"Scubba\" (1959) + season 1, episode 23: \"The Dirty Word\" (1959) + season 1, episode 25: \"The Lederer Story\" (1959) + season 1, episode 27: \"Breakout\" (1959) + season 1, episode 28: \"Pay Now, Kill Later\" (1959) + season 1, episode 30: \"February Girl\" (1959) + season 1, episode 38: \"The Portrait\" (1959) + season 2, episode 3: \"Edge of the Knife\" (1959) + season 2, episode 5: \"Death is a Red Rose\" (1959) + season 2, episode 6: \"The Young Assassins\" (1959) + season 2, episode 7: \"The Feathered Doll\" (1959) + season 2, episode 8: \"Kidnap\" (1959) + season 2, episode 10: \"The Game\" (1959) + season 2, episode 11: \"The Price is Murder\" (1959) + season 2, episode 26: \"The Murder Clause\" (1960) + season 2, episode 31: \"Witness in the Window\" (1960)\n", "There were eight directors through the season, two of which—series producer Scardino and Beth McCarthy-Miller—directed multiple episodes. There were six directors who each directed a single episode of the season: Riggi, Gail Mancuso, Ken Whittingham, Stephen Lee Davis, Millicent Shelton, and Richmond. Writers credited with episodes in the fourth season included Fey, Carlock, Riggi, Hubbard, Weiner, Dylan Morgan & Josh Siegal, Jon Haller & Tracey Wigfield, Burditt, and Pell.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n", "BULLET::::34. Frank Borzage (see no. 2 and no. 25) \"The Day I Met Caruso\" (September 5, 1956; written by Zoe Akins; story by Elizabeth Bacon Rodewald)\n\nBULLET::::35. Allan Dwan (see no. 15) \"High Air\" (September 12, 1956; written by A. I. Bezzerides; story by Borden Chase)\n\nSection::::Television.:Directors listed by number of \"Best Director\" Academy Award nominations.\n", "Mel Damski returned to the series to direct three episodes, while John Badham and Stephen Surjik returned to direct two each. Returning to direct one episode each were Steve Franks, John Landis, Eric Laneuville, and Tim Matheson. New directors for the season, directing one episode each, were Jay Chandrasekhar, Martha Coolidge, Michael McMurray, Steve Miner, and series star James Roday.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01463	Pressure=force/area. Stress formula tells us that σ=(Force or Pressure)/Area thus, don't these formula contradict each other?	Stress is force/area. Or N/m2. Same as pressure. You might have been confused because most of the times in the formula for stress, they use 'P' to denote the force. In this case P is not pressure.	[ "where P is the applied load, and Ao is the original cross-sectional area.\n\nIn some other cases, e.g., elastomers and plastic materials, the change in cross-sectional area is significant. For the case of materials where the volume is conserved (i.e. Poisson's ratio = 0.5), if the \"true stress\" is desired, it must be calculated using the true cross-sectional area instead of the initial cross-sectional area, as:\n\nwhere\n\nThe relationship between true strain and engineering strain is given by\n\nIn uniaxial tension, true stress is then greater than nominal stress. The converse holds in compression.\n", "This pressure is the average pressure in the volume formula_4. \n\nSection::::Volume averaged Definition.:Equivalent Definition.\n\nIt's worth noting that some articles and textbook use a slightly different but equivalent version of the equation\n\nwhere formula_17 is the \"i\" component of the vector oriented from the formula_3 atoms to the \"k\" calculated via the difference\n\nformula_19\n\nBoth equation being strictly equivalent, the definition of the vector can still lead to confusion.\n\nSection::::Inhomogeneous Systems.\n", "There may be small differences between the catalog, FEM and theoretical values calculated. Each method has advantages and disadvantages. Many catalog curves were derived from experimental data. FEM calculates the peak stresses directly and nominal stresses may be easily found by integrating stresses in the surrounding material. The result is that engineering judgment may have to be used when selecting which data applies to making a design decision. Many theoretical stress concentration factors have been derived for infinite or semi-infinite geometries which may not be analyzable and are not testable in a stress lab, but tackling a problem using two or more of these approaches will allow an engineer to achieve an accurate conclusion.\n", "From Nanson's formula relating areas in the reference and deformed configurations:\n\nNow, \n\nHence,\n\nor,\n\nor,\n\nIn index notation,\n\nTherefore,\n\nNote that formula_2 and formula_3 are (generally) not symmetric because formula_17 is (generally) not symmetric.\n\nSection::::Relations between stress measures.:Relations between nominal stress and second P-K stress.\n\nRecall that\n\nand\n\nTherefore,\n\nor (using the symmetry of formula_5),\n\nIn index notation,\n\nAlternatively, we can write\n\nSection::::Relations between stress measures.:Relations between Cauchy stress and second P-K stress.\n\nRecall that\n\nIn terms of the 2nd PK stress, we have\n\nTherefore,\n\nIn index notation,\n", "Consider the element shown in the adjacent figure. Assume that the thickness direction is \"x\". If the element has been extracted from a beam, the width and thickness are comparable in size. Let \"x\" be the width direction. Then \"x\" is the length direction.\n\nSection::::Stress resultants in beams.:Membrane and shear forces.\n\nThe resultant force vector due to the traction in the cross-section (\"A\") perpendicular to the \"x\" axis is\n\nwhere e, e, e are the unit vectors along \"x\", \"x\", and \"x\", respectively. We define the stress resultants such that\n", "The surface of the ellipsoid represents the locus of the endpoints of all stress vectors acting on all planes passing through a given point in the continuum body. In other words, the endpoints of all stress vectors at a given point in the continuum body lie on the stress ellipsoid surface, i.e., the radius-vector from the center of the ellipsoid, located at the material point in consideration, to a point on the surface of the ellipsoid is equal to the stress vector on some plane passing through the point. In two dimensions, the surface is represented by an ellipse (Figure coming).\n", "Such built-in stress may occur due to many physical causes, either during manufacture (in processes like extrusion, casting or cold working), or after the fact (for example because of uneven heating, or changes in moisture content or chemical composition). However, if the system can be assumed to behave in a linear fashion with respect to the loading and response of the system, then effect of preload can be accounted for by adding the results of a preloaded structure and the same non-preloaded structure.\n", "where \"σ\" is the total stress and \"u\" is the pore pressure. It is not practical to measure \"σ\"' directly, so in practice the vertical effective stress is calculated from the pore pressure and vertical total stress. The distinction between the terms pressure and stress is also important. By definition, pressure at a point is equal in all directions but stresses at a point can be different in different directions. In soil mechanics, compressive stresses and pressures are considered to be positive and tensile stresses are considered to be negative, which is different from the solid mechanics sign convention for stress.\n", "Consider the situation shown in the following figure. The following definitions use the notations shown in the figure. \n", "The external forces may be body forces (such as gravity or magnetic attraction), that act throughout the volume of a material; or concentrated loads (such as friction between an axle and a bearing, or the weight of a train wheel on a rail), that are imagined to act over a two-dimensional area, or along a line, or at single point. The same net external force will have a different effect on the local stress depending on whether it is concentrated or spread out.\n\nSection::::Scope.:Types of structures.\n", "In the reference configuration formula_7, the outward normal to a surface element formula_8 is formula_9 and the traction acting on that surface is formula_10 leading to a force vector formula_11. In the deformed configuration formula_12, the surface element changes to formula_13 with outward normal formula_14 and traction vector formula_15 leading to a force formula_16. Note that this surface can either be a hypothetical cut inside the body or an actual surface. The quantity formula_17 is the deformation gradient tensor, formula_18 is its determinant.\n\nSection::::Definitions of stress measures.:Cauchy stress.\n", "If the stress distribution can be assumed to be uniform (or predictable, or unimportant) in one direction, then one may use the assumption of plane stress and plane strain behavior and the equations that describe the stress field are then a function of two coordinates only, instead of three.\n", "where the asterisk represents the scaling factor for the quantity, formula_5 is the effective stress in the model and formula_6 is the effective stress in the prototype.\n\nIn soil mechanics the vertical effective stress, formula_7 for example, is typically calculated by\n\nwhere formula_9 is the total stress and formula_10 is the pore pressure. For a uniform layer with no pore pressure, the total vertical stress at a depth formula_11 may be calculated by:\n", "On the other hand, if all the three nodes on the side of an 8 node quadrilateral element are collapsed to one node (given the same node number) then the stress or strain varies as along any radial line emanating from crack tip. All the mid side nodes adjacent to the crack tip are at quarter point locations. From the displacement field solution the stress intensity factor \"K\" in a mode 1 case can be calculated as per the following relation:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere \"V\" and \"V\" are the displacement in the y direction behind the crack tip.\n", "Laboratory tests are usually performed on material samples in order to determine the yield and ultimate strengths of those materials. A statistical analysis of the strength of many samples of a material is performed to calculate the particular material strength of that material. The analysis allows for a rational method of defining the material strength and results in a value less than, for example, 99.99% of the values from samples tested. By that method, in a sense, a separate factor of safety has been applied over and above the design factor of safety applied to a particular design that uses said material.\n", "Stress analysis is a primary task for civil, mechanical and aerospace engineers involved in the design of structures of all sizes, such as tunnels, bridges and dams, aircraft and rocket bodies, mechanical parts, and even plastic cutlery and staples. Stress analysis is also used in the maintenance of such structures, and to investigate the causes of structural failures.\n", "\"Mohr's circle\", named after Christian Otto Mohr, is the locus of points that represent the state of stress on individual planes at all their orientations. The abscissa, formula_7, and ordinate, formula_8, of each point on the circle are the normal stress and shear stress components, respectively, acting on a particular cut plane with a unit vector formula_9 with components formula_10.\n\nSection::::Graphical representation of stress at a point.:Lame's stress ellipsoid.\n", "The nominal stress formula_24 is the transpose of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress (PK1 stress, also called engineering stress) formula_3 and is defined via\n\nor\n\nThis stress is unsymmetric and is a two-point tensor like the deformation gradient.br\n\nThe asymmetry derives from the fact that, as a tensor, it has one index attached to the reference configuration and one to the deformed configuration.\n\nSection::::Definitions of stress measures.:Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress.\n\nIf we pull back formula_16 to the reference configuration, we have\n\nor, \n\nThe PK2 stress (formula_5) is symmetric and is defined via the relation\n\nTherefore,\n\nSection::::Definitions of stress measures.:Biot stress.\n", "One may be able to determine a priori that, in some parts of the system, the stress will be of a certain type, such as uniaxial tension or compression, simple shear, isotropic compression or tension, torsion, bending, etc. In those parts, the stress field may then be represented by fewer than six numbers, and possibly just one.\n\nSection::::Mathematical methods.:Solving the equations.\n", "A linear element of a structure is one that is essentially one dimensional and is often subject to axial loading only. When a structural element is subjected to tension or compression its length will tend to elongate or shorten, and its cross-sectional area changes by an amount that depends on the Poisson's ratio of the material. In engineering applications, structural members experience small deformations and the reduction in cross-sectional area is very small and can be neglected, i.e., the cross-sectional area is assumed constant during deformation. For this case, the stress is called \"engineering stress\" or \"nominal stress\" and is calculated using the original cross section.\n", "The term stress analysis is used throughout this article for the sake of brevity, but it should be understood that the strains, and deflections of structures are of equal importance and in fact, an analysis of a structure may begin with the calculation of deflections or strains and end with calculation of the stresses.\n\nSection::::Scope.\n\nSection::::Scope.:General principles.\n\nStress analysis is specifically concerned with solid objects. The study of stresses in liquids and gases is the subject of fluid mechanics.\n", "where formula_16 is the slice index, formula_17 are the moment arms, and loads on the surface have been ignored. The moment equation can be used to solve for the shear forces at the interface after substituting the expression for the normal force:\n\nUsing Terzaghi's strength theory and converting the stresses into moments, we have\n\nwhere formula_20 is the pore pressure.\n\nThe factor of safety is the ratio of the maximum moment from Terzaghi's theory to the estimated moment,\n\nSection::::Limit equilibrium analysis.:Analytical techniques: Method of slices.:Modified Bishop’s Method of Analysis.\n", "Much like the concept of stress itself, the formula is a construct, for the easier visualization of forces acting on a soil mass, especially simple analysis models for slope stability, involving a slip plane. With these models, it is important to know the total weight of the soil above (including water), and the pore water pressure within the slip plane, assuming it is acting as a confined layer.\n\nHowever, the formula becomes confusing when considering the true behaviour of the soil particles under different measurable conditions, since none of the parameters are actually independent actors on the particles.\n", "Section::::Maxwell stress functions.\n\nThe Maxwell stress functions are defined by assuming that the Beltrami stress tensor formula_6 is restricted to be of the form.\n\nThe stress tensor which automatically obeys the equilibrium equation may now be written as:\n\nThe solution to the elastostatic problem now consists of finding the three stress functions which give a stress tensor which obeys the Beltrami–Michell compatibility equations for stress. Substituting the expressions for the stress into the Beltrami-Michell equations yields the expression of the elastostatic problem in terms of the stress functions:\n", "This can be thought of as follows. The τ component of stress is the force in the \"x\"-direction divided by the area of a plane perpendicular to that direction. Consider two adjacent volumes separated by such a plane. The 11-component of stress on that interface is the sum of all pairwise forces between atoms on the two sides.\n\nThe volume averaged virial stress is then the ensemble average of the instantaneous volume averaged virial stress.\n\nIn an isotropic system, at equilibrium the \"instantaneous\" atomic pressure is usually defined as\n\nThe pressure then is the ensemble average of the instantaneous pressure\n" ]	[ "P in the formula for stress stands for pressure. " ]	[ "P in the formula for stress stands for stress, not pressure. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "P in the formula for stress stands for pressure. ", "P in the formula for stress stands for pressure. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "P in the formula for stress stands for stress, not pressure. ", "P in the formula for stress stands for stress, not pressure. " ]
2018-18176	Why can fully cooked (crisp) bacon be safely left out at room temperature all day in restaurants?	Bacon is a cured food. It was designed to be preserved via salt curing. This salt content kills most bacteria and fungi and means that proper bacon is safe to store uncooked at room temperature for a significant period of time. (not safe to consume raw though). Cooked bacon has almost no water content left it it. Particularly if it is properly crisp. Any harmful things in it have been killed so we are looking at harmful things that can fall onto it. As such it can last for days at room temp without posing any real issue and does not have "the window" other cooked foods have.	[ "Section::::Bacon wrapped dishes.:Bacon Explosion.\n", "Research has also found that bacon is treated with a chemical called sodium nitrite. This chemical preserves the red colour of the meat, keeping it looking fresh as opposed to turning grey. However, this chemical has been thought to lead to a number of health risks, including being a carcinogen. On the other hand, sodium nitrite has also been found to prevent botulism by limiting bacterial growth.\n", "Bacon may be cured in several ways, and may be smoked or unsmoked; unsmoked bacon is known as \"green bacon\". Fried or grilled bacon rashers are included in the \"traditional\" full breakfast. Hot bacon sandwiches are a popular cafe dish in the UK and Ireland, and is anecdotally recommended as a hangover cure.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:United States.\n", "The Bacon Explosion is made of bacon, sausage, barbecue sauce and barbecue seasoning or rub. The bacon is assembled in a weave to hold the sausage, sauce and crumbled bacon. Once rolled, the Bacon Explosion is cooked, basted, cut and served. The Bacon Explosion's creators produced a cookbook featuring the recipes which ultimately won the 2010 Gourmand World Cookbook Awards for \"Best Barbecue Book in the World\". The Bacon Explosion also won at the 2013 Blue Ribbon Bacon Festival.\n\nSection::::History and origin.\n", "In the US and Europe, bacon is commonly used as a condiment or topping on other foods, often in the form of bacon bits. Streaky bacon is more commonly used as a topping in the US on such items as pizza, salads, sandwiches, hamburgers, baked potatoes, hot dogs, and soups. In the US, sliced smoked back bacon is used less frequently than the streaky variety, but can sometimes be found on pizza, salads, and omelettes.\n", "Section::::Recognition.\n", "Section::::Bacon-flavoured products.\n\nThe popularity of bacon in the United States has given rise to a number of commercial products that promise to add bacon flavouring without the labour involved in cooking it or the perceived negative qualities of bacon.\n\nSection::::Bacon-flavoured products.:Bacon bits.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nBacon has been gaining popularity over the past decade. An internet fad arose around bacon.\n\n\"Epic Meal Time\", a cooking show based on YouTube, features bacon in many of their episodes. In one episode entitled \"Bacon Tree\", \"Epic Meal Time\" creates a tree made out of bacon using over 2,000 strips of bacon. In another episode entitled \"Boss Bacon Burger\", over 400 strips of bacon are used to make a gigantic hamburger with bacon and other toppings.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Related articles\n\nBULLET::::- - Eastern European salt-cured fatback\n\nBULLET::::- Books\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::Modernisation.\n\nProduction methods moved from the traditional \"dry-curing\" process of rubbing salt, spices and sugar into the bacon to the less labour-intensive \"wet-curing\" process in which the bacon is left to soak in brine. Wet curing can also be used to increase the water content of the meat to add bulk and to add sodium nitrate and phosphates to shorten the process, which can then take as little as six hours compared to 2–3 days for dry curing.\n", "In 2015, Monogram Foods created a type of pre-cooked bacon, which uses a proprietary roasting technique developed during the creation of bacon jerky, to remove most of the oil for longer shelf life. This allowed the bacon to be only partially pre-cooked with the intention of the consumer completing the cooking process in a pan quickly and with less mess.\n", "The day before baking \"pīrāgi\", the cook usually spends one or two hours preparing any meat and onion that will be used. Bacon and other fatty meats (such as bacon or back bacon) do not chop well in a food processor and tend to get caught on the blade, so the cook must hand chop these into tiny cubes, about 1.5 millimetres (about 1/16 inches). This is sometimes made easier by freezing the meat for a few minutes. Other less fatty meats (such as beef) tend to turn into a paste in the food processor, so if the meat is not already ground, the cook grinds it using a hand or electric grinder.\n", "For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent trichinosis, caused by \"Trichinella\", a parasitic roundworm which can be destroyed by heating, freezing, drying, or smoking. Sodium polyphosphates, such as sodium triphosphate, may also be added to make the product easier to slice and to reduce spattering when the bacon is pan-fried.\n\nSection::::Cuts.\n\nVarieties differ depending on the primal cut from which they are prepared. Different cuts of pork are used for making bacon depending on local preferences.\n", "Sorted Food, a popular British cooking Youtube channel based in the England, have also featured bacon wrapped recipes on their channel, some of which have gone viral. Their video titled “Full Christmas Dinner Cookalong… SORTED!” featured two members of the channel Chef Ben Ebbrell and Jamie Spafford cooking what they called “Figs in Blankets”, which were figs wrapped in bacon and cooked under a grill with maple syrup. Another video titled “THE ULTIMATE BACON SANDWICH BATTLE”, featured Sorted Food member Barry Taylor cooking a “Bacon Weave Kimchi Grilled Cheese”. This is a grilled cheese stuffed with a kimchi cheese sauce and gochujang, wrapped in a bacon weave, a lattice pattern made of bacon popularised by the Youtube cooking channel Epic Meal Time.\n", "Section::::Events.\n\nIn and around Baltimore, Maryland, bacon has featured at various eating and drinking establishments. There is a \"clamoring\" for the bacon happy hour at Bad Decisions bar in Fells Point which includes a menu that is completely redone with bacon dishes and big bowls of bacon served on the bar (using up to 30 pounds of bacon in a two-hour period). A cafe in Hampden offers the Bacon Bulleit, a cocktail of bourbon, lemon, and maple syrup, \"with applewood smoked bacon replacing the swizzle stick.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Jowl bacon is cured and smoked cheeks of pork. Guanciale is an Italian jowl bacon that is seasoned and dry cured but not smoked.\n\nThe inclusion of skin with a cut of bacon, known as the 'bacon rind', varies, though is less common in the English-speaking world.\n\nSection::::Around the world.\n\nBacon is often served with eggs and sausages as part of a full breakfast.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Australia and New Zealand.\n", "The introduction contains a guide to \"the international world of bacon\", and Villas compares dishes Salt Pork and Pancetta; and Paprikaspeck and Bauchspeck. The introduction also includes a list of places to receive mail-order products. The book goes over the history of curing bacon, discussing the various international traditions. Smokehouses listed as resources in the book include Benton's in Tennessee, Newsom's in Kentucky, Edwards & Sons in Virginia, Nueske in Wisconsin, and Lazy H Smokehouse in Kirbyville, Texas. Villas instructs the reader in techniques of smoking bacon, how to buy and store it, and how to utilize bacon fat for cooking purposes.\n", "Perry explains her feelings about bacon in the book's introduction, observing that its smell while cooking helps start her day and provide her with a sense of calmness. The beginning of the book provides background on the phrase \"bringing home the bacon\", introduces the reader to types of bacon and describes storage methods. The book offers 70 recipes for bacon-flavored dishes, in nine chapters organized by topic, including breakfast, leaf vegetables, pasta meals, side dishes, party servings, desserts and appetizers. Recipes include a bacon sandwich using other ingredients, a bacon crunch topping for ice cream, a bacon concoction to top a fruit crisp, and a pie crust that incorporates bacon. Methods are offered for cooking bacon on a stovetop, in an oven and under a griller to maximize its flavor and appearance. The book is illustrated with photographs by Sheri Giblin.\n", "BULLET::::- Back bacon contains meat from the loin in the middle of the back of the pig. It is a leaner cut, with less fat compared to side bacon. Most bacon consumed in the United Kingdom and Ireland is back bacon.\n\nBULLET::::- Collar bacon is taken from the back of a pig near the head.\n\nBULLET::::- Cottage bacon is made from the lean meat from a boneless pork shoulder that is typically tied into an oval shape.\n", "Streaky bacon is used to make chocolate-covered bacon. It is first cooked, then immersed in melted chocolate; toppings (if any) are added, and the dish is allowed to cool. A variation is to dip the bacon in melted chocolate for a partial coating, leaving some of the bacon showing.\n\nA British variation is to wrap a cube of chocolate in uncooked bacon, and to cook the bacon parcel in the oven as normal. The result is a hot bacon package, with a sweet melted chocolate center.\n", "Turkey bacon can be cooked by pan-frying or deep-frying. Cured turkey bacon made from dark meat can be 90% fat free. It can be used in the same manner as bacon (such as in a BLT sandwich), but the low fat content of turkey bacon means it does not shrink while being cooked and has a tendency to stick to the pan, thus making deep-frying a faster and more practical option.\n\nSection::::Alternative to pork bacon.\n", "The \"San Francisco Weekly\" reported on the first \"BaconCamp\" held \"in solidarity with the growing popularity of events (see the recent Grilled Cheese Invitational)\" and reported that the event \"demonstrated just how much of a high bacon is currently on in terms of notoriety and how far people are able to stretch one culinary theme\". The event included lectures on bacon as art, a PowerPoint presentation of the Obacon project (a recreation of the famous Obama Hope poster), as well as judging and awards. The slide show from the event includes a wide range of innovative food and decorative bacon entities. The \"San Francisco Weekly\" advised those attending to live, breathe, and smell like it and to bring a bacon dish.\n", "Section::::Impact.\n", "Preparing a Bacon Explosion \"requires the minimum of culinary talent\" and the ingredient list is short. It is made from of thick cut bacon, 2 pounds of Italian sausage, one jar of barbecue sauce, and one jar of barbecue rub/seasoning. The Bacon Explosion is constructed by weaving the bacon together to serve as a base. The base is seasoned and followed by the layering of sausage meat and crumbled bacon. Barbecue sauce and more seasoning is added before rolling it into a giant \"sausage-shaped monster\" inside aluminum foil. It takes about an hour per inch of thickness to cook and is then basted with more barbecue sauce, sliced into rounds, and served. A prepared Bacon Explosion contains at least and of fat, though a smaller portion contains and of fat.\n", "Chapters are structured according to each type of recipe, including main course, soup, and breads. 168 recipes from the United States and globally are included in the book. The author notes that bacon is not as bad nutritionally as had previously been thought. He compares the nutritional characteristics of two slices of cooked bacon to one pork hot dog, noting that the bacon contains approximately \"73 calories, 202 milligrams of sodium, 6 grams of fat and 11 milligrams of cholesterol\", while the hot dog has \"182 calories, 638 milligrams of sodium, 17 grams of fat and 29 milligrams of cholesterol\". \"If health concerns sometimes make you feel guilty about loving bacon ... relax ...yes, it’s high in sodium and fat, but if eaten in moderation or used as a flavoring agent ... it is a guilt free indulgence,\" writes Villas. Breakfast dishes include French Cheese and Bacon souffle, and Bacon Scrapple. A recipe for BLT sandwich is included in the section on sandwiches, but the majority of Villas's other sandwich recipes are more extreme, and include ingredients such as Jamaican smoked fish. Dishes that contain vegetables include Lima Bean and Bacon Casserole; and Spanish Chicken, Bacon, Meatball and Chickpea Stew. For dessert, Villas includes six recipes such as bacon-wrapped figs, and Bacon and Peanut Butter Chocolate Truffles, and Portuguese Egg and Bacon Pudding.\n", "Section::::Death.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04219	why do devices perform poorly when they're working with an unstable internet connection?	TL;DR: Devices, particularly ones with badly designed programs, are often doing multiple things that require a single communication request with your network to be fully answered before they can finish, and when that doesn't happen due to a bad connection it can clog things up. - - - Imagine you need to have a long complex conversation with someone with a very serious stutter and is very nervous. The matter is important but you have nothing to write stuff down, so you're limited to asking and answering questions verbally. So you ask your question and, try as they might, they try to answer it, but a combination of their speech challenges and the complexity makes it really difficult to get all the answers, and their anxiety makes it worse. Eventually the communication may become so frustrating at some point that things start getting forgotten or it just gets stuck. The more patience you both have, the better it goes, but even then things can jam up and you're both left hanging. And the more things you have to talk about, the worse it gets. Well, that's kind of how a bad internet connection can work. Internet connections are designed to compensate for such burps and fits and starts. The data that's transferred between your local device, you home's internet router, the equipment and communications lines out there in the internet, and your destination all send information with error-checking and error-correcting stuff built right into them. But that isn't perfect, and the more time the programs on your local device spend error-checking, the less time they spend actually trading information. In some cases, particularly with badly designed programs or ones that rely on other programs, it can be so bad that an unexpected condition can happen and it just plugs up the local device. Sometimes this is because one thing that it's trying to do ends up blocking another thing it's trying to do, and sometimes it's because something completely unpredictable "breaks" the program that's trying to handle the communication. So that program "freezes" and leaves one of those conversations hanging... while preventing all of the others from finishing too. And then you curse and take the battery out or reboot the router.	[ "Sometimes, circuit tolerances can make erratic behaviour difficult to trace; for example, a weak driver transistor, a higher series resistance and the capacitance of the gate of the subsequent transistor may be within tolerance but can significantly increase signal propagation delay. These can manifest only at specific environmental conditions, high clock speeds, low power supply voltages, and sometimes specific circuit signal states; significant variations can occur on a single die. Overstress-induced damage like ohmic shunts or a reduced transistor output current can increase such delays, leading to erratic behavior. As propagation delays depend heavily on supply voltage, tolerance-bound fluctuations of the latter can trigger such behavior.\n", "Within the vast cyber-ecosystem, these end nodes often attach transiently to one or more clouds/networks, some trustworthy and others not. A few examples: a corporate desktop browsing the Internet, a corporate laptop checking company webmail via a coffee shop's open Wi-Fi access point, a personal computer used to telecommute during the day and gaming at night, or app within a smartphone/tablet (or any of the previous use/device combinations). Even if fully updated and tightly locked down, these nodes may ferry malware from one network (e.g. a corrupted webpage or an infected email message) into another, sensitive network. Likewise, the end nodes may exfiltrate sensitive data (e.g. log keystrokes or screen-capture). Assuming the device is fully trustworthy, the end node must provide the means to properly authenticate the user. Other nodes may impersonate trusted computers, thus requiring device authentication. The device and user may be trusted but within an untrustworthy environment (as determined by inboard sensors' feedback). Collectively, these risks are called the end node problem. There are several remedies but all require instilling trust in the end node and conveying that trust to the network/cloud.\n", "The Link 22 system is designed to be resilient. If faults occur, it manages them and attempts to continue operating. A unit participating on multiple NILE networks can have a failure on one network while continuing to operate on the other networks. A unit is able to handle the closure or shutdown of a network and the restart of the network after the hardware has been reset, without affecting the other networks.\n", "predict which nodes are most vulnerable are the subject of past and current research in the area of soft errors.\n\nSection::::Designing around soft errors.:Detecting soft errors.\n\nThere has been work addressing soft errors in processor and memory resources using both hardware and software techniques. Several research efforts addressed soft errors by proposing error detection and recovery via hardware-based redundant multi-threading.\n", "The current-hogging effect can be reduced by carefully matching the characteristics of each paralleled device, or by using other design techniques to balance the electrical load. However, maintaining load balance under extreme conditions may not be straightforward. Devices with an intrinsic positive temperature coefficient (PTC) of electrical resistance are less prone to current hogging, but thermal runaway can still occur because of poor heat sinking or other problems.\n", "Devices can sometimes recover from medium errors, either by retrying or by managing to reconcile the data with the checksum. If the medium has incurred permanent damage, the device might remap the logical address where the error occurred to a different, undamaged physical location.\n\nMedium errors are often associated with long latency for the IOs. This is due to the device retrying and attempting to recover from the error.\n\nSection::::Examples of conditions that might cause medium errors.\n\nBULLET::::- The head executed a Read request while being improperly aligned, causing it to read data from a wrong physical position.\n", "Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a subclass of electrical overstress and may cause immediate device failure, permanent parameter shifts and latent damage causing increased degradation rate. It has at least one of three components, localized heat generation, high current density and high electric field gradient; prolonged presence of currents of several amperes transfer energy to the device structure to cause damage. ESD in real circuits causes a damped wave with rapidly alternating polarity, the junctions stressed in the same manner; it has four basic mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Oxide breakdown occurring at field strengths above 6–10 MV/cm.\n", "BULLET::::- More subtle forms of brittleness commonly occur in artificial intelligence systems. These systems often rely on significant assumptions about the input data. When these assumptions aren't met – and, because they may not be stated, this may easily be the case – then the system will respond in completely unpredictable ways.\n", "In hard and firm real-time systems the data has to be delivered within a deadline, i.e. data that is delivered late is valueless. In hard real-time systems all data must be delivered within its deadline or it is considered a system failure. In firm real-time systems, late data is still valueless but the system can tolerate some amount of late or missing data.\n", "Section::::Semiconductor failures.:Electrical overstress.\n\nMost stress-related semiconductor failures are electrothermal in nature microscopically; locally increased temperatures can lead to immediate failure by melting or vaporising metallisation layers, melting the semiconductor or by changing structures. Diffusion and electromigration tend to be accelerated by high temperatures, shortening the lifetime of the device; damage to junctions not leading to immediate failure may manifest as altered current-voltage characteristics of the junctions. Electrical overstress failures can be classified as thermally-induced, electromigration-related and electric field-related failures; examples of such failures include:\n", "Also, related systems are affected in this case. As an example, DNS resolution might fail and what would normally cause systems to be interconnected, might break connections that are not even directly involved in the actual systems that went down. This, in turn, may cause seemingly unrelated nodes to develop problems, that can cause another cascade failure all on its own.\n", "If you have a DS3 running from New York to Atlanta, and there's a problem within one of the central offices in Virginia. The errors are being generated by a device in the central office, and being detected by the terminating device (a NID, M13 Mux or router). The terminating device then sends the 'FEBE' error signal outbound to alert further devices there were problems.\n", "The input ports of CMOS oscillators have high impedances, and are thus very susceptible to transient disturbances. According to Ohm's law, high impedance causes high voltage differences. They also are very sensitive to short circuit from moisture or dust.\n", "To handle larger currents, circuit designers may connect multiple lower-capacity devices (e.g. transistors, diodes, or MOVs) in parallel. This technique can work well, but is susceptible to a phenomenon called current hogging, in which the current is not shared equally across all devices. Typically, one device may have a slightly lower resistance, and thus draws more current, heating it more than its sibling devices, causing its resistance to drop further. The electrical load ends up funneling into a single device, which then rapidly fails. Thus, an array of devices may end up no more robust than its weakest component.\n", "As a first step, the patterns generated by these 4 parameters provide a good indication on where the bottleneck lies. To determine the exact root cause of the issue, software engineers use tools such as profilers to measure what parts of a device or software contribute most to the poor performance, or to establish throughput levels (and thresholds) for maintained acceptable response time.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Data corruption during transmission has a variety of causes. Interruption of data transmission causes information loss. Environmental conditions can interfere with data transmission, especially when dealing with wireless transmission methods. Heavy clouds can block satellite transmissions. Wireless networks are susceptible to interference from devices such as microwave ovens.\n\nHardware and software failure are the two main causes for data loss. Background radiation, head crashes, and aging or wear of the storage device fall into the former category, while software failure typically occurs due to bugs in the code.\n\nCosmic rays cause most soft errors in DRAM.\n\nSection::::Silent.\n", "BULLET::::- Failover occurs automatically: When a link fails and there is (for example) a media converter between the devices, a peer system will not perceive any connectivity problems. With static link aggregation, the peer would continue sending traffic down the link causing the connection to fail.\n\nBULLET::::- Dynamic configuration: The device can confirm that the configuration at the other end can handle link aggregation. With Static link aggregation, a cabling or configuration mistake could go undetected and cause undesirable network behavior.\n\nSection::::IEEE link aggregation.:Link Aggregation Control Protocol.:Practical notes.\n", "BULLET::::- The design may work, but only at speeds slower than planned\n\nBULLET::::- Yield may be lowered, sometimes drastically\n\nThe cost of these failures is very high, and includes photomask costs, engineering costs and\n\nopportunity cost due to delayed product introduction. Therefore, electronic design automation (EDA) tools have been developed to analyze, prevent, and correct these problems.\n\nIn integrated circuits, or ICs, the main cause of signal integrity problems is crosstalk.\n", "Common causes include: misconfigured or faulty hardware, faulty device drivers, flaws in the operating system, or metastability in one or more components. The latter condition rarely occurs outside of prototype or amateur-built hardware.\n\nMost modern hardware and operating systems have methods for mitigating the effect of an interrupt storm. For example, most Ethernet controllers implement interrupt \"rate limiting\", which causes the controller to wait a programmable amount of time between each interrupt it generates. When not present within the device, similar functionality is usually written into the device driver, and/or the operating system itself. \n", "The ITU-T Y.156sam is built around two key subtests, the service configuration test and the service performance test, which are performed in order:\n\nSection::::Subtests.:Service configuration test.\n\nForwarding devices such as switches, routers, bridges and network interface units are the basis of any network as they interconnect segments. If a service is not correctly configured on any one of these devices within the end-to-end path, network performance can be greatly affected, leading to potential service outages and network-wide issues such as congestion and link failures.\n", "Such performance characteristics exist with both time and data integrity. Time, both in terms of delay of mission and communications latency, and data, in terms of corruption or modification, are normalizing factors. In general, the idea is to base the metric on “what is expected” and not necessarily the actual initiator to the degradation. Considering time as a metrics basis, resilient and un-resilient systems can be observed in Fig. 2.\n", "BULLET::::- Wiring issues: the wires to the cell may develop high resistance, e.g. due to corrosion. Alternatively, parallel current paths can be formed by ingress of moisture. In both cases the signal develops offset (unless all wires are affected equally) and accuracy is lost.\n", "Vias are a common source of unwanted serial resistance on chips; defective vias show unacceptably high resistance and therefore increase propagation delays. As their resistivity drops with increasing temperature, degradation of the maximum operating frequency of the chip the other way is an indicator of such a fault. \"Mousebites\" are regions where metallization has a decreased width; such defects usually do not show during electrical testing but present a major reliability risk. Increased current density in the mousebite can aggravate electromigration problems; a large degree of voiding is needed to create a temperature-sensitive propagation delay.\n", "All error conditions in the network must be detected and compensated by the participating end nodes. The upper layer protocols of the Internet protocol suite are responsible for resolving reliability issues. For example, a host may buffer network data to ensure correct ordering before the data is delivered to an application.\n", "Fault tolerance is built into VOS from the bottom up. On a hardware level, major devices are run in lockstepped duplex mode, meaning that there are two identical devices performing the same action at the same time. (In addition, each device, or board, is also duplexed in order to identify internal board failures at a hardware level, which is why Stratus hardware can be defined as \"lock stepped\".) These boards are actively monitored by the operating system which can correct any minor inconsistencies (such as bad disk-writes or reads). Any boards which report an unacceptable number of faults are removed from service by the system; the duplexed board will continue operation until the problem is resolved via a hot-fix. This includes CPUs, disk drives, and any other device that can logically be duplexed (which by definition, excludes communications devices). The system will continue processing as normal and will automatically raise a fault ticket with Stratus Customer Service via RSN (the Remote Service Network). Stratus Customer Service will then dial into the system using RSN to investigate the problem and dispatch replacement parts.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14077	How/Why does loud or prolonged screaming hurt your vocal chords?	Yelling/screaming causes a temporary strain and localized irritation to the vocal cords. It's recommended to rest your voice, drink lots of water, stay well hydrated and try to avoid a repeat insult (like yelling) until all symptoms such as hoarseness and throat pain resolve. But repeat offences can lead to persistent irritation and can cause more chronic, permanent damage. By not allowing the vocal cords to recover properly, serious changes such as vocal cord nodules and polyps can develop. Nodules and polyps are growths on the vocal cords caused by vocal abuse. Nodules are small and callous-like, while polyps are similar to a blister. Both cause the voice to be hoarse, low and breathy and may require surgery. If someone remains hoarse beyond a reasonable period of time, such as one week, he or she should consult an otolaryngologist, also known as an ear, nose and throat (ENT) physician, for further evaluation and treatment.	[ "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nThe following increase an individual's chances for acquiring VCD:\n\nBULLET::::- Upper airway inflammation (allergic or non-allergic rhinitis, chronic sinusitis, recurrent upper respiratory infections)\n\nBULLET::::- Gastroesophageal reflux disease\n\nBULLET::::- Past traumatic event that involved breathing (e.g. near-drowning, suffocation)\n\nBULLET::::- Severe emotional trauma or distress\n\nBULLET::::- Female gender\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a wind instrument\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a competitive or elite sport\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- \"air humidity\" - dry air is thought to increase the stress experienced in the vocal folds, however, this has not been proven\n\nBULLET::::- \"hydration\" - dehydration may increase effects of stress inflicted on the vocal folds\n\nBULLET::::- \"background noise\" - people tend to speak louder when background noise is present, even when it isn't necessary. Increasing speaking volume increases stress inflicted on the vocal folds\n\nBULLET::::- \"pitch\" - Using a higher or lower pitch than normal will also increase laryngeal stress.\n", "Section::::Health concerns.\n\nSome vocalists who have employed musical screaming have had problems with their throats, voices, vocal cords, and have even experienced major migraines from screaming incorrectly. Some vocalists of metal bands have had to stop screaming, making music altogether, or even undergo surgery due to screaming in harmful ways that damage the vocal cords. One example is Sonny Moore, formerly of the band From First to Last, who had to leave the band as vocalist due to the damage it was causing to his vocal cords, which required surgery to repair.\n", "BULLET::::- Vocal abuse: Vocal abuse is the misuse or overuse of the voice in an unhealthy fashion such as clearing the throat, yelling, screaming, talking loudly, or singing incorrectly.\n\nBULLET::::- Clearing the throat: Clearing the throat removes or loosens phlegm but the vocal cords hit together causing inflammation and therefore more phlegm.\n\nBULLET::::- Yelling/screaming: Yelling and screaming both cause the vocal cords to hit against each other causing inflammation and phlegm.\n\nBULLET::::- Nodules: Excessive yelling, screaming, and incorrect singing as well as other vocal abusive habits can cause vocal nodules. See vocal fold nodule for more information on nodules.\n", "A key aspect of preventing vocal fold cysts is good vocal hygiene. Good vocal hygiene promotes the healthy use of the vocal apparatus and the avoidance of phonotrauma. Good vocal hygiene practices involve the avoidance of:\n\nBULLET::::- Shouting\n\nBULLET::::- Whispering loudly or for long periods of time\n\nBULLET::::- Large quantities of talking over loud background noise\n\nBULLET::::- Talking while yawning\n\nBULLET::::- Continual clearing of the throat\n\nBULLET::::- Speaking in an unnatural voice (i.e. too high or low)\n\nBULLET::::- Talking with a cold or laryngitis\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking tobacco or marijuana\n\nBULLET::::- The consumption of alcohol and coffee\n", "Sometimes I Feel Like Screaming\n\n\"Sometimes I Feel Like Screaming\" is a song on \"Purpendicular\", Deep Purple's first studio album featuring guitarist Steve Morse, which was released in February 1996. The song was released as a CD singles with the song \"\".\n\nThis song is considered one of the best tracks recorded by Deep Purple after their reunion in 1984 and it is played frequently in the band's live performances.\n", "\"As a vocalist, screaming always came really easy for me — it wasn't much of a challenge, it just came out of me. The singing vocals were always more challenging. People always complimented me on my scream, but I didn't get a lot of feedback on my singing, so I just wanted to challenge myself a lot more on this record.\"\n\nSection::::Background.:Concept.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Reinke’s edema.\n\nA voice pathology called Reinke’s edema, swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid, occurs in the superficial lamina propria or Reinke’s space. This causes the vocal fold mucosa to appear floppy with excessive movement of the cover that has been described as looking like a loose sock. The greater mass of the vocal folds due to increased fluid lowers the fundamental frequency (\"f\") during phonation.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Wound healing.\n", "However, numerous studies have been conducted on its incidence and prevalence among patients presenting with asthma and exertional dyspnea. A VCD incidence rate of 2% has been reported among patients whose primary complaint was either asthma or dyspnea; the same incidence rate has also been reported among patients with acute asthma exacerbation. Meanwhile, much higher VCD incidence rates have also been reported in asthmatic populations, ranging from 14% in children with refractory asthma to 40% in adults with the same complaint. It has also been reported that the VCD incidence rate is as high as 27% in non-asthmatic teenagers and young adults.\n", "People with vocal cord dysfunction often complain of \"difficulty in breathing in” or “fighting for breath”, which can lead to subjective respiratory distress, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. They may report tightness in the throat or chest, choking, stridor on inhalation and wheezing, which can resemble the symptoms of asthma. These episodes of dyspnea can be recurrent and symptoms can range from mild to severe and prolonged in some cases. Agitation and a sense of panic are not uncommon and can result in hospitalization.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Potential comorbidities.\n", "BULLET::::- \"voice quality\" - Using a vocal quality which differs from that habitually used is thought to increase laryngeal stress.\n\nIn addition, smoking and other types of air pollution might have a negative effect on voice production organs.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- \"sac-like\" appearance of the vocal folds\n\nBULLET::::- Hoarseness and deepening of the voice\n\nBULLET::::- Trouble speaking (Dysphonia)\n\nBULLET::::- Reduced vocal range with diminished upper limits\n\nBULLET::::- Stretching of the mucosa (Distension)\n\nBULLET::::- Shortness of breath (Dyspnoea)\n", "BULLET::::- spirometry: A change in the measure following the administration of a bronchodilator is suggestive of asthma rather than VCD\n\nBULLET::::- chest radiography: The presence of hyperinflation and peribronchial thickening are indicative of asthma, as patients with VCD will show normal results.\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n\nOnce a diagnosis of VCD has been confirmed by a medical professional, a specific treatment plan can be implemented. If vocal cord dysfunction is secondary to an underlying condition, such as asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), or postnasal drip, it is important to treat the primary condition as this will help control VCD symptoms.\n", "In the 1950s, one principal screamer was Little Richard, beginning with his \"Tutti Frutti\" (1955).\"Love Me\" was a screamer in parts for Elvis as well as \"Any way You Want Me\" just to name two from '56. And even earlier in '55 at Sun on numerous cuts like \"Trying to get To You\" Elvis used his scream. Elvis Presley also screamed some of the lyrics to \"Jailhouse Rock\" in its original 1957 recording, although recordings of live performances of the song in Presley's later career featured him strictly singing the words, probably due to him moving toward more mature songs.\n", "Many of the symptoms are not limited to the disorder, as they may resemble a number of conditions that affect the upper and lower airway. Such conditions include asthma, angioedema, vocal cord tumors, and vocal cord paralysis.\n", "BULLET::::- The use of antihistamines, aspirin, steroids, tricyclic antidepressants, or any substance that alters perception (i.e. sleeping pills)\n\nBULLET::::- Foul air\n\nIn addition, good vocal hygiene involves getting enough rest and drinking lots of water. It is important to keep the vocal fold tissue healthy and hydrated, and when possible to limit the quantity of speaking in order to avoid damage.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Other composers have employed screaming in avant garde works in the twentieth century, typically in the post-World War II era, as composers began to explore more experimental compositional techniques and nonstandard use of musical instruments (including the voice). Composers who have used shouting or screaming in their works include Luciano Berio, George Crumb, Gyorgy Ligeti, Charles Mingus, Meredith Monk and Karlheinz Stockhausen. The use of hoarse vocals in choral and orchestral works continues today in some productions such as film scores; mainstream examples include some works by Don Davis and Wojciech Kilar.\n", "Marina Abramovic used scream as an element in different performances: together with Ulay in \"AAA AAA\", the two are facing each other and are gradually screaming louder and louder while getting closer and closer to each other's face, until they both lose their voice; \"Freeing the voice\", where Abramovic is staying with her head upside down and screaming till she is left with no voice anymore.\n\nSection::::Other aspects.\n\nSection::::Other aspects.:Dialogue.\n\nSome people, when arguing begin to raise their voices to the point that they are screaming at each other in anger while continuing their debate exchange. Terminology includes \"shouting match\".\n", "By the 1960s, the first take of John Lennon's recording of \"Twist and Shout\" for \"Please Please Me\" was the only take, since Lennon's voice was torn up, partly by the screams that peppered the song. Lennon, inspired by Arthur Janov's Primal Scream therapy, screamed in his later songs \"Mother\" and \"Well Well Well\" on \"John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band\".\n\nSection::::Genres.:Heavy metal.\n", "Secondly, an increase in the hoarseness and strain of a voice can often be heard. Unfortunately, both properties are difficult to measure objectively, and only perceptual evaluations can be performed.\n\nSection::::Voice care.\n", "In music there are long traditions of scream in rock, punk rock, heavy metal, rock and roll and emo music. Vocalists are developing various techniques of screaming that results in different ways of screaming. In rock and metal music singers are developing very demanding guttural and growled sounds.\n", "Vocal fold cysts cause the properties of the vocal folds to change. When a cyst is present on a vocal fold, the cover of the vocal fold becomes more stiff and increases in mass. The increased mass and stiffness tends to result in hyperkinetic muscular movement during phonation. Hyperkinetic movement is characterized by increased rigidity in the affected vocal fold(s). This hyperkinetic movement results in the voice being perceived as hoarse. (see Signs and Symptoms) Specifically, the presence of a vocal fold cyst leads to an asynchronous mucosal wave of the vocal folds during phonation.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Medication and surgery.\n\nMedical and surgical treatments have been recommended to treat organic dysphonias. An effective treatment for spasmodic dysphonia (hoarseness resulting from periodic breaks in phonation due to hyperadduction of the vocal folds) is botulinum toxin injection. The toxin acts by blocking acetylcholine release at the thyro-arytenoid muscle. Although the use of botlinum toxin injections is considered relatively safe, patients' responses to treatment differ in the initial stages; some have reported experiencing swallowing problems and breathy voice quality as a side-effect to the injections. Breathiness may last for a longer period of time for males than females.\n", "The title of the album was in part inspired by the film \"The Swimmer\" starring Burt Lancaster in which main character Neddy Merrill intended to swim home, using open air pools. Climbing over garden fence, from pool to pool, his journey put him into a state of mental and physical exhaustion, and in the end, Goddard said, \"all Neddy Merril could think to do was scream, [...] as a scream of exhausted jubilance after a troubled, arduous journey\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04443	Why does putting a slice of bread in a jar of cookies make them soft.	Doesn't really make them soft but keeps them from drying out and going hard. it's all down to the moisture in the bread and the jar being a sort of closed environment, when you put the bread in the jar with the cookies the moisture is drawn out of the bread rather than the cookies	[ "When rolling fondant, a silicone mat or parchment will eliminate the need for dusting the rolling surface with powdered sugar, and this will make it easier to lift and transfer the cut pieces to the cookies.\n", "A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called \"batter\") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles – responsible for a cake's fluffiness – to better form. In the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether they be in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven.\n", "Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, but some kinds of cookies are not baked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"creaming method\" is frequently used for cake batters. The butter and sugar are \"creamed\", or beaten together until smooth and fluffy. Eggs and liquid flavoring are mixed in, and finally dry and liquid ingredients are added in. The creaming method combines rise gained from air bubbles in the creamed butter with the rise from the chemical leaveners. Gentle folding in of the final ingredients avoids destroying these air pockets.\n", "Section::::Application.\n\nSimplesse is used in ice cream, yogurt, cheese spread, salad dressings, margarine, mayonnaise, coffee creamer, soups, and sauces.\n", "Oils in baked cakes do not behave as soda tends to in the finished result. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gases from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The browning is caused by caramelization of sugars and the Maillard reaction. Maillard browning occurs when \"sugars break down in the presence of proteins. Because foods contain many different types of sugars and proteins, Maillard browning contributes to the flavour of a wide range of foods, including nuts, roast beef and baked bread.\" The moisture is never entirely \"sealed in\"; over time, an item being baked will become dry. This is often an advantage, especially in situations where drying is the desired outcome, like drying herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.\n", "Using a whisk on certain liquids, notably cream or egg whites, can also create foams through mechanical action. This is the method employed in the making of sponge cakes, where an egg protein matrix produced by vigorous whipping provides almost all the structure of the finished product.\n", "BULLET::::- \"vaníliás kifli\" is a small soft cookie made from a dough of ground nuts, instead of flour. It is usually made with walnuts but almonds are more often used outside of Hungary. Once baked they are rolled in vanilla flavored confectioners' sugar before allowed to cool.\n", "Mix water and sugar and let them boil while mixing continuously. Next, add saffron and stop heating the syrup. Mix the syrup in a way that it loses the glass-like appearance. Add almond powder little by little to the syrup while mixing it. Stop adding the powder once the mixture forms a paste similar to a viscous pulp that doesn't stick. Unfold waxed paper into baking tray and evenly pour the pulp, then sprinkle nuts on the surface of the Lovz and push them down. Refrigerate for about three to four hours. Then, cut the Lovz cookies in diamond shapes.\n", "Poured fondant is formed by supersaturating water with sucrose. More than twice as much sugar dissolves in water at the boiling point as at room temperature. After the sucrose dissolves, if the solution is left to cool undisturbed, the sugar remains dissolved in a supersaturated solution until nucleation occurs. While the solution is supersaturated, if a cook puts a seed crystal (undissolved sucrose) into the mix, or agitates the solution, the dissolved sucrose crystallizes to form large, crunchy crystals (which is how rock candy is made). However, if the cook lets the solution cool undisturbed and then stirs it vigorously, it forms many tiny crystals, resulting in a smooth-textured fondant.\n", "Traditionally, a mixture of sugar and water is heated to the hard crack stage corresponding to a temperature of approximately , although some recipes also call for ingredients such as corn syrup and salt in the first step. Nuts are mixed with the caramelized sugar. At this point spices, leavening agents, and often peanut butter or butter are added. The hot candy is poured out onto a flat surface for cooling, traditionally a granite or marble slab. The hot candy may be troweled to uniform thickness. When the brittle cools, it is broken into pieces.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Almond Roca\n", "To decorate a cookie with glaze, an outline is piped just inside the edge of the cookie. Then the design is filled by piping a line of glaze back and forth across the cookie, while staying within the boundaries of the outline.\n\nThe glaze must be applied quickly because royal icing crusts quickly, but it needs to be moist enough for the piped lines to melt into each, so that the design is smooth.\n", "For example, to create a lace heart, a patch of white fondant is rolled out first on a silicone mat. Then an embossed fondant roller is slowly rolled across the surface of the fondant. A heart shaped cookie cutter is used to cut out the fondant hearts. The heart shaped fondant is then peeled off the silicone mat carefully so as not to mar the embossed design. Next, the fondant is trimmed and placed on top of the cookie. Finally the fondant-covered cookie may be brushed with a light dusting of pearl luster dust.\n", "Blanched almonds are fried in oil, then crushed finely and mixed with powdered sugar and cinnamon. In a round baking pan several pieces of the thin werga or filo dough are layered, each brushed with melted butter, and overhanging the edge of the pan. The cook adds the egg mixture, places another buttered sheet of dough over it, adds the shredded meat, also covered with a sheet of dough, and then the almond mixture is added. The overlapping pieces of dough are folded over the filling, and another 2 pieces of buttered dough are added and tucked in around the edges of the pie. The pie is baked until heated through, and the layers of dough are brown. Powdered sugar and cinnamon are sprinkled over the top before serving hot.\n", "Almost 100 years passed before the first mention was made of the next step in the evolution of kürtőskalács, the appearance of a caramelized sugar glaze, in \"Aunt Rézi’s Cookbook\" written by Terézia Dolecskó in 1876, published in Szeged, Hungary. The recipe suggests \"sprinkling sugar (sugar almond) on dough on spit a priory to baking\". Due to the heat, the sugar is caramelized and also enters in what is known as Maillard reaction. The sugar glaze that melts to become caramel forms a continuous coat, also adds to firmness of cake. Shortly afterwards, pure sugar (not almond sugar) was applied to the dough's surface before baking, even with the omission of sweetening subsequent to baking. Ágnes Zilahi’s cookbook entitled \"Valódi Magyar szakácskönyv\" (The Real Hungarian Cookbook), which appeared in Budapest in 1892, presents such a recipe.\n", "Fondant covered cookies, just like plain or icing covered cookies, lend themselves well to embellishments such as silver dragees and other shiny decorations. Tweezers can be a great help in positioning the tiny ornaments.\n\nSection::::Decorating the fondant.\n\nAn impression mat can be used with fondant to add design and/or texture. First the fondant is rolled out and then the mat is placed face down on the fondant. Finally, by gently but firmly going over the mat with the rolling pin, the impression is made in the fondant. Then the shapes are cut out.\n", "Icing (food)\n\nIcing, or frosting, is a sweet, often creamy glaze made of sugar with a liquid, such as water or milk, that is often enriched with ingredients like butter, egg whites, cream cheese, or flavorings. It is used to cover or decorate baked goods, such as cakes or cookies. When it is used between layers of cake, it is called filling.\n", "Creaming, in this sense, is the technique of softening solid fat, like shortening or butter, into a smooth mass and then blending it with other ingredients. The technique is most often used in making buttercream, cake batter or cookie dough. The dry ingredients are mixed or beaten with the softened fat until it becomes light and fluffy and increased in volume, due to the incorporation of tiny air bubbles. These air bubbles, locked into the semi-solid fat, remain in the final batter and expand as the item is baked, serving as a form of leavening agent.\n\nSection::::Poaching.\n", "When hitting a textured surface at an angle, hard light will accentuate the textures and details in an object.\n\nSection::::Fall-off.\n\nLight intensity tends to dim with distance. For a point source of light, intensity decreases as distance increases. Intensity (\"I\") is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (\"D\"), as expressed in the formula .\n", "During the holiday season, it is traditional for families to work together to bake small cookies to serve or give to guests. Most common are thin gingerbread cookies which are decorated in many different colors of glaze. Many families also follow the tradition of making Laufabrauð (Leafbread), which is a flat thin bread that is cut out using a special tool and folding technique.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Drop cookies\" are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate chip cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) cookies, and rock cakes are popular examples of drop cookies. This may also include \"thumbprint cookies\", for which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon before baking to contain a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip. In the UK, the term \"cookie\" often refers only to this particular type of product.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bar cookies\" consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking. In British English, bar cookies are known as \"tray bakes\". Examples include brownies, fruit squares, and bars such as date squares.\n", "The rolled out fondant may be cut into shapes with the same cookie cutters used to cut the cookies. Once cut out, the fondant is placed on top of the cookie. Some types of fondant will adhere right away to the cookie. If the fondant doesn't stick well, the cookie surface may be brushed with a little vanilla extract, corn syrup or piping gel to provide more sticking power.\n", "The chocolate cone itself and the vanilla fondant filling have altered in recent years. The original whips were hand made by ladies extruding chocolate from a piping bag onto a rubber mould, each containing 12 'formers'. This generated the original deeply ridged surface, and the fondant at that time was more dense. The texture of the outside surface is a skeuomorph.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00154	if human skin cells reproduce and you essentially have different skin than you did 5 years ago, why do scars never disappear?	From what I understand scars are made of collagen fibres, and when the layers of skin move from the deeper layers to the surface to eventually be shed it simply moves around this different structure of collagen fibres (the scar) instead of eventually shedding the scar as well	[ "Analysis using microarrays has also shown that gene expression profiles greatly differ between scar free fetal wounds and postnatal wounds with scar formation. In scarlesss wound healing there is a significant up-regulation in genes associated with cell growth and proliferation, thought to be a major contributing factor to the rapid wound closure seen in the foetus. Whilst wound healing in the fetus has been shown to be completely scarless in an age-dependent manner, adult mammals do not have complete scar free healing but have retained some regenerative properties. Adult regeneration is limited to a number of organs, most notably, the liver.\n", "Proteins and cell surface receptors found in the ECM differ in fetal and adult wound healing. This is due to the early up regulation of cell adhesion proteins such as fibronectin and tenascin in the fetus. During early gestation in the fetal wounds of rabbits, the production of fibronectin occurs around 4 hours after wounding, much faster than in adult wounds where expression of fibronectin does not occur until 12 hours post wounding. The same pattern can be seen in the deposition of tenascin. It is this ability of the fetal fibroblast to quickly express and deposit fibronectin and tenascin, which ultimately allows cell migration and attachment to occur, resulting in an organised matrix with less scarring.\n", "Keratinocytes continue migrating across the wound bed until cells from either side meet in the middle, at which point contact inhibition causes them to stop migrating. When they have finished migrating, the keratinocytes secrete the proteins that form the new basement membrane. Cells reverse the morphological changes they underwent in order to begin migrating; they reestablish desmosomes and hemidesmosomes and become anchored once again to the basement membrane. Basal cells begin to divide and differentiate in the same manner as they do in normal skin to reestablish the strata found in reepithelialized skin.\n\nSection::::Proliferative phase.:Contraction.\n", "When a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\n", "Astrocytes can heal partially the lesion leaving a scar. These scars (sclerae) are the known plaques or lesions usually reported in MS. A repair process, called remyelination, takes place in early phases of the disease, but the oligodendrocytes are unable to completely rebuild the cell's myelin sheath. Repeated attacks lead to successively less effective remyelinations, until a scar-like plaque is built up around the damaged axons.\n", "Surgical excision of hypertrophic or keloid scars is often associated to other methods, such as pressotherapy or silicone gel sheeting. Lone excision of keloid scars, however, shows a recurrence rate close to 45%. A clinical study is currently ongoing to assess the benefits of a treatment combining surgery and laser-assisted healing in hypertrophic or keloid scars.\n", "If the basement membrane is not breached, epithelial cells are replaced within three days by division and upward migration of cells in the stratum basale in the same fashion that occurs in uninjured skin. However, if the basement membrane is ruined at the wound site, reepithelization must occur from the wound margins and from skin appendages such as hair follicles and sweat and oil glands that enter the dermis that are lined with viable keratinocytes. If the wound is very deep, skin appendages may also be ruined and migration can only occur from wound edges.\n", "The tissue injury in SCARs is initiated principally by CD8 or CD4 T cells. Once drug-activated, these lymphocytes elicit immune responses to self tissues that can result in SCARs drug reactions by mechanisms which vary with the type of disorder that develops. Salient elements mediating tissue injury for each type of disorder include:\n", "Reparation of tissue in the mammalian fetus is radically different than the healing mechanisms observed in a healthy adult. During early gestation fetal skin wounds have the remarkable ability to heal rapidly and without scar formation. Wound healing itself is a particularly complex process and the mechanisms by which scarring occurs involves inflammation, fibroplasia, the formation of granulation tissue and finally scar maturation. Since the observation of scar free healing was first reported in the early fetus more than three decades ago, research has focused intently on the underlying mechanisms which separate scarless fetal wound repair from normal adult wound healing.\n", "The myofibroblasts make up a high proportion of the fibroblasts proliferating in the postembryonic wound at the onset of healing. In the rat model, for instance, myofibroblasts can constitute up to 70% of the fibroblasts, and is responsible for fibrosis on tissue.\n\nGenerally, the myofibroblasts disappear from the wound within 30 days, but can stay around in pathological cases in hypertrophy, such as keloids. Myofibroblasts have plasticity and in mice can be transformed into fat cells, instead of scar tissue, via the regeneration of hair follicles.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In 2013 it was proven in pig tissue that full thickness micro columns of tissue, less than 0.5mm in diameter could be removed and that the replacement tissue, was regenerative tissue, not scar. The tissue was removed in a fractional pattern, with over 40% of a square area removed; and all of the fractional full thickness holes in the square area healed without scarring. In 2016 this fractional pattern technique was also proven in human tissue.\n\nSection::::History of human tissue regeneration.:History of regeneration techniques.:Regeneration with materials.\n", "Originally, it was thought that the intrauterine environment, the sterile amniotic fluid surrounding the embryo, was responsible for fetal scar free healing. Reasoning that embryonic wounds healed scarlessly because they were not exposed to the same contaminating agents which normal adult wounds were exposed to such as bacteria and viruses. However this theory was discredited by investigating fetal wound healing in the pouch of a young marsupial. These pouches can often be exposed to maternal faeces and urine, a highly different environment to the sterile intrauterine environment seen in eutherian embryos. Despite these differences skin wounds on the marsupial healed without the formation of a scar, proving the irrelevance of the embryonic environment in scar free healing.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Role of the extracellular matrix and its components.\n", "Mammalian wounds that involve the dermis of the skin heal by repair not regeneration (except in 1st trimester inter-uterine wounds and in the regeneration of deer antlers). Full thickness wounds heal by a combination of wound contracture and edge re-epitheliasation. Partial thickness wounds heal by edge re-epithelialisation and epidermal migration from adnexal structures (hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The site of keratinocyte stem cells remains unknown but stem cells are likely to reside in the basal layer of the epidermis and below the bulge area of hair follicles.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Intrauterine environment.\n", "As keratinocytes continue migrating, new epithelial cells must be formed at the wound edges to replace them and to provide more cells for the advancing sheet. Proliferation behind migrating keratinocytes normally begins a few days after wounding and occurs at a rate that is 17 times higher in this stage of epithelialization than in normal tissues. Until the entire wound area is resurfaced, the only epithelial cells to proliferate are at the wound edges.\n", "Section::::Scar free healing in nature.\n", "Any injury does not become a scar until the wound has completely healed; this can take many months, or years in the worst pathological cases, such as keloids. To begin to patch the damage, a clot is created; the clot is the beginning process that results in a provisional matrix. In the process, the first layer is a provisional matrix and is not scar. Over time, the wounded body tissue then overexpresses collagen inside the provisional matrix to create a collagen matrix. This collagen overexpression continues and crosslinks the fiber arrangement inside the collagen matrix, making the collagen dense. This densely packed collagen, morphing into an inelastic whitish collagen scar wall, blocks off cell communication and regeneration; as a result, the new tissue generated will have a different texture and quality than the surrounding unwounded tissue. This prolonged collagen-producing process results in a fortuna scar.\n", "Filler injections of collagen can be used to raise atrophic scars to the level of surrounding skin. Risks vary based upon the filler used, and can include further disfigurement and allergic reaction.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Laser treatment.\n\nNonablative lasers, such as the 585 nm pulsed dye laser, 1064 nm and 1320 nm , or the 1540 nm are used as laser therapy for hypertrophic scars and keloids. There is tentative evidence for burn scars that they improve the appearance.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.\n", "A cut by a knife or a scalpel generally scars though a piercing by a needle does not scar. In 1976, a 3 by 3cm scar on a non-diabetic was regenerated by insulin injections and the researchers, highlighting earlier research, argued that the insulin was regenerating the tissue. The anecdotal evidence also highlighted that a syringe was one of two variables that helped bring regeneration of the arm scar. The syringe was injected into the four quadrants three times a day for eighty-two days. After eighty-two days, after many consecutive injections, the scar was resolved and it was noted no scar was observable by the human eye. After seven months the area was checked again and it was once again noted that no scar could be seen. \n", "Even as fibroblasts are producing new collagen, collagenases and other factors degrade it. Shortly after wounding, synthesis exceeds degradation so collagen levels in the wound rise, but later production and degradation become equal so there is no net collagen gain. This homeostasis signals the onset of the later maturation phase. Granulation gradually ceases and fibroblasts decrease in number in the wound once their work is done. At the end of the granulation phase, fibroblasts begin to commit apoptosis, converting granulation tissue from an environment rich in cells to one that consists mainly of collagen.\n\nSection::::Proliferative phase.:Epithelialization.\n", "Section::::Primary scar molecular inducers.:Upregulation of nestin intermediate filament protein.\n", "A scar is the product of the body's repair mechanism after tissue injury. If a wound heals quickly within two weeks with new formation of skin, minimal collagen will be deposited and no scar will form. When the extracellular matrix senses elevated mechanical stress loading, tissue will scar, and scars can be limited by stress shielding wounds. Small full thickness wounds under 2mm reepithelize fast and heal scar free. Deep second-degree burns heal with scarring and hair loss. Sweat glands do not form in scar tissue, which impairs the regulation of body temperature. Elastic fibers are generally not detected in scar tissue younger than 3 months old. In scars rete pegs are lost; through a lack of rete pegs scars tend to shear easier than normal tissue.\n", "BULLET::::- Skin removal/skinning: Cutting in single lines produces relatively thin scars, and skin removal is a way to get a larger area of scar tissue. The outlines of the area of skin to be removed will be cut, and then the skin to be removed will be peeled away. Scars from this method often have an inconsistent texture, although this relies heavily on the experience of the artist and aftercare of the wound.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10040	If oxidation causes cancer, do people living at high altitudes have a lower risk of developing cancerous mutations?	No. The short answer is that both hypoxia (not enough oxygen in cells) & and hyperoxia (too much oxygen in cells) are linked to oxidative and reductive stress on cells, which can lead to apoptosis (cell induced cell death) and the activation of many different transcription factors, some of which promote inflammation & neglect anti-inflammatory genes, & thus can lead to cancer. Source: bio degree	[ "There are many factors that can make a person more susceptible to developing HAPE, including genetic factors, but detailed understanding is lacking and currently under investigation. HAPE remains the major cause of death related to high-altitude exposure, with a high mortality rate in the absence of adequate emergency treatment.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nPhysiological and symptomatic changes often vary according to the altitude involved.\n\nThe Lake Louise Consensus Definition for high-altitude pulmonary edema has set widely used criteria for defining HAPE symptoms.\n\nIn the presence of a recent gain in altitude, the presence of the following:\n\nSymptoms: at least two of:\n", "The genes (\"EPAS1\", \"EGLN1\", and \"PPARA\") function in concert with another gene named hypoxia inducible factors (\"HIF\"), which in turn is a principal regulator of red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in response to oxygen metabolism. The genes are associated not only with decreased haemoglobin levels, but also in regulating energy metabolism. \"EPAS1\" is significantly associated with increased lactate concentration (the product of anaerobic glycolysis), and \"PPARA\" is correlated with decrease in the activity of fatty acid oxidation. \"EGLN1\" codes for an enzyme, prolyl hydroxylase 2 (PHD2), involved in erythropoiesis. Among the Tibetans, mutation in \"EGLN1\" (specifically at position 12, where cytosine is replaced with guanine; and at 380, where G is replaced with C) results in mutant PHD2 (aspartic acid at position 4 becomes glutamine, and cysteine at 127 becomes serine) and this mutation inhibits erythropoiesis. The mutation is estimated to occur about 8,000 years ago. Further, the Tibetans are enriched for genes in the disease class of human reproduction (such as genes from the \"DAZ\", \"BPY2\", \"CDY\", and \"HLA-DQ\" and \"HLA-DR\" gene clusters) and biological process categories of response to DNA damage stimulus and DNA repair (such as \"RAD51\", \"RAD52\", and \"MRE11A\"), which are related to the adaptive traits of high infant birth weight and darker skin tone and are most likely due to recent local adaptation.\n", "Solar radiation increases significantly as the atmosphere gets thinner with increasing altitude thereby absorbing less ultraviolet radiation. Snow cover reflecting the radiation can amplify the effects by up to 75% increasing the risks and damage from sunburn and snow blindness.\n\nIn 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple established that above-average ozone concentrations on the Tibetan Plateau may pose an additional risk to climbers.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Volcanic activity.\n", "EPAS1 is useful in high altitudes as a short term adaptive response. However, EPAS1 can also cause excessive production of red blood cells leading to chronic mountain sickness that can lead to death and inhibited reproductive abilities. Some mutations that increase its expression are associated with increased hypertension and stroke at low altitude, with symptoms similar to mountain sickness. Populations living permanently at high altitudes experience selection on EPAS1 for mutations which reduce the negative fitness consequences of excessive red blood cell production.\n\nSection::::Interactions.\n\nEPAS1 has been shown to interact with aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator and ARNTL.\n", "Light air ions is the main treatment component of the mountain air. In Belokurikha, the content of light aeroions is from 1014 to 2400, which is twice that of the world-famous Swiss resort of Davos (1006). Increased ionization of the air is especially marked in the surrounding hills — the terraces.\n\nSection::::Spa.:Medical factor.:Thermal water.\n", "Researchers have shown that oxidative damage yields frame-shift mutations, thus yielding MSI, but they have yet to agree on a precise mechanism. It has been shown that the more oxidative stress is placed on the system, the more likely it is that mutations will occur. Additionally, catalase reduces mutations, whereas copper and nickel increase mutations by increasing reduction of peroxides. Some researchers believe that the oxidative stress on specific loci results in DNA polymerase pausing at those sites, creating an environment for DNA slippage to occur.\n", "There are multiple factors that can contribute to the development of HAPE, including gender (male), genetic factors, prior development of HAPE, ascent rate, cold exposure, peak altitude, intensity of physical exertion, and certain underlying medical conditions (eg, pulmonary hypertension). Anatomic abnormalities that are predisposing include congenital absence of pulmonary artery, and left-to-right intracardiac shunts (eg, atrial and ventricular septal defects), both of which increase pulmonary blood flow. HAPE-susceptible (HAPE-s) individuals were also found to be four times more likely to have a patent foramen ovale (PFO) than those who were HAPE-resistant. There is currently no indication or recommendation for people with PFO to pursue closure prior to extreme altitude exposure.\n", "Cardiac output increases up to 30% after a person rises to a high altitude, but it will decrease back to normal levels, depending on the increase of the hematocrit. The quantity of oxygen that goes to the peripheral tissues its relatively normal. Also a disease called “angiogenia” appears.\n", "Studies have shown that the approximately 140 million people who live at elevations above have adapted to the lower oxygen levels. These adaptations are especially pronounced in people living in the Andes and the Himalayas. Compared with acclimatized newcomers, native Andean and Himalayan populations have better oxygenation at birth, enlarged lung volumes throughout life, and a higher capacity for exercise. Tibetans demonstrate a sustained increase in cerebral blood flow, lower hemoglobin concentration, and less susceptibility to chronic mountain sickness (CMS). These adaptations may reflect the longer history of high altitude habitation in these regions.\n", "There is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity of erionite in experimental animals. Rats exposed to erionite by inhalation or injection (intrapleural or intraperitoneal) and mice exposed by intraperitoneal injection had high incidences of mesotheliomas. Additionally, although carcinogenic properties of erionite have been discovered by investigating the erionite found in Central Anatolia, Turkey, no difference in their carcinogenic capacity has been observed when it was compared to the erionite obtained in North Dakota, USA.\n\nSection::::Exposure.\n", "The environmental conditions in the upper atmosphere resemble the surface conditions of Mars, especially in the stratosphere— above sea level—that exhibits extreme cold, low pressure, desiccation, oxidation, and higher solar irradiation.\n", "\"S. thermosulfidooxidans\" is widely distributed in both natural and artificial acidic environments, including hot springs and acid mine drainage. Strains have been isolated from a variety of locations including China, Chile, Kazakhstan, California, and Zambia. Compared to other bacteria often found in similar environments, \"Sulfobacillus\" species are typically present at relatively low abundance.\n\nSection::::Growth and metabolism.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Humans.\n\nOver 140 million people live permanently at high altitudes (2,500 m) in North, Central and South America, East Africa, and Asia, and have flourished for millennia in the exceptionally high mountains, without any apparent complications. For average human populations, a brief stay at these places can risk mountain sickness. For the native highlanders, there are no adverse effects to staying at high altitude.\n", "There is a significantly lower overall mortality rate for permanent residents at higher altitudes. Additionally, there is a dose response relationship between increasing elevation and decreasing obesity prevalence in the United States. In addition, the recent hypothesis suggests that high altitude could be protective against Alzheimer's disease via action of erythropoietin, a hormone released by kidney in response to hypoxia.\n\nHowever, people living at higher elevations have a statistically significant higher rate of suicide. The cause for the increased suicide risk is unknown so far.\n\nSection::::Effects on organisms.:Humans.:Athletes.\n", "While the rest of the human population would suffer serious health consequences, the indigenous inhabitants of these regions thrive well in the highest parts of the world. These people have undergone extensive physiological and genetic changes, particularly in the regulatory systems of oxygen respiration and blood circulation, when compared to the general lowland population.\n\nThis special adaptation is now recognised as an example of natural selection in action. The adaptation account of the Tibetans has become the fastest case of human evolution in the scientific record, as it is estimated to have occurred in less than 3,000 years.\n", "Travel to each of these altitude regions can lead to medical problems, from the mild symptoms of acute mountain sickness to the potentially fatal high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). The higher the altitude, the greater the risk. Research also indicates elevated risk of permanent brain damage in people climbing to extreme altitudes.\n\nExpedition doctors commonly stock a supply of dexamethasone, or \"dex,\" to treat these conditions on site.\n", "Among the Quechua people of the Altiplano, there is a significant variation in \"NOS3\" (the gene encoding endothelial nitric oxide synthase, eNOS), which is associated with higher levels of nitric oxide in high altitude. Nuñoa children of Quechua ancestry exhibit higher blood-oxygen content (91.3) and lower heart rate (84.8) than their counterpart school children of different ethnicity, who have an average of 89.9 blood-oxygen and 88–91 heart rate. High-altitude born and bred females of Quechua origins have comparatively enlarged lung volume for increased respiration. \n", "Mountaineering disease and pulmonary edema are most common in those who climb rapidly to a high altitude.This illness starts from a few hours up to two or three days after ascension to a high altitude. There exist two cases: acute cerebral edema and acute pulmonary edema. The first one is caused by the vasodilatation of the cerebral blood vessels produced by the hypoxia; the second one is caused by the vasoconstriction of the pulmonary arterioles, caused by the hypoxia.\n\nSection::::Adaptation to low oxygen environments.\n", "In Finland, a scientist named Heikki Rusko has designed a \"high-altitude house.\" The air inside the house, which is situated at sea level, is at normal pressure but modified to have a low concentration of oxygen, about 15.3% (below the 20.9% at sea level), which is roughly equivalent to the amount of oxygen available at the high altitudes often used for altitude training due to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen at altitude. Athletes live and sleep inside the house, but perform their training outside (at normal oxygen concentrations at 20.9%). Rusko's results show improvements of EPO and red-cell levels.\n", "The physiological and genetic adaptations in native highlanders involve modification in the oxygen transport system of the blood, especially molecular changes in the structure and functions of hemoglobin, a protein for carrying oxygen in the body. This is to compensate for the low oxygen environment. This adaptation is associated with developmental patterns such as high birth weight, increased lung volumes, increased breathing, and higher resting metabolism.\n", "Chlorine, sulfur, copper, zinc and chromium are substantially enriched in the atmospheric aerosol both over Java and Bali; most of the chlorine is of oceanic origin (ocean mist) and the sulfur is partly of anthropogenic origin and partly comes from biogenic emissions of the ocean; and copper, zinc and chromium probably originate from soils.\n\nSection::::Pollen climatology.\n", "Section::::Genetic basis.\n\nThe underlying molecular evolution of high-altitude adaptation has been explored and understood fairly recently. Depending on the geographical and environmental pressures, high-altitude adaptation involves different genetic patterns, some of which\n\nhave evolved quite recently. For example, Tibetan adaptations became prevalent in the past 3,000 years, a rapid example of recent human evolution. At the turn of the 21st century, it was reported that the genetic make-up of the respiratory components of the Tibetan and the Ethiopian populations are significantly different.\n\nSection::::Genetic basis.:Tibetans.\n", "The peoples of the Ethiopian highlands also live at extremely high altitudes, around to . Highland Ethiopians exhibit elevated haemoglobin levels, like Andeans and lowlander peoples at high altitudes, but do not exhibit the Andean’s increased in oxygen-content of haemoglobin. Among healthy individuals, the average haemoglobin concentrations are 15.9 and 15.0 g/dl for males and females respectively (which is lower than normal, almost similar to the Tibetans), and an average oxygen saturation of haemoglobin is 95.3% (which is higher than average, like the Andeans). Additionally, Ethiopian highlanders do not exhibit any significant change in blood circulation of the brain, which has been observed among the Peruvian highlanders (and attributed to their frequent altitude-related illnesses). Yet, similar to the Andeans and Tibetans, the Ethiopian highlanders are immune to the extreme dangers posed by high-altitude environment, and their pattern of adaptation is definitely unique from that of other highland peoples.\n", "The other main issue with altitude is hypoxia, caused by both the lack of barometric pressure and the decrease in oxygen as the body rises. With exposure at higher altitudes, alveolar carbon dioxide partial pressure (PCO2) decreases from 40 mmHg (sea level) to lower levels. With a person acclimated to sea level, ventilation increases about five times and the carbon dioxide partial pressure decreases up to 6 mmHg. In an altitude of 3040 meters, arterial saturation of oxygen elevates to 90%, but over this altitude arterial saturation of oxygen decreases rapidly as much as 70% (6000 m), and decreases more at higher altitudes.\n", "In addition, at high altitude, the heart beats faster; the stroke volume is slightly decreased; and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the digestive system in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves).\n" ]	[ "Because oxidation is the cause of cancer, living in areas with less oxygen will lower the chances of developing cancer.", "Because oxidation causes cancer, people who live in high altitude areas where there is less oxygen are less susceptible to developing cancer. " ]	[ "Both a lack or an excess of oxygen within cells can cause a form of cancer.", "Both a lack or an excess of oxygen can cause a human to develop cancer, therefore those living in high altitude areas are not less likely to develop cancer. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because oxidation is the cause of cancer, living in areas with less oxygen will lower the chances of developing cancer.", "Because oxidation causes cancer, people who live in high altitude areas where there is less oxygen are less susceptible to developing cancer. ", "Living in a lower oxygen atmosphere will result in less oxidation in the body." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Both a lack or an excess of oxygen within cells can cause a form of cancer.", "Both a lack or an excess of oxygen can cause a human to develop cancer, therefore those living in high altitude areas are not less likely to develop cancer. ", "Not enough oxygen in cells and too much oxygen in cells are both linked to oxidative stress on cells." ]
2018-06552	is it possible for companies like 23 & me and ancestry DNA to keep your dna on file and potentially test on it?	[They will share it with legal authorities if requested]( URL_0 )	[ "However In May 2019, GEDmatch required people who had uploaded their DNA to its site to specifically opt in to allow law enforcement agencies to access their information. This change in privacy policy was forecast to make it much more difficult in future for law enforcement agencies to solve cold cases using genetic genealogy. \n", "Section::::Products.:Keystone.\n\nParabon NanoLabs was awarded a two-year contract by the United States Department of Defense to develop a software platform dubbed 'Keystone' for the forensic analysis of DNA evidence.\n\nSection::::Products.:Genetic genealogy.\n\nSection::::Products.:Genetic genealogy.:Parabon's Genetic Genealogy Unit.\n\nIn May 2018 Parabon NanoLabs appointed genealogist CeCe Moore as head of their genetic genealogy unit with three genealogists working for her.\n\nIn cooperation with American law enforcement, Parabon uploaded DNA evidence from crime scenes to GEDmatch in an attempt to identify perpetrators.\n", "Law enforcement may use genetic genealogy to track down perpetrators of violent crimes such as murder or sexual assault and they may also use it to identify deceased individuals. Initially genetic genealogy sites GEDmatch and Family Tree DNA allowed their databases to be used by law enforcement and DNA technology companies such as Parabon NanoLabs to do DNA testing for violent criminal cases and genetic genealogy research at the request of law enforcement. This investigative, or forensic, genetic genealogy technique became popular after the arrest of the alleged Golden State Killer in 2018. However in May 2019 GEDmatch made their privacy rules more restrictive reducing the incentive for law enforcement agencies to use their site. Other sites such as Ancestry.com and 23andMe have data policies that say that they would not allow their customer data to be used for crime solving without a warrant from law enforcement as they believed it violated users' privacy.\n", "Even in the consumer market, people have flocked to Ancestry.com and 23andMe to discover their heritage and elucidate their genotypes. As the nature of consumer transactions allows for these electronic click wrap models to bypass traditional forms of consent in research and healthcare, consumers may not completely comprehend the implications of having their genetic sequence digitized and stored. Furthermore, corporate privacy policies often operate outside the realm of federal jurisdiction, exposing consumers to informational risks, both in terms of their genetic privacy and their self-disclosed consumer profile, including self-disclosed family history, health status, race, ethnicity, social networks, and much more. Simply having databases invites potential privacy risks, as data storage inherently entails the possibility of data breaches and governmental solicitation of datasets. 23andMe have already received four requests from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to access consumer datasets and although those requests were denied, this reveals a similar conundrum as the FBI–Apple encryption dispute.\n", "In December 2018 police forces in the United States said that, with the help of GEDmatch and genetic genealogy, they had been able to find suspects in a total of 28 cold murder and rape cases that year. Also in December 2018, Family Tree DNA allowed law enforcement agencies, including the FBI, to upload DNA profiles from crime scenes to help solve cold crimes. So from that time, GEDmatch was not the only site that could be used by law enforcement officials to solve crimes using genetic genealogy.\n", "In November 2018 Parabon said they were working on 200 cases, 55% had produced leads and in May 2019 they said were solving cold cases at the rate of one a week.\n\nIn May 2019, GEDmatch required people who had uploaded their DNA to its site to specifically opt in to allow law enforcement agencies to access their information. This change in privacy policy was forecast to make it much more difficult in the future for Law enforcement agencies and Parabon to identify suspects and solve cold cases using genetic genealogy.\n\nSection::::Products.:Genetic genealogy.:Case Results: To Trial.\n", "Ancestry.com, a company providing DTC DNA tests for genealogy purposes, has reportedly allowed the warrantless search of their database by police investigating a murder. The warrantless search led to a search warrant to force the gathering of a DNA sample from a New Orleans filmmaker; however he turned out not to be a match for the suspected killer.\n\nSection::::Government regulation in the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- They also investigated a man called Joseph Newton Chandler III, found to have stolen the identity of an eight-year-old in 1978 and committed suicide in 2002 in Eastlake, Ohio, obtained a sample of his DNA and uploaded it to GEDmatch. By the genetic results, researchers identified him as Robert Ivan Nichols. This finding was revealed in late June 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- In April 2018, they announced the identification of \"Lyle Stevik,\" a 25-year-old man who had committed suicide in an Amanda Park, Washington motel in 2001. His family requested that his name should not be made public.\n", "Autosomal DNA combined with genealogical research has been used by adoptees to find their biological parents, has been used to find the name and family of unidentified bodies and by law enforcement agencies to apprehend criminals (for example, the Contra Costa County District Attorney's office used the \"open-source\" genetic genealogy site GEDmatch to find relatives of the suspect in the Golden State Killer case.). The Atlantic magazine commented in 2018 that \"Now, the floodgates are open. ..a small, volunteer-run website, GEDmatch.com, has become ... the de facto DNA and genealogy database for all of law enforcement.\" Family Tree DNA announced in February 2019 it was allowing the FBI to access its DNA data for cases of murder and rape. However in May 2019 GEDmatch initiated stricter rules for accessing their autosomal DNA database and Family Tree DNA shutdown their Y-DNA database ysearch.org making it more difficult for law enforcement agencies to solve cases.\n", "In 2018, police arrested Joseph James DeAngelo the prime suspect for the Golden State Killer or East Area Rapist and William Earl Talbott II as the prime suspect in the murder of Jay Cook and Tanya Van Cuylenborg in 1987. These arrests were based on the personal genomics uploaded to an open-source database, GEDmatch, which allowed investigators to compare DNA recovered from crime scenes to the DNA uploaded to the database by relatives of the suspect. In December 2018, FamilyTreeDNA changed its terms of service to allow law enforcement to use their service to identify suspects of \"a violent crime\" or identify the remains of victims. The company confirmed it was working with the FBI on at least a handful of cases meaning GEDmatch was no longer the only to do so. Since then nearly 50 suspects in crimes of assualt, rape or murder have been arrested using the same method.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2018 the Buckskin girl (a body found in 1981 in Ohio) was identified as Marcia King from Arkansas using DNA genealogical techniques\n\nBULLET::::- In 2018 Joseph James DeAngelo was arrested as the main suspect for the Golden State Killer using DNA and genealogy techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2018 William Earl Talbott II was arrested as a suspect for the 1987 murder of Jay Cook and Tanya Van Cuylenborg with the assistance of DNA genealogical techniques. The same genetic genealogist that helped in this case also helped police with 18 other arrests in 2018.\n", "Uninterpreted raw genetic data may be downloaded by customers. This provides customers with the ability to choose one of the 23 chromosomes, as well as mitochondrial DNA, and see which base is located in certain positions in genes, and see how these compare to other common variants. Customers who bought tests with an ancestry-related component have online access to genealogical DNA test results and tools, including a relative-matching database. Customers can also view their mitochondrial haplogroup (maternal) and, if they are male or a relative shared a patriline that has also been tested, Y chromosome (paternal) haplogroup. US customers who bought tests with a health-related component and received health-related results before November 22, 2013 have online access to an assessment of inherited traits and genetic disorder risks. Health-related results for US customers who purchased the test from November 22, 2013 were suspended until late 2015 while undergoing an FDA regulatory review. Customers who bought tests from 23andMe's Canadian and UK locations have access to some, but not all, health-related results.\n", "Section::::Parabon Labs assisted identifications.\n\nIn cooperation with American law enforcement organizations, Parabon NanoLabs started uploading DNA evidence from crime scenes to GEDmatch and joined forces with genetic genealogist CeCe Moore to offer genetic genealogy services to law enforcement to identify perpetrators of violent crimes. Parabon said in November 2018 they said they were working on 200 cases and about half had produced workable matches. CeCe Moore is the head of the genetic genealogy unit responsible for most the successful investigative genetic genealogy cases.\n\nSection::::Parabon Labs assisted identifications.:2018.\n\nSection::::Parabon Labs assisted identifications.:2018.:May.\n", "Though genealogical DNA tests are not designed mainly for medical purposes, autosomal DNA tests can be used to analyze the probability of hundreds of heritable medical conditions, albeit the result is complex to understand and may confuse a non-expert. 23andMe provides medical and trait information from their genealogical DNA test and for a fee the Promethease web site analyses genealogical DNA test data from Family Tree DNA, 23andMe, or AncestryDNA for medical information.. Promethease, and its research paper crawling database SNPedia, has received criticism for technical complexity and a poorly defined \"magnitude\" scale that causes misconceptions, confusion and panic among its users..\n", "In March 2018, the FDA approved another \"de novo\" application from the company, this one for a DTC test for three specific \"BRCA\" mutations that are the most common \"BRCA\" mutations in people of Ashkenazi descent; they are not however the most common \"BRCA\" mutations in the general population, and the test is only for three of the approximately 1,000 known mutations. These mutations increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancer in women, and the risk of breast and prostate cancer in men.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nSection::::Products.:Direct-to-consumer genetic testing.\n", "In December 2018, police forces in the United States said that, with the help of DNA testing, GEDmatch and genetic genealogy, they had been able to identify suspects in a total of 28 cold murder and rape cases in the year 2018. Also in December 2018, Family Tree DNA allowed the law enforcement agencies including the FBI to upload DNA profiles from crime scenes to help solve cold cases. So from then onwards GEDmatch was not the only site that could be used by law enforcement officials to solve crimes using genetic genealogy. As of April 2019, GEDmatch had been used in at least 59 cold case arrests, most of which were the work of Parabon Nanolabs and their chief genetic genealogist CeCe Moore, as well as 11 Jane and John Doe identifications across the United States, most of which were run and funded by the DNA Doe Project. In May 2019 GEDmatch tightened its rules on privacy which were forecast to make it much more difficult for law enforcement agencies to find suspects using GEDmatch.\n", "In 2019 it was estimated that large genealogical testing companies had about 26 million DNA profiles. Many transferred their test result for free to multiple testing sites, and also to genealogical services such as Geni.com and GEDmatch. GEDMatch said half of their profiles were from the USA.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "Electronic Frontier Foundation, a privacy advocate, found that existing legislation does not have formal jurisdiction in ensuring consumer privacy where DNA information is concerned. Genetic information stored by consumer businesses are not protected by the HIPAA; therefore, these companies can share genetic information with third parties, conditions contingent upon their own privacy statements. Most genetic testing companies only share anonymized, aggregated data with users’ consent. Ancestry.com and 23andMe do sell such data to research institutions and other organizations, and can ask for a case-by-case consent to release non-anonymized data to other parties, including employers or insurers. 23andMe even issues a warning that re-identification may take place and is possible. If a consumer explicitly refuses research use or requests for their data to be destroyed, 23andMe is still allowed to use their consumer identifying and behavioral information, such as browsing patterns and geographical location, for other marketing services.\n", "BULLET::::- In May 2019, Christopher VanBuskirk was arrested in Goodyear Arizona for the sexual assaults of six women at knife-point from 1995-2004 in San Diego and Riverside Counties, California. He had been identified with the help of the FBI Forensic Genetic Genealogy Team and Family Tree DNA. VanBuskirk pleaded not guilty to the crimes and faces 190 years to life in prison.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic genealogy\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient DNA\n\nBULLET::::- Genealogical DNA test\n\nBULLET::::- Genetic genealogy\n\nBULLET::::- Human mitochondrial genetics\n\nBULLET::::- Phylogenetic tree\n\nBULLET::::- Short tandem repeat\n\nBULLET::::- Single-nucleotide polymorphism\n\nBULLET::::- Test types\n\nBULLET::::- DNA microarray\n\nBULLET::::- DNA sequencing\n", "In December 2018, FamilyTreeDNA changed its terms of service to allow law enforcement to use their service to identify suspects of \"a violent crime\" or identify the remains of victims. The company confirmed it was working with the FBI on at least a handful of cases. As of March 2019, the company instituted a policy allowing its customers to opt out of law enforcement access to their genetic data, although must customers will automatically be opted in to such exposure. Law enforcement officers will be required to go through a more rigorous process in order to access the database, while customers who opt out of allowing the FBI to access their data will still be able to search for possible relatives as before. “Users now have the ability to opt out of matching with DNA relatives whose accounts are flagged as being created to identify the remains of a deceased individual or a perpetrator of homicide or sexual assault, also referred to as Law Enforcement Matching (LEM),” the company wrote in an email to customers. In May 2019 Family Tree DNA prevented access to its Y-DNA database ysearch.org and its mtDNA data base mitosearch making it more difficult for law enforcement agencies to identify crime suspects.\n", "In 2018 the DNA Doe Project took on his case and was able to identify him that year. His family requested that his identity be withheld for privacy.\n\nSection::::Cases.:2018 Identifications.:Tracey Hobson.\n", "BULLET::::2. Extraction of DNA sample (sometimes repeated if the first sample proves too degraded for analysis)\n\nBULLET::::3. Fundraising for DNA sequencing\n\nBULLET::::4. Sequencing of DNA sample\n\nBULLET::::5. Bioinformatics \"translates\" the DNA sequencing into a digital data file that is compatible with GEDmatch\n\nBULLET::::6. Uploading DNA data file to GEDmatch\n\nBULLET::::7. Genealogical analysis using GEDmatch and other tools\n\nBULLET::::8. Tentative identification of the Doe\n\nBULLET::::9. Law enforcement verifies identity, typically using fingerprints or a DNA sample provided by an immediate relative\n\nSection::::Procedure.:Difficulties.\n\nSome of the difficulties the DNA Doe project encountered when using genetic genealogy to identify bodies have been:\n", "While the U.S. database is not directly connected to any other country, the underlying CODIS software is used by other agencies around the world. , the CODIS software is used by 90 international laboratories in 50 countries. International police agencies that want to search the U.S. database can submit a request to the FBI for review. If the request is reasonable and the profile being searched would meet inclusionary standards for a U.S. profile, such as number of loci, the request can be searched at the national level or forwarded to any states where reasonable suspicion exists that they may be present in that level of the database.\n", "Several manufacturers have developed instruments for Rapid DNA analysis such as Thermo Fisher Scientific based in Waltham, MA, and ANDE based in Waltham, MA. Following commercial availability, the FBI will work with federal, state, and local CODIS laboratories and the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods to test, evaluate, and validate the hands-free instruments for law enforcement use. RapidHIT systems include instruments and RapidLINK software which will enable use for law enforcement. As of March 18 2016 one Rapid DNA instrument was approved by the FBI for submission of samples to NDIS/CODIS without manual review: the DNAScan manufactured by NetBio in Waltham, MA. Effective January 1, 2017, the DNAScan lost its approved status as CODIS-participating labs are required to include the 20 CODIS Core Loci.\n", "In 2012, Greshake sent a vial of his saliva to 23andMe, a genomics company, to study his own DNA. His results suggested that he was at risk of prostate cancer, and then recommended to his father to receive a medical examination as well. The doctor found a growing tumor in his father's prostate and was able to catch it early. After receiving his results, he posted them on Github, hoping to find other users willing to share their personal genetic makeup. Upon realizing that many people were unwilling or did not include a lot of information that was necessary for scientific research, Greshake created openSNP.\"Maybe there are people who are interested in publishing their genetic information on the web to make it available, but those people don’t have the opportunity,\"Though Greshake acknowledges that there are services that allow people to test their own genes and discover inherent predispositions, they are often expensive, or difficult to access. In 2013, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) forced company 23andMe to stop marketing their spit-box screening tests due to lack of scientific evidence. However, in 2015, the FDA eased their restrictions and stated that carrier screening tests would not have to undergo preliminary review.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02125	How are mice cloned?	There are two theoretical categories of cloned animals: cellular clone and genetic clone (not technical terms). A 'cellular' clone would be taking some cells from an animal and growing a new one from it. No one knows how to do that (stem cells seem like a good start), although we've been doing it with plants for centuries, even millenia. The way animals are actually cloned is by making a child animal with both the mother and father being the same creature. You take an egg cell from some member of the species (it could be from the cloned animal but it doesn't matter). You the take some cells from the animal you're cloning and remove the nucleus (this has the instructions for making the animal inside). The nucleus in the doner egg is also removed. The nucleus of the cloned animal's cell is then inserted into the egg and the egg is put back into the doner's womb (or an artificial one). If everything goes well the egg, now with a full genome inside it (by default eggs only have half of the instructions needed to make a creature, and the other half come from sperm. The nucleus from the cloned animals cells have a whole set of instructions) will start dividing into an embryo and before you know it you have a fully grown potentially healthy genetic clone of the original animal.	[ "There are several variations to the procedure of producing knockout mice; the following is a typical example.\n", "BULLET::::- Doogie mice, with enhanced NMDA receptor function, resulting in improved memory and learning\n\nBULLET::::- Knockout mice, where a specific gene was made inoperable by a technique known as gene knockout: The purpose is to study the function of the gene's product or to simulate a human disease.\n\nBULLET::::- Fat mice, prone to obesity due to a carboxypeptidase E deficiency\n\nBULLET::::- Strong muscular mice, with a disabled myostatin gene, nicknamed \"mighty mice\".\n\nSince 1998, it has been possible to clone mice from cells derived from adult animals.\n\nSection::::Appearance and behaviour.\n", "Section::::Career and research.:Stem cell research.\n\nEvans and Kaufman isolated the embryonic stem cells from early embryos (embryoblasts) of mice and established them in cell cultures. These early embryonic cells have the potential to differentiate into any of the cells of the adult organism. They modified these stem cells genetically and placed them in the wombs of female mice so they would give birth to genetically modified offspring.\n", "BULLET::::2. Embryonic stem cells are isolated from a mouse blastocyst (a very young embryo) and grown \"in vitro\". For this example, we will take stem cells from a white mouse.\n", "Much of the genome of \"Rattus norvegicus\" has been sequenced. In October 2003, researchers succeeded in cloning two laboratory rats by nuclear transfer. This was the first in a series of development that have begun to make rats tractable as genetic research subjects, although they still lag behind mice, which lend themselves better to the embryonic stem cell techniques typically used for genetic manipulation. Many investigators who wish to trace observations on behavior and physiology to underlying genes regard aspects of these in rats as more relevant to humans and easier to observe than in mice, giving impetus to the development of genetic research techniques applicable to rat.\n", "As one of the most important platforms for dealing with vertebrate gene functions on a large scale, genome-wide genetic resources of mutant murine ES cells have been established. To this end four international programs aimed at saturation mutagenesis of the mouse genome have been founded in Europe and North America (EUCOMM, KOMP, NorCOMM, and TIGM). Coordinated by the International Knockout Mouse Consortium (IKSC) these ES-cell repositories are available for exchange between international research units. Present resources comprise mutations in 11 539 unique genes, 4 414 of these conditional.\n", "Section::::Genetics and strains.:Mutant and transgenic strains.\n\nVarious mutant strains of mice have been created by a number of methods. A small selection from the many available strains includes -\n\nBULLET::::- Mice resulting from ordinary breeding and inbreeding:\n\nBULLET::::- Non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, which develop diabetes mellitus type 1.\n\nBULLET::::- Murphy Roths large (MRL) mice with unusual regenerative capacities\n\nBULLET::::- Waltzing mice, which walk in a circular pattern due to a mutation adversely affecting their inner ears\n", "Section::::Methods.\n", "Section::::Cloning.\n\nIn July 1998 the Yanagimachi's team published work in \"Nature\" on cloning mice from adult cells. Yanagimachi named the new cloning technique they had created to do this work the \"Honolulu technique\". The first mouse born was named Cumulina, after the cumulus cells whose nuclei were used to clone her. At the time of the publication of this work over fifty mice spanning three generations had been produced through this technique.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2013, the world-famous polo star Adolfo Cambiaso helped his high-handicap team La Dolfina win the Argentine National Open, scoring nine goals in the 16-11 match. Two of those he scored atop a horse named Show Me—a clone, and the first to ride onto the Argentine pitch.\n\nSection::::House mouse.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1986, the first mouse was cloned in the Soviet Union from an embryo cell.\n\nBULLET::::- The first mouse from adult cells, Cumulina, was born in 1997 at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa in the laboratory of Ryuzo Yanagimachi using the Honolulu technique.\n", "The pronuclear injection of mouse sperm is one of the two most common methods for producing transgenic animals (along with the genetic engineering of embryonic stem cells). In order for pronuclear injection to be successful, the genetic material (typically linear DNA) must be injected while the genetic material from the oocyte and sperm are separate (i.e., the pronuclear phase). In order to obtain these oocytes, mice are commonly superovulated using gonadotrophins. Once plugging has occurred, oocytes are harvested from the mouse and injected with the genetic material. The oocyte is then implanted in the oviduct of a pseudopregnant animal. While efficiency varies, 10-40% of mice born from these implanted oocytes may contain the injected construct. Transgenic mice can then be bred to create transgenic lines.\n", "The first recorded knockout mouse was created by Mario R. Capecchi, Martin Evans, and Oliver Smithies in 1989, for which they were awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Aspects of the technology for generating knockout mice, and the mice themselves have been patented in many countries by private companies.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "In 1981, Evans and Kaufman published results for experiments in which they described how they isolated embryonic stem cells from mouse blastocysts and grew them in cell cultures. This was also achieved by Gail R. Martin, independently, in the same year. Eventually, Evans was able to isolate the embryonic stem cell of the early mouse embryo and establish it in a cell culture. He then genetically modified it and implanted it into adult female mice with the intent of creating genetically modified offspring, the forbearers of the laboratory mice that are considered so vital to medical research today. The availability of these cultured stem cells eventually made possible the introduction of specific gene alterations into the germ line of mice and the creation of transgenic mice to use as experimental models for human illnesses.\n", "BULLET::::- Cloning – Dolly the sheep was the first mammal ever cloned from adult animal cells. The cloned sheep was, of course, genetically identical to the original adult sheep. This clone was created by taking cells from the udder of a 6-year-old ewe and growing them in the lab.\n", "If necessary, the tumors from the first-generation avatar mice can be extracted, divided into pieces, and implanted again in multiple avatar mice (“second generation”). This process can be repeated several times to obtain a large number of avatar mice from a single patient. In general, 3-4 generations are needed to obtain enough avatar mice from a single patient.\n\nSection::::Method.:Step three.\n", "Each stem cell contains one mutant gene copy and one 'wild-type' (normal) gene copy. The entire library is intended to mutate 13,000 genes in total. Of these 13000 mutant genes, 8000 mutations in mouse ES Cells are 'targeted': that is, the mutation which knocks out gene function is inserted precisely into the genome. The remaining 5000 mutations are derived from 'gene-traps'. These mutations are created by infecting ES Cells with an appropriately modified retrovirus. The retrovirus inserts itself 'randomly' into the mouse genome. When it inserts into a gene's intron, the introduced DNA will stop that gene copy being expressed, and the gene is considered to be knocked out (see gene trapping).\n", "Section::::Mobile DNA technology.\n", "There are many types of SCID mice used by researchers at present. Some examples include SCID-hu Thy/Liv mice, which are given human fetal thymus and liver cells, hu-SRC-SCID mice, which are implanted with human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC), and hu-PBL-SCID mice, in which human peripheral blood mononuclear cells have been injected. Each line of mouse has different functional and nonfunctional cells, making each suited for different experiments.\n", "A knockout rat (also spelled \"knock out\" or \"knock-out\") is a genetically engineered rat with a single gene turned off through a targeted mutation. Knockout rats can mimic human diseases, and are important tools for studying gene function and for drug discovery and development. The production of knockout rats became technically feasible in 2008, through work financed by $120 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) via the Rat Genome Sequencing Project Consortium, and work accomplished by the members of the Knock Out Rat Consortium (KORC). Knockout rat disease models for Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, hypertension, and diabetes, using zinc-finger nuclease technology, are being commercialized by SAGE Labs.\n", "The purpose of this library is to enable the mouse research community to rapidly create mutant mice, by \n\nBULLET::::- selecting the stem cell (with the appropriate mutant gene) from the EUCOMM library and then\n\nBULLET::::- breeding a knockout mouse from that ES Cell (see Knockout mouse)\n\nThe broad aim of the project is to facilitate research into gene function in mice (and so by inference in humans) by removing the high technical entry barrier of making the mutant ES Cells.\n", "There is variability in the whole procedure depending largely on the strain from which the stem cells have been derived. Generally cells derived from strain 129 are used. This specific strain is not suitable for many experiments (e.g., behavioural), so it is very common to backcross the offspring to other strains. Some genomic loci have been proven very difficult to knock out. Reasons might be the presence of repetitive sequences, extensive DNA methylation, or heterochromatin. The confounding presence of neighbouring 129 genes on the knockout segment of genetic material has been dubbed the \"flanking-gene effect\". Methods and guidelines to deal with this problem have been proposed.\n", "After an eight-year project involving the use of a pioneering cloning technique, Japanese researchers created 25 generations of healthy cloned mice with normal lifespans, demonstrating that clones are not intrinsically shorter-lived than naturally born animals. Other sources have noted that the offspring of clones tend to be healthier than the original clones and indistinguishable from animals produced naturally.\n", "The mutations introduced in the ES Cells are \"conditional\": this means that the initial mutation can be modified - by the application of particular DNA-altering enzymes (site specific recombinases) to make the knockout initially \"latent\" in the genome. The gene can be later knocked out (inactivated) at a specific time-point or tissue-type in mutant mice derived from the mutant ES Cells, by appropriate breeding to other transgenic mice. This conditionality is a \"key\" property of the entire resource, and it allows a more nuanced study of the effects of the gene-knockout.\n\nSection::::Use of stem cells.\n", "Technology developed through funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and work accomplished by the members of the Knock Out Rat Consortium (KORC) led to cost-effective methods to create knockout rats. The importance of developing the rat as a more versatile tool for human health research is evidenced by the $120 million investment made by the NIH via the Rat Genome Sequencing Project Consortium, resulting in the draft sequence of a laboratory strain of the brown or Norway rat (\"Rattus norvegicus\"). Additional developments with zinc finger nuclease technology in 2009 led to the first knockout rat with targeted, germline-transmitted mutations. Knockout rat disease models for Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, hypertension, and diabetes using zinc-finger nuclease technology are being commercialized by SAGE Labs.\n", "Millions of knockout mice are used in experiments each year.\n\nSection::::Strains.\n\nThere are several thousand different strains of knockout mice.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16224	Why are erections harder the second time around?	Penises get hard when the body releases a special molecule into the bloodstream called a vasodilator. These special molecules travel to the penis and cause it to get hard. To do this, they let blood to move from the bloodstream into the tissue of the penis. Filling it up the penis like a water balloon. Now to keep the penis hard, the body prevents too much blood from leaving the penis by blocking its drains. After orgasm, the body opens the drains and the blood escapes back into the bloodstream and the penis deflates. However, the part of the penis (the tissue) that was filled up by the blood is all stretched out. So when blood starts to flow back in, it already has had a warm up! Also, some of the special molecules (the vasodilators) are still around after an hour and help open up passages between the bloodstream and penis even more.	[ "Bulls have a fibro-elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.\n", "BULLET::::- In Alberto Moravia's novel, \"Io e lui\" (\"Him and Me\", 1971), the protagonist is in a constant unsuccessful quest to overcome the power of his large penis, so he sublimates into a serious film director.\n", "An elephant's penis is S-shaped when fully erect and has a Y-shaped orifice.\n\nGiven the small amount of erectile tissue in a bull's penis, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.\n\nA male fossa's penis reaches to between his forelegs when erect.\n", "As sexual arousal and stimulation continues, it is likely that the glans or head of the erect penis will swell wider and, as the genitals become further engorged with blood, their color deepens and the testicles can grow up to 50% larger. As the testicles continue to rise, a feeling of warmth may develop around them and the perineum. With further sexual stimulation, the heart rate increases, blood pressure rises and breathing becomes quicker. The increase in blood flow in the genital and other regions may lead to a sex flush sometimes, in some men.\n", "Reduced estrogen levels may be associated with increased vaginal dryness and less clitoral erection when aroused, but are not directly related to other aspects of sexual interest or arousal. In older women, decreased pelvic muscle tone may mean that it takes longer for arousal to lead to orgasm, may diminish the intensity of orgasms, and then cause more rapid resolution. The uterus typically contracts during orgasm and, with advancing age, those contractions may actually become painful.\n\nSection::::Psychological response.\n", "Physiologically, erection is triggered by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, causing nitric oxide (a vasodilator) levels to rise in the trabecular arteries and smooth muscle of the penis. The arteries dilate causing the corpora cavernosa of the penis (and to a lesser extent the corpus spongiosum) to fill with blood; simultaneously the ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles compress the veins of the corpora cavernosa restricting the egress and circulation of this blood. Erection subsides when parasympathetic activity reduces to baseline.\n", "In December 2014, Strauss was interviewed by \"Wired\" on the Obama administration's refusal to release photographs of torture at Abu Ghraib, which Strauss had been writing about since 2004. He told the interviewer, “I want more images. In that way, I guess you could say I have gotten what I want, since today’s communications environment makes more and more images available to us all the time. In photographic criticism, there have been theories that subjection to greater numbers of images makes people numb to them. I don’t believe that any more... I thought long and hard about that critique, and in the end found that it doesn’t hold up. I think we’re more capable now, in some senses, of reading images, but I don’t think our overall capacity for understanding has increased. Our capacity to process images hasn’t kept up with the pace with which they are now thrown at us, so we become subject to them.”\n", "The nerve may become painful over a period of time as weight gain makes underwear, belting or the waistband of pants gradually exert higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\n", "An erection is the stiffening and rising of the penis, which occurs during sexual arousal, though it can also happen in non-sexual situations. Spontaneous erections frequently occur during adolescence due to friction with clothing, a full bladder or large intestine, hormone fluctuations, nervousness, and undressing in a nonsexual situation. It is also normal for erections to occur during sleep and upon waking. (See nocturnal penile tumescence.) The primary physiological mechanism that brings about erection is the autonomic dilation of arteries supplying blood to the penis, which allows more blood to fill the three spongy erectile tissue chambers in the penis, causing it to lengthen and stiffen. The now-engorged erectile tissue presses against and constricts the veins that carry blood away from the penis. More blood enters than leaves the penis until an equilibrium is reached where an equal volume of blood flows into the dilated arteries and out of the constricted veins; a constant erectile size is achieved at this equilibrium. The scrotum will usually tighten during erection.\n", "In the presence of mechanical stimulation, erection is initiated by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system with minimal input from the central nervous system. Parasympathetic branches extend from the sacral plexus into the arteries supplying the erectile tissue; upon stimulation, these nerve branches release acetylcholine, which in turn causes release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells in the trabecular arteries. Nitric oxide diffuses to the smooth muscle of the arteries (called \"trabecular smooth muscle\"), acting as a vasodilating agent. The arteries dilate, filling the \"corpus spongiosum\" and \"corpora cavernosa\" with blood. The ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles also compress the veins of the corpora cavernosa, limiting the venous drainage of blood. Erection subsides when parasympathetic stimulation is discontinued; baseline stimulation from the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the penile arteries and cavernosal sinosoids, forcing blood out of the erectile tissue via erection-related veins which include one deep dorsal vein, a pair of cavernosal veins, and two pairs of para-arterial veins between Buck's fascia and the tunica albuginea. Erection rigidity is mechanically controlled by reduction blood flow via theses veins, and thereby building up the pressure of the corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum, an integral instructure, the distal ligament, buttresses the glans penis. \n", "It is normal to correlate the erection of the penis with male sexual arousal. Physical or psychological stimulation, or both, leads to vasodilation and the increased blood flow engorges the three spongy areas that run along the length of the penis (the two corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum). The penis grows enlarged and firm, the skin of the scrotum is pulled tighter, and the testes are pulled up against the body. However, the relationship between erection and arousal is not one-to-one. After their mid-forties, some men report that they do not always have an erection when they are sexually aroused. Equally, a male erection can occur during sleep (nocturnal penile tumescence) without conscious sexual arousal or due to mechanical stimulation (e.g. rubbing against the bed sheet) alone. A young man — or one with a strong libido — may experience enough sexual arousal for an erection to result from a passing thought, or just the sight of a passerby. Once erect, his penis may gain enough stimulation from contact with the inside of his clothing to maintain and encourage it for some time.\n", "BULLET::::- Erectile dysfunction is the inability to develop and maintain an erection sufficiently firm for satisfactory sexual performance. Diabetes is a leading cause, as is natural aging. A variety of treatments exist, most notably including the phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor drugs (such as \"sildenafil citrate\", marketed as Viagra), which work by vasodilation.\n", "Section::::Species with intromittent organs.:Vertebrates.:Tetrapods.:Mammals.\n\nAll male mammals have a penis. Insectivores, bats, rodents, carnivorans, and most primates (but not humans) have a bone called the baculum or \"os penis\" that permanently stiffens the penis. During copulation, blood engorges the already-stiff penis resulting in a full erection.\n", "Traction is a nonsurgical method to lengthen the penis by employing devices that pull at the glans of the penis for extended periods of time. As of 2013, the majority of research investigating the use of penile traction focuses on treating the curvature and shrinkage of the penis as a result of Peyronie's disease, although some literature exists on the impact on men with short penises.\n\nScientific evidence supports some elongation by prolonged traction.\n\nSection::::Reasons for seeking penis enlargement.\n", "After orgasm and ejaculation, men usually experience a refractory period characterised by loss of erection, a subsidence in any sex flush, less interest in sex, and a feeling of relaxation that can be attributed to the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin. The intensity and duration of the refractory period can be very short in a highly aroused young man in what he sees as a highly arousing situation, perhaps without even a noticeable loss of erection. It can be as long as a few hours or days in mid-life and older men.\n\nSection::::Physiological response.:Female physiological response.\n", "Section::::Factors and theories.\n\nWhile the refractory period varies widely among individuals, ranging from minutes to days, most men cannot achieve or maintain an erection during this time, and many perceive a psychological feeling of satisfaction and are temporarily uninterested in further sexual activity; the penis may be hypersensitive and further sexual stimulation may feel painful during this time frame.\n", "BULLET::::- the post void residual volume (PVR, ml) was significantly decreased\n\nBULLET::::- the maximum urinary flow (Qmax, ml/s) was increased\n\nBULLET::::- the voiding time (VT, s) was decreased\n\nThis urodynamic profile is related to a lower risk of urologic complications, such as cystitis and bladder stones.\n\nSection::::Physiological functions.:Erection.\n", "Other surgical treatments include the injection of dermal fillers, silicone gel, or PMMA. Dermal fillers are also not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the penis.\n", "BULLET::::- During the plateau phase, heart rate and muscle tension increase further. A man's urinary bladder closes to prevent urine from mixing with semen. A woman's clitoris may withdraw slightly and there is more lubrication, outer swelling and muscles tighten and reduction of diameter.\n", "The scrotum may, but not always, become tightened during erection. Generally, the foreskin automatically and gradually retracts, exposing the glans, though some men may have to manually retract their foreskin.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic control.\n", "Section::::Resolution phase.:Resolution in males.\n\nMasters and Johnson described the two-stage detumescence of the penis: In the first stage, the penis decreases from its erect state to about 50 percent larger than its flaccid state. This occurs during the refractory period. In the second stage (and after the refractory period is finished), the penis decreases in size and returns to being flaccid. It is generally impossible for men to achieve orgasm during the refractory period. Masters and Johnson argue that this period must end before men can become aroused again.\n\nSection::::Resolution phase.:Resolution in females.\n", "Many men with Venogenic Erectile Dysfunction start having trouble with their erections from a young age. Common complaints include a chronic soft erection insufficient for sexual intercourse, position-dependent erectile rigidity, difficulty achieving erections, difficulty maintaining erections without constant manual stimulation, loss of penile length and girth, and a soft glans of the penis during erection that is not fully engorged.\n", "Vasoconstriction also occurs in superficial blood vessels of warm-blooded animals when their ambient environment is cold; this process diverts the flow of heated blood to the center of the animal, preventing the loss of heat.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n\nVasoconstriction can be a contributing factor to erectile dysfunction. An increase in blood flow to the penis causes an erection.\n\nImproper vasoconstriction may also play a role in secondary hypertension.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Addison's disease\n\nBULLET::::- Inotrope\n\nBULLET::::- Hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- Nitric oxide\n\nBULLET::::- Pheochromocytoma\n\nBULLET::::- Shock\n\nBULLET::::- Vasodilation\n\nBULLET::::- Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Hemostasis\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Definition of Vasoconstriction on HealthScout\n", "The penis and scrotum can contract involuntarily in reaction to cold temperatures or nervousness, referred to by the slang term \"shrinkage\", due to action by the cremaster muscle. The same phenomenon affects cyclist and exercise bike users, with prolonged pressure on the perineum from the bicycle saddle and the straining of the exercise causing the penis and scrotum to contract involuntarily. An incorrect saddle may ultimately cause erectile dysfunction (see crotch pressure for more information).\n\nSection::::Studies.:Length.:Stretched.\n", "BULLET::::1. Is the function intact? For example: Have there been any occurrences of erections or orgasms during a given period of time?\n\nBULLET::::2. If the function is intact, what is the frequency and/or intensity of the function? For example: How often has the person had an orgasm or erections during the given period of time and how intense is the orgasmic pleasure and erection stiffness compared to youth or the best period in life. The suggested explanations for the absence or waning of functions at this stage are physiological and psychological.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22987	How are Rats and other smaller Mammals with tiny limbs capable of moving so fast?	Fast may not be the correct term here. They are quick. Most small prey can accelerate and change directions very quickly, but can't run all that fast in a straight line. They look fast, but if you put them in an open area, a coyote or something similar could easily run them down. & #x200B;	[ "Examples:\n\nBULLET::::- The MIT cheetah cub is an electrically powered quadruped robot with passive compliant legs capable of self-stabilizing in large range of speeds.\n\nBULLET::::- The Tekken II is a small quadruped designed to walk on irregular terrains adaptively.\n\nSection::::Types of locomotion.:Metachronal motion.\n\nCoordinated, sequential mechanical action having the appearance of a traveling wave is called a metachronal rhythm or wave, and is employed in nature by ciliates for transport, and by worms and arthropods for locomotion.\n\nSection::::Types of locomotion.:Slithering.\n", "The same group of researchers have found speed cells in the medial entorhinal cortex of rats. The speed of movement is translated from proprioceptive information and is represented as firing rates in these cells. The cells are known to fire in correlation to future speed of the rodent.\n", "A dramatic illustration of how acceleration can change a body plan is seen in snakes. Where a typical vertebrate like a mouse has only around 60 vertebrae, snakes have between around 150 to 400, giving them extremely long spinal columns and enabling their sinuous locomotion. Snake embryos achieve this by accelerating their system for creating somites (body segments), which relies on an oscillator. The oscillator clock runs some four times faster in snake than in mouse embryos, initially creating very thin somites. These expand to adopt a typical vertebrate shape, elongating the body.\n", "In April 2014, the South Californian mite \"Paratarsotomus macropalpis\" has been recorded as the world's fastest land animal relative to body length, at a speed of 322 body lengths per second. Besides the unusually great speed of the mites, the researchers were surprised to find the mites running at such speeds on concrete at temperatures up to , which is significant because this temperature is well above the lethal limit for the majority of animal species. In addition, the mites are able to stop and change direction very quickly.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Innate heat\n\nBULLET::::- Human body temperature\n", "Many insects are able to lift twenty times their own body weight like Rhinoceros beetle and may jump distances that are many times greater than their own length. This is because their energy output is high in relation to their body mass. \n", "BULLET::::- It has been shown that the fastest speeds are attained when the product of the foot contact time and vertical GRF are decreased to minimums which provides enough time for the swinging limb to get in position for the next step. Both the GRF and foot contact time are determined by variables such as muscle moment arm, foot morphology, muscle fascicle length, and muscle fiber type.\n\nSection::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Muscle moment arm.\n", "Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such climbing animals is in trees, for example the gibbon is specialized for arboreal movement, traveling rapidly by brachiation. Another case is animals like the snow leopard living on steep rock faces such as are found in mountains. Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by adhesion using suckers. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as geckos can also perform similar feats.\n\nSection::::Terrestrial.:Walking and running.\n", "More recently, it has been proposed that an accurate prediction of the energy cost of running at a given speed can be made from the time available to generate force to support body weight. This theory suggests that smaller animals must take shorter, quicker steps to travel a given distance than larger animals. As a result, they have shorter foot ground contact times and less time to produce force on the ground. Due to this decreased amount of time to produce force, smaller animals must rely more heavily on metabolically costly fast muscle fibers to produce force to run at a given speed. Conversely, larger animals take slower and longer steps, contributing to an increase in the amount of time the foot is in contact with the ground during running. This longer contact time allows larger animals a greater amount of time to produce force. As a result, larger animals do not recruit as many metabolically costly fast muscle fibers in order to run a given speed. All of these factors result in a greater COT in smaller animals in comparison to larger animals. \n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Foot/locomotion.\n", "Frogs are an excellent example of all three trends: frog legs can be nearly twice the body length, leg muscles may account for up to twenty percent of body weight, and they have not only lengthened the foot, shin and thigh, but extended the ankle bones into another limb joint and similarly extended the hip bones and gained mobility at the sacrum for a second 'extra joint'. As a result, frogs are the undisputed champion jumpers of vertebrates, leaping over fifty body lengths, a distance of more than eight feet.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Power amplification through stored energy.\n", "Section::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Other.\n\nOther factors also play a role:\n\nBULLET::::- Muscle Strength\n\nBULLET::::- Larger muscles are able to generate higher amounts of force and are therefore able to produce larger GRF's\n\nBULLET::::- Elastic Energy Storage\n\nBULLET::::- Cheetahs use flexion and extension of the spine to contribute significantly to speed by increasing foot contact time and swing time\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Footspeed\n\nBULLET::::- Sprint (running)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Department of Kinesiology - Biomechanics Lab \n", "BULLET::::- Fastest. The fastest of all known flying animals is the peregrine falcon, which when diving travels at or faster. The fastest animal in flapping horizontal flight may be the Mexican free-tailed bat, said to attain about based on ground speed by an aircraft tracking device; that measurement does not separate any contribution from wind speed, so the observations could be caused by strong tailwinds.\n", "Slow-motion photography shows that the muscles have passive flexibility. They are first stretched while the frog is still in the crouched position, then they are contracted before being stretched again to launch the frog into the air. The fore legs are folded against the chest and the hind legs remain in the extended, streamlined position for the duration of the jump. In some extremely capable jumpers, such as the Cuban tree frog (\"Osteopilus septentrionalis\") and the northern leopard frog (\"Rana pipiens\"), the peak power exerted during a jump can exceed that which the muscle is theoretically capable of producing. When the muscles contract, the energy is first transferred into the stretched tendon which is wrapped around the ankle bone. Then the muscles stretch again at the same time as the tendon releases its energy like a catapult to produce a powerful acceleration beyond the limits of muscle-powered acceleration. A similar mechanism has been documented in locusts and grasshoppers.\n", "Section::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Foot morphology.\n", "Section::::Modern.:Laboratory mice.\n\nIn 1998, Theodore Garland, Jr. and colleagues started a long-term experiment that involves selective breeding of mice for high voluntary activity levels on running wheels. This experiment also continues to this day ( 65 generations). Mice from the four replicate \"High Runner\" lines evolved to run almost three times as many running-wheel revolutions per day compared with the four unselected control lines of mice, mainly by running faster than the control mice rather than running for more minutes/day.\n", "BULLET::::- The largest hutia are Desmarest's Hutia (\"Capromys pilorides\") of Cuba , a tail that is long, and weigh . The largest extinct Blunt-toothed giant hutia to have weighed between 50 and 200 kg (110 and 440 lb).\n\nBULLET::::- The largest Muroid is the Gambian pouched rat of Africa. It grows up to in total length and can weigh up to .\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nyctimystes kuduki\" Richards, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Mountain big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes montanus\" (Peters et Doria, 1878)\n\nBULLET::::- Common big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes narinosus\" Zweifel, 1958\n\nBULLET::::- Simbang big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes obsoletus\" (Lönnberg, 1900)\n\nBULLET::::- Richard's big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes oktediensis\" Richards et Johnston, 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Papua big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes papua\" (Boulenger, 1897)\n\nBULLET::::- Archipelago big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes perimetri\" Zweifel, 1958\n\nBULLET::::- Milne big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes persimilis\" (Zweifel, 1958)\n\nBULLET::::- Spurred big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes pulcher\" (Wandolleck, 1911)\n\nBULLET::::- Rueppel's big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes rueppelli\" (Boettger, 1895)\n\nBULLET::::- Kokoda big-eyed tree frog, \"Nyctimystes semipalmatus\" Parker, 1936\n", "Section::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Muscle architecture and fiber type.\n", "Section::::Gliding and parachuting.\n\nTo bridge gaps between trees, many animals such as the flying squirrel have adapted membranes, such as patagia for gliding flight. Some animals can slow their descent in the air using a method known as parachuting, such as \"Rhacophorus\" (a \"flying frog\" species) that has adapted toe membranes allowing it to fall more slowly after leaping from trees.\n\nSection::::Limbless climbing.\n", "BULLET::::- Sifaka, a type of lemur, and possibly some other primates (possible limited gliding/parachuting). A number of primates have been suggested to have adaptations that allow limited gliding and/or parachuting: sifakas, indris, galagos and saki monkeys. Most notably, the sifaka, a type of lemur, has thick hairs on its forearms that have been argued to provide drag, and a small membrane under its arms that has been suggested to provide lift by having aerofoil properties.\n", "When drawing comparisons between different classes of animals, an alternative unit is used for organisms: \"body length per second\". The fastest organism on earth, relative to its body length, is the South Californian mite, \"Paratarsotomus macropalpis\", which has a speed of 322 body lengths per second. The equivalent speed for a human, running as fast as this mite, would be . The speed of the \"Paratarsotomus macropalpis\" is far in excess of the previous record holder, the Australian tiger beetle, \"Cicindela eburneola\", which is the fastest insect in the world relative to body size, with a recorded speed of , or 171 body lengths per second. The cheetah, the fastest land mammal, scores at only 16 body lengths per second, while Anna's hummingbird has the highest known length-specific velocity attained by any vertebrate.\n", "Fastest animals\n\nThis is a list of the fastest animals in the world, grouped by types of animal.\n\nSection::::Fastest organism.\n\nThe fastest land animal is the cheetah, which has a recorded speed of between and . The peregrine falcon is the fastest bird, and the fastest member of the animal kingdom, with a diving speed of . The fastest animal in the sea is the black marlin, with a recorded speed of .\n", "This phenomenon has been observed in numerous vertebrate behaviors, one of the most notable being jumping. Observed in kangaroos, bush babies, birds, frogs, and various species of antelope, jumping relies on this system because the action is inherently limited in the time that is available to produce power once the body has begun to accelerate. Once the body loses contact with the ground there is no way for the organism to continue to produce force. Substantial improvement in acceleration resulting from these mechanisms have been observed in jumping fleas, accelerating turkeys, the striking of mantis shrimp, and the running of horses who’s bicep brachii power output is amplified fifty times by the use of catapult-like behavior of the tendon.\n", "A muscle's moment arm is defined as the perpendicular distance from the muscle's line of action to the joint's center of rotation. As a general rule, the larger the moment arm of a muscle, the greater torque it can produce with the same amount of force. At the same time, the muscle would cause a smaller change in joint angle for the same amount of length change. As an example, holding a wrench at the very end of the handle (point B) makes it easier to loosen a bolt, however, requires your hand to travel a greater distance compared to holding the wrench closer to the bolt (point A). Although both the cheetah and greyhound are similar in size, the cheetah can attain speeds nearly twice as fast as the greyhound. This can be explained partly by the finding that moment arms of muscles at the knee and ankle joint in the cheetah are proportionally larger than those of the greyhound. A similar comparison can be made between two similar species of lizards. It was found that geckoes more adapted for climbing have greater hip and shoulder retractor moment arms. Geckoes adapted for horizontal locomotion have greater knee and ankle extensor moment arms.\n", "Section::::Speed.\n\nXerocoles, having to travel long distances for food and water, are often adapted for speed, and have long limbs, feet that prevent them from sinking in the sand, and are overall slender in form. As there is little cover to protect them from predators, desert animals also use speed as a defense mechanism. For example, a desert jackrabbit can run much faster than a coyote; as such, \"an ordinary wolf or coyote will not attempt to chase him, for they realize the hopelessness of it.\"\n\nSection::::Known xerocoles.\n\nThe following animals are known xerocoles:\n\nBULLET::::- Aardvark\n\nBULLET::::- Aardwolf\n\nBULLET::::- Acanthodactylus\n" ]	[ "Rats and other smaller mammals with tiny limbs are capable of moving fast.", "Small mammals are capable of moving very fast." ]	[ "While most small prey can accelerate and change directions quickly, they can't run very quickly in one direction.", "They are not going very fast they just make small quick movements." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Rats and other smaller mammals with tiny limbs are capable of moving fast.", "Small mammals are capable of moving very fast." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "While most small prey can accelerate and change directions quickly, they can't run very quickly in one direction.", "They are not going very fast they just make small quick movements." ]
2018-17156	Why do graphics drivers push out updates so frequently? I don't notice anything different after an update, so what's happening under the hood?	About 95% of the time, they are fixing bugs that they didn't find before because their testing is generally inadequate. The key thing they are striving for is getting a product to market as quickly as possible, and quality is not job #1. They want the quality to be just good enough that they don't get a bunch of bad reviews or too many returns. The rest of the time they are adding minor features that may not be noticeable, or even applicable to what you are doing. Source: I worked at nVidia for a while.	[ "In June 2012 AMD announced that they would stop monthly driver-updates and release new drivers \"when it makes sense\".\n\nThe original Catalyst consisted of these elements:\n\nBULLET::::1. a new, unified driver for ATI Radeon graphics-cards\n\nBULLET::::2. Hydravision, ATI's proprietary desktop-management software\n\nBULLET::::3. an ATI \"Multimedia Center\"\n\nBULLET::::4. ATI's Remote Wonder software\n\nBULLET::::5. a new AGP diagnostic and stability tool\n\nBULLET::::6. a redesigned control-panel\n\nKey features promised by ATI include frequent driver-updates with performance enhancements, bug fixes, and new features.\n", "Concerns were raised that due to these changes, users would be unable to skip the automatic installation of updates that are faulty or cause issues with certain system configurations—although build upgrades will also be subject to public beta testing via Windows Insider program. There were also concerns that the forced installation of driver updates through Windows Update, where they were previously designated as \"optional\", could cause conflicts with drivers that were installed independently of Windows Update. An example of such a situation occurred just prior to the general release of the operating system, when an Nvidia graphics card driver that was automatically pushed to Windows10 users via Windows Update caused issues that prevented the use of certain functions, or prevented their system from booting at all.\n", "If a WDDM driver hangs or encounters a fault, the graphics stack will restart the driver. A graphics hardware fault will be intercepted and if necessary the driver will be reset.\n\nDrivers under Windows XP were free to deal with hardware faults as they saw fit either by reporting it to the user or by attempting to recover silently. With a WDDM driver, all hardware faults cause the driver to be reset and the user will be notified by a popup; this unifies the behavior across vendors.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2003, one year after 3dfx was bought by Nvidia and support ended, the source code for their drivers leaked, resulting in fan-made, updated drivers.\n", "The Radeon HD 2000 series has been transitioned to legacy support, where drivers will be updated only to fix bugs instead of being optimized for new applications.\n", "The software’s account settings also mention Turbine, described “discussions and note-taking for teams.” It’s been greyed out and labeled “Coming soon” since the division, however.\n\nSection::::Post-upgrade controversy.\n\nThe v3.0 upgrade spawned a wide range of reactions, especially due to drastic changes in UI and UX. In September 2013 the company released a major update which was a direct response to the feedback from users. The team wrote:\n", "Concerns were raised that due to these changes, users would be unable to skip the automatic installation of updates that are faulty or cause issues with certain system configurationsalthough build upgrades will also be subject to public beta testing via the Windows Insider Program. There were also concerns that the forced installation of driver updates through Windows Update, where they were previously designated as \"optional\", could cause conflicts with drivers that were installed independently of Windows Update. Such a situation occurred just prior to the general release of the operating system, when an Nvidia graphics card driver that was automatically pushed to Windows10 users via Windows Update caused issues that prevented the use of certain functions, or prevented their system from booting at all.\n", "The following Monday and Tuesday at the end of the month, Mac OS X updates appeared.\n\nOn 1 October 2014, Michał Zalewski from Google Inc. finally stated that Weimer's code and bash43-027 had fixed not only the first three bugs but even the remaining three that were published after bash43-027, including his own two discoveries. This means that after the earlier distribution updates, no other updates have been required to cover all the six issues.\n\nAll of them have also been covered for the IBM \"Hardware Management Console\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "This is sometimes known as the \"power\" formulation, since it is now the total transmitted power of each element that is being updated, rather than its radiosity.\n", "In 2005, starting with LabVIEW 8.0, major versions are released around the first week of August, to coincide with the annual National Instruments conference NI Week, and followed by a bug-fix release the following February.\n\nIn 2009, National Instruments began naming releases after the year in which they are released. A bug-fix is termed a Service Pack, for example, the 2009 service pack 1 was released in February 2010.\n\nIn 2017, National Instruments moved the annual conference to May and released LabVIEW 2017 alongside a completely redesigned LabVIEW NXG 1.0 built on Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF).\n\nSection::::Repositories and libraries.\n", "Some of the specific HSA features implemented in the hardware need support from the operating system's kernel (its subsystems) and/or from specific device drivers. For example, in July 2014 AMD published a set of 83 patches to be merged into Linux kernel mainline 3.17 for supporting their Graphics Core Next-based Radeon graphics cards. The special driver titled \"HSA kernel driver\" resides in the directory /drivers/gpu/hsa while the DRM-graphics device drivers reside in /drivers/gpu/drm and augments the already existent DRM driver for Radeon cards. This very first implementation focuses on a single and works alongside the existing Radeon kernel graphics driver (kgd).\n", "Usually a legacy driver does feature support for newer GPUs as well, but since newer GPUs are supported by newer GeForce driver numbers which regularly provide more features and better support, the end-user is encouraged to always use the highest possible drivers number.\n\nCurrent driver:\n\nBULLET::::- GeForce driver \"latest\" provides support for Kepler-, Maxwell-, Pascal-based- and Turing-based GPUs.\n\nSection::::Graphics device drivers.:Free and open-source.\n", "Initially, ATI did not produce Radeon drivers for Linux, instead giving hardware specifications and documentation to Direct Rendering Infrastructure (DRI) developers under various non-disclosure agreements.\n\nThe frequency of driver updates increased in late 2004, releasing Linux drivers every two months, half as often as their Windows counterparts. Then since late 2005 this has been increased to monthly releases, inline with the Windows Catalyst releases.\n", "The software configures the user's system to optimize its use, and the license says, \"NVIDIA will have no responsibility for any damage or loss to such system (including loss of data or access) arising from or relating to (a) any changes to the configuration, application settings, environment variables, registry, drivers, BIOS, or other attributes of the system (or any part of such system) initiated through the SOFTWARE\".\n\nSection::::Graphics device drivers.:GeForce Experience.\n\nUntil the March 26 2019 update, users of GeForce Experience were vulnerable to code execution, denial of service and escalation of privilege attacks \n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Google's open source project Chromium requires frequent updates to narrow the window of vulnerability. It uses a more aggressive diffing algorithm called \"courgette\" to reduce diff size of two binary executable files, which reduces the diff patch from 6.7% to 0.76% for one version update. The technology helped Chrome to push its updates to 100% of users in less than 10 days.\n\nApp APK updates in Android's Play Store use bsdiff, a new efficient delta update algorithm introduced in 2016. \n\nSection::::Uses.:Apple iOS.\n", "Version 2011 is mainly a database update adding 88,000 miles of new mapping to the program and the removal of support for the ending MSN Direct service and coupon data, while allowing direct map correction feedback to maps provider Navteq and the addition of cardinal direction guidance and alternate road names to direction data. This version came out in February rather than the traditional August/September release date. No reasons were given.\n\nVersion 2013 has been released as of July 1, 2012.\n", "Present provides two main operations to X clients: update a region of a window using part of or all the contents of a pixmap () and set the type of presentation events related to a certain window that the client wants to be notified about (). There are three presentation events about which a window can notify an X client: when an ongoing presentation operation —normally from a call to — has been completed (), when a pixmap used by a operation is ready to be reused () and when the window configuration —mostly window size— changes (). Whether a operation performs a direct copy (blit) onto the front buffer or a swap of the entire back buffer with the front buffer is an internal detail of the Present extension implementation, instead of an explicit choice of the X client as it was in DRI2.\n", "BULLET::::- Miscellaneous - A new SupportContextlessPresent driver cap to help IHV onboard new driver.\n\nBULLET::::- Improvements to External/Removable GPU support in the OS. As a first step to add better support, Dxgkrnl needs to determine if a GPU is “detachable”, i.e. hot-pluggable. For RS4 we would like to leverage the driver’s knowledge about this instead of building our own infrastructure. For this purpose, we are adding a “Detachable” bit to DXGK_ DRIVERCAPS struct. Driver will set this bit during adapter initialization if the adapter is hot-pluggable.\n", "Traction TeamPage 6.0 release first shipped 9 Apr 2014 with styling and performance updates for the Proteus skin; improved rich text editor; Jetty Web server to support session tracking, improved DDoS defense, compatibility with SPDY and WebSocket protocols; smaller memory footprint; redesigned setup interface; and security improvements including updated cryptographic algorithms including use of PBKDF2, and recording and optional login display of most recent failed and successful login attempts.\n", "In 2008, ATI changed its release cycles and driver versions; now referred to as Catalyst year.month, the driver package still includes an internal 8.xx.x driver revision, but it is now monthly, having a common code base with the Windows driver (starting with internal release 8.43). In 2009, the Catalyst driver officially dropped support for R500 and older chips, the FOSS driver being deemed stable and complete enough. The last driver release supporting older architectures is Catalyst 9.3.\n\nIn September 2015, AMD reintroduced the driver software as Radeon Software Crimson Edition in version 15.11 with a new UI design.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "From 2006 to 2013, NVDA's source code was managed via Bazaar, with NV Access switching to Git in 2013, citing development progress with Bazaar. The developers also took the opportunity to modify the release schedule to happen at regular intervals to prevent delay in releasing an official release and to make the release time frame predictable.\n", "Section::::Reliability improvements.:Device Driver Rollback.\n\nOn old versions of Windows, when users upgrade a device driver, there is a chance the new driver is less stable, efficient or functional than the original. Reinstalling the old driver can be a major hassle and to avoid this quandary, Windows XP keeps a copy of an old driver when a new version is installed. If the new driver has problems, the user can return to the previous version. This feature does not work with printer drivers.\n\nSection::::Reliability improvements.:Other driver enhancements.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Windows Driver Protection\" blocks known problematic drivers from installing or loading\n", "BULLET::::- For Plug-and-play hardware which is plugged in after Windows Vista is installed, it is not possible to choose from a list of available staged or on-disk device drivers in the \"Found new hardware\" wizard which starts automatically. The \"Found new hardware\" wizard automatically searches for the driver and fails if it does not find a driver in the driver store or Windows Update. Only the \"Update Driver\" wizard which can be invoked from Device Manager then allows manually choosing a driver from a list.\n\nBULLET::::- Windows Management Instrumentation Driver Extensions to WDM are no longer supported.\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 ToolBook 5.0, 5.01\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 ToolBook 6.0, 6.1, 6.1a\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 ToolBook 6.5\n\nBULLET::::- 1999 ToolBook 7.0\n\nBULLET::::- 1999 ToolBook 7.1\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 ToolBook 7.2\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 ToolBook 8.0\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 ToolBook 8.1\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 ToolBook 8.5\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 ToolBook 8.6\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 ToolBook 2004 (aka 8.9)\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 ToolBook 2004 SP1\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 ToolBook 2004 SP2\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 ToolBook 2004 SP3\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 ToolBook 9.0\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 ToolBook 9.01\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 ToolBook 9.5\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 ToolBook 9.5 Service Pack 1\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 ToolBook 10.0\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 ToolBook 10.0 Patch 1\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 ToolBook 10.5\n", "TeamPage Summer 2015 release adds two new interactive features: Live Task Lists and Presence. The list of Tasks shown in a shared Task view can now be reordered by drag and drop action to express planned order of execution, rather than being limited to start date order. When a change is made, everyone viewing that Task List sees the same live update. Task views include a new Presence bar that shows the name and avatar of each person who is currently viewing the same Task. The release also introduces a new Bookmarks sidebar and improves Japanese language search hit highlighting.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21342	How does menthol (like cough sweets) unblock your nose and clear your throat?	According to some studies menthol doesn’t have decongestant properties but ends up tricking your brain’s perception of increased nasal patency. Source: [this study]( URL_0 )	[ "This menthol and eucalyptus combination is widely used in medicated sweets to clear the head and nasal passages and to reduce the symptoms of nasal congestions and colds.\n", "A study conducted in 1994 suggests menthol and camphor are effective cough suppressants for guinea pigs. It has been suggested that thymol oil can reduce or cure onychomycosis (nail fungus), although the same source mentions that \"no human studies have been conducted to test whether thymol is a lasting and effective treatment\".\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n\nThe ingredients, as listed on older product labels, are: camphor, menthol, spirits of turpentine, oil of eucalyptus, cedar leaf, nutmeg, and thymol, all \"in a specially balanced Vick formula\".\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:US.\n\nActive Ingredients:\n\n\"Label reads: Active Ingredients (Purpose)\n\nRegular:\n\nLemon: \n\nInactive Ingredients\n\nRegular & Lemon: \n", "Menthol\n\nMenthol is an organic compound made synthetically or obtained from the oils of corn mint, peppermint, or other mints. It is a waxy, crystalline substance, clear or white in color, which is solid at room temperature and melts slightly above.\n\nThe main form of menthol occurring in nature is (−)-menthol, which is assigned the (1\"R\",2\"S\",5\"R\") configuration. Menthol has local anesthetic and counterirritant qualities, and it is widely used to relieve minor throat irritation. Menthol also acts as a weak kappa opioid receptor agonist.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Safe use.\n\nVapoRub can be inhaled with hot steam. Since VapoRub ointment is an oil-based medication, it should not be used under or inside the nose or inside the mouth, and it should not be swallowed. Any oil-based product can get into the lungs if used improperly.\n\nIn pre-clinical animal studies, the application of Vicks VapoRub directly onto the tracheae of ferrets caused an increase in mucus production compared to a water-based lubricant.\n", "Lozenges may contain benzocaine, an anaesthetic, or eucalyptus oil. Non-menthol throat lozenges generally use either zinc gluconate glycine or pectin as an oral demulcent. Several brands of throat lozenges contain dextromethorphan.\n\nStill other varieties, such as Halls, contain menthol, peppermint oil and/or spearmint as their active ingredient(s). Honey lozenges are also available.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Medicinal uses.\n\nA tea made of the leaves and stem has been used to treat tooth pain. For cases of cough and bronchitis, a water extract (decoction) of \"Mimosa tenuiflora\" is drunk. A handful of bark in one liter of water is used by itself or in a syrup. The solution is drunk until the symptoms subside.\n\nOne preliminary clinical study found \"Mimosa tenuiflora\" to be effective in treating venous leg ulcerations.\n", "Menthogen was originally created and developed by Mr F.J. Cunningham MIT (Lond) MAE FRSPH at his dispensary in Castleton, Rochdale, Greater Manchester in 2002 for in clinic use with private clinic patient's within his trichology centre. A year long private double-blind study was undertaken to study the assumed benefits of the formulation.\n\nSection::::Science.\n", "For over two decades, Kools were the only significant menthol cigarette brand in the United States, with a market share that never got much above 2%. Their advertisements focused on \"throat comfort\" and the \"medicinal\" properties of menthol, and some ads even suggested occasional use: \"In between the others, rest your throat with Kools.\"\n", "Demulcent\n\nA demulcent (derived from the \"caress\") is an agent that forms a soothing film over a mucous membrane, relieving minor pain and inflammation of the membrane. However, they generally help for less than 30 minutes. \n\nDemulcents are sometimes referred to as mucoprotective agents. Demulcents such as pectin, glycerin, honey, and syrup are common ingredients in cough mixtures and cough drops. Methylcellulose, propylene glycol and glycerine are synthetic demulcents.\n", "Although the use of menthol in ointments and cough drops is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States of America, regulation of cigarettes was removed from their purview in 2000 by the Supreme Court in a 5–4 ruling, \"FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp.\" In October 2009, the United States Congress passed the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, which gave the FDA the authority to regulate tobacco products and ban flavor additives, although the act contained an exception for menthol.\n", "When The Yucca Company started manufacturing a cough syrup containing a blend of camphor and menthol, named Vest Pocket Cough Specific, Hyde became intrigued by the soothing and antiinflammatory effects of menthol. After years of research and experimentation, the company introduced the original \"Mentholatum Ointment\" in December 1894, which consisted of a combination of menthol and petrolatum. The product was so successful that in 1903 Hyde opened a second office in Buffalo, New York, to handle sales and distribution east of the Mississippi River. In 1906, The Yucca Co. officially incorporated the name \"The Mentholatum Company\" after its flagship product and no longer sold soap. In 1909 a new factory was built in Wichita, Kansas, and in 1919 a second factory was built in Buffalo. The Wichita factory was closed after Hyde's death in 1935 and the corporate offices were moved to Wilmington, Delaware, in 1937 and later to Buffalo in 1945.\n", "The powdered form of \"Silphium perfoliatum L.\" has diaphoretic and tonic properties. It can help alleviate the symptoms of fevers, dry cough, asthma, spleen illness, heart and liver disease. The extract from the leaves of the plant has shown to lower cholesterol and triglycerides levels in blood. Studies show that the presence of phenolic acids is responsible for the species’ antiseptic activity to stimulate generation of IgG and IgM antibodies. In addition, it stimulates bile production of the gall bladder.\n", "Salmeterol\n\nSalmeterol is a long-acting β adrenergic receptor agonist (LABA) used in the maintenance and prevention of asthma symptoms and maintenance of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) symptoms. Symptoms of bronchospasm include shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness. It is also used to prevent breathing difficulties during exercise (exercise-induced bronchoconstriction). \n", "The two crystal forms for racemic menthol have melting points of 28 °C and 38 °C. Pure (−)-menthol has four crystal forms, of which the most stable is the α form, the familiar broad needles.\n\nSection::::Biological properties.\n\nMenthol's ability to chemically trigger the cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin is responsible for the well-known cooling sensation it provokes when inhaled, eaten, or applied to the skin. In this sense, it is similar to capsaicin, the chemical responsible for the spiciness of hot chilis (which stimulates heat sensors, also without causing an actual change in temperature).\n", "Bromhexine, a synthetic compound imitating the molecular shape of vasicine, is a common ingredient of cough medicine for its mucolytic properties; it increases the production of serous mucus in the respiratory tract which makes the phlegm thinner and less viscous, which allows the cilia to more easily transport the phlegm out of the lungs.\n", "Section::::Background.:Mentholatum in the 21st century.\n\nAs of 2005, the company sells its products in more than 130 countries. Mentholatum acquired the Oxy Skin Care branding (but not all the product formulas) from GlaxoSmithKline in December 2005, and targeted the younger, teen audience with new diversified offerings, packaging, and scents. The company further acquired the Phisoderm brand from Chattem Inc. for $9.6 million on November 30, 2005.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Taylor. Amazing Mentholatum and the Commerce of Curing the Common Cold, 1889-1955. Angeles Crest Publications, Inc.; 1st edition (October 20, 2006)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In brewing, decoction mashing is the traditional method where a portion of the mash is removed to a separate vessel, boiled for a time and then returned to the main mash, raising the mash to the next temperature step.\n\nIn herbalism, decoctions are usually made to extract fluids from hard plant materials such as roots and bark. To achieve this, the plant material is usually boiled for 1–2 hours in 1-5 liters of water. It is then strained. Ayurveda also utilizes this method to create \"Kashayam\" type of herbal medicines.\n", "Absorbine, a horse liniment product manufactured by W.F. Young, Inc., was reformulated for humans and marketed as Absorbine Jr. The company also acquired other liniment brands including Bigeloil and RefreshMint. The equine version of Absorbine is sometimes used by humans, though its benefits in humans may be because the smell of menthol releases serotonin, or due to a placebo effect.\n", "Numerous studies have been published investigating the effect of L-menthol application as a model for TRPM8-sensitization. The primary consensus finding is that TRPM8 sensitization increases the sensation of cold pain, also known as cold hyperalgesia. An experiment was done in a double-blind two-way crossover study by applying 40% L-menthol to the forearm, using ethanol as a control. Activation of the TRPM8-receptor channel (the primary menthol receptor channel) resulted in increased sensitization to the menthol stimulus. To investigate the mechanisms of this sensitization, Wasner \"et al.\", 2004, performed A fiber conduction blockade of the superficial radial nerve in another group of subjects. This ended up reducing the menthol-induced sensation of cold and hyperalgesia because blocking A fiber conduction resulted in inhibition of a class of group C nerve fiber nociceptors needed to transduce the sensation of pain. They concluded menthol sensitizes cold-sensitive peripheral C nociceptors and activates cold-specific A delta fibers.\n", "Nafarelin is used to treat endometriosis at lower dosages of 400 to 800 μg per day. This is achieved by one or two sprays (200 or 400 μg total) into alternating nostrils once in the morning and once in the evening (two to four sprays per day total). A bottle of nafarelin nasal spray (brand name Synarel) lasts for about 30 days at a dosage of 400 μg/day.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Available forms.\n", "Menthone is a constituent of the essential oils of pennyroyal, peppermint, \"Mentha arvensis\", \"Pelargonium\" geraniums, and others. In most essential oils, it is a minor compound. This is the cause for the fact that it was first synthesized by oxidation of menthol in 1881 before it was found in essential oils in 1891.\n\nSection::::Structure and preparation.\n", "After use with corticosteroid, it is theoretically possible for patients to develop a yeast infection in the mouth (thrush) or hoarseness of voice (dysphonia), although these conditions are clinically very rare. To avoid these adverse effects, some clinicians suggest that the person who used the nebulizer should rinse his or her mouth. This is not true for bronchodilators; however, patients may still wish to rinse their mouths due to the unpleasant taste of some bronchodilating drugs.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Soothers Blackcurrant\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Cherry\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Honey And Lemon\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Peach And Raspberry\n\nBULLET::::- Soothers Strawberry\n\nBULLET::::- Fresh & Cool\n\nBULLET::::- Zingy Citrus\n\nBULLET::::- Strawberry Wave\n\nThe \"Soothers\" varieties do not list menthol on their ingredients and their packaging does not describe them as a medicine or specify any dosage instructions, but supermarkets frequently categorise them as common cold treatment.\n\nSection::::Drug information.\n\nThe menthol ingredient acts as local anesthetic and \"creates a cooling sensation\". Also acts as a cough suppressant.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry\n\nBULLET::::- Honey-Lemon\n\nBULLET::::- Honey-Lemon Chamomile\n\nBULLET::::- Ice Blue Peppermint:\n\nBULLET::::- Intense Cool:\n\nBULLET::::- Mentho-Lyptus:\n", "Menthol cigarettes are constructed similarly to non-mentholated cigarettes, with menthol added at any of several stages during the manufacturing process. Menthol may be derived from distilled corn mint oil, or produced synthetically. While trace amounts of menthol may be added to non-mentholated cigarettes for flavor or other reasons, a menthol cigarette typically has at least 0.3% menthol content by weight. Lower-tar menthol cigarettes may have menthol levels up to 2%, in order to keep menthol delivery constant despite the filtration and ventilation designs used to reduce tar.\n", "As is common in response to many other sensory stimuli, much experimental evidence exists for the desensitization of human response of TRPM8 receptors to menthol. Testing involving administration of menthol and nicotine-containing cigarettes non-smokers, which induced what they classified as an irritant response, after initial sensitization, showed a declining response in subjects over time, lending itself to the incidence of desensitization. Ethanol, with similar irritant and desensitization properties, was used as a control for nicotine, to distinguish it from menthol-induced response. The menthol receptor was seen to sensitize or desensitize based on cellular conditions, and menthol produces increased activity in Ca-voltage gated channels that is not seen in ethanol, cyclohexanol and other irritant controls, suggestive of a specific molecular receptor. Dessirier \"et al.\", 2001, also claim the cross-desensitization of menthol receptors can occur by unknown molecular mechanisms, though they hypothesize the importance of Ca2+ in reducing cell excitability in a way similar to that in the capsaicin receptor.\n" ]	[ "Menthol products like cough drops unclogs your nose and throat." ]	[ "Menthol doesn't actually have decongestant properties, it just tricks your brain into increasing nasal patency." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Menthol products like cough drops unclogs your nose and throat.", "Menthol products like cough drops unclogs your nose and throat." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Menthol doesn't actually have decongestant properties, it just tricks your brain into increasing nasal patency.", "Menthol doesn't actually have decongestant properties, it just tricks your brain into increasing nasal patency." ]
2018-03602	Why is a recent (less than a year) prescription required to order replacement contact lenses or glasses when it's OK to wear existing lenses or glasses for over a year?	I get my eyes checked every year and because of my health insurance, I only pay a small copay for new glasses/contacts. You should be wearing the best corrective lenses for your eyes so if you have not gone to see your ophthalmologist in over a year, you should. Its not really OK to wear existing ones if your eyes have changed in that time as they can lead to headaches and damaging your eyesight even more. Which is why you should make it a point to get your eyes checked at least once a year.	[ "In the U.S., laws at the federal and state level govern the provision and effective dates of prescriptions for contact lenses and eyeglasses. Federal law requires that eyeglass and contact lens prescriptions be given to every consumer, and that the prescriptions be for a minimum of one year. (FTC Section 456.2 “Separation of examination and dispensing” was reviewed in 2004: FTC 2004 review of section 456.2)).\n", "Section::::Contention.\n\nPrescribers may, within the law, require patients to buy contact lenses prior to prescribing, skirting the intent of the legislation, giving the prescriber at least one lens sale per year, or whenever a patient runs out of contacts, whichever is later, as prescriptions are only good for a year. \n\nAnother concern a prescriber may exclaim is that they don't want to be liable for any defects in contacts provided by a third party, however the law specifically disclaims that liability.\n\nSection::::Legislative history.\n", "Other disposable contact lenses are designed for replacement every two or four weeks. Quarterly or annual lenses, which used to be very common, are now much less so. Rigid gas permeable lenses are very durable and may last for several years without the need for replacement. PMMA hards were very durable and were commonly worn for 5 to 10 years, but had several drawbacks.\n", "Many complications arise when contact lenses are worn not as prescribed (improper wear schedule or lens replacement). Sleeping in lenses not designed or approved for extended wear is a common cause of complications. Many people go too long before replacing their contacts, wearing lenses designed for 1, 14, or 30 days of wear for multiple months or years. While this does save on the cost of lenses, it risks permanent damage to the eye and even loss of sight.\n", "Wearing lenses designed for daily wear overnight has an increased risk for corneal infections, corneal ulcers and corneal neovascularization—this latter condition, once it sets in, cannot be reversed and will eventually spoil vision acuity through diminishing corneal transparency. The most common complication of extended wear is giant papillary conjunctivitis (GPC), sometimes associated with a poorly fitting contact lens.\n\nSection::::Types.:Replacement schedule.\n", "Concerns with these lenses in the United States arise from people buying lenses without consulting their optometrists, which could result in lenses that do not fit the individual's eyes properly.\n\nSection::::Legality.\n\nSection::::Legality.:United States.\n\nIn the United States decorative, non-corrective contact lenses are considered medical devices by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and sale and marketing of such devices require market clearance by the FDA and a valid prescription from a medical professional. Devices that have not been cleared by the FDA may be subject to seizure by US Customs.\n", "Lenses with different replacement schedules can be made of the same material. Although the materials are alike, differences in the manufacturing processes determine if the resulting lens will be a \"daily disposable\" or one recommended for two or four week replacement. However, sometimes manufacturers use absolutely identical lenses and just repackage them with different labels.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.\n\nTypically, soft contact lenses are mass-produced, while rigids are custom-made to exact specifications for the individual patient.\n\nBULLET::::- Spin-cast lenses – A soft lens manufactured by whirling liquid silicone in a revolving mold at high speed.\n", "Long-term wear (over five years) of contact lenses may \"decrease the entire corneal thickness and increase the corneal curvature and surface irregularity.\" Long-term wear of rigid contacts is associated with decreased corneal keratocyte density and increased number of epithelial Langerhans cells.\n\nAll contact lenses sold in the United States are studied and approved as safe by the FDA when specific handling and care procedures, wear schedules, and replacement schedules are followed.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Under the Rule issued by the FTC, contact lens prescribers - defined as anyone permitted under state law to issue prescriptions for contact lenses, which include ophthalmologists, optometrists, and licensed opticians who are permitted under state law to fit contact lenses (sometimes called \"dispensing opticians\") must give a copy of the contact lens prescription to the patient at the end of the contact lens fitting, even if the patient doesn't ask for it. Prescribers must also provide or verify the contact lens prescription to anyone who designated to act on behalf of the patient, including contact lens sellers. Prescribers are also barred from requiring patients to buy contact lenses, pay additional fees, sign waivers or releases in exchange for a copy of their prescription, or disclaim liability or responsibility for the accuracy of an eye examination.\n", "Section::::Structural change.\n", "In the United States, the FDA labels non-corrective cosmetic contact lenses as \"decorative contact lenses\". Like any contact lens, cosmetic lenses carry risks of mild to serious complications, including ocular redness, irritation and infection.\n", "The \"way\" for a mail order contact lens industry did not become clear until the Federal Trade Commission ruled in 1985, that eye doctors (Ophthalmologists and Optometrists) must provide the contact lens prescription to their patients so that the patient may shop for contact lenses as a consumer. Withholding a contact lens prescription would be considered restraint of trade.\n", "In July 2014, the Medicines Amendment Act 2013 and Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2014 came into effect. Among other things, the changes to the Act name optometrists as authorised prescribers. This change enables optometrists with a therapeutic pharmaceutical agent (TPA) endorsement to prescribe all medicines appropriate to their scope of practice, rather than limiting them to a list of medicines specified in regulation; this recognises the safe and appropriate prescribing practice of optometrists over the previous nine years.\n\nSection::::Training, licensing, representation and scope of practice.:South America.\n\nSection::::Training, licensing, representation and scope of practice.:South America.:Brazil.\n", "During the first month of lens wear when the treatment zone on the surface of the cornea is in the process of becoming fully formed, some users may experience vision issues such as ghosting, double vision, contrast problems and/or starbursting, especially at night. These issues are generally resolved by the end of the first month of lens wear. If these issues persist beyond this initial period, the cause may be due to lack of centration of the lens on the eye and/or overly large pupil size (in light or dark). Resolution may be possible through redesign, material changes, better eye moisture retention (night eye masks, duct blocking, etc.) or other techniques.\n", "Eyeglass prescription\n\nAn eyeglass prescription is an order written by an eyewear prescriber, such as an optometrist or ophthalmologist, that specifies the value of all parameters the prescriber has deemed necessary to construct and/or dispense corrective lenses appropriate for a patient. If an examination indicates that corrective lenses are appropriate, the prescriber generally provides the patient with an eyewear prescription at the conclusion of the exam.\n", "The corrective effect is stable but not permanent. Left to itself, the eye will slowly lose its adjusted shape, taking around something of the region of 3 days to return to its former vision. The Ortho-K lenses must therefore be worn regularly so the corrected corneal shape is preserved and maintained. Usually they are worn only for part of the day (typically only when asleep at night); some users may only need to use them one night out of every two or three nights.\n\nSection::::Health considerations.\n\nSection::::Health considerations.:Indications and counter-indications.\n", "Knowledge concerning the form and function of the cornea and the various types of contact lenses and their common complications is important to understanding this article.\n\nSection::::Changes in function and morphology.\n", "The APEL was created in 2006 because statistics showed that about 10% of battlefield injuries at that time included eye injuries. The APEL is updated periodically; it usually contains more than a dozen types of non-prescription and prescription spectacles and goggles for different duty situations and soldier preferences. In 2010, the APEL was placed under the oversight of the Military Combat Eyewear Protection (MCEP) program under the office of PEO Soldier.\n\nSection::::Syles.\n", "Recent changes to the British Columbia Opticians regulations allow qualified opticians in that province to test a persons vision and prepare an assessment of the corrective lenses required for a client. Using the results of the assessment an optician is able to prepare and dispense eyeglasses or contact lenses. Opticians in Alberta are also permitted, under certain conditions, to refract and prepare and dispense eyeglasses and contact lenses\n\nSection::::By country.:Canada.:Provincial regulatory organizations.\n", "So-called \"centralised\" (European Medicines Agency / European Commission) MAs were introduced by Regulation 2309/93 and became available in January 1995 (i.e. some 2 years after the introduction of the original SPC legislation for medicinal products). The introduction of these authorisations added a new layer of complexity to the issue of determination of the date of a MA. This is because there are two dates associated with \"centralised\" authorisations, namely: (1) the date of the European Commission's decision to issue an authorisation; and (2) the date of notification of that decision to the MA applicant. Date (2) is usually a few days (e.g. 2 to 4 days) later than date (1). Although the standard practice of many national patent offices seems to be to calculate SPC term based upon date (1), an October 2011 article in Scrip Regulatory Affairs by Mike Snodin argues that this standard practice is incorrect and that date (2) should be used instead (with the result that some products may be entitled to a slightly longer SPC term than previously thought). Paramount amongst the reasons for preferring date (2) to date (1) is that a \"centralised\" authorisation does not become effective until it is notified to the MA applicant.\n", "Contact lenses are prescribed by ophthalmologists, optometrists, or specially licensed opticians under the supervision of an eye doctor. Contact lenses can typically be ordered at the office that conducts the eye exam and fitting. The Fairness to Contact Lens Consumers Act gives consumers the right to obtain a copy of their contact lens prescription, allowing them to fill it at the lens provider of their choice.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n", "On February 4, 2004, the Fairness to Contact Lens Consumers Act went into effect. This federal law requires that optical care providers release their patients' prescriptions to them. AC Lens was provided the opportunity to comment and suggest changes to the FTC on March 31, 2004. The final ruling on the law was released by the FTC in July 2004. In October 2004, the FTC released a A Guide for Prescribes and Sellers\n\nSection::::Recognition.\n", "Discarding one's corrective lenses, as Bates recommended, or wearing lenses weaker than one's prescribed correction, as some Bates method advocates suggest, poses a potential safety hazard in certain situations, especially when one is operating a motor vehicle. James Randi related that his father, shortly after discarding glasses on the advice of Bates' book, wrecked his car. Bates method teachers often caution that when driving, one should wear the correction legally required.\n\nSection::::General criticisms.:Avoidance of conventional treatment.\n", "Risks are comparable to or safer than ordinary contact lenses, since they are typically worn for much shorter periods (6–8 hours rather than daytime or 24/7) and while asleep rather than while active. They also compare favorably to surgical correction since no surgery is involved, corrections to the eye's shape can be handled over time (surgery corrects vision at a single point in time, but post-operative ongoing changes to eyesight will continue to occur during the patient's lifetime), and it is considered generally safe for younger patients. In addition, Ortho-K is broadly not 'new' from a safety viewpoint; contact lens safety generally speaking is considered to be well understood. However it is important, as with all contact lenses, to maintain good cleaning and hygiene discipline.\n", "Dr. Linda Kaplan's national television and print campaign for Lens Express was directed at educating the American consumer: \"I endorse the Lens Express program because they guarantee to deliver the exact same lenses your own doctor prescribed, while making the purchase of new, fresh replacement lenses, easy and convenient for thousands of men and women across America\" Linda Kaplan, MD, PA, FAAO. The message impact of safety, quality and convenience was strong.\n" ]	[ "It's ok to wear existing lenses or glasses for over a year." ]	[ "It is not really ok to do that because it can cause more damage to your eyes as your eyes have changed during that time." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It's ok to wear existing lenses or glasses for over a year." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is not really ok to do that because it can cause more damage to your eyes as your eyes have changed during that time." ]
2018-03787	How does your body increase your temperature when you are ill?	This is something regulated hypothalamus it increases body temp till kill off bacteria and viruses that are attacking the body a fever of 105 will kill off most invaders	[ "In many respects, the hypothalamus works like a thermostat. When the set point is raised, the body increases its temperature through both active generation of heat and retention of heat. Peripheral vasoconstriction both reduces heat loss through the skin and causes the person to feel cold. Norepinephrine increases thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and muscle contraction through shivering raises the metabolic rate. If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new set point in the hypothalamus, then shivering begins in order to use muscle movements to produce more heat. When the hypothalamic set point moves back to baseline either spontaneously or with medication, the reverse of these processes (vasodilation, end of shivering and nonshivering heat production) and sweating are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.\n", "With fever, the body's core temperature rises to a higher temperature through the action of the part of the brain that controls the body temperature; with hyperthermia, the body temperature is raised without the influence of the heat control centers.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hypothermia.\n\nIn hypothermia, body temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In humans, this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body's core temperature drops by below normal temperature.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Basal body temperature.\n", "Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between . The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold. This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure. This is more common in young children. Fevers do not typically go higher than .\n", "Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever. For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5 °C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such as \"Beauveria bassiana\" and \"Metarhizium acridum\". Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasite \"Ascosphaera apis\".\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhoades, R. and Pflanzer, R. Human physiology, third edition, chapter 27 \"Regulation of body temperature\", p. 820 \"Clinical focus: pathogenesis of fever\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever and Taking Your Child's Temperature\n", "Temperature is ultimately regulated in the hypothalamus. A trigger of the fever, called a pyrogen, causes release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). PGE2 in turn acts on the hypothalamus, which creates a systemic response in the body, causing heat-generating effects to match a new higher temperature set point.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Hypothalamus.\n\nThe brain ultimately orchestrates heat effector mechanisms via the autonomic nervous system or primary motor center for shivering. These may be:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased heat production by increased muscle tone, shivering and hormones like epinephrine (adrenaline)\n\nBULLET::::- Prevention of heat loss, such as vasoconstriction.\n\nIn infants, the autonomic nervous system may also activate brown adipose tissue to produce heat (non-exercise-associated thermogenesis, also known as non-shivering thermogenesis). Increased heart rate and vasoconstriction contribute to increased blood pressure in fever.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Usefulness.\n", "An organism at optimum temperature is considered \"afebrile\" or \"apyrexic\", meaning \"without fever\". If temperature is raised, but the setpoint is not raised, then the result is hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hyperthermia.\n", "Section::::Thermodynamics.\n\nThe ambient temperature of the body directly affects blood flow through microvasculature. Changes in temperature affect the viscosity of blood and the surface tension. Surface tension decreases with increasing temperature, decreasing the minimum flow rate (see Surface Tension). The decrease in minimum flow rate by higher temperatures allows more blood to flow and dissipate heat throughout the body. Temperature greatly affects blood flow by influencing the diameter of flow. Decreases and increases in temperature trigger vasoconstriction and vasodilation respectively.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.:Vasoconstriction.\n", "Some limited evidence supports sponging or bathing feverish children with tepid water. The use of a fan or air conditioning may somewhat reduce the temperature and increase comfort. If the temperature reaches the extremely high level of hyperpyrexia, aggressive cooling is required (generally produced mechanically via conduction by applying numerous ice packs across most of the body or direct submersion in ice water). In general, people are advised to keep adequately hydrated. Whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illnesses such as the common cold is not known.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "When the government decided that Alexander, as patriarch, must submit to being branded with the lion as well, he protested and asked that he be allowed to plead his case before the viceroy himself. Alexander was taken to Fustat with a special military bodyguard. However, when he arrived at the capital, the viceroy refused to see him, and Alexander was forced to remain in Fustat.\n\nSection::::Death.\n", "One model for the mechanism of fever caused by exogenous pyrogens includes LPS, which is a cell wall component of gram-negative bacteria. An immunological protein called lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) binds to LPS. The LBP–LPS complex then binds to the CD14 receptor of a nearby macrophage. This binding results in the synthesis and release of various endogenous cytokine factors, such as interleukin 1 (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and the tumor necrosis factor-alpha. In other words, exogenous factors cause release of endogenous factors, which, in turn, activate the arachidonic acid pathway. The highly toxic metabolism-boosting supplement 2,4-dinitrophenol induces high body temperature via the inhibition of ATP production by mitochondria, resulting in impairment of cellular respiration. Instead of producing ATP, the energy of the proton gradient is lost as heat.\n", "Section::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to fever.\n\nFever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.\n\nSection::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to biofeedback.\n\nSome monks are known to practice Tummo, biofeedback meditation techniques, that allow them to raise their body temperatures substantially.\n\nSection::::Low body temperature increases lifespan.\n", "These cytokine factors are released into general circulation, where they migrate to the circumventricular organs of the brain due to easier absorption caused by the blood–brain barrier's reduced filtration action there. The cytokine factors then bind with endothelial receptors on vessel walls, or interact with local microglial cells. When these cytokine factors bind, the arachidonic acid pathway is then activated.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Pyrogens.:Exogenous.\n", "A fever occurs when the core temperature is set higher, through the action of the pre-optic region of the anterior hypothalamus. For example, in response to a bacterial or viral infection, certain white blood cells within the blood will release pyrogens which have a direct effect on the anterior hypothalamus, causing body temperature to rise, much like raising the temperature setting on a thermostat.\n\nIn contrast, hyperthermia occurs when the body temperature rises without a change in the heat control centers.\n", "Temperature can be recorded in order to establish a baseline for the individual's normal body temperature for the site and measuring conditions. The main reason for checking body temperature is to solicit any signs of systemic infection or inflammation in the presence of a fever (temp 38.5 °C/101.3 °F or sustained temp 38 °C/100.4 °F), or elevated significantly above the individual's normal temperature. Other causes of elevated temperature include hyperthermia.\n", "Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more. A raised temperature is not always a fever. For example, the temperature of a healthy person rises when he or she exercises, but this is not considered a fever, as the set point is normal. On the other hand, a \"normal\" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person. For example, medically frail elderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a \"normal\" temperature of may represent a clinically significant fever.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Types.\n", "A temperature \"setpoint\" is the level at which the body attempts to maintain its temperature. When the setpoint is raised, the result is a fever. Most fevers are caused by infectious disease and can be lowered, if desired, with antipyretic medications.\n\nAn early morning temperature higher than or a late afternoon temperature higher than is normally considered a fever, assuming that the temperature is elevated due to a change in the hypothalamus's setpoint. Lower thresholds are sometimes appropriate for elderly people. The normal daily temperature variation is typically , but can be greater among people recovering from a fever.\n", "Section::::Monitoring and control.\n", "When body temperature is significantly elevated, mechanical cooling methods are used to remove heat and to restore the body's ability to regulate its own temperatures. Passive cooling techniques, such as resting in a cool, shady area and removing clothing can be applied immediately. Active cooling methods, such as sponging the head, neck, and trunk with cool water, remove heat from the body and thereby speed the body's return to normal temperatures. Drinking water and turning a fan or dehumidifying air conditioning unit on the affected person may improve the effectiveness of the body's evaporative cooling mechanisms (sweating).\n", "The neural activation mechanisms involved in the regulation of body temperature are largely undefined. It is known that sympathetic pathways are involved in increasing heat production and reducing heat loss and are activated by neurons in the rostal medullary raphe (RMR). These neurons were identified as playing an important role in the elevation of body temperature during both cold exposure and induced fever by observation that hyperpolarization prior to exposure to these conditions inhibits the elevation of body temperature in response.\n\nSection::::Role in thermoregulation.:Febrile response.\n", "Temperature also varies with the change of seasons during each year. This pattern is called a \"circannual\" rhythm. Studies of seasonal variations have produced inconsistent results. People living in different climates may have different seasonal patterns.\n\nIncreased physical fitness increases the amount of daily variation in temperature.\n\nWith increased age, both average body temperature and the amount of daily variability in the body temperature tend to decrease. Elderly patients may have a decreased ability to generate body heat during a fever, so even a somewhat elevated temperature can indicate a serious underlying cause in geriatrics.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Measurement methods.\n", "Section::::Recording and production.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Everyone is happy to see Sudha, the pooja begins. Chandar and Sudha enjoy the pooja rituals. Sudha brings Prasad to Papa who was with a friend, the friend detects that Sudha has fever. Papa and his friend asks Sudha to go and take rest, Sudha resists. Papa calls Chandar and he insists on Sudha to go inside. Sudha comes inside angry, her friends also come in asking what happened. Sudha says she has a light fever, today is festivity and there will be music and dance but Chandar sent her inside. They hear the drums outside, the girls come to terrace. Sudha watches Chandar dancing and says she knows a calming therapy with lets fever vanish. She teaches her friends about the verses, and says they must keep repeating these verses without opening their eyes. They ask what nonsense this is. Sudha says Chandar taught this to her. They think it must be right one then. They do so, Sudha goes into the kitchen and keeps her head in the freezer. She says her forehead is now normal. She comes out, Papa says her forehead is cold, in fact its cold more than nomal. She goes to dance. Chandar asks Sudha's friends how she got rid of her fever so soon, they tell him about the therapy. He is shocked to see this, but they say he had taught this himself. Chandar looks at Sudha who was feeling dizzy and faints. Papa calls for a doctor.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15017	If you are on a boat (which is moving) and you jump straight up. Will you stay in the same place of the boat or will you move. Please explain why!	If a boat is moving 50mph and you are on it, then you are also moving 50mph. When you jump you start to lose speed as the force from the boat's engine is not being applied to you anymore. So you will land slightly further toward the back of the boat when you land.	[ "In the novel \"The Forever Man\" (1984) by Gordon R. Dickson, starships use a jump-drive that makes the vehicle omnipresent for an instant before repositioning the ship in a pre-determined location. Several jumps are needed, because farther triangulations require more time to calculate, therefore a journey across the galaxy may take a few centuries to calculate all at once.\n", "Section::::Scenarios.:Height of lower-velocity trajectories.\n\nIgnoring all factors other than the gravitational force between the body and the object, an object projected vertically at speed formula_16 from the surface of a spherical body with escape velocity formula_6 and radius formula_18 will attain a maximum height formula_19 satisfying the equation\n\nwhich, solving for \"h\" results in\n\nwhere formula_22 is the ratio of the original speed formula_16 to the escape velocity formula_24\n\nUnlike escape velocity, the direction (vertically up) is important to achieve maximum height.\n\nSection::::Trajectory.\n", "Wei also used this technique to film dolphins as they were doing tail-stands, a trick where the dolphins “walk” on water by holding most of their bodies vertical above the water while supporting themselves with short, powerful thrusts of their tails.\n\nSection::::Gray's flawed assumption.\n", "Lynds argues that an object in relative motion cannot have an instantaneous or determined relative position (for if it did, it could not be in motion), and so cannot have its motion fractionally dissected as if it does, as is assumed by the paradoxes. For more about the inability to know both speed and location, see Heisenberg uncertainty principle.\n\nSection::::Proposed solutions.:Hermann Weyl.\n", "Calculating the correct outbound vector prior to jumping is crucial, and the mass of the ship and its load have to be factored in. The more momentum the ship has in jumpspace, the closer to the destination jump-point it will re-appear. Too much momentum could result in it dropping into realspace too close to, or even inside, the destination mass. The ship can also \"overshoot\" the jump-point with too much momentum and will then drift through hyperspace until a sufficiently massive object is encountered which could drop it \"anywhere\" in realspace. Not enough momentum, or targeting an object not massive enough to pull the ship out of hyperspace will also leave the ship drifting. A ship's power-to-mass is significant, allowing an unloaded ship to travel faster in jumpspace than a loaded ship of similar design, even enabling the former to \"over-jump\" the latter. Warships have high power-to-mass ratios, making them fast despite their size. If another ship happens to be at your ship's re-entry point, both ships will be destroyed.\n", "A close terrestrial analogy is provided by a tennis ball bouncing off the front of a moving train. Imagine standing on a train platform, and throwing a ball at 30 km/h toward a train approaching at 50 km/h. The driver of the train sees the ball approaching at 80 km/h and then departing at 80 km/h after the ball bounces elastically off the front of the train. Because of the train's motion, however, that departure is at 130 km/h relative to the train platform; the ball has added twice the train's velocity to its own.\n", "Translating this analogy into space: in the planet reference frame, the spaceship has a vertical velocity of \"v\" relative to the planet. After the slingshot occurs the spaceship is leaving on a course 90 degrees to that which it arrived on. It will still have a velocity of \"v\", but in the horizontal direction. In the Sun reference frame, the planet has a horizontal velocity of v, and by using the Pythagorean Theorem, the spaceship initially has a total velocity of \"v\". After the spaceship leaves the planet, it will have a velocity of \"v + v =\" 2\"v\", gaining around 0.6\"v\".\n", "One way to classify jumping is by the manner of foot transfer. In this classification system, five basic jump forms are distinguished:\n\nBULLET::::- Jump — jumping from and landing on two feet\n\nBULLET::::- Hop — jumping from one foot and landing on the same foot\n\nBULLET::::- Leap — jumping from one foot and landing on the other foot\n\nBULLET::::- Assemble — jumping from one foot and landing on two feet\n\nBULLET::::- Sissonne — jumping from two feet and landing on one foot\n\nLeaping gaits, which are distinct from running gaits (see Locomotion), include cantering, galloping, and pronging.\n", "For contingent reasons having to do with the Inquisition, Descartes spoke of motion as both absolute and relative. \n\nHowever, his real position was that motion is absolute.\n\nBy the late 19th century, the contention that \"all motion is relative\" was re-introduced, notably by Ernst Mach (1883).\n\nSection::::The argument.\n", "Neglecting the rotation and other motions of the Earth, an example of linear motion is the ball thrown straight up and falling back straight down.\n\nSection::::Displacement.\n", "VT holds that people categorize by performing a subconscious and instinctive analogy to the way they orient themselves in space-time. They plot their position with regard to the spatial coordinates of up-down, left-right and front-back (combined into a unitary body of reference) and the mobile coordinate of relative motion, as a function of time. However, a system of spatial coordinates can itself be moving, which affects judgment. MacLaury quotes Einstein's classic example of a rock dropped from a moving train: its trajectory is different for a person on the train than for someone standing by the track.\n", "There are three major flight techniques for the long jump: the hang, the sail, and the hitch-kick. Each technique is to combat the forward rotation experienced from take-off but is basically down to preference from the athlete. It is important to note that once the body is airborne, there is nothing that the athlete can do to change the direction they are traveling and consequently where they are going to land in the pit. However, it can be argued that certain techniques influence an athlete's landing, which can affect the distance measured. For example, if an athlete lands feet first but falls back because they are not correctly balanced, a lower distance will be measured.\n", "BULLET::::- Thigmotaxis is the response of an organism to physical contact or to the proximity of a physical discontinuity in the environment (e.g. rats preferring to swim near the edge of a water maze). Codling moth larvae are believed to used thigmotatic sense to locate fruits to feed on.\n\nSection::::Terminology derived from taxis direction.\n\nThere are five types of taxes based on the movement of organisms.\n", "Shut yourself up with some friend in the main cabin below decks on some large ship, and have with you there some flies, butterflies, and other small flying animals. Have a large bowl of water with some fish in it; hang up a bottle that empties drop by drop into a wide vessel beneath it. With the ship standing still, observe carefully how the little animals fly with equal speed to all sides of the cabin. The fish swim indifferently in all directions; the drops fall into the vessel beneath; and, in throwing something to your friend, you need throw it no more strongly in one direction than another, the distances being equal; jumping with your feet together, you pass equal spaces in every direction. When you have observed all these things carefully (though doubtless when the ship is standing still everything must happen in this way), have the ship proceed with any speed you like, so long as the motion is uniform and not fluctuating this way and that. You will discover not the least change in all the effects named, nor could you tell from any of them whether the ship was moving or standing still. In jumping, you will pass on the floor the same spaces as before, nor will you make larger jumps toward the stern than toward the prow even though the ship is moving quite rapidly, despite the fact that during the time that you are in the air the floor under you will be going in a direction opposite to your jump. In throwing something to your companion, you will need no more force to get it to him whether he is in the direction of the bow or the stern, with yourself situated opposite. The droplets will fall as before into the vessel beneath without dropping toward the stern, although while the drops are in the air the ship runs many spans. The fish in their water will swim toward the front of their bowl with no more effort than toward the back, and will go with equal ease to bait placed anywhere around the edges of the bowl. Finally the butterflies and flies will continue their flights indifferently toward every side, nor will it ever happen that they are concentrated toward the stern, as if tired out from keeping up with the course of the ship, from which they will have been separated during long intervals by keeping themselves in the air. And if smoke is made by burning some incense, it will be seen going up in the form of a little cloud, remaining still and moving no more toward one side than the other. The cause of all these correspondences of effects is the fact that the ship's motion is common to all the things contained in it, and to the air also. That is why I said you should be below decks; for if this took place above in the open air, which would not follow the course of the ship, more or less noticeable differences would be seen in some of the effects noted.\n", "Jumping organisms are rarely subject to significant aerodynamic forces and, as a result, their jumps are governed by the basic physical laws of ballistic trajectories. Consequently, while a bird may jump into the air to initiate flight, no movement it performs once airborne is considered jumping, as the initial jump conditions no longer dictate its flight path. \n", "When someone wants to jump, he or she exerts additional downward force on the ground ('action'). Simultaneously, the ground exerts upward force on the person ('reaction'). If this upward force is greater than the person's weight, this will result in upward acceleration. When these forces are perpendicular to the ground, they are also called a normal force.\n", "Game control is rather complicated as the player can move up, down, left, right, and forward and backward. The player must also control weapons. Fortunately, the copilot can take care of one or more of these functions.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Section::::Science fiction literature.\n\nJump drives were used in many science fiction universes for space vehicle movement, initially suggested in \"The Foundation Series\" of novels by Isaac Asimov from 1942. In Heinlein's \"Starman Jones\" (1953), the characters use a \"Horst Transition\" to travel instantaneously between spaces that are \"flat\"; that is, do not have the warping associated with gravity. (Heinlein's \"Friday\" novel, published in 1982, uses the same form of jump drive with the same kind of starship.)\n", "An extension to the relativistic case has been developed since the 1990s.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The player starts by riding away from the jump to get a big enough run up. They then must set the correct speed, correctly selecting gears, to hit the ramp with enough speed to clear the obstacles but not too much to miss the landing ramp. While in the air, the player can lean forward or back to land correctly.\n\nSection::::Development and release.\n", "Jumping\n\nJumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism or non-living (e.g., robotic) mechanical system propels itself through the air along a ballistic trajectory. Jumping can be distinguished from running, galloping and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne, by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch.\n", "As he watched lifeboat 10 being loaded, an officer shouted, \"Room for two more\", and a man jumped aboard. Hosono saw this and, as he later put it, \"the example of the first man making a jump led me to take this last chance.\" \n", "When exiting from a forward-moving aircraft (as distinguished from a hovering aircraft, such as a balloon or a helicopter in hover mode) during a normal belly-to-earth skydive, the skydiver must arch his body in the direction of travel which is initially horizontal. If the skydiver continues to arch, his belly will gradually alter pitch until he is belly-to-earth. This section of the jump is commonly referred to as \"the hill\".\n\nRelative wind differs from the wind in meteorology in that the object (\"e.g..\", the skydiver) moves past the air, as opposed to the air moving past the object.\n", "The player controls a ball which can move in the four cardinal directions and also jump. Jumping is necessary to traverse gaps between tiles and evade enemies.\n", "To write equations for the motion of the monkey and the hunter's dart, use \"g\" to denote the acceleration of gravity, \"t\" for elapsed time, and \"h\" for the initial height of the monkey. Using \"V\" to denote the initial vertical speed of the dart, the equations for the vertical motion (altitude) of the dart and the monkey are respectively\n\nand \n\nThey will collide when those altitudes are the same, that is \n\nThe term \"gt² /2\" is both present on both sides of the equation, which then can be simplified to\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00119	Why do some jackets have double zippers?	If you want to sit down while continuing to wear the garment you can just undo the bottom zipper a little and it'll stretch the coat out less and be more comfortable while you are seated. That's probably one of the more practical reasons.	[ "These zippers are very common where airtight or watertight seals are needed, such as on scuba diving dry suits, ocean survival suits, and hazmat suits.\n", "BULLET::::- Two way open-ended zippers Instead of having an insertion pin and pin box at the bottom, a two way open-ended zipper has a puller on each end of the zipper tape. Someone wearing a garment with this kind of zipper can slide up the bottom puller to accommodate more leg movement without stressing the pin and box of a one-way open-ended zipper. It is most commonly used on long coats.\n\nBULLET::::- Two way closed-ended zippers are closed at both ends; they are often used in luggage and can have either one or two pullers on the zipper.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "The A-2 was one of the early articles of clothing designed expressly to use a zipper. Zippers were made of steel or brass, and some were nickel plated. Known zipper suppliers were Talon, Crown, Conmar, and Kwik, with Talon providing the majority of zippers used in wartime A-2 construction. Until about 1940, Talon zippers with riveted or grommeted metal bottoms were used.\n", "The most recent innovation in the zipper's design was the introduction of models that could open on both ends, as on jackets. Today the zipper is by far the most widespread fastener, and is used on clothing, luggage, leather goods, and various other objects.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "BULLET::::- 31 March 1896 : \"Clasp-Locker for Shoes\"\n\nBULLET::::- 29 April 1913 : \"Separable fastener\" (Gideon Sundback)\n\nBULLET::::- 20 March 1917 : \"Separable fastener\" (Gideon Sundback)\n\nBULLET::::- 22 December 1936 : \"Slider\"\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nFrom , the following mechanism of the zipper improved by Gideon Sundback in 1917 is explained:\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "In many jackets and similar garments, the opening is closed completely when the slider is at the top end. \n\nSome jackets have double-separating zippers with two sliders on the tape. When the sliders are on opposite ends of the tape then the jacket is closed. If the lower slider is raised then the bottom part of the jacket may be opened to allow more comfortable sitting or bicycling. When both sliders are lowered then the zipper may be totally separated. \n", "BULLET::::- Loose First Operation Seam - Loose first operation seams may not allow sufficient tuck up of the cover curl to form a sufficient amount of cover hook and overlap in the finished seam.\n", "BULLET::::- Tight First Operation Seam - Tight first operation seams can create flatness at the bottom of the first operation seam throughout its length. The cover hook may also be turned into the body hook. Overly tight first operation seams tend to create more reverse wrinkles in the cover hook.\n\nSection::::Government regulations.\n", "BULLET::::9. Single Tape Width (Refers to the width of the fabric on one side of the zipper chain.)\n\nBULLET::::10. Insertion Pin (A device used on a separating zipper whose function is to allow the joining of the two zipper halves.)\n\nBULLET::::11. Retainer Box or Pin Box (A device used on a separating zipper whose function is to correctly align the pin, to begin the joining of the zipper halves.)\n", "Forty-two years later, in 1893 Whitcomb Judson, who invented a pneumatic street railway, marketed a \"Clasp Locker\". The device served as a (more complicated) hook-and-eye shoe fastener. With the support of businessman Colonel Lewis Walker, Judson launched the Universal Fastener Company to manufacture the new device. The clasp locker had its public debut at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair and met with little commercial success. Judson is sometimes given credit as the inventor of the zipper, but he never made a practical device.\n", "BULLET::::- join or separate two ends or sides of a single garment, as in the front of a jacket, or on the front, back or side of a dress or skirt to facilitate dressing;\n\nBULLET::::- attach or detach a separable part of the garment to or from another, as in the conversion between trousers and shorts or the connection or disconnection of a hood and a coat;\n", "A \"zipper blocker\" prevents the zipper from sliding down its shaft. One version is a locking safety pin in which a piece of the metal bar simply rests across the shaft, thereby blocking movement of the zipper's channel in that direction. Other versions, which are sewn onto the garment, involve two pieces of metal that hook together, and likewise block the zipper's movement.\n\nOther versions have been created that hold the pull tab on the zipper in place.\n\nIn many care facilities, common safety pins are used rather than special purchases of these devices being made.\n\nSection::::Mousetraps.:Types of devices.:Thigh rings.\n", "The Hefty OneZip sliding tab sealable bag, formally known as the \"rolling-action zipper profile and slipper\", was created by Eric A. St.Phillips and F. John Harrington Jr. at Mobil in the early 1990s at a cost of $25 to $50 million, after having developed and evaluated various different zipper designs, and finally deciding to roll out the \"boxcar-shaped version\", which slides over dual plastic tracks.\n\nSection::::History.:Environmental concerns.\n", "Metal zippers are most effective when used on heavy weight or thick materials such as denim and leather among other heavy-duty fabrics. These zippers are commonly found in denim trousers and jackets, leather outfits, shoes and heavy luggage and bags. Metal zippers are present in a wide variety of designs depending on their desired use, including open-ended, two way open-ended and two way closed-ended designs among others. These designs can be achieved by sewing one end of the zipper, sewing both of its ends together or allowing both of its ends to fall apart respectively.\n", "BULLET::::- Magnetic zippers allow for one-handed closure and are used in sportswear.\n\nSection::::Types.:Air and water tightness.\n\nAirtight zippers were first developed by NASA for making high-altitude pressure suits and later space suits, capable of retaining air pressure inside the suit in the vacuum of space.\n", "BULLET::::3. Slider (The device that moves up and down the chain to open or close the zipper.)\n\nBULLET::::4. Pull Tab or Puller (The part of the slider that is held to move the slider up or down.)\n\nBULLET::::5. Tape Width (Refers to the width of the fabric on both sides of the zipper chain.)\n", "The first recorded jean jacket was created in the United States in about 1880 by Levi Strauss, approximately ten years after he had invented jeans as a new type of work apparel intended for use by cowboys, miners, and railroad workers. The \"Type III\" denim jacket, introduced by Levis Strauss & Co. in 1962, has been described as the jean jacket \"to rule them all\". Also known as \"the trucker jacket\", design elements of the Type III include a tapered style, welt hand pockets, and bar tacks which hold down chest pocket and sleeve openings.\n", "BULLET::::- Invisible zippers have the teeth hidden behind a tape, so that the zipper is \"invisible\". It is also called the \"Concealed\" zipper. The tape's color matches the garment's, as does the slider's and the puller's. This kind of a zipper is common in skirts and dresses. Invisible zippers are usually coil zippers. They are also seeing increased use by the military and emergency services because the appearance of a button down shirt can be maintained, while providing a quick and easy fastening system. A regular invisible zipper uses a lighter lace-like fabric on the zipper tape, instead of the common heavier woven fabric on other zippers.\n", "Section::::Theatre-made jackets.\n", "BULLET::::- attach or detach a small pouch or bag to or from a larger one. One example of this is military rucksacks which have smaller pouches or bags attached on the sides using one or two zippers;\n\nBULLET::::- be used to decorate an item.\n\nThese variations are achieved by sewing one end of the zipper together, sewing both ends together, or allowing both ends of the zipper to fall completely apart.\n", "Established as a manufacturer of motorcycle clothing since 1913, Schott, a Russian immigrant, named the brand after his favorite cigar as he did not think his Jewish family name would sell the garments. It is said to be the first such jacket designed to feature a zipper and came to define the look of motorcycle jackets since \n", "Zipper (disambiguation)\n\nA zipper is a device for temporarily joining two edges of fabric together.\n\nZipper(s) may also refer to:\n\nIn transportation:\n\nBULLET::::- Zenair Zipper, an ultralight aircraft\n\nBULLET::::- Zoe Zipper, a microcar sold by Zoe Motors in the early 1980s\n\nBULLET::::- Call sign for the airline Zip\n\nIn entertainment:\n\nBULLET::::- The Zippers, a band\n\nBULLET::::- Zipper Harris, a character in the \"Doonesbury\" universe\n\nBULLET::::- Zipper (\"Rescue Rangers\"), a character in the \"Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers\" universe\n\nBULLET::::- Zipper (ride), an amusement ride\n\nBULLET::::- Zipper Interactive, a video game developer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Zipper\" (film), a 2015 political thriller\n", "BULLET::::- Sports/Outdoor Apparel: Sports and outdoor apparel need a sturdy zipper that can withstand even the harshest of use. The coil zippers are very strong and therefore they are popularly picked as the first choice for these kinds of outdoor apparel.\n\nBULLET::::- Lady’s Dresses/Skirts: The zippers required for lady’s dresses and skirts should be very fashionable. The zippers must also have vibrant colors to match the different colors of lady’s garments. Coil zippers are easily designed in various colors and thus they are extensively used in such garments.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01255	Why does a vehicle 15 mph faster than you appear to gain a much greater distance from you depending on your own speed?	Because when sitting still, you have all of your environment in the same relation to the moving car as you. However when you are moving 70mph, the only reference point you have is your car and the other car to judge the speed difference.	[ "Our cars do not seem to be bigger even if we are approaching them, their form do not become more distorted, their colour does not change even if we apply artificial lighting. This phenomenon is called perceptual constancy.\n\nThe most studied constancy is the size constancy, or the phenomenon as when we perceive the constant size of the objects independently to their distance. As an object moves farther away, their perceived size usually does not decrease as we are looking at them.\n\nSection::::Example.\n", "BULLET::::- Depth from motion – One form of depth from motion, kinetic depth perception, is determined by dynamically changing object size. As objects in motion become smaller, they appear to recede into the distance; objects in motion that appear to be getting larger seem to be coming closer. Using kinetic depth perception enables the brain to calculate time-to-crash (aka time-to-collision or time-to-contact – TTC) at a particular velocity. When driving, one is constantly judging the dynamically changing headway (TTC) by kinetic depth perception.\n", "Speed at some instant, or assumed constant during a very short period of time, is called \"instantaneous speed\". By looking at a speedometer, one can read the instantaneous speed of a car at any instant. A car travelling at 50 km/h generally goes for less than one hour at a constant speed, but if it did go at that speed for a full hour, it would travel 50 km. If the vehicle continued at that speed for half an hour, it would cover half that distance (25 km). If it continued for only one minute, it would cover about 833 m.\n", "\"I was driving to work as a computer operator when I turned the corner on the Old Road and saw the gunfire, I saw two CHP cars and a red car. I always say my brain said to get out of the way, but my feet ran the wrong way.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Absolute size : Even if the actual size of the object is unknown and there is only one object visible, a smaller object seems further away than a large object that is presented at the same location\n", "Effect of target speed on motion perception in TD\n", "In one study, Stankowich & Coss (2007) studied the flight initiation distance of Columbian black-tailed deer. According to the authors, the flight initiation distance is the distance between prey and predator when the prey attempts an escape response. They found that the angle, distance, and speed that the deer escaped was related to the distance between the deer and its predator, a human male in this experiment\n\nSection::::Examples.:Other examples.\n", "BULLET::::- Distance constancy refers to the relationship between apparent distance and physical distance. An illusion example of this would be the moon - when it is near the horizon it is perceived as larger (size constancy) and/or closer to earth than when it is above our heads.\n", "Hold a coin in front of you, 30 centimeters away from you and then move it at arm’s length. Does the coin seem smaller? Obviously not, but the size of the retinal image of the coin is two times bigger than the retinal image of the coin when it was 30 centimeters away.\n", "Car-following models presume that the driver react to small changes in the precedent vehicle velocity even when the headway distances are very large or small. To address this problem, perceptual psychology insights have been used to show how drivers are subject to limitation in the perception of stimuli to which they are subjects.\n\nBasic behavioral rules of such models are : \n\nBULLET::::- At large spacings, the following driver is not influenced by velocity differences.\n", "BULLET::::- Imagine you are watching a rocket take off nearby and measuring the distance it has traveled once each second. In the first couple of seconds your measurements may be accurate to the nearest centimeter, say. However, 5 minutes later as the rocket recedes into space, the accuracy of your measurements may only be good to 100 m, because of the increased distance, atmospheric distortion and a variety of other factors. The data you collect would exhibit heteroscedasticity.\n\nSection::::Multivariate case.\n", "The average velocity is always less than or equal to the average speed of an object. This can be seen by realizing that while distance is always strictly increasing, displacement can increase or decrease in magnitude as well as change direction.\n", "There's no way you can visualize the speed. There's nothing you can see to see how fast you're going. You have no depth perception. If you're in a car driving down the road and you close your eyes, you have no idea what your speed is. It's the same thing if you're free falling from space. There are no signposts. You know you are going very fast, but you don't feel it. You don't have a 614-mph wind blowing on you. I could only hear myself breathing in the helmet.\n", "If a car's speedometer indicates the vehicle is travelling at 60 mph and that is converted to km/h, it would equal 96.5606 km/h. The conversion from the whole number in one system to the precise result in another makes it seem like the measurement was very precise, when in fact it was not.\n\nMeasures that rely on statistical sampling, such as IQ tests, are often reported with false precision.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Limit of detection\n\nBULLET::::- Propagation of uncertainty\n\nBULLET::::- Rounding\n\nBULLET::::- Round-off error\n\nBULLET::::- Precision bias\n\nBULLET::::- Significant figures\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Wholly empirical approach to visual perception.:Motion.\n\nPerception of motion is also confounded by an inverse problem: movement in three-dimensional space does not map perfectly onto movement on the retinal plane. A distant object moving at a given speed will translate more slowly on the retina than a nearby object moving at the same speed, and as mentioned previously size, distance and orientation are also ambiguous given only the retinal image. As with other aspects of perception, empirical theorists propose that this problem is solved by trial-and-error experience with moving stimuli, their associated retinal images and the consequences of behavior. \n", "A simple everyday example of parallax can be seen in the dashboard of motor vehicles that use a needle-style speedometer gauge. When viewed from directly in front, the speed may show exactly 60; but when viewed from the passenger seat the needle may appear to show a slightly different speed, due to the angle of viewing.\n\nSection::::Visual perception.\n", "BULLET::::- Relative size : If two objects are known to be the same size (e.g., two trees) but their absolute size is unknown, relative size cues can provide information about the relative depth of the two objects. If one subtends a larger visual angle on the retina than the other, the object which subtends the larger visual angle appears closer.\n", "For a person with SAVT limit of formula_84, the looming motion of a directly approaching object of size , moving at velocity , is not detectable until its distance is\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Advisory speed limit\n\nBULLET::::- Assumption of risk\n\nBULLET::::- Basic speed rule\n\nBULLET::::- Braking distance\n\nBULLET::::- Calculus of negligence\n\nBULLET::::- Duty of care\n\nBULLET::::- Effects of insufficient sight distance\n\nBULLET::::- Heinrich's Law\n\nBULLET::::- Illusory superiority\n\nBULLET::::- International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea—Part B, Section I, Rule 6: Safe speed\n\nBULLET::::- Road traffic safety\n\nBULLET::::- Standard of care\n\nBULLET::::- The man on the Clapham omnibus\n\nBULLET::::- Two-second rule\n", "Consider a situation common in everyday life. Two cars travel along a road, both moving at constant velocities. See Figure 1. At some particular moment, they are separated by 200 metres. The car in front is travelling at 22 metres per second and the car behind is travelling at 30 metres per second. If we want to find out how long it will take the second car to catch up with the first, there are three obvious \"frames of reference\" that we could choose.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Many experiments testing Fitts's law apply the model to a dataset in which either distance or width, but not both, are varied. The model's predictive power deteriorates when both are varied over a significant range. Notice that because the \"ID\" term depends only on the \"ratio\" of distance to width, the model implies that a target distance and width combination can be re-scaled arbitrarily without affecting movement time, which is impossible. \n", "Section::::Understanding the bias.\n\nSection::::Understanding the bias.:Magnitudes and brightness.\n\nIn everyday life it is easy to see that light dims as it gets farther away. This can be seen with car headlights, candles, flashlights, and many other lit objects. This dimming follows the inverse square law, which states that the brightness of an object decreases as , where \"r\" is the distance between the observer and the object.\n", "In proportional control, the power output is always proportional to the (actual versus target speed) error. If the car is at target speed and the speed increases slightly due to a falling gradient, the power is reduced slightly, or in proportion to the change in error, so that the car reduces speed gradually and reaches the new target point with very little, if any, \"overshoot\", which is much smoother control than on–off control. In practice, PID controllers are used for this and the large number of control processes that require more response control than proportional alone.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The big difference can be discerned when considering movement around a circle. When something moves in a circular path and returns to its starting point, its average \"velocity\" is zero, but its average \"speed\" is found by dividing the circumference of the circle by the time taken to move around the circle. This is because the average \"velocity\" is calculated by considering only the displacement between the starting and end points, whereas the average \"speed\" considers only the total distance traveled.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Tangential speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Texture gradient – Suppose you are standing on a gravel road. The gravel near you can be clearly seen in terms of shape, size and colour. As your vision shifts towards the more distant part of the road it becomes progressively less easy to distinguish the texture.\n\nRecent advances in computational machine learning now allow monocular depth for an entire scene to be algorithmically estimated from a single digital image by implicitly using one or more of these cues\n\nSection::::Balance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01670	What's the difference between a router firewall and your computer's personal firewall?	The one on your pc is typically simple to bypass if on a network with others, a network firewall typically shields your from online automated scanners and blocking ports that may be accessible internally but you dont want to share externally to the internet. Think of a castle with 4 towers, and a moat, each of the towers has a door with a lock (your pc firewall) then think of the moat as your routers firewall, it protects all 4 towers and only permits one entrance via the drawbridge.	[ "A personal firewall differs from a conventional firewall in terms of scale. A personal firewall will usually protect only the computer on which it is installed, as compared to a conventional firewall which is normally installed on a designated interface between two or more networks, such as a router or proxy server. Hence, personal firewalls allow a security policy to be defined for individual computers, whereas a conventional firewall controls the policy between the networks that it connects.\n", "The per-computer scope of personal firewalls is useful to protect machines that are moved across different networks. For example, a laptop computer may be used on a trusted intranet at a workplace where minimal protection is needed as a conventional firewall is already in place, and services that require open ports such as file and printer sharing are useful. The same laptop could be used at public Wi-Fi hotspots, where is time to decide the level of trust, and can set individual security policies for each network.\n", "A firewall is a system or group of systems (router, proxy, or gateway) that implements a set of security rules to enforce access control between two networks to protect the \"inside\" network from the \"outside\" network. It may be a hardware device or a software program running on a secure host computer. In either case, it must have at least two network interfaces, one for the network it is intended to protect, and one for the network it is exposed to. A firewall sits at the junction point or gateway between the two networks, usually a private network and a public network such as the Internet.\n", "firewalld supports both IPv4 and IPv6 networks and can administer separate \"firewall zones\" with varying degrees of trust as defined in \"zone profiles\". Administrators can configure Network Manager to automatically switch zone profiles based on known Wi-Fi (wireless) and Ethernet (wired) networks, but firewalld cannot do this on its own.\n", "BULLET::::- If the system has been compromised by malware, spyware or similar software, these programs can also manipulate the firewall, because both are running on the same system. It may be possible to bypass or even completely shut down software firewalls in such a manner.\n\nBULLET::::- A firewall can't notify, if it has been incorrectly configured.\n\nBULLET::::- Firewall may limit access from the Internet, but it may not protect your network from wireless and other access to your systems.\n", "Section::::Firewall's other features comparison.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n\nSection::::Non-Firewall extra features comparison.\n\nThose features are not strictly firewall features, but are sometimes bundled with firewall software, or exist on the platform.\n\nNOTE: Features are marked \"yes\" even if implemented as a separate module that comes with the platform on which firewall sits.\n\nIDS: real-time firewall that logs/sniffs/blocks suspicious connections that are not part of rule-set.\n\nVPN (Virtual Private Network) Types are: PPTP, L2TP, MPLS, IPsec, SSL/SSH.\n\nProfile selection: The user can switch between sets of firewall settings, e.g. for use at work, at home, and on public connections.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "In general, a computer appliance is a computing device with a specific function and limited configuration ability, and a software appliance is a set of computer programs that might be combined with just enough operating system (JeOS) for it to run optimally on industry standard computer hardware or in a virtual machine.\n\nA firewall appliance is a combination of a firewall software and an operating system that is purposely built to run a firewall system on a dedicated hardware or virtual machine. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- embedded firewalls: very limited-capability programs running on a low-power CPU system,\n", "Second-generation firewalls perform the work of their first-generation predecessors but also maintain knowledge of specific conversations between endpoints by remembering which port number the two IP addresses are using at layer 4 (transport layer) of the OSI model for their conversation, allowing examination of the overall exchange between the nodes.\n\nThis type of firewall is potentially vulnerable to denial-of-service attacks that bombard the firewall with fake connections in an attempt to overwhelm the firewall by filling its connection state memory.\n\nSection::::History.:Third generation: application layer.\n", "Firewalls are generally categorized as network-based or host-based. Network-based firewalls are positioned on the gateway computers of LANs, WANs and intranets. They are either software appliances running on general-purpose hardware, or hardware-based firewall computer appliances. Firewall appliances may also offer other functionality to the internal network they protect, such as acting as a DHCP or VPN server for that network. Host-based firewalls are positioned on the network node itself and control network traffic in and out of those machines. The host-based firewall may be a daemon or service as a part of the operating system or an agent application such as endpoint security or protection. Each has advantages and disadvantages. However, each has a role in layered security.\n", "Unlike network firewalls, many personal firewalls are able to control network traffic allowed to programs on the secured computer. When an application attempts an outbound connection, the firewall may block it if blacklisted, or ask the user whether to blacklist it if it is not yet known. This protects against malware implemented as an executable program. Personal firewalls may also provide some level of intrusion detection, allowing the software to terminate or block connectivity where it suspects an intrusion is being attempted.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nCommon personal firewall features:\n", "BULLET::::- software-based firewall appliances: a system that can be run in independent hardware or in a virtualised environment as a virtual appliance\n\nBULLET::::- hardware-based firewall appliances: a firewall appliance that runs on a hardware specifically built to install as a network device, providing enough network interfaces and CPU to serve a wide range of purposes. From protecting a small network (a few network ports and few megabits per second throughput) to protecting an enterprise-level network (tens of network ports and gigabits per second throughput).\n\nThe following table lists different firewall appliances.\n\nSection::::Firewall rule-set Appliance-UTM filtering features comparison.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n", "Firewalls may be used to prevent clients among the public WAN from accessing the broadcast addresses of inside LAN segments, or routers may be configured to ignore subnet-directed broadcasts (see above.)\n", "Section::::Types.:Network address translation.\n", "BULLET::::- SCO Unixware 2.1.1 and 2.1.2\n\nBULLET::::- SunOS 4.1.3 and 4.1.4\n\nBULLET::::- Windows 95, NT and XP SP2,\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nMost firewalls should intercept and discard the poison packet thus protecting the host from this attack. Some operating systems released updates fixing this security hole. In addition, routers should be configured with both ingress and egress filters to block all traffic destined for a destination in the source's address space, which would include packets where the source and destination IP addresses are the same.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Slowloris (computer security)\n\nBULLET::::- High Orbit Ion Cannon\n\nBULLET::::- Low Orbit Ion Cannon\n", "So long as a computer network runs entirely over physical hardware and cabling, it is a physical network. As such it can be protected by physical \"firewalls and fire walls alike\"; the first and most important protection for a physical computer network always was and remains a physical, locked, flame-resistant door. Since the inception of the Internet this was the case, and structural fire walls and network firewalls were for a long time both necessary and sufficient.\n", "Personal firewall\n\nA personal firewall is an application which controls network traffic to and from a computer, permitting or denying communications based on a security policy. Typically it works as an application layer firewall.\n", "Distributed firewalls are often kernel-mode applications that sit at the bottom of the OSI stack in the operating system. They filter all traffic regardless of its origin—the Internet or the internal network. They treat both the Internet and the internal network as \"unfriendly\". They guard the individual machine in the same way that the perimeter firewall guards the overall network. \n\nDistributed firewalls rest on three notions: \n\nBULLET::::- A policy language that states what sort of connections are permitted or prohibited,\n\nBULLET::::- Any of a number of system management tools, such as Microsoft's SMS or ASD, and\n", "Comparison of firewalls\n\nThe following is a comparison of notable firewalls, starting from simple home firewalls up to the most sophisticated Enterprise-level firewalls.\n\nSection::::Firewall software.\n\nSome firewall solutions are provided as software solutions that run on general purpose operating systems. The following table lists different firewall software that can be installed / configured in different general purpose operating systems.\n\nSection::::Firewall appliances.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Access control list\n\nBULLET::::- Air gap (networking)\n\nBULLET::::- Bastion host\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of firewalls\n\nBULLET::::- Computer security\n\nBULLET::::- De-perimeterisation\n\nBULLET::::- Distributed firewall\n\nBULLET::::- Egress filtering\n\nBULLET::::- End-to-end principle\n\nBULLET::::- Firewall pinhole\n\nBULLET::::- Firewalls and Internet Security\n\nBULLET::::- Golden Shield Project\n\nBULLET::::- Guard (information security)\n\nBULLET::::- Identity-based security\n\nBULLET::::- IP fragmentation attacks\n\nBULLET::::- List of Unix-like router or firewall distributions\n\nBULLET::::- Mangled packet\n\nBULLET::::- Next-Generation Firewall\n\nBULLET::::- Personal firewall\n\nBULLET::::- Screened subnet\n\nBULLET::::- Unidirectional network\n\nBULLET::::- Virtual firewall\n\nBULLET::::- Vulnerability scanner\n\nBULLET::::- Windows Firewall\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Wireless routers perform the same functions as a router, but also allow connectivity for wireless devices with the LAN, or between the wireless router and another wireless router. (The wireless router-wireless router connection can be within the LAN or can be between the LAN and a WAN.)\n\nSection::::Security.\n", "Routers are also often distinguished on the basis of the network in which they operate. A router in a local area network (LAN) of a single organisation is called an \"interior router\". A router that is operated in the Internet backbone is described as \"exterior router\". While a router that connects a LAN with the Internet or a wide area network (WAN) is called a \"border router\", or \"gateway router\".\n\nSection::::Applications.:Internet connectivity and internal use.\n", "Section::::Remedies.:Firewalls.:Types of firewall.\n\nSection::::Remedies.:Firewalls.:Types of firewall.:Packet filter.\n\nA packet filter is a first generation firewall that processes network traffic on a packet-by-packet basis. Its main job is to filter traffic from a remote IP host, so a router is needed to connect the internal network to the Internet. The router is known as a screening router, which screens packets leaving and entering the network.\n\nSection::::Remedies.:Firewalls.:Types of firewall.:Stateful packet inspection.\n", "Distributed firewalls have both strengths and weaknesses when compared to conventional firewalls. By far the biggest difference, of course, is their reliance on topology. If the network topology does not permit reliance on traditional firewall techniques, there is little choice. A more interesting question is how the two types compare in a closed, single-entry network. That is, if either will work, is there a reason to choose one over the other?\n\nSection::::Threat comparison.:Service exposure and port scanning.\n", "Security log capabilities are included, which can record IP addresses and other data relating to connections originating from the home or office network or the Internet. It can record both dropped packets and successful connections. This can be used, for instance, to track every time a computer on the network connects to a website. This security log is not enabled by default; the administrator must enable it.\n", "The term \"firewall\" originally referred to a wall intended to confine a fire within a building. Later uses refer to similar structures, such as the metal sheet separating the engine compartment of a vehicle or aircraft from the passenger compartment. The term was applied in the late 1980s to network technology that emerged when the Internet was fairly new in terms of its global use and connectivity. The predecessors to firewalls for network security were the routers used in the late 1980s, because they separated networks from one another, thus halting the spread of problems from one network to another.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04304	How/Why did the world decide on a universal mathematics language but made hundreds of communicative languages?	It didn't, remember when XVIII was a number? All of these "communication languages" have representation of the numbers, and they are all different. Some math concepts, like the idea of a matrix, have been translated, but there are many representations. Each math book defines it's own conventions, even when they are written in English.	[ "Mathematics can communicate a range of meanings that is as wide as (although different from) that of a natural language. As English mathematician R.L.E. Schwarzenberger says:\n\nSection::::Alternative views.\n\nSome definitions of language, such as early versions of Charles Hockett's \"design features\" definition, emphasize the spoken nature of language. Mathematics would not qualify as a language under these definitions, as it is primarily a written form of communication (to see why, try reading Maxwell's equations out loud). However, these definitions would also disqualify sign languages, which are now recognized as languages in their own right, independent of spoken language.\n", "From 2001 until December 2005, the Linguasphere Observatory was actively involved in collaboration with the British Standards Institution BSI Group and with ISO/TC 37in the design and development of a four-letter (alpha-4) code covering—potentially—every recorded language variety in the world. The Observatoire was not, however, associated with or responsible for the final ISO 639-6 standard which was a partial result of this collaboration, and which was approved and published by ISO in 2009. It is the policy of the Observatoire that its on-going independent work on language coding should be complementary to and supportive of the ISO 639 international standards.\n", "At the Second International Interlanguage Congress, held in Geneva in 1931, IALA began to break new ground; 27 recognized linguists signed a testimonial of support for IALA's research program. An additional eight added their signatures at the third congress, convened in Rome in 1933. That same year, Herbert N. Shenton and Edward L. Thorndike became influential in IALA's work by authoring key studies in the interlinguistic field.\n", "From 1946 to 1948, French linguist André Martinet was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. In 1946, IALA sent an extensive survey to more than 3,000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.\n\nFour models were canvassed:\n\nThe results of the survey were striking. The two more schematic models were rejected – K overwhelmingly. Of the two naturalistic models, M received somewhat more support than P. IALA decided on a compromise between P and M, with certain elements of C.\n", "Only a few of the many constructed languages have been applied practically to any noteworthy extent. The most prosperous were Volapük (1879, Johann Martin Schleyer), Esperanto (1887 Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof), Latino sine flexione (1903, Giuseppe Peano), Ido (1907, Louis Couturat), Occidental-Interlingue (1922, Edgar de Wahl) and Interlingua (1951, IALA and Alexander Gode), with Esperanto being the only one still gathering a considerable community of active speakers today. Here, the Bliss symbols (1949, Charles K. Bliss) deserve also to be mentioned. These were intended for international communication, but have found their field of application elsewhere, namely as an aid for persons who lack an adequate ability of using ordinary language, because of motorical or cognitive handicaps.\n", "Language and culture are closely tied together and can affect one another. One example of culture shaping language is the case of the Pirahã people. Their lack of words for numbers makes it impossible for them to have complex mathematical systems in their culture. This could be a result of their cultural requirements: because they have no need for extensive mathematics, there would be no need for them to form number words. The formation of American slang can also serve as a reflection of culture and has changed as American culture developed. For example, as people began speaking out in defense of homosexuality in the 1960s, vulgar language and slang became more acceptable to use and began to be included in dictionaries.\n", "André Martinet, the second-last director of the IALA, made similar observations to those of Matejka. He confessed that his preferred variant of Interlingua was the one closer to Interlingue than the one officialized by Gode. In these circumstances the efforts by Ric Berger to move all users of Interlingue en masse to Interlingua de IALA was a shock. His heresy caused doubt and interruptions in Interlingue circles, especially after he became involved in the publication of \"Revista de Interlingua\". The former idea of a natural fusion of both languages was shown to be unrealistic, with the new language becoming a rival.\"\n", "Mathematics is used by mathematicians, who form a global community composed of speakers of many languages. It is also used by students of mathematics. As mathematics is a part of primary education in almost all countries, almost all educated people have some exposure to pure mathematics. There are very few cultural dependencies or barriers in modern mathematics. There are international mathematics competitions, such as the International Mathematical Olympiad, and international co-operation between professional mathematicians is commonplace.\n\nSection::::Concise expression.\n", "The Observatoire adopted these words as its guiding philosophy on the occasion of the first series of debates organised by the Observatoire linguistique in 1990-1991, at Fleury-sur-Andelle in Haute-Normandie, at Maillane in Provence and at Huy in Wallonie, sponsored by each of the relevant regions, on the subject of \"Nos langues et l'unité de l'Europe\" (\"Our languages and the unity of Europe\"). The guest of honour at the first of these debates was André Martinet (1908–1999), doyen of trans-Atlantic linguistics.\n", "Peano and some colleagues published articles in Latino sine flexione for several years at the \"Revue de Mathématiques\". Because of his desire to prove that this was indeed an international language, Peano boldly published the final edition of his famous Formulario mathematico in Latino sine flexione. However, as Hubert Kennedy notes, most mathematicians were put off by the artificial appearance of the language, and made no attempt to read it.\n", "Section::::IOL qualifiers.\n\nFrom 2007 to 2010 the USA sent two teams annually to the IOL.\n\nIn 2011 the USA sent three teams, and Canada also sent a team.\n\nFrom 2012 to 2016, the USA sent two teams annually, and Canada sent one team annually.\n\nIn 2017, the USA sent two teams and Canada sent two teams, one francophone and one anglophone.\n\nIn 2018, the USA sent two teams and Canada sent two teams, one francophone and one anglophone. The competition was held in Prague, Czech Republic.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- International Linguistics Olympiad\n\nBULLET::::- United States of America Computing Olympiad\n", "Originally, the association had not set out to create its own language. Its goal was to identify which auxiliary language already available was best suited for international communication, and how to promote it most effectively. However, after ten years of research, more and more members of IALA concluded that none of the existing interlanguages were up to the task. By 1937, the members had made the decision to create a new language, to the surprise of the world's interlanguage community.\n", "IOL 3 was held from August 8 to 12, 2005, in Leiden, Netherlands, with the participation of 13 teams from 9 countries, Finland and Romania for their first time. The five problems at the individual contest were in Tzotzil, Lango, Mansi, Yoruba and Lithuanian. The team problem was in Figuig.\n", "From 1946 to 1948, the renowned French linguist André Martinet was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. An initial survey gauged reactions to the three models of 1945. In 1946, IALA sent an extensive survey to more than 3,000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.\n\nSection::::Development of a new language.:The four models.\n\nFour models were canvassed: Model P and K, plus two new models similar to Model E of 1945.\n", "Innovations in the philosophy of language during the 20th century renewed interest in whether mathematics is, as is often said, the \"language\" of science. Although some mathematicians and philosophers would accept the statement \"mathematics is a language\", linguists believe that the implications of such a statement must be considered. For example, the tools of linguistics are not generally applied to the symbol systems of mathematics, that is, mathematics is studied in a markedly different way from other languages. If mathematics is a language, it is a different type of language from natural languages. Indeed, because of the need for clarity and specificity, the language of mathematics is far more constrained than natural languages studied by linguists. However, the methods developed by Frege and Tarski for the study of mathematical language have been extended greatly by Tarski's student Richard Montague and other linguists working in formal semantics to show that the distinction between mathematical language and natural language may not be as great as it seems.\n", "The year 1951 when Interlingua was announced was consequential in weakening Interlingue-Occidental, which until then had been unchallenged in the field of naturalistic planned auxiliary languages. Vĕra Barandovská-Frank's perception of the situation at the time was as follows (translated from Esperanto): \"In the field of naturalistic planned languages Occidental-Interlingue was until then unchallenged (especially after the death of Otto Jespersen, author of Novial), as all new projects were nearly imitations of it. This applied to Interlingua as well, but it carried with it a dictionary of 27 000 words put together by professional linguists that brought great respect, despite in principle only confirming the path that De Wahl had started. The Senate of the Interlingue-Union and the Interlingue-Academie took up the proposals that (1) the Interlingue-Union become a collective member of the IALA and (2) the Interlingue-Union remain favourable to the future activity of the IALA and morally support it. The first proposition was not accepted, but the second was, giving a practical collaboration and support to Interlingua.\n", "In the year 1999 the first Yahoo! Group in Occidental was founded, and Cosmoglotta had been publishing intermittently again. An Interlingue Wikipedia was approved in 2004. In recent years official meetings between Interlingue speakers have begun taking place again: a meeting in Ulm on 10 January 2013, another in Munich in 2014 with three participants, and a third in Ulm on 16 August 2015 with five. \n\nThe most recent edition of the magazine Cosmoglotta is volume 323, published at the end of 2017.\n\nSection::::Language philosophy.\n", "In his work \"Physics\", one of the topics treated by Aristotle is about how the study carried out by mathematicians differs from that carried out by physicists. Considerations about mathematics being the language of nature can be found in the ideas of the Pythagoreans: the convictions that \"Numbers rule the world\" and \"All is number\", and two millennia later were also expressed by Galileo Galilei: \"The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics\".\n", "Also in 1933, Professor Herbert N. Shenton of Syracuse University organized an intensive study of the problems encountered with interlanguages when used in international conferences. Later that same year, Dr. Edward L. Thorndike published a paper about the relative learning speeds of \"natural\" and \"modular\" constructed languages. Both Shenton and Thorndike were major influences on IALA's work from then on.\n", "Section::::The Linguasphere Register and Linguascale referential framework.\n\nThe \"Linguascale\" framework is a referential system covering all languages, as published in the \"Linguasphere Register\" in 2000 and subsequently refined in 2010. It comprises a flexible coding formula or which seeks to situate each language and dialect within the totality of the world's living and recorded languages, having regard to ongoing linguistic research.\n", "Originally, the association had not set out to create its own language. Its goal was to identify which auxiliary language already available was best suited for international communication, and how to promote it most effectively. However, after ten years of research, more and more members of IALA concluded that none of the existing interlanguages were up to the task. By 1937, the members had made the decision to create a new language, to the surprise of the world's interlanguage community.\n", "Section::::\"Langues de la Liberté/Languages of Liberty\".\n\nIn Paris, from 1987, the Observatoire linguistique created a bilingual exhibition \"Langues de la Liberté / Languages of Liberty\", tracing the transnational development of certain basic concepts of personal freedom through the interaction of English and French, rather than by the action of any one nation. At the outset of a series of 34 illustrated tryptychs, attention was drawn to the historical role of other transnational languages in the development of such concepts, including Greek and German.\n", "In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted rules of procedure concerning languages that purported to apply to \"all the organs of the United Nations, other than the International Court of Justice\", setting out five official languages and two working languages (English and French).\n\nThe following year, the second session of the General Assembly adopted permanent rules of procedure, Resolution 173 (II). The part of those rules relating to language closely followed the 1946 rules, except that the 1947 rules did not purport to apply to other UN organs, just the General Assembly.\n", "The IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics, funding, for example, Sapir's cross-linguistic semantic studies of totality (1930) and grading phenomena (1944). Morris herself edited Sapir and Morris Swadesh's 1932 cross-linguistic study of ending-point phenomena, and Collinson's 1937 study of indication. Although the Morrises and their family provided most of IALA's funding, it also received support from such prestigious groups as the Carnegie Corporation, the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation.\n", "At the Second International Interlanguage Congress, held in Geneva in 1931, IALA began to break new ground. Its conference was attended by recognized linguists, 27 of whom signed a testimonial of support for IALA's research program. An additional eight added their signatures at the third congress, convened in Rome in 1933.\n" ]	[ "Math is a universal language and there is only one way to write it." ]	[ "Math is conveyed differently in different languages just like words but the meaning is still the same. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Math is a universal language and there is only one way to write it." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Math is conveyed differently in different languages just like words but the meaning is still the same. " ]
2018-01557	Why do the colors on your computer screen become distorted when you apply pressure to the screen? And what determines what color these distorted pixels turn to?	You're using a liquid crystal display. This means that there's a sheet of liquid crystals in between a bunch of other screens and filters, and behind all of that is a light. When you apply an electrical charge to liquid crystals you can change their shape, and when that happens the direction and color of the light as it passes through can be changed. But you can also change the shape by pressing on them through the filters. Because this is much less precise than you can get with an electric current, it sort of warps into a blob of colors instead of a coherent image. When you remove pressure, the electrical current takes back control and forces the liquid crystals into the correct shape again. Its hard to predict the colors since you have to take into account the previous configuration of the liquid crystals, the amount of pressure you're putting on them, the location of the pressure, and the type of light and filters used in the display. So it usually just creates a strange gray sort of color.	[ "The vulnerability was specific to the monitors’ on-screen-display (OSD) controllers, which are used to control and adjust viewing options on the screen, such as brightness, contrast or horizontal/vertical positioning. However, as Cui, Kataria and Charbonneau noted in their talk abstract for the 2016 REcon security conference, with the Monitor Darkly exploit, the OSD can also be used to “read the content of the screen, change arbitrary pixel values, and execute arbitrary code supplied through numerous control channels.”\n", "An example of pixel shape affecting \"resolution\" or perceived sharpness: displaying more information in a smaller area using a higher resolution makes the image much clearer or \"sharper\". However, most recent screen technologies are fixed at a certain resolution; making the resolution lower on these kinds of screens will greatly decrease sharpness, as an interpolation process is used to \"fix\" the non-native resolution input into the display's native resolution output.\n", "Section::::Information flow and output distortion.\n\nInput data can come from device sources like digital cameras, image scanners or any other measuring devices. Those inputs can be either monochrome (in which case only the response curve needs to be calibrated, though in a few select cases one must also specify the color or spectral power distribution that that single channel corresponds to) or specified in multidimensional color - most commonly in the three channel RGB model. Input data is in most cases calibrated against a profile connection space (PCS).\n", "This way of proceeding is suitable only when the display device does not exhibit \"loading effects\", which means that the luminance of the test pattern is varying with the size of the test pattern. Such loading effects can be found in CRT-displays and in PDPs. A small test pattern (e.g. 4% window pattern) displayed on these devices can have significantly higher luminance than the corresponding full-screen pattern because the supply current may be limited by special electronic circuits.\n\nSection::::Full-swing contrast.\n", "With Cromaclear CRTs, the conventional \"dot pitch\" measurement is no longer as accurate. The term \"mask pitch\" is more appropriate when discussing this specification. A mask pitch measurement is the distance between like-colored phosphors on a Cromaclear mask. The mask pitch of a Cromaclear screen is 0.25 mm.\n\nSection::::Image quality.\n", "Section::::New development.\n\nSection::::New development.:Screen improvements.\n", "Graphic tablets, because of their stylus-based interface and ability to detect some or all of pressure, tilt, and other attributes of the stylus and its interaction with the tablet, are widely considered to offer a very natural way to create computer graphics, especially two-dimensional computer graphics. Indeed, many graphic packages can make use of the pressure (and, sometimes, stylus tilt or rotation) information generated by a tablet, by modifying the brush size, shape, opacity, color, or other attributes based on data received from the graphic tablet.\n", "Some LCDs compensate the inter-pixel color mix effect by having borders between pixels slightly larger than borders between subpixels. Then, in the example above, a viewer of such an LCD would see a blue line appearing adjacent to a red line instead of a single magenta line.\n\nSection::::PenTile.:Example with - alternated stripes layout.\n", "[1]: This applies to US 60 Hz C128s only. 50 Hz C128 machines output a signal with a 50 Hz vertical refresh. Although not conforming to the CGA standard, most CGA monitors were capable of displaying the 50 Hz signal without problems. However, some monitors either failed to resolve the signal or succeeded in resolving it, but sooner or later their deflection circuits would fail.\n\nSection::::Programming.\n", "Informative subject testing done at the Rochester Institute of Technology’s Munsell Color Science Lab discovered consistent color perception difficulties when identical subjects performed the Munsell Vision Test on varying calibrated monitors in a test comparing color vision test results between Apple MacBook Pro laptop displays and a Samsung LCD Monitor. Results garnered from the experiment exemplified the differences that displays can exhibit in failure to accurately quantify color. Incident angle to the test monitor is a final strong source of experimental uncertainty, as very few monitors commercially available are capable of accurately representing hue, tone and saturation consistently at all viewing angles incident to the monitor.\n", "For LCD monitors the pixel brightness changes are much slower than CRT or plasma phosphors. Typically LCD pixel brightness changes are faster when voltage is applied than when voltage is removed, resulting in an asymmetric pixel response time. With 3D shutter glasses this can result in a blurry smearing of the display and poor depth perception, due to the previous image frame not fading to black fast enough as the next frame is drawn.\n\nSection::::Televisions.\n", "Section::::Dynamic contrast.\n\nThis is a technique for expanding the contrast of LCD-screens.\n", "Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung, and Apple's Force Touch system.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sound.\n", "The final result depends on how many applications are working with on screen colors. The foreground window is always favored, so windows at background may behave in different ways: from become corrupted to quickly redraw themselves. When the system palette changes, the system triggers a specific event to inform every application. When received, a window can quickly redraw itself using a single Win32 API function. But this must be doing explicitly in the program code; hence the fact that many programs lack in manage this event, and their windows become corrupt in this situation.\n", "Graphics tablets use a stylus containing circuitry (powered by battery or operating passively by inductance), to allow multi-function buttons on the barrel of the pen or stylus to transmit user actions to the tablet. Most tablets detect varying degrees of pressure sensitivity, e.g., for use in a drawing program to vary line thickness or color density.\n", "\"Mode\" change occurs by varying the relative amounts backlight and ambient light. With more backlight, a higher chrominance is available and a color image display is seen. As ambient light levels, such as sunlight, exceed the backlight, a grayscale display is seen; this can be useful when reading e-books for an extended time in bright light such as sunlight. The backlight brightness can also be adjusted to vary the level of color seen in the display and to conserve battery power.\n", "Color can also change depending on viewing angle, using iridescence, for example, in ChromaFlair.\n\nSection::::Art.\n", "The screens are typically covered with phosphor using sedimentation coating, where particles suspended in a solution are let to settle on the surface.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cathode ray tubes.:Reduced-palette color CRTs.\n\nFor displaying of a limited palette of colors, there are a few options.\n", "DrawPlus X8 and Starter Edition offer support for pressure-sensitive input devices such as Wacom's range of tablets. Both applications feature a Pressure Studio to allow calibration of the individual devices and allow functions to be mapped to the supported buttons on the tablet. DrawPlus supports pressure-sensitive vector lines and brushes to create a striking range of effects from manga through to painting in an array of media.\n", "Some incorrectly ported games or game engines have acceleration and interpolation curves which unintentionally produce excessive, irregular, or even negative acceleration when used with a mouse instead of their native platform's non-mouse default input device. Depending on how deeply hardcoded this misbehavior is, internal user patches or external 3rd-party software may be able to fix it.\n", "TN displays suffer from limited viewing angles, especially in the vertical direction. Colors will shift when viewed off-perpendicular. In the vertical direction, colors will shift so much that they will invert past a certain angle.\n", "While some CRT-based displays may use digital video processing that involves image scaling using memory arrays, ultimately \"display resolution\" in CRT-type displays is affected by different parameters such as spot size and focus, astigmatic effects in the display corners, the color phosphor pitch shadow mask (such as Trinitron) in color displays, and the video bandwidth.\n\nSection::::Overscan and underscan.\n", "BULLET::::- Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the intended viewing angle.\n\nBULLET::::- Uneven backlighting in some monitors (more common in IPS-types and older TNs), causing brightness distortion, especially toward the edges (\"backlight bleed\").\n\nBULLET::::- Black levels may not be as dark as required because individual liquid crystals cannot completely block all of the backlight from passing through.\n", "The term \"high color\" has recently been used to mean color depths greater than 24 bits.\n\nSection::::Direct color.:18-bit.\n\nAlmost all of the least expensive LCDs (such as typical twisted nematic types) provide 18-bit color (64 × 64 × 64 = 262,144 combinations) to achieve faster color transition times, and use either dithering or frame rate control to approximate 24-bit-per-pixel true color, or throw away 6 bits of color information entirely. More expensive LCDs (typically IPS) can display 24-bit or greater color depth.\n\nSection::::Direct color.:True color (24-bit).\n", "Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung, and Apple's \"3D Touch\" system.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sound.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24095	Why can’t normal airplanes go to space?	Consider, why can't a swimmer swim into the sky? Because there is no water in the sky, and the water is what supports the swimmer. Airplanes "swim" through the air. The air is what supports them. So they can't fly somewhere without air.	[ "The concept of a \"space ship\" (or \"rocket ship\") was further developed in twentieth century science fiction such as \"Flash Gordon\", as a self-contained, presumably rocket-powered, unitized vehicle capable of reaching an extraterrestrial destination keeping its structure intact, and requiring only refueling, like an airplane. Real-world rocket technology did not make this possible; while the airplane requires an amount of fuel occupying a relatively small fraction of the total size and mass, the rocket requires an oxidizer in order to operate in the vacuum of space. It also cannot use atmospheric air as its propellant; this function is served by the high-volume and high-mass fuel and oxidizer. Also, the high amount of energy required to reach at least low Earth orbital speed requires an extremely high proportion of propellant to dry vehicle mass. Also, mid-twentieth century structural technologies made it impossible to construct a single set of propellant tanks capable of holding enough mass to reach the required velocity. Thus, expendable multi-stage launch vehicles were the necessary design choice when spaceflight began in the late 1950s.\n", "Section::::Challenges.:Air-breathing orbital spaceplane concept.\n\nAn air-breathing orbital spaceplane would have to fly what is known as a 'depressed trajectory,' which places the vehicle in the high-altitude hypersonic flight regime of the atmosphere for an extended period of time. This environment induces high dynamic pressure, high temperature, and high heat flow loads particularly upon the leading edge surfaces of the spaceplane, requiring exterior surfaces to be constructed from advanced materials and/or use active cooling.\n\nSection::::Orbital spaceplanes.\n\nSection::::Orbital spaceplanes.:Space Shuttle.\n", "BULLET::::- Orbiter Mini UAS\n", "The flight dynamics of spacecraft differ from those of aircraft in that the aerodynamic forces are of very small, or vanishingly small effect for most of the vehicle's flight, and cannot be used for attitude control during that time. Also, most of a spacecraft's flight time is usually unpowered, leaving gravity as the dominant force.\n", "Section::::Types.:Orbital.\n\nA minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.\n\nSection::::Types.:Interplanetary.\n\nInterplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System.\n\nSection::::Types.:Interstellar.\n", "A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nMany human cultures have built devices that fly, from the earliest projectiles such as stones and spears, the\n", "Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.\n\nSection::::Phases.:Leaving orbit.\n", "In World War II, the Germans deployed the Me 163 Komet rocket-powered aircraft. The first plane to break the sound barrier in level flight was a rocket plane – the Bell X-1. The later North American X-15 broke many speed and altitude records and laid much of the groundwork for later aircraft and spacecraft design. Rocket aircraft are not in common usage today, although rocket-assisted take offs are used for some military aircraft. Recent rocket aircraft include the SpaceShipOne and the XCOR EZ-Rocket.\n\nThere are many rocket-powered aircraft/spacecraft planes, the spaceplanes, that are designed to fly outside Earth's atmosphere.\n", "Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, which in turn requires the use of high energy density propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.:Mechanical hazards.:Launch.\n", "While some designs have power and/or mass supplied from an external, ground-based source, untethered flight requires all of a flight's fuel to be carried within the pack. This results in problems relating to the overall mass ratio, which limits the maximum flight time to tens of seconds, rather than the sustained flight envisaged in science fiction.\n\nSection::::Liquid-fuelled rocket pack.\n\nSection::::Liquid-fuelled rocket pack.:Andreyev: oxygen-and-methane, with wings.\n", "Rocket-powered aircraft consume their fuel quickly and so most must land unpowered unless there is another power source. The first rocket plane was the Lippisch Ente, and later examples include the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered interceptor. The American series of research aircraft starting with the Bell X-1 in 1946 up to the North American X-15 spent more time flying unpowered than under power. In the 1960s research was also done on unpowered lifting bodies and on the X-20 Dyna-Soar project, but although the X20 was cancelled, this research eventually led to the Space Shuttle.\n", "Aero Spacelines was formed with only one customer in mind. NASA required a way to transport outsized cargo from their suppliers' manufacturing plants to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. Their freight shipments were too large to be safely transported by rail or truck; shipping by sea was time consuming, expensive, and fraught with the danger of damaging the shipments on turbulent seas. The only viable means of transporting NASA's cargo was by air. However, due to the large size of the components, no existing aircraft was capable of accomplishing the task.\n", "BULLET::::- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\n\nSection::::Procedures.:Space-required versus space-available.\n\nSpace-A travel is not without its pitfalls. Unlike traditional commercial air traffic, military flights are not always assigned predictable takeoff times. Many factors go into planning a military flight, with space-required cargo and passengers forming the basis of planning. There is no consideration given to potential Space-A travelers during the planning process.\n\nSection::::Procedures.:Veterans Space-A travel eligibility.\n\nUniformed Services Retirees (receiving retirement pay and possessing a BLUE Retiree ID Card) and their accompanying dependents can travel Space-A anywhere that Space-A is allowed. \n", "At least three suborbital rocket-powered aircraft have been launched horizontally into sub-orbital spaceflight from an airborne carrier aircraft before rocketing beyond the Kármán line: the X-15, SpaceShipOne, and SpaceShipTwo.\n\nSection::::Challenges.\n\nSpaceplanes must operate in space, like traditional spacecraft, but also must be capable of atmospheric flight, like an aircraft. These requirements drive up the complexity, risk, dry mass, and cost of spaceplane designs. The following sections will draw heavily on the US Space Shuttle as the biggest, deadliest, most complex, most expensive, most flown, and only crewed orbital spaceplane, but other designs have been successfully flown.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Launch to space.\n", "Thus due to the high cost, this is likely to be initially limited to high value, very high urgency cargo such as courier flights, or as the ultimate business jet; or possibly as an extreme sport, or for military fast-response.\n\nThe SpaceLiner is a hypersonic suborbital spaceplane concept that could transport 50 passengers from Australia to Europe in 90 minutes or 100 passengers from Europe to California in 60 minutes. The main challenge lies in increasing the reliability of the different components, particularly the engines, in order to make their use for passenger transportation on a daily basis possible.\n", "Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.\n\nFor manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.\n\nSection::::Phases.:Reaching space.:Alternatives.\n", "The development of Soviet rockets and satellites was the driving force behind the development of NASA's space program. In the early 1960s, American research into the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar spaceplane was cancelled due to lack of purpose; later the studies contributed to the Space Shuttle, which in turn motivated the Russian Buran. Another similar program was ISINGLASS which was to be a rocket plane launched from a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress carrier, which was intended to achieve Mach 22, but this was never funded. ISINGLASS was intended to overfly the USSR. No images of the vehicle configuration have been released.\n", "Point-to-point is a category of sub-orbital spaceflight in which a spacecraft provides rapid transport between two terrestrial locations. Consider a conventional airline route between London and Sydney, a flight that normally lasts over twenty hours. With point-to-point suborbital travel the same route could be traversed in less than one hour. While no company offers this type of transportation today, SpaceX has revealed plans to do so as early as the 2020s using its BFR vehicle. Suborbital spaceflight over an intercontinental distance requires a vehicle velocity that is only a little lower than the velocity required to reach low Earth orbit. If rockets are used, the size of the rocket relative to the payload is similar to an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Any intercontinental spaceflight has to surmount problems of heating during atmosphere re-entry that are nearly as large as those faced by orbital spaceflight.\n", "Today, as we meet here in this historic room where Abigail Adams hung out her washing, an astronaut can orbit the earth faster than a man on the ground can get from New York to Washington. Yet, the same science and technology which gave us our airplanes and our space probes, I believe, could also give us better and faster and more economical transportation on the ground. And a lot of us need it more on the ground than we need it orbiting the earth.\n", "Section::::Economical travel techniques.:Gravitational slingshot.\n", "Of much larger size, the Silbervogel antipodal bomber spaceplane was planned by the Germans late in World War II, however later calculations showed that it would not have worked, and would have been destroyed during reentry.\n\nSection::::History.:Cold War era.\n\nIn 1946, the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich I-270 was built partly using technology developed by Sergei Korolev in 1943 and 1932.\n", "A number of spacecraft have been proposed over the decades that might facilitate spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by airliner after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to transport a large number of passengers to destinations in space, or to destinations on Earth which travel through space. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the flight testing phase of their development process.\n", "There have been many proposed methods for achieving orbital spaceflight that have the potential of being much more affordable than rockets. Some of these ideas such as the space elevator, and rotovator, require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Other proposed ideas include ground accelerators such as launch loops, rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon, scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.\n", "As with aeronautics, the restrictions of mass, temperatures, and external forces require that applications in space survive extreme conditions: high-grade vacuum, the radiation bombardment of interplanetary space and the magnetic belts of low Earth orbit. Space launch vehicles must withstand titanic forces, while satellites can experience huge variations in temperature in very brief periods. Extreme constraints on mass cause astronautical engineers to face the constant need to save mass in the design in order to maximize the actual payload that reaches orbit.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The first sub-orbital vehicles which reached space were ballistic missiles. The very first ballistic missile to reach space was the German V-2, the work of the scientists at Peenemünde, on October 3, 1942 which reached an altitude of . Then in the late 1940s the US and USSR concurrently developed missiles all of which were based on the V-2 Rocket, and then much longer range Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). There are now many countries who possess ICBMs and even more with shorter range IRBMs (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles).\n\nSection::::Flight profiles.:Tourist flights.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03147	why do fractions become smaller when multiplied by itself?	Cause it's a fraction of a fraction. Convert it to decimals or percentages if it's easier. 1/2 × 1/2 = .5 × .5 = 50% × 50% It's half of a half, or 1/4	[ "To explain the process, consider one third of one quarter. Using the example of a cake, if three small slices of equal size make up a quarter, and four quarters make up a whole, twelve of these small, equal slices make up a whole. Therefore, a third of a quarter is a twelfth. Now consider the numerators. The first fraction, two thirds, is twice as large as one third. Since one third of a quarter is one twelfth, two thirds of a quarter is two twelfth. The second fraction, three quarters, is three times as large as one quarter, so two thirds of three quarters is three times as large as two thirds of one quarter. Thus two thirds times three quarters is six twelfths.\n", "The first rule of addition is that only like quantities can be added; for example, various quantities of quarters. Unlike quantities, such as adding thirds to quarters, must first be converted to like quantities as described below: Imagine a pocket containing two quarters, and another pocket containing three quarters; in total, there are five quarters. Since four quarters is equivalent to one (dollar), this can be represented as follows:\n\nSection::::Arithmetic with fractions.:Addition.:Adding unlike quantities.\n", "If two positive fractions have the same numerator, then the fraction with the smaller denominator is the larger number. When a whole is divided into equal pieces, if fewer equal pieces are needed to make up the whole, then each piece must be larger. When two positive fractions have the same numerator, they represent the same number of parts, but in the fraction with the smaller denominator, the parts are larger.\n", "The smallest possible denominator is given by the least common multiple of the single denominators, which results from dividing the rote multiple by all common factors of the single denominators. This is called the least common denominator.\n\nSection::::Arithmetic with fractions.:Subtraction.\n\nThe process for subtracting fractions is, in essence, the same as that of adding them: find a common denominator, and change each fraction to an equivalent fraction with the chosen common denominator. The resulting fraction will have that denominator, and its numerator will be the result of subtracting the numerators of the original fractions. For instance,\n\nSection::::Arithmetic with fractions.:Multiplication.\n", "In general, if an increase of percent is followed by a decrease of percent, and the initial amount was , the final amount is ; thus the net change is an overall decrease by percent \"of\" percent (the square of the original percent change when expressed as a decimal number). Thus, in the above example, after an increase and decrease of , the final amount, $198, was 10% of 10%, or 1%, less than the initial amount of $200. The net change is the same for a decrease of percent followed by an increase of percent; the final amount is .\n", "Section::::Arithmetic with fractions.:Equivalent fractions.:Simplifying (Reducing) fractions.\n", "For example, suppose we want to know how far a car will travel in 7 hours, if we know that its speed is constant and that it already travelled 90 miles in the last 3 hours. Converting the word problem into ratios we get\n\nCross-multiplying yields:\n\nand so:\n\nNote that even simple equations like this:\n\nare solved using cross multiplication, since the missing term is implicitly equal to 1:\n\nAny equation containing fractions or rational expressions can be simplified by multiplying both sides by the least common denominator. This step is called \"clearing fractions\".\n\nSection::::Rule of Three.\n", "Thus, repeated addition extends to the whole numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...). The first challenge to the belief that multiplication is repeated addition appears when students start working with fractions. From the mathematical point of view, multiplication as repeated addition can be \"extended\" into fractions. For example,\n", "Fractions can also be inferred from ratios with more than two entities; however, a ratio with more than two entities cannot be completely converted into a single fraction, because a fraction can only compare two quantities. A separate fraction can be used to compare the quantities of any two of the entities covered by the ratio: for example, from a ratio of 2:3:7 we can infer that the quantity of the second entity is formula_7 that of the third entity.\n\nSection::::Proportions and percentage ratios.\n", "To add fractions containing unlike quantities (e.g. quarters and thirds), it is necessary to convert all amounts to like quantities. It is easy to work out the chosen type of fraction to convert to; simply multiply together the two denominators (bottom number) of each fraction. In case of an integer number apply the invisible denominator formula_98\n\nFor adding quarters to thirds, both types of fraction are converted to twelfths, thus:\n\nConsider adding the following two quantities:\n", "Similarly, although one could divide 13 pizzas among 12 diners by giving each diner one pizza and splitting the remaining pizza into 12 parts (perhaps destroying it), one could note that\n\nand split 6 pizzas into halves, 4 into thirds and the remaining 3 into quarters, and then give each diner one half, one third and one quarter.\n\nSection::::Early history.\n", "BULLET::::4. At this point the process is repeated enough times to reach a stopping point: The largest number by which the divisor 4 can be multiplied without exceeding 10 is 2, so 2 is written above as the second leftmost quotient digit. This 2 is then multiplied by the divisor 4 to get 8, which is the largest multiple of 4 that does not exceed 10; so 8 is written below 10, and the subtraction 10 minus 8 is performed to get the remainder 2, which is placed below the 8.\n", "Traditional long multiplication can be related to a grid multiplication in which only one of the numbers is broken into tens and units parts to be multiplied separately:\n", "Units can only be added or subtracted if they are the same type; however units can always be multiplied or divided, as George Gamow used to explain. Let formula_4 be \"2 candlesticks\" and formula_5 \"3 cabdrivers\", then\n", "When multiplying mixed numbers, it is considered preferable to convert the mixed number into an improper fraction. For example:\n\nIn other words, formula_18 is the same as formula_120, making 11 quarters in total (because 2 cakes, each split into quarters makes 8 quarters total) and 33 quarters is formula_121, since 8 cakes, each made of quarters, is 32 quarters in total.\n\nSection::::Arithmetic with fractions.:Division.\n", "In general, a change of percent in a quantity results in a final amount that is 100 + percent of the original amount (equivalently, (1 + 0.01) times the original amount).\n\nSection::::Compounding percentages.\n", "If the two or more ratio quantities encompass all of the quantities in a particular situation, it is said that \"the whole\" contains the sum of the parts: for example, a fruit basket containing two apples and three oranges and no other fruit is made up of two parts apples and three parts oranges. In this case, formula_8, or 40% of the whole is apples and formula_9, or 60% of the whole is oranges. This comparison of a specific quantity to \"the whole\" is called a proportion.\n", "Clearing denominators\n\nIn mathematics, the method of clearing denominators, also called clearing fractions, is a technique for simplifying an equation equating two expressions that each are a sum of rational expressions – which includes simple fractions.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nConsider the equation\n\nThe smallest common multiple of the two denominators 6 and 15\"z\" is 30\"z\", so one multiplies both sides by 30\"z\":\n\nThe result is an equation with no fractions.\n", "Section::::Arithmetic with fractions.:Multiplication.:Multiplying a fraction by another fraction.\n\nTo multiply fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators. Thus:\n", "Notice how several of the binary fractions require more than the 4 fractional bits provided by our fixed point format. To fit them into our fields, we would simply truncate the remaining bits, giving us the following stored representations:\n\nOr in decimal:\n\nAnd when we need to bring them back into the real world, we need to divide by our scale factor, 1/11, giving the following \"real world\" values:\n\nNotice how they've changed? For one thing, they aren't all integers anymore, immediately indicating that an error was introduced in the storage, due to a poor choice of scaling factor.\n", "Whether common fractions or decimal fractions are used is often a matter of taste and context. Common fractions are used most often when the denominator is relatively small. By mental calculation, it is easier to multiply 16 by 3/16 than to do the same calculation using the fraction's decimal equivalent (0.1875). And it is more accurate to multiply 15 by 1/3, for example, than it is to multiply 15 by any decimal approximation of one third. Monetary values are commonly expressed as decimal fractions with denominator 100, i.e., with two decimals, for example $3.75. However, as noted above, in pre-decimal British currency, shillings and pence were often given the form (but not the meaning) of a fraction, as, for example 3/6 (read \"three and six\") meaning 3 shillings and 6 pence, and having no relationship to the fraction 3/6.\n", "To apportion is to divide into parts according to some rule, the rule typically being one of proportion. Certain quantities, like milk, can be divided in any proportion whatsoever; others, such as horses, cannot—only whole numbers will do. In the latter case, there is an inherent tension between the desire to obey the rule of proportion as closely as possible and the constraint restricting the size of each portion to discrete values. This results, at times, in unintuitive observations, or paradoxes.\n", "In the example given above, we picked a scale factor of 11 so that all the numbers would be small enough to fit in the range. However, when we began scaling the following real world data:\n\nWe discovered that the precision of these fractions is going to be a problem. The following box illustrates this showing the original data, its scaled decimal values, and the binary equivalent of the scaled value.\n", "As another example, since the greatest common divisor of 63 and 462 is 21, the fraction formula_77can be reduced to lowest terms by dividing the numerator and denominator by 21:\n\nThe Euclidean algorithm gives a method for finding the greatest common divisor of any two positive integers.\n\nSection::::Arithmetic with fractions.:Comparing fractions.\n\nComparing fractions with the same positive denominator yields the same result as comparing the numerators:\n\nIf the equal denominators are negative, then the opposite result of comparing the numerators holds for the fractions:\n", "For describing numbers approximately, deviations from the decreasing order of values of \"n\" are not needed. For example, formula_60, and formula_61. Thus we have the somewhat counterintuitive result that a number \"x\" can be so large that, in a way, \"x\" and 10 are \"almost equal\" (for arithmetic of large numbers see also below).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04345	Why aren't we able to stream content anywhere in the world? Is there an actual technical reason for it or is it just discrimination?	It's most commonly a legal rather than technical issue. In the early days of media, it was really expensive and complicated to do anything internationally. If an American company wanted to show an American movie in Japan, they had to either print a bunch of reels of film in the United States and then ship them to people in Japan and have them somehow get to various theaters, or they had to ship a set of master reels to Japan and have a local film duplication company duplicate them and then send those reels to theaters. All of that had to be done when nobody in the company had ever been to Japan, almost nobody spoke Japanese, nobody knew what kinds of movies the local market wanted, nobody knew the local media and censorship laws, etc. And then that process had to be repeated for every country they wanted to distribute their media in. The result of that was that instead of having the company that created the media try to figure all that out, what they'd do is sell an exclusive license to a distributor in those countries, and then it was up to the distributor to figure out what the right way to deal with everything was. Sometimes those agreements were one-offs, but sometimes relationships were built up with distributors and they'd just routinely sell them licenses for everything they made, maybe for a share of the profits or maybe for a fixed rate, whatever deal they hammered out. This worked out really well then, but nowadays these agreements end up making things complicated. If American Movies Corp. has an agreement with Japanese Movies Ltd. to be their exclusive distributor in Japan, then they can't distribute their own movies to Japanese people. And Japanese Movies Ltd is going to sue American Movies Corp. if they sell a license to Netflix that makes those movies available in Japan. So now, when American Movies Corp. is talking to Netflix about distributing their movies on the Internet, they have to tell them that the license they're giving them doesn't apply to Japan, or the UK, or France, or 17 other countries where they sold off their rights to a local distributor. That means when you ask Netflix to play an American Movies Corp. movie while in Japan, it won't come up, because they don't have a license to play it there. This is partly why it's so much easier for companies like Netflix or Amazon creating original content. They don't have these existing distribution arrangements, they still have global rights to everything they make, so they can just distribute it globally and everyone is happy.	[ "Broadcasting rights vary from country to country and even within provinces of countries. These rights govern the distribution of copyrighted content and media and allow the sole distribution of that content at any one time. An example of content only being aired in certain countries is BBC iPlayer. The BBC checks a user's IP address to make sure that only users located in the UK can stream content from the BBC. The BBC only allows free use of their product for users within the UK as those users have paid for a television license that funds part of the BBC. This IP address check is not foolproof as the user may be accessing the BBC website through a VPN or proxy server. Broadcasting rights can also be restricted to allowing a broadcaster rights to distribute that content for a limited time. Channel 4's online service All 4 can only stream shows created in the US by companies such as HBO for thirty days after they are aired on one of the Channel 4 group channels. This is to boost DVD sales for the companies who produce that media.\n", "Since 2006, UK channel owners and content producers have been creating Internet services to access their programmes. Often, these are available for a window after the broadcast schedule. These services generally block users outside of the UK.\n\nSection::::Internet video services.:Online video services for professionally-produced content.\n", "Some companies pay very large amounts for broadcasting rights with sports and US sitcoms usually fetching the highest price from UK-based broadcasters. A trend among major content producers in North America is the use of the \"TV Everywhere\" system. Especially for live content, the TV Everywhere system restricts viewership of a video feed to select Internet service providers, usually cable television companies that pay a retransmission consent or subscription fee to the content producer. This often has the negative effect of making the availability of content dependent upon the provider, with the consumer having little or no choice on whether they receive the product.\n", "Additionally, live streaming to large audiences carries the risk that viewers may commit crimes both remotely and in person. Twitch co-founder Justin Kan had been a frequent target of swatting. An incident occurred in April 2017 at the Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport when a viewer called in a bomb threat and named a streamer as the culprit, temporarily shutting down the airport. They may also be victim to stalking as with other celebrities; for example, a teenager showed up uninvited to a streamer's house and requested to live with him after having saved up for a one-way transcontinental flight. A Taiwan-based American streamer fell victim to a doxing and targeted harassment campaign by a Taiwanese streamer, coordinated through a private Facebook group with 17,000 members \"whose activities involved tracking [his] whereabouts,\" death threats and \"the distribution of his parents’ U.S. phone number and address\". Twitch responded by temporarily suspending the harassed streamer.\n", "Section::::Streamers in Asia.\n\nWhile streamers have become more prevalent around the around, Asia has become a big marketplace with Korean and Chinese streaming sites making a big amount of revenue from their streams.\n\nSection::::Streamers in Asia.:Broadcast jockey.\n", "In some countries, cable television channels are subject to the rules and regulations set forth by each country's communications bureau and must be licensed accordingly. For example, some countries (for example, Canada) have regulations that stipulate some channels' purposes when authorizing them, particularly for those channels that were licensed for the purpose of providing underrepresented subject matter. This can prove problematic for channels in those countries that share a branding with their American counterparts; for instance, Outdoor Life Network still exists in Canada due to the requirements of the channel's original conditions of license, long after the American OLN abandoned that branding (the American OLN is now known as NBCSN), while the Canadian version of the Oprah Winfrey Network has received several notices from the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission due to attempts to avoid the licensing requirements it has as an educational television network under its original title, Canadian Learning Television. The South African Broadcasting Corporation originally had its 3 main channels dedicated to specific ethnic groups and their home languages. SABC 1 primarily broadcasts shows that target the Bantu-speakers, while SABC 2 focused on Afrikaans programming and SABC 3 aimed at the English-speaking South Africans. Anti-apartheid propaganda and prejudice against Afrikaners caused SABC2's Afrikaans programming to be gradually replaced with English despite its high viewership. The lack of Afrikaans programming, along with the launch of DStv's rival Afrikaans-channel KykNET, caused the once-popular SABC2's viewership to decline. The SABC has been met with strong criticism over its treatment of Afrikaans programming on SABC2.\n", "BULLET::::- Cinépop\n\nSection::::Exempted Category B services.\n\nSection::::Exempted Category B services.:English.\n\nBULLET::::- AOV Adult Movie Channel\n\nBULLET::::- beIN Sports Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Exxxtasy TV\n\nBULLET::::- FEVA TV\n\nBULLET::::- Maleflixxx Television\n\nBULLET::::- MAVTV Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Stingray Now 4K\n\nBULLET::::- The Cult Movie Network\n\nBULLET::::- Toon-A-Vision\n\nBULLET::::- Vertical TV\n\nBULLET::::- XITE 4K\n\nBULLET::::- XXX Action Clips Channel\n\nSection::::Exempted Category B services.:French.\n\nBULLET::::- PalmarèsADISQ par Stingray\n\nBULLET::::- Stingray Hits!\n\nSection::::Exempted Category B services.:Ethnic.\n\nBULLET::::- Abu Dhabi TV\n\nBULLET::::- Al-Nahar TV\n\nBULLET::::- Al-Nahar Drama\n\nBULLET::::- Al Resalah\n\nBULLET::::- All TV\n\nBULLET::::- All TV K\n\nBULLET::::- ATN Aastha TV\n\nBULLET::::- ATN ARY Digital\n\nBULLET::::- ATN B4U Movies\n", "Other countries employ similar quota systems. Australian broadcasters are required to broadcast a certain percentage of Australasian content. Similar domestic content quota laws also exist in the Philippines, Mexico, Nigeria, Israel, South Africa, Jamaica, Venezuela, Russia, and New Zealand. Quotas also apply in the United Kingdom and France (which now has a European Union content rule rather than a domestic one). The United States does not restrict foreign content broadcasting. Given U.S. media's domestic and global strength, however, American broadcasters often air predominantly US-produced content as a matter of course.\n\nSection::::Radio.\n", "Under previous policies, these services were intentionally unprotected from competition by other Category B services of the same genre, but are still \"protected\" from competition by other discretionary services. In other words, if someone wants to launch a competing service, they must do so by committing to the same obligations, including common requirements for the exhibition and funding of Canadian-produced programming, as others. Discretionary services, by contrast, may not devote more than 10% of their monthly programming to live professional sports.\n", "Section::::Streamers in Asia.:Broadcast jockey.:Mukbang.\n\nOne popular streaming format that originated from Korea is Mukbang which is a stream where a person broadcasts themselves eating in front of a camera to a live audience. The popularity of these streams has spread outside of Korea with many sites like Twitch offering \"Social Eating\" on their platform.\n\nSection::::Streamers in Asia.:China.\n", "Section::::Canadian laws on online media.\n\nThe Canadian Radio and Television Commission (CRTC) had recently deliberated on revising broadcasting rights from the many incoming internet-based broadcasters from other countries. Video streaming sites such as Hulu are not available to Canadians because Canadian broadcasters have rights to programming, and controls on how they are broadcast.\n", "CBS programming that has been exclusively licensed to local television channels or other streaming services is missing from the All Access services outside the US. Non-exclusively licensed and unlicensed programming is available on the service, from current to classic programming. CBS All Access' original series that premiered prior to the launch of the service in a new market are generally unavailable in that market. For example, \"Star Trek: Discovery\" is licensed to Canadian broadcasters Space and Z Tele and Canadian VOD service CraveTV; as such, it is currently unavailable to the Canadian CBS service.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Amazon Prime Video\n", "Section::::Content and audience.:Emotes.\n\nTwitch features a large number of emoticons called \"emotes\". There are emotes free for all users, emotes for Turbo users, emotes for Twitch Prime users, and emotes for users who are subscribed to Twitch partners or affiliates. \"Kappa\" was the most used emote on Twitch. Twitch partnered broadcasters unlock more \"emote slots\" as they gain more subscribers up to a maximum of 50 emotes per channel.\n\nSection::::Internet censorship.\n\nAs of September 20, 2018, the Twitch website is blocked and the app is blocked from the Apple App Store in China.\n\nSection::::Partner and affiliate programs.\n", "The development of the global Internet has created the ability for television and radio programming to be easily accessed outside of its country of origin, with little technological investment needed to implement the capability. Before the development of the Internet, this would have required specially-acquired satellite relaying and/or local terrestrial rebroadcasting of the international content, at considerable cost to the international viewer. This access can now instead be readily facilitated using off-the-shelf video encoding and streaming equipment, using broadband services within the country of origin.\n", "After the replacement of the TPP with the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership in 2018, it was reported that Canada had secured an exemption from a clause in the agreement that prohibits discriminatory rules on foreign audio-video services in order to ask services to financially support the creation of Canadian content.\n\nSection::::Movies.\n\nSome have suggested that Canadian content minimums be enacted for movie theatres. None have ever been put in place.\n\nSection::::Theatre.\n", "BULLET::::- 3 January: A torture incident in Chicago, in which a man with a mental disability in Chicago, Illinois, was filmed being physically and verbally abused by four people (two men and two women). The torture was live streamed by one of the women on Facebook and sparked massive controversy.\n\nBULLET::::- Early January: An American woman taped her toddler to the wall and live streamed it on Facebook Live.\n\nBULLET::::- 21 January: Uppsala rape Facebook live streaming incident, in Uppsala, Sweden, Afghan refugees live streamed the gang rape of a Swedish woman on Facebook.\n", "In May 2016, Vuclip launched Viu in Indonesia.\n\nIn November 2016, Viu announced its official launch in Philippines and has achieved four million users and over 218 million video views.\n\nIn February 2017, Viu was available in major Middle East countries including Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.\n\nIn May 2017, Viu announced its official launch in Thailand and has expanded to 15 markets across Asia and the Middle East countries.\n\nIn September 2018, Viu announced its official launch in Myanmar.\n\nIn March 2019, Viu announced its official launch in South Africa.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n", "As of October 2016, the channels of A&E Networks (including A&E, Lifetime, LMN and History Channel among others), The CW, member stations of PBS and its associated networks, Univision (along with its Univision Communications-owned sister broadcast and cable channels, outside Fusion), and some independent stations have yet to reach agreements with Sony to make their programming available on PlayStation Vue. Currently, Univision content can be accessed by PS Vue users through the network's in-house over-the-top service, Univision Now. CW programming on the network's Chicago affiliate, WPWR-TV (which assumed the affiliation from WGN-TV on September 1, 2016), is blacked out on WPWR; all other programming carried on WPWR to which Vue holds streaming rights – including those supplied through its MyNetworkTV affiliation – is carried unobstructed.\n", "Many providers of Internet television services exist—including conventional television stations that have taken advantage of the Internet as a way to continue showing television shows after they have been broadcast, often advertised as \"on-demand\" and \"catch-up\" services. Today, almost every major broadcaster around the world is operating an Internet television platform. Examples include the BBC, which introduced the BBC iPlayer on 25 June 2008 as an extension to its \"RadioPlayer\" and already existing streamed video-clip content, and Channel 4 that launched 4oD (\"4 on Demand\") (now All 4) in November 2006 allowing users to watch recently shown content. Most Internet television services allow users to view content free of charge; however, some content is for a fee.\n", "In some cases, no additional technology is needed for international program access via the Internet, if the national broadcaster already has a broadband streaming service established for citizens of their own country. However, countries with TV licensing systems often do not have a way to accommodate international access via the Internet, and instead work to actively block and prevent access because their national licensing rules have not evolved fast enough to adapt to the ever-expanding potential global audience for their material.\n", "Some streaming services incorporate digital rights management. The W3C made the controversial decision to adopt Encrypted Media Extensions due in large part to motivations to provide copy protection for streaming content. Sky Go has software that is provided by Microsoft to prevent content being copied.\n", "In South Korea, a streamer is referred to as a broadcast jockey or BJ. Broadcast jockeys have become popular over the years in Korea thanks in part to many of them being more relatable to viewers than some celebrities and becoming famous enough to appear on TV shows. While it is common for broadcast jockeys to become national stars, there has been a recent rise in the number of famous Korean idols and celebrities becoming broadcast jockeys either as a way to supplement their career or full-time as they make more money streaming then they would acting or singing. The number of famous stars becoming full-time broadcast jockeys has outpaced the number of part-timers as many prefer the freedom the profession offers. This trend has not been limited to celebrities as a significant number of politicians have also created their own channels on streaming sites and have begun to broadcast themselves online as a way to become more famous and get their political message across to a bigger number of people. Popular streaming sites in Korea include AfreecaTV, Naver TV, and KakaoTV in addition to popular worldwide streaming sites like Twitch, YouTube, and Mixer.\n", "There have been instances of users deliberately sharing their TV Everywhere login credentials, or having them sold without their owner's knowledge on the black market, in order to allow others to view programs without subscribing to the channel. Charter Communications CEO Tom Rutledge, and ESPN's executive vice president for affiliate sales and marketing Justin Connolly, have considered this practice equivalent to piracy. In December 2017, it was reported that television providers and program distributors have begun to implement measures in order to discourage this practice, including reducing the length of login session, reducing the number of concurrent streams allowed on a single account, and monitoring unusual usage patterns such as large numbers of concurrent streams on a single account—especially those originating from outside of the customer's region, or during major programs.\n", "Section::::Thailand.\n\nIn November 2012, the National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission (NBTC) approved draft \"must-have\" regulations, requiring designated events to be carried by free-to-air channels:\n\nBULLET::::- Olympic Games\n\nBULLET::::- Paralympic Games\n\nBULLET::::- Asian Games\n\nBULLET::::- Asian Para Games\n\nBULLET::::- Southeast Asian Games\n\nBULLET::::- ASEAN Para Games\n\nBULLET::::- FIFA World Cup final\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of streaming media systems\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of video hosting services\n\nBULLET::::- Content delivery network\n\nBULLET::::- Digital television\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive television\n\nBULLET::::- Internet radio\n\nBULLET::::- Home theatre PC\n\nBULLET::::- List of free television software\n\nBULLET::::- List of Internet television providers\n\nBULLET::::- List of streaming media systems\n\nBULLET::::- Multicast\n\nBULLET::::- P2PTV\n\nBULLET::::- Protection of Broadcasts and Broadcasting Organizations Treaty\n\nBULLET::::- Push technology\n\nBULLET::::- Smart TV\n\nBULLET::::- Software as a service\n\nBULLET::::- Television network\n\nBULLET::::- Video advertising\n\nBULLET::::- Web-to-TV\n\nBULLET::::- Media psychology\n\nBULLET::::- Webcast\n\nBULLET::::- \"WPIX, Inc. v. ivi, Inc.\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- IPTV future \"The Register\" 2006-05-05\n" ]	[ "There is a technical or discriminatory reason that content can't be streamed everywhere." ]	[ "It is mostly legal or copyright licensing issues that prevent things from being streamed." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is a technical or discriminatory reason that content can't be streamed everywhere." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is mostly legal or copyright licensing issues that prevent things from being streamed." ]
2018-04962	why are you constantly thirsty when having Diabetes Type I?	Glucose is an osmotic, which means it pulls water out of your tissue and puts it into your circulation, which increases your urine output. So increased glucose in your blood causes more water to be pulled into your blood which causes more water loss (and glucose) in your toilet bowl. This increase in water loss will ultimately trigger your thirst drive to balance things out again. So diabetes makes you pee, which makes you thirs..ty.	[ "Electrolyte and volume homeostasis is a complex mechanism that balances the body's requirements for blood pressure and the main electrolytes sodium and potassium. In general, electrolyte regulation precedes volume regulation. When the volume is severely depleted, however, the body will retain water at the expense of deranging electrolyte levels.\n", "When glucose concentration in the blood remains high over time, the kidneys reach a threshold of reabsorption, and the body excretes glucose in the urine (glycosuria). This increases the osmotic pressure of the urine and inhibits reabsorption of water by the kidney, resulting in increased urine production (polyuria) and increased fluid loss. Lost blood volume is replaced osmotically from water in body cells and other body compartments, causing dehydration and increased thirst (polydipsia). In addition, intracellular glucose deficiency stimulates appetite leading to excessive food intake (polyphagia).\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Effected areas of the body are the eyes, mouth, kidneys, heart, and pancreas. Other symptoms of dehydration includes headache, thirst and dry mouth, dizziness, tiredness, and dark colored urine. In severe cases of dehydration in diabetics, low blood pressure, sunken eyes, a weak pulse or rapid heart beat, feeling confused or fatigue. Dehydration and high blood glucose for extended period of time, the diabetic's kidney would try to filter the blood of access glucose and excrete this as urine. As the kidneys are filtering the blood, water is being removed from the blood and would need to be replaced. This leads to an increased thirst when the blood glucose is elevated in a diabetic individual. Water is needed to re-hydrate the body. Therefore, the body would take available from other parts of the body, such as saliva, tears, and from cells of the body. If access water is not available, the body would not be able to pass excess glucose out of the blood by urine and can lead to further dehydration.\n", "An excessive thirst (also known as polydipsia) and increased urination (also known as polyuria) are common signs of diabetes. An individual with diabetes, have accumulated blood glucose. Their kidneys are working overtime to filter and uptake excess sugar. However, their kidneys cannot keep up, excess sugar is excreted into their urine, and this drag along fluids from the diabetic's tissues. This may lead to more frequent urination and lead to dehydration. As a diabetic individual drinks more fluids to satisfy their thirst, he or she urinates even more.\n\nBULLET::::- Dehydration\n", "Decreased AVP release (neurogenic — i.e. due to alcohol intoxication or tumour) or decreased renal sensitivity to AVP (nephrogenic, i.e. by mutation of V2 receptor or AQP) leads to diabetes insipidus, a condition featuring hypernatremia (increased blood sodium concentration), polyuria (excess urine production), and polydipsia (thirst).\n\nSection::::Role in disease.:Excess.\n", "If able to rehydrate properly, sodium concentration should be nearer to the maximum of the normal range. This, however, is not a diagnostic finding, as it depends on patient hydration.\n\nDDAVP can also be used; if the patient is able to concentrate urine following administration of DDAVP, then the cause of the diabetes insipidus is neurogenic (central diabetes insipidus); if no response occurs to DDAVP administration, then the cause is likely to be nephrogenic.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The onset of symptoms is 5 to 10 years after the disease begins. A usual first symptom is frequent urination at night: nocturia. Other symptoms include tiredness, headaches, a general feeling of illness, nausea, vomiting, frequent daytime urination, lack of appetite, itchy skin, and leg swelling.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nThe incidence of diabetic nephropathy is higher in people with diabetes that have one or more of the following conditions:\n\nBULLET::::- Poor control of blood glucose\n\nBULLET::::- Uncontrolled high blood pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Type 1 diabetes mellitus, with onset before age 20\n\nBULLET::::- Past or current cigarette use\n", "The clinical manifestation is similar to neurogenic diabetes insipidus, presenting with excessive thirst and excretion of a large amount of dilute urine. Dehydration is common, and incontinence can occur secondary to chronic bladder distension. On investigation, there will be an increased plasma osmolarity and decreased urine osmolarity. As pituitary function is normal, ADH levels are likely to be abnormal or raised. Polyuria will continue as long as the patient is able to drink. If the patient is unable to drink and is still unable to concentrate the urine, then hypernatremia will ensue with its neurologic symptoms.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acquired.\n", "A special but unusual consideration is cardiogenic shock, where the blood pressure is decreased not due to dehydration but due to inability of the heart to pump blood through the blood vessels. This situation requires ICU admission, monitoring of the central venous pressure (which requires the insertion of a central venous catheter in a large upper body vein), and the administration of medication that increases the heart pumping action and blood pressure.\n\nSection::::Management.:Insulin.\n", "BULLET::::- Thiazide diuretics (i.e. hydrochlorothiazide) have been used with success in reducing the calcium output in urine, but they are also known to cause hypokalemia.\n\nBULLET::::- In rats with diabetes insipidus, thiazide diuretics inhibit the NaCl cotransporter in the renal distal convoluted tubule, leading indirectly to less water and solutes being delivered to the distal tubule. The impairment of Na transport in the distal convoluted tubule induces natriuresis and water loss, while increasing the reabsorption of calcium in this segment in a manner unrelated to sodium transport.\n", "Initial testing for adipsia involves electrolyte, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels, serum and urine osmolality, blood hormone levels, like vasopressin (AVP). In patients who have defects in thirst regulation and vasopresin secretion, serum vassopresin levels are low or absent. Measurements of urine electrolytes and osmolality are critical in determining the central, rather than renal, nature of the defect in water homeostasis. In adipsia, the fractional excretion of sodium is less than 1%, unless a coexisting defect in AVP secretion is present. In salt intoxication, the urine sodium concentrations are very high and fractional excretion of sodium is greater than 1%. Initial test results may be suggestive of diabetes insipidus. The circulating AVP levels tend to be high, which indicate an appropriate response of the pituitary to hyperosmolality. Patients may have mild stable elevations of serum sodium concentrations, along with elevations in both BUN and creatinine levels and in the BUN/creatinine ratio.\n", "To distinguish DI from other causes of excess urination, blood glucose levels, bicarbonate levels, and calcium levels need to be tested. Measurement of blood electrolytes can reveal a high sodium level (hypernatremia as dehydration develops). Urinalysis demonstrates a dilute urine with a low specific gravity. Urine osmolarity and electrolyte levels are typically low.\n\nA fluid deprivation test is another way of distinguishing DI from other causes of excessive urination. If there is no change in fluid loss, giving desmopressin can determine if DI is caused by:\n\nBULLET::::1. a defect in ADH production\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nPolyuria in osmotic cases, increases flow amount in the distal nephron where flow rates and velocity are low. The significant pressure increase occurring in the distal nephron takes place particularly in the cortical-collecting ducts. One study from 2008 lays out a hypothesis that hyperglycaemic and osmotic polyuria play roles ultimately in diabetic nephropathy.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nAmong the possible tests to diagnose polyuria are:\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Nonketotic hyperosmolar coma (HNS) is an acute complication sharing many symptoms with DKA, but an entirely different origin and different treatment. A person with very high (usually considered to be above 300 mg/dl (16 mmol/L)) blood glucose levels, water is osmotically drawn out of cells into the blood and the kidneys eventually begin to dump glucose into the urine. This results in loss of water and an increase in blood osmolarity. If fluid is not replaced (by mouth or intravenously), the osmotic effect of high glucose levels, combined with the loss of water, will eventually lead to dehydration. The body's cells become progressively dehydrated as water is taken from them and excreted. Electrolyte imbalances are also common and are always dangerous. As with DKA, urgent medical treatment is necessary, commonly beginning with fluid volume replacement. Lethargy may ultimately progress to a coma, though this is more common in type 2 diabetes than type 1.\n", "Most cases of gestational DI can be treated with desmopressin (DDAVP), but not vasopressin. In rare cases, however, an abnormality in the thirst mechanism causes gestational DI, and desmopressin should not be used.\n", "In various situations such as infection, insulin demands rise but are not matched by the failing pancreas. Blood sugars rise, dehydration ensues, and resistance to the normal effects of insulin increases further by way of a vicious circle.\n\nAs a result of the above mechanisms, the average adult with DKA has a total body water shortage of about 6 liters (or 100 mL/kg), in addition to substantial shortages in sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate, magnesium and calcium. Glucose levels usually exceed 13.8 mmol/L or 250 mg/dL.\n", "BULLET::::2. a defect in the kidneys' response to ADH\n", "BULLET::::- increased salt intake also can increase body fluid volume as well as increasing urine sodium excretion, which further increases urinary potassium excretion.\n\nBULLET::::- after rehydration, a loop diuretic such as furosemide can be given to permit continued large volume intravenous salt and water replacement while minimizing the risk of blood volume overload and pulmonary oedema. In addition, loop diuretics tend to depress calcium reabsorption by the kidney thereby helping to lower blood calcium levels\n\nBULLET::::- can usually decrease serum calcium by 1–3 mg/dL within 24 hours\n\nBULLET::::- caution must be taken to prevent potassium or magnesium depletion\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Bisphosphonates and calcitonin.\n", "Extreme urination continues throughout the day and the night. In children, DI can interfere with appetite, eating, weight gain and growth, as well. They may present with fever, vomiting or diarrhea. Adults with untreated DI may remain healthy for decades as long as enough water is consumed to offset the urinary losses. However, there is a continuous risk of dehydration and loss of potassium that may lead to hypokalemia.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThe several forms of DI are:\n\nSection::::Cause.:Central.\n", "People with diabetes show an increased rate of urinary tract infection. The reason is bladder dysfunction that is more common in diabetics than in non-diabetics due to diabetic nephropathy. When present, nephropathy can cause a decrease in bladder sensation, which in turn, can cause increased residual urine, a risk factor for urinary tract infections.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Sexual dysfunction.\n\nSexual dysfunction in diabetics is often a result of physical factors such as nerve damage and poor circulation, and psychological factors such as stress and/or depression caused by the demands of the disease.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Sexual dysfunction.:Males.\n", "Aulus Cornelius Celsus (\"fl.\" 30 BCE-50 CE), who interpreted Greek works in Latin, provided an early clinical description of diabetes in his eight-volume work titled \"De Medicina\". He wrote that \"urine exceeds in quantity the fluid taken even if it is passed painlessly.\" This concept of an imbalance between the ingested and excreted amounts of fluid was repeated by many authors into the Middle Ages.\n", "The classic symptoms of diabetes are polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), polyphagia (increased hunger), and weight loss. Other symptoms that are commonly present at diagnosis include a history of blurred vision, itchiness, peripheral neuropathy, recurrent vaginal infections, and fatigue. Many people, however, have no symptoms during the first few years and are diagnosed on routine testing. A small number of people with type 2 diabetes can develop a hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (a condition of very high blood sugar associated with a decreased level of consciousness and low blood pressure).\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n", "GI tract manifestations include gastroparesis, nausea, bloating, and diarrhea. Because many diabetics take oral medication for their diabetes, absorption of these medicines is greatly affected by the delayed gastric emptying. This can lead to hypoglycemia when an oral diabetic agent is taken before a meal and does not get absorbed until hours, or sometimes days later when there is normal or low blood sugar already. Sluggish movement of the small intestine can cause bacterial overgrowth, made worse by the presence of hyperglycemia. This leads to bloating, gas and diarrhea.\n", "Section::::Early accounts.:Modern Europe.\n\nIn the 16th century, Paracelsus (1493-1541) described diabetes as a constitutional disease that \"irritates the kidneys\" and provokes excessive urination. He reported that evaporating urine from a diabetic patient left an excessive residue, which he called \"salts\". It has, however, been noted that he advised tasting the urine for sweetness in other contexts.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe classic symptoms of untreated diabetes are unintended weight loss, polyuria (increased urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyphagia (increased hunger). Symptoms may develop rapidly (weeks or months) in type 1 diabetes, while they usually develop much more slowly and may be subtle or absent in type 2 diabetes. Other symptoms of diabetes mellitus include weight loss and tiredness.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06198	Where do flies go in the winter?	They survive in warmer places like houses or geothermal locations like some caves or vents.	[ "Since the fly has been found to be a warm-weather fly, it is typically found in areas with temperatures between and . Specifically, \"Lucilia silvarum\" is found in the countries: China, Denmark, United States, Finland, southern Norway, North Africa, Russia, and Canada.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Tomáš Mrvík as Mára\n\nBULLET::::- Jan František Uher as Heduš\n\nBULLET::::- Eliška Křenková as Bára\n\nBULLET::::- Lenka Vlasáková as Policewoman\n\nBULLET::::- Martin Pechlát as Policeman\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "\"Ephydra Hians\" are susceptible to changes in temperature. When the temperature gets colder, their life span prolongs and the individual stages of development take longer. Adult flies don't lay eggs in the winter months due to the inability to have adequate developmental stages, thus creating a pause in reproduction. These flies also don't surpass roughly 15 meters deep due to the frigid temperatures and find that temperatures that are closely related to spring and autumn are the most suitable for growth. \n\nSection::::As food for humans.\n", "Adult flies will emerge from winter hibernation around March to early April. During daytime, they feed on manure juices and plant sugars. On cattle and horses, they feed on secretions around the eyes, mouth and nostrils. The adult flies will also feed on the hosts' blood through wounds such as horse-fly bites. A larger proportion of face flies on the host will be females, as they have a higher need for protein provided by animal hosts. At night, both sexes will rest on vegetation.\n", "Section::::Habitat.\n\n\"Lutzomyia anthophora\" are found in Mexico and in the U.S. They tend to feed on small mammals and therefore can be found in these mammals nests (this is also the where it might be easiest to collect these flies). Also, they tend to develop faster at higher temperatures.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n", "The rates of infection in honey bees fluctuate as \"A. borealis\" populations increase and decline over the seasons. No adults of the fly were found within hives, indicating that phorids do not survive in large numbers in the late winter when foraging bees are inactive.\n\nSection::::Zombee Watch.\n", "\"Favorite Flies\" is a unique volume that compiles the stories and images of popular American artificial flies of the late 19th century. It is one of the earliest works to use chromolithography color plates. Today, the original flies used to create the color plates are preserved in the American Museum of Fly Fishing in Manchester, Vermont. The stories for each fly described in the volume were obtained through correspondence with fly fisherman and fly tiers throughout the U.S. and Canada. The following is a typical story about the \"Professor\", a popular wet-fly of time:\n", "Cotton replies with the touchiness of a true obsessive: \"Let me tell you, here are some colours, contemptible as they seem here, that are very hard to be got; and scarce any one of them, which, if it should be lost, I should not miss and be concerned about the loss of it too, once in the year.\"\n\nCotton devotes a whole chapter to collection of flies for every month of the year. Few have modern analogues, but they are based on accurate observation, as with his stonefly:\n", "Eskimo curlews migrated to the pampas of Argentina in the late summer and returned in February. They used to be very rare vagrants to western Europe, but there have been no recent records. In Britain, there are four records, all from the nineteenth century.\n", "BULLET::::- Histories of the favorite flies, accompanied by letters relating to their use in:\n\nBULLET::::- Canada - 46\n\nBULLET::::- Maine -\n\nBULLET::::- Vermont and New Hampshire - 128\n\nBULLET::::- Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island - 144\n\nBULLET::::- New York - 160\n\nBULLET::::- Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware - 226\n\nBULLET::::- Virginia and West Virginia - 266\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio - 306\n\nBULLET::::- Missouri, Iowa, Indiana and Illinois - 334\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan - 368\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota and Wisconsin - 392\n\nBULLET::::- Maryland, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia and Mississippi - 406\n\nBULLET::::- Florida, Louisiana, Texas, Arizona and Nevada - 418\n", "Climate change brings new southern species to the Åland Islands. In 2012 was found a fly known only in England, Denmark, the Czech Republic and Hungary.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Extreme weather events.\n", "Professor. - A prime favorite; use it on almost all casts when I see more than one fly. When using a black tail fly, I use a brown fly and a Professor for droppers; find it a good fly under general conditions, when using a Miller for tail fly; then use Professor for droppers. \"From a letter from W. David Tomlin (\"Norman\") Duluth, Minn as favorite flies for trout in Michigan streams\".\n\n\"Favorite Flies\" contains plates and stories for Bass Flies, Trout Flies, Hackles, Salmon Flies, and Lake Flies\n\nSection::::Reviews.\n", "BULLET::::- Colorado, Utah, Wyoming and Idaho - 432\n\nBULLET::::- Montana - 448\n\nBULLET::::- Washington - 472\n\nBULLET::::- California - 482\n\nBULLET::::- Oregon - 492\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hic Habitat Felicitas\" - 510\n\nBULLET::::- Index of Plates and Flies - 515\n\nBULLET::::- List of Correspondents - 520\n\nBULLET::::- List of Illustrations\n\nBULLET::::- Disputing the Fly Question - Frontispiece\n\nBULLET::::- Stoneflies - 13\n\nBULLET::::- Drakes - 15\n\nBULLET::::- Caddis Flies - 17\n\nBULLET::::- Crane Flies and Spiders - 19\n\nBULLET::::- House Flies and Ants - 21\n\nBULLET::::- Beetles and Chrysopa - 23\n\nBULLET::::- Plate A - Hackles - 27\n", "BULLET::::- Chapter VI - Hints To Dry-Fly Fishermen – 116\n\nBULLET::::- List of Coloured Plates\n\nBULLET::::- Crawshaw and Co.'s Special Dyes - To Face Page 30\n\nBULLET::::- Plate I. Olive Duns - 84\n\nBULLET::::- Plate II - Blue Duns and Hare's Ears - 88\n\nBULLET::::- Plate III - Red Spinners, Wickham’s, Indian Yellow, Little Marryat, Blue Winged Olive, Etc. - 92\n\nBULLET::::- Plate IV - Hackle Duns and Spinners, Badgers, Etc. - 96\n\nBULLET::::- Plate V - Bumbles, Red Tags, Green Insect, Etc. - 100\n\nBULLET::::- Plate VI - Grannom, Alder, Ants, Fisherman's Curse, Black Gnats, Etc. - 104\n", "\"C. vicina\" plays a major role in corpse colonization during the winter months, with less of a presence during the warmer months when temperature is less of a constraint. This fly has a lower threshold temperature for flight activity than other blow-flies, allowing for greater prevalence during colder periods. This period of activity must be considered when evaluating the presence or absence of this fly.\n", "As a cold weather fly, it is expected to show up in the fall months. However, one study found the presence of \"C. mortuorum\" on a mouse carcass in mid-August, and on a sheep carcass in mid-June.\n\nSection::::Uses in forensic entomology.\n", "The sixth episode of season one of the television series \"Beyond Survival\", titled \"The Inuit – Survivors of the Future\", features survival expert Les Stroud and two Inuit guides hunting caribou on the northern coast of Baffin Island near Pond Inlet, Nunavut, Canada. Upon skinning and butchering of one of the animals, numerous larvae (presumably \"H. tarandi\", although not explicitly stated) are apparent on the inside of the caribou pelt. Stroud and his two Inuit guides eat (albeit somewhat reluctantly) one larva each, with Stroud commenting that the larva \"tastes like milk\" and was historically commonly consumed by the Inuit people.\n", "Cold temperatures outside will cause invasions beginning in the late summer months and early fall. Box elder bugs, cluster flies, ladybugs, and silverfish are noticed some of the most common insects to seek the warm indoors.\n\nSection::::Modern techniques.\n", "Section::::Life cycle.:North America.:Overwintering.\n\nAdult cluster flies in North America are slow-flying insects that are active during warmer months. Once the weather becomes much cooler, \"P. rudis\" will seek shelter, usually in homes and buildings. The flies have also been documented staying in tunnels made by beetles in timber and in animal burrows. Before overwintering, cluster fly’s abdomens are full of fat globules that may be left over from its larval fat bodies. When spring begins and the flies emerge, they appear shrunken because their fat was used up during the winter.\n\nSection::::Human importance.\n\nSection::::Human importance.:Pest status.\n", "Section::::Lifecycle.\n", "The lifespan of the \"Blissus leucopterus\" is a typically less than one year. The eggs of two generations are laid down from spring to summer, when they develop into adults. During the fall, the adults from the first generation die off, while the adults from the second generation retreat from the crops to look for overwinter shelters. The adults overwinter in any type of shelters they can find, including in hedgerows, road sides, bushy fence rows, edges of woodlands, and soybean stubble, under tree barks and bunch grass, and inside field mice nests. Once they emerge from their hibernation, they return to the crop fields to feast and breed before their death.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Xanthandrus comtus\" (Harris 1780)\n\nBULLET::::- \" Xanthogramma citrofasciatum\" (De Geer 1776)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xylota abiens\" Meigen 1822\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xylota florum\" (Fabricius 1805)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xylota jakutorum\" Bagatshanova 1980\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xylota segnis\" (Linnaeus 1758)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xylota sylvarum\" (Linnaeus 1758)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xylota tarda\" Meigen 1822\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Chandler, P.J., Nash, R, and O’Connor, J.P 2008 \"An Annotated Checklist of the Irish Two-winged flies (Diptera)\" The Irish Biogeographical Society and the National Museum of Ireland, Dublin\n", "These small flies mainly inhabit vegetable gardens and open countrysides where the host plants grow.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Section::::As human food.\n\nIn cold climates supporting reindeer or caribou-reliant populations, large quantities of \"Hypoderma tarandi\" (caribou warble fly) maggots are available to human populations during the butchery of animals.\n", "Section::::Life cycle.:North America.\n\nIn North America, \"P. rudis\" eggs generally require 27–39 days to fully develop into an adult. In Canada, 25–30 days are required when the temperature is 23°C, and 11-14 of these days are spent in the pupal stage. Cluster flies in North America overwinter in their adult stage, and copulation takes place in the spring. There are three species in the rudis species complex of North America, and the life cycle of each species may differ. The variety of species in North America may account for the discrepancies between European and North American cluster flies life cycles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03125	When watching subtitled shows, how does the brain function in a way that we are still able to "watch" the show while reading subtitles?	You can read relatively fast and your brain is very good at making disconnected events that you think are continious one connected event. Normally you read the subtitles, look at the film (As there is almost never enough text so you would need to focus on reading all the time), and your brain connects it all.	[ "The most extensively studied mode of multimedia translation, subtitling is the linguistic practice showing written text on a screen that conveys \"a target language version of the source speech.\" Consisting of many sub-types, the one most commonly used is interlinguistic subtitling, which is usually displayed in open captions. In places where several languages are spoken, bilingual subtitles are used to show two different language versions of the source text at the same time.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Voice over.\n", "Section::::Literacy promotion.\n\nThis idea was struck upon by Brij Kothari, who believed that SLS makes reading practice an incidental, automatic, and subconscious part of popular TV entertainment, at a low per-person cost to shore up literacy rates in India.\n", "Before Kothari's study, most available research on captioning had demonstrated limited results. As a direct result of Kothari's success with subtitled music video there are several new related studies using technology and music video that are also showing remarkable results.\n\nSection::::Literacy promotion.:Implementation.\n\nDuring the last 10 years in India, SLS has been implemented on Doordarshan's film song programmes in Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, and Punjabi. For each language the subtitles are in the same language as the audio.\n", "BULLET::::- In the television series \"Green Acres\" episode “Lisa's Mudder Comes for a Visit” (season 5 episode 1), Lisa and her mother converse in Hungarian, with English Subtitles. First, Lisa looks down and corrects the subtitles, “No no no, I said you hadn't changed a bit! We have a lot of trouble here with subtitles.”, and they change. Mother's Japanese chauffeur asks “I begga pardon – I bringa bags inna house?” that elicits a gong sound and Japanese subtitles. This is followed by Mother’s great Dane barking with the subtitles “I've seen better doghouses than this” with Lisa responding “We're not interested in what the dog says”, and the subtitles disappear. Later, the subtitles ask farmhand Eb if they will be needing any more subtitles for the episode.\n", "Same-language captions, i.e., without translation, were primarily intended as an aid for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Internationally, there are several major studies which demonstrate that same-language captioning can have a major impact on literacy and reading growth across a broad range of reading abilities. This method of subtitling is used by national television broadcasters in China and in India such as Doordarshan. This idea was struck upon by Brij Kothari, who believed that SLS makes reading practice an incidental, automatic, and subconscious part of popular TV entertainment, at a low per-person cost to shore up literacy rates in India.\n", "One study looked at interpreters, their impressive working memories and the effects that articulatory suppression can have on their ability to translate and interpret language. Specifically, researchers wanted to look at the differences between simultaneous interpreting and articulatory suppression as they relate to working memory. To do this, thirty Dutch university students with English as a second language participated and were read a story in English and then were asked to translate to Dutch as they listened, but only translate the meaning, not the exact words.\n", "Studies have shown that when people watch a movie, listen to a story, or read a story, their DMNs are highly correlated with each other. DMNs are not correlated if the stories are scrambled or are in a language the person does not understand, suggesting that the network is highly involved in the comprehension and the subsequent memory formation of that story. The DMN is shown to even be correlated if the same story is presented to different people in different languages, further suggesting the DMN is truly involved in the comprehension aspect of the story and not the auditory or language aspect.\n", "A 2002–2007 Nielsen-ORG study demonstrated that the ability to read a paragraph among schoolchildren jumped from 25% to 56% when exposed to 30 minutes a week of the Rangoli program with subtitles. Over 90% said they prefer having subtitles on songs owing to their interest in the lyrics.\n\nThe basic SLS reading activity involves students viewing a short subtitled presentation projected on-screen, while completing a response worksheet. Ideally, the subtitling should have high quality synchronization of audio and text, text should change colors in syllabic synchronization to audio model, and the source media should be dynamic and engaging.\n\nSection::::Outside India.\n", "Episodes are edited in a similar fashion to the main show, with relevant corresponding images, text and effects relating to his narration. The stand-out difference in editing is that subtitles are permanently part of the video along the bottom of the screen, instead of being an optional closed caption. Episodes are produced only in Standard Definition.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Programs such as news bulletins, current affairs programs, sport, some talk shows and political and special events utilize real time or online captioning. Live captioning is increasingly common, especially in the United Kingdom and the United States, as a result of regulations that stipulate that virtually all TV eventually must be accessible for people who are deaf and hard–of–hearing. In practice, however, these \"real time\" subtitles will typically lag the audio by several seconds due to the inherent delay in transcribing, encoding, and transmitting the subtitles. Real time subtitles are also challenged by typographic errors or mis-hearing of the spoken words, with no time available to correct before transmission.\n", "Subtitles are text derived from either a transcript or screenplay of the dialog or commentary in films, television programs, video games, and the like, usually displayed at the bottom of the screen, but can also be at the top of the screen if there is already text at the bottom of the screen. They can either be a form of written translation of a dialog in a foreign language, or a written rendering of the dialog in the same language, with or without added information to help viewers who are deaf or hard of hearing to follow the dialog, or people who cannot understand the spoken dialogue or who have accent recognition problems.\n", "BULLET::::- In an episode of \"Angry Beavers\", at one point Norbert begins to speak with such a heavy European accent that his words are subtitled on the bottom of the screen. Daggett actually touches the subtitles, shoving them out of the way.\n\nBULLET::::- In the American theatrical versions of \"Night Watch\" and \"Day Watch\", Russian dialogues are translated by subtitles which are designed accordingly to the depicted events. For instance, subtitles dissolve in water like blood, tremble along with a shaking floor or get cut by sword.\n", "A teacher using FSMT shows a movie to students, describing the scenes as they occur and paraphrasing dialogue when necessary to help the students understand the story. The narrations and paraphrases are meant to be at a level of language that is just a bit beyond the students’ current proficiency (i+1; see Monitor Theory).\n", "BULLET::::- In Bobby Lee's \"Tae Do,\" a parody of Korean dramas in a \"Mad TV\" episode, the subtitles make more sense of the story than the Korean language being spoken. The subtitles are made to appear as though written by someone with a poor understanding of grammar and are often intentionally made longer than what they actually say in the drama. For example, an actor says \"Sarang\" (\"I love you\"), but the subtitle is so long that it covers the whole screen.\n", "Bilingual students were found to recognize that a message presented to the unattended channel was the same as the one being attended to, even when presented in a different language. This was achieved by having participants shadow a message presented in English, while playing the same message in French to the unattended ear. Once again, this shows extraction of meaningful information from the speech signal above and beyond physical characteristics alone.\n\nSection::::Evidence.:Electrical shock and unattended words.\n", "BULLET::::- Forced subtitles are common on movies and only provide subtitles when the characters speak a foreign or alien language, or a sign, flag, or other text in a scene is not translated in the localization and dubbing process. In some cases, foreign dialogue may be left untranslated if the movie is meant to be seen from the point of view of a particular character who does not speak the language in question.\n", "Some subtitlers purposely provide edited subtitles or captions to match the needs of their audience, for learners of the spoken dialog as a second or foreign language, visual learners, beginning readers who are deaf or hard of hearing and for people with learning and/or mental disabilities. For example, for many of its films and television programs, PBS displays standard captions representing speech the program audio, word-for-word, if the viewer selects \"CC1\" by using the television remote control or on-screen menu; however, they also provide edited captions to present simplified sentences at a slower rate, if the viewer selects \"CC2\". Programs with a diverse audience also often have captions in another language. This is common with popular Latin American soap operas in Spanish. Since CC1 and CC2 share bandwidth, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) recommends translation subtitles be placed in CC3. CC4, which shares bandwidth with CC3, is also available, but programs seldom use it.\n", "Dubbing, sometimes known as \"lip-synchrony\", involves both the translation and its synchronisation as well as dubbing the actors' and actresses' performance. Once considered the most comprehensive form of translation, dubbing follows the \"timing, phrasing and lip movement of the original dialogue\" as closely as possible. Although this mode is usually interlingual, there are some cases of intralingual dubbing, but it is not very common.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Subtitling.\n", "Most times a foreign language is spoken in film, subtitles are used to translate the dialogue for the viewer. However, there are occasions when foreign dialogue is left unsubtitled (and thus incomprehensible to most of the target audience). This is often done if the movie is seen predominantly from the viewpoint of a particular character who does not speak the language. Such absence of subtitles allows the audience to feel a similar sense of incomprehension and alienation that the character feels. An example of this is seen in \"Not Without My Daughter\". The Persian language dialogue spoken by the Iranian characters is not subtitled because the main character Betty Mahmoody does not speak Persian and the audience is seeing the film from her viewpoint.\n", "In the audiovisual system, even when more than one language was used, subtitles maintained their position unchanged for many years. The newest software technologies for mobile devices, which came out as an alternative to subtitling in cinemas, or the possibilities opened up by head-mounted displays, such as subtitle glasses, have made a revision of the technical terminology necessary also in the field of those performing arts that are reproducible on electronic devices.\n", "In some East Asian countries, especially Chinese-speaking ones, subtitling is common in all taped television programs. In these countries, written text remains mostly uniform while regional dialects in the spoken form can be mutually unintelligible. Therefore, subtitling offers a distinct advantage to aid comprehension. With subtitles, programs in Putonghua, the standard Mandarin, or any dialect can be understood by viewers unfamiliar with it.\n", "Although same-language subtitles and captions are produced primarily with the deaf and hard of hearing in mind, they may also be used to ensure understanding of dialogue (such as those spoken quietly or mixed in with sound effects, by those with accents unfamiliar to the intended audience, or supportive dialogue from background or off-screen characters). Jason Kehe of \"Wired\" noted that habitual use of subtitles by the non-deaf has been a growing trend for these reasons, and to help pick up on additional details and information found within dialogue. He drew comparisons to the ubiquity of search engines by stating that \"just like Google, closed captions are there, eminently accessible, ready to clarify the unclarities, and so, desperately, we, the paranoids and obsessive-compulsives and postmodern completists, click.\" Studies (including those by the University of Nottingham and the What Works Clearinghouse of the United States Department of Education) have found that use of subtitles can help promote reading comprehension in school-aged children.\n", "Section::::Modes of translation.:Animation.\n\nAnimation involves translation as well as script writing. The translator takes silent images, such as cartoons, and creates a script from scratch. Although similar to free commentary, it is different in that there is no previous script written in animation.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Double version.\n\nDouble versions are products that involve two or more languages in which each actor and actress plays their role in their own language. The final product is then dubbed and synchronised so that there is only one language.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Remake.\n", "The three phrases (structures) are written on the blackboard, or another place where the students can easily see them, and are translated into the students' native language if a shared native language is available. If students forget what a phrase means, they can glance at the board and check the meaning at any time.\n", "Subtitles exist in two forms; open subtitles are 'open to all' and cannot be turned off by the viewer; closed subtitles are designed for a certain group of viewers, and can usually be turned on/off or selected by the viewer – examples being teletext pages, US Closed captions (608/708), DVB Bitmap subtitles, DVD/Blu-ray subtitles.\n\nWhile distributing content, subtitles can appear in one of 3 types:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13289	Why is it that transplanted organs only have a short life span once transplanted?	I know it’s impacted by the quality of the organ being transplanted, plus all the anti rejection drugs does have a pretty severe impact on the transplant itself. Sorry to hear you’ve had to go through that stress twice in such a short amount of time - I’ve had close family have transplants, it’s a difficult time. Glad they’ve gone well.	[ "While lung transplants carry certain associated risks, they can also extend life expectancy and enhance the quality of life for end-stage pulmonary patients.\n", "Transplantation is the final therapeutic option and only for patients with poor prognosis and quality of life. Timing and appropriateness of transplantation remain difficult decisions. 5-year and 10-year survival ranges between 70% and 80%, 50% and 70%, 30% and 50%, respectively. Since the average life expectancy of patients after lung transplantation is as low as 30% at 5 years, patients with \"reasonable functional status\" related to Eisenmenger syndrome have \"improved survival with conservative medical care\" compared with transplantation.\n", "BULLET::::- 2009–2010: Joren C. Madsen, MD, DPhil\n\nBULLET::::- 2008–2009: Barbara Murphy, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2007–2008: Flavio Vincenti, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2006–2007: Jeffrey S. Crippin, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2005–2006: Richard N. Fine, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2004–2005: Jay Alan Fishman, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 2003–2004: Michael R. Lucey, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2002–2003: William E. Harmon, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2001–2002: Laurence A. Turka, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 2000–2001: Mohamed H. Sayegh, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1999–2000: John R. Lake, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1998–1999: John F. Neylan, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1997–1998: J. Harold Helderman, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1996–1997: Leslie W. Miller, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1995–1996: Douglas J. Norman, MD, FAST\n", "Another example of this situation occurs with a special form of liver transplant in which the recipient suffers from familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy, a disease where the liver slowly produces a protein that damages other organs. The recipient's liver can then be transplanted into an older person for whom the effects of the disease will not necessarily contribute significantly to mortality.\n", "\"Small intestine transplantation\" is the rarest type of solid organ transplant. Currently, approximately half are pediatric recipients.US Dept of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network\" > View Data Reports > National Data > Transplant, Intestine, & Transplant by Recipient Age Retrieved on 1, October 2010/ref The most common indications in adults are ischemia (22%), Crohn's disease (13%), trauma (12%), and desmoid tumor (10%); and in pediatrics, gastroschisis (21%), volvulus (18%), and necrotizing enterocolitis (12%). Higher graft and patient survival rates are seen at the more experienced transplant programs. Within the last few years, 1-year graft and patient survival at more experienced centers have reached 60% to 70% and 65% to 80%, respectively.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994–1995: Thomas A. Gonwa, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1993–1994: Manikkam Suthanthiran, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1992–1993: Alan R. Hull, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1991–1992: Ronald H. Kerman, PhD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1990–1991: M. Roy First, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1989–1990: William E. Braun, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1988–1989: Barry S. Levin, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1987–1988: Lawrence G. Hunsicker, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1986–1987: Nancy E. Goeken, PhD\n\nBULLET::::- 1985–1986: Fred P. Sanfilippo, MD, PhD\n\nBULLET::::- 1984–1985: Robert B. Ettenger, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1983–1984: Charles B. Carpenter, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1982–1983: Ronald D. Guttmann, MD, FRCPC\n\nBULLET::::- 1982–1983: Terry B. Strom, MD\n\nSection::::AST Research Network.\n", "Intestinal transplant outcomes have improved significantly in recent years. Despite mild incongruities in survival rate percentages between centers in North America, Europe, Australia, and elsewhere, intestinal transplantations mostly approach survivorship rates of lung transplantation. At one-year, graft survival rates for isolated intestine currently waver around 80%, and 70% for intestine-liver and multivisceral. Over the same time period, patient survival for isolated intestine patients may even exceed 90%, while the more complicated multiorgan transplants do not show any increase in patient survival when compared to patients surviving with the intestinal graft alone. The five-year survival rate for patients and transplants ranges from 50 to 80% (overall mean 60%), depending on underlying disease and presurgical morbidity. Very young (1 year) and very old (60 years) patients receiving a transplant have pronounced rates of mortality. After 4 years, pediatric survival significantly worsens compared to adults.\n", "Organ selling is legally banned in Asia. Numerous studies have documented that organ vendors have a poor \"quality of life\" (QOL) following kidney donation. However, a study done by Vemuru reddy \"et al\" shows a significant improvement in Quality of life contrary to the earlier belief. Live related renal donors have a significant improvement in the QOL following renal donation using the WHO QOL BREF in a study done at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences from 2006 to 2008. The quality of life of the donor was poor when the graft was lost or the recipient died.\n", "Deceased donors (formerly cadaveric) are people who have been declared brain-dead and whose organs are kept viable by ventilators or other mechanical mechanisms until they can be excised for transplantation. Apart from brain-stem dead donors, who have formed the majority of deceased donors for the last 20 years, there is increasing use of donation-after-circulatory-death-donors (formerly non-heart-beating donors) to increase the potential pool of donors as demand for transplants continues to grow. Prior to the recognition of brain death in the 1980s, all deceased organ donors had died of circulatory death. These organs have inferior outcomes to organs from a brain-dead donor. For instance, patients who underwent liver transplantation using donation-after-circulatory- death (DCD) allografts have been shown to have significantly lower graft survival than those from donation-after-brain-death (DBD) allografts due to biliary complications and PNF. However, given the scarcity of suitable organs and the number of people who die waiting, any potentially suitable organ must be considered.\n", "BULLET::::- 1983: First successful lung lobe transplant by Joel Cooper at the Toronto General Hospital (Toronto, Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- 1984: First successful double organ transplant by Thomas Starzl and Henry T. Bahnson (Pittsburgh, U.S.A.)\n\nBULLET::::- 1986: First successful double-lung transplant (Ann Harrison) by Joel Cooper at the Toronto General Hospital (Toronto, Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- 1990: First successful adult segmental living-related liver transplant by Mehmet Haberal (Ankara, Turkey)\n\nBULLET::::- 1992: First successful combined liver-kidney transplantation from a living-related donor by Mehmet Haberal (Ankara, Turkey)\n\nBULLET::::- 1995: First successful laparoscopic live-donor nephrectomy by Lloyd Ratner and Louis Kavoussi (Baltimore, U.S.A.)\n", "As the rising success rate of transplants and modern immunosuppression make transplants more common, the need for more organs has become critical. Transplants from living donors, especially relatives, have become increasingly common. Additionally, there is substantive research into xenotransplantation, or transgenic organs; although these forms of transplant are not yet being used in humans, clinical trials involving the use of specific cell types have been conducted with promising results, such as using porcine islets of Langerhans to treat type 1 diabetes. However, there are still many problems that would need to be solved before they would be feasible options in people requiring transplants.\n", "In Niven's universe, the technology to indefinitely sustain any human organ outside of the body was developed in the early 21st century, greatly simplifying organ transplants. This led to the creation of \"organ banks\" which, in theory, one could use to extend life indefinitely so long as a compatible organ had been donated at any point, as opposed to a complicated waiting list in combination with limited time to transport the organ to the recipient. In light of this, all forms of burial save complete harvesting of organs for transplant became illegal. This resulted in an increased quality of life, but quickly became its own problem; the banks required donors (i.e. dead people) to operate, but when the death rate is reduced (via the organ banks), the number of donors decreases. Thus, the supply of organs would continually reduce.\n", "A major challenge facing the intestinal transplant enterprise is meeting the need for transplantable intestines, particularly in the United States where the majority of intestinal transplants take place. There exists a narrow timeslot between procurement and transplantation that any organ remains viable, and logistical challenges are faced regarding bringing organ and recipient together. During procurement, organs that are being recovered are cooled and perfused with preservation solution. This slows organ activity and increases the time they remain viable for transplant. Although chilling and perfusion may extend intestinal lifespans by several hours, failure is still imminent unless transplanted. This duration between the cooling of the organ during procurement and the restoration of physiological temperature during implantation is the cold ischemic time. Due to the sensitivity of the intestine to ischemic injury, many potential donor intestines are lost to the events following brain death and trauma. Furthermore, irreversible intestinal damage is seen after approximately only 5 hours of cold ischemia in the form of mucosal damage and bacterial translocation outside the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, ensuring cardiac survival and nearby donor-recipient proximity before procurement are essential so organs do not wait too long outside the body and without blood flow. Not only is there a lack of transplantable intestines, but a deficiency in the number of centers possessing the capability to carry out the complicated transplant procedure as well. , there were only 61 medical centers in the world capable of executing an intestinal transplant. Furthermore, many young, small children, particularly those weighing less than 5 kg, cannot find a transplant due to the lack of size-matched donors.\n", "Intestinal transplants are highly susceptible to infection even more so than the standard immunocompromised recipient of other organs due to the great composition and variety of the gut flora. A complex assortment of microorganisms inhabits the human digestive tract, with concentrations of up to 10–10 CFU/mL in the jejunoileum and 10–10 CFU/mL in the colon. While suppression of the immune system may prevent immune attack on the new allograft, it may also prevent the immune system's ability to keep certain gut microbial populations in line. Despite pre and post-decontamination of the transplant, recipients are at risk of local and systemic infection by both natural and external flora. The common symptom of graft dysfunction, whether due to infection, rejection, or some other condition, is diarrhea.\n", "Post-operative complications include infection, sepsis, organ rejection as well as the side-effects of the immunosuppressive medication. Since the transplanted heart originates from another organism, the recipient's immune system typically attempts to reject it. The risk of rejection never fully goes away, and the patient will be on immunosuppressive drugs for the rest of their life, but these may cause unwanted side effects, such as increased likelihood of infections or development of certain cancers. Recipients can acquire kidney disease from a heart transplant due to side effects of immunosuppressant medications. Many recent advances in reducing complications due to tissue rejection stem from mouse heart transplant procedures. The surgery death rate was 5–10% in 2011.\n", ", about 121,600 people in the United States are on the waiting list, although about a third of those patients are inactive and could not receive a donated organ. Wait times and success rates for organs differ significantly between organs due to demand and procedure difficulty. , three-quarters of patients in need of an organ transplant were waiting for a kidney, and as such kidneys have much longer waiting times. As stated by the Gift of Life Donor Program website, the median patient who ultimately received an organ waited 4 months for a heart or lung — but 18 months for a kidney, and 18–24 months for a pancreas because demand for these organs substantially outstrips supply.\n", "Location of a transplant center with respect to a donor hospital is given priority due to the effects of Cold Ischemic Time (CIT). Once the organ is removed from the donor, blood no longer perfuses through the vessels and begins to starve the cells of oxygen (ischemia). Each organ tolerates different ischemic times. Hearts and lungs need to be transplanted within 4–6 hours from recovery, liver about 8–10 hours and pancreas about 15 hours; kidneys are the most resilient to ischemia. Kidneys packaged on ice can be successfully transplanted 24–36 hours after recovery. Developments in kidney preservation have yielded a device that pumps cold preservation solution through the kidneys vessels to prevent Delayed Graft Function (DGF) due to ischemia. Perfusion devices, often called kidney pumps, can extend graft survival to 36–48 hours post recovery for kidneys. Recently similar devices have been developed for the heart and lungs, in an effort to increase distances procurement teams may travel to recover an organ.\n", "Section::::Presidents.\n\nCurrent and past presidents of the Canadian Society of Transplantation:\n\nBULLET::::- 1980-1981 Pierre Robitaille\n\nBULLET::::- 1981-1982 Michael Robinette\n\nBULLET::::- 1982-1983 George deVeber\n\nBULLET::::- 1983-1984 John Dossetor\n\nBULLET::::- 1984-1985 Allan MacDonald\n\nBULLET::::- 1985-1986 Ronald Guttman\n\nBULLET::::- 1986-1987 Pierre Daloze\n\nBULLET::::- 1987-1988 Philip Halloran\n\nBULLET::::- 1988-1989 F. Neil McKenzie\n\nBULLET::::- 1989-1990 Carl Cardella\n\nBULLET::::- 1990-1991 Paul Keown\n\nBULLET::::- 1991-1992 Phil Belitsky\n\nBULLET::::- 1992-1993 John Jeffery\n\nBULLET::::- 1993-1994 Paul Greig\n\nBULLET::::- 1994-1995 David Ludwin\n\nBULLET::::- 1995-1996 Norman Kneteman\n\nBULLET::::- 1996-1997 Guy Fradet\n\nBULLET::::- 1997-1999 Rolf Loertscher\n\nBULLET::::- 1999-2000 Alan Menkis\n\nBULLET::::- 2000-2001 Vivian McAlister\n\nBULLET::::- 2001-2002 David Rush\n\nBULLET::::- 2002-2004 Anthony Jevnikar\n", "The most important factors are that the recipient not have produced isohemagglutinins, and that they have low levels of T cell-independent antigens. United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) regulations allow for ABOi transplantation in children under two years of age if isohemagglutinin titers are 1:4 or below, and if there is no matching ABOc recipient. Studies have shown that the period under which a recipient may undergo ABOi transplantation may be prolonged by exposure to nonself A and B antigens. Furthermore, should the recipient (for example, type B-positive with a type AB-positive graft) require eventual retransplantation, the recipient may receive a new organ of either blood type.\n", "Section::::Medical categories.:Chronic rejection.\n\nThe term \"chronic rejection\" initially described long-term loss of function in transplanted organs via fibrosis of the transplanted tissue's blood vessels. This is now \"chronic allograft vasculopathy\", however, leaving \"chronic rejection\" referring to rejection due to more patent aspects of immunity.\n\nChronic rejection explains long-term morbidity in most lung-transplant recipients, the median survival roughly 4.7 years, about half the span versus other major organ transplants. In histopathology the condition is \"bronchiolitis obliterans\", which clinically presents as progressive airflow obstruction, often involving dyspnea and coughing, and the patient eventually succumbs to pulmonary insufficiency or secondary acute infection.\n", "Living donors are faced with risks and/or complications after the surgery. Blood clots and biliary problems have the possibility of arising in the donor post-op, but these issues are remedied fairly easily. Although death is a risk that a living donor must be willing to accept prior to the surgery, the mortality rate of living donors in the United States is low. The LDLT donor's immune system does diminish as a result of the liver regenerating, so certain foods which would normally cause an upset stomach could cause serious illness.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Living donor transplantation.:Donor requirements.\n", "Since medication to prevent rejection is so effective, donors do not need to be similar to their recipient. Most donated kidneys come from deceased donors; however, the utilisation of living donors in the United States is on the rise. In 2006, 47% of donated kidneys were from living donors. This varies by country: for example, only 3% of kidneys transplanted during 2006 in Spain came from living donors. In Spain all citizens are potential organ donors in the case of their death, unless they explicitly opt out during their lifetime.\n\nSection::::Sources of kidneys.:Living donors.\n", "In the United States, where since the 1980s the Uniform Determination of Death Act has defined death as the irreversible cessation of the function of either the brain or the heart and lungs, the 21st century has seen an order-of-magnitude increase of donation following cardiac death. In 1995, only one out of 100 dead donors in the nation gave their organs following the declaration of cardiac death. That figure grew to almost 11 percent in 2008, according to the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients. That increase has provoked ethical concerns about the interpretation of \"irreversible\" since \"patients may still be alive five or even 10 minutes after cardiac arrest because, theoretically, their hearts could be restarted, [and thus are] clearly not dead because their condition was reversible.\"\n", "Care must be taken when finding organs for the very young (this requires special training, or at least knowledge of, pediatric and newborn transplantation procedures), or certain very elderly patients (there may or may not be mandatory or preferred cut-off ages for receiving an organ or tissue, depending on the location, the institutions involved, the surgical team, whether the patient has any relevant co-morbidities and whether they are capable of caring for their new situation, how long and how well they might live, and the patient's and family's wishes).\n\nSection::::Donor issues.\n", "Several factors relating to superior patient and graft prognosis have proven to be statistically significant. Patients who have been admitted for transplant directly from home rather than the hospital, younger patients over one year of age, those receiving their first transplant, those receiving transplants at experienced transplant centers, and who receive antibody or sirolimus-based induction therapies have increased rates of survival. Furthermore, underlying etiology, the presence of comorbidity, the frequency of previous surgery, nutritional status, and the level of liver function have been found to affect patient-graft survival . Patients with a pre-transplant diagnosis of volvulus were found to possess a lower risk of mortality. As of 2008, the longest recorded surviving transplant survived for 18 years. Between 1999 and 2008, 131 retransplant procedures were performed in the United States.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00349	Why do soda 12-packs come in a 2x6 can box and beer 12-packs seem to always come in 3x4 can boxes	A long time ago, soda 12-pack boxes were sold in 3x4. But soda manufacturers realized that if they made the long box, that you could put the [box in your fridge and use it as a soda can dispenser]( URL_0 ). This must have lead to an increase in sales of 12 packs, because easier access to cold beverages likely increases consumption. Why beer manufacturers have not adopted this strategy, who knows. Note, the volume of the 2x6 configuration is larger than the volume of the 3x4 configuration because they leave extra space to ensure the top cans push the bottom cans out - so bottlers consume more volume to ship 2x6 format than 3x4, meaning less product is shipped.	[ "World War II temporarily stopped this innovation until 1952. By this point, most breweries were using flat top cans instead. From the 1950s to the 1960s, all beer can were composed from three pieces of metal. Two-piece cans hit the market in 1974. Throughout the years, innovative ideas and development slowly changed the beer can into what it is today. According to Ball Corporation, beer cans weighed 83 grams in 1951, and was then reduced to 38 grams by 1974, to what it is now today at only 21 grams.\n", "250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks, but when accompanying take out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but are limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper, and beer cans are available in 500 ml.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for \"mixers\" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans. In September 2018, a 300 ml can was introduced as an alternative to the 330 ml can in a continued effort to reduce the amount of sugar consumed in soft drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea\n", "In Quebec, a new standard for carbonated drinks has been added, as some grocery stores now only sell cans of all major carbonated drinks in six-packs of 222 ml cans. Many convenience stores also began selling \"slim cans\" with a 310ml capacity in 2015.\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan\n\nIn Pakistan the most common sizes are 250 ml and 330 ml, and 200 ml cans are also sold.\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa\n", "Section::::Packaging and artwork.\n", "Can dimensions may be cited in metric or imperial units; imperial dimensions for canmaking are written as inches+sixteenths of an inch (e.g. \"202\" = 2 inches + 2 sixteenths).\n\nBULLET::::- Europe\n\nIn Europe the standard can is 330 ml, but since the 1990s 250 ml has slowly become common, along with 500 ml. It's often used for beer, cider and energy drinks.\n\nIn the UK, 440 ml is commonly used for lager and cider.\n\nIn Austria, energy drinks are usually sold in sizes of 200 to 330 ml.\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong\n\nIn Hong Kong most cans are 330 ml.\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nIn India standard cans are 500 ml.\n", "BULLET::::- North America\n\nIn North America, the standard can size is . The US standard can is 4.83 inches high, 2.13 inches in diameter at the lid, and 2.60 inches in diameter at the widest point of the body. Also available are 16oz cans (known as pounders), and 24oz cans (this size, or larger, are referred to as tall boys).\n", "The traditional bar has four fingers which each measure approximately by . A two-finger bar was launched in the 1930s, and has remained the company's best-selling biscuit brand ever since. The 1999 Kit Kat Chunky (known as Big Kat and Kit Kat Extra Crispy in the US) has one large finger approximately wide. Kit Kat bars contain varying numbers of fingers depending on the market, ranging from the half-finger sized Kit Kat Petit in Japan, to the three-fingered variants in Arabia, and the twelve-finger family-size bars in Australia and France. Kit Kat bars are sold individually and in bags, boxes and multi-packs. In Ireland, France, the UK and America Nestlé also produces a Kit Kat ice cream, and in Australia and Malaysia, Kit Kat Drumsticks.\n", "Arens designed the KitchenAid Streamliner Meat Slicer and re-designed the Stand Mixer. In 2007, KitchenAid said of the Stand Mixer, \"The first mixer was introduced in 1919, but it was Arens' 1937 Model K design that really captivated consumers.\"\n\nSection::::Career.:Consumer engineering.\n\nArens developed the use of \"appetite appeal\" on packaging. He emphasized the importance of \"eye-catching\" colors, primarily red and yellow, and of placing photographs of food on food packaging. He designed the packaging for Eight O'Clock Coffee and Marcal Tissue Packs.\n", "BULLET::::- Japan\n\nIn Japan the most common sizes are 350 ml and 500 ml, while larger and smaller cans are also sold.\n\nBULLET::::- Malaysia and Singapore\n\nIn both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks where it would usually cost a lot more than local ones.\n\nBULLET::::- Middle East\n\nIn the Middle East standard cans are 330 ml.\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand\n\nIn New Zealand the standard can size is 355 ml, although Coca-Cola Amatil changed some of its canned drinks to 330 ml in 2017.\n", "A wide variety of materials and procedures are available to combine items or packages into a multi-pack.\n\nSection::::Beverages.\n\nBeverage cans and bottles are sold in multi-packs such as six packs, twelve packs, and cases of 24. These can be paperboard baskets, paperboard overwraps and cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes, HDPE plastic handles, six pack rings, and shrink packs.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nA wide variety of items and packages are combined into multi-packs for sale.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Shrink wrap\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic wrap\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic bag\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Soroka, W, \"Fundamentals of Packaging Technology\", IoPP, 2002,\n", "Prior to metrication, beer bottles were frequently , while a carton of beer contained a dozen bottles (two gallons) of beer. \n\nOriginally, the bottles were reduced slightly to , but with metrication they became , with a carton of of beer. \n\nFrom the 1950s, bottles known as \"stubbies\" (as compared to traditional bottles, they were \"stubby\") of were introduced. In 1958, cans were introduced by CUB, which were originally in steel and the same size as the bottle; other breweries introduced these in the 1960s. \n", "The 'standard' Kit Kat finger bars can come in a variety of presentations and nutritional values. The bars can come in a miniature form of two finger mini bars, or a larger standard four, or in some cases, three, fingered bars.\n\nThe standard size has been upgraded in several cases up to a 'monster Size' bar, which can include up to five or eight fingers. Large single-fingered \"Chunky Kit Kats\" were launched in the United Kingdom in 1998 and have been sold in a variety of flavours. The market for Chunky Kit Kats has also expanded to Canada.\n", "During the 1980s, many larger cars, trucks, farm and construction vehicles were introduced in the 4 to 6 inch size. These varied from the Lincoln limousine to farm tractors and trailers and cement mixers. All were packaged in the same eye-catching red packaging. Among these were the 600 series of semi-tractor trucks. \n\nSection::::Series and Packaging.:Sonic Flashers.\n", "There are also smaller bottles, called \"nips\", \"ponies\" (United States), \"cuartitos\" (Mexico, \"small fourth\", in reference to the larger 355 ml \"media\" \"half\"), \"throwdowns\" or \"grenades\" (Australia), among other names.\n", "In Canada, the standard size was previously 10 Imperial fluid ounces (284 ml), later redefined and labeled as 280 ml in 1980. This size was commonly used with steel drink cans in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the US standard 355 ml can size was standardized in the 1980s and 1990s upon the conversion from steel to aluminium. Some drinks, such as Nestea, are sold in 341 ml cans. \n", "Note that the contents of this statistical case were carefully chosen so that it contains the same number of ounces as a standard case of 24 12-ounce bottles. In this way, the statistical case is comparable in size to a standard case. The advantage of a statistical case is that its contents can approximate the mix of SKUs the company actually sells.\n", "In 2008, an aluminium version of the crowntainer design was adopted for packaging Coca-Cola's Caribou Coffee drink. In 2004, Anheuser-Busch adopted an all-aluminium bottle for use with Budweiser and Bud Light beers.\n\nSection::::Standard sizes.\n\nSection::::Standard sizes.:Capacity in countries.\n\nVarious standard capacities are used throughout the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Australia\n\nIn Australia the standard can size for alcoholic and soft drinks is 375 ml. Energy drinks are commonly served in 250 ml and 500 ml sizes.\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil\n\nIn Brazil the standard can size is 355 ml.\n\nBULLET::::- China\n\nIn China the most common size is 330 ml.\n", "Originally the stubbies and cans were reduced slightly to , but with metrication they became , and the cans were later made of aluminium to accomodate its increasing use and lower cost compared to steel.\n\nA carton of nine litres of beer in stubbies (i.e. 24 bottles) or cans became known as a \"slab\" because compared to the more cube-like shape of the traditional cartons, they were flatter, and hence, like slabs. \n", "Most large companies serve their beverages in printed cans, where designs are printed on the aluminum and then crafted into a can. Alternatively, cans can be wrapped with a plastic design, mimicking the printed can but allowing for more flexibility than printed cans. A modern day trend in craft alcohol is to design stickers to put on cans, allowing for smaller batches and quick changes for new flavors.\n\nSection::::Collecting.\n", "BULLET::::- Twix Xtra (1994 – present, U.K.). Originally Twix King Size. An bar introduced on top of the standard bar. This bar was also later introduced in Europe and the US. A standard 'Bigger Bar' replaced the bar between 1996 and 1999. This size included all limited edition flavours. From 2000 the original bar replaced this size.\n", "In 1995 the mid-sized German Karlsberg Brewery in Homburg (Saar) was the first brewery to use an amendment to the beer tax law which enabled the production and sale of ready-mixed beer mixes in bottles or tins. \"MiXery Beer + Cola + X” was therefore one of the first ready-mixed cola beer drinks. This innovation was initially met with considerable criticism from the beer industry whereby the first competitors appeared on the market in 2001 and the market subsequently saw a continuous increase in sales volume.\n", "Again in August 2014 Cadbury altered the weight of the standard Picnic bar down to 46g in Australia, with a noticeable\n\nreduction in the width of the bar, yet still in the old size wrapper. \n\nIn the UK the standard bar is 48.4 grams as of 2018 and is also available in multipacks.\n\nIn 2011, a fruit and nut picnic bar was released in Australia.\n", "The German mess kit (\"Essgeschirr\") was designed in 1908. Originally the base held two liters, marked into 1/4 sections, and the lid holding another 1/4. This model replaced the 1850 \"Kochgeschirr\". The new 1908 \"Essgeschirr\" was made of aluminium and not designed to be cooked in but to have food distributed from field kitchens. The early models of the 1908 were painted in a distinct matte black.\n", "Can sizes in the United States have an assortment of designations and sizes. For example, size 7/8 contains one serving of half a cup with an estimated weight of 4 ounces; size 1 \"picnic\" has two or three servings totalling one and a quarter cups with an estimated weight of 10½ ounces; size 303 has four servings totalling 2 cups weighing 15½ ounces; and size 10 cans, most widely used by food services selling to cafeterias and restaurants, have twenty-five servings totalling 13 cups with an estimated weight of 103½ ounces (size of a roughly 3 pound coffee can). These are U.S. customary cups (not British Imperial standard).\n" ]	[ "Soda packs don't come in 3x4 boxes." ]	[ "During one period of time, soda boxes did come in 3x4 boxes. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Soda packs don't come in 3x4 boxes.", "Soda packs don't come in 3x4 boxes." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "During one period of time, soda boxes did come in 3x4 boxes. ", "During one period of time, soda boxes did come in 3x4 boxes. " ]
2018-02750	Where does that weird sadness come from after some orgasms?	Your brain has a finite amount of chemicals that make you feel good called "neurotransmitters" such as dopamine and serotonin. When you orgasm your brain gets flooded with a few different types and when you're done you have less of the chemicals available. They replete over time unless you've abused some really hard drugs and killed the neurons that produce them. Common antidepressants that work by altering these chemicals such as SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) have many sexual side effects such as the inability to orgasm, genital numbness, and impotence. Edit: Many people suffer from this condition to some degree but it can be minimized by exercising more and adopting a diet that provides more of the amino acid precursors that allow your brain to produce these neurotransmitters. Tyrosine is the amino acid precursor to dopamine and is found in foods like bananas and walnuts. Tryptophan is the precursor to serotonin and can be found in foods like eggs and fish. There is also a rare condition known as "post orgasm illness syndrome" which some believe to be rooted in the brain. Other believe it to be an allergic reaction to one's own semen.	[ "The phenomenon is first mentioned by the Greek doctor Galen, who wrote that \"Every animal is sad after coitus except the human female and the rooster.\" The philosopher Baruch Spinoza, in his \"Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione\", wrote: \"For as far as sensual pleasure is concerned, the mind is so caught up in it, as if at peace in a [true] good, that it is quite prevented from thinking of anything else. But after the enjoyment of sensual pleasure is passed, the greatest sadness follows. If this does not completely engross, still it thoroughly confuses and dulls the mind.\" \n", "Sexual intimacy, as well as orgasms, increases levels of the hormone oxytocin, also known as \"the love hormone\", which helps people bond and build trust. Sexual activity is also known as one of many mood repair strategies, which means it can be used to help dissipate feelings of sadness or depression.\n", "That year, various mixes of three songs from \"Concentration\" — \"Perfect Tan\", \"Butterfly Wings\", and \"Lilith/Eve\" — were featured in the horror film \"Devour\". \"Butterfly Wings\" was also featured on the television show \"Due South\", in the episodes \"Chicago Holiday\" and \"Flashback\".\n\nSection::::History.:Break up–present.\n", "On April 3, the Experience returned to Olympic, adding overdubs and completing final mixes on several unfinished masters. During the eight-hour session, the band recorded three new songs, including Highway Chile, \"May This Be Love\", and \"Are You Experienced?\".\n\nSection::::Music and lyrics.\n", "In January 2019, a music video titled, Remembering Love Eterne, began appearing at film festivals. The film contains numerous clips from \"Love Eterne\" to music composed and arranged by director Joseph Villapaz using the \"Feel Good\" sound pool licensed from \"Producer Planet\". As of February 24, 2019, the film has won Best Music Video from the Calcutta International Cult Film Festival, Festigious International Film Festival and the South Cinematographic Academy Film & Arts. Additionally, it has received an Outstanding Achievement award from the Cult Critic Movie Awards, and Honorable Mention awards from the New York Film Awards and the Top Shorts Film Festival.\n", "Death during consensual sex\n\nDeath can occur during consensual sex for a number of reasons, generally because of the physical strain of the activity, or because of unusual extenuating circumstances. There are various euphemisms for death during sex, including \"dying in the saddle\" or the French \"la mort d'amour\".\n\nSection::::Health and physiology.\n", "Shelley, in this poem, associates orgasm with death when he writes \"the death which lovers love\". In French literature, the term \"la petite mort\" (the little death) is a famous euphemism for orgasm; it is the representation of man who forgets himself and the world during orgasm. Jorge Luis Borges, in the same vision, wrote in one of the several footnotes of \"Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius\" that one of the churches of Tlön claims Platonically that \"All men, in the vertiginous moment of coitus, are the same man. All men who repeat a line from Shakespeare \"are\" William Shakespeare.\" Shakespeare himself was knowledgeable of this idea: lines \"I will live in thy heart, die in thy lap, and be buried in thy eyes\" and \"I will die bravely, like a smug bridegroom\", said respectively by Benedick in \"Much Ado About Nothing\" and by King Lear in the play of that ilk, are interpreted as \"to die in a woman's lap\" = \"to experience a sexual orgasm\". Sigmund Freud with his psychoanalytic projects, in \"The Ego and the Id\" (1923), speculates that sexual satisfaction by orgasm make Eros (\"life instinct\") exhausted and leaves the field open to Thanatos (\"death instinct\"), in other words, with orgasm Eros fulfills its mission and gives way to Thanatos. Other modern authors have chosen to represent the orgasm without metaphors. In the novel \"Lady Chatterley's Lover\" (1928), by D. H. Lawrence, we can find an explicit narrative of a sexual act between a couple: \"As he began to move, in the sudden helpless orgasm there awoke in her strange thrills rippling inside her...\"\n", "\"The Deeper the Love\" came from a chorus sequence I'd had for some time, written, if memory serves, in my dear friend Tony Z's house, many years ago... then my little Dutch brother, Adrian, came along and put the musical icing on the cake, and gave me the verse chord sequence. I finished writing it in Tahiti [...] very early in the morning with the sun rising over the Pacific.\n", "Japanese film director Shinji Aoyama listed \"Love Streams\" as one of the Greatest Films of All Time in 2012. He said, \"When I think about Cassavetes, I always feel happy. I feel glad that I like movies. I'm sure I will always feel this way until the day I die, and I intend to feel this way too. At the end of \"Love Streams\", Cassavetes smiles as he sees the dog next to him, which turned into a naked man. I live my life always wishing I can smile like that.\"\n", "Section::::Album history.\n", "It is possible for an individual who has sexsomnia to experience a variety of negative emotions due to the nature of their disorder. The following are commonly seen secondary effects of sexsomnia: \n\nBULLET::::- Anger\n\nBULLET::::- Confusion\n\nBULLET::::- Denial\n\nBULLET::::- Frustration\n\nBULLET::::- Guilt\n\nBULLET::::- Revulsion\n\nBULLET::::- Shame\n", "BULLET::::- \"Butterflies\" again sails close to the wind of obscenity, being told through the eyes of a socially isolated man who is not remarkable in any positive way. On one of his walks into his town's decaying underbelly, he meets a young girl and walks with her. On arrival at a deserted dry canal, he demands that she touch his penis, and after this sordid encounter, drowns her. Perhaps most harrowing is the way the protagonist describes the murder, \"My mind was clear, my body was relaxed and I was thinking of nothing... I ... eased her quietly into the canal.\" Again morality is completely detached and the reader is made to squirm at the lack of remorse or even feeling shown.\n", "BULLET::::- Nelson Rockefeller, former Vice President of the United States and heir to the Rockefeller family fortune, died in 1979 of a heart attack at age 70, rumored to be caused by an orgasm during intercourse with his secretary, Megan Marshack. The unusual circumstances surrounding his death caused \"New York Magazine\" to quip, \"Nelson thought he was coming, but he was going\". Contemporaneous accounts of his death differed greatly and his hasty cremation left the exact cause of death uncertain.\n", "In traditional Hindu spirituality, semen is described as a \"vital fluid\". The discharge of this \"vital fluid\", either through sex or masturbation, is associated with marked feelings of anxiety and dysphoria. Often the patient describes the loss of a whitish fluid while passing urine. At other times, marked feelings of guilt associated with what the patient assumes is \"excessive\" masturbation are noted.\n", "BULLET::::- Cardinal Jean Daniélou, a prolific and renowned theologian, died in 1974 inside a Paris brothel at sixty nine years of age. Although the prostitute he was visiting said he was delivering charity, this account was not believed by some.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Guts short story in Chuck Palahniuk's novel \"Haunted\", one the characters discusses parents who discover the accidental deaths of their sons to autoerotic asphyxiation. They are said to cover up the deaths before police or coroners arrive to save the family from shame.\n\nBULLET::::- In the novel (and later movie adaptation) \"Rising Sun\", death as a result of this type of sexual arousal is explained when it is offered as a possible cause for a murder victim's death.\n", "In February 2016, The Body and Full of Hell made the closing track \"The Little Death\" available for online streaming to promote the album. The title is a reference to the French saying \"la petite mort,\" which translates to \"the little death\" and used to be a reference to a fainting fit but in modern times is used to describe the sensation after an orgasm. The track concludes with an audio sample from the 2010 HBO film \"You Don't Know Jack\" starring Al Pacino as the physician-assisted suicide activist, Jack Kevorkian. Weeks later, the group streamed the track \"The Butcher\"—a song originally written and recorded by Canadian folk musician Leonard Cohen and originally released on his 1969 second studio album, \"Songs from a Room\". On the week of \"One Day You Will Ache Like I Ache\"'s release, the collaborative group released a music video for the track \"Fleshworks\".\n", "The song is notoriously known for the obvious sexual themes presented within the lyrics. Of particular notice is the fact that the track begins with heavy panting and ends with explosions, seemingly to emulate sexual climax. The title track as well as the self-titled \"X\" would later be re-recorded for the band's 1989 second album \"Blue Blood\". While Yoshiki is credited with the lyrics and music for both these songs on the single, the \"Blue Blood\" recordings credit his alias \"Hitomi Shiratori\" for their lyrics instead.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::How the ritual ends.\n\nThe rite may end in one of two ways. The ritualist may simply sink into total sleep, or he or she may achieve orgasm and then sink into a deep and \"undisturbable\" sleep. Jason Newcomb, however, concludes that sexual exhaustion achieved through repeated orgasm may also lead to the ritualistic state and does not necessarily end the rite. Frater U. D., however, has argued that the orgasmic moment should not be lost and that the individual should strive to use the moment for spiritual or magical purposes.\n", "The Chilean artist of Death Metal Anton Reisenegger commented that this song marked his life.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "\"Nothing's Gonna Hurt You Baby\" was featured in episode 7 of the first season of \"The Handmaid's Tale\"., episode 7 of \"The Sinner\", episode 1 of the first season of \"Wanderlust\", and episode 9 of the eighth season of \"Shameless\".\n\n\"K\" was featured in episode 2 of the first season of \"Killing Eve\".\n\n\"Apocalypse\" was featured in episode 10 of the second season of \"Harrow (TV series)\", and in episode 10 of the sixth season of \"The 100 (TV series)\".\n\nSection::::Musical style and influences.\n", "\"The Most Wonderful Girl\", an ode to self-love and masturbation, also appeared on the soundtrack to the film \"Sliver\". The track \"Hey Ho!\" originally contained a sample of \"Heigh-Ho\" from the 1937 Walt Disney film \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", however this sample was removed when the track appeared on this album most likely due to copyright issues.\n\nThe song \"Let's Get High\" features samples from \"\".\n", "\"I'll Kiss You Tonight\", \"Fluttering in the Floodlights\", \"Let Me Listen in on You\" and \"Ecstatic Baby\" were released as singles from the album. The album received positive reviews from music critics upon release.\n\nSection::::Recording and production.\n", "A DVD/CD package, \"Maybe Memories\", followed as a stop-gap release to tide the group's fans over until their next album. The band subsequently spent a few months in Orem, Utah writing material for the next album. McCracken said the group \"figured it would be best to be in an environment we were really used to\". In January 2004, MTV reported that the group would begin working on their second album within the next month. In February, it was reported that it would be released in June or July.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Parting the Sea Between Brightness and Me\" (2010–2012).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05180	What makes a degree from MIT or Harvard different from the same degree at any other college?	You get to network with other people who went to Harvard and MIT. College is not about what you learn, it's about who you meet.	[ "BULLET::::- In the novel \"Split Second\" by Douglas E. Richards, the character Edgar Knight says, \"Long story short, the head of Black Ops R&D got wind of my abilities and plucked me right up after I graduated MIT\".\n\nBULLET::::- Elena Janev (also known as Sally Bins née Sally Petracova), in the novel \"3:34 a.m\" by Nick Pirog, \"was awarded a full-ride scholarship to MIT where she studied chemistry with a minor in psychology. She graduated in 1970.\"\n", "The television series \"Numbers\" has several different connections to MIT. The pilot episode was shot in Boston. Co-creator and Executive Producer Cheryl Heuton says, \"We originally tried to choose MIT for the show. We originally set the show in Boston, and Charlie [Eppes, one of the main characters,] was going to be a professor at MIT. We contacted MIT, and their answer was they're not in the film and TV business...\" Multiple episodes of the show mention that Charlie studied at MIT. Dylan Bruno, the actor who plays Colby Granger, has earned a bachelor's degree in environmental engineering from MIT.\n", "Most Harvard College concentrations lead to the \"Artium Baccalaureus\" (A.B.), normally completed in four years, though students leaving high school with substantial college-level coursework may finish in three. A smaller number receive the \"Scientiarum Baccalaureus\" (S.B.). There are also special degree programs, such as a five-year program leading to both a Harvard undergraduate degree and a Master of Arts from the New England Conservatory of Music.\n", "MIT also collaborates extensively with Harvard University, and students at each institution often pursue simultaneous degrees at the other. MIT Sloan students can freely cross-register for courses at Harvard Business School, and vice versa—the only leading business schools to have such an agreement. As a result, a number of courses have been created at each institution that regularly attract cross-registered students. MIT Sloan and the Harvard Kennedy School offer a formal dual degree program.\n", "BULLET::::- Connell School of Nursing\n\nBULLET::::- Boston College School of Social Work\n\nBULLET::::- Boston College Law School\n\nBULLET::::- Boston College School of Theology and Ministry\n\nBULLET::::- Woods College of Advancing Studies\n", "In 1983, EAPS was formed through the merger of two MIT departments: the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, which grew out of the first geology courses, and the Department of Meteorology and Physical Oceanography, which had its roots in the meteorology courses that first emerged at MIT in 1941.\n", "Acceptance into HES degree programs is based on merit. Students are \"presumed capable\" but then must \"prove that presumption with actual performance.\" The \"democratic admissions policy for its degree programs ... is based on proof that a student is capable of Harvard-level work, giving degree and certificate candidates the chance to prove themselves.\" The \"most relevant predictor\" of success for students is a students' \"ability to do honors-level work at Harvard.\"\n", "The Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences (Course IX) began as the Department of Psychology in 1964.\n\nSection::::School of Science.:Chemistry.\n\nThe Department of Chemistry (Course V) was one of the original departments when MIT opened in 1865.\n\nSection::::School of Science.:Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences.\n", "In 2014, the average GPA of a BU undergraduate was 3.16, compared to the averages of 3.35 for Boston College (2007), 3.48 for Amherst College (2006), 3.52 for New York University (2015), and 3.65 for Harvard University (2015).\n", "BULLET::::- Djinn Makhmud, Virgil Ayres, and Anne Saint James met at MIT and teamed up as the Engineers in the novel \"New Jersey's Famous Turnpike Witch\" by Brad Abruzzi. Makhmud received \"wholly unsolicited admission to [MIT's] class of 2012\", Ayres was Makhmud's classmate, and Saint James was a \"townie [who had permission] to haunt with impunity the student-only computer clusters at MIT\".\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Altschuler, in \"Mind's Eye\" by Douglas E. Richards \"finished his doctorate at MIT in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in only four years\".\n", "In 2014, Harvard University conferred four certificates as well as the following academic degrees: five Associate in the Arts, 152 Bachelor of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies, and 539 Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies.\n", "About 2,000 students are admitted each year, representing between five and ten percent of those applying; of those admitted, approximately three-quarters choose to attend. Very few transfers are accepted.\n\nMidway through the second year, most undergraduates join one of fifty standard fields of concentration (what most schools call academic majors); many also declare a secondary field (called minors elsewhere). Joint concentrations (combining the requirements of two standard concentrations) and special concentrations (of the student's own design) are also possible.\n", "MIT was founded in 1861, and is located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, directly across the Charles River from central Boston. MIT enrolled 4512 undergraduates and 6807 graduate students for the 2014-2015 academic year. 85 Nobel laureates and 28 National Medal of Science or Technology recipients are currently or have previously been affiliated with the university.\n", "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's \"White & Nerdy\" (2006) riffs upon MIT, along with a plenitude of other geek culture references — \"Star Wars Holiday Special,\" pocket protectors and editing Wikipedia, to name a few. Yankovic claims that he graduated \"first in [his] class here at MIT\"; however, the Institute does not assign class rankings or confer traditional Latin honors upon its graduates.\n", "The Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics (Course XVI) was founded as a program within the Mechanical Engineering department in 1926 and became an independent department in 1939.\n\nSection::::School of Engineering.:Biological Engineering.\n\nThe Department of Biological Engineering (Course XX) was founded as a division in 1998 and became an independent department in 2005.\n\nSection::::School of Engineering.:Chemical Engineering.\n\nThe Department of Chemical Engineering (Course X) was founded as a combined course of mechanical engineering and industrial chemistry in 1888 and became an independent department in 1920.\n\nSection::::School of Engineering.:Civil and Environmental Engineering.\n", "MIT faculty members have often been recruited to lead other colleges and universities. Founding faculty-member Charles W. Eliot became president of Harvard University in 1869, a post he would hold for 40 years, during which he wielded considerable influence both on American higher education and on secondary education. MIT alumnus and faculty member George Ellery Hale played a central role in the development of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and other faculty members have been key founders of Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering in nearby Needham, Massachusetts.\n", "When the novel \"The Magicians\" by Lev Grossman was first published in 2009, the principal review of the book in \"The New York Times\" described the story's academic location, Brakebills College, as \"kind of like the M.I.T. [sic] for magic\".\n", "Randal Pinkett, the winner of season 4 of \"The Apprentice\", is an MIT alum, with an SM in Electrical Engineering (1998), an MBA from Sloan School of Management (1998), and a PhD in Media Arts & Sciences from the Media Lab (2001).\n\nTwo lead characters in the television series \"Fringe\" have MIT backgrounds: Walter Bishop earned a Ph.D. at MIT, and his son Peter Bishop falsified an MIT degree.\n", "ALB degree candidates are also required to complete a minimum of 16 on-campus-only credits at Harvard; students must also complete a minimum of 12 credits in \"Writing intensive\" courses, and earn a minimum of 52 credits in courses that are taught by Harvard instructors. In addition to a concentration, degree candidates have the option to pursue one of twenty 'Fields of study', (akin to a traditional major). In order to successfully complete a field of study, students must earn a B– or higher in 32 Harvard credits in one field, and maintain a B average in the field. Students may also complement their field of study with a maximum of two academic or professional minors.\n", "Each school and college at the university has a three letter abbreviation, which is commonly used in place of their full school or college name. For example, the College of Arts and Sciences is commonly referred to as CAS, the Questrom School of Business is QST, the School of Education is SED, etc.\n", "The Harvard Kennedy School has a number of joint and concurrent degree programs, within Harvard and with other leading universities, which allow students to receive multiple degrees in a reduced period of time. Joint and current students spend at least one year in residence in Cambridge taking HKS courses. At Harvard, HKS joint degree programs are run with Harvard Business School, Harvard Law School and Harvard Graduate School of Design, and concurrent programs are offered with Harvard Divinity School and Harvard Medical School.\n", "The 1949 report of the Committee on Educational Survey recommended the establishment of a School of Humanities granting degrees which led to the establishment of the same in 1950 and separate departments in Economics and Political Science were formally established in 1965. Since 1975, all MIT undergraduate students have been required to take eight classes distributed across the School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences before receiving their degrees.\n\nSection::::Social movements and activism (1966–1980).\n\nSection::::Social movements and activism (1966–1980).:Co-education.\n", "Section::::Organization.\n\nFAS consists of the following degree granting colleges, schools, and divisions:\n\nBULLET::::1. Harvard College (established 1636)\n\nBULLET::::2. The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (GSAS) (established 1890)\n\nBULLET::::3. The John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) (established 1950)\n\nBULLET::::4. The Division of Continuing Education and University Extension School (Harvard Summer School established 1871; Harvard Extension School established 1909)\n", "BULLET::::- B.Sc Hons. Biotechnology and Microbiology\n\nBULLET::::- B.Sc Hons. Biotechnology and Biochemistry\n\nBULLET::::- B.Sc Hons. Biotechnology and Molecular Biology\n\nBULLET::::- BS Avionics Engineering\n\nBULLET::::- BS Mass Communication\n\nBULLET::::- BS Interior Design Management\n\nBULLET::::- BS Product Design Management\n\nBULLET::::- BBA (Hons.)\n\nBULLET::::- BS Aviation Management\n\nBULLET::::- BS Aviation Technology\n\nBULLET::::- BS Computer Science\n\nBULLET::::- BS Software Engineering\n\nBULLET::::- B.Sc Computer Engineering\n\nBULLET::::- BS Telecommunications\n\nBULLET::::- B.Sc Electrical Engineering\n\nBULLET::::- BS Electrical Systems\n\nBULLET::::- B.Arch Bachelor of Architecture\n\nBULLET::::- BS Electrical Engineering Technology\n\nBULLET::::- BS Electronics Engineering Technology\n\nBULLET::::- BS Mechanical Engineering Technology\n\nBULLET::::- BS Civil Engineering Technology\n", "The Department of Biology (Course 7) began as a department of natural history in 1871.\n\nSection::::Brain and Cognitive Sciences.\n\nThe Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences (Course 9) began as the Department of Psychology in 1964.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n\nThe Department of Chemistry (Course 5) was one of the original departments when MIT opened in 1865.\n\nSection::::Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04209	Why can't developers easily make their program run on all OSs?	Each OS has its own hardware architecture. This means system calls are handled differently. Also language support. eg Windows and Mac apps are written in different languages (often) as are iOS and Android applications. Think of each OS as a species, and the application as the organs. Now imagine doing an organ transplant across species. Might be possible but its not at all easy, with a low success rate as each system is different. Get the idea?	[ "Dependence on a PIGUI can lead to project difficulties since fewer people know how to code any specific PIGUI than do a platform-specific GUI, limiting the number of people who can give advanced help, and if the vendor goes out of business there may be no further support, including future OS enhancements, though availability of source code can ease but not eliminate this problem. Also, bugs in any package, including the PIGUI, filter down to production code.\n\nSection::::Alternative approaches.\n", "Section::::Considerations.\n\nUsing a PIGUI has limitations, such as the PIGUI only deals with the GUI aspects of the program so the programmer responsible for other portability issues, most PIGUIs slow the execution of the resulting code, and programmers are largely limited to the feature set provided by the PIGUI.\n", "An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is where the operating system is not running user programs as native code, but instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for a p-code based system such as Java.\n", "The architecture of OS4000 is very heavily based around the architecture of the platform it runs on, the GEC 4000 series minicomputers, and these are rather unusual. The platform includes a feature called Nucleus which is a combination of a hardware and firmware based kernel, which cannot be altered under program control. This means that many of the features typically found in operating system kernels do not need to be included in OS4000, as the underlying platform performs these functions instead of the operating system. Consequently, there is no provision for running Privileged mode code on the platform—all OS4000 operating system code runs as processes.\n", "This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing applications against software platforms such as Java or Qt. These abstractions have already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system libraries.\n\nAnother approach is for operating system vendors to adopt standards. For example, POSIX and OS abstraction layers provide commonalities that reduce porting costs.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of operating systems\n\nBULLET::::- Crash (computing)\n\nBULLET::::- Hypervisor\n\nBULLET::::- Interruptible operating system\n\nBULLET::::- List of important publications in operating systems\n\nBULLET::::- List of operating systems\n\nBULLET::::- List of pioneers in computer science\n", "The use of different toolsets to perform different builds may not be sufficient to achieve a variety of working executables for different platforms. In this case, the software engineer must \"port\" it, i.e. amend the code to be suitable to a new computer architecture or operating system. For example, a program such as Firefox, which already runs on Windows on the x86 family, can be modified and re-built to run on Linux on the x86 (and potentially other architectures) as well. The multiple versions of the code may be stored as separate codebases, or merged into one codebase by conditional compilation (see above). Note that, while\n", "Some architectures have multiple layers, with each layer acting as a platform to the one above it. In general, a component only has to be adapted to the layer immediately beneath it. For instance, a Java program has to be written to use the Java virtual machine (JVM) and associated libraries as a platform but does not have to be adapted to run for the Windows, Linux or Macintosh OS platforms. However, the JVM, the layer beneath the application, does have to be built separately for each OS.\n\nSection::::Operating system examples.\n\nSection::::Operating system examples.:Desktop, laptop, server.\n\nBULLET::::- AmigaOS, AmigaOS 4\n", "Application software is generally written for use on a specific operating system, and sometimes even for specific hardware. When porting the application to run on another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained.\n\nUnix was the first operating system not written in assembly language, making it very portable to systems different from its native PDP-11.\n", "All computer operating systems are designed for a particular computer architecture. Most software applications are limited to particular operating systems running on particular architectures. Although architecture-independent operating systems and applications exist, most need to be recompiled to run on a new architecture. See also a list of common operating systems and their supporting architectures.\n\nSection::::Hardware requirements.:Processing power.\n", "For a piece of software to be considered cross-platform, it must be able to function on more than one computer architecture or operating system. Developing such a program can be a time-consuming task because different operating systems have different application programming interfaces (API). For example, Linux uses a different API for application software than Windows does.\n", "porting must be accompanied by cross-platform building, the reverse is not the case.\n\nAs an alternative to porting, \"cross-platform virtualization\" allows applications compiled for one CPU and operating system to run on a system with a different CPU and/or operating system, without modification to the source code or binaries. As an example, Apple's Rosetta, which is built into Intel-based Macintosh computers, runs applications compiled for the previous generation of Macs that used PowerPC CPUs. Another example is IBM PowerVM Lx86, which allows Linux/x86 applications to run unmodified on the Linux/Power operating system.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Traditional applications.:Scripts and interpreted languages.\n", "Though an expedient design for accessing standard kernel facilities, system calls are sometimes inappropriate for accessing non-standard hardware peripherals. By necessity, most hardware peripherals (aka devices) are directly addressable only within the kernel. But user code may need to communicate directly with devices; for instance, an administrator might configure the media type on an Ethernet interface. Modern operating systems support diverse devices, many of which offer a large collection of facilities. Some of these facilities may not be foreseen by the kernel designer, and as a consequence it is difficult for a kernel to provide system calls for using the devices.\n", "Operating system is one of the requirements mentioned when defining system requirements (software). Software may not be compatible with different versions of same line of operating systems, although some measure of backward compatibility is often maintained. For example, most software designed for Microsoft Windows XP does not run on Microsoft Windows 98, although the converse is not always true. Similarly, software designed using newer features of Linux Kernel v2.6 generally does not run or compile properly (or at all) on Linux distributions using Kernel v2.2 or v2.4.\n\nSection::::Software requirements.:APIs and drivers.\n", "Software written for a particular operating system does not automatically work on all architectures that operating system supports. One example as of August 2006 was OpenOffice.org, which did not natively run on the AMD64 or Intel 64 lines of processors implementing the x86-64 standards for computers; this has since been changed, and the OpenOffice.org suite of software is “mostly” ported to these 64-bit systems. This also means that just because a program is written in a popular programming language such as C or C++, it does not mean it will run on all operating systems that support that programming language—or even on the same operating system on a different architecture.\n", "Different operating systems handle shared libraries in different ways, and some platforms do not use shared libraries at all. It can be difficult to make a software program portable: the C compiler differs from system to system; certain library functions are missing on some systems; header files may have different names. One way to handle this is to write conditional code, with code blocks selected by means of preprocessor directives (codice_1); but because of the wide variety of build environments this approach quickly becomes unmanageable. The GNU build system is designed to address this problem more manageably.\n", "In these cases, and many like it, the need arises for a system that allows the two runtimes to interoperate. This is known as \"bridging\" the runtimes.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Apple.\n\nApple has made considerable use of bridging technologies since the earliest efforts that led to Mac OS X.\n", "Not all files or devices support all I/O modifiers. Different files and devices have different default I/O modifiers and a few I/O modifier defaults can be changed using the $SET command.\n\nSection::::Device independent input/output.:Line number ranges.\n", "Software making extensive use of special hardware devices, like high-end display adapters, needs special API or newer device drivers. A good example is DirectX, which is a collection of APIs for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming, on Microsoft platforms.\n\nSection::::Software requirements.:Web browser.\n\nMost web applications and software depending heavily on Internet technologies make use of the default browser installed on system. Microsoft Internet Explorer is a frequent choice of software running on Microsoft Windows, which makes use of ActiveX controls, despite their vulnerabilities.\n\nSection::::Other requirements.\n", "Consideration for cross platform is important. Presently, there are many ways to make the services host platform to be platform independent. Examples are building services in Java, where JVM is available for the host in which the server will run as a service. Alternatives are building applications with full compliance to ANSI C/C++ so that none of the components of the code is reliant upon third party libraries. Typically, this means building the C/C++ applications using GNU tools and GNU C compilers because GNU compilers are ported to most operating systems and platforms. Another alternative is to use C# .NET as the language of the web service where the Common Language Runtime is ported to the target operating system and platform. Many other options are available, but the most common approaches to the platform independence has already been mentioned.\n", "There are many languages that follow the WOCA philosophy, such as C++, Pascal (see Free Pascal), Ada or C, on condition that they don't use functions beyond those provided by the standard library. Languages like Go go even further in as far that no system specific things are used, it should just work, and for system-specific elements a system of platform-specific files is used. A computer program may also use cross-platform libraries, which provide an abstraction layer hiding the differences between various platforms, for things like sockets and GUI, ensuring the portability of the written source code. This is, for example, supported by Qt or the Lazarus IDE via its LCL and corresponding widgetsets.\n", "The OpenStep API was created as the result of a 1993 collaboration between NeXT and Sun Microsystems, allowing this cut-down version of the NeXTSTEP operating system object layers to be run on Sun's Solaris operating system (more specifically, Solaris on SPARC-based hardware). Most of the OpenStep effort was to strip away those portions of NeXTSTEP that depended on Mach or NeXT-specific hardware being present. This resulted in a smaller system that consisted primarily of Display PostScript, the Objective-C runtime and compilers, and the majority of the NeXTSTEP Objective-C libraries. Not included was the basic operating system, or the lower-level display system.\n", "Section::::User interface approaches.\n\nMost, if not all, PIGUI packages take one of three approaches to providing platform independence. The two most common approaches are the `layered' and the `emulated' user interface but an up-and-coming approach is `API emulated' interface.\n", "A programmer could develop code on a PC and expect it to run on Java-enabled mobile phones, as well as on routers and mainframes equipped with Java, without any adjustments. This was intended to save software developers the effort of writing a different version of their software for each platform or operating system they intend to deploy on.\n", "When NeXT was first purchased by Apple, the plan was to build a new version of OpenStep, then-known as Rhapsody, with an emulator known as a Blue Box that would run \"classic\" Mac OS programs. This led to considerable push-back from the developer community, and Rhapsody was cancelled. In its place, OS X would implement many of the older Mac OS calls on top of core functionality in OpenStep, providing a path for existing applications to be gracefully migrated forward.\n", "Higher-level behaviors implemented by a runtime system may include tasks such as drawing text on the screen or making an Internet connection. It is often the case that operating systems provide these kinds of behaviors as well, and when available, the runtime system is implemented as an abstraction layer that translates the invocation of the runtime system into an invocation of the operating system. This hides the complexity or variations in the services offered by different operating systems. This also implies that the OS kernel can itself be viewed as a runtime system, and that the set of OS calls that invoke OS behaviors may be viewed as interactions with a runtime system.\n" ]	[ "Programs should be able to run on all OS. " ]	[ "Every hardware has different architecture, which means they are written in different languages, making them incompatible with one another." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Programs should be able to run on all OS. ", "Programs should be able to run on all OS. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Every hardware has different architecture, which means they are written in different languages, making them incompatible with one another.", "Every hardware has different architecture, which means they are written in different languages, making them incompatible with one another." ]
2018-24026	why do women always seem to be considerably colder than men?	Their body temperatures are usually higher. So their normal 'warm' is warmer than men's generally.	[ "Male skin is more prone to reddening and oilier than female skin. Females have a thicker layer of fat under the skin and female skin constricts blood vessels near the surface (vasoconstriction) in reaction to cold to a greater extent than men's skin, both of which help women to stay warm and survive lower temperatures than men. As a result of greater vasoconstriction, while the surface of female skin is colder than male skin, the deep-skin temperature in women is higher than in men.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Calibration.\n\nSection::::Calibration.:Temperature sensors.\n", "Section::::Calibration.:Equivalent temperature.\n", "Section::::Witches.:Powers and abilities.\n\nWitches can feel cold, but are not affected by it. They can endure the lowest temperatures on earth comfortably. Because they are not burdened by heavy clothing, they can feel the beams of the Aurora on their bare skin.\n", "It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television rays that are not related to temperature. Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. People are constantly radiating their body heat, but at different rates. From these values, the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer, which explains the “chill” we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same.\n", "BULLET::::- People with dry Mizaj Have dry skin and people with wet Mizaj have soft and squishy skin. Having naturally high body temperature once someone touches people with warm Mizaj tells they are warm. People with cold Mizaj feel cold and run colder than the other people and once someone touches them can tell they are colder than normal.\n\nSection::::How to recognize one's temperament.:Activity.\n", "Section::::History.:19th century.\n", "Posture, positioning, and clothing affect the thermal manikin measurements. With regard to posture, the most accurate method would be to have the manikin in precisely the same posture as it was calibrated in. Clothing affects heat transfer to the manikin and may add a layer of air insulation. Clothing reduces the effects of air velocity and changes the strength of the free convection flow around the body and face. Fitted clothing should be used if possible to decrease uncertainty of measurements as loose clothing is likely to change shape any time the manikin is moved.\n", "Clothing insulation is the thermal insulation provided by clothing and it is measured in clo. The measuring unit was developed in 1941. Shortly afterward, thermal manikins were developed by the US Army for the purposes of carrying out insulation measurements on the gear they were developing. The first thermal manikins were standing, made of copper, and were one segment, measuring whole-body heat loss. Over the years these were improved upon by various companies and individuals employing new technologies and techniques as understanding of thermal comfort increased. In the mid-1960s, seated and multi-segmented thermal manikins were developed, and digital regulation was employed, allowing for much more accurate power application and measurement. Over time breathing, sneezing, moving (such as continuous walking or biking motions) and sweating were all employed in the manikins, in addition to male, female, and child sizes depending on the application. Nowadays most manikins used for research purposes will have a minimum of 15 zones, and as many as 34 with options (often as a purchasable add-on to the base manikin) for sweating, breathing, and movement systems although simpler manikins are also in use in the clothing industry. Additionally, in the early 2000s several different computer models of manikins were developed in Hong Kong, the UK, and Sweden.\n", "The thermal manikin is a human model designed for scientific testing of thermal environments without the risk or inaccuracies inherent in human subject testing. Thermal manikins are primarily used in automotive, indoor environment, outdoor environment, military and clothing research. The first thermal manikins in the 1940s were developed by the US Army and consisted of one whole-body sampling zone. Modern-day manikins can have over 30 individually controlled zones. Each zone (right hand, pelvis, etc.) contains a heating element and temperature sensors within the “skin” of the manikin. This allows the control software to heat the manikin to a normal human body temperature, while logging the amount of power necessary to do so in each zone and the temperature of that zone.\n", "Section::::Club career.\n\nSection::::Club career.:FC Rosengård (2017).\n", "Section::::Playing career.:Club.:Seattle Sounders Women, 2012.\n", "James Farmer, head of CORE, responded to Kennedy saying, \"We have been cooling off for 350 years, and if we cooled off any more, we'd be in a deep freeze.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Summer escalation.\n", "BULLET::::- After long-term of Jjimjil, body fat percentage of old woman decreased, but in case of old man, there was no effective change.\n\nBULLET::::- Every age of human, the heat-resisting ability has been increased. (Good Effect)\n\nBULLET::::- But, the cold-resisting ability has been decreased. However, if we control the time, power, and the repetition well, especially when we rest in the ice room during Jjimjil. It can reduce the decrease of cold-resisting ability and even we can increase it.\n\nSection::::Food.\n\nBULLET::::- Iced Sikhye () is a sweet rice beverage.\n", "As Newton's law of cooling states, the rate of cooling of an object - whether by conduction, convection, or radiation - is approximately proportional to the temperature difference Δ\"T\". Frozen food will warm up faster in a warm room than in a cold room. Note that the rate of cooling experienced on a cold day can be increased by the added convection effect of the wind. This is referred to as wind chill. For example, a wind chill of -20 °C means that heat is being lost at the same rate as if the temperature were -20 °C without wind.\n", "Section::::Alloy steels.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Situational factors include the health, psychological, sociological, and vocational activities of the persons.\n\nSection::::Specificity and sensitivity.:Biological gender differences.\n\nWhile thermal comfort preferences between sexes seems to be small, there are some differences. Studies have found males report discomfort due to rises in temperature much earlier than females. Males also estimate higher levels of their sensation of discomfort than females. One recent study tested males and females in the same cotton clothing, performing mental jobs while using a dial vote to report their thermal comfort to the changing temperature.\n", "Other work centers on a 1977 theoretical model (the Charnov–Bull model), predicted that selection should favour TSD over chromosome-based systems when \"the developmental environment differentially influences male versus female fitness\"; this theoretical model was empirically validated thirty years later but the generality of this hypothesis in reptiles is questioned. This hypothesis is supported by the persistence of TSD in certain populations of spotted skink (\"Niveoscincus ocellatus\"), a small lizard in Tasmania, where it is advantageous to have females early in the season. The warmth early in the season ensures female-biased broods that then have more time to grow and reach maturity and possibly reproduce before they experience their first winter, thereby increasing fitness of the individual.\n", "Winters are extremely cold with temperatures often below freezing.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Gender-specificity.\n\nSkis were once unisex, but today skis are designed to suit both men and women. Compared to men's skis, women's skis are built for smaller, less powerful frames, and have a waist that’s farther forward to better match a woman’s relatively lower center of gravity relative to a man.\n\nSection::::Sidecut.\n", "Although strong, Harry describes her magic as \"sloppy\"; in \"Summer Knight\", she seems to exhaust herself subduing her own knight; some of the energy she wields spills out of the spell, lowering the ambient temperature.\n", "\"Temperature sex determination could allow the mother to determine the sex of her offspring by varying the temperature of the nest in which her eggs are incubated. However, there is no evidence thus far that sex ratio is manipulated by parental care.\"\n\nSection::::Adaptive significance.:The effect of climate change.\n", "Like Cyborg Guy, she is able to enter an Equip form, and access Hyper Mode in certain conditions. In both situations, her cooling coat expands and stiffens into lateral \"vanes\" to handle the additional heat exchange required.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Women and men have the same body temperature." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Women's body temperatures are usually higher than men's." ]
2018-04801	How does expelling diplomats hurt Russia?	It doesn't really, it is more a symbolic gesture. Economic sanctions are what really hurt, but kicking a bunch of diplomats (many of whom are actually intelligence agents) out of the country gets the idea across that we aren't happy.	[ "President Donald Trump ordered the expulsion of 60 Russian intelligence and diplomatic staff from the United States following the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal. The closure of the consulate in Seattle, Washington was also ordered, based on the belief of US intelligence officials that the consulate was serving as a key base of operations for the Russian intelligence operations in the US. Twelve out of the sixty Russian spies and/or diplomats that were at the United Nations in New York, and the other forty-eight Russians were at the Russian Embassy in Washington faced expulsion within seven days after the poisoning of former sixty-six year old Russian spy Sergie Skripal and his thirty-three year old daughter Yulia. The other forty Russian spies out of the one hundred that were on American soil, remain free in Washington and other major U.S. cities, where they are under the official imprimatur of their nation's foreign agency.\n", "The UK expelled 23 Russian diplomats on 14 March 2018. Three days later, Russia expelled an equal number of British diplomats and ordered closure of the UK consulate in St Petersberg and closure of the British Council in Russia. Nine countries expelled Russian diplomats on 26 March: along with 6 other EU nations, the US, Canada, Ukraine and Albania. The following day, several nations inside and outside of the EU, and NATO responded similarly. By 30 March, Russia expelled an equal number of diplomats of most nations who had expelled Russian diplomats. By that time, Belgium, Montenegro, Hungary and Georgia had also expelled one or more Russian diplomats. Additionally on 30 March, Russia reduced the size of the total UK mission's personnel in Russia to match that of the Russian mission to the UK.\n", "Jens Stoltenberg, NATO Secretary General, announced on 27 March that NATO would be expelling seven Russian diplomats from the Russian mission to NATO in Brussels. In addition, 3 unfilled positions at the mission have been denied accreditation from NATO. Russia blamed the US for the NATO response.\n\nSection::::Response from other countries and organisations.:Joint responses.\n", "By the end of March 2018 a number of countries and other organisations expelled a total of more than 150 Russian diplomats in a show of solidarity with the UK. According to the BBC it was \"the largest collective expulsion of Russian intelligence officers in history\".\n", "On March 15, 2018, Trump imposed financial sanctions under the Act on the 13 Russian government hackers and front organizations that had been indicted by Mueller's investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.\n\nIn March 2018, 29 Western countries and NATO expelled in total at least 149 Russian diplomats, including 60 by the United States, in response to the poisoning of Skripal and his daughter on March 4 in the United Kingdom, which has been blamed on Russia. Other measures were also taken.\n", "On 26 March 2018, following the United States National Security Council′s recommendation, to demonstrate the U.S.'s support for the UK's position on the Salisbury poisoning incident, president Donald Trump ordered the expulsion of sixty Russian diplomats and closure of Russian consulate in Seattle. Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov responded to the simultaneous expulsion of the total of 140 Russian diplomats by 25 countries by accusing the U.S. government of \"blackmailing\" other nations.\n", "Bulgaria, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and the European Union itself have not expelled any Russian diplomats but have recalled their ambassadors from Russia for consultations. Furthermore, Iceland decided to diplomatically boycott the 2018 FIFA World Cup held in Russia.\n\nNotes\n\nBULLET::::- 4 diplomats expelled. 3 pending applications declined.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 expelled and 3 pending applications declined. Maximum delegation reduced by 10 (from 30 to 20).\n\nBULLET::::- 48 Russian diplomats expelled from Washington D.C. and 12 expelled from New York.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "On July 27, as the sanctions bill was being passed by the Senate, Putin pledged a response to ″this kind of insolence towards our country″. Shortly thereafter, Russia's foreign ministry Sergey Lavrov demanded that the U.S. reduce its diplomatic and technical personnel in the Moscow embassy and its consulates in St Petersburg, Ekaterinburg and Vladivostok to 455 persons—the same as the number of Russian diplomats posted in the U.S, and suspended the use of a retreat compound and a storage facility in Moscow. Putin said that he had made this decision personally, and confirmed that 755 employees of the U.S. diplomatic mission must leave Russia.\n", "On December 29, 2016, the U.S. government announced a series of punitive measures against Russia. The Obama administration imposed sanctions on four top officials of the GRU and declared \"persona non grata\" 35 Russian diplomats suspected of spying; they were ordered to leave the country within 72 hours. On December 30, two waterfront compounds used as retreats by families of Russian embassy personnel were shut down on orders of the U.S. government, citing spying activities: one in Upper Brookville, New York, on Long Island, and the other in Centreville, Maryland, on the Eastern Shore. Further sanctions against Russia were undertaken, both overt and covert. A White House statement said that cyberwarfare by Russia was geared to undermine U.S. trust in democracy and impact the election. President Obama said his decision was taken after previous warnings to Russia. In mid-July 2017, the Russian foreign ministry said the U.S. was refusing to issue visas to Russian diplomats to allow Moscow to replace the expelled personnel and get its embassy back up to full strength.\n", "In mid-July 2017, the Russian foreign ministry noted that the staff of the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, following expulsion of diplomats by the Obama administration in December 2016, far exceeded the number of Russian embassy employees in Washington and indicated that the Russian government was considering retaliatory expulsion of more than thirty-five U.S. diplomats, thus evening out the number of the countries' diplomats posted. On July 28, Russia announced punitive measures that were cast as Russia's response to the additional, codified, sanctions against Moscow passed by Congress days prior, but also referenced the specific measures imposed against the Russian diplomatic mission in the U.S. by the Obama administration. Russia demanded that the U.S. reduce its diplomatic and technical personnel in the Moscow embassy and its consulates in St Petersburg, Ekaterinburg and Vladivostok to four hundred fifty-five persons — the same as the number of Russian diplomats posted in the U.S. — by September 1; Russia’s government would also suspend the use of a retreat compound and a storage facility in Moscow used by the U.S. by August 1. Two days later, Vladimir Putin said that the decision on the curtailment of the U.S. diplomatic mission personnel had been taken by him personally and that 755 staff must terminate their work in Russia. After the sanction bill was on August 2 signed by Donald Trump, Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev wrote that the law had ended hope for improving U.S.–Russia relations and meant \"an all-out trade war with Russia.\" The law was also criticised by Donald Trump, whose signing statement indicated that he might choose not to enforce certain provisions of the legislation that he deemed unconstitutional.\n", "However, the diplomatic crisis did not end there. Expulsions of diplomats and suspected spies escalated to the point that by the end of October 1986, 100 Soviets, including a further 80 suspected Soviet intelligence agents, were expelled by the U.S. The Soviets expelled ten U.S. diplomats and withdrew all 260 of the Russian support staff working for the U.S. embassy in Moscow.\n", "Following the United States National Security Council′s recommendation, President Trump, on 26 March, ordered the expulsion of sixty Russian diplomats (referred to by the White House as \"Russian intelligence officers\") and the closure of the Russian consulate in Seattle. The action was cast as being \"in response to Russia's use of a military-grade chemical weapon on the soil of the United Kingdom, the latest in its ongoing pattern of destabilising activities around the world.\"\n", "On 24 November 2015, Stoltenberg said \"We stand in solidarity with Turkey and support the territorial integrity of our Nato ally\" after Turkey shot down a Russian military jet for allegedly violating Turkish airspace for 17 seconds, near the Syrian border.\n\nIn response to the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, Stolenberg announced on 27 March that NATO would be expelling seven Russian diplomats from the Russian mission to NATO in Brussels. In addition, 3 unfilled positions at the mission were denied accreditation from NATO. Russia blamed the US for the NATO response.\n\nSection::::NATO–Russia Council.\n", "While there was speculation that the arrests of the alleged spies, which occurred barely 72 hours after President Medvedev's White House visit, might cast a shadow over President Barack Obama's effort to improve relations between the US and Russia, on June 30, 2010, the US administration said that it would not expel Russian diplomats and it expressed no indignation that Russia had apparently been caught spying on it.\n", "Later on 12 March, the British government accused Russia of attempted murder and announced a series of punitive measures against Russia, including the expulsion of diplomats (14 March). The UK's official assessment of the incident was supported by 28 other countries which responded similarly. Altogether, an unprecedented 153 Russian diplomats were expelled. Russia denied the accusations and responded similarly to the expulsions and \"accused Britain of the poisoning.\"\n", "Following the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in 2018, the UK responded with bilateral and multilateral diplomatic efforts that led to nations around the world expelling one hundred and fifty Russian diplomats, described by CNN as a \"remarkable diplomatic coup for Britain\". British prime minister Theresa May stated in parliament that the coordinated global response was the \"largest collective expulsion of Russian intelligence officers in history.\" Subsequently, Russia attempted to attribute some of the influence to the United States, this was seen to be a propaganda exercise designed to damage the UK's international prestige and found to be untrue following statements by the various states as well as the entirety of the European Union.\n", "Prime Minister May unveiled a series of measures on 14 March 2018 in retaliation for the poisoning attack, after the Russian government refused to meet the UK's request for an account of the incident. One of the chief measures was the expulsion of 23 Russian diplomats which she presented as \"actions to dismantle the Russian espionage network in the UK\", as these diplomats had been identified by the UK as \"undeclared intelligence agents\". The BBC reported other responses, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Increasing checks on private flights, customs and freight\n", "Albania, Australia, Canada, Georgia, Macedonia, Moldova, Norway and Ukraine expelled a total of 27 Russian diplomats who were believed to have been intelligence officers. The New Zealand Government also issued a statement supporting the actions, noting that it would have expelled any Russian intelligence agents who had been detected in the country.\n\nSection::::Response from other countries and organisations.:NATO.\n", "2018 in Russia\n\nEvents in the year 2018 in Russia.\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nBULLET::::- President: Vladimir Putin\n\nBULLET::::- Prime Minister: Dmitry Medvedev\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nSection::::Events.:February.\n\nBULLET::::- 11 February – Saratov Airlines Flight 703 crashed shortly after take-off, killing all 71 people on board.\n\nSection::::Events.:March.\n\nBULLET::::- 15-17 March – Sergey Lavrov has announced that Russia will expel diplomats from the United Kingdom because of the expulsion of 23 Russian envoys due to the poisoning of Sergei Skripal and Yulia Skripal. The Russian foreign ministry is to expel 23 British diplomats amid tensions over the nerve agent attack in the United Kingdom.\n", "In 2016, Zersetzung-like harassment was reported by the American press as carried out by Russia's secret services against U.S. diplomats posted in Moscow as well as in unspecified \"several other European capitals\"; the U.S. government's efforts to raise the issue with the Kremlin were said to have brought no positive reaction. The Russian Embassy's reply was cited by \"The Washington Post\" as implicitly admitting and defending the harassment as a response to what Russia called U.S. provocations and mistreatment of Russian diplomats in the United States. The Russian Foreign Ministry's spokesperson in turn accused the U.S.' FBI and CIA of provocations and \"psychological pressure\" vis-a-vis the Russian diplomats.\n", "After the bill passed the Senate, on 28 July 2017, Russia's foreign ministry announced measures that were cast as a response to the bill passed by Congress, but also referenced the specific measures imposed against the Russian diplomatic mission in the U.S. by the Barack Obama administration at the end of 2016. Russia demanded that the U.S. reduce its diplomatic and technical personnel in the Moscow embassy and its consulates in Saint Petersburg, Yekaterinburg and Vladivostok to 455 persons — the same as the number of Russian diplomats posted in the U.S. — by September 1; Russia's government would also suspend the use of a retreat compound and a storage facility in Moscow used by the US by August 1. Shortly after, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that the decision had been taken by him personally and that 755 employees of the U.S. diplomatic mission must ″terminate their activity in the Russian Federation″.\n", "On 13 March, Home Secretary Amber Rudd ordered an inquiry by the police and security services into alleged Russian state involvement in 14 previous suspicious deaths of Russian exiles and businessmen in the UK. May unveiled a series of measures on 14 March 2018 in retaliation for the poisoning attack, after the Russian government refused to meet the UK's request for an account of the incident. One of the chief measures was the expulsion of 23 Russian diplomats which she presented as \"actions to dismantle the Russian espionage network in the UK\", as the diplomats had been identified as \"undeclared intelligence agents\".\n", "On 1 February 2011, for the first time since 1983, the Irish government made a decision to expel a Russian diplomat based in Dublin after an investigation by the Garda SDU (following a tip off from the FBI) found that the identities of six Irish citizens had been stolen and used as cover for Russian spies found to have been working in the United States in June 2010.\n", "Michael Isikoff of Yahoo! News reported in June 2017 that during the early weeks of the Trump administration, State Department employees were told to develop proposals to lift the sanctions which had been imposed on Russia after its military incursions into Ukraine and its interference in the November election. No action or return would be expected from Russia in return for removing the sanctions. The proposals were dropped after resistance from State Department employees and a realization that such an action would look bad politically in light of the investigations into a Russia connection to the Trump campaign. A former State Department who retired in February said, \"What was troubling about these stories is that suddenly I was hearing that we were preparing to rescind sanctions in exchange for, well, nothing.\"\n", "In March 2018, as a result of the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in Salisbury, relations between the countries deteriorated still further, both countries expelling 23 diplomats each and taking other punitive measures against one another. Within days of the incident, the UK government's assessment that it was ″highly likely″ that the Russian state was responsible for the incident received the backing of the EU, the US, and Britain′s other allies. In what the Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson called the \"extraordinary international response\" on the part of the UK's allies, on 26 and 27 March 2018 there followed a concerted action by the U.S., most of the EU member states, Albania, Australia, Canada, Macedonia, Moldova, and Norway, as well as NATO to expel a total of over 140 Russian accredited diplomats (including those expelled by the UK).\n" ]	[ "Expelling diplomats hurts Russia.", "Expelling democrats causes harm to Russia. " ]	[ "It doesn't hurt Russia, it is a symbolic gesture.", "Expelling democrats doesn't really hurt Russia." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Expelling diplomats hurts Russia.", "Expelling democrats causes harm to Russia. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It doesn't hurt Russia, it is a symbolic gesture.", "Expelling democrats doesn't really hurt Russia." ]
2018-13728	If carbon dioxide is toxic, how come breathing in and out of a bag doesn't kill us?	Excessive carbon dioxide will slowly kill you. However what you breathe out is not pure carbon dioxide. You also breathe out plenty of oxygen. This is why you can give someone mouth-to-mouth without killing them.	[ "A hypoxic, carbon dioxide free metabolically inert gas is provided for inhalation by confining the gas supply and the head in an impermeable bag which prevents contamination with oxygen from the surrounding air, minimising the amount of gas required. (The same effect could be reached by flooding any enclosed space with the gas, but much more gas would be needed, and this would be hazardous to a third party entering the space, an effect which is well known as a cause of industrial fatalities.)\n", "Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries. Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless, and tasteless, but highly toxic. It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which usurps the space in hemoglobin that normally carries oxygen, but is ineffective for delivering oxygen to bodily tissues. Concentrations as low as 667 ppm may cause up to 50% of the body's hemoglobin to convert to carboxyhemoglobin. A level of 50% carboxyhemoglobin may result in seizure, coma, and fatality. In the United States, the OSHA limits long-term workplace exposure levels above 50 ppm.\n", "The urge to breathe in normal humans is mainly controlled by blood carbon dioxide concentration and the acidity that it causes. A rise in carbon dioxide concentration caused by the inability to inhale fresh gas will cause a strong reflex to breathe, accompanied by increasing distress as the level rises, culminating in panic and desperate struggle for air. However, if the supplied breathing gas is free of carbon dioxide, the blood carbon dioxide levels will remain low while breathing occurs, and there will be no distress or urge to increase breathing rate, as the sensitivity in normal people to blood oxygen level as a breathing stimulus is very low. \n", "Section::::Biological role.:Toxicity.:Ventilation.\n", "Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.\n", "Carbon monoxide has a higher diffusion coefficient compared to oxygen, and the only enzyme in the human body that produces carbon monoxide is heme oxygenase, which is located in all cells and breaks down heme. Under normal conditions, carbon monoxide levels in the plasma are approximately 0 mmHg because it has a higher diffusion coefficient and the body easily gets rid of any CO made. When CO is not ventilated it binds to hemoglobin, which is the principal oxygen-carrying compound in blood; this produces a compound known as carboxyhemoglobin. The traditional belief is that carbon monoxide toxicity arises from the formation of carboxyhemoglobin, which decreases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and inhibits the transport, delivery, and utilization of oxygen by the body. The affinity between hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is approximately 230 times stronger than the affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen so hemoglobin binds to carbon monoxide in preference to oxygen.\n", "The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO) in healthy alveoli is known. It is equal to its concentration in arterial blood since CO rapidly equilibrates across the alveolar–capillary membrane. The quantity of CO exhaled from the healthy alveoli will be diluted by the air in the conducting airways and by air from alveoli that are poorly perfused. This dilution factor can be calculated once the CO in the exhaled breath is determined (either by electronically monitoring the exhaled breath or by collecting the exhaled breath in a gas impermeant bag (a Douglas bag) and then measuring the mixed gas in the collection bag). Algebraically, this dilution factor will give us the physiological dead space as calculated by the Bohr equation:\n", "BULLET::::- [[Carbon monoxide]] (CO) - A product of incomplete combustion, inhaled carbon monoxide reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen; overexposure ([[carbon monoxide poisoning]]) may be fatal. (Carbon monoxide persistently binds to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying chemical in red blood cells, where oxygen (O) would temporarily bind; the bonding of CO excludes O and also reduces the ability of the hemoglobin to release already-bound oxygen, on both counts rendering the red blood cells ineffective. Recovery is by the slow release of bound CO and the body's production of new hemoglobin—a healing process—so full recovery from moderate to severe [but nonfatal] CO poisoning takes hours or days. Removing a person from a CO-poisoned atmosphere to fresh air stops the injury but does not yield prompt recovery, unlike the case where a person is removing from an asphyxiating atmosphere [i.e. one deficient in oxygen]. Toxic effects delayed by days are also common.)\n", "This may be compared with some applications of open-circuit breathing apparatus:\n\nBULLET::::- The oxygen enrichment systems primarily used by medical patients, high altitude mountaineers and commercial aircraft emergency systems, in which the user breathes ambient air which is enriched by the addition of pure oxygen,\n\nBULLET::::- Open circuit breathing apparatus used by firefighters, underwater divers and some mountaineers, which supplies fresh gas for each breath, which is then discharged into the environment.\n\nBULLET::::- Gas masks and respirators which filter contaminants from ambient air which is then breathed.\n", "The effect of contamination of the inert gas by air or other source of oxygen is to reduce the effects of oxygen loss and the person exposed may feel weak, tired and confused, but without a strong urge to breathe or the associated respiratory distress. The efficiency of the system for euthanasia requires minimising contamination by oxygen and carbon dioxide. Small amounts of oxygen will not affect the end result, but may extend the time taken.\n\nSection::::Short term physiological effects and hazards of the gases used.\n", "Propane has low toxicity since it is not readily absorbed and is not biologically active. It is heavier than air and may accumulate in low places, particularly if they are poorly ventilated. Butane is similar to propane, and heavier, and has narcotic effects in large doses. Natural gas is lighter than air and disperses quickly in a well ventilated area.\n\nSection::::Medical and scientific research.\n\nSuicides using bags or masks and gases are well documented in the literature.\n", "The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial pressure of 40 mm Hg. With intentional hyperventilation, the content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mm Hg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Arterial blood gas\n\nBULLET::::- Bosch reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Bottled gas\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon dioxide sensor\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon sequestration\n", "BULLET::::- Carbon Monoxide: Carbon monoxide forms when carbon in fuel does not burn completely (incomplete combustion). The main source of carbon monoxide in air is vehicle emissions. As much as 95 percent of the carbon monoxide in typical U.S. cities comes from mobile sources, according to EPA studies. Carbon monoxide is harmful because it reduces oxygen delivery to the body's organs and tissues. It is most harmful to those who suffer from heart and respiratory disease.\n", "BULLET::::- 30 mg/m3 (26 ppm) for 1 h\n\nBULLET::::- 10 mg/m3 (9 ppm) for 8 h\n\nBULLET::::- 7 mg/m3 (6 ppm) for 24 h (for indoor air quality, so as not to exceed 2% COHb for chronic exposure)\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Respiratory blockers. These are toxicants that affect respiration by interfering with the electron transport chain in the mitochondria. Examples of respiratory blockers are rotenone and cyanide.\n\nSection::::Determination.\n", "BULLET::::- A similar process is thought to potentially happen to any particulate material, which contains \"organic\" (carbon-containing) matter, especially in cylinders which are used for hyperoxic gas mixtures. If the compressor air filter(s) fail, ordinary dust will be introduced to the cylinder, which contains organic matter (since it usually contains humus). A more severe danger is that air particulates on boats and industrial areas, where cylinders are filled, often contain carbon-particulate combustion products (these are what makes a dirt rag black), and these represent a more severe CO danger when introduced into a cylinder.\n", "Carbon monoxide is a relatively nonreactive gas with limited solubility. High CO levels build up in the pulmonary region over several hours, and equilibrate with inhaled CO concentrations. Exposure to carbon monoxide is dangerous because of its toxic, odorless nature. Since the gas takes time to build up in the pulmonary region, an inhaled concentration of 600 ppm would cause a headache and reduce mental capacity within an hour, without any other symptoms. Eventually, the substance would induce a coma. Equilibrium of CO in the blood is reached between 6–8 hours of exposure to constant concentration in the air.\n", "Inhalation of oxygen deficient or oxygen free gas not only fails to replenish oxygen used in normal metabolism, but causes the blood passing through the capillaries of the gas exchange regions of the lungs to lose residual oxygen in relation to the concentration difference between the oxygen in the alveolar air and in the blood in the alveolar capillaries. This causes a far quicker drop in blood oxygen level than holding the breath. The deoxygenated blood then passes through the systemic circulation to the vital organs, including the brain, and rapidly lowers oxygen concentrations below the level required to sustain consciousness, and when it is insufficient to keep the heart functioning, cardiac arrest will occur. For the majority of people, an alveolar oxygen tension of less than or 4% by volume at atmospheric pressure is not sufficient to support consciousness.\n", "Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries. Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless, but highly toxic. It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which blocks the transport of oxygen. At concentrations above 1000ppm it is considered immediately dangerous and is the most immediate health hazard from running engines in a poorly ventilated space. In 2011, 52% of carbon monoxide emissions were created by mobile vehicles in the U.S.\n\nSection::::Main motor vehicle emissions.:Hazardous air pollutants (toxics).\n", "BULLET::::- Toxic: it is a chemical that has a median lethal concentration (LC) in air of more than 200 parts per million (ppm) but not more than 2,000 parts per million by volume of gas or vapor, or more than 2 milligrams per liter but not more than 20 milligrams per liter of mist, fume or dust, when administered by continuous inhalation for 1 hour (or less if death occurs within 1 hour) to albino rats weighing between 200 and 300 grams each.\n", "Some animal species are better equipped than humans to detect hypoxia, and these species are more uncomfortable in low-oxygen environments that result from inert gas exposure; however, the experience is still less aversive than CO exposure.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "BULLET::::- The encasement system does not negatively affect fire ratings and adds a minimal amount of additional fire rating (about 5–10 minutes). The membrane is non-toxic and will not release any harmful compounds during a fire. This is evidenced by the results of the UPITT testing conducted on this product which showed no acute lethality of thermal decomposition of the product. Furthermore, the flame and smoke spread are such that there is no propagation of fire events.\n", "Carbon monoxide is generally avoided as far as is reasonably practicable by positioning of the air intake in uncontaminated air, filtration of particulates from the intake air, use of suitable compressor design and appropriate lubricants, and ensuring that running temperatures are not excessive. Where the residual risk is excessive, a hopcalite catalyst can be used in the high pressure filter to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide, which is far less toxic.\n\nSection::::For diving and other hyperbaric use.:Unwelcome components of breathing gases for diving.:Hydrocarbons.\n", "BULLET::::- G = CO generation rate\n\nBULLET::::- C = acceptable indoor CO concentration\n\nBULLET::::- C = ambient CO concentration\n", "BULLET::::- Carbon monoxide (CO) – CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let into our atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals. In 2013, more than half of the carbon monoxide emitted into our atmosphere was from vehicle traffic and burning one gallon of gas will often emit over 20 pounds of carbon monoxide into the air.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01856	Why is most software no longer sold as a one-time purchase but instead with monthly (or so) payments?	Ask yourself which is likely to make a company more money, someone paying $100 for software they can use forever, or someone paying $8/month for as long as they use the software?	[ "This is in contrast to many one-time transactions, when customers are forced to make significant commitments through high software prices. Some feel that historically, the \"one-time-purchase\" model does not give sellers incentive to maintain relationships with their customers (after all, why should they care once they've received their money?). Some who favor a subscription model for software do so because it may change this situation.\n", "The rise of the Internet and software licensing schemes has dramatically changed the retail software market e.g. by Digital Distribution. Users are capable of finding shareware, freeware and free software products or use Web services as easily as retail. Producers of proprietary software have shifted to providing much of their software and services via the Internet, including Google, Microsoft, Yahoo!, and Apple Inc.. Software is also becoming available as part of an integrated device, as well.\n\nIn 2011 Apple declared the discontinuation of many of its boxed retail software products.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Proprietary software\n", "As the companies providing the services are guaranteed of regular (usually monthly) recurring revenue from subscriptions, they are able to finance ongoing development with reduced risk (historically most software companies derived the majority of their revenue from users upgrading, and had to invest upfront in developing sufficient new features and benefits to encourage users to upgrade), and delivering more frequent updates often using forms of agile software development internally. The change to the subscription model also reduces software piracy.\n", "The relatively low cost for user provisioning (i.e., setting up a new customer) in a multitenant environment enables some SaaS vendors to offer applications using the freemium model. In this model, a free service is made available with limited functionality or scope, and fees are charged for enhanced functionality or larger scope. Some other SaaS applications are completely free to users, with revenue being derived from alternative sources such as advertising.\n", "Retail software\n\nRetail software is computer software typically installed on PC type computers or more recently (past 2005) delivered via the Internet (also known as cloud-based). Traditionally this software was delivered via physical data storage media sold to end consumer but very few companies still provide their software using physical media. The software is typically sold under restricted licenses (e.g. EULAs) or in the case of cloud-based software sold as Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) model.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "An independent report by Vanson Bourne found that software vendors are losing revenue due to rigid licensing and delivery options. Since the demands of enterprise and end users are constantly evolving, software companies and device vendors must be able to adapt their pricing and packaging strategies on the fly. Separating an application’s features and selling them individually at a premium is a highly effective way to reach new market segments. Customers have come to expect the freedom to consume a software offering on their own terms, which is why software companies and device vendors are increasingly turning to flexible licensing solutions.\n", "Many traditional device vendors still see themselves as hardware providers, first and foremost, even though the most valuable component of their offering is the embedded software driving it. However, since the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), that paradigm is shifting toward a more software-centric focus, as device vendors large and small make the inevitable business transformation into software companies. The need to license software, manage entitlements, and protect trade secrets cuts across all industries; from medtech to industrial automation and telecommunications. Whatever industry a software company or device vendor happens to be in, or the delivery model it chooses, it requires a comprehensive software monetization program to future-proof its business and gain a competitive advantage.\n", "The bundling of these unwanted applications is often performed in exchange for financial compensation, paid to the OEM by the application's publisher. At the 2007 Consumer Electronics Show, Dell defended this practice, stating that it keeps costs down, and implying that systems might cost significantly more to the end user if these programs were not pre-installed. Some system vendors and retailers will offer, for an additional charge, to remove unwanted pre-installed software from a newly purchased computer; retailers, in particular, will tout this service as a \"performance improvement.\" In 2008, Sony Corporation announced a plan to charge end users US$50 for the service; Sony subsequently decided to drop the charge for this service and offer it for free after many users expressed outrage. Microsoft Store similarly offers a range of \"Signature Edition\" computers sold in a similar state, as well as extended warranty and support packages through Microsoft.\n", "The key implication of this new model is a fundamental shift in the engagement model between the software vendor and its customers. If in the traditional \"enterprise software\" model, a customer buys the license to the software and pays the vendor then, regardless of its actual usage, in a SaaS model, the customer pays a (much smaller) rent for the software every month. The software vendor must therefore ensure the customer is using the solution and seeing value from it if they wanted to ensure the customer continues to pay their rent. This fundamental shift in the software industry's operating model revealed a need for a function at the company to own and ensure that success of its customers.\n", "Section::::Adoption drivers.\n\nSeveral important changes to the software market and technology landscape have facilitated acceptance and growth of SaaS solutions:\n\nBULLET::::- The growing use of web-based user interfaces by applications, along with the proliferation of associated practices (e.g., web design), continuously decreased the need for traditional client-server applications. Consequently, traditional software vendor's investment in software based on fat clients has become a disadvantage (mandating ongoing support), opening the door for new software vendors offering a user experience perceived as more \"modern\".\n", "The cloud (or SaaS) model has no physical need for indirect distribution because it is not distributed physically and is deployed almost instantaneously, thereby negating the need for traditional partners and middlemen. However, as the market has grown, SaaS and managed service players have been forced to try to redefine their role.\n\nSection::::Pricing.\n", "Some software companies such as Adobe and Autodesk have moved from a perpetual licensing model to a subscription model, known as \"software as a service.\" This move has significant implications for sales and customer support organizations. Over time, the need to close large deals decreases resulting in lower sales costs. However the size of the customer support organization increases so that the paying customers stay happy.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Customers.\n", "Section::::Adoption challenges.:Healthcare applications.\n\nAccording to a survey by HIMSS Analytics, 83% of US IT healthcare organizations are now using cloud services with 9.3% planning to, whereas 67% of IT healthcare organizations are currently running SaaS-based applications.\n\nSection::::Data escrow.\n", "However, with the development of mass market software for the new age of microcomputers in the 1980s came new forms of software distribution first cartridges, then cassette tapes, then floppy disks, then (in the 1990s and later) optical media, the internet and flash drives. This meant that software deployment could be left to the customer. However, it was also increasingly recognised over time that configurability of the software by the customer was important, and that this should ideally have a user-friendly interface (rather than, for example, requiring the customer to edit registry entries on Windows).\n", "This business model, also called \"research and development model\", \"IP-rent model\" or \"proprietary software business model\", was described by Craig Mundie of Microsoft in 2001 as follows: \"\"[C]ompanies and investors need to focus on business models that can be sustainable over the long term in the real world economy…. We emphatically remain committed to a model that protects the intellectual property rights in software and ensures the continued vitality of an independent software sector that generates revenue and will sustain ongoing research and development. This research and development model … based on the importance of intellectual property rights [was the] foundation in law that made it possible for companies to raise capital, take risks, focus on the long term, and create sustainable business models…. [A]n economic model that protects intellectual property and a business model that recoups research and development costs have shown repeatedly that they can create impressive economic benefits and distribute them very broadly.\"\"\n", "In the software market, the trend of software is the price is high and coverage is low. In order to improve the trend, there is some problems of software market. Zhang (2014) mention that“ (1) What possibly discourages product differentiation in such a competitive market? (2) Why is versioning absent here? (3) How does the presence of free alternatives in this market impact its structure?”(p. 589). In order to improve these problems, Zhang mention that quality competition and market segmentation apply to the software market. In Zhang's research, the software company lack of developed the method of quality competition, market segmentation, and versioning. In terms of market segmentation, software company think segmentation consumer market is not useful. Therefore, even though versioning is the least costless way of spread product information, the company still ignore it (Zhang, 2014).\n", "With retail software, point releases are often, but not necessarily, free updates for users of the latest full version, as opposed to major releases that frequently come at some cost even for previous users. The delivery model of the software also affects who may be able to use it. If an organization follows a software as a service model or the software is hosted in the cloud, then a point release may be immediately available to users, with no effort required on the users' part to obtain it. If the software must be downloaded, the user may be required to install the point release on his or her own.\n", "While premises-based software was still more widely used than SaaS solutions for SCMS in 2014, Gartner projects that about \"two-thirds\" of the growth in SCMS adoption between 2015 and 2018 will be based on the SaaS subscription model: driven by a growing realization of the benefits of cloud-based services, the SaaS-based SCMS market grew by about 24 percent in 2014 and is projected to continue to grow at a 19 percent compound annual growth rate (CAGR), reaching $4.4 billion in annual sales by 2018.\n", "Providers often bill for dedicated servers on a fixed monthly price to include specific software packages. Over the years, software vendors realized the significant market opportunity to bundle their software with dedicated servers. They have since started introducing pricing models that allow dedicated hosting providers the ability to purchase and resell software based on reduced monthly fees.\n", "BULLET::::- Organizations that adopt SaaS may find they are forced into adopting new versions, which might result in unforeseen training costs, an increase in probability that a user might make an error, or instability from bugs in the newer software.\n\nBULLET::::- Should the vendor of the software go out of business or suddenly EOL the software, the user may lose access to their software unexpectedly, which could destabilize their organization's current and future projects, as well as leave the user with older data they can no longer access or modify.\n", "BULLET::::- Some business applications require access to or integration with customer's current data. When such data are large in volume or sensitive (e.g. end users' personal information), integrating them with remotely hosted software can be costly or risky, or can conflict with data governance regulations.\n", "Subscription models often require or allow the business to gather substantial amounts of information from the customer (such as magazine mailing lists) and this raises issues of privacy.\n\nA subscription model may be beneficial for the software buyer if it forces the supplier to improve its product. Accordingly, a psychological phenomenon may occur when a customer renews a subscription, that may not occur during a one-time transaction: if the buyer is not satisfied with the service, he/she can simply leave the subscription to expire and find another seller.\n", "According to professors Victoria Husted Medvec (from Northwestern University) and Adam Galinsky (from Columbia University), three equivalent offers can be a good strategy; “they describe a software company that began initiating in financial negotiations by presenting three equivalent software packages to its clients at once: for example, a $1 million package with payment in 30 days, the same software for $1.5 million with payment in 120 days, or an enhanced package for $1.35 million with a 30-day payment.” This strategy received a positive response from the customers, and profits rose.\n", "Unlike traditional software, which is conventionally sold as a perpetual license with an up-front cost (and an optional ongoing support fee), SaaS providers generally price applications using a subscription fee, most commonly a monthly fee or an annual fee. Consequently, the initial setup cost for SaaS is typically lower than the equivalent enterprise software. SaaS vendors typically price their applications based on some usage parameters, such as the number of users using the application. However, because in a SaaS environment customers' data reside with the SaaS vendor, opportunities also exist to charge per transaction, event, or other unit of value, such as the number of processors required.\n", "BULLET::::- Exogenous growth – Software vendors have transformed the process of discovering incompliance into a business model. The technology shift to virtualized/cloud environments has provided the right platform. Nowadays, most vendors have increased the complexity licensing requirements, taking into account more attributes for more licensing metrics. They have accelerated the pace of change and created more pitfalls, thus increasing the level of software licensing expertise required in order to remain compliant.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cost management\n\nBULLET::::- IT chargeback and showback\n\nBULLET::::- IT Service Management\n\nBULLET::::- ITIL v3\n\nBULLET::::- Service level management\n\nBULLET::::- Software as a service\n\nSection::::References.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11113	What happens to your brain when you are listening to something with headphones while performing another task?	Think of your brain having "slots" of working memory. Most people have about four. When you are listening to something, more slots are taken the more you concentrate on it. So doing math and listening to a podcast? Probably not the best idea. But doing dishes while listening to that same podcast. Definitely doable.	[ "If another person's ears were substituted, the individual would not immediately be able to localize sound, as the patterns of enhancement and cancellation would be different from those patterns the person's auditory system is used to. However, after some weeks, the auditory system would adapt to the new head-related transfer function. The inter-subject variability in the spectra of HRTFs has been studied through cluster analyses.\n", "In one incident during the last few days of mixing, Anderson left the studio one morning with Offord carrying the tapes. Offord placed them on-top of his car in order to find his car keys, and proceeded to drive away, forgetting about the tapes. They stopped the car to find the tapes had slid off and fallen on the road, causing Anderson to rush back and stop an oncoming bus to save them.\n\nSection::::Production.:Songs.\n", "The use of auditory stimuli has been examined in the treatment of dysexecutive syndrome. The presentation of auditory stimuli causes an interruption in current activity, which appears to aid in preventing \"goal neglect\" by increasing the patients' ability to monitor time and focus on goals. Given such stimuli, subjects no longer performed below their age group average IQ.\n", "One major focal point relating to attention within the field of cognitive psychology is the concept of divided attention. A number of early studies dealt with the ability of a person wearing headphones to discern meaningful conversation when presented with different messages into each ear; this is known as the dichotic listening task. Key findings involved an increased understanding of the mind's ability to both focus on one message, while still being somewhat aware of information being taken in from the ear not being consciously attended to. E.g., participants (wearing earphones) may be told that they will be hearing separate messages in each ear and that they are expected to attend only to information related to basketball. When the experiment starts, the message about basketball will be presented to the left ear and non-relevant information will be presented to the right ear. At some point the message related to basketball will switch to the right ear and the non-relevant information to the left ear. When this happens, the listener is usually able to repeat the entire message at the end, having attended to the left or right ear only when it was appropriate. The ability to attend to one conversation in the face of many is known as the cocktail party effect.\n", "Section::::Technical derivation.:Localization of sound in virtual auditory space.\n\nA basic assumption in the creation of a virtual auditory space is that if the acoustical waveforms present at a listener's eardrums are the same under headphones as in free field, then the listener's experience should also be the same.\n\nTypically, sounds generated from headphones appear to originate from within the head. In the virtual auditory space, the headphones should be able to \"externalize\" the sound. Using the HRTF, sounds can be spatially positioned using the technique described below.\n", "When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nAs with any type of hearing-related disorder, the related physiology is within the ear and central auditory system. With regards to listening fatigue, the relevant mechanical and biochemical mechanisms primarily deal with inner ear and cochlea.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Associated anatomy.\n", "Moreno and Mayer (2000) found evidence for auditory split attention when they tested learners with both ambient environmental sounds and music as they learned from instructional materials. Animation is processed in a visual channel but must be converted to the auditory channel. The extraneous cognitive load imposed by music or environmental sounds were not conducive to learning.\n\nThese researchers studied learners that learned within an environment that had additional (extraneous) environmental sounds or music and found that learners performed significantly poorer on retention and transfer tests (Moreno, 2001).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cognitive load\n\nBULLET::::- Multimedia learning\n\nBULLET::::- Worked-example effect\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nAVE is believed to achieve its effects through several mechanisms simultaneously. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- altered EEG activity\n\nBULLET::::- dissociation/hypnotic induction\n\nBULLET::::- limbic stabilization\n\nBULLET::::- improved neurotransmitter production\n\nBULLET::::- altered cerebral blood flow\n", "Section::::Neural basis.:Executive Control.\n", "In January 2018, Myers announced that the band had finished the recording the album and that Bass was working on finalizing the production and mixing of the album. \n\nSection::::Themes and composition.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nAVE effects on the EEG are found primarily over the sensory-motor strip, frontally, and in the parietal lobe (somatosensory) regions and slightly less within the prefrontal cortex.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Medical imaging.\n\nOne of the practical applications being researched in this area is medical imaging of the brain with magnetoencephalography (MEG). This kind of imaging involves careful measurements of magnetic fields outside the head which yield an accurate 3D-picture of the interior of the head. However, external sources of electromagnetic fields, such as a wristwatch on the subject's arm, will significantly degrade the accuracy of the measurement. Applying source separation techniques on the measured signals can help remove undesired artifacts from the signal.\n\nSection::::Applications.:EEG.\n", "Huguet et al. (1999) examined the effects of social presence in the Stroop test. The researchers had participants complete this task alone or with a coactor. This coactor worked on the task more slowly, worked at the same speed, or worked faster than the participant. The researchers found that Stroop interference decreased for participants who worked with a similarly paced or more quickly paced coactor. The results indicate that participants engaged in social comparison with the coactor, and that this comparison created distraction.\n", "Section::::Cognitive neuroscience.\n\nSection::::Cognitive neuroscience.:Perceptual priming.\n\nPriming while improving performance decreases neural processing in the cerebral cortex of sensory stimuli with stimulus repetition. This has been found in single-cell recordings and in electroencephalography (EEG) upon gamma waves, with PET and functional MRI. This reduction is due to representational sharpening in the early sensory areas which reduces the number of neurons representing the stimulus. This leads to a more selective activation of neurons representing objects in higher cognitive areas.\n\nSection::::Cognitive neuroscience.:Conceptual priming.\n", "Retroactive Interference has also been investigated using pitch perception as the learning medium. The researcher found that the presentation of subsequent stimuli in succession causes a decrease in recalled accuracy. Massaro found that the presentation of successive auditory tones, confused perceptual short term memory, causing Retroactive Interference as the new tone inhibits the retrieval of previously heard tones.\n\nSection::::Retroactive interference.:Research.:Motor movement.\n", "Ambient noise is another variable that is conducive to distraction, yet it has been proven that a moderate level of noise actually heighten creativity. Professor Ravi Mehta conducted a study to research the degree of distraction induced by various noise levels and their effect on creativity. The series of experiments show that a moderate level of ambient noise (70 dB) produces just enough distraction to induce processing disfluency, which leads to abstract cognition. These higher construal levels caused by moderate levels of noise consequently enhance creativity.\n\nSection::::Affecting factors.:Walking.\n", "Another quasi-experiment at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, in which 593 students participated, investigated how the use of points and audio in Kahoot! affects concentration, engagement, enjoyment, learning, motivation and classroom dynamics. The results reveal that there are some significant differences whether audio and points are used in the areas of concentration, engagement, enjoyment and motivation. The worst result was for the case where both audio and points were turned off. The most surprising finding was how the classroom dynamics was positively affected by the use of audio.\n", "\"A former adviser to Hillary Clinton hired a Mariachi band to play outside of the White House in an effort to disrupt President Trump's sleep on Wednesday night.\"\n\nSection::::Instances of use.:[[Iraq]].\n\nAccording to [[Amnesty International]]:\n", "McIntosh's research suggests that human cognition involves interactions between the brain regions responsible for processes sensory information, such as vision, audition, and other mediating areas like the prefrontal cortex. McIntosh explains that modularity is mainly observed in sensory and motor systems, however, beyond these very receptors, modularity becomes \"fuzzier\" and you see the cross connections between systems increase. He also illustrates that there is an overlapping of functional characteristics between the sensory and motor systems, where these regions are close to one another. These different neural interactions influence each other, where activity changes in one area influence other connected areas. With this, McIntosh suggest that if you only focus on activity in one area, you may miss the changes in other integrative areas. Neural interactions can be measured using analysis of covariance in neuroimaging. McIntosh used this analysis to convey a clear example of the interaction theory of distributive processing. In this study, subjects learned that an auditory stimulus signalled a visual event. McIntosh found activation (an increase blood flow), in an area of the occipital cortex, a region of the brain involved in visual processing, when the auditory stimulus was presented alone. Correlations between the occipital cortex and different areas of the brain such as the prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex and superior temporal cortex showed a pattern of co-variation and functional connectivity.\n", "Multiple studies have confirmed that distraction actually increases creative cognition. One such study done by Jonathan Schooler found that non-demanding distractions improve performance on a classic creativity task called the UUT (Unusual Uses Task) in which the subject must come up with as many possible uses for a common object. The results confirmed that decision-related neural processes occur during moments of unconscious thought while a person engages in a non-demanding task. The research showed that while distracted a subject isn’t maintaining one thought for a particularly long time, which in turn allows different ideas to float in and out of one’s consciousness—this sort of associative process leads to creative incubation.\n", "Another thing they do is to play music in their mind's ear along with the rhythms of walking or other daily life rhythms. Other techniques include hearing music in ones mind's ear first before playing it. Musicians can deal with timing and tempo glitches by learning to hear a perfect performance in their mind's ear first.\n", "Distraction has a significant impact on LRD accuracy, and the type of distraction can alter the magnitude of these effects. For example, cognitive distraction, which occurs when an individual is not directly focused on the task at hand, has a more profound effect on LRD performance than auditory distraction, such as the presence of continuous ambient noise. Additionally, in the field of health care, it has been noted that mental rotation is often involved in making left-right distinctions, such as when a medical practitioner is facing their patient and must adjust for the opposite left-right relations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Brain Disco is a collaboration between neurowear and Qosmo that measures audience \"attention.\" The DJ must hold the audience's \"attention\" or get ejected. The first Brain Disco experiment was held in July 2012 at Gallery KATA Ebisu.\n\nSection::::Shippo.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of masking.\n\nThere are many different mechanisms of masking, one being suppression. This is when there is a reduction of a response to a signal due to the presence of another. This happens because the original neural activity caused by the first signal is reduced by the neural activity of the other sound.\n", "Several researchers at the UCLA tested the hypothesis that distraction can change the way a task is learned. In their experiment, they played a series of high and low tones while asking subjects to do a simple probabilistic classification task. In the single task (ST) case, subjects only learned to predict the weather. In the dual task (DT) case, subjects were also asked to count the number of high pitched tones. The ability to use the learned knowledge was found to be about the same in either case. However, subjects were significantly better at identifying cue-associations (a test of declarative knowledge) when trained under ST rather than DT conditions. Furthermore, fMRI showed activity in the hippocampus was associated with performance under ST, but not DT conditions, whereas activity in the putamen showed the opposite correlation. The authors concluded that while distraction may not decrease the level of learning, it can result in a reduced ability to flexibly use that knowledge\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03017	Why do plastic bottle labels say, “do not refill?”	Good responses here, but I feel the need to step in and say that plastic degrading or breaking off into your drink is rare to impossible. The plastic of ordinary beverage containers still takes near eternity to degrade or release anything harmful. Reports have exaggerated this concept when the actual effects occur over a matter of decades. Keep reusing that bottle as long as you keep it clean. Infinitely better even than recycling.	[ "Refillable bottles are used extensively in many European countries; for example in Denmark, 98% of bottles are refillable, and 98% of those are returned by consumers. These systems are typically supported by deposit laws and other regulations.\n", "Energy drinks\n\nConsideration for the Environment\n\nBULLET::::- Approximately 10% of all virgin (rejected) bottles before being filled are sterilized and re-injected into the line.\n\nBULLET::::- Re-use of the liners that come with the pallets of empty cans, for lining the sugar pallets, and the stacked finished product.\n\nBULLET::::- Collection of wasted water in special pipe lines to re-use for cooling equipment on the plant.\n\nBULLET::::- Since 2004 SMJ has been making PET bottles lighter in weight by using less material in its composition to create less post consumer waste.\n", "Throughout its history, the fiasco was found on the tables of peasants and Popes alike. A decree from 1574 fixed the capacity of the \"mezzo quarto\" bottle, and established a public office that would certify the capacity of fiaschi by a lead seal applied to the straw covering. However, producers soon started re-using the baskets from discarded certified fiaschi to dress new sub-standard bottles. To avoid this common fraud, another decree from 1618 specified that the seal was to be applied to the glass bottle itself. In 1621, yet another decree mandated sealing the bottle's mouth with molten lead. For this reason, the straw cover had to be reduced, leaving the bottle bare from the \"shoulder\" up—an arrangement that persists to this day.\n", "Unfiltered LBVs are mostly bottled with conventional driven corks and need to be decanted. After decanting they should be consumed within a few days. Recent bottlings are identified by the label \"unfiltered\", or \"bottle matured\", or both. Since the 2002 regulations, bottles that carry the words \"bottle matured\" must have enjoyed at least three years of bottle maturation before release. Before 2002 this style was often marketed as '\"traditional\", a description that is no longer permitted. Unfiltered LBV will usually be improved by extra years in the bottle. It can age as long as Vintage Ports and are very difficult to identify as LBVs when inserted into blind tastings of Vintage Ports.\n", "Making refillable glass bottles strong enough to withstand several journeys between the consumer and the bottling plant requires making them thicker and so heavier, which increases the resources required to transport them. Since transport has a large environmental impact, careful evaluation is required of the number of return journeys bottles make. If a refillable bottle is thrown away after being refilled only several times, the resources wasted may be greater than if the bottle had been designed for a single journey..\n\nMany choices involve trade-offs of environmental impact, and often there is insufficient information to make informed decisions.\n\nSection::::Retail.\n", "Section::::Advertising.:Availability.\n\nYop comes within and between countries in different bottle sizes. In some countries the bottle size is indicated in litres in others in grams. Smaller bottles are in some countries called: \"Yop baby\" (100 g France), \"Yop mini\" (180 g Belgium and France) and \"YOP & GO\" (300 g Belgium, 330 g France, 30 cl Switzerland)\n\n˄1: Mini Yop\n\n˄2: P'tit Yop\n\n˄3: YOP & GO\n\nSection::::Product information.\n\nSection::::Product information.:Storage.\n\nKeep refrigerated between 2C and 5C. It is best to consume shortly after opening. Mini Yop, P'tit Yop\n", "Irn-Bru was also sold in reusable 750 ml glass bottles which, like other Barr's drinks, were able to be returned to the manufacturer in exchange for a 30 pence (previously 20p) deposit paid on purchase. This scheme was widely available in shops across Scotland and led to the colloquial term for an empty: a \"glass cheque\". As a result of a 40% drop in returned bottles since the 90s Barr deemed the washing and re-filling process uneconomical, and on 1 January 2016 ceased the scheme.\n", "In the European Union, cosmetics products with a shelf-life of at least 30 months are not required to carry a \"best used before end of ...\" date. Instead, there has to be \"an indication of the period of time after opening for which the product can be used without any harm to the consumer\". The EU Cosmetics Directive defines in Annex VIIIa the language-neutral open-jar symbol, which manufacturers should use to indicate this period.\n", "The customer's choice of unit primarily depends on either actual or perceived sensitivity of their product to contamination, and the overall ability to clean their specific product type from the bottle. Those with a lower contamination risk are prime candidates for the washed units. With the exception of products produced in \"clean rooms\" (GMP - good manufacturing practices), the decision of a washed over a new is usually a matter of availability or appearance.\n", "The U.S. patent for the \"Refillable toner cartridge\" was issued to Fred Keen on March 28, 1989. \n\nSection::::Refilling methods.\n\nThere are several different methods for refilling cartridges:\n", "The most common refill kits come with either: bottles of black ink for black refill kits; or one bottle each of cyan, magenta and yellow for color refill kits; or one bottle each of photo cyan, photo magenta and photo black for photo-color refill kits; or combination of all colors for combo refill kits.\n\nSection::::Refilling process.\n\nThe refill process typically involves the following steps:\n", "Nipples (teats) are typically subdivided by flow rate, with the slowest flow rate recommended for premature infants and infants with feeding difficulties. However, flow rates are not standardised and vary considerably between brands. The use of bottles is discouraged beyond two years of age by most health organisations as prolonged use can cause tooth decay. The NHS recommends a sippy cup or beaker be introduced by 6 months and the use of bottles discontinued by 1 year. The AAP recommends that the cup be introduced by one year of age and that the use of the bottle by discontinued by 18 months.\n", "Bottles are often recycled according to the SPI recycling code for the material.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Beer bottle\n\nBULLET::::- Bottle sling\n\nBULLET::::- Bottle wall\n\nBULLET::::- Bottling company\n\nBULLET::::- Bottling (concert abuse)\n\nBULLET::::- Butylka - The largest building in the world in the shape of a bottle\n\nBULLET::::- Carinate\n\nBULLET::::- Glass production\n\nBULLET::::- Helmholtz resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Klein bottle\n\nBULLET::::- List of bottle types, brands and companies\n\nBULLET::::- List of bottling companies\n\nBULLET::::- Reuse of bottles\n\nBULLET::::- Speyer wine bottle\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Soroka, W, \"Fundamentals of Packaging Technology\", IoPP, 2002,\n", "Several companies produce reagent bottles, including Wheaton, Kimble, Corning, Schott AG and trademark glass names include Pyrex, Kimax, Duran, Boro and Bomex.\n\nCommon bottle sizes include 100 ml, 250 ml, 500 ml, 1000 ml (1 liter) and 2000 ml (2 liter). Older bottles, especially for medical use and for expensive chemicals, can be found of capacities well under 100 ml. \n", "By the summer of 2009, Snap Capps were becoming so popular that Telebrands, arguably the largest \"as seen on TV\" company in America took notice. By this time, over 5 million units had already been sold in less than two years out. Over a series of meetings and negotiations, including a meeting at 3:30 in the morning in southern Oregon with Mr. Allen and Telebrands' VP of new products, Raj Shahani, an agreement was made for Telebrands to take over marketing of the product and they renamed it \"Bottle Tops\" thereafter.\n", "Some third party manufacturers have been offering refillable cartridges with an auto reset chip to simplify the refilling process. These refillable cartridges are less harmful to the environment and often easy to further refill.\n", "There have been some market-led initiatives to encourage packaging reuse by companies introducing refill packs of certain commodities (mainly soap powders and cleaning fluids), the contents being transferred before use into a reusable package kept by the customer, with the savings in packaging being passed onto the customer by lower shelf prices. The refill pack itself is not reused, but being a minimal package for carrying the product home, it requires less material than one with the durability and features (reclosable top, convenient shape, etc.) required for easy use of the product, while avoiding the transport cost and emissions of returning the reusable package to the factory.\n", "This difference of opinion is raised when Handy Smurf, a Southern Smurf who is the local inventor, asks a Northern Smurf to return his \"\"smurf opener\"\", but he fails to do so on the grounds that it should be called a \"\"bottle smurfer\"\". Instead of agreeing to disagree, they have an increasingly heated argument about which is the correct term to use.\n", "Reusable bottles can hold bacteria. Drinking from a reusable bottle can transfer bacteria from a person's mouth to the beverage it contains, which can contaminate both bottle and water. Contamination can cause bacterial or fungal growth in the liquid while it's stored. It is recommend that users clean reusable drinking bottles thoroughly before each used. Users should take care to wash the bottle cap as well after each use for proper sanitation.\n", "When New York City banned sugary drinks over 16 ounces in 2012, critics faulted free refills as one of the ban's biggest weaknesses.\n\nIn June 2012 Cambridge, Massachusetts, mayor Henrietta Davis unsuccessfully proposed banning soft drink refills.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.:France.\n", "BULLET::::- Sale restriction of reusable beverage containers containing Bisphenol A in Multnomah County: in October 2011, Multnomah County's Board of Health adopted a policy brought forward by Cogen that restricted the sale of all reusable beverage containers that contain Bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical used in certain hard plastic containers like baby bottles, sippy cups and water bottles within Multnomah County.\n", "Sealed bottles\n\nSealed bottles have an applied glass seal on the shoulder or side of the bottle. The seal is a molten blob of glass that has been stamped with an embossed symbol, name or initials, and often it included a date. Collectors of bottles sometimes refer to them as Applied seals, Blob seals or Prunt seals.\n", "Section::::Closure lining materials.:Polyseal cone liners.\n\nMolded in Low-Density Polyethylene, Polyseal cone liners form to the inside of the bottleneck providing a leakproof seal which guards against back-off and product evaporation. Excellent for use with acid products and essential oils, these closures are recommended for use on glass bottles only.\n\nSection::::Closure lining materials.:Linerless designs – land seal (crab’s claw).\n", "Section::::Bottles intended for reuse by households.\n\nReusable drinking bottles for water, coffee, salad dressing, soup, baby formula, and other beverages have gained in popularity by consumers in recent years, due to the costs and environmental problems associated with single use plastic bottles. Common materials used to make reusable drinking bottles include glass, aluminum, stainless steel, and plastic. Reusable bottles include both single and double wall insulated bottles. Some baby bottles have an inner bag or bladder that can be replaced after each use.\n\nSection::::Health and safety concerns associated with reusable bottles.\n\nSection::::Health and safety concerns associated with reusable bottles.:Bacterial concerns.\n", "The biggest perceived downside to refilling is the mess associated with it. Many consumers shy away from refilling either based on past experiences or stories they have heard. Many of the unsuccessful refill kits of the past were so-called \"universal\" kits, meaning they were designed for use with multiple cartridges. Because all manufacturers use different types of ink, and because different cartridge designs require different refilling processes, these universal kits had a high failure rate. Today these kits are harder to find, as refill kits made for specific cartridges have become more the norm, but perception that all refill kits are messy still remains.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04595	Why is bass stronger when you put the subwoofer in the corner of a room.	Many of the lower frequencies that make up the spectrum we identify as bass collect in corners. These frequencies resonate in 360 degrees from the source. They go everywhere! Higher frequencies in upper mids and treble diffuse rather quickly as they are much more focused. You could view upper frequencies like increasingly sharp waves of light, whereas bass frequencies you could view more like a thick slime or ooze. You can see how the concentration of lower frequencies that do not diffuse quickly could build up in a shape like a corner, where the bass will be bouncing around and off eachother and up and down the wall at twice the rate since there are at least 2 surfaces to a corner.	[ "A DBA just requires two opposing walls, so it is possible to have one array on the floor and the other on the ceiling, or one on the left wall and the other on the right. However, low frequencies become localizable at a specific frequency, so in most cases it's probably a good idea to use the walls with the lower distance of separation.\n\nThe effectiveness of DBA largely depends on the room's physical characteristics.\n\nBULLET::::- The room should be rectangular\n\nBULLET::::- Walls should be rigid\n\nBULLET::::- Measuring equipment helps to dial in the necessary delay\n", "By contrast, in modern high fidelity amplification, the trend is to separate the bass signal and amplify it with a dedicated amplifier. Often, amplifiers for bass are integrated with the speaker cabinet, a configuration known as the powered subwoofer. In a topology that includes a dedicated amplifier for bass, the damping factor of the main amplifier is not relevant, and that of the bass amplifier is also irrelevant if that amplifier is integrated with the speaker and cabinet as a unit, since all those components are designed together and optimized for the reproduction of bass.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Sound reinforcement.:Directional bass.\n", "Modes between side walls, floor and ceiling are suppressed by arranging the subwoofer in a specific grid:\n\nformula_1\n\nformula_2\n\nformula_3: Wall width\n\nformula_4: Wall height\n\nformula_5: Horizontal distance from wall (formula_6 for n=0 in picture)\n\nformula_7: Vertical distance from wall (formula_8 for n=0 in picture)\n\nformula_9: Number of subwoofers horizontally\n\nformula_10: Number of subwoofers vertically\n\nCounter formula_11\n", "To give a hint how all this works, consider three examples of the distinct senses that exist for the (written) word \"\"bass\"\":\n\nBULLET::::1. a type of fish\n\nBULLET::::2. tones of low frequency\n\nBULLET::::3. a type of instrument\n\nand the sentences:\n\nBULLET::::1. \"I went fishing for some sea bass.\"\n\nBULLET::::2. \"The bass line of the song is too weak.\"\n", "Therefore, a decrease in box volume (i.e. , a smaller speaker cabinet ) and the same F will decrease the efficiency of the subwoofer. Similarly the F of a speaker is proportional to Fs:\n", "Section::::Device Operation.:Inherent Functionality.:Mass.\n\nThe accumulation of mass on the surface of an acoustic wave sensor will affect the surface acoustic wave as it travels across the delay line. The velocity \"v\" of a wave traveling through a solid is proportional to the square root of product of the Young’s modulus \"E\" and the density formula_2 of the material.\n", "With this specific grid layout reflections from the walls act as mirror sources. Interference of the subwoofers and mirror sources create a plane wave up to a certain frequency. The more sources the higher the frequency. This cutoff frequency formula_12 can be calculated for each dimension as follows:\n\nformula_13\n\nformula_14: Speed of sound\n\nformula_15: Distance between subwoofers\n\nExample: A 4 × 4 array on a wall measuring 4 × 3 m would work up to 86Hz horizontally and up to 114Hz vertically.\n\nSection::::Design.:Active Absorption.\n", "BULLET::::- The Carl Martin Bass Chorus is designed to avoid the \"mid-range heavy\" sound that the manufacturer claims is produced by some bass chorus pedals. The Carl Martin Bass Chorus can apply the effect even \"down as [deep as a] low B.\"\n\nSection::::Upright Bass.\n", "In sound system culture, there are both \"low and high bass bins\" in \"towering piles\" that are \"delivered in large trucks\" and set up by a crew of \"box boys\", and then positioned and adjusted by the sound engineer in a process known as \"stringing up\", all to create the \"sound of reggae music you can literally feel as it comes off these big speakers\". Sound system crews hold 'sound clash' competitions, where each sound system is set up and then the two crews try to outdo each other, both in terms of loudness and the \"bass it produced\".\n", "Often, the acoustic summing of a room and system are much inferior to the ideal, so the specific relative level will change from −3 dB to 0 dB as the mono signal is panned from center to hard left or right, and this sounds natural. The idea is that when one directs signals left and right with the pan pot, the perceived loudness will stay the same, regardless of latitude.\n", "If the response is somewhat uniform across all listening positions using these methods, equalization can be used to shape the bass response to the desired target and further smooth out any remaining ripple.\n", "BULLET::::- V stands for volume of displacement (in m)\n\nBULLET::::- x to the amount of linear excursion the speaker is mechanically capable of (in m)\n\nBULLET::::- S to the cone area of the sub woofer (in m).\n\nThese are some of the Thiele/Small parameters which can either be measured or found with the driver specifications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cinema sound.\n", "BULLET::::- Simple setup.\n\nSection::::Cons.\n\nBULLET::::- Rooms properties and furniture can interfere with the propagation of the plane wave.\n\nBULLET::::- Frequency range of the plane wave depends on the number of drivers which can be quite high in large rooms.\n\nBULLET::::- As the back wall array is only used to cancel the energy of the frontal array the overall efficiency isn't good.\n\nBULLET::::- SPL throughout the room is virtually constant which might affect tonal balance with satellite speakers that fall off with listening distance.\n\nSection::::Notes.\n", "Similarly the response of a \"low shelf\" (or \"low shelving or \"bass control\") can be represented as\n\nIn this case the inclusion of the leading factor simply indicates that the response at frequencies much higher than \"f\" or \"f\" is unity and that only bass frequencies are affected.\n", "On the other hand, the dominant pole compensation in transistor amplifiers is precisely controlled: exactly as much of it can be applied as needed to strike a good compromise for the given application.\n\nThe effect of dominant pole compensation is that gain is reduced at higher frequencies. There is increasingly less NFB at high frequencies due to the reduced loop gain.\n", "Section::::Amplitude difference.\n", "The use of a subwoofer augments the bass capability of the main speakers, and allows them to be smaller without sacrificing low frequency capability. A subwoofer does not necessarily provide superior bass performance in comparison to large conventional loudspeakers on ordinary music recordings due to the typical lack of very low frequency content on such sources. However, there are recordings with substantial low frequency content that most conventional loudspeakers are ill-equipped to handle without the help of a subwoofer, especially at high playback levels, such as music for pipe organs with 32' (9.75 meter) bass pipes (16 Hz), very large bass drums on symphony orchestra recordings and electronic music with extremely low synth bass parts, such as bass tests or bass songs.\n", "The energy density of sound waves decreases as they spread out, so that increasing the distance between the receiver and source results in a progressively lesser intensity of sound at the receiver. In a normal three-dimensional setting, with a point source and point receptor, the intensity of sound waves will be attenuated according to the inverse square of the distance from the source.\n\nSection::::Damping.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nAcoustic absorption is critical in areas such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Soundproofing\n\nBULLET::::- Sound recording and reproduction\n\nBULLET::::- Loudspeaker design\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic transmission lines\n\nBULLET::::- Room acoustics\n\nBULLET::::- Architectural acoustics\n\nBULLET::::- Sonar\n\nBULLET::::- Noise Barrier Walls\n\nSection::::Applications.:Anechoic chamber.\n", "The string can be plucked (or picked) at any point between the bridge and the point where the fretting hand is holding down the string on the fingerboard; different timbres (tones) are produced depending on where along the string it is plucked. When plucked closer to the bridge, the string's harmonics are more pronounced, giving a brighter tone. Closer to the middle of the string, these harmonics are less pronounced, giving a more mellow, darker tone.\n", "Wallach et al. did not systematically vary the intensities of the two sounds, although they cited research by Langmuir et al. which suggested that if the second-arriving sound is at least 15 dB louder than the first, the precedence effect breaks down.\n\nThe \"Haas effect\" derives from a 1951 paper by Helmut Haas.\n", "The bass management in surround sound replay systems is that bass content in the incoming signal, irrespective of channel, should be directed only to loudspeakers capable of handling it. The bass management system may direct bass to one or more subwoofers (if present) from any channel, not simply the content of the LFE channel. As such, it is incorrect to call the LFE the subwoofer channel.\n\nSection::::Bass Shaker.\n", "The design is often described as non-resonant, and some designs are sufficiently stuffed with absorbent material that there is indeed not much output from the line's port. But it is the inherent resonance (typically at 1/4 wavelength) that can enhance the bass response in this type of enclosure, albeit with less absorbent stuffing. Among the first examples of this enclosure design approach were the projects published in \"Wireless World\" by Bailey in the early 1970s, and the commercial designs of the now defunct IMF Electronics which received critical acclaim at about the same time.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Sound reinforcement.:Use in a full-range system.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04586	What is the function of a fever when we are sick, and how do anti-fever medications reduce it?	Fever is stimulated by a part of your brain (your hypothalamus) that is in direct contact with the bloodstream, unlike most of the brain. Certain molecules floating in the blood will trigger the fever response. These can be external things--proteins on the surface of bacteria, for example--or special signaling molecules produced by our own immune system. Once this part of the brain is triggered by these "pyrogens" (literally "heat-makers" in greek), it produces a bunch of other signaling molecules called prostaglandins that carry the signal to another close part of the brain, which actually recalibrates the body's main temperature sensors to a higher level. The increased body temperature does a few things: * It moves the body temperature outside the optimal reproductive range for many bacteria * It makes many naturally-produced antibiotic substances more chemically effective * It may make cells of your immune system more active NSAIDs, including aspirin and ibuprofen (Advil/Motrin), stop the body from producing prostaglandins, blocking the fever signal. Prostaglandins are also involved in inflammation and pain, which is why those drugs work for that. Acetaminophen/paracetamol (Tylenol) also reduces fever, but we don't actually know how, weirdly enough. It might work similarly to NSAIDs, but ¯\_(ツ)_/¯	[ "There is some debate over the appropriate use of such medications, as fever is part of the body's immune response to infection. A study published by the Royal Society claims fever suppression causes at least 1% or more influenza cases of death in the United States, which results in at least 700 extra deaths per year.\n\nSection::::Non-pharmacological treatment.\n", "To counter this, Francesco Torti, who first systematically studied the effect of cinchona in the treatment of malaria, wrote a book which he titled \"Therapeutice Specialis ad Febres Periodicas Perniciosas\".\n\nSection::::Tree of fevers.\n", "Fever during treatment can be due to a number of causes. It can occur as a natural effect of tuberculosis (in which case it should resolve within three weeks of starting treatment). Fever can be a result of drug resistance (but in that case the organism must be resistant to two or more of the drugs). Fever may be due to a superadded infection or additional diagnosis (patients with TB are not exempt from getting influenza and other illnesses during the course of treatment). In a few patients, the fever is due to drug allergy. The clinician must also consider the possibility that the diagnosis of TB is wrong. If the patient has been on treatment for more than two weeks and if the fever had initially settled and then come back, it is reasonable to stop all TB medication for 72 hours. If the fever persists despite stopping all TB medication, then the fever is not due to the drugs. If the fever disappears off treatment, then the drugs need to be tested individually to determine the cause. The same scheme as is used for test dosing for drug-induced hepatitis (described below) may be used. The drug most frequently implicated as causing a drug fever is RMP: details are given in the entry on rifampicin.\n", "Exclusion from work and social activities should be considered for symptomatic, and asymptomatic people who are food handlers, healthcare/daycare staff who are involved in patient care and/or child care, children attending unsanitary daycare centers, and older children who are unable to implement good standards of personal hygiene. The exclusion applies until two consecutive stool specimens are taken from the infected patient and are reported negative.\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n\nControl requires treatment of antibiotics and vaccines prescribed by a doctor. Major control treatments for paratyphoid fever include ciprofloxacin for 10 days, ceftriaxone/cefotaxime for 14 days, or aziththromycin.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required. Treatment of associated pain and inflammation, however, may be useful and help a person rest. Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may help with this as well as lower temperature. Measures such as putting a cool damp cloth on the forehead and having a slightly warm bath are not useful and may simply make a person more uncomfortable. Children younger than three months require medical attention, as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms. Hyperthermia does require treatment.\n", "Bathing or sponging with lukewarm or cool water can effectively reduce body temperature in those with heat illness, but not usually in those with fever. The use of alcohol baths is not an appropriate cooling method, because there have been reported adverse events associated with systemic absorption of alcohol.\n\nSection::::Medications.\n\nMany medications have antipyretic effects and thus are useful for fever but not in treating illness, including:\n\nBULLET::::- NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, and nimesulide\n\nBULLET::::- Aspirin, and related salicylates such as choline salicylate, magnesium salicylate, and sodium salicylate\n\nBULLET::::- Paracetamol (USAN and JAN: acetaminophen)\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nPFAPA syndrome typically resolves spontaneously. Treatment options are used to lessen the severity of episodes. Treatment is either medical or surgical.\n\nOne treatment often used is a dose of a corticosteroid at the beginning of each fever episode. A single dose usually ends the fever within several hours. However, in some children, they can cause the fever episodes to occur more frequently. Interleukin-1 inhibition appears to be effective in treating this condition.\n", "Antipyretic\n\nAntipyretics are substances that reduce fever. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override a prostaglandin-induced increase in temperature. The body then works to lower the temperature, which results in a reduction in fever.\n\nMost antipyretic medications have other purposes. The most common antipyretics in the United States are ibuprofen and aspirin, which are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) used primarily as analgesics (pain relievers), but which also have antipyretic properties; and acetaminophen (paracetamol), an analgesic with weak anti-inflammatory properties.\n", "The primary treatment strategy is to eliminate or discontinue the offensive agent. Supportive therapy, such as ice packs, may be provided to get the body temperature within physiologic range. In severe cases, when the fever is high enough (generally at or above ~104° F or 40° C), aggressive cooling such as an ice bath and pharmacologic therapy such as benzodiazepines may be deemed appropriate.\n", "Despite all this, diagnosis may only be suggested by the therapy chosen. When a patient recovers after discontinuing medication it likely was drug fever, when antibiotics or antimycotics work it probably was infection. Empirical therapeutic trials should be used in those patients in which other techniques have failed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n\nIn 1961 Petersdorf and Beeson suggested the following criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F) on several occasions\n\nBULLET::::- Persisting without diagnosis for at least 3 weeks\n\nBULLET::::- At least 1 week's investigation in hospital\n\nA new definition which includes the outpatient setting (which reflects current medical practice) is broader, stipulating:\n", "BULLET::::- Enhanced leukocyte phagocytosis\n\nBULLET::::- Endotoxin effects decreased\n\nBULLET::::- Increased proliferation of T cells\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nFever should not necessarily be treated. Most people recover without specific medical attention. Although it is unpleasant, fever rarely rises to a dangerous level even if untreated. Damage to the brain generally does not occur until temperatures reach 42 °C (107.6 °F), and it is rare for an untreated fever to exceed 40.6 °C (105 °F). Treating fever in people with sepsis does not affect outcomes.\n\nSection::::Management.:Conservative measures.\n", "Treating fever in sepsis, including people in septic shock, has not been associated with any improvement in mortality over a period of 28 days. Treatment of fever still occurs for other reasons.\n\nA 2012 Cochrane review concluded that N-acetylcysteine does not reduce mortality in those with SIRS or sepsis and may even be harmful.\n", "BULLET::::- Creams and Ointments: Ointment containing antibiotic like mupirocin 2% or a mixture of components like neomycin, nystatin and triamcinolone can be used to control bacterial or mixed bacterial/fungal infections.\n\nBULLET::::- Ichthammol is also used in veterinary medicine for its bacteriostatic properties for the treatment of inflammatory skin disorders of horses. Other products containing silver and tea tree oil or triclosan associated with 2 humectants monopropylene glycol and isopropanol are also available.\n", "BULLET::::- Aged individuals—the burden of tolerating infection will exist for a short time which reduces the actuarial future benefits of clearing an infection compared to the costs of its removal. This change favors reduced or no deployment of fever.\n\nBULLET::::- When internal resources are limited (such as in winter), and the ability to afford high expenditure on increased metabolism is reduced. This increases the risks of activating fever relative to its potential benefit, and animals are less likely to use fever to fight infections.\n\nBULLET::::- Late Pregnancy\n\nSection::::Antioxidants.\n", "Medications that lower fevers are called \"antipyretics\". The antipyretic ibuprofen is effective in reducing fevers in children. It is more effective than acetaminophen (paracetamol) in children. Ibuprofen and acetaminophen may be safely used together in children with fevers. The efficacy of acetaminophen by itself in children with fevers has been questioned. Ibuprofen is also superior to aspirin in children with fevers. Additionally, aspirin is not recommended in children and young adults (those under the age of 16 or 19 depending on the country) due to the risk of Reye's syndrome.\n", "Continuous fever\n\nContinuous fever is a type or pattern of fever in which temperature does not touch the baseline and remains above normal throughout the day. The variation between maximum and minimum temperature in 24 hours is less than 1°C (1.5°F). It usually occurs due to some infectious disease. Diagnosis of continuous fever is usually based on the clinical signs and symptoms but some biological tests, chest X-ray and CT scan are also used. Typhoid fever is an example of continuous fever and it shows a characteristic step-ladder pattern, a step-wise increase in temperature with a high plateau.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Pyrin is a protein normally present in the inflammasome. The mutated pyrin protein is thought to cause inappropriate activation of the inflammasome, leading to release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β. Most other autoinflammatory diseases also cause disease by inappropriate release of IL-1β. Thus, IL-1β has become a common therapeutic target, and medications such as anakinra, rilonacept, and canakinumab have revolutionized the treatment of autoinflammatory diseases.\n", "Tetracycline-class antibiotics are most effective. These can, however, induce a Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction in over half those treated, producing anxiety, diaphoresis, fever, tachycardia and tachypnea with an initial pressor response followed rapidly by hypotension. Recent studies have shown tumor necrosis factor-alpha may be partly responsible for this reaction.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Ciprofloxacin resistance is an increasing problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Many centres are shifting from using ciprofloxacin as the first line for treating suspected typhoid originating in South America, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, or Vietnam. For these people, the recommended first-line treatment is ceftriaxone. Also, azithromycin has been suggested to be better at treating resistant typhoid in populations than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone. Azithromycin significantly reduces relapse rates compared with ceftriaxone.\n", "Remittent fever\n\nRemittent Fever is a type or pattern of fever in which temperature does not touch the baseline and remains above normal throughout the day. Daily variation in temperature is more than 1°C in 24 hours, which is also the main difference as compared to continuous fever. Fever due to most infectious diseases is remittent. Diagnosis is based upon clinical history, blood tests, blood culture and chest X-ray.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nExamples of remittent fever are as following.\n\nBULLET::::- Infective endocarditis\n\nBULLET::::- Typhoid\n\nBULLET::::- Brucellosis\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "If fever-reducing drugs lower the body temperature, even if the temperature does not return entirely to normal, then hyperthermia is excluded.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- Pel–Ebstein fever: A specific kind of fever associated with Hodgkin's lymphoma, being high for one week and low for the next week and so on. However, there is some debate as to whether this pattern truly exists.\n\nA neutropenic fever, also called febrile neutropenia, is a fever in the absence of normal immune system function. Because of the lack of infection-fighting neutrophils, a bacterial infection can spread rapidly; this fever is, therefore, usually considered to require urgent medical attention. This kind of fever is more commonly seen in people receiving immune-suppressing chemotherapy than in apparently healthy people.\n", "The majority of patients will experience a degree of pancytopenia, including anaemia, thrombocytopenia, and leukopenia, due to the myelosuppressive effect of chemotherapy. Anaemia and thrombocytopenia can cause clinical problems, and transfusion of red blood cells and platelets may be necessary supportive therapies. Leukopenia, particularly neutropenia may lead to profound compromise of the immune system until the number of neutrophils recovers. Patients must therefore be vigilant to ensure that they report any fevers to their clinician. Anti-infective drugs are commonly given as a prophylaxis during and in-between cycles, to prevent against community acquired infections. Patients are also at risk of hospital acquired infections, such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus (VRE). It is not uncommon for patients to require hospitalisation to treat infections.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nWith the exception of yellow fever vaccine neither vaccines nor experimental vaccines are readily available. Prophylactic (preventive) ribavirin may be effective for some bunyavirus and arenavirus infections (available only as an investigational new drug (IND)).\n", "A version combined with hepatitis A is also available.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Oral rehydration therapy.\n\nThe rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the 1960s provided a simple way to prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Antibiotics.\n\nWhere resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin. Otherwise, a third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone or cefotaxime is the first choice. Cefixime is a suitable oral alternative.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02039	Can somebody explain the Semi-Conservative Mechanism of DNA Replication?	So dna is a double stranded structure, right? When it replicates, a special enzymes splits the two strands apart, so instead of 1 double stranded helix you just have 2 single lines of dna. Think of it like a zipper. When it's closed you have 1 structure made up of two strands. When you unzip it you have two strands split apart. Next, each line of dna uses special enzymes to make a second, matching strand of dna. So now you have 2 double stranded structures. The method is called semi conservative because both of the new dna helixes still have one straight d from the original dna helix it replicated from	[ "DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands. During replication, these strands are separated. Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the production of its counterpart, a process referred to as semiconservative replication. As a result of semi-conservative replication, the new helix will be composed of an original DNA strand as well as a newly synthesized strand. Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.\n", "By repeating cycles of this process, DNA polymerase δ and Fen1 can coordinate the removal of RNA primers and leave a DNA nick at the lagging strand. It has been proposed that this iterative process is preferable to the cell because it is tightly\n", "In G phase of the cell cycle, many of the DNA replication regulatory processes are initiated. In eukaryotes, the vast majority of DNA synthesis occurs during S phase of the cell cycle, and the entire genome must be unwound and duplicated to form two daughter copies. During G, any damaged DNA or replication errors are corrected. Finally, one copy of the genomes is segregated to each daughter cell at mitosis or M phase. These daughter copies each contain one strand from the parental duplex DNA and one nascent antiparallel strand.\n", "Section::::Regulation.:Bacteria.\n\nMost bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication. In \"E. coli\", the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.\n", "Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.\n", "Initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication is the first stage of DNA synthesis where the DNA double helix is unwound and an initial priming event by DNA polymerase α occurs on the leading strand. The priming event on the lagging strand establishes a replication fork. Priming of the DNA helix consists of synthesis of an RNA primer to allow DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase α. Priming occurs once at the origin on the leading strand and at the start of each Okazaki fragment on the lagging strand.\n", "BULLET::::- RNA primase that adds a complementary RNA primer to each template strand as a starting point for replication\n\nBULLET::::- DNA polymerase III that reads the existing template chain from its 3' end to its 5' end and adds new complementary nucleotides from the 5' end to the 3' end of the daughter chain\n\nBULLET::::- DNA polymerase I that removes the RNA primers and replaces them with DNA\n\nBULLET::::- DNA ligase that joins the two Okazaki fragments with phosphodiester bonds to produce a continuous chain\n\nThis process typically takes place during S phase of the cell cycle.\n", "Section::::Hairpins.\n\nSecondary structures in the DNA can result in folding or knotting of DNA template or primers, leading to decreased product yield or failure of the reaction. Hairpins, which consist of internal folds caused by base-pairing between nucleotides is inverted repeats within single-stranded DNA, are common secondary structures and may result in failed PCRs.\n", "DNA replication is a highly organized process that involves many enzymes and proteins, including several DNA polymerases. The major replicative activity in S phase of cell cycle depends on three DNA polymerases - Polymerase alpha (Polα), Polymerase delta (Polδ), and Polymerase epsilon (Polε). After initiation of DNA synthesis by Polα, Polδ or Polε execute lagging and leading strand synthesis, respectively. These polymerases maintain a very high fidelity, which is ensured by Watson-Crick base pairing and 3'-exonuclease (or the proofreading) activity. Recent studies have contended that Polδ may synthesize the leading strand. How these polymerases function, in relationship with other factors involved in replication, is of great interest as it likely explains the mutational landscape that they produce when defective. Maintenance of replication fidelity is a fine balance between the unique errors by polymerases δ and ε, the equilibrium between proofreading and MMR, and distinction in ribonucleotide processing between the two strands. Extensive studies in yeast models have shown that mutations in the exonuclease domain of Polδ and Polε homologues can cause a mutator phenotype, reviewed in. The single stranded (ss) DNA synthesized during lagging strand synthesis can be targeted by ss-DNA damaging agents as well as is a selective target for APOBEC mutations. DNA-binding proteins that rapidly reassociate post-replication prevent Polδ from repairing errors produced by Polα in the mature lagging strand. Yeast studies have shown that Polδ can proofread Polε errors on the leading strand.\n", "Section::::Elongation.:Replication fork.:Leading strand.\n\nDuring DNA replication, the replisome will unwind the parental duplex DNA into a two single-stranded DNA template replication fork in a 5' to 3' direction. The leading strand is the template strand that is being replicated in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork. This allows the newly synthesized strand complementary to the original strand to be synthesized 5' to 3' in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork.\n", "The circular bacteria chromosome replication is best understood in the well-studied bacteria \"Escherichia coli\" and \"Bacillus subtilis\". Chromosome replication proceeds in three major stages: initiation, elongation and termination. The initiation stage starts with the ordered assembly of \"initiator\" proteins at the origin region of the chromosome, called oriC. These assembly stages are regulated to ensure that chromosome replication occurs only once in each cell cycle. During the elongation phase of replication, the enzymes that were assembled at oriC during initiation proceed along each arm (\"replichore\") of the chromosome, in opposite directions away from the oriC, replicating the DNA to create two identical copies. This process is known as bidirectional replication. The entire assembly of molecules involved in DNA replication on each arm is called a \"replisome.\" At the forefront of the replisome is a DNA helicase that unwinds the two strands of DNA, creating a moving \"replication fork\". The two unwound single strands of DNA serve as templates for DNA polymerase, which moves with the helicase (together with other proteins) to synthesise a complementary copy of each strand. In this way, two identical copies of the original DNA are created. Eventually, the two replication forks moving around the circular chromosome meet in a specific zone of the chromosome, approximately opposite oriC, called the terminus region. The elongation enzymes then disassemble, and the two \"daughter\" chromosomes are resolved before cell division is completed.\n", "Section::::Elongation.:Replication factor C.\n\nPCNA fully encircles the DNA template strand and must be loaded onto DNA at the replication fork. At the leading strand, loading of the PCNA is an infrequent process, because DNA replication on the leading strand is continuous until replication is terminated. However, at the lagging strand, DNA polymerase δ needs to be continually loaded at the start of each Okazaki fragment. This constant initiation of Okazaki fragment synthesis requires repeated PCNA loading for efficient DNA replication.\n", "In fast-growing bacteria, such as \"E. coli\", chromosome replication takes more time than dividing the cell. The bacteria solve this by initiating a new round of replication before the previous one has been terminated. The new round of replication will form the chromosome of the cell that is born two generations after the dividing cell. This mechanism creates overlapping replication cycles.\n\nSection::::Polymerase chain reaction.\n", "Each of these three models makes a different prediction about the distribution of the \"old\" DNA in molecules formed after replication. In the conservative hypothesis, after replication, one molecule is the entirely conserved \"old\" molecule, and the other is all newly synthesized DNA. The semiconservative hypothesis predicts that each molecule after replication will contain one old and one new strand. The dispersive model predicts that each strand of each new molecule will contain a mixture of old and new DNA.\n\nSection::::Experimental procedure and results.\n", "Section::::Circular DNA replication.\n", "In the sense that DNA replication must occur if genetic material is to be provided for the progeny of any cell, whether somatic or reproductive, the copying from DNA to DNA arguably is the fundamental step in the central dogma. A complex group of proteins called the replisome performs the replication of the information from the parent strand to the complementary daughter strand.\n\nThe replisome comprises:\n\nBULLET::::- a helicase that unwinds the superhelix as well as the double-stranded DNA helix to create a replication fork\n\nBULLET::::- SSB protein that binds open the double-stranded DNA to prevent it from reassociating\n", "Section::::Initiation.:Regulation.\n", "By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated. D. A. Jackson et al.(1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells. Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings clustering of replication forks. The clustering do rescue of stalled replication forks and favors normal progress of replication forks. Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of dNTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on. If replication forks stall and the remaining sequences from the stalled forks are not replicated, the daughter strands have nick obtained un-replicated sites. The un-replicated sites on one parent's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands. Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids cannot separate from each other and cannot divide into 2 daughter cells. When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites. As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of dormant replication origins that excess origins don't fire in normal DNA replication.\n", "Section::::Cell cycle regulation.\n\nDNA replication is a tightly orchestrated process that is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. Progress through the cell cycle and in turn DNA replication is tightly regulated by the formation and activation of pre-replicative complexs (pre-RCs) which is achieved through the activation and inactivation of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks, CDKs). Specifically it is the interactions of cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases that are responsible for the transition from G into S-phase.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of duplication.:Replication slippage.\n\nReplication slippage is an error in DNA replication that can produce duplications of short genetic sequences. During replication DNA polymerase begins to copy the DNA. At some point during the replication process, the polymerase dissociates from the DNA and replication stalls. When the polymerase reattaches to the DNA strand, it aligns the replicating strand to an incorrect position and incidentally copies the same section more than once. Replication slippage is also often facilitated by repetitive sequences, but requires only a few bases of similarity.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of duplication.:Retrotransposition.\n", "DNA replication is the action of DNA polymerases synthesizing a DNA strand complementary to the original template strand. To synthesize DNA, the double-stranded DNA is unwound by DNA helicases ahead of polymerases, forming a replication fork containing two single-stranded templates. Replication processes permit the copying of a single DNA double helix into two DNA helices, which are divided into the daughter cells at mitosis. The major enzymatic functions carried out at the replication fork are well conserved from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, but the replication machinery in eukaryotic DNA replication is a much larger complex, coordinating many proteins at the site of replication, forming the replisome.\n", "In almost all naturally competent bacteria components of extracellular filaments called type 4 pili (a type of fimbria) bind extracellular double stranded DNA. The DNA is then translocated across the membrane (or membranes for gram negative bacteria) through multi-component protein complexes driven by the degradation of one strand of the DNA. Single stranded DNA in the cell is bound by a well-conserved protein, DprA, which loads the DNA onto RecA, which mediates homologous recombination through the classic DNA repair pathway.\n\nSection::::Regulation of competence.\n", "Section::::Elongation.:Replication fork.\n\nThe replication fork is the junction between the newly separated template strands, known as the leading and lagging strands, and the double stranded DNA. Since duplex DNA is antiparallel, DNA replication occurs in opposite directions\n", "The replisome is responsible for copying the entirety of genomic DNA in each proliferative cell. This process allows for the high-fidelity passage of hereditary/genetic information from parental cell to daughter cell and is thus essential to all organisms. Much of the cell cycle is built around ensuring that DNA replication occurs without errors.\n", "Eukaryotic replication mechanisms work in relatively similar ways to that of prokaryotes, but is under more finely-tuned regulation. There is a need to ensure that each DNA molecule is replicated only once and that this is occurring in the proper location at the proper time. Operates in response to extracellular signals that coordinate initiation of division, differently from tissue to tissue. External signals trigger replication in S phase via production of cyclins which activate cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) to form complexes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00665	When cooking risotto, the bouillon has to be added in parts, why?	With Risotto you are wanting to add a very specific range of liquid and that can vary based on humidity, temp cooking, type of rice you use, age of the rice, etc. So you add in parts and observe the consistency of the rice as it absorbs so that should you need to add less than normal you can.	[ "Tortello amaro di Castel Goffredo\n\nThe Tortello amaro di Castel Goffredo (\"Castel Goffredo's bitter tortello\") is a type of stuffed pasta like ravioli and recognized traditional food product of the Lombardy region, typical of the Castel Goffredo in the province of Mantua.\n", "Like many Italian dishes, minestrone was probably originally not a dish made for its own sake. In other words, one did not gather the ingredients of minestrone with the intention of making minestrone. The ingredients were pooled from ingredients for other dishes, often side dishes or \"contorni\" plus whatever was left over, rather like the \"pulte\".\n", "Other versions of Bardolino include a \"Superiore\", which has at least 1 extra percent of alcohol and must be aged at least a year before being released, a \"rosé\", known as \"Bardolino Chiaretto\", a lightly sparkling \"frizzante\", and a \"novello\". The Bardolino \"novello\" was first produced in the late 1980s in a style that mimics the French wine Beaujolais nouveau.\n", "Section::::Basic preparation.\n\nThere are many different risotto recipes with different ingredients, but they are all based on rice of an appropriate variety, cooked in a standard procedure. Risotto, unlike other rice dishes, requires constant care and attention. The rice is not to be pre-rinsed, boiled, or drained, as washing would remove much of the starch required for a creamy texture.\n", "Risotto\n\nRisotto (, , from meaning \"rice\") is a northern Italian rice dish cooked with broth until it reaches a creamy consistency. The broth can be derived from meat, fish, or vegetables. Many types of risotto contain butter, onion, white wine, and parmesan cheese. It is one of the most common ways of cooking rice in Italy. Saffron was originally used for flavour and its attractive yellow colour.\n\nRisotto in Italy is normally a first course served before the main course, but \"risotto alla milanese\" is often served with \"ossobuco alla milanese\" as a main course.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In fortified dessert wine Marsala Perricone is the main component in the \"Rubino\" style where it is blended with Nero d'Avola (Calabrese) and/or Nerello Mascalese and a maximum of 30% white grape varieties such as Grillo, Inzolia, and Catarratto.\n", "Notable Calabrian dishes which use peperoncini are the condiment Bomba Calabrese and the spreadable pork sausage 'Nduja. It is also used in dishes of other regional cuisines of Southern and Central Italy, such as the Roman Arrabbiata sauce.\n", "Soup with risotto\n\nSoup with Risotto is a dish in Italian-American cuisine made with risotto, eggs, bread crumbs, and clear or brown soup. It is commonly made when one has risotto leftover after a meal. The risotto is made into little balls the size of small nuts. These are then covered in egg and bread crumbs and fried in butter. After being dried they are added to either clear or brown soup.\n", "Properly cooked risotto is rich and creamy even if no cream is added, due to the starch in the grains. It has some resistance or bite (\"al dente\") and separate grains. The traditional texture is fairly fluid, or \"all'onda\" (\"wavy, or flowing in waves\"). It is served on flat dishes and should easily spread out but not have excess watery liquid around the perimeter. It must be eaten at once, as it continues to cook in its own heat, making the grains absorb all the liquid and become soft and dry.\n\nSection::::Italian regional variations.\n\nMany variations have their own names:\n", "Some winemakers are reviving the traditional Prosecco Col Fondo, refermented in the bottle but not disgorged, as the wines are left on their lees. This yeasty residue leaves fine sediment in the bottom of the bottle (\"fondo\" in Italian) that imparts more complexity, texture and flavour. They can be served either clear or cloudy. These wines are labelled Conegliano Valdobbiadene Superiore DOCG, or Asolo Superiore DOCG. Col Fondo generally has a lower Frizzante-style 2.5 bars of pressure.\n\nSection::::Consumption.\n", "This cake was invented in 1955 by Cyriaque Gavillon from Dalloyau. He wanted to create a new cake shape with visible layers and for which only one bite would give the whole cake's taste. It is his spouse, Andrée Gavillon, that named it \"Opéra\" in tribute to the auditorium of the Palais Garnier. The Opera is a rectangular cake composed of three thin layers of almond sponge cake soaked in coffee syrup alternating between layers of coffee butter cream and chocolate glaze topped with ganache.\n\nSection::::Point of sales.\n", "The origins of \"colatura di alici\" date back to ancient Rome, where a similar sauce known as garum was widely used as a condiment. The recipe for garum was recovered by a group of Medieval monks, who would brine anchovies in wooden barrels every August, allowing the brine to drip away through the cracks of the barrels over the course of the process. Eventually the process spread across the region and was perfected by using wool sheets to filter the brine. One common way this fish sauce has been used is in a dish called \"spaghetti alla colatura di alici\", which includes small amounts of the fish sauce with spaghetti, garlic, and olive oil.\n", "In Tunisia, the \"rigouta\" from the city of Béja is a close relative to the ricotta, except that it is always fresh-soft and is not aged. It is exclusively made from the whey of Sicilo-Sarda sheep's milk. Rigouta is also used as the basis of several preparations and dishes of Tunisian cuisine.\n", "Squillo\n\nSquillo is the resonant, trumpet-like sound in the voices of opera singers. It is also commonly called \"singer's formant\", \"ring\", \"ping\", \"core\", and other terms. \"Squillo\" enables an essentially lyric tone to be heard over thick orchestrations, e.g. in late Verdi, Puccini and Strauss operas. Achieving a proper amount of \"squillo\" in any performing context is imperative: too much and the tone veers towards the shrill; too little and the purpose of the \"squillo\" cannot be achieved.\n", "In the Eloro DOC, Perricone is known as \"Pignatello\" and produced as varietal wine when comprising at least 80% of the wine. It is also used in the DOC red and rosé along with Nero d'Avola and Frappato together making up at least 90% of the blend. Perricone destined for these DOC wines must be harvested to a yield no greater than 12 tonnes/ha with the finished red wines attaining a minimum alcohol level of 12% and the finished rosés having an alcohol level of at least 11.5%.\n", "Outside of Italy, Bombino bianco is often imported to other countries in the European Union where it can be blended in bulk table wines. It likewise imported into Germany where it is used in the production of inexpensive sparkling \"Sekt\" wine, often blended with Morio Muskat.\n\nSection::::Wine regions.:DOC regulations.\n", "Wine writers Joe Bastianich and David Lynch describe Bombino bianco as tending to produce light-bodied wines with soft fruit flavors that can have notes of wild flowers and apples. Italian wine writer Victor Hazan, husband of the Italian cookbook writer Marcella Hazan, notes that blended wines such as \"Trebbiano d'Abruzzo\" that have a high proportion of Bombino bianco in them tend to have milder fruit flavors and soft palate than wines with a higher proportion of Trebbiano Toscano.\n\nIn addition to wine production, Bombino bianco is also used to make raisins and vermouth.\n\nSection::::Synonyms.\n", "Also like some styles of Sherry, Vernaccia di Oristano is intentionally aged in oxidative conditions being stored in barrels that are only partially filled--leaving substantial ullage or head space for oxygen to come into contact with the wine. This can add some complexity to the wine and the presence of nutty, sherry-like aromas and a deep golden color, particularly for the sweeter \"dolce\" styles.\n\nSection::::Synonyms.\n", "Fagonello\n\nA fagonello is a variation on a bassoon created especially for children. Compared to a normal bassoon, it has the following features: \n\nBULLET::::- Reduced mass (only about )\n\nBULLET::::- Slightly reduced range (only going down to C, not B)\n\nBULLET::::- Single piece main body (only the crook and reed need to be installed before use)\n\nBULLET::::- Reduced finger spacing, said to be suitable for 5- to 10-year-olds\n\nUnlike other \"small bassoons\" which transpose by a fourth or fifth such as the tenoroon or mini-bassoon, it plays at normal pitch.\n", "Pistou\n\nPistou (Provençal: \"pisto\" or \"pistou\" , ), or pistou sauce, is a Provençal cold sauce made from cloves of garlic, fresh basil, and olive oil. It is somewhat similar to the Ligurian sauce pesto, although it lacks pine nuts. Some modern versions of the recipe include grated parmesan, pecorino, or similar hard cheeses.\n\nSection::::Etymology and history.\n\nIn the Provençal dialect of Occitan, \"pistou\" means \"pounded\".\n", "Vitello tonnato\n\nVitello tonnato is a Piedmontese (Italian) dish of cold, sliced veal covered with a creamy, mayonnaise-like sauce that has been flavored with tuna. It is served chilled or at room temperature, generally in the summertime, as the main course of an Italian meal or as \"an exceedingly elegant \"antipasto\" for an elaborate dinner.\" It is also very popular in Argentina, where it is known as vitel toné, and considered a traditional Christmas dish.\n", "Section::::International versions.:Italian \"soffritto\".\n\nIn Italian cuisine, chopped onions, carrots and celery are chopped up to form a \"\", and then slowly cooked in olive oil, becomes \"soffritto\". It is used as the base for most pasta sauces, such as arrabbiata sauce, but occasionally it can be used as the base of other dishes, such as sauteed vegetables. For this reason, it is a fundamental component in Italian cuisine. It may also contain garlic, shallot, or leek.\n", "The zuffolo is the smallest form of ducted-flue tabor pipe or flute-a-bec, at 3½\" long, with the windway taking up 1½\". It has only three holes: two in front and a dorsal thumb hole. It has the same mouthpiece as a recorder. The bore end hole of the picco pipe has a small flare, and the lowest notes were played with a finger blocking this end. The range is from b to c3, using the slight frequency shift between registers to sound a full chromatic scale, like the tabor pipe .\n\nSection::::Relatives.\n", "Pecorino Romano is most often used on pasta dishes, like the better-known Parmigiano Reggiano. Its distinctive aromatic, pleasantly sharp, very salty flavour means that in Italian cuisine, it is preferred for some pasta dishes with highly flavoured sauces, especially those of Roman origin, such as \"bucatini all'amatriciana\" or \"spaghetti alla carbonara\". The sharpness depends on the period of maturation, which varies from five months for a table cheese to eight months or longer for a grating cheese.\n", "The rice varieties now associated with risotto were developed in the 20th century, starting with Maratelli in 1914.\n\nSection::::Rice varieties.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11180	Why is the Roman Empire considered so important that we teach it to this day?	TL;DR: the Roman Empire was massive, lasted for ages, and covered much of Western Europe, so it’s no surprise it is so important to Europeans and their offshoot nations. (And I assume to many others, in North Africa, the Middle East, etc., but I can’t speak for them.) At its height, the Roman Empire was one of the largest empires in world history. It lasted, in some form, for almost 1500 years. Within its borders it often provided a level of peace, stability and organisation that was unprecedented, and perhaps unmatched in Western Europe for another thousand years (that’s a very debatable point). It undertook amazing feats of civil engineering, many of which are still visible and impressive today, or are even still in use (especially in the east). The Roman Empire also produced a great deal of literature, from comedies to philosophy to engineering. Many of these were core texts until the modern era, and some are still very relevant today. It was the birthplace of Christianity, and the empire officially adopting Christianity was a turning point for the religion. The home of the Catholic Church is, of course, still Rome, and its language Latin. After the fall of the empire in the West, rulers and intellectuals looked to the Roman Empire as a model to aspire to. From their fragmented, troubled kingdoms the Roman Empire was a lost giant. In many ways, this admiration has continued up to the present day, with Rome viewed, for better or worse, as the greatest empire. Edit: The Roman Empire, and its rise and fall, has also been turned into many powerful stories and lessons. Its rise, its peak and fall can be used as political and moral lessons (which may or may not reflect the actual history).	[ "The emergence of the United States of America as effectively the only superpower in the world after the fall of the Soviet Union in the late 20th century led to a renewed interest in empires and their study. For instance, the Roman Empire has occasionally been held up as a model for American dominance. The United States' hegemony is unprecedented in the modern system and thus the only illuminating cases can be found in pre-modern systems: “One difficulty with analyzing unipolarity is that we have mainly the current case, although examining the Roman and ancient China could be illuminating.”\n", "This combination of new methodologies, technical innovation, and creative invention in the military gave Rome the edge against its adversaries for half a millennium, and with it, the ability to create an empire that even today, more than 2000 years later, continues to leave its legacy in many areas of modern life.\n\nSection::::Colonies and roads.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n\nAncient Rome is the progenitor of Western civilization. The customs, religion, law, technology, architecture, political system, military, literature, languages, alphabet, government and many factors and aspects of western civilization are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalized Western civilization, playing a role in the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.\n\nSection::::Historiography.\n", "Despite the fall of the Roman Empire, its legacy continued to have a significant impact on the cultural and political life in Europe. For the medieval mind, Rome came to constitute a central dimension of the European traditionalist sensibility. The idealisation of this Empire as the symbol of universal order led to the construction of the Holy Roman Empire. Writing before the outbreak of the First World War, the historian Alexander Carlyle noted that \"we can without difficulty recognize\" not only \"the survival of the tradition of the ancient empire\" but also a \"form of the perpetual aspiration to make real the dream of the universal commonwealth of humanity.\"\n", "Peter Bender, in his 2003 article \"America: The New Roman Empire\", summarized: \"When politicians or professors are in need of a historical comparison in order to illustrate the United States' incredible might, they almost always think of the Roman Empire.\" The article abounds with analogies:\n", "At this territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled approximately 5,900,000 km² (2,300,000 sq.mi.) of land surface. Ancient Rome's influence upon the culture, law, technology, arts, language, religion, government, military, and architecture of Western civilization continues to this day.\n\nSection::::Ancient Eurasian Steppe.\n\nSection::::Ancient Eurasian Steppe.:Scythia.\n", "The widespread Lorem ipsum text, which is widely used as a meaningless placeholder in modern typography and graphic design, is derived from the Latin text of Cicero's philosophical treatise \"De finibus.\"\n", "There is a growing consensus among American historians and political scientists that the United States during the American Century grew into an empire resembling in many ways Ancient Rome. Currently, there is a debate over implications of imperial tendencies of U.S. foreign policy on democracy and social order.\n", "Roman civilization is often grouped into \"classical antiquity\" with ancient Greece, a civilization that inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, and language in the Western world, and its history continues to have a major influence on the world today. The Roman civilization came to dominate Europe and the Mediterranean region through conquest and assimilation.\n", "Polybius said that the Roman achievement of imposing one government over the Mediterranean world was a \"marvelous\" achievement, and that the main task of future historians will be to explain how this was done.\n\nSection::::History.:Dante.\n", "Section::::Language.\n", "Section::::Society.\n\nThe Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural, with \"a rather astonishing cohesive capacity\" to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time. The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths—helped foster a sense of \"Romanness\".\n", "The legal systems of France and its former colonies are strongly influenced by Roman law. Similarly, the United States was founded on a model inspired by the Roman Republic, with upper and lower legislative assemblies, and executive power vested in a single individual, the president. The president, as \"commander-in-chief\" of the armed forces, reflects the ancient Roman titles \"imperator princeps\". The Roman Catholic Church, founded in the early Imperial Period, spread across Europe, first by the activities of Christian evangelists, and later by official imperial promulgation.\n\nSection::::History of imperialism.:Post-classical period.\n", "The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of cultural exchange and assimilation known as \"Romanization,\" particularly in regard to politics, the economy, and religion. Knowledge of the Roman military comes from a wide range of sources: Greek and Roman literary texts; coins with military themes; papyri preserving military documents; monuments such as Trajan's Column and triumphal arches, which feature artistic depictions of both fighting men and military machines; the archaeology of military burials, battle sites, and camps; and inscriptions, including military diplomas, epitaphs, and dedications.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n", "Section::::Chapter 5. Rome and the written tradition.\n", "Section::::Science and philosophy.\n\nWhile much of the most influential Greek science and philosophy was developed before the rise of the Empire, major innovations occurred under Roman rule that have had a lasting impact on the intellectual world. The traditions of Greek, Egyptian and Babylonian scholarship continued to flourish at great centers of learning such as Athens, Alexandria, and Pergamon.\n", "Section::::Ancient Europe.:Roman Empire.\n\nThe Roman Empire is widely known as ancient Europe's largest and most powerful civilization. After the Punic Wars Rome was already one of the biggest empires on the planet but its expansion continued with the invasions of Greece and Asia Minor. By 27 BC Rome had control over half of Europe as well as Northern Africa and large amounts of the Middle East. Rome also had a developed culture, building on the earlier Greek culture. From the time of Augustus to the Fall of the Western Empire, Rome dominated Western Eurasia, comprising the majority of its population.\n", "\"Pax Romana\" (Latin) refers to over 200 years of peace during the days of the Roman Empire, including the life of Christ. The motto of Pax Romana is \"\"Pax Christi in regno Christi\"\" (Latin), which translates to \"peace of Christ in the kingdom of Christ\". \n\nSection::::IMCS/MIEC.\n\nSection::::IMCS/MIEC.:History.\n", "The Renaissance idea that the classical Roman virtues had been lost under medievalism was especially powerful in European politics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Reverence for Roman republicanism was strong among the Founding Fathers of the United States and the Latin American revolutionaries; the Americans described their new government as a \"republic\" (from \"res publica\") and gave it a \"Senate\" and a \"President\" (another Latin term), rather than make use of available English terms like \"commonwealth\" or \"parliament\".\n", "Section::::Education.\n\nMartianus Capella developed the system of the seven liberal arts that structured medieval education. Although the liberal arts were already known in Ancient Greece, it was only after Martianus that the seven liberal arts took on canonical form.\n\nHis single encyclopedic work, \"De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii\" \"On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury\", laid the standard formula of academic learning from the Christianized Roman Empire of the 5th century until the Renaissance of the 12th century.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Art, music and literature.\n", "The Romans paid considerable attention to military matters, leaving to posterity many treatises and writings on the subject, as well as a large number of lavishly carved triumphal arches and victory columns.\n\nSection::::Etymology and definitions.\n", "Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called \"res publica\", the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces, and public facilities.\n", "Military of ancient Rome\n\nThe military of ancient Rome, according to Titus Livius, one of the more illustrious historians of Rome over the centuries, was a key element in the rise of Rome over “above seven hundred years” from a small settlement in Latium to the capital of an empire governing a wide region around the shores of the Mediterranean, or, as the Romans themselves said, ‘’mare nostrum’’, “our sea.” Livy asserts\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17879	We are taught that plants grow through photosynthesis. Why, then, can pull all the leaves off a weed, leaving only a root and it grows back?	The stem does photosynthesis too, but in the case of most weeds, they develop large starchy roots that serve as an energy reserve that lets them grow back. If you pick them small before they develop these, they won't grow back.	[ "There is little theory on how plants induce themselves to senesce, although it is reasonably widely accepted that some of it is done hormonally. Plant scientists generally concentrate on ethylene and abscisic acid as culprits in senescence, but neglect gibberellin and brassinosteroid which inhibits root growth if not causing actual root pruning. This is perhaps because roots are below the ground and thus harder to study.\n", "BULLET::::2. Root pruning – the concept that plants prune the roots in the same kind of way as they abscise leaves, is not a well discussed topic among plant scientists, although the phenomena undoubtedly exists. If gibberellin, brassinosteroid and ethylene are known to inhibit root growth it takes just a little imagination to assume they perform the same role as ethylene does in the shoot, that is to prune the roots too.\n", "Most understood the root system is extremely important to its overall performance once planted out. and have tried changing container designs. One of the first designs was simply using an open-bottomed, waxed cardboard milk carton container. The results were promising. When the taproot eventually reached the base, it would become exposed to air, dehydrate and die at the tip, stimulating roots to branch behind this point, much like pruning a hedge. However, all roots were forced downward so there was still plenty of room for improvement to gain side branching.\n", "One container designer tried “root suffocation pruning.” When a root grows into a reservoir of water at the bottom, it is suffocated. The death of the root tip causes root branching but as with physically cutting roots, pathogens are a problem.\n\nSome containers even use chemicals to cause root branching. Some herbicides have been uses as well as copper, but copper creates toxicity issues for the plant.\n\nPorous fabric containers have been tried but have high water loss and salt accumulation. Plus, these containers are still passive with root pruning, relying on roots eventually finding an opening.\n", "BULLET::::- Hormonal root pruning theory – in the new theory just like ethylene, GA, BA and Eth are seen both to be induced by sugar (GA/BA) and oxygen (ETH) shortages (as well as maybe excess levels of carbon dioxide for Eth) in the roots, and to push sugar and oxygen, as well as minerals, water and the growth hormones out of the root cell causing a positive feedback loop resulting the emptying and death of the root cell. The final death knell for a root might be strigolactone or most probably ABA as these are indicators of substances that should be abundant in the root and if they cannot even support themselves with these nutrients then they should be senesced.\n", "Research of Arabidopsis has led to the discovery of how this auxin mediated root response works. In an attempt to discover the role that phytochrome plays in lateral root development, Salisbury et al. (2007) worked with \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" grown on agar plates. Salisbury et al. used wild type plants along with varying protein knockout and gene knockout Arabidopsis mutants to observe the results these mutations had on the root architecture, protein presence, and gene expression. To do this, Salisbury et al. used GFP fluorescence along with other forms of both macro and microscopic imagery to observe any changes various mutations caused. From these research, Salisbury et al. were able to theorize that shoot located phytochromes alter auxin levels in roots, controlling lateral root development and overall root architecture. In the experiments of van Gelderen et al. (2018), they wanted to see if and how it is that the shoot of \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" alters and affects root development and root architecture. To do this, they took Arabidopsis plants, grew them in agar gel, and exposed the roots and shoots to separate sources of light. From here, they altered the different wavelengths of light the shoot and root of the plants were receiving and recorded the lateral root density, amount of lateral roots, and the general architecture of the lateral roots. To identify the function of specific photoreceptors, proteins, genes, and hormones, they utilized various Arabidopsis knockout mutants and observed the resulting changes in lateral roots architecture. Through their observations and various experiments, van Gelderen et al. were able to develop a mechanism for how root detection of Red to Far-red light ratios alter lateral root development.\n", "The original Bradley method of bush regeneration focuses on facilitating native plant recruitment from the seedbank, rather than planting seedlings or sowing seeds, as follows: \n\n\"Weeding a little at a time from the bush towards the weeds takes the pressure off the natives under favourable conditions. Native seeds and spores are ready in the ground and the natural environment favours plants that have evolved in it. The balance is tipped back towards regeneration. Keep it that way, by always working where the strongest area of bush meets the weakest weeds\"\n", "Some leaves develop adventitious buds, which then form adventitious roots, e.g. piggyback plant (\"Tolmiea menziesii\") and mother-of-thousands (\"Kalanchoe daigremontiana\"). The adventitious plantlets then drop off the parent plant and develop as separate clones of the parent.\n\nSection::::Aerial root pumping and physiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Many dicots, too, release adventitious toots from stem-nodes, especially those that can regenerate vegetatively (\"Hibiscus rosa-sinensis\", \"Coleus\", etc.) and those that have a week stem with creeping habit (\"Centella asiatica\", \"Bacopa monnieri\", etc.). These roots are called adventitious, not fibrous, roots.\n\nBULLET::::- Adventitious storage roots – similar function as storage-taproots.\n", "BULLET::::- Poor productivity reasons for plant self pruning – the plant rarely prunes young dividing meristematic cells, but if a fully grown mature cell is no longer acquiring nutrients that it should acquire, then it is pruned.\n", "The evolution of root pruning containers continues and currently rests in three types.\n\n1. Knit fabric inground containers work well. Roots grow through specifically sized holes but are girdled and cannot expand. The swelling of the root both inside and outside of the girdled point causes branching within the container, yet greatly minimized any open wounds at harvest.\n", "BULLET::::- Cutting - While cutting the aboveground portion of diffuse knapweed will greatly decrease the spread of seeds, it does not remove the root. With only its root still intact, diffuse knapweed can survive and continue to grow. For a program of cutting to be effective, it must be long-term so that the effect of reduced seed spreading can be realized.\n", "Within the first few months after planting, the rhizomes from adjacent plants intermingle and soon the space between the plants will be covered with shoots and leaves. Since the foliage covers the ground completely, weeds are suppressed and weeding is no longer necessary. Therefore, weeding is only essential in the first few months after planting. After soil is covered weeding should be abandoned to avoid damage to flower buds. Weeding should be shallow since the rhizomes and roots are close to the soil surface.\n", "By root plantlet: Un-pot a plant that you know is susceptible to producing root plantlets (e.g. \"Streptocarpus johannis\", and its sports ‘Falling Stars’ and 'Gloria'. You will see, once the roots are exposed, whether any plantlets have formed between the soil and pot.\n\nSometimes, these plantlets will be evident growing out of the holes at the bottom of the pot. You can then snip these plantlets off (preferably with their attached roots), and plant up as for leaf propagation above).\n", "Short internodes (the section of stem between nodes, i.e. areas where leaves are produced) help increase ramification in those plants that form branches at these nodes. Long internodes (which may be the result of over-watering, the over-use of fertilizer, or a seasonal \"growth spurt\") decrease a gardener's ability to induce ramification in a plant.\n", "Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodelling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.\n", "In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots. Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch, as in sugar beets and carrots.\n", "There is a speculative hypothesis on how and why a plant induces part of itself to die off. The theory holds that leaves and roots are routinely pruned off during the growing season whether they are annual or perennial. This is done mainly to mature leaves and roots and is for one of two reasons; either both the leaves and roots that are pruned are no longer efficient enough nutrient acquisition-wise or that energy and resources are needed in another part of the plant because that part of the plant is faltering in its resource acquisition.\n", "In plants with secondary growth, the vascular cambium, originating between the xylem and the phloem, forms a cylinder of tissue along the stem and root. The vascular cambium forms new cells on both the inside and outside of the cambium cylinder, with those on the inside forming secondary xylem cells, and those on the outside forming secondary phloem cells. As secondary xylem accumulates, the \"girth\" (lateral dimensions) of the stem and root increases. As a result, tissues beyond the secondary phloem including the epidermis and cortex, in many cases tend to be pushed outward and are eventually \"sloughed off\" (shed).\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:CO gain and water loss.\n\nCarbon dioxide, a key reactant in photosynthesis, is present in the atmosphere at a concentration of about 400 ppm. Most plants require the stomata to be open during daytime. The air spaces in the leaf are saturated with water vapour, which exits the leaf through the stomata; this is known as transpiration. Therefore, plants cannot gain carbon dioxide without simultaneously losing water vapour.\n\nSection::::Function.:Alternative approaches.\n", "In very dry soil, plants close their stomata to reduce transpiration and prevent water loss. The closing of the stomata is often mediated by chemical signals from the root (i.e., abscisic acid). In irrigated fields, the fact that plants close their stomata in response to drying of the roots can be exploited to ‘trick’ plants into using less water without reducing yields (see partial rootzone drying). The use of this technique was largely developed by Dr Peter Dry and colleagues in Australia (see nominative determinism).\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nAdventitious root formation refers to roots that form from any structure of a plant that is not a root; these roots can form as part of normal development or due to a stress response. Adventitious root formation from the excised stem cutting is a wound response.\n", "The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food, and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system. Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots. Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots. Roots that spread out close to the surface, such as those of willows, can produce shoots and ultimately new plants. In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it. In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with \"Saintpaulia\", or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant.\n", "Because phloem tubes are located outside the xylem in most plants, a tree or other plant can be killed by stripping away the bark in a ring on the trunk or stem. With the phloem destroyed, nutrients cannot reach the roots, and the tree/plant will die. Trees located in areas with animals such as beavers are vulnerable since beavers chew off the bark at a fairly precise height. This process is known as girdling, and can be used for agricultural purposes. For example, enormous fruits and vegetables seen at fairs and carnivals are produced via girdling. A farmer would place a girdle at the base of a large branch, and remove all but one fruit/vegetable from that branch. Thus, all the sugars manufactured by leaves on that branch have no sinks to go to but the one fruit/vegetable, which thus expands to many times its normal size.\n", "Plants are placed in net cups filled with an inert growth medium such as rock wool, hydroton, or coconut coir. The net cups are suspended above a reservoir of water containing essential nutrients in solution. Only the root tips are allowed to touch the surface of the reservoir. As the plant grows and depletes the water level, a gap of moist air will form and expand between the water surface and the base of the plant. The roots in this gap become laterally branching \"oxygen roots,\" and absorb oxygen from the air inside the container. By the time the water level is fully depleted, the plant should be ready to harvest. Thus, in one growing cycle, no additional replenishment of water or nutrients is needed beyond the initial application. \n" ]	[ "Plants only get energy through photosynthesis in the leaves. ", "A plant gets all its energy from photosynthesis in leaves." ]	[ "Photosynthesis occurs in stems or leaves, and roots provide stored energy. ", "Plant stems can also do photosynthesis, and plants can also get energy from their roots." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Plants only get energy through photosynthesis in the leaves. ", "A plant gets all its energy from photosynthesis in leaves." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Photosynthesis occurs in stems or leaves, and roots provide stored energy. ", "Plant stems can also do photosynthesis, and plants can also get energy from their roots." ]
2018-23161	Why does light leave a trail in pictures with moving light sources?	The light travels to the camera and it leaves an imprint, but it does not happen in an instant. There is this thing called shutter speed, which I think means how long the camera receives the picture. This is a nice example (from Hungarian Wikipedia): [ URL_0 ]( URL_1 ) So, I think it leaves a trail because picture taking is not instantaneous? Hopefully someone will come along and explain it a bit better.	[ "Light trails is another photographic effect where motion blur is used. Photographs of the lines of light visible in long exposure photos of roads at night are one example of effect. This is caused by the cars moving along the road during the exposure. The same principle is used to create star trail photographs.\n", "When a scene includes both stationary and moving subjects (for example, a fixed street and moving cars or a camera within a car showing a fixed dashboard and moving scenery), a slow shutter speed can cause interesting effects, such as light trails.\n", "The first demonstrations of ghost imaging were based on the quantum nature of light. Specifically, quantum correlations between photon pairs were used to build up an image. One of the photons of the pair strikes the object and then the bucket detector while the other follows a different path to a (multi-pixel) camera. The camera is constructed to only record pixels from photons that hit both the bucket detector and the camera's image plane.\n", "Metropolis light transport can result in a lower-noise image with fewer samples. This algorithm was created in order to get faster convergence in scenes in which the light must pass through odd corridors or small holes in order to reach the part of the scene that the camera is viewing. It has also shown promise in correctly rendering pathological situations with caustics. Instead of generating random paths, new sampling paths are created as slight mutations of existing ones. In this sense, the algorithm \"remembers\" the successful paths from light sources to the camera.\n\nSection::::Scattering distribution functions.\n", "BULLET::::- Different modulation frequencies: If the cameras modulate their light with different modulation frequencies, their light is collected in the other systems only as background illumination but does not disturb the distance measurement.\n", "BULLET::::3. The light is trapped in the light guide until a voltage differential is created between the two conductive layers of the capacitor at any pixel area. When it happens the two conductive planes attract each other via Coulomb attraction.\n\nBULLET::::4. The \"Opcuity active layer\" is the only moving part of TMOS and it is pulled down until it touches the light guide. Then, the specific pixel is activated and the light escaped through it due to the phenomenon frustration of total internal reflection (FTIR).\n", "When developing a photographic print, it is also possible to flash the printing paper to darken the highlights.\n\nSection::::In digital workflows.\n\nNow, digital image-processing technology can pull details out of shadow areas without risking destroying the dailies or rushes. However, current digital image chips are still limited in the light intensity range over which they can record detail. Depending on the scenario it might be still be beneficial to use pre-flashing devices to lift up the general exposure to lift the darkest parts above the threshold where excessive sensor noise is present.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Photographic hypersensitization\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-flash metering\n", "From the late 1980s Tokihiro Satō's photographs combine light, time and space in recording his movements in a series beginning with his “photo respirations” where his use of an 8 x 10-inch view camera fitted with a strong neutral-density filter to achieve lengthy exposures lasting one to three hours provide the opportunity for him to move through the landscape. When shooting in daylight, using a mirror, he flashed light from the sun into the camera lens, resulting in points of light and flares that punctuate the image and track his movements, though his presence is not seen directly. For nocturnal or interior views he “draws” with a small torch.\n", "BULLET::::- Illumination unit: It illuminates the scene. For RF-modulated light sources with phase detector imagers, the light has to be modulated with high speeds up to 100 MHz, only LEDs or laser diodes are feasible. For Direct TOF imagers, a single pulse per frame (e.g. 30 Hz) is used. The illumination normally uses infrared light to make the illumination unobtrusive.\n", "BULLET::::- Stroboscopic effect is an unwanted effect which may become visible for an average person when a moving or rotating object is illuminated by a time-modulated light source;\n\nBULLET::::- Phantom array effect (or ghosting) may be perceived by an average person when making an eye saccade over a small light source having a periodic fluctuation, the light source is then perceived as a series of spatially extended light spots.\n", "A special case occurs when the camera is moved during exposure while keeping it pointed at a moving target, so as to hold its projection on the recording medium steady. The stationary environment (usually mainly background, but possibly also some foreground) then is subjected to ICM and appears streaked in the final image.\n", "Small cameras, including digital ones, encourage the occurrence of photographic orbs — unexpected, typically circular artifacts that occur in flash photography — where the short distance between the lens and the built-in flash decreases the angle of light reflection to the lens. The resulting retroreflection makes dust particles bright and visible.\n\nSection::::Camera types.\n", "Backscatter commonly occurs in low-light scenes when the camera's flash is used. Cases include nighttime and underwater photography, when a bright light source and reflective unfocused particles are near the camera. Light appears much brighter very near the source due to the inverse-square law, which says light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source.\n", "BULLET::::3. The camera (placed high on top of a vertical ramp and decentered in relation to the light slits) takes a single photograph while moving down the ramp. The result: at the top of the ramp, when it is far away, the camera takes a rather precise picture of the light slit. This image gets progressively bigger and eventually shifts itself out of the frame. This produces a light trail, which meets up with the edge of the screen.\n", "In a conventional photograph, the image shows a variety of \"locations\" at a fixed moment in time; strip photography swaps the time and space dimensions, showing a variety of \"times\" at a fixed location.\n\nThe final image often shows a solid white background, which is a continuous scan of the painted finish line. Racers may appear distorted based on the movement of their limbs and heads as they cross the line; limbs are elongated where they remain static or move backwards in relation to the slit-shutter, or truncated if they move faster than the film moving past the slit.\n", "BULLET::::- For soft indirect illumination, if the surface is Lambertian, then a technique known as irradiance caching may be used to interpolate values from previous calculations.\n", "By combining this technique with a diffracted wavefront of light, as by a knife-edge, it is possible to take photographs of phase perturbations within a homogeneous medium. For example, it is possible to capture shockwaves of bullets and other high-speed objects. See, for example, shadowgraph and schlieren photography.\n", "On the other hand, in a diffused bright-field setup (see Fig. 2) the illumination of the film is provided through a translucent slab (diffuser), and each point of the film receives light from a wide range of directions.\n\nThe collimation of the illumination plays a fundamental role in contrast of the image impressed on a film. \n", "Backscatter (photography)\n\nIn photography, backscatter (also called near-camera reflection) is an optical phenomenon resulting in typically circular artifacts on an image, due to the camera's flash being reflected from unfocused motes of dust, water droplets, or other particles in the air or water. It is especially common with modern compact and ultra-compact digital cameras.\n\nCaused by the backscatter of light by unfocused particles, these artifacts are also sometimes called orbs, referring to a common paranormal claim. Some appear with trails, suggesting motion.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Visible fixed-pattern noise is often caused by hot pixels – pixel sensors with higher than normal dark current. On long exposure, they can appear as bright pixels. Photosites on the sensor that always appear as brighter pixels are called \"stuck pixels\" while sensors that only brighten up after long exposure are called \"hot pixels\".\n\nThe dark-frame-subtraction technique is also used in digital photogrammetry, to improve the contrast of satellite and air photograms, and is considered part of \"best practice\", along with flat-field correction, for astrophotography.\n\nSection::::Software that supports dark-frame subtraction.\n\nBULLET::::- RawTherapee\n\nBULLET::::- PixelFixer\n\nBULLET::::- Photoshop\n\nBULLET::::- UFRaw with—darkframe=raw_file\n", "BULLET::::- Gathering rays from a point on a surface. A ray is projected from the surface to the scene in a bouncing path that terminates when a light source is intersected. The light is then sent backwards through the path and to the output pixel. The creation of a single path is called a \"sample\". For a single point on a surface hundreds or thousands of samples are taken. The final output of the pixel is the arithmetic mean of all those samples, not the sum.\n", "Motion blur can be used artistically to create the feeling of speed or motion, as with running water. An example of this is the technique of \"panning\", where the camera is moved so it follows the subject, which is usually fast moving, such as a car. Done correctly, this will give an image of a clear subject, but the background will have motion blur, giving the feeling of movement. This is one of the more difficult photographic techniques to master, as the movement must be smooth, and at the correct speed. A subject that gets closer or further away from the camera may further cause focusing difficulties.\n", "The “kinetic” image is derived from the distribution width (e.g., variance or standard deviation) of attenuation at the pixel level. This image has a new type of contrast based on motion: static components do not appear while moving objects appear brighter if they fluctuate more or move faster.\n\nSection::::Theoretical background.:Difference between conventional radiographs and the \"static\" image.\n", "There are two broad theories for the wagon-wheel effect under truly continuous illumination. The first is that human visual perception takes a series of still frames of the visual scene and that movement is perceived much like a movie. The second is Schouten's theory: that moving images are processed by visual detectors sensitive to the true motion and also by detectors sensitive to opposite motion from temporal aliasing. There is evidence for both theories, but the weight of evidence favours the latter.\n\nSection::::Under continuous illumination.:Truly continuous illumination.:Discrete frames theory.\n", "Rotating objects can appear stationary under strobe light; also, they can appear to be counter-rotating. This second effect can occur in daylight, such as the apparent counter-rotation of wheels. Because of the illusion of counter-rotation in constant light, it is reasonable to assume that the eye views the world in a series of still images, and therefore the counter-rotation is a result of under-sampling (aliasing).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12174	why does heat make us sweat if it makes us dehydrated?	Having the water won't do you a damn bit of good if you brain cooks to death inside your skull. It's better to sweat and reduce the body temperature than to keep the water.	[ "In warm or humid weather or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for the active secretion of sweat. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.\n", "BULLET::::- Eccrine sweat glands under the skin secrete sweat (a fluid containing mostly water with some dissolved ions), which travels up the sweat duct, through the sweat pore and onto the surface of the skin. This causes heat loss via evaporative cooling; however, a lot of essential water is lost.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Heat.\n\nThe only mechanism the human body has to cool itself is by sweat evaporation. Sweating occurs when the ambient air temperatures is above 28 °C (82 °F) and the body fails to return to the normal internal temperature. The evaporation of the sweat helps cool the blood beneath the skin. It is limited by the amount of water available in the body, which can cause dehydration.\n", "Hydrosis\n\nHidrosis is the process of activating the sweat glands via M3 receptors. Hyperhidrosis is a disorder marked by excessive sweating. It usually begins at puberty and affects the palms, soles, and armpits. Sweating is the body's way of cooling itself and is a normal response to a hot environment or intense exercise.\n", "Although sweating is found in a wide variety of mammals, relatively few (exceptions include humans and horses) produce large amounts of sweat in order to cool down.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nBULLET::::- The words diaphoresis and hidrosis both can mean either perspiration (in which sense they are synonymous with \"sweating\") or excessive perspiration (in which sense they can be either synonymous with hyperhidrosis or differentiable from it only by clinical criteria involved in narrow specialist senses of the words).\n\nBULLET::::- Hypohidrosis is decreased sweating from whatever cause.\n", "BULLET::::6. Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.\n\nBULLET::::7. Excretion: sweat contains urea, however its concentration is 1/130th that of urine, hence excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nRisk factors for dehydration include but are not limited to: exerting oneself in hot and humid weather, habitation at high altitudes, endurance athletics, elderly adults, infants, children and people living with chronic illnesses.\n\nDehydration can also come as a side effect from many different types of drugs and medications.\n", "Any activity or situation that promotes heavy sweating can lead to water intoxication when water is consumed to replace lost fluids. Persons working in extreme heat and/or humidity for long periods must take care to drink and eat in ways that help to maintain electrolyte balance. People using drugs such as MDMA (often referred to colloquially as \"Ecstasy\") may overexert themselves, perspire heavily, feel increased thirst, and then drink large amounts of water to rehydrate, leading to electrolyte imbalance and water intoxication – this is compounded by MDMA use increasing the levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), decreasing the amount of water lost through urination. Even people who are resting quietly in extreme heat or humidity may run the risk of water intoxication if they drink large amounts of water over short periods for rehydration.\n", "Osmolality of blood increases with dehydration and decreases with overhydration. In normal people, increased osmolality in the blood will stimulate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This will result in increased water reabsorption, more concentrated urine, and less concentrated blood plasma. A low serum osmolality will suppress the release of ADH, resulting in decreased water reabsorption and more concentrated plasma.\n", "Gustatory sweating refers to thermal sweating induced by the ingestion of food. The increase in metabolism caused by ingestion raises body temperature, leading to thermal sweating. Hot and spicy foods also leads to mild gustatory sweating in the face, scalp and neck: capsaicin (the compound that makes spicy food taste \"hot\"), binds to receptors in the mouth that detect warmth. The increased stimulation of such receptors induces a thermoregulatory response.\n\nSection::::Sweat.:Antiperspirant.\n", "Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.\n", "Heat exhaustion\n\nHeat exhaustion is a severe form of heat illness. It is a medical emergency. Heat exhaustion is caused by the loss of water and electrolytes through sweating. \n\nThe United States Department of Labor makes the following recommendation, \"Heat illness can be prevented. Remember these three things: water, rest, and shade.\"\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nCommon causes of heat exhaustion include:\n\nBULLET::::- Hot, sunny, humid weather\n\nBULLET::::- Physical exertion, especially in hot, humid weather\n", "Skin wettedness is defined as \"the proportion of the total skin surface area of the body covered with sweat.\"\n", "Heat also effects the viscosity of a fluid inside a capillary. An increase in heat decreases the viscosity of the lumenal fluid. A good example of this action can be observed in the human body during exercise. When a human is exercising, there is an increase in the metabolic rate inside the muscles, creating an increase in heat production. The increase in heat is detected by thermoreceptors, a type of sensory receptor located at various points in body. These receptors send a signal to the brain that tells the body to dilate the blood vessels, including capillaries. This creates a visible change in the number of vessels on the skin. This allows for heat transfer via convection to occur.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n", "Sweat is not pure water; it always contains a small amount (0.2–1%) of solute. When a person moves from a cold climate to a hot climate, adaptive changes occur in the sweating mechanisms of the person. This process is referred to as acclimatisation: the maximum rate of sweating increases and its solute composition decreases. The volume of water lost in sweat daily is highly variable, ranging from 100 to 8,000 mL/day. The solute loss can be as much as 350 mmol/d (or 90 mmol/d acclimatised) of sodium under the most extreme conditions. During average intensity exercise, sweat losses can average up to 2 litres of water/hour. In a cool climate and in the absence of exercise, sodium loss can be very low (less than 5 mmol/d). Sodium concentration in sweat is 30-65 mmol/l, depending on the degree of acclimatisation.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Profuse sweating can increase the need for electrolyte replacement. Water-electrolyte imbalance produces headache and fatigue if mild; illness if moderate, and sometimes even death if severe. For example, water intoxication (which results in hyponatremia), the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be fatal. Deficits to body water result in volume contraction and dehydration. Diarrhea is a threat to both body water volume and electrolyte levels, which is why diseases that cause diarrhea are great threats to fluid balance.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Water consumption.\n", "To make a solder connection, a chemical flux is applied to the inner sleeve of a joint and the pipe is inserted. The joint is then heated using a propane or MAPP gas torch, solder is applied to the heated joint and the molten solder is drawn into the joint by capillary action as the flux vaporizes. \"Sweating\" is a term sometimes used to describe the soldering of pipe joints.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nTypical regions of excessive sweating include the hand palms, underarms, the sole of the foot, and sometimes groin, face, and scalp. Indeed, profuse sweating is present mostly in the underarms, followed by the feet, palms and facial region. Sweating patterns of focal hyperhidrosis are typically bilateral or symmetric and rarely occur in just one palm or one underarm. Night sweats or sweating while sleeping is also rare. The onset of focal hyperhidrosis is usually before the age of 25 years. This is in contrast to generalized hyperhidrosis which tends to occur in an older age group.\n", "A great deal of the bloodstream is made up of humor of “Blood” which is warm and wet. It is noteworthy that the body lives on “Blood” as it keeps the body warm and moist as warmth and humidity are indicatives of being alive.\n\nSection::::Humors.:Blood.:Excessive “Blood” symptoms.\n", "The term dehydration has sometimes been used incorrectly as a proxy for the separate, related condition hypovolemia, which specifically refers to a decrease in volume of blood plasma. The two are regulated through independent mechanisms in humans; the distinction is important in guiding treatment.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "An early stage of hyperthermia can be \"heat exhaustion\" (or \"heat prostration\" or \"heat stress\"), whose symptoms can include heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak pulse. If the condition progresses to heat stroke, then hot, dry skin is typical as blood vessels dilate in an attempt to increase heat loss. An inability to cool the body through perspiration may cause the skin to feel dry. Hyperthermia from neurological disease may include little or no sweating, lack of heart rate change, and confusion or delirium.\n", "In both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, the sweat is originally produced in the gland's coil, where it is isotonic with the blood plasma there. When the rate of sweating is low, salt is conserved and reabsorbed by the gland's duct; high sweat rates, on the other hand, lead to less salt reabsorption and allow more water to evaporate on the skin (via osmosis) to increase evaporative cooling.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nThe term 'compensatory' is largely misleading, as it indicates that there is a compensatory mechanism that takes effect after sympathectomy, in which the body 'redirects' the sweating from the palms or face to other areas of the body. Sweating after sympathetic surgery is a reflex cycle between the sympathetic system and the anterior portion of the hypothalamus. Reflex sweating will not happen if hand sweating can be stopped without interrupting sympathetic tone to the human brain.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01834	Maximum amounts of watt an appliance can utilize at home?	It depends on how deep you want to dive into the question. Here, in Sweden, the nominal voltage is 400V/230V. Most houses have a 3-phase feed, and quite a lot of flats have a three phase feed too because stoves, ovens and such tend to be two- or three-phased. An ordinary Schuko wall socket is one-phased (230V) and is fused at max 10A. The Perilex socket used for stoves is three-phased (400V) and is fused at max 3x16A. If you have something else three-phased that you need to connect, like...say...a welder, you'll make use of CEE sockets instead (400V), those are three-phased TN-S (that is, the socket provides three phases, Neutral and Protective Earth) and come in literally any size you need them in from 16A up to 250A. This means, if you want to be blunt about it, that any house has at the very least 400V 3x16A as the main feed. I have two-phased electrical heating as well, so my feed is 400V 3x25A. You might have noticed a pattern here. Fuses. A fuse is a safety device. It's there literally to ensure that the cables are not overloaded to the point where they overheat and catch fire. But it's also a damn simple limiter. You can't (alright, you can. but only during a shorter time span) extract more from the power line than the fuse allows, so it's literally the fuse that is the point of the equation that matters. So. Back to the one-phased 230V Schuko with a 10A fuse. It's pretty likely that more than one socket share the same fuse. In fact, often a whole bedroom has only one fuse for all the lights and all the sockets. But if you assume that you only use one socket, it's pretty simple. The max load on a socket is 230V * 10A = 2300W. If you look at the stove, it has 230V * 3x10A = 3x3680W available. Most stoves are a bunch of 1-phased loads that you can turn on and off so you can simplify the calculations and count as if the loads where on a one-phase feed, but in reality you are supposed to complicate the equation with phase offset and whatnot. So, the CEE's, then? They are 400V. But, 400V is extracted between two phases. So when you calculate the load you are supposed to add * √3 to the equation (that part takes into account the offset between the phases, If I remember correctly) but in reality you often have a load that is so even over the phases that you can just calculate the phases separately anyway. I got one of those in my garage, it's a 25A CEE, which means that I got 230V * 3x25A = 3x5750W available there. EDIT: Actually. I'm kind of stupid. 400/230 = √3. √3 is the nominal current increase if you combine two phases that are 120degrees apart.	[ "In July 2007 California's 2005 appliance standards came into effect, limiting external power supply standby power to 0.5 watts.\n", "In the U.S., the state of California was a pioneer in the introduction of MEPS. In order to reduce the growth in electricity use, the California Energy Commission (CEC) was given unique and strong authority to regulate the efficiency of appliances sold in the state. It started to adopt appliance efficiency regulations in 1978, and has updated the standards regularly over time, and expanded the list of covered appliances. \n", "However, actual energy consumption will depend on how an appliance is used and how often it is used. Factors like climate can also influence energy consumption (and efficiency) for some appliances.\n", "Typically one of the largest appliances connected to a commercial power system in hot climates is the HVAC unit, and ensuring this unit is adequately supplied is an important consideration in commercial power systems. Regulations for commercial establishments place other requirements on commercial systems that are not placed on residential systems. For example, in Australia, commercial systems must comply with AS 2293, the standard for emergency lighting, which requires emergency lighting be maintained for at least 90 minutes in the event of loss of mains supply. In the United States, the National Electrical Code requires commercial systems to be built with at least one 20 A sign outlet in order to light outdoor signage. Building code regulations may place special requirements on the electrical system for emergency lighting, evacuation, emergency power, smoke control and fire protection.\n", "Built-in units cannot be disconnected from mains power. Even when the devices are switched off, their electronics still require electricity. Newer models with so-called stand-by modes often consume far less power in this way than older devices: even though the older models did not contain as many electronic components, they still typically required between 5 and 10 watts of power at all times for the clock, time display and controls. Under Swiss law, as of the beginning of 2013, new household appliances may require no more than one watt of power when in stand-by mode.\n", "BULLET::::- Age of the appliance—older appliances are less well designed for safety, and may have deteriorated\n\nSection::::Policy.\n\nThe One Watt Initiative was launched by the IEA in 1999 to ensure through international cooperation that by 2010 all new appliances sold in the world only use one watt in standby mode. This would reduce CO emissions by 50 million tons in the OECD countries alone by 2010.\n\nIn July 2001 U.S. President George W. Bush signed an Executive Order directing federal agencies to \"purchase products that use no more than one watt in their standby power consuming mode\".\n", "There are several design patterns adopted by computer appliance vendors, a few of which are shown below. Since the whole concept of an appliance rests on keeping such implementation details away from the end user, it is difficult to match these patterns to specific appliances, particularly since they can and do change without affecting external capabilities or performance.\n", "BULLET::::- 12V maximum, 1.5 times rated current of appliance or 25A, whichever is greater - commonly known as \"type test\" or \"bond test\".\n", "Another factor yet to be considered by the EPA and DOE is the overall effect of energy-saving requirements on the durability and expected service life of a mass-market appliance built to a consumer-level cost standard. For example, a refrigerator may be made more efficient by the use of more insulative spacing and a smaller-capacity compressor using electronics to control operation and temperature. However, this may come at the cost of reduced interior storage (or increased exterior mass) or a reduced service life due to compressor or electronic failures. In particular, electronic controls used on new-generation appliances are subject to damage from shock, vibration, moisture, or power spikes on the electrical circuit to which they are attached. Critics have pointed out that even if a new appliance is energy efficient, any consumer appliance that does not provide customer satisfaction, or must be replaced twice as often as its predecessor contributes to landfill pollution and waste of natural resources used to construct its replacement.\n", "Small appliances can be very inexpensive, such as an electric can opener, hot pot, toaster, or coffee maker which may cost only a few U.S. dollars, or very expensive, such as an elaborate espresso maker, which may cost several thousand U.S. dollars. Most homes in developed economies contain several cheaper home appliances, with perhaps a few more expensive appliances, such as a high-end microwave oven or mixer.\n\nSection::::Powering.\n", "The design and size of a fire appliance depends very much upon the role it is expected to perform. In general, most fire and rescue services use a standardised range of vehicles and equipment. However, airport fire services tend to use much larger and heavier appliances than those typically deployed by public fire services. \n", "Guidance from the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET, published under the IEE brand) and the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) recommends that a competent person must inspect the installation regularly in any public building or a place that people work. They suggest initial intervals for combined inspection and testing that range from three months (for construction equipment) to one year, and in many cases, longer periods for re-testing (certain types of appliance in schools, hotels, offices and shops).\n", "A deficiency of the insulation resistance (500 V /250 V DC) test is that the DC voltage will not activate electromagnetic switches or internal relays etc. that are common in many modern power tools, computers, TVs etc. and therefore it can only test the appliance up to that point. Appliances with these components / design should be tested using the leakage current test.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Insulation resistance test.:Leakage test.\n", "Section::::Specifications.:Heating and cooling systems.\n\nEnergy Star qualified heat pumps, boilers, air conditioning systems, and furnaces are available. In addition, cooling and heating bills can be significantly lowered with air sealing and duct sealing. Air sealing reduces the outdoor air that penetrates a building, and duct sealing prevents attic or basement air from entering ducts and lessening the heating/cooling system’s efficiency. Energy Star qualified room air conditioners are at least 10% more energy efficient than the minimum U.S. federal government standards.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Home electronics.\n", "Since major appliances in a home consume a significant amount of energy, they have become the objectives of programs to improve their energy efficiency in many countries. Energy efficiency improvements may require changes in construction of the appliances, or improved control systems.\n\nSection::::Brands.\n", "Annual portable appliance testing is not always necessary in low risk environments.\n\nYou do not need to be qualified as an electrician to carry out visual inspections.\n\nRegular user checks and visual inspections can be a good method of maintaining portable electric equipment.\n\nFor landlords maintaining legal requirements it is not compulsory for them to have all appliances tested, but they do need to show a \"duty of care\" and most letting agents recommend that a test certificate is obtained.\n\nSection::::Origins in UK.\n", "For loads other than incandescent lamps, such as fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge lamps, and electrical home appliances, the triac-based electronic switching in the lamp module is unsuitable and an \"appliance module\" must be used instead. These modules switch the power using an impulse relay. In the U.S., these modules are generally rated to control loads up to 15 amperes (1800 watts at 120 V).\n", "A Class III appliance is designed to be supplied from a separated/safety extra-low voltage (SELV) power source. The voltage from a SELV supply is low enough that under normal conditions a person can safely come into contact with it without risk of electrical shock. The extra safety features built into Class I and Class II appliances are therefore not required. For medical devices, compliance with Class III is \"not\" considered sufficient protection, and further more-stringent regulations apply to such equipment.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mains power plug\n\nBULLET::::- Electricity\n\nBULLET::::- Portable appliance testing\n\nBULLET::::- Double switching\n\nBULLET::::- IP Code\n\nSection::::References.\n", "All of these laws and regulations have to do with creating mandatory standards that deal with the energy efficiency of certain household appliances. These standards were put in place to ensure that manufacturers were building products that are at the maximum energy efficiency levels are that are technically feasible and economically justified.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The tests an appliance is required to undergo will depend on the type of appliance, its electrical Class and subject to a risk assessment by the technician. e.g. it may not be safe to perform a leakage current test which powers up the appliance, such as a grinder, if it can not be secured to a bench; an insulation resistance test may be a safe option.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Earth resistance test.\n\nThis test shows the resistance offered by the earthing rods with the connection leads. Various testing instruments are available for earthing resistance tests. The earthing resistance should be less than 1Ω.\n", "The major disadvantage of deploying a computer appliance is that since they are designed to supply a specific resource, they most often include a customized operating system running over specialized hardware, neither of which are likely to be compatible with the other systems previously deployed. Customers lose flexibility.\n\nOn the other hand, a proprietary embedded operating system, or operating system within an application, can make the appliance much more secure from common cyber attacks. \n\nSection::::Types of appliances.\n\nThe variety of computer appliances reflects the wide range of computing resources they provide to applications. Some examples:\n", "In July 2007 California's 2005 appliance standards came into effect, limiting external power supply standby power to 0.5 watts.\n", "BULLET::::- Class III – These are appliances that are supplied at a low voltage (usually called Separated Extra Low Voltage) which must be less than 50 V. These appliances are supplied with a transformer supply that is also marked.\n", "Energy usage in some homes may vary widely from these averages. For example, milder regions such as the Southern U.S. and Pacific Coast of the USA need far less energy for space conditioning than New York City or Chicago. On the other hand, air conditioning energy use can be quite high in hot-arid regions (Southwest) and hot-humid zones (Southeast) In milder climates such as San Diego, lighting energy may easily consume up to 40% of total energy. Certain appliances such as a waterbed, hot tub, or pre-1990 refrigerator, use significant amounts of electricity. However, recent trends in home entertainment equipment can make a large difference in household energy use. For instance a 50-inch LCD television (average on-time of six hours a day) may draw 300 watts less than a similarly sized plasma system. In most residences no single appliance dominates, and any conservation efforts must be directed to numerous areas in order to achieve substantial energy savings. However, ground, air and water source heat pump systems, solar heating systems and evaporative coolers are among the more energy efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning and domestic hot water systems available (Environmental Protection Agency), and can achieve reductions in energy consumptions of up to 69%.\n", "The efficiency of furnaces and air conditioners has increased steadily since the energy crises of the 1970s. The 1987 National Appliance Energy Conservation Act authorized the Department of Energy to set minimum efficiency standards for space conditioning equipment and other appliances each year, based on what is \"technologically feasible and economically justified\". Beyond these minimum standards, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) awards the Energy Star designation to appliances that exceed industry efficiency averages by an EPA-specified percentage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01315	What really happens to make us feel 'refreshed' after a shower?	Besides the water temp, it's the water drying on you. It absorbs your skin heat in the process. As your skin gets colder, you feel the refreshing sensation.	[ "BULLET::::- The Center for Sustainability and Associated Student Government have teamed up for \"60 Seconds Less\", a creative campaign that encourages campus affiliates to cut 60 seconds or more off their time in the shower. Using community-based marketing and incentives, student government designed a pledge, educated students on effective ways to manage their water usage, and distributed shower timers and token bracelets to prompt shorter shower reminders.\n", "When comparing the \"petal effect\" to the \"lotus effect\", it is important to note some striking differences. The surface structure of the lotus leaf and the rose petal, as seen in Figure 9, can be used to explain the two different effects. \n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "The sun beats down and you pace, you pace and you pace. Your mind flies free and you see yourself as an actor, condemned to a treadmill wherein men and women conspire to breathe life into a screenplay that allegedly depicts life as it was in the old wild West. You see yourself coming awake any one of a thousand mornings between the spring of 1954, and that of 1958—alone in a double bed in a big white house deep in suburban Sherman Oaks, not far from Hollywood.\n", "On October 6, 2016, Oculus VR announced that it would enable the use of motion interpolation on the Oculus Rift virtual reality headset, via the implementation of features such as Asynchronous SpaceWarp and Asynchronous TimeWarp. This allowed the device to be used on computers whose specifications are not high enough to render to the headset at 90 frames per second.\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Visual artifacts.\n", "\"A Description of a City Shower\" is cited as part of the inspiration for William Hogarth's \"Four Times of the Day\", among other works. One of Hogarth's most famous works, \"Four Times of the Day\" sheds a humorous light on contemporary life in London, the mores of the various social classes of the city, and the mundane business of everyday life. Among the other works said to have provided Hogarth with inspiration for his series is the aforementioned \"A Description of the Morning\", published in the \"Tatler\" in 1709, as well as John Gay's \"Trivia\".\n\nSection::::References.\n", "\"I'd been told that my whole life, but at this critical juncture, with my career taking off, I didn't have the wherewithal to argue. [...] We [she and Paula Abdul] shared a house and spent weeks exercising [in Canyon Ranch]. [...] I was as motivated as ever to come out on top. [...] I felt good when it was over. I enjoed the compliments about my \"new\" shape. I shot the video and did in fact reshape my image.\"\n", "Section::::Effects.\n", "The album's first single, \"Señorita\", was released on May 4, 2015. The album's second single, \"Get Paid\", which features a guest appearance from Long Beach-native rapper Desi Mo, was released on June 15, 2015. The album's third and final single, \"Norf Norf\", was released on June 22, 2015.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Types.:Public.\n", "Shower usage in the latter half of the 20th century skyrocketed. Personal hygiene became a primary concern, and bathing every day or multiple times a day is common among Western cultures. Showering is generally faster than bathing and can use less water. In an average home, showers are typically the third largest water use after toilets and clothes washers. The average American shower uses 17.2 gallons (65.1 liters) and lasts for 8.2 minutes at average flow rate of 2.1 gallons per minute (gpm) (7.9 lpm). Showering is one of the leading ways we use water in the home, accounting for nearly 17 percent of residential indoor water use, roughly equals to 1.2 trillion gallons of water annually just for showering. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommend to retrofit home showers with a shower head that uses less than 2.0 gallons per minute to conserve water. However, many have hypothesized reducing flow rates of showerheads might cause users to take much longer showers. Other options to save water include using extra high pressure mist flow or design in sensors and valves to shut off or reduce water flow while people are not actively using the shower water. \n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Domestic.\n", "Section::::Racing career.:2016: three-year-old season.:Summer.\n", "It is common to hear people say, \"gokuraku, gokuraku\" when they get into the bath. It means something to the level of divine pleasure; it is a good feeling for the body and the soul.\n\nSection::::Etiquette.:Equipment.\n", "In addition to the processes compensating for image displacements during head rotation, Wallach and various collaborators examined other sorts of compensations related to perceptual stability during bodily movement, including displacements caused by nodding and by eye movements, the changing orientation of objects as one walks past, optical expansion caused by moving forward, displacement in a dimension unrelated to the physical movement, and movement-correlated alterations in form perception.\n\nSection::::Teaching and impact on students.\n", "Nearly 1.2 trillion gallons of water is used in the United States annually just for showering. This is enough to supply the water needs of New York and New Jersey for a year. Manufacturers of recycling showers typically claim an 80% to 90% reduction in shower water consumption.\n\nAlso, before the shower reaches the set temperature, users leave the tap running. Typically 20 percent of every shower session is essentially lost this way.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Comfort increase.\n", "Priest remarked of \"Palely Loitering\" that it \"was written soon after I returned from a long and very happy stay in Melbourne, Australia. It was an attempt to think myself back into a European sensibility; visiting Australia is like seeing the past and future simultaneously, and the familiar and unfamiliar at once.\"\n", "\"The video moves really quickly and has all [these] quick pops. It shows me in Tokyo, London, Paris, New York, and it goes through all these different looks, [one] in each city, and it just shows that no matter where you are, people want [to do] the same things: they dance and they party. [...] The [style] looks kind of grainy and it's a totally different look for me.\"\n", "It became a starring vehicle for John Candy. Director Carl Reiner said \"Like a small, beautiful painting in a large frame, John is a handsome guy in a larger frame than is necessary.\"\n", "Bob Burton was head coach of the Titans men's team starting with the 2003–04 season. In 2008, the team finished the season 24-9, defeated UC Irvine 81-66 in the Big West Conference Championship. They qualified for their second NCAA tournament (first in 30 years), where they faced the (#3) Wisconsin Badgers as a #14 seed in the first round of the NCAA Tournament, losing the game 71–58. After the 2013–14 season, Burton resigned on June 22, 2012 after nine seasons. His final record at Fullerton was 155–122.\n", "Section::::Water Use Models.\n", "Section::::Non-ideal rough solid surfaces.:Cassie–Baxter model.:\"Petal effect\" vs. \"lotus effect\".\n", "Section::::Indoor use and end uses.:Showering.\n", "Section::::Associated errors and recurrence rate.\n", "The motion interpolation produced by Trimension is not entirely natural, but can be pleasing in many respects. The software has been criticized for artificial look and has been said to make film seem like video, and potentially to degrade the movie-watching experience. There is also a slight cropping of the video to allow for good edges of the smoothed picture.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21031	How do we discover new planets thousands of light years away and be able to understand their properties such as their mass, radius, temperature from such a great distance?	We don't see them at all. They are just too far away. This image is a few years old and is, as far as I am aware, the ONLY direct image of an extrasolar planet ever taken: [ URL_0 ]( URL_1 ) That tiny dot that they had to zoom in on. That's it. That's the best detail we can get. When scientists detect extrasolar planets they have to detect them indirectly, and there's really 2 main ways you can do that: 1. You can look for a "wobble" in the star. As the planet orbits the star, the star's gravity pulls on the planet which is what keeps it in orbit but the planet's gravity also pulls, slightly, on the star. So if you stare at a star long enough and measure it with some really sensitive equipment you can spot the little "sway" in the star, and that's how you know it has at least 1 planet going around it. 2. The other method is the one used by Kepler (the space telescope launched by NASA) where you look for the star to "blink". If the planet passes in front of the star, as in passes between it and the Earth, you get an eclipse, just like here on Earth. Obviously it's not going to be as spectacular, but what Kepler does is monitor about 150,000 stars constantly and it watches out for a star to go slightly dimmer for a while. This isn't something you can actually see, we're talking about 0.01% dimmer, but Kepler can spot it, once it happens a few times you know you've got a planet. Using the data gathered from these methods scientists can make some educated estimates about some of the basic stats on these planets like how far away from the star they are (so what their surface temperatures would be), how big they are, what they are probably made of (rocky like the Earth or gas giants like Jupiter). The next step for NASA is getting a better idea what they are made of. I think there is a plan to launch a satellite in the next few years that will be able to do spectroscopy on the atmospheres of these planets which would give us a much better idea of how Earth-like they are in terms of their chemistry, and perhaps even give us the first hints of an alien biosphere.	[ "The main advantage of the transit method is that the size of the planet can be determined from the lightcurve. When combined with the radial-velocity method (which determines the planet's mass), one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the planet's physical structure. The planets that have been studied by both methods are by far the best-characterized of all known exoplanets.\n", "The transit of celestial objects is one of the few key phenomena used today for the study of exoplanetary systems. Today, transit photometry is the leading form of exoplanet discovery. As exoplanets move in front of its host stars there is a dimming in the luminosity of its host star that can be measured. Larger planets make the dip in luminosity more noticeable and easier to detect. Followup observations are often done to ensure it is a planet through other methods of detecting exoplanets. \n\nThere are currently (December 2018) 2345 planets confirmed with Kepler light curves for stellar host.\n", "Direct imaging can give only loose constraints of the planet's mass, which is derived from the age of the star and the temperature of the planet. Mass can vary considerably, as planets can form several million years after the star has formed. The cooler the planet is, the less the planet's mass needs to be. In some cases it is possible to give reasonable constraints to the radius of a planet based on planet's temperature, its apparent brightness, and its distance from Earth. The spectra emitted from planets do not have to be separated from the star, which eases determining the chemical composition of planets.\n", "BULLET::::- On 31 October 2017, the discovery of NGTS-1b, a confirmed hot Jupiter-sized extrasolar planet orbiting NGTS-1, an M-dwarf star, about half the mass and radius of the Sun, every 2.65 days, was reported by the survey team. Daniel Bayliss, of the University of Warwick, and lead author of the study describing the discovery of NGTS-1b, stated, \"The discovery of NGTS-1b was a complete surprise to us—such massive planets were not thought to exist around such small stars – importantly, our challenge now is to find out how common these types of planets are in the Galaxy, and with the new Next-Generation Transit Survey facility we are well-placed to do just that.\"\n", "Gaseous planets that are hot is because they are close to their star, or because they are still hot from their formation and are expanded by the heat. For colder gas planets, there is a maximum radius which is slightly larger than Jupiter which occurs when the mass reaches a few Jupiter-masses. Adding mass beyond this point causes the radius to shrink.\n\nEven when taking heat from the star into account, many transiting exoplanets are much larger than expected given their mass, meaning that they have surprisingly low density.\n\nSee the magnetic field section for one possible explanation.\n", "Section::::Purpose.\n\nCurrently, the direct detection of extrasolar planets (or exoplanets) is extremely difficult. This is primarily due to:\n\nBULLET::::- Exoplanets appear extremely close to their host stars when observed at astronomical distances. Even the closest of stars are several light years away. This means that while looking for exoplanets, one would typically be observing very small angles from the star, on the order of several tens of milli-arcseconds. Angles this small are impossible to resolve from the ground due to astronomical seeing.\n", "The planets detected through direct imaging currently fall into two categories. First, planets are found around stars more massive than the Sun which are young enough to have protoplanetary disks. The second category consists of possible sub-brown dwarfs found around very dim stars, or brown dwarfs which are at least 100 AU away from their parent stars.\n\nPlanetary-mass objects not gravitationally bound to a star are found through direct imaging as well.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Direct imaging.:Early discoveries.\n", "Transit-timing variation can also be used to find a planet's mass.\n\nSection::::Physical parameters.:Radius, density, and bulk composition.\n\nPrior to recent results from the \"Kepler\" space observatory, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are most easily detected. However, the planets detected by \"Kepler\" are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.\n", "Kepler (2009-2013) and K2 (2013- ) have discovered over 2000 verified exoplanets. Hubble Space Telescope and MOST have also found or confirmed a few planets. The infrared Spitzer Space Telescope has been used to detect transits of extrasolar planets, as well as occultations of the planets by their host star and phase curves.\n\nThe Gaia mission, launched in December 2013, will use astrometry to determine the true masses of 1000 nearby exoplanets.\n\nCHEOPS and TESS, to be launched in 2018, and PLATO in 2024 will use the transit method.\n\nSection::::Verification and falsification methods.\n\nBULLET::::- Verification by multiplicity\n", "Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs, rather than deuterium fusion, formation process or location, is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure with the dividing line at around 5 Jupiter masses.\n\nSection::::Detection methods.\n\nSection::::Detection methods.:Direct imaging.\n", "BULLET::::- Transit color signature\n\nBULLET::::- Doppler tomography\n\nBULLET::::- Dynamical stability testing\n\nBULLET::::- Distinguishing between planets and stellar activity\n\nBULLET::::- Transit offset\n\nSection::::Characterization methods.\n\nBULLET::::- Transmission spectroscopy\n\nBULLET::::- Emission spectroscopy, phase-resolved\n\nBULLET::::- Speckle imaging / Lucky imaging to detect companion stars that the planets could be orbiting instead of the primary star, which would alter planet parameters that are derived from stellar parameters.\n\nBULLET::::- Photoeccentric Effect\n\nBULLET::::- Rossiter–McLaughlin effect\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of exoplanets\n\nBULLET::::- Exomoon\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- NASA's PlanetQuest\n\nBULLET::::- Transiting exoplanet light curves\n", "Recently the OGLE team, in cooperation with scientists mostly from USA, New Zealand and Japan, proved that small, Earth-like planets can exist in great distance from stars around which they revolve despite there being other stars near them.\n\nSection::::Planets discovered.\n\nAt least seventeen planets have so far been discovered by the OGLE project. Eight of the planets were discovered by the transit method and six by the gravitational microlensing method.\n\nPlanets are shown in the order of discovery. Planets in multiple-planet systems are highlighted in yellow. Please note that list below may not be complete.\n", "The transit method also makes it possible to study the atmosphere of the transiting planet. When the planet transits the star, light from the star passes through the upper atmosphere of the planet. By studying the high-resolution stellar spectrum carefully, one can detect elements present in the planet's atmosphere. A planetary atmosphere, and planet for that matter, could also be detected by measuring the polarization of the starlight as it passed through or is reflected off the planet's atmosphere.\n", "Extrasolar giant planets that orbit very close to their stars are the exoplanets that are easiest to detect. These are called hot Jupiters and hot Neptunes because they have very high surface temperatures. Hot Jupiters were, until the advent of space-borne telescopes, the most common form of exoplanet known, due to the relative ease of detecting them with ground-based instruments.\n", "Ground-based surveys for extrasolar planets such as WASP and the HATNet Project have discovered many large exoplanets, mainly Saturn- and Jupiter-sized gas giants. Space-based missions such as CoRoT and the \"Kepler\" survey have extended the results to smaller objects, including rocky super-Earth- and Neptune-sized exoplanets. Orbiting space missions have a higher accuracy of stellar brightness measurement than is possible via ground-based measurements, but they have probed a relatively small region of sky. Unfortunately, most of the smaller candidates orbit stars that are too faint for confirmation by radial-velocity measurements. The masses of these smaller candidate planets are hence either unknown or poorly constrained, such that their bulk composition cannot be estimated.\n", "If a planet cannot be detected through at least one of the other detection methods, it can be confirmed by determining if the possibility of a Kepler candidate being a real planet is significantly larger than any false-positive scenarios combined. One of the first methods was to see if other telescopes can see the transit as well. The first planet confirmed through this method was Kepler-22b which was also observed with a Spitzer space telescope in addition to analyzing any other false-positive possibilities. Such confirmation is costly, as small planets can generally be detected only with space telescopes.\n", "BULLET::::- Astronomers working with the Next-Generation Transit Survey report the discovery of NGTS-1b, a large confirmed hot Jupiter-sized extrasolar planet orbiting NGTS-1, a small red dwarf star about half the mass and radius of the Sun, every 2.65 days. Daniel Bayliss, of the University of Warwick, and lead author of the study describing the discovery of NGTS-1b, stated, \"The discovery of NGTS-1b was a complete surprise to us—such massive planets were not thought to exist around such small stars – importantly, our challenge now is to find out how common these types of planets are in the Galaxy, and with the new Next-Generation Transit Survey facility we are well-placed to do just that.\"\n", "BULLET::::- nearby young stellar associations which may also offer opportunities to detect low-mass planets;\n\nBULLET::::- stars with known planets, in particular those with long-term residuals appearing in regression analysis of their radial velocity curves which could indicate the presence of more distant companions;\n\nBULLET::::- the nearest stars, which would allow detecting targets with the smallest orbits, including those which shine only by reflected light;\n\nBULLET::::- stars with ages in the 100 Myr to 1 Gyr range. In these young systems, even the smaller planets will still be hot and radiating copiously in the infrared, enabling lower detectable masses.\n", "If a planet orbiting a star passes within our line of sight to that star, it very slightly changes the brightness of the star. These changes can last a few hours or a few days. Astronomers can estimate the ratio of the planet's mass to the star's mass, as well as the radius of the planet's orbit around the star, by comparing actual brightness measurements to theoretical models.\n", "Section::::Established detection methods.:Transit photometry.\n\nSection::::Established detection methods.:Transit photometry.:Technique, advantages, and disadvantages.\n", "BULLET::::- Also, numerous other methods can give reasonable approximations. For instance, Varuna, a potential dwarf planet, rotates very quickly upon its axis, as does the dwarf planet Haumea. Haumea has to have a very high density in order not to be ripped apart by centrifugal forces. Through some calculations, one can place a limit on the object's density. Thus, if the object's size is known, a limit on the mass can be determined. See the links in the aforementioned articles for more details on this.\n\nSection::::Choice of units.\n", "BULLET::::- Astrometry – watching a star move slightly due to the gravitational influence of a nearby planet\n\nBULLET::::- Observing Doppler shifts of the star's spectrum due to the star's movement\n\nBULLET::::- Observing the amount of light from a star change as an extrasolar planet transits the star, preventing a portion of the light from reaching the observer\n\nBULLET::::- Pulsar timing\n\nBULLET::::- Gravitational microlensing\n\nBULLET::::- Observing radiation from circumstellar disks in the infrared\n\nAll of these methods provide convincing evidence for the existence of extrasolar planets, but none of them provide actual images of the planets.\n", "Section::::Established detection methods.:Transit photometry.:History.\n", "BULLET::::- On 26 February 2014, NASA announced the discovery of 715 newly verified exoplanets around 305 stars by the Kepler Space Telescope. The exoplanets were found using a statistical technique called \"verification by multiplicity\". 95% of the discovered exoplanets were smaller than Neptune and four, including \"Kepler-296f\", were less than 2 1/2 the size of Earth and were in habitable zones where surface temperatures are suitable for liquid water.\n", "The exoplanet, NGTS-1b, was discovered by the Next-Generation Transit Survey. Daniel Bayliss, of the University of Warwick, and lead author of the study describing the discovery of NGTS-1b, stated, \"The discovery of NGTS-1b was a complete surprise to us—such massive planets were not thought to exist around such small stars – importantly, our challenge now is to find out how common these types of planets are in the Galaxy, and with the new Next-Generation Transit Survey facility we are well-placed to do just that.\"\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Mass, radius and temperature.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00274	Why are clouds greyish white, and why do they turn dark grey when they're about to start raining?	Clouds are normally white because light is scattered while passing through them, the same way frosted glass or a foggy area looks white. When they are about to rain, the clouds are getting denser and so less light is able to penetrate, making it look darker	[ "The whiteness or darkness of clouds is a function of their depth. Small, fluffy white clouds in summer look white because the sunlight is being scattered by the tiny water droplets they contain, and that white light comes to the viewer's eye. However, as clouds become larger and thicker, the white light cannot penetrate through the cloud, and is reflected off the top. Clouds look darkest grey during thunderstorms, when they can be as much as 20,000 to 30,000 feet high.\n", "Clouds are white for the same reason as ice. They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air, very little light that strikes them is absorbed, and most of the light is scattered, appearing to the eye as white. Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray, and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud.\n", "Stratiform clouds are a layer of clouds that covers the entire sky, and which have a depth of between a few hundred to a few thousand feet thick. The thicker the clouds, the darker they appear from below, because little of the sunlight is able to pass through. From above, in an airplane, the same clouds look perfectly white, but from the ground the sky looks gloomy and grey.\n\nSection::::In the sciences, nature, and technology.:The greying of hair.\n", "The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud. Dense deep tropospheric clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very dark grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. High tropospheric and non-tropospheric clouds appear mostly white if composed entirely of ice crystals and/or supercooled water droplets.\n", "There is essentially no direct sunlight under an overcast sky, so all light is then diffuse sky radiation. The flux of light is not very wavelength-dependent because the cloud droplets are larger than the light's wavelength and scatter all colors approximately equally. The light passes through the translucent clouds in a manner similar to frosted glass. The intensity ranges (roughly) from of direct sunlight for relatively thin clouds down to of direct sunlight under the extreme of thickest storm clouds.\n\nSection::::As a part of total radiation.\n\nOne of the equations for total solar radiation is:\n", "The luminance or brightness of a cloud is determined by how light is reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as halos and rainbows. In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very-dark-grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud appears brilliant white with pronounced grey shading because of its greater reflectivity.\n", "Thick clouds (such as stratocumulus) reflect a large amount of incoming solar radiation, meaning they have a high albedo. Thin clouds (such as Cirrus) tend to transmit most solar radiation, so have low albedo.\n\nSection::::What can change cloud albedo?\n\nSection::::What can change cloud albedo?:Liquid Water Path (LWP).\n", "As a tropospheric cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets. If the droplets become too large and heavy to be kept aloft by the air circulation, they will fall from the cloud as rain. By this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, a percentage of the light that enters the cloud is not reflected back out but is absorbed giving the cloud a darker look. A simple example of this is one's being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.\n", "Various cloud reflectivity methods have been suggested, such as that proposed by John Latham and Stephen Salter, which works by spraying seawater in the atmosphere to increase the reflectivity of clouds. The extra condensation nuclei created by the spray will change the size distribution of the drops in existing clouds to make them whiter. The sprayers would use fleets of unmanned rotor ships known as Flettner vessels to spray mist created from seawater into the air to thicken clouds and thus reflect more radiation from the Earth. The whitening effect is created by using very small cloud condensation nuclei, which whiten the clouds due to the Twomey effect.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Cloud droplets normally form on aerosol particles that serve as CCN. Increasing the number concentration of CCN can lead to formation of more cloud droplets, which, in turn, have smaller size. The increase in number concentration increases the optical depth of the cloud, which results in increase in the cloud albedo making clouds appear whiter. Satellite imagery often shows trails of cloud or of enhanced brightness of cloud behind ocean-going ships due to this effect. The decrease in global mean absorption of solar radiation due to increases in CCN concentrations exerts a cooling influence on climate; the global average magnitude of this effect over the industrial era is estimated as between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm. \n", "Scattering also occurs even more strongly in clouds. Individual water droplets exposed to white light will create a set of colored rings. If a cloud is thick enough, scattering from multiple water droplets will wash out the set of colored rings and create a washed-out white color.\n", "Section::::Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration.\n", "Section::::What can change cloud albedo?:The Twomey Effect (Aerosol Indirect Effect).\n\nAddition of cloud nuclei by pollution can lead to an increase in solar radiation reflected by clouds. Increasing aerosol concentration and aerosol density increases cloud droplet concentration, decreases cloud droplet size, and increases cloud albedo. In macrophysically identical clouds, a cloud with few larger drops will have a lower albedo than a cloud with more smaller drops.\n\nSection::::What can change cloud albedo?:Zenith Angle.\n", "In the case of glaciers, the ice is more tightly pressed together and contains little air. As sunlight enters the ice, more light of the red spectrum is absorbed, so the light scattered will be bluish.\n", "For any given meteorological conditions, an increase in CCN leads to an increase in the number of cloud droplets. This leads to more scattering of shortwave radiation i.e. an increase in the albedo of the cloud, known as the Cloud albedo effect, First indirect effect or Twomey effect. Evidence supporting the cloud albedo effect has been observed from the effects of ship exhaust plumes and biomass burning on cloud albedo compared to ambient clouds. The Cloud albedo aerosol effect is a first order effect and therefore classified as a radiative forcing by the IPCC.\n", "Cirrus spissatus is the dense cirrus that will partly or completely hide the sun (or moon) and which appears dark grey when seen against the light. Although it arises under various circumstances, it is particularly commonly found in the plumes or anvils of cumulonimbus clouds.\n\nPrecipitation is likely within 15 to 25 hours if winds are steady from NE E to S, or sooner if winds SE to S. Other winds bring an overcast sky.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aerosol indirect effect.\" Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (\"first indirect effect\"), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (\"second indirect effect\").\n\nSection::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Black carbon.\n", "Section::::Recording.\n", "Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (HO) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.\n\nThe greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are and HO.\n\nSection::::Optical properties.:Refractive index.\n", "Other colors occur naturally in clouds. Bluish-grey is the result of light scattering within the cloud. In the visible spectrum, blue and green are at the short end of light's visible wavelengths, while red and yellow are at the long end. The short rays are more easily scattered by water droplets, and the long rays are more likely to be absorbed. The bluish color is evidence that such scattering is being produced by rain-sized droplets in the cloud. A cumulonimbus cloud emitting green is a sign that it is a severe thunderstorm, capable of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes. The exact cause of green thunderstorms is still unknown, but it could be due to the combination of reddened sunlight passing through very optically thick clouds. Yellowish clouds may occur in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire season. The yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke. Yellowish clouds caused by the presence of nitrogen dioxide are sometimes seen in urban areas with high air pollution levels.\n", "Direct effect Black carbon particles directly absorb sunlight and reduce the planetary albedo when suspended in the atmosphere.\n\nSemi-direct effect Black carbon absorb incoming solar radiation, perturb the temperature structure of the atmosphere, and influence cloud cover. They may either increase or decrease cloud cover under different conditions.\n", "The storm's updraft, with upwardly directed wind speeds as high as , blow the forming hailstones up the cloud. As the hailstone ascends it passes into areas of the cloud where the concentration of humidity and supercooled water droplets varies. The hailstone's growth rate changes depending on the variation in humidity and supercooled water droplets that it encounters. The accretion rate of these water droplets is another factor in the hailstone's growth. When the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of water droplets, it captures the latter and acquires a translucent layer. Should the hailstone move into an area where mostly water vapour is available, it acquires a layer of opaque white ice.\n", "Studies have shown that cloud liquid water path varies with changing cloud droplet size, which may alter the behavior of clouds and their albedo. The variations of the albedo of typical clouds in the atmosphere are dominated by the column amount of liquid water and ice in the cloud. Cloud albedo varies from less than 10% to more than 90% and depends on drop sizes, liquid water or ice content, thickness of the cloud, and the sun's zenith angle. The smaller the drops and the greater the liquid water content, the greater the cloud albedo, if all other factors are the same.\n", "Stratocumulus Opacus is a dark layer of clouds covering entire sky without any break. However, the cloud sheet is not completely uniform, so that separate cloud bases still can be seen. This is the main precipitating type, however any rain is usually light. If the cloud layer becomes grayer to the point when individual clouds cannot be distinguished, stratocumulus turn into stratus clouds.\n\nStratocumulus Perlucidus is a layer of stratocumulus clouds with small spaces, appearing in irregular pattern, through which clear sky or higher clouds can be seen.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03645	So in the original Planet of the Apes film, were audiences legitimately lead to believe that the whole movie was taking place on another planet, only to have the ending reveal it was in fact Earth? Or was it that they knew it was Earth, but the characters in the film didn't?	It was suppose to be that the audiences didn't know it was earth until that statue of liberty scene. Everything else was suppose to draw you away from thinking it was earth. For alot of people it worked like me when I was a kid, but some people I know kinda figured it was earth all along	[ "In the first movie, Zira meets American astronaut George Taylor, who was shot in the throat when he was captured by gorillas, and cannot speak, as the native humans of her world cannot. She tends to his throat wound, discovers Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she's seen, and pairs him with Nova, also intelligent, hoping the two will breed. When Taylor steals Zira's notepad and writes his own name on it, Zira abruptly drops the nickname \"Bright Eyes\" she'd given him, and takes Taylor to meet Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor's story that he's from another planet, but suppose that he might be a missing link, to explain the similarities between ape and human behaviour and anatomy... and the strange artifacts Cornelius found at an archaeological dig the year before. She seems to be fond of the humans that she works with and gives them nicknames, such as an old one she named \"Old Timer\".\n", "Taken to Ape City and caged, Taylor and a mute female (whom he later calls Nova) share a laboratory cell, and chimpanzee psychologist Dr. Zira hopes the two will mate. When Zira discovers that Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she has ever seen, she takes him out of the laboratory to meet her fiancé Dr. Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor's assertion that he's actually a visitor from a faraway planet, but they think he might be living proof of human intelligence – if not a missing link between humans and their \"evolved superiors\", the apes.\n", "In 1968's \"Planet of the Apes\", Cornelius is introduced as the fiancé of Dr. Zira, an animal psychologist and veterinarian (who specializes in working with humans), both of whom are on the scientific staff of Dr. Zaius. While supporting the status quo, Cornelius has begun to question the infallibility of the Sacred Scrolls, which give the religious and mythological history of the ape society, and is considering the validity of evolution (specifically, from human to ape) to explain the scientific gaps in the scrolls.\n", "By 1993, Fox hired Don Murphy and Jane Hamsher as producers. Sam Raimi and Oliver Stone were being considered as possible directors, though Stone signed on as executive producer/co-writer with a $1 million salary. On the storyline, Stone explained in December 1993, \"It has the discovery of cryogenically frozen Vedic Apes who hold the secret numeric codes to the Bible that foretold the end of civilizations. It deals with past versus the future. My concept is that there's a code inscribed in the Bible that predicts all historical events. The apes were there at the beginning and figured it all out.\"\n", "Roddy McDowall could not return for his role in this sequel, because he was in Scotland directing \"Tam Lin\". Actor David Watson portrayed Cornelius in this film with McDowall only appearing briefly in clips from the first film used during \"Beneath\"'s pre-title sequence. Along with the animated series \"Return to the Planet of the Apes\", this film is one of only two 1970s \"Planet of the Apes\" productions in which McDowall does not appear. Orson Welles was offered the role of General Ursus, but he turned it down objecting against spending all his screentime in a mask and make-up. The part ultimately went to James Gregory.\n", "Despite \"Beneath the Planet of the Apes\" ending in a way that seemed to prevent the series from continuing forward, 20th Century Fox still wanted a sequel. Roddy McDowell, in the franchise documentary \"Behind the Planet of the Apes\", stated that Arthur P. Jacobs sent \"Beneath\" screenwriter Paul Dehn a telegram concerning the sequel that read \"Apes exist, Sequel required.\" and Dehn decided to create an out from the destructive ending of \"Beneath\" by having Cornelius and Zira going back in time with a Leonardo da Vinci-like ape after fixing Taylor's spaceship before the Earth was destroyed. Dehn also consulted Pierre Boulle, writer of the \"Planet of the Apes\" novel, to imbue his script with similar satirical elements. The screenplay, originally titled \"Secret of the Planet of the Apes\", accommodated the smaller budget by having fewer people in ape make-up, and attracted director Don Taylor by its humor and focus on the chimpanzee couple.\n", "Beneath the Planet of the Apes\n\nBeneath the Planet of the Apes is a 1970 American science fiction film directed by Ted Post and written by Paul Dehn. It is the second of five films in the original \"Planet of the Apes\" series produced by Arthur P. Jacobs. The film stars James Franciscus, Kim Hunter, Maurice Evans, and Linda Harrison, and features Charlton Heston in a supporting role.\n", "In \"Planet of the Apes\" (1968), Nova is a primitive girl who is captured by the intelligent and warlike apes during one of their hunting expeditions. American astronaut George Taylor is also captured. They are taken to Ape City where they are paired up in a cell. Taylor, having been shot through the throat by a gorilla, is unable to speak, but when his speech returns he befriends the chimpanzees Zira and Cornelius. They eventually help Taylor and Nova escape to the Forbidden Zone where Taylor learns the truth about the planet.\n", "Following the events of \"Planet of the Apes\", time-displaced astronaut Taylor and the mute Nova ride horseback through the desert of the Forbidden Zone in search of a new life far away from Ape City. Without warning, fire shoots up from the ground and deep chasms open. Confused by the strange phenomenon, Taylor investigates a cliff wall and disappears through it before Nova's eyes. The phenomena disappears, leaving Nova alone.\n", "BULLET::::- In the original \"Planet of the Apes\" film, astronauts attempt to leave the Solar System for the first time, aiming for Alpha Centauri. However, unexplained phenomena cause their small vessel to change course while the crew is in cryostasis. They wake upon landing on an inhabitable but harsh planet that they later learn is a future Earth, dominated by sapient apes. However, in the original Pierre Boulle novel and the 2001 film, both of the same name, the astronauts find civilizations of apes on another planet, but suffer a rude shock upon returning to Earth, finding it besieged by apes.\n", "To convince the Fox Studio that a \"Planet of the Apes\" film could be made, the producers shot a brief test scene from a Rod Serling draft of the script, using early versions of the ape makeup, on March 8, 1966. Charlton Heston appeared as an early version of Taylor (named Thomas, as he was in the Serling-penned drafts), Edward G. Robinson appeared as Zaius, while two then-unknown Fox contract actors, James Brolin and Linda Harrison, played Cornelius and Zira. This test footage is included on several DVD releases of the film, as well as the documentary \"Behind the Planet of the Apes\". Linda Harrison, at the time the girlfriend of studio chief Richard D. Zanuck, went on to play Nova in the 1968 film and its first sequel, and had a cameo in Tim Burton's \"Planet of the Apes\" more than 30 years later, which was also produced by Zanuck. Although Harrison often opined that the producers had always had her in mind for the role of Nova, they had, in fact, considered first Ursula Andress, then Raquel Welch, and Angelique Pettyjohn. When these three women proved unavailable or uninterested, Zanuck gave the part to Harrison. Dr. Zaius was originally to have been played by Robinson, but he backed out due to the heavy makeup and long sessions required to apply it. Robinson later made his final film, \"Soylent Green\" (1973), opposite his one-time \"Ten Commandments\" (1956) co-star Heston.\n", "Initially, writer Paul Dehn who had provided the script for every previous sequel was hired to provide a story treatment for the fifth film in the series. Dehn withdrew from the project prior to completing the screenplay due to health reasons. Screenwriters John William Corrington and Joyce Hooper Corrington were brought in after the success of their film \"The Omega Man,\" although prior to that neither one of them had written any science fiction films. Joyce Carrington later admitted they had never seen any of the \"Apes\" films prior to being hired to write the script for \"Battle.\" Dehn was unavailable for the initial rewrites but was hired to come in and do a final polish on the script making minor changes to the script that the Corringtons had written. Dehn was given a story credit despite an appeal to the Writer's Guild of America for shared credit on the screenplay. Dehn claimed to have rewritten 90% of the dialogue and he altered the ending. The original script by the Corringtons ended on a playground with ape and human children fighting. Dehn chose to go with a close up of a statue of Caesar with a tear falling from its eye which Joyce Corrington characterized as \"...stupid. It turned our stomachs when we saw it.\" The Writer's Guild of America ruled in favor of the Corringtons for sole screenplay credit.\n", "Section::::Production.:Continuity.\n\nScreenplay writer Paul Dehn, who wrote and co-wrote the sequels, said in interviews with \"Cinefantastique\" (quoted in \"The Planet of the Apes Chronicles\", by Paul Woods) that the story he was writing had a circular timeline:\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nThe film received mixed to positive reviews from critics at the time of its release. \n", "Arriving at the cave, Cornelius is intercepted by Zaius and his soldiers, with Taylor holding them off while threatening to shoot if he has to. Zaius agrees to enter the cave to disprove their theories and to avoid physical harm to Cornelius and Zira. Inside, Cornelius displays the remnants of a technologically advanced human society pre-dating simian history. Taylor identifies artifacts such as dentures, eyeglasses, a heart valve and, to the apes' astonishment, a talking children's doll. More soldiers appear and Lucius is overpowered, but Taylor holds Zaius hostage so he can arrange his escape. Zaius admits to Taylor that he always knew of the ancient human civilization, revealing that \"the Forbidden Zone was once a paradise, your breed made a desert of it... ages ago!\" Taylor nonetheless thinks it best to search for answers, despite being warned that he may not like what he finds. Once Taylor and Nova have ridden off, Dr. Zaius has the gorillas lay explosives to seal off the cave and destroy the evidence while charging Zira, Cornelius and Lucius with heresy.\n", "Four space explorers reach a planet and find that they are on a planet is populated by intelligent apes and humans are primitive. Thomas becomes the only survivor as the only one who hasn't being shot or lobotmised by the apes. Dr Zira soon realizes that Thomas is an intelligent human after written notes that he was can understand. Soon Thomas becomes a celebrity as a talking human and explains that he is from another planet called Earth and wishes to return to his planet. Thomas, Zira find an excavation site which proves humans where intelligent and had a bomb shelter and even a talking human doll. The other human apes offer to Thomas the option to run away with his human female mate Nova (who he had earlier in the story taught Nova to speak and even serve tea). But refuse looking in the distance saying he can't return to Earth. Dr Zira queries why Thomas refused to leave after being shot but her answer is dismissed as humans are seen as primitive and in the distance is a destroyed image of the Statue of Liberty.\n", "Dehn also added to the latter part of the film regarding the chase for Cornelius, Zira and their son references to racial conflicts and a few religious overtones to the story of Jesus - a line of dialogue even has the President comparing the plan to kill an unborn child to the Massacre of the Innocents. While Kim Hunter had to be convinced by the studio to make \"Beneath\", she liked the script for \"Escape from the Planet of the Apes\" and accepted the job, though Hunter also stated that \"I was very glad I was killed off\" and Zira was not required anymore after that film. Hunter stated that despite the friendly atmosphere on the set, she and Roddy McDowall felt a sense of isolation for being the only people dressed as chimpanzees. Production was rushed due to the low budget, being filmed in only six weeks, from November 30, 1970 to January 19, 1971.\n", "Director Franklin J. Schaffner was invited to return to the series, but declined due to a commitment to \"Patton\". Television and film director Ted Post was approached, and while objecting to the script for \"not making a point at all\", the producers asked what he did not like. Post then wrote a letter saying that \"the loss of a planet is the loss of all hope\". Post tried to get the other writer of the original, Michael Wilson, but a budget cut prevented him from doing so. Post and Franciscus – who wanted to help clarify the actions of and give depth to the character of Brent – spent a week rewriting the script, leading to over fifty pages of notes suggesting story ideas to fix some of the narrative problems in Paul Dehn's script.\n", "A hearing to determine Taylor's origins is convened by the president of the Assembly (James Whitmore), Dr. Zaius, and Maximus (Woodrow Parfrey). Dr. Honorious (James Daly) is the prosecutor. Taylor mentions his two comrades at this time, learning that Landon was subjected to a lobotomy that has rendered him catatonic and unable to speak. After the tribunal, believing Taylor to be of a human tribe from beyond their borders, Zaius privately threatens to castrate and lobotomize Taylor for the truth about where he came from. With help from Zira's socially rebellious nephew Lucius (Lou Wagner), Zira and Cornelius free Taylor and Nova and take them to the Forbidden Zone, a taboo region outside Ape City that has been ruled out of bounds for centuries by Ape Law where Taylor's ship crashed. While Cornelius and Zira are intent to gather proof of an earlier non-simian civilization which the former came upon a year prior to be cleared of heresy, Taylor is more focused on the evolution of the ape world and to prove he is not of that world.\n", "Section::::Characters exclusive to \"Planet of the Apes\" (1968-1973).:Dr. Zaius.:\"Escape from the Planet of the Apes\".\n\nDuring the third movie (\"Escape from the Planet of the Apes\") Cornelius relates how he learned the truth about humans and apes from reading secret scrolls. Cornelius presumably had access to these while working for Dr. Zaius (or after his departure), or perhaps was granted access by Zaius as a consolation for the loss of his archaeological work.\n\nSection::::Characters exclusive to \"Planet of the Apes\" (1968-1973).:Dr. Zaius.:Television.\n", "Soon after \"Planet of the Apes\" became a hit, a sequel started being considered by 20th Century Fox. Screenwriter Rod Serling was consulted, but his ideas did not interest the studio. Then the producers turned to the author of the original novel, Pierre Boulle, who wrote a draft for a sequel called \"Planet of the Men\", where protagonist George Taylor would lead an uprising of the enslaved men to take back control from the apes as the gorilla general Ursus wants to fight humans. Boulle's script was rejected as it was felt that it lacked the \"visual shock and the surprise\" of the original. Associate producer Mort Abrahams then wrote story elements, and British writer Paul Dehn was hired to develop them into a script, tentatively called \"Planet of the Apes Revisited\". Dehn implemented his trauma of the 1945 atomic bombings and the fear of nuclear warfare on the story. One of the elements thought up by Abrahams and Dehn was a half-human, half-ape child, but despite even going through make-up tests this was dropped due to the implication of bestiality. According to screenwriter Dehn the idea for \"Beneath the Planet of the Apes\" came about from the end of the first movie which suggested that New York City was buried underground.\n", "Based on the strong positive response to \"Escape\", Fox ordered \"Conquest of the Planet of the Apes\", though it provided a comparatively low budget of $1.7 million. Paul Dehn returned as the scriptwriter, and producer Jacobs hired J. Lee Thompson to direct. Thompson had worked with Jacobs on two earlier films as well as during the initial stages of \"Planet\", but scheduling conflicts had made him unavailable during its long development process. For \"Conquest\", Thompson and Dehn focused heavily on the racial conflict theme, an ancillary concern in the early films that became a central focus in \"Escape\". In particular, Dehn associated the apes with African-Americans and modeled the plot after the 1966 Watts Riots and other episodes from the Civil Rights Movement. Roddy McDowall signed on to play Caesar, the son of his previous character Cornelius. Ricardo Montalban returned as Armando, while Don Murray played Governor Breck, Severn Darden played Kolp and Hari Rhodes played MacDonald.\n", "BULLET::::- Some works, such as \"Star Wars\" series and many fantasy works, never mention the Earth at all (although a proposed novel, Robert J. Sawyer's \"Alien Exodus\", would have linked Earth to the \"Star Wars\" universe). This allows the author to operate in a realm unfamiliar and otherworldly to the reader or to explore contentious issues and historical themes in an otherwise entirely alien environment, giving the work a radically different perspective. In the \"Homeworld\" games for example, Earth's existence is unknown – and indeed entirely immaterial – as the games take place in a different galaxy altogether (specifically the Whirlpool Galaxy). However, judging by the appearance of members of the Kushan/Hiigaran people, most notably Karan S'jet, Hiigaran biology is at least outwardly similar, if not identical, to human biology.\n", "BULLET::::6. (19) Cave-In (May 4, 2018) - Back at the temple, Danny and Zippi explore a secret tunnel while the others deal with a sudden cave-in. Botila meets her match in a ship's computer.\n\nBULLET::::7. (20) Sky's the Limit (May 4, 2018) - Lukas helps rescue a stranged baby dino, the apes reveal what Danny's key can do, and Botila puts her new powers to use in space.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- James Franciscus as Brent\n\nBULLET::::- Kim Hunter as Zira\n\nBULLET::::- Maurice Evans as Dr. Zaius\n\nBULLET::::- Linda Harrison as Nova\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Richards as Mendez\n\nBULLET::::- Victor Buono as Adiposo (credited as Fat Man)\n\nBULLET::::- James Gregory as General Ursus\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Corey as Caspay\n\nBULLET::::- Natalie Trundy as Albina\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Gomez as Minister\n\nBULLET::::- Don Pedro Colley as Ongaro (credited as Negro)\n\nBULLET::::- David Watson as Cornelius\n\nBULLET::::- Tod Andrews as Skipper\n\nBULLET::::- Gregory Sierra as Verger\n\nBULLET::::- Charlton Heston as Taylor\n\nBULLET::::- Roddy McDowall as Cornelius (uncredited, opening archive footage from \"Planet of the Apes\")\n", "Not knowing what else to do, and unable to explain Taylor's absence, Nova takes Brent to Ape City, to look for Zira. Brent overhears an anti-human speech by General Ursus, and his mind reels with mounting horror at the place he's come to: \"If this place has a name, it's the Planet Nightmare!\" Wounded by a gorilla soldier, Brent takes refuge with Nova at the home of Zira and Cornelius.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02523	How do scientists calculate the approximate surface area, mass, and weight of planets?	Well, mass and weight are related. In order to determine the mass of a planet, we simply need to see how much gravity the planet generates (gravity is proportional to mass and inversely proportional distance squared). We can observe this by observing the moons orbiting them - how far away they are and how fast they complete one revolution around the planet. For size/surface area, if we know how far a planet is from us, and the angular size of the planet in our telescopes, we can determine the size of the planet using SOHCAHTOA. Tangent(angle) = size of the planet / distance from Earth to the planet.	[ "BULLET::::- Also, numerous other methods can give reasonable approximations. For instance, Varuna, a potential dwarf planet, rotates very quickly upon its axis, as does the dwarf planet Haumea. Haumea has to have a very high density in order not to be ripped apart by centrifugal forces. Through some calculations, one can place a limit on the object's density. Thus, if the object's size is known, a limit on the mass can be determined. See the links in the aforementioned articles for more details on this.\n\nSection::::Choice of units.\n", "The mass of a planet within the Solar System is an adjusted parameter in the preparation of ephemerides. There are three variations of how planetary mass can be calculated:\n\nBULLET::::- If the planet has natural satellites, its mass can be calculated using Newton's law of universal gravitation to derive a generalization of Kepler's third law that includes the mass of the planet and its moon. This permitted an early measurement of Jupiter's mass, as measured in units of the solar mass.\n", "The construction of a full, high-precision Solar System ephemeris is an onerous task. It is possible (and somewhat simpler) to construct partial ephemerides which only concern the planets (or dwarf planets, satellites, asteroids) of interest by \"fixing\" the motion of the other planets in the model. The two methods are not strictly equivalent, especially when it comes to assigning uncertainties to the results: however, the \"best\" estimates – at least in terms of quoted uncertainties in the result – for the masses of minor planets and asteroids usually come from partial ephemerides.\n", "There are uncertainties in the figures for mass and radius, and irregularities in the shape and density, with accuracy often depending on how close the object is to Earth or whether it has been visited by a probe.\n\nSection::::List of objects by radius.\n\nSection::::List of objects by radius.:Larger than 400 km.\n", "When comparing the planets among themselves, it is often convenient to use the mass of the Earth (\"M\" or ) as a standard, particularly for the terrestrial planets. For the mass of gas giants, and also for most extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs, the mass of Jupiter () is a convenient comparison.\n\nSection::::Planetary mass and planet formation.\n", "If N is large (not so much in Solar System simulations, but more in galaxy simulations) it is customary to create dynamic groups of bodies. All bodies in a particular direction and on large distance from the reference body, which is being calculated at that moment, are taken together and their gravitational attraction is averaged over the whole group.\n", "The choice of solar mass, , as the basic unit for planetary mass comes directly from the calculations used to determine planetary mass. In the most precise case, that of the Earth itself, the mass is known in terms of solar masses to twelve significant figures: the same mass, in terms of kilograms or other Earth-based units, is only known to five significant figures, which is less than a millionth as precise.\n", "Planetary mass\n\nPlanetary mass is a measure of the mass of a planet-like object. Within the Solar System, planets are usually measured in the astronomical system of units, where the unit of mass is the solar mass (), the mass of the Sun. In the study of extrasolar planets, the unit of measure is typically the mass of Jupiter () for large gas giant planets, and the mass of Earth () for smaller rocky terrestrial planets.\n", "However, when there are multiple planets in the system that orbit relatively close to each other and have sufficient mass, orbital stability analysis allows one to constrain the maximum mass of these planets. The radial velocity method can be used to confirm findings made by the transit method. When both methods are used in combination, then the planet's true mass can be estimated.\n", "The geocentric gravitational constant – the product of the mass of the Earth times the Newtonian gravitational constant – can be measured to high precision from the orbits of the Moon and of artificial satellites. The ratio of the two masses can be determined from the slight wobble in the Earth's orbit caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon.\n\nSection::::More recent values.\n", "The table below shows comparative gravitational accelerations at the surface of the Sun, the Earth's moon, each of the planets in the solar system. The “surface” is taken to mean the cloud tops of the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune). For the Sun, the surface is taken to mean the photosphere. The values in the table have not been de-rated for the centrifugal effect of planet rotation (and cloud-top wind speeds for the gas giants) and therefore, generally speaking, are similar to the actual gravity that would be experienced near the poles.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- the English unit\n", "For the ratios of the radii of the outer planets' deferents to radius of the Earth, the \"Commentariolus\" gives 1 for Mars, 5 for Jupiter, and 9 for Saturn. For the ratios of the radii of their deferents to the radii of the larger of their epicycles, it gives 6 for Mars, 12 for Jupiter, and 11 for Saturn.\n\nSection::::Summary.:Venus.\n\nIn the last two sections Copernicus talks about Venus and Mercury. The first has a system of circles and takes 9 months to complete a revolution.\n\nSection::::Summary.:Mercury.\n", "Such estimates can be indicated as approximate by use of a tilde \"~\". Besides these \"guesstimates\", masses can be obtained for the larger asteroids by solving for the perturbations they cause in each other's orbits, or when the asteroid has an orbiting companion of known orbital radius. The masses of the largest asteroids 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, and 4 Vesta can also be obtained from perturbations of Mars.\n\nWhile these perturbations are tiny, they can be accurately measured from radar ranging data from the Earth to spacecraft on the surface of Mars, such as the Viking landers.\n\nSection::::Density.\n", "During the 18–19th centuries, the study of the three-body problem by Leonhard Euler, Alexis Claude Clairaut, and Jean le Rond d'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.\n", "Section::::Formula and examples.\n\nIf the mass of the smaller body (e.g. Earth) is formula_1, and it orbits a heavier body (e.g. Sun) of mass formula_2 with a semi-major axis formula_3 and an eccentricity of formula_4, then the radius formula_5 of the Hill sphere of the smaller body (e.g. Earth) calculated at pericenter is, approximately\n\nWhen eccentricity is negligible (the most favourable case for orbital stability), this becomes\n", "Transit-timing variation can also be used to find a planet's mass.\n\nSection::::Physical parameters.:Radius, density, and bulk composition.\n\nPrior to recent results from the \"Kepler\" space observatory, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are most easily detected. However, the planets detected by \"Kepler\" are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.\n", "where formula_25 and formula_26 are the average densities of the primary and secondary bodies, and formula_27 and formula_28 are their radii. The second approximation is justified by the fact that, for most cases in the Solar System, formula_29 happens to be close to one. (The Earth–Moon system is the largest exception, and this approximation is within 20% for most of Saturn's satellites.) This is also convenient, because many planetary astronomers work in and remember distances in units of planetary radii.\n\nSection::::Formula and examples.:True region of stability.\n", "times that of Earth. Without using the Earth as a reference body, the surface gravity may also be calculated directly from Newton's law of universal gravitation, which gives the formula\n\nwhere \"M\" is the mass of the object, \"r\" is its radius, and \"G\" is the gravitational constant. If we let \"ρ\" = \"M\"/\"V\" denote the mean density of the object, we can also write this as\n\nso that, for fixed mean density, the surface gravity \"g\" is proportional to the radius \"r\".\n", "The modern method consists of numerical integration in 3-dimensional space. One starts with a high accuracy value for the position (\"x\", \"y\", \"z\") and the velocity (\"v\", \"v\", \"v\") for each of the bodies involved. When also the mass of each body is known, the acceleration (\"a\", \"a\", \"a\") can be calculated from Newton's Law of Gravitation. Each body attracts each other body, the total acceleration being the sum of all these attractions. Next one chooses a small time-step Δ\"t\" and applies Newton's Second Law of Motion. The acceleration multiplied with Δ\"t\" gives a correction to the velocity. The velocity multiplied with Δ\"t\" gives a correction to the position. This procedure is repeated for all other bodies.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Mass, orbit, and composition.\n", "Solar mass also has a special use when estimating orbital periods and distances of 2 bodies using Kepler's laws: \"a = MT\", where \"a\" is length of semi-major axis in AU, \"T\" is orbital period in years and \"M\" is the combined mass of objects in . In case of planet orbiting a star, \"M\" can be approximated to mean the mass of the central object. More specifically in the case of Sun and Earth the numbers reduce to \"M\" ~ 1, \"a\" ~ 1 and \"T\" ~ 1.\n\nSection::::Time.\n\nSection::::Time.:Light-distance.\n", "To calculate the accelerations the gravitational attraction of each body on each other body is to be taken into account. As a consequence the amount of calculation in the simulation goes up with the square of the number of bodies: Doubling the number of bodies increases the work with a factor four. To increase the accuracy of the simulation not only more decimals are to be taken but also smaller timesteps, again quickly increasing the amount of work. Evidently tricks are to be applied to reduce the amount of work. Some of these tricks are given here.\n", "Nevertheless, new complete ephemerides continue to be prepared, most notably the EPM2004 ephemeris from the Institute of Applied Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences. EPM2004 is based on separate observations between 1913 and 2003, more than seven times as many as DE405, and gave more precise masses for Ceres and five asteroids.\n\nSection::::IAU best estimates (2009).\n\nA new set of \"current best estimates\" for various astronomical constants was approved the 27th General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in August 2009.\n\nSection::::IAU current best estimates (2012).\n", "Section::::Planetary system.\n\nThe five planets discovered around Kepler-186 are all expected to have a solid surface. The smallest one, Kepler-186b, is only 8% larger than Earth, while the largest one, Kepler-186d, is almost 40% larger.\n", "The theoretical minimum mass a star can have, and still undergo hydrogen fusion at the core, is estimated to be about , though fusion of deuterium can occur at masses as low as 13 Jupiters.\n\nSection::::Values from the DE405 ephemeris.\n\nThe DE405/LE405 ephemeris from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory is a widely used ephemeris dating from 1998 and covering the whole Solar System. As such, the planetary masses form a self-consistent set, which is not always the case for more recent data (see below).\n\nSection::::Values from the DE405 ephemeris.:Earth mass and lunar mass.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01887	If a person jumped into a hole that began on one side of the globe and stretched to the other side would they fly into the air while exiting the hole or would they land safely on their feet? (Assuming no obstructions in the hole)	Neither. Assuming that you ignore the fact that the temperature and pressure in the middle of the earth would kill them, they'd make it most of the way to the other side, but then start falling back down the way they came. They'd get even less close to the entrance where they jumped in, and switch directions again. They'd oscillate back and forth like that for a while before eventually settling into the center of the earth, weightless, and unable to escape without climbing the walls. This is because friction with the air will slow them down during their fall and subsequent ascent.	[ "‘Kruse was having an incredibly difficult time simply trying to dress himself. He put his climbing harness on inside out, threaded it through the fly of his wind suit, and failed to fasten the buckle; fortunately, Fisher and Neal Beidleman noticed the screwup before Kruse started to descend. \"If he'd tried to rappel down the ropes like that,\" says Beidleman, \"he would have immediately popped out of his harness and fallen to the bottom of the Lhotse Face.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In April 2008, Hervé Le Gallou and David McDonnell infiltrated Burj Khalifa and jumped off a balcony on the 155th floor. They evaded arrest following their successful jump. However, on a second attempt two days later, Le Gallou was caught and subsequently detained in Dubai for three months.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2009, three women—29-year-old Australian Livia Dickie, 28-year-old Venezuelan Ana Isabel Dao, and 32-year-old Norwegian Anniken Binz—base-jumped from Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world. Ana Isabel Dao was the first Venezuelan woman to jump off Angel Falls.\n", "BULLET::::- 26 August 2016: Armin Schmieder (28), an Italian base jumper, died after jumping from Kandersteg, in the Swiss Alps.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 November 2016: Mehdi Habibi, Iranian base jumper, died after jumping with Wingsuit from the “High Ultimate” in Lauterbrunnen, Mürren area in the Swiss Alps. He was found dead in rough terrain by a team of Air Glaciers in the afternoon of the same day according to the local police report. His body was subsequently recovered by the rescue team. The incident is believed to have occurred around 9 AM on Friday 18 November.\n", "Some places, (for example, the Altiplano in Peru and Bolivia, or the plateau around Asmara (where the airport is) in Eritrea, and some mountain passes), are many thousand feet above sea level and travelling to such places after diving at lower altitude should be treated as flying at the equivalent altitude after diving.\n\nSection::::Technical diving.\n", "A skydiver or paraglider pilot under a cumulonimbus is exposed to a potentially deadly risk of being rapidly sucked up to the top the cloud and being suffocated, struck by lightning, or frozen. If he survives, he may suffer irreversible brain damage due to lack of oxygen or an amputation as a consequence of frostbite. German paraglider pilot Ewa Wiśnierska barely survived a climb of more than inside a cumulonimbus.\n\nSection::::Flight inside cumulonimbus.:Commercial aviation.\n", "Section::::Scenarios.:Height of lower-velocity trajectories.\n\nIgnoring all factors other than the gravitational force between the body and the object, an object projected vertically at speed formula_16 from the surface of a spherical body with escape velocity formula_6 and radius formula_18 will attain a maximum height formula_19 satisfying the equation\n\nwhich, solving for \"h\" results in\n\nwhere formula_22 is the ratio of the original speed formula_16 to the escape velocity formula_24\n\nUnlike escape velocity, the direction (vertically up) is important to achieve maximum height.\n\nSection::::Trajectory.\n", "In 2004, the TV show \"MythBusters\" examined if explosive decompression occurs when a bullet is fired through the fuselage of an airplane by informally using a pressurised aircraft and several scale tests. The results of these tests suggested that the fuselage design does not allow people to be blown out. Professional pilot David Lombardo states that a bullet hole would have no perceived effect on cabin pressure as the hole would be smaller than the opening of the aircraft's outflow valve. NASA scientist Geoffrey A. Landis points out though that the impact depends on the size of the hole, which can be expanded by debris that is blown through it. Landis went on to say that \"it would take about 100 seconds for pressure to equalise through a roughly hole in the fuselage of a Boeing 747.\" He then stated that anyone sitting next to the hole would have half a ton of force pulling them in the direction of it. On April 17, 2018 a seat-belted woman on Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 was partially blown through an airplane window that had been broken due to debris from an engine failure. Although the other passengers were able to pull her back inside, she later died from her injuries.\n", "Parachute jumper and stuntman Luke Aikins successfully jumped without a parachute from about into a net in California, US, on 30 July 2016.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Equations for a falling body\n\nBULLET::::- Reduced-gravity aircraft\n\nBULLET::::- Weightlessness\n\nBULLET::::- Terminal velocity\n\nBULLET::::- High-altitude military parachuting\n\nBULLET::::- G-force\n\nBULLET::::- Micro-g environment\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Unplanned Freefall? A slightly tongue-in-cheek look at surviving free-fall without a parachute.\n\nBULLET::::- Free fall accidents, mathematics of free fall – detailed research on the topic\n\nBULLET::::- Freefall formula calculator\n\nBULLET::::- Chuteless jump survivors\n\nBULLET::::- detailed account of origins and development of EXCELSIOR project\n", "The individuals come in four types:\n\nBULLET::::- Youngs - These normal-sized people can climb over moderate height obstacles, can jump, and can also assist each other or Mr. ESC in various tasks.\n\nBULLET::::- Children - Children can only climb over small heights but can be assisted by Mr. ESC or a normal adult. They cannot jump as far as adults, but can traverse passages too small for Mr. ESC or other adults.\n", "BULLET::::- 29 March 2014: Three experienced wingsuit flyers: New Zealander Dan Vicary (33), Frenchman Ludovic Woerth (34), and American Brian Drake (33) jumped from a helicopter over the Lütschental area near Bern, Switzerland. They had planned to land in the valley, but took a wrong turn, flew over the wrong ridge, and crashed into an Alpine pasture. Vicary and Woerth were found dead; Drake died four days later in a hospital.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1913, Russian student Vladimir Ossovski (Владимир Оссовский), from the Saint-Petersburg Conservatory, jumped from the 53-meter high bridge over the river Seine in Rouen (France), using the parachute RK-1, invented a year before that by Gleb Kotelnikov (1872–1944). Ossovski planned to jump from the Eiffel Tower too, but the Parisian authorities did not allow it.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1965, Erich Felbermayr from Wels jumped from the Kleine Zinne / Cima piccola di Lavaredo in the Dolomites.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1966, Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert jumped from El Capitan in the Yosemite Valley.\n", "BULLET::::- At the closing ceremonies of the Rio 2016 Olympics, they used the antipodes as a tool to invite viewers to the Tokyo 2020 Olympics. There was an image of the video game character Mario using his pipes to travel between Tokyo and Rio, arriving at the closing ceremonies.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2012 film \"Total Recall\", a gravity train called \"The Fall\" goes through the center of the Earth to allow people to commute between Western Europe and Australia.\n", "Wind shear or wind gradients are a threat to parachutists, particularly to BASE jumping and wingsuit flying. Skydivers have been pushed off of their course by sudden shifts in wind direction and speed, and have collided with bridges, cliffsides, trees, other skydivers, the ground, and other obstacles. Skydivers routinely make adjustments to the position of their open canopies to compensate for changes in direction while making landings to prevent accidents such as canopy collisions and canopy inversion.\n\nSection::::Vertical component.:Planetary boundary layer.:Effects on flight.:Soaring.\n", "BULLET::::- 10 July 2015: Damian Hrdlicka Long time skydiver and Yahoo sponsored sky surfer, found dead with nothing out, approx. of the way through his flight path at Gitschen, Switzerland.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 October 2015: American adventurer Johnny Strange (23) crashed into the ground and died after jumping from a 2,000 metre summit in the Swiss canton of Uri.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 June 2016: Brazilian Fernando Brito (42) died while trying to jump from Pedra da Gávea, Rio de Janeiro.\n", "The center of mass of the diver follows a parabolic path in free-fall under the influence of gravity (ignoring the effects of air resistance, which are negligible at the speeds involved).\n\nSection::::Mechanics of diving.:Trajectory.\n\nSince the parabola is symmetrical, the travel away from the board as the diver passes it is twice the amount of the forward travel at the peak of the flight. Excessive forward distance to the entry point is penalized when scoring a dive, but obviously an adequate clearance from the diving board is essential on safety grounds.\n", "Aerodium's outdoor wind tunnels have also gained interest from the film industry. During Expo 2010 Jackie Chan tried flying in a vertical tunnel of the Latvian pavilion. Two years later, in 2012, he spent 3 weeks training and filming in Latvia for an air fight scene for the movie \"Chinese Zodiac\".\n", "Section::::Scenarios.\n\nSection::::Scenarios.:From the surface of a body.\n\nAn alternative expression for the escape velocity formula_6 particularly useful at the surface on the body is:\n\nwhere \"r\" is the distance between the center of the body and the point at which escape velocity is being calculated and \"g\" is the gravitational acceleration at that distance (i.e., the surface gravity).\n\nFor a body with a spherically-symmetric distribution of mass, the escape velocity formula_6 from the surface is proportional to the radius assuming constant density, and proportional to the square root of the average density ρ.\n\nwhere formula_14\n\nSection::::Scenarios.:From a rotating body.\n", "BULLET::::- The lowest known point is Challenger Deep, at the bottom of the Mariana Trench, below sea level. Only six humans have reached the bottom of the trench: Jacques Piccard and U.S. Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh in 1960 aboard the bathyscaphe \"Trieste\", filmmaker James Cameron in 2012 aboard \"Deepsea Challenger\", as well as Victor Vescovo, Patrick Lahey, and Jonathan Struwe aboard the \"DSV Limiting Factor\" in 2019.\n", "Due to the phase change of water droplets (to ice), the cumulonimbus top is almost always turbulent. Moreover, the glider can become covered with ice, and the controls can freeze and remain stuck. Many accidents of this kind have occurred. If the pilot bails out and opens his parachute, he may be sucked upward (or at least held aloft) as happened to William Rankin after ejecting from an F-8 fighter jet and falling into a cumulonimbus (within which his parachute opened).\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nWhile landing under a parachute canopy, the jumper's feet strike the ground first and, immediately, he throws himself sideways to distribute the landing shock sequentially along five points of body contact with the ground:\n\nBULLET::::1. the balls of the feet\n\nBULLET::::2. the side of the calf\n\nBULLET::::3. the side of the thigh\n\nBULLET::::4. the side of the hip, or buttocks\n\nBULLET::::5. the side of the back (latissimus dorsi muscle)\n", "BULLET::::- At San Jose International Airport, a 16-year-old boy stows away in the wheel well of a Boeing 767 operating as Hawaiian Airlines Flight 45 from San Jose, California, to Kahului, Maui, Hawaii. Although the wheel well is unpressurized and the aircraft reaches an altitude of 38,000 feet (11,583 meters), the boy survives low atmospheric pressures and subfreezing temperatures and emerges unharmed at Kahului Airport after about 5½ hours in the air.\n\nBULLET::::- 21 April\n", "The Aeronauts (film)\n\nThe Aeronauts is an upcoming biographical adventure film directed by Tom Harper, from a story co-written with Jack Thorne and a screenplay solely by Thorne. Produced by Harper, Todd Lieberman, and David Hoberman, the film stars Eddie Redmayne, Felicity Jones, Phoebe Fox, Himesh Patel, Vincent Perez, and Anne Reid. \"The Aeronauts\" is scheduled to be released in the United States on December 6, 2019, in IMAX.\n\nSection::::Premise.\n\nPilot Amelia Wren and scientist James Glaisher find themselves in an epic fight for survival while attempting to make discoveries in a gas balloon.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n", "BULLET::::- The second phase is Adaptation and Resistance. It is the idea that recurring subjection builds natural immunity, and common handler movement and herding minimises an animals flight zone.\n\nBULLET::::- The third phase is Exhaustion. Strong, constant and over frequent stimulation of an animals flight zone may lead to death, decreases production and lower quality of life. According to the GAS, a full recovery from exhaustion is possible over time.\n\nSection::::Sample values.\n\nSample escape distances (mostly mean) from humans:\n\nBirds of Europe\n\nBirds of North America \n\nMammals of North America \n\nSection::::Factors affecting escape distances for birds.\n", "Section::::Physics.\n\nAs for the physics of the trick, it is centered around the manipulation of centripetal force. This is the force that acts on an object as it moves around in a circular path. All forces have a direction in which they push, and centripetal force is directed towards the center of the circular path. It can be calculated using the following formula:\n\nformula_1\n\nWhere:\n\nformula_2 is the centripetal force\n\nformula_3 is the mass of the object\n\nformula_4 is the speed at which the object is moving\n", "BULLET::::- diving before travelling to altitude – DCS can occur without flying if the person moves to a high-altitude location on land immediately after diving, for example, scuba divers in Eritrea who drive from the coast to the Asmara plateau at increase their risk of DCS.\n\nBULLET::::- diving at altitude – diving in water whose surface altitude is above — for example, Lake Titicaca is at — without using versions of decompression tables or dive computers that are modified for high-altitude.\n\nSection::::Predisposing factors.:Individual.\n\nThe following individual factors have been identified as possibly contributing to increased risk of DCS:\n" ]	[ "A person who jumped through a hole in earth would eitehr fly through the air or land safely on their feet on the other side.", "If a person fell in a hole that was double ended on both sides that lead to the other side of earth, they would either land safely on their feet or fly out the other side." ]	[ "The person will lose energy and slowly go back and forth through the center before eventually getting stuck there. ", "The person would neither land safely or fly out the other side because they would likely be killed due to the heat within the center of the Earth." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A person who jumped through a hole in earth would eitehr fly through the air or land safely on their feet on the other side.", "If a person fell in a hole that was double ended on both sides that lead to the other side of earth, they would either land safely on their feet or fly out the other side." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The person will lose energy and slowly go back and forth through the center before eventually getting stuck there. ", "The person would neither land safely or fly out the other side because they would likely be killed due to the heat within the center of the Earth." ]
2018-18244	How does ‘sharpening’ a knife/razor on leather make it sharper?	I believe the word your looking for is "Strop". Check out the link, it mostly answers your question I think. URL_0	[ "The word \"honing\" is ambiguous, and may refer to either fine sharpening (step 1.2) or straightening (step 2).\n\nThe finest level of sharpening is done most frequently, while the coarser levels are done progressively more rarely, and sharpening methods differ between blades and applications.\n\nFor example, a straight razor used for shaving is stropped before each use, and may be stropped part-way \"through\" use, while it will be fine sharpened on a stone a few times per year, and re-ground on a rough stone after several years.\n", "Knife sharpening\n\nKnife sharpening is the process of making a knife or similar tool sharp by grinding against a hard, rough surface, typically a stone, or a flexible surface with hard particles, such as sandpaper. Additionally, a leather razor strop, or strop, is often used to straighten and polish an edge. See simple sharpening tutorial.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Steeling.\n", "Sharpening\n\nSharpening is the process of creating or refining a sharp edge of appropriate shape on a tool or implement designed for cutting. Sharpening is done by grinding away material on the implement with an abrasive substance harder than the material of the implement, followed sometimes by processes to polish the sharp surface to increase smoothness and to correct small mechanical deformations without regrinding.\n\nSection::::Tools and materials for sharpening.\n", "Section::::Angles.\n", "Sharpening these implements can be expressed as the creation of two intersecting planes which produce an edge that is sharp enough to cut through the target material. For example, the blade of a steel knife is ground to a bevel so that the two sides of the blade meet. This edge is then refined by honing until the blade is capable of cutting.\n", "There are many different kinds of \"honing oils\" to suit different needs. It is important to use the appropriate solution for the job. In the case of knife sharpening, motor oil is too thick or \"heavy\" and can over-lubricate or clog a sharpening stone, whereas WD-40 is too \"light\" an oil and will not carry the metal filings plus stone dust (collectively known as \"swarf\") away from the stone, and clog it. Not using any oil at all will also clog or \"glaze\" the stone, again reducing its cutting power. Historically sperm whale oil, Neatsfoot oil, and other animal fats were popular.\n", "According to a study conducted by psychologists in 1945 leveling and sharpening is involved in the retelling of stories. A person retelling the story about Noah's Ark might do it in the following way:\n", "BULLET::::3. polishing (also called stropping): giving a mirror finish, but not significantly altering the edge.\n\nBULLET::::- polishing may also be achieved by buffing a blade: instead of moving the knife against a flat leather strop loaded with fine abrasive, the knife is held still and a powered circular cloth wheel is moved against the knife.\n\nNamed by tools, the same three stages are:\n\nBULLET::::1. grinding (on a grinding wheel) or whetting (on a whetstone)\n\nBULLET::::2. steeling, using a honing steel\n\nBULLET::::3. stropping, on a razor strop or buffing on a wheel\n", "Sharpening is the final stage in the process. At first the blade is sharpened on a grinding wheel. Following that the blade can be honed by holding the blades against the flat side of rotating round stones, or by drawing the blade across stationary flat stones. The cutting edge is finished using a strop. Sharpening is usually not completed during manufacturing, instead being done after purchase.\n\nSection::::Handle materials and their properties.\n", "Sharpening straight edges (knives, chisels, etc.) by hand can be divided into phases. First the edge is sharpened with an abrasive sharpening stone, or a succession of increasingly fine stones, which shape the blade by removing material; the finer the abrasive the finer the finish. Then the edge may be stropped by polishing the edge with a fine abrasive such as rouge or tripoli on a piece of stout leather or canvas. The edge may be steeled or honed by passing the blade against a hard metal or ceramic \"steel\" which plastically deforms and straightens the material of the blade's edge which may have been rolled over irregularly in use, but not enough to need complete resharpening.\n", "As well as coarse grinding, sharpeners also typically 'dress' the cutting edges with a sharpening stone or honing steel, secure or replace loose handles and generally offer advice and assistance regarding best practice. Some also sell knives and related products.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blade\n\nBULLET::::- Grinding machine\n\nBULLET::::- Knife sharpening\n\nBULLET::::- Razor strop\n\nBULLET::::- Saw set\n\nBULLET::::- Scary sharp\n\nBULLET::::- Sharpening jig\n\nBULLET::::- Sharpening stone\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- A Guide to Honing and Sharpening\n\nBULLET::::- https://scienceofsharp.wordpress.com/ True effects of various blade sharpening techniques, mostly on straight razors, shown by electron microscope.\n", "Section::::Stropping.\n\nStropping a knife is a finishing step. This is often done with a leather strap, either clean or impregnated with abrasive compounds (e.g. chromium(III) oxide or diamond), but can be done on paper, cardstock, cloth, or even bare skin in a pinch. It removes little or no metal material, but produces a very sharp edge by either straightening or very slightly reshaping the edge. Stropping may bring a somewhat sharp blade to \"like new\" condition.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Scienceofsharp, True effects of various blade sharpening techniques, mostly on straight razors, shown by electron microscope.\n", "Knife sharpening proceeds in several stages, in order from coarsest (most destructive) to finest (most delicate). These may be referred to either by the \"effect\" or by the \"tool\". Naming by effect, the stages are:\n\nBULLET::::1. sharpening: removing metal to form a \"new\" edge\n\nBULLET::::1. rough sharpening (using either water stones, oil stones, or medium grits of sandpaper in the scary sharp method of sharpening)\n\nBULLET::::2. fine sharpening (using the same tools as above, but in finer grits)\n\nBULLET::::2. straightening: straightening the \"existing\" metal on the blade, but not removing significant quantities of metal\n", "The extent to which this honing takes place depends upon the intended use of the tool or implement. For some applications an edge with a certain amount of \"jaggedness\" is acceptable, or even desirable, as this creates a serrated cutting edge. In other applications the edge must be as smooth as possible.\n\nSection::::Implements with essentially straight edges.:Steeling.\n", "Section::::Other types of implements.\n\nDifferent techniques are required where the edges are not straight. Special tools and skills are more often required, and sharpening is often best done by a specialist rather than the user of the tool.\n\nExamples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Drill bits - twist drills used for wood or steel are usually sharpened on a grinding wheel or within a purpose made grinding jig to an angle of 60° from vertical (120° total) although sharper angles may be used for hard or brittle materials such as glass.\n", "There are many ways of sharpening tools. Malleable metal surfaces such as bronze, iron and mild steel may be formed by beating or peening a flat surface into a sharp edge. This process also causes work hardening.\n\nAn abrasive material may be rubbed against the cutting edge to be sharpened. The most traditional abrasive material is a natural stone such as sandstone or granite.\n\nModern synthetic grinding wheels and flat sharpening stones can be manufactured in precise grades of abrasiveness according to the intended process. A sharp edge may be 'dressed' using a Honing steel\n", "Section::::Implements with essentially straight edges.\n\nMany implements have a cutting edge which is essentially straight. Knives, chisels, straight-edge razors, and scissors are examples. Sharpening a straight edge is relatively simple, and can be done by using either a simple sharpening device which is very easy to use but will not produce the best possible results, or by the skillful use of oil or water grinding stones, grinding wheels, hones, etc.\n", "Leveling and sharpening\n\nLeveling and sharpening are two functions that are automatic and exist within memory. \"Sharpening\" is usually the way people remember small details in the retelling of stories they have experienced or are retelling those stories. \"Leveling\" is when people keep out parts of stories and try to tone those stories down so that some parts are excluded. Therefore, it makes it easier to fill in the memory gaps that exist.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n", "Diamond stones can be useful in the sharpening process. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance known and as such can be used to sharpen almost any material. (Coarse diamond sharpening stones can be used for flattening waterstones.) Alternatively, tungsten carbide blades can be used in knife sharpening. \n", "Sharpening jig\n\nA sharpening jig is often used when sharpening woodworking tools. Many of the tools used in woodworking have steel blades which are sharpened to a fine edge. A cutting edge is created on the blade at the point at which two surfaces of the blade meet. To create this cutting edge a bevel is formed on the blade, usually by grinding. This bevel is subsequently refined by honing until a satisfactorily sharp edge is created.\n", "Different knives are sharpened differently according to grind (edge geometry) and application. For example, surgical scalpels are extremely sharp but fragile, and are generally disposed of, rather than sharpened, after use. Straight razors used for shaving must cut with minimal pressure, and thus must be very sharp with a small angle and often a hollow grind. Typically these are stropped daily or more often. Kitchen knives are less sharp, and generally cut by slicing rather than just pressing, and are steeled daily. At the other extreme, an axe for chopping wood will be less sharp still, and is primarily used to split wood by chopping, not by slicing, and may be reground but will not be sharpened daily. In general, but not always, the harder the material to be cut, the higher (duller) the angle of the edge.\n", "Jointing (sharpening)\n\nJointing refers to the process of filing or grinding the teeth or knives of cutting tools prior to sharpening. The purpose of jointing is to ensure that all surfaces to be sharpened are of a consistent size and all imperfections have been removed. \n\nJointing is usually the first step in the process of sharpening:\n\nBULLET::::- When sharpening a hand saw blade, the teeth are jointed by running a flat file over the tips of the teeth so that they are all of the same height.\n", "The basics of the method involves holding the cutting area of the chisel or plane iron flat to the sandpaper and gently moving back and forth in either side to side or back to front motions, as one would with a sharpening stone. The blade is taken through a series of increasingly finer grades of sandpaper.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "The process involves moving the strip past precision-profiled slotted tools made to an exact shape, or past plain cutting tools. The tools are all usually made of tungsten carbide-based compounds. In early machines, it was necessary to precisely position the strip relative to the cutting tools, but newer machines use a floating suspension technology which enables tools to locate by material contact. This allows mutual initial positioning differences up to approximately 12 mm (0.47 in) followed by resilient automatic engagement. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21107	How exactly did the North Sentinelese migrate to their island from Africa?	At one point a group of modern H. sapiens walked out of Africa and headed eastward to what we call the Indian subcontinent. From their they presumably rafted their way to the islands and found the area sufficient for their needs. Humans have a tendency to wander and the ability to come up with new ways to wander when otherwise prevented from doing so by terrain.	[ "The first recorded visit to the island by a colonial officer was by Jeremiah Homfray in 1867. He recorded seeing naked islanders catching fish with bows and arrows, and was informed by the Great Andamanese that they were Jarawas.\n", "Temple also recorded a case where a Sentinelese apparently drifted off to the Onge and fraternized with them over the course of two years. When Temple and Portman accompanied him to the tribe and attempted to establish friendly contact, they did not recognize the individual and responded aggressively by shooting arrows at the group. The man refused to remain on the island. Portman cast doubt on the exact time span the Sentinelese spent with the Onge, and believed that he had probably been raised by the Onge since childhood.\n", "The first peaceful contact with the Sentinelese was made by Triloknath Pandit, a director of the Anthropological Survey of India, and his colleagues on 4 January 1991. Indian visits to the island ceased in 1997.\n\nThe Sentinelese survived the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and its after-effects, including the tsunami and the uplifting of the island. Three days after the earthquake, an Indian government helicopter observed several islanders, who shot arrows and threw spears and stones at the helicopter. Although the tsunami disturbed the tribal fishing grounds, the Sentinelese appear to have adapted.\n", "In 1991, the first instances of peaceful contact were recorded in the course of two routine expeditions by an Indian anthropological team consisting of various representatives of diverse governmental departments and Madhumala Chattopadhyay.\n", "In 1880, in an effort to establish contact with the Sentinelese, British naval officer Maurice Vidal Portman, who was serving as a colonial administrator to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, led an armed group of Europeans along with convict-orderlies and Andamanese trackers (whom they had already befriended) to North Sentinel Island. On their arrival, the islanders fled into the treeline. After several days of futile search, during which they found abandoned villages and paths, Portman's men captured six individuals, an elderly man and woman and four children. The man and woman died shortly after their arrival in Port Blair and the children sickened. Portman hurriedly sent the children back to the North Sentinel Island with ample gifts to establish friendly contact and noted their \"peculiarly idiotic expression of countenance, and manner of behaving\".\n", "There is significant uncertainty as to the group's size, with estimates ranging between 15 and 500 individuals, but mostly between 50 and 200.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Geography.\n", "MCC Bonnington, a British official, visited the island on two separate occasions in 1911 and 1932 to conduct a census. On the first occasion, he came across eight men on the beach and another five in two canoes, who retreated into the forest. The party progressed some miles into the island without facing any hostile response and saw a few huts with slanted roofs. Notably, the Sentinelese were counted as a standalone group, for the first time, in the 1911 census.\n", "During a 4 January 1991 visit, the Sentinelese approached the party without weaponry for the first time. They collected coconuts that were offered but retreated to the shore as the team gestured for them to come closer. The team returned to the main ship, \"MV Tarmugli\". It returned to the island in the afternoon to find at least two dozen Sentinelese on the shoreline, one of whom pointed a bow and arrow at the party. Once a woman pushed the arrow down, the man buried his weapons in the beach and the Sentinelese approached quite close to the dinghies for the first time. The Director of Tribal Welfare distributed five bags of coconuts hand-to-hand.\n", "Section::::Contact.:Deaths of two fishermen (2006).\n", "In an 1899 speech, Richard Carnac Temple, who served as chief commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from 1895 to 1904, reported that he had toured North Sentinel island to capture fugitives, but upon landing discovered that they had been killed by the inhabitants, who retreated in haste upon seeing his party approach.\n", "The captain, who fled in the ship's boat, was found days later by a brig and the Royal Navy sent a rescue party to the island. Upon arrival, the party discovered that the survivors had managed to repel the attackers with sticks and stones and that they had not reappeared.\n\nAndamanese scholar Vishvajit Pandya notes that Onge narratives often recall voyages by their ancestors to North Sentinel to procure metal.\n\nSection::::Contact.:Colonial period.\n", "In 2014, an aerial expedition followed by a circumnavigation investigated the effects of a forest fire. Important data was gathered and the expedition recorded that the fire did not seem to have affected the populace. They exhibited a balance of ages and sexes, with a number of young children. Friendly hand gestures were noted but the visitors did not go very close to the island. The 2014 expedition also recorded that the Sentinelese had adapted to the changes to their fishing grounds, and were using their canoes to travel up to half a kilometre (a third of a mile) from the shore.\n", "Section::::Contact.:Government of India.:T. N. Pandit (1967–1991).:\"National Geographic\" (1974).\n", "Temple went on to describe the Sentinelese as \"a tribe which slays every stranger, however inoffensive, on sight, whether a forgotten member of itself, of another Andamanese tribe, or a complete foreigner\".\n", "Section::::Contact.:Death of John Allen Chau (2018).\n", "There have been other recorded instances of British administrators visiting the island, including Rogers in 1902, but none of the expeditions after 1880 had any ethnographic purpose, probably because of the island's small size and unfavorable location.\n\nIn 1954, Italian explorer visited the island but did not come across any inhabitants.\n\nSection::::Contact.:Shipwrecks.\n\nIn 1977, MV \"Rusley\" ran aground on the North Sentinel Reefs.\n", "Portman visited the island again in 1883, 1885 and 1887.\n\nIn 1896, a convict escaped from the penal colony on Great Andaman Island on a makeshift raft and drifted across to the North Sentinel beach. His body was discovered by a search party some days later with several arrow-piercings and a cut throat. The party did not see any islanders.\n", "On 4 January 1991, Triloknath Pandit made the first known friendly contact with the Sentinelese.\n", "The Onge, one of the other indigenous peoples of the Andamans, were aware of North Sentinel Island's existence; their traditional name for the island is \"Chia daaKwokweyeh\". They also have strong cultural similarities with what little has been remotely observed amongst the Sentinelese. However, Onges were brought there by the British during the 19th century, could not understand the Sentinelese language, so a significant period of separation is likely.\n\nSection::::History.:British visits.\n", "Paternal haplogroups found in some Negrito populations are Haplogroup D*, a branch of D-M174 among Andaman Islanders, as well as Haplogroup O-P31 which is also common among the now Austroasiatic-speaking Negrito peoples, such as the Maniq and the Semang in Malaysia. These two haplogroups may have arrived with non-Negrito male migrations, following a genetic drift.\n", "In 1771, an East India Company hydrographic survey vessel, the \"Diligent\", observed \"a multitude of lights ... upon the shore\" of North Sentinel Island, which is the island's first recorded mention. The crew did not investigate.\n\nSection::::Contact.:First recorded contact (1867).\n\nDuring the late summer monsoon of 1867, the Indian merchant-vessel \"Nineveh\" foundered on the reef off North Sentinel. All the passengers and crew reached the beach safely, but as they proceeded for their breakfast on the third day, they were subject to a sudden assault by a group of naked, short-haired, red-painted islanders with arrows that were probably iron-tipped.\n", "In early 1974, a \"National Geographic\" film crew went to the island with a team of anthropologists (including Pandit), accompanied by armed police, to film a documentary, \"Man in Search of Man\". They planned to spread the operation of gift-giving over the course of three days and attempt to establish friendly contact. When the motorboat broke through the barrier reefs, the locals emerged from the jungle and shot arrows at it. The crew landed at a safe point on the coast and left gifts in the sand, including a miniature plastic car, some coconuts, a live pig, a doll, and aluminum cookware.\n", "An expedition led by Maurice Vidal Portman, a government administrator who hoped to research the natives and their customs, accomplished a successful landing on North Sentinel Island in January 1880. The group found a network of pathways and several small, abandoned villages. After several days, six Sentinelese, an elderly couple and four children, were captured and taken to Port Blair. The colonial officer in charge of the operation wrote that the entire group, \"sickened rapidly, and the old man and his wife died, so the four children were sent back to their home with quantities of presents\". A second landing was made by Portman on 27 August 1883 after the eruption of Krakatoa was mistaken for gunfire and interpreted as the distress signal of a ship. A search party landed on the island and left gifts before returning to Port Blair. Portman visited the island several more times between January 1885 and January 1887.\n", "The Sentinelese have been widely described as a Stone Age tribe, with some reports claiming they have lived in isolation for over 60,000 years. But Pandya speculates that the Sentinelese arose either from a deliberate, more recent migration or from drifting off the Little Andaman.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Uncontacted status.\n\nThey are considered one of the world's last uncontacted peoples. Designated a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group and a Scheduled Tribe, they belong to the broader class of Andamanese people.\n", "Pandya comments: Pandit and Madhumala took part in a second expedition on 24 February. The Sentinelese again appeared without weapons, jumped on the dinghies and took coconut sacks. They were also curious about a rifle hidden in the boat, which Chattopadhay believed they saw as a source of iron.\n\nIn light of the friendly exchanges with the scrap dealers' team and Portman's observations in 1890, Pandya believes that the Sentinelese used to be visited by other tribes.\n\nSection::::Contact.:Government of India.:Later contact.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02967	Why do smartphones have more cores than computers?	Core count in a phone can get a bit funny, particularly with chips that use the big.LITTLE layout. In a big.LITTLE configuration there will be two cores per core but only one is active at a time. When the workload is light, it is taken care of by a weak but power sipping Little core to preserve battery life, the big core is completely powered down during this. When the workload increases the Little core will get powered down and the big core will take over. Sitting around doing nothing, the big core will consume significantly more power than the little core so having the Little one significantly improves battery life in standby mode. Your computer isn't super concerned about battery life, the sleep states of the CPU are usually good enough and it needs to be designed to handle a single task really well so having a few strong cores is significantly better for it than having a bunch of weak cores. Your phone is choosing between one moderately strong core and a few moderately weak cores, its not going to be performing any massive single threaded operation, there is always a fair amount going on on the background(compared to the intensity of the main task) that those extra cores have things to do A chip with 4 big cores vs one with 2 big cores may not show any significant performance boost, but that's really hard to benchmark on phones since we can't come close to keeping everything else equivalent	[ "The desktop market has been in a transition towards quad-core CPUs since Intel's Core 2 Quad was released and are now common, although dual-core CPUs are still more prevalent. Older or mobile computers are less likely to have more than two cores than newer desktops. Not all software is optimised for multi-core CPUs, making fewer, more powerful cores preferable.\n", "Section::::Hardware.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Central processing unit.\n\nSmartphones have central processing units (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments.\n\nThe performance of mobile CPU depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) but also on the memory hierarchy. Because of these challenges, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Display.\n", "Multi-core chips also allow higher performance at lower energy. This can be a big factor in mobile devices that operate on batteries. Since each core in a multi-core CPU is generally more energy-efficient, the chip becomes more efficient than having a single large monolithic core. This allows higher performance with less energy. A challenge in this, however, is the additional overhead of writing parallel code.\n\nSection::::Development.:Disadvantages.\n", "Processors remained single-core until it was impossible to achieve performance gains from the increased clock speed and transistor count allowed by Moore's law (there were diminishing returns to increasing the depth of a pipeline, increasing CPU cache sizes, or adding execution units).\n\nSection::::Increasing parallel trend.\n\nBULLET::::- Single-core one processor on a die. Since about 2012, even most smartphone CPUs marketed are no longer single-core; Microcontrollers are still single-core, while there are exceptions.\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-core a 'few' processors on a die, e.g. 2, 4, 8.\n", "In heterogeneous computing, where a system uses more than one kind of processor or cores, multi-core solutions are becoming more common: Xilinx Zynq UltraScale+ MPSoC has Quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 and Dual-core ARM Cortex-R5. Software solutions such as OpenAMP are being used to help with inter processor communication.\n\nMobile devices may use the ARM big.LITTLE architecture.\n\nSection::::Hardware examples.\n\nSection::::Hardware examples.:Commercial.\n\nBULLET::::- Adapteva Epiphany, a many-core processor architecture which allows up to 4096 processors on-chip, although only a 16 core version has been commercially produced.\n\nBULLET::::- Aeroflex Gaisler LEON3, a multi-core SPARC that also exists in a fault-tolerant version.\n", "Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.\n\nSection::::Miscellaneous features.\n", "As the rate of clock speed improvements slowed, increased use of parallel computing in the form of multi-core processors has been pursued to improve overall processing performance. Multiple cores were used on the same CPU chip, which could then lead to better sales of CPU chips with two or more cores. For example, Intel has produced a 48-core processor for research in cloud computing; each core has an x86 architecture.\n\nSection::::Development.:Technical factors.\n\nSince computer manufacturers have long implemented symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) designs using discrete CPUs, the issues regarding implementing multi-core processor architecture and supporting it with software are well known.\n", "BULLET::::- PSoC 3 - CY8C3xxxx series - 8051 core.\n\nBULLET::::- PSoC 4 - CY8C4xxxx series - ARM Cortex-M0 core.\n\nBULLET::::- PSoC 5/5LP - CY8C5xxxx series - ARM Cortex-M3 core.\n\nBULLET::::- PSoC 6 - CY8C6xxxx series - ARM Cortex-M4 core with an added ARM Cortex-M0+ core (in some models).\n\nBULLET::::- Bluetooth Low Energy\n", "In 2006, NEC did not show any roadmap for the V850 Family as SoC cores. The V850E2 core, developed in 2004, described as if the last core for SoC. Instead of that, NEC introduced ARM9 (arm v5) and ARM11 (arm v6), especially for mobile equipments.\n", "In addition, embedded software is typically developed for a specific hardware release, making issues of software portability, legacy code or supporting independent developers less critical than is the case for PC or enterprise computing. As a result, it is easier for developers to adopt new technologies and as a result there is a greater variety of multi-core processing architectures and suppliers.\n\nSection::::Network processors.\n", "Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called \"cores\" in this sense) into one integrated circuit. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor. In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation. Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e. dual-core, quad-core, etc.) increases the workload that can be handled. This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc. which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed. These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task. Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.\n", "Maximizing the usage of the computing resources provided by multi-core processors requires adjustments both to the operating system (OS) support and to existing application software. Also, the ability of multi-core processors to increase application performance depends on the use of multiple threads within applications.\n", "The HiSilicon Kirin 960, released in 2016, utilizes 4 Cortex-A73 cores (clocked at 2.36 GHz) as the 'big' cores in a big.LITTLE arrangement with 4 'little' ARM Cortex-A53 cores.\n\nThe MediaTek Helio X30 utilizes 2 Cortex-A73 cores (at 2.56 GHz) as the 'big' cores in deca-core big.LITTLE arrangement with 4 Cortex-A53 and 4 Cortex-A35 'little' cores.\n", "Section::::Hardware.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Trends.\n", "Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Display.\n", "A more complex arrangement involves a non-symmetric grouping of 'big' and 'LITTLE' cores. A single chip could have one or two 'big' cores and many more 'LITTLE' cores, or vice versa. Nvidia created something similar to this with the low-power 'companion core' in their Tegra 3 System-on-Chip.\n\nSection::::Run-state migration.:Heterogeneous multi-processing (global task scheduling).\n", "Additionally:\n\nBULLET::::- Using a proven processing-core design without architectural changes reduces design risk significantly.\n\nBULLET::::- For general-purpose processors, much of the motivation for multi-core processors comes from greatly diminished gains in processor performance from increasing the operating frequency. This is due to three primary factors:\n\nBULLET::::1. The \"memory wall\"; the increasing gap between processor and memory speeds. This, in effect, pushes for cache sizes to be larger in order to mask the latency of memory. This helps only to the extent that memory bandwidth is not the bottleneck in performance.\n", "Mobile computing based SoCs typically (but not always) bundle processors, memories, on-chip caches, wireless networking capabilities and often digital camera hardware and firmware. With increasing memory sizes, high end SoCs will often have no memory and flash storage and instead, the memory and flash memory will be placed right next to, or above (Package on package), the SoC. Some examples of mobile computing SoCs include:\n\nBULLET::::- Apple: Apple-designed processors\n\nBULLET::::- A12 Bionic and other A series, used in iPhones and iPads\n\nBULLET::::- S series and W series, in Apple Watches.\n", "Assuming that the die can physically fit into the package, multi-core CPU designs require much less printed circuit board (PCB) space than do multi-chip SMP designs. Also, a dual-core processor uses slightly less power than two coupled single-core processors, principally because of the decreased power required to drive signals external to the chip. Furthermore, the cores share some circuitry, like the L2 cache and the interface to the front-side bus (FSB). In terms of competing technologies for the available silicon die area, multi-core design can make use of proven CPU core library designs and produce a product with lower risk of design error than devising a new wider-core design. Also, adding more cache suffers from diminishing returns.\n", ", multi-core network processors have become mainstream, with companies such as Freescale Semiconductor, Cavium Networks, Wintegra and Broadcom all manufacturing products with eight processors. For the system developer, a key challenge is how to exploit all the cores in these devices to achieve maximum networking performance at the system level, despite the performance limitations inherent in a symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) operating system. Companies such as 6WIND provide portable packet processing software designed so that the networking data plane runs in a fast path environment outside the operating system of the network device.\n\nSection::::Digital signal processing.\n", "The processors of the Core microarchitecture can be categorized by number of cores, cache size, and socket; each combination of these has a unique code name and product code that is used across a number of brands. For instance, code name \"Allendale\" with product code 80557 has two cores, 2 MB L2 cache and uses the desktop socket 775, but has been marketed as Celeron, Pentium, Core 2 and Xeon, each with different sets of features enabled. Most of the mobile and desktop processors come in two variants that differ in the size of the L2 cache, but the specific amount of L2 cache in a product can also be reduced by disabling parts at production time.\n", "Chips designed from the outset for a large number of cores (rather than having evolved from single core designs) are sometimes referred to as manycore designs, emphasising qualitative differences.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Architecture.\n\nThe composition and balance of the cores in multi-core architecture show great variety. Some architectures use one core design repeated consistently (\"homogeneous\"), while others use a mixture of different cores, each optimized for a different, \"heterogeneous\" role.\n\nThe article \"CPU designers debate multi-core future\" by Rick Merritt, EE Times 2008, includes these comments:\n\nSection::::Software effects.\n", "Most smartphones and PDAs, such as the Motorola Droid, Palm Pre, and Apple iPhone, use underclocking of a more powerful processor, rather than the full clocking of a less powerful processor, to maximize battery life. The designers for such mobile devices often discover that a slower processor gives worse battery life than a more powerful processor at a lower clock rate.\n\nThey select a processor on the basis of the performance per watt of the processor.\n\nSection::::In practice.:Performance.\n", "The telecommunications market had been one of the first that needed a new design of parallel datapath packet processing because there was a very quick adoption of these multiple-core processors for the datapath and the control plane. These MPUs are going to replace the traditional Network Processors that were based on proprietary microcode or picocode.\n", "The processors of the Core microarchitecture can be categorized by number of cores, cache size, and socket; each combination of these has a unique code name and product code that is used across a number of brands. For instance, code name \"Allendale\" with product code 80557 has two cores, 2 MB L2 cache and uses the desktop socket 775, but has been marketed as Celeron, Pentium, Core 2 and Xeon, each with different sets of features enabled. Most of the mobile and desktop processors come in two variants that differ in the size of the L2 cache, but the specific amount of L2 cache in a product can also be reduced by disabling parts at production time.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21739	Why are hot foods impossible for us to hold onto for long but if we put it in our mouths it doesn't feel as hot?	I think it may have something to do with the saliva, since saliva is 98% water. Water has a high-specific heat, which basically means that it takes a lot of energy to get it to change temperature. A wet environment (such as your mouth) experiences less dramatic temperature changes than a dry environment (such as your bare hands).	[ "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "Activities such as biting, chewing and swallowing require symmetrical, simultaneous coordination of both sides of the body. They are automatic activities, requiring little conscious attention and involving a sensory component (feedback about touch-position) processed at the unconscious level in the mesencephalic nucleus.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.:Pathways to the thalamus and cortex.\n\nSensation has been defined as the conscious perception of touch-position and pain-temperature information. With the exception of smell, all sensory input (touch-position, pain-temperature, sight, taste, hearing and balance) is sent to the thalamus and then the cortex. The thalamus is anatomically subdivided into nuclei.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.:Touch-position sensation.\n", "Tacts can be extended metaphorically; in this case the novel stimulus has only some of the defining features of the original stimulus. For example, when we describe something as \"exploding with taste\" by drawing the common property of an explosion with the response to our having eaten something (perhaps a strong response, or a sudden one).\n", "Section::::Behavioural roots.:In apes.\n\nYoung orangutans also beg for food by such contact and accordingly their caretakers regurgitate to feed them. Indeed, behaviours of mouth to mouth feeding of premasticated food and ritualized mouth to mouth contact for bonding has been observed in anthropoid great apes such as gorillas, orangutans, and chimpanzees. All of this supports the idea that human behaviours of kissing and feeding of premastication foods, either directly or indirectly from the mouth, have their behavioural roots in higher animals and ancestral great apes.\n\nSection::::Behavioural roots.:Human kiss precursor.\n", "Section::::Interactions with other senses.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other senses.:Olfaction and flavor.\n\nFlavor perception is an aggregation of auditory, taste, haptic, and smell sensory information. Retronasal smell plays the biggest role in the sensation of flavor. During the process of mastication, the tongue manipulates food to release odorants. These odorants enter the nasal cavity during exhalation. The olfaction of food has the sensation of being in the mouth because of co-activation of the motor cortex and olfactory epithelium during mastication.\n", "A cooling sensation is achieved through the chemical phenomenon of the negative enthalpy of dissolution that occurs with bulk sweeteners, such as the sugar alcohols. The enthalpy of dissolution refers to the overall amount of heat that is absorbed or released in the dissolving process. Because the bulk sweeteners absorb heat as they dissolve and have a negative enthalpy, they yield a cooling sensation as they are dissolved in a consumer's saliva.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Brain function.\n", "The spinal trigeminal nucleus contains a pain-temperature sensory map of the face and mouth. From the spinal trigeminal nucleus, secondary fibers cross the midline and ascend in the trigeminothalamic (quintothalamic) tract to the contralateral thalamus. Pain-temperature fibers are sent to multiple thalamic nuclei. The central processing of pain-temperature information differs from the processing of touch-position information.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.:Spinal trigeminal nucleus.:Somatotopic representation.\n", "Warm and cold receptors play a part in sensing innocuous environmental temperature. Temperatures likely to damage an organism are sensed by sub-categories of nociceptors that may respond to noxious cold, noxious heat or more than one noxious stimulus modality (i.e., they are polymodal). The nerve endings of sensory neurons that respond preferentially to cooling are found in moderate density in the skin but also occur in relatively high spatial density in the cornea, tongue, bladder, and facial skin. The speculation is that lingual cold receptors deliver information that modulates the sense of taste; i.e. some foods taste good when cold, while others do not.\n", "The trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) provides information concerning the general texture of food as well as the taste-related sensations of peppery or hot (from spices).\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Pungency (also spiciness or hotness).\n", "Section::::Processing in the cerebral cortex.\n\nThe primary taste perception areas in the cerebral cortex are located in the insula and regions of the somatosensory cortex; the nucleus of the solitary tract located in the brainstem also plays a major role in taste perception. These regions were identified when human subjects were exposed to a taste stimulus and their cerebral blood flow measured with magnetic resonance imaging. Although these regions have been identified as the primary zones for taste processing in the brain, other cortical areas are also activated during eating, as other sensory inputs are being signaled to the cortex.\n", "Research done by Phil Senter of the Lamar State College in Orange, Texas has indicated that \"Bambiraptor\" may have had mutually opposable first and third fingers and a forelimb maneuverability that would allow the hand to reach its mouth. This would have given the animal the ability to \"hold\" food in its front limbs and place it in its mouth, in a similar manner to some modern-day small mammals.\n\nSection::::Description.:Brain.\n", "Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the molecules, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein, causing it to firm. There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at \"Homo erectus\" campsites dating from 420,000 years ago. Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and has been practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Food preparation.:Cooking.:Cooking equipment.\n\nThere are many different types of equipment used for cooking.\n", "Warm and cold sensitive nerve fibers differ in structure and function. The cold-sensitive and warm-sensitive nerve fibers are underneath the skin surface. Terminals of each temperature-sensitive fiber do not branch away to different organs in the body. They form a small sensitive point which are unique from neighboring fibers. Skin used by the single receptor ending of a temperature-sensitive nerve fiber is small. There are 20 cold points per square centimeter in the lips, 4 in the finger, and less than 1 cold point per square centimeter in trunk areas. There are 5 times as many cold sensitive points as warm sensitive points.\n", "Section::::Nerve and Vascular Supply during Early Development.:Nerve Supply.\n", "BULLET::::- Focal adaptation evoked by prolonged stimulation to a skin area causes the illusion that two subsequently presented stimulus points straddling that area are farther apart than they actually are. This perceptual repulsion illusion is analogous to various visual repulsion illusions such as visual tilt effects.\n\nSection::::Other tactile illusions.\n\nBULLET::::- When eating, if a person holds food with one texture and another texture is presented to the mouth, many people perceive the perceived freshness and crispiness of the food to be between the two textures.\n", "Chimpanzees, orangutans, and bonobos were tested using an adapted design by Clayton and colleagues for experimenting with scrub jays. After five minutes and again at one hour, the apes were presented with the choice of selecting hidden frozen juice, less-preferred grapes, or an empty platform. While the juice was the preferred item, it would melt before the hour. Subjects were both male and female. Food item placement was changed during multiple trials so that the study was not accidentally measuring familiarity. The primates rarely chose the empty platform, and after five minutes preferred the juice solution over the grape. After an hour, while a smaller number of primates chose the juice, the majority of apes still reached for melted juice.\n", "Visual, olfactive, “sapictive” (the perception of tastes), trigeminal (hot, cool), mechanical, all contribute to the perception of \"taste\". Of these, transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) vanilloid receptors are responsible for the perception of heat from some molecules such as capsaicin, and a CMR1 receptor is responsible for the perception of cold from molecules such as menthol, eucalyptol, and icilin.\n\nSection::::Tissue distribution.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nLingual papillae, particularly filiform papillae, are thought to increase the surface area of the tongue and to increase the area of contact and friction between the tongue and food. This may increase the tongue's ability to manipulate a bolus of food, and also to position food between the teeth during mastication (chewing) and swallowing.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Depapillation.\n", "When a material is rapidly heated or cooled, the surface and internal temperature will have a difference in temperature. Quick heating or cooling causes localized areas of thermal expansion or contraction, this localized movement of material causes thermal stresses. Imagine heating a cylinder, first the surface rises in temperature and the center remains the same initial temperature. After some time the center of the cylinder will reach the same temperature as the surface. During the heat up the surface is relatively hotter and will expand more than the center. An example of this is dental fillings can cause thermal stress in a person's mouth. Sometimes dentists use dental fillings with different thermal expansion coefficients than tooth enamel, the fillings will expand faster than the enamel and cause pain in a person's mouth.\n", "The following behavioural classifications result from studies performed on rats, in which lesions were made on the lateral hypothalamus region in the brain. \n\nBULLET::::1. Passive aphagia: An animal with passive aphagia will not respond to food if it is presented. However, if food is inserted into the mouth, the animal will chew.\n", "Food enters the mouth where the first stage in the digestive process takes place, with the action of the tongue and the secretion of saliva. The tongue is a fleshy and muscular sensory organ, and the very first sensory information is received via the taste buds in the papillae on its surface. If the taste is agreeable, the tongue will go into action, manipulating the food in the mouth which stimulates the secretion of saliva from the salivary glands. The liquid quality of the saliva will help in the softening of the food and its enzyme content will start to break down the food whilst it is still in the mouth. The first part of the food to be broken down is the starch of carbohydrates (by the enzyme amylase in the saliva).\n", "Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex.\n\nSection::::Function.:Summary.\n\nThe complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward processing of touch-position information) reflects a phylogenetically older, more primitive sensory system. The detailed information received from peripheral touch-position receptors is superimposed on a background of awareness, memory and emotions partially set by peripheral pain-temperature receptors.\n", "BULLET::::- Gustatory – These sensory receptors are present within the mouth and are responsive to the molecular stimuli that enter the mouth. The receptors in the mouth typically fall into two of the following categories: receptors that are responsive to specific chemicals and receptors that are responsive to particles such as hydrogen ions, which are charged.\n\nBULLET::::- Tactile – These types of receptors are normally present within the skin and are able to respond to stimulation such as heat, pressure, and movement\n\nSection::::Classes.\n", "Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Starchiness.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06685	why it’s good for your heart to get pumping while exercising but it’s not good when your heart beats fast from anxiety or stress.	It IS good when your heart beats faster from anxiety or stress. That is your body’s way of trying to help you prepare for and respond to stressful situations. Now PROLONGED stress and anxiety can have negative effects on all sorts of body functions (I.e. causing high blood pressure). An interesting topic related to this is adverse childhood experiences (aces) which kinda dives into the long term effects of a consistent fight or flight response on the body. I linked to the ted talk about it below. URL_0	[ "Bradycardia is not necessarily problematic. People who regularly practice sports may have sinus bradycardia, because their trained hearts can pump enough blood in each contraction to allow a low resting heart rate. Sinus bradycardia can also be an adaptive advantage; for example, diving seals may have a heart rate as low as 12 beats per minute, helping them to conserve oxygen during long dives.\n\nSinus bradycardia is a common condition found in both healthy individuals and those who are considered well conditioned athletes.\n", "An alternative to the cortisol explanation is that self-esteem is the major contributing factor and that the link between professional achievement and self-esteem accounts for the health gradient. The study supporting this view correlated low self-esteem in test subjects with greater reductions in heart rate variability and higher heart rates in general—both established coronary heart disease risk factors—while performing stressful tasks.\n", "Cardiac output, the amount of blood that leaves the heart in a given time period (i.e. liters per minute), is proportional to both the chamber sizes of the heart and the rate at which the heart beats. With a larger left ventricle, the heart rate can decrease and still maintain a level of cardiac output necessary for the body. Therefore, athletes with AHS commonly have lower resting heart rates than nonathletes.\n", "On the other hand, the Framingham Heart Study reported that PVCs in apparently healthy people were associated with a twofold increase in the risk of all-cause mortality, myocardial infarction and cardiac death. In men with coronary heart disease and in women with or without coronary heart disease, complex or frequent arrhythmias were not associated with an increased risk. The at-risk people might have subclinical coronary disease. These Framingham results have been criticised for the lack of rigorous measures to exclude the potential confounder of underlying heart disease.\n", "It has been suggested that RSA may have evolved to save energy for both cardiac and respiratory systems by reducing the heart rate and by suppressing ineffective ventilation during the ebb of perfusion (delivery of blood from arteries to capillaries for oxygenation and nutrition).\n", "A stress test, is just that, a test to put stress on the heart through exercise. A doctor will put a patient through a series of exercises to measure the tolerance for stress on the heart. This test uses an ECG to detect the electrical impulses of the heart during physical exertion.\n\nDuring this test a patient is put on a treadmill or a stationary bike. The incline or resistance of the bike are steadily increased until the patient reaches the target heart rate for the patient's age and weight.\n", "The VVC provides primary control of supradiaphragmatic visceral organs, such as the esophagus, bronchi, pharynx, and larynx. The VVC also exerts important influence on the heart. When vagal tone to the heart’s pacemaker is high, a baseline or resting heart rate is produced. In other words, the vagus acts as a restraint, or brake, limiting heart rate. However, when vagal tone is removed, there is little inhibition to the pacemaker, and so rapid mobilization (“fight/flight”) can be activated in times of stress, but without having to engage the sympathetic-adrenal system, as activation comes at a severe biological cost.\n", "Cardiovascular systems are regulated by the autonomic nervous systems, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. A distinct balance between these two systems is crucial for the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease. Chronic stress has been widely studied on its effects of the body resulting in an elevated heart rate (HR), reduced HR variability, elevated sympathetic tone, and intensified cardiovascular activity. Consequently, stress promotes an autonomic imbalance in favor of the sympathetic nervous system. The activation of the sympathetic nervous system contributes to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, and increased incidence of arrhythmias. An imbalance in the autonomic nervous system has been documented in mood disorders; It is commonly regarded as a mediator between mood disorders and cardiovascular disorders.\n", "The limbic system can also significantly impact HR related to emotional state. During periods of stress, it is not unusual to identify higher than normal HRs, often accompanied by a surge in the stress hormone cortisol. Individuals experiencing extreme anxiety may manifest panic attacks with symptoms that resemble those of heart attacks. These events are typically transient and treatable. Meditation techniques have been developed to ease anxiety and have been shown to lower HR effectively. Doing simple deep and slow breathing exercises with one's eyes closed can also significantly reduce this anxiety and HR.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Factors influencing heart rate.\n", "Exercise-induced stressors are most commonly either exercise on a treadmill or pedalling a stationary exercise bicycle ergometer. The level of stress is progressively increased by raising the difficulty (steepness of the slope on a treadmill or resistance on an ergometer) and speed. People who cannot use their legs may exercise with a bicycle-like crank that they turn with their arms. Once the stress test is completed, the patient generally is advised to not suddenly stop activity but to slowly decrease the intensity of the exercise over the course of several minutes.\n", "Prolonged stress leads to many hazards within the nervous system. Various hormones and glands become overworked, chemical waste is produced resulting in degeneration of nerve cells. The result of prolonged stress is the breakdown of the body and the nervous system. Stress alone does not produce potentially deadly arrhythmias in normal healthy hearts, however studies do appear to show that stress causes cardiac damage that may lead to arrhythmias.\n\nSection::::Problems.:Arrhythmias.\n", "The value of stress tests has always been recognized as limited in assessing heart disease such as atherosclerosis, a condition which mainly produces wall thickening and enlargement of the arteries. This is because the stress test compares the patient's coronary flow status before and after exercise and is suitable to detecting specific areas of ischemia and lumen narrowing, not a generalized arterial thickening.\n", "For example, during exercise such as running, the metabolic needs of the active leg skeletal muscles increase significantly. The muscle cells are in much more demand for nutrients such as oxygen. However, the body \"reserves\" as much blood as possible to the active tissues (in this case skeletal muscle). Therefore, during exercise more blood will flow to-and-from the muscle than it will in inactive tissue, such as the hand muscles. It is controlled by the local muscle metabolism,nervous regulation which may have direct effect by para sympathetic nervous system\n", "Bradycardia\n\nBradycardia is a condition typically defined wherein an individual has a resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute (BPM) in adults. Bradycardia typically does not cause symptoms until the rate drops below 50 BPM. When symptomatic, it may cause fatigue, weakness, dizziness, sweating, and at very low rates, fainting.\n\nDuring sleep, a slow heartbeat with rates around 40–50 BPM is common, and is considered normal. Highly trained athletes may also have athletic heart syndrome, a very slow resting heart rate that occurs as a sport adaptation and helps prevent tachycardia during training.\n", "An example of premature ventricular contraction, is the classic athletic heart syndrome. Sustained training of athletes causes a cardiac adaptation where the resting SAN rate is lower (sometimes around 40 beats per minute). This can lead to atrioventricular block, where the signal from the SAN is impaired in its path to the ventricles. This leads to uncoordinated contractions between the atria and ventricles, without the correct delay in between and in severe cases can result in sudden death.\n\nSection::::Autorhythmicity.:Regulation by the autonomic nervous system.\n", "Typically, expression of RSA decreases with age. However, adults in excellent cardiovascular health, such as endurance runners, swimmers, and cyclists, are likely to have a more pronounced RSA. Professional athletes on average maintain very high vagal tone and consequently higher RSA levels. RSA is less prominent in individuals with diabetes and cardiovascular disease.\n\nSection::::Noninvasive vagal tone quantification.:Respiratory sinus arrhythmia.:Insights into psychology and disease.\n", "A number of physical acts can increase parasympathetic nervous supply to the heart, resulting in blocking of electrical conduction through the AV node. This can slow down or stop a number of arrhythmias that originate above or at the AV node (see main article: supraventricular tachycardias). Parasympathetic nervous supply to the heart is via the vagus nerve, and these maneuvers are collectively known as vagal maneuvers.\n\nSection::::Management.:Antiarrhythmic drugs.\n", "In a second cohort study, exercise electrocardiography was similarly found to be a poor predictor of acute coronary syndrome at follow-up. Of the patients who had a coronary event at 6 years of follow up, 47% had a negative ECG at the start of the study. With an average follow up of 2.21 years the receiver operating characteristic curves gave resting ECG a score of 0.72 and exercise ECG a score of 0.74.\n", "The American Heart Association recommends ECG treadmill testing as the first choice for patients with medium risk of coronary heart disease according to risk factors of smoking, family history of coronary artery stenosis, hypertension, diabetes and high cholesterol. In 2013, in its \"Exercise Standards for Testing and Training\", the AHA indicated that high frequency QRS analysis during ECG treadmill test have useful test performance for detection of coronary heart disease.\n\nBULLET::::- Perfusion stress test (with 99mTc labelled sestamibi) is appropriate for select patients, especially those with an abnormal resting electrocardiogram.\n", "In meta-analysis of 11 studies, people with frequent PVC (≥1 time during a standard electrocardiographic recording or ≥30 times over a 1-hour recording) had risk of cardiac death 2 times higher than persons without frequent PVC. Although most studies made attempts to exclude high-risk subjects, such as those with histories of cardiovascular disease, they did not test participants for underlying structural heart disease.\n", "Interventions that augment HRV may be protective against cardiac mortality and sudden cardiac death. Although the rationale for changing HRV is sound, it also contains the inherent danger of leading to the unwarranted assumption that modification of HRV translates directly into cardiac protection, which may not be the case. Despite the growing consensus that increases in vagal activity can be beneficial, it is not as yet known how much vagal activity (or HRV as a marker) has to increase in order to provide adequate protection.\n\nSection::::Modifications by specific interventions.:β-Adrenergic blockade.\n", "Any part of the heart that initiates an impulse without waiting for the sinoatrial node is called an ectopic focus and is, by definition, a pathological phenomenon. This may cause a single premature beat now and then, or, if the ectopic focus fires more often than the sinoatrial node, it can produce a sustained abnormal rhythm. Rhythms produced by an ectopic focus in the atria, or by the atrioventricular node, are the least dangerous dysrhythmias; but they can still produce a decrease in the heart's pumping efficiency, because the signal reaches the various parts of the heart muscle with different timing than usual and can be responsible for poorly coordinated contraction.\n", "Although anxiety or stress are often believed to a negative thing, they are actually a necessary response for the body to survive. It is natural for the body to exhibit certain levels of anxiety and stress, however, it becomes a problem when it begins to inhibit activity. Arousal is the physiological and psychological activation of the body in response to an event. Trait anxiety exists in an individual when they experience unusually high response levels to a wide spread of situations that are not threatening. State anxiety is the momentary feeling of nervousness or worry that accompanies the arousal of the body. State anxiety can be defined cognitively, where nervous thoughts and worries occur for a moment. There is also somatic state anxiety, where the body experiences a physiological response to arousal. This sometimes manifests momentarily as a fluttering in the stomach or an elevated pulse. There are four major theories of arousal and anxiety.\n", "In regard to the characters present onstage, a reduced startle response has been associated with a passive defense, and the diminished initial heart rate response has been predicted to have a greater tendency to dissociation. \n\nFurther, note that heart rate is an accurate measure of stress and the startle response which can be easily observed to determine the effects of certain stressors.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Factors influencing heart rate.:Factors decreasing heart rate.\n", "Subjects' symptoms from non-compaction cardiomyopathy range widely. It is possible to be diagnosed with the condition, yet not to have any of the symptoms associated with heart disease. Likewise it possible to have severe heart failure, which even though the condition is present from birth, may only manifest itself later in life. Differences in symptoms between adults and children are also prevalent with adults more likely to have heart failure and children from depression of systolic function.\n\nCommon symptoms associated with a reduced pumping performance of the heart include:\n\nBULLET::::- Breathlessness\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- Swelling of the ankles\n" ]	[ "It is not good when your heart beats fast from anxiety or stress.", "It’s not good when your heart beats fast from anxiety or stress." ]	[ "It is good when your heart beats fast from anxiety or stress, however prolonged stress is bad.", "An increased heart rate triggered by stress helps the body to prepare for and respond to stressful situations." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is not good when your heart beats fast from anxiety or stress.", "It’s not good when your heart beats fast from anxiety or stress." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is good when your heart beats fast from anxiety or stress, however prolonged stress is bad.", "An increased heart rate triggered by stress helps the body to prepare for and respond to stressful situations." ]
2018-04094	what’s in a doggy treat that makes it so much more desirable than normal food? Why not make doggy food the same way?	My vet described it in more human terms. Pet treats rarely have any nutritional value. They are usually super concentrated flavor balls. Assuming you feed your dog a high grade food, imagine it like giving candy to a child to reward good behavior. You make them to eat veggies at every meal, but they go crazy for candy. The same is how you can grade brands of dog food. The good stuff is usually lean protein mixed with grains and veggie matter. Lower grades are usually corn based and drenched in animal fat and meat by-products. The fat makes the food smell/taste good, but doesn't give the same nutrients.	[ "Doggy style (disambiguation)\n\nDoggy style is any sex position in which a person bends over, crouches on all fours, or lies on their stomach, for sexual activity.\n\nDoggy style or doggystyle may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Doggystyle\", the 1993 debut studio album from American rapper Snoop Dogg\n\nBULLET::::- \"Snoop Dogg's Doggystyle\", a mixed hardcore pornography and hip-hop music video featuring the music of rapper Snoop Dogg\n\nBULLET::::- Doggy Style Records, an American record label founded by Snoop Dogg in 1995\n\nBULLET::::- Doggy Style (band), a Punk Rock band from Placentia, California\n", "Doggy Style started with original singer Brad Xavier, Ed \"Shaggy\" Caudill, Ray Jimenez, and Lou Gaez. Their first release was their 1984 EP \"Work as One\", on Mystic Records \n\nincluded the song \"Donut Shop Rock\". Brad only did vocals for two other releases, \"Side by Side\" in 1985 and \"Live at Sun City\" in 1986 both on Flipside Records. The original Doggy Style lasted from 1983 to 1986, at which point they split into two factions, both using the name Doggy Style.\n", "Doggy Style (band)\n\nDoggy Style is a punk rock band from Placentia, California, and was part of the North Orange County punk rock scene that included bands from the surrounding cities of Fullerton and Anaheim that formed in 1983. Daddy X's of the Kottonmouth Kings, and co-founder of Suburban Noize Records, was the original vocalist, and creator of the band. Their debut EP \"Work As One\" was released on a 7\" record, on Mystic Records.\n\nSection::::About Doggy Style/members.\n", "Doggie Diner\n\nDoggie Diner was a small fast food restaurant chain serving hot dogs and hamburgers in San Francisco and Oakland, California that operated from 1948 to 1986, owned by Al Ross. The first Doggie Diner was opened on Oakland's San Pablo Avenue in 1948 and grew in popularity. At one time there were 30 locations around the San Francisco Bay Area, mostly concentrated in San Francisco. The chain went out of business in 1986 after trying to compete with big chain restaurants, such as McDonald's and Burger King. Its founder Al Ross died in 2010, at age 93.\n", "Section::::History and etymology.\n\nIn ancient Rome, this practice was known as coitus more ferarum, Latin for \"sexual intercourse in the manner of wild beasts\". The specific origin of the term \"doggy style\" is not known, but is presumably a reference to the initial position assumed by dogs when mating. It is described in the \"Kama Sutra\" as the \"cow position\" or \"the congress of a cow\", and is listed in \"The Perfumed Garden\".\n\nSection::::Practices.\n", "Section::::Doggie Diner heads.:Popular culture.\n\nIn December 2000, the Doggie Diner head was featured in \"Zippy\" comics as \"the doggie\" in grassroots effort to save the heads\n\nZippy frequently participated in his long-running conversation with the giant fiberglass doggie mascot. In 2004, Laughing Squid, a website founded in San Francisco, sponsored three of the dog heads – named Manny, Moe & Jack – as the \"Holy Dogminican Order\" to take the dog heads on a cross-country trip, ending in a show by Cyclecide at CBGB in New York City.\n", "Diners in a restaurant may leave uneaten food for the restaurant to discard, or take it away for later consumption. To take the food away, the diner might request a container, or ask a server to package it. Such a container is colloquially called a \"doggy bag\" or \"doggie bag\". This most likely derives from the euphemistic pretense that the diner plans to give the food to a pet, rather than eat it. Some also speculate the name was born during World War II when food shortages encouraged people to limit waste, and also, pet food was scarce. However, it may derive from the East Anglian term \"docky\", meaning lunch. The term doggy bag was popularized in the 1970s etiquette columns of many newspapers. Doggy bags are most common in restaurants that offer a take-out food service as well as sit-down meals, and their prevalence as an accepted social custom varies widely by location. In some countries, especially in continental Europe, some people would frown upon a diner asking for a doggy bag.\n", "Dog treats given excessively can be a cause of obesity. The type of food fed has a direct bearing on the tendency of a dog to become overweight. Table scraps, treats, even premium high-energy dog foods can contribute to obesity. Therefore, it is highly important to closely monitor the quantity of treats that a dog gets especially when the dog's activity is diminished. Dog treats are more likely to be linked to obesity in old dogs, since in their old age they are less likely to be active and exercising. On the other hand, active dogs require and use more calories, so dog treats are not a cause of concern in younger and highly active dogs.\n", "Doggles were ranked No. 6 in a list of \"10 ideas that shouldn’t have worked – but made millions\" by MSN Money, and by 2004, were being sold in 4,500 shops in 16 countries and now include the option of prescription lenses.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "In New Jersey and elsewhere on the East Coast, there is a variation called the Jersey breakfast dog. This is a bacon-wrapped, deep-fried hot dog with melted cheese, on top of a fried or scrambled egg.\n\nSection::::Mission dog.\n\nIn San Francisco the bacon-wrapped hot dog is called a Mission dog, named after the Mission District where it is sold. It is typically served with grilled onions, mustard, ketchup, mayonnaise, and jalapeños.\n\nSection::::Texas Tommy.\n", "In Chicago there is a variation of the danger dog called the francheezie. This is an all-beef hot dog wrapped in bacon and deep fried, with melted Cheddar or American cheese (or Velveeta). Usually the hot dog is split and filled with cheese before being deep fried. Alternatively the cheese may be added as a topping after frying. The francheezie is served on a poppy seed bun, either \"plain\" or with the toppings of a Chicago-style hot dog. It is typically sold by restaurants rather than by street vendors.\n\nSection::::Bacon-wrapped.\n", "BULLET::::- Germany: Mainly used with fried fish, and as an ingredient of potato salads. In the southern half of the country it is served with boiled beef and potatoes.\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden: \"Remouladsås\" or just \"Remoulade\" - is a common accessory to fried or breaded fish dishes, and used as topping on roast beef. The Danish version is also available, and is used on a variety of dishes referred to as 'Danish-style', for example Danish hot-dogs, Danish smørrebrød and suchlike.\n\nBULLET::::- Norway: Primarily served with deep fried fish or aspic.\n", "TenderCrisp\n\nThe TenderCrisp is a chicken sandwich sold by international fast-food restaurant chain, Burger King and its Australian franchisee, Hungry Jack's. It is one of their \"indulgent\" products.\n\nThe TenderCrisp sandwich is part of a series of sandwiches designed to expand Burger King's menu with both more sophisticated, adult oriented fare and present a larger, meatier product that appeals to adults in the 24–36 years age bracket. Along with the TenderGrill and Angus sandwiches, these products are intended to bring in a larger, more affluent adult audience who will be willing to spend more on the better quality products.\n", "Hundreds of combinations and varieties of \"smørrebrød\" are available, and some traditional examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dyrlægens natmad\" (Danish: Veterinarian's midnight snack) — on a piece of dark rye bread, a layer of liver pâté, topped with a slice of salt beef and a slice of meat aspic. This is all decorated with raw onion rings and garden cress.\n\nBULLET::::- Eel — smoked eel on dark rye bread, topped with scrambled eggs and sliced radishes or chopped chives.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leverpostej\" — warm rough-chopped liver pâté served on dark rye bread, topped with bacon, and sauteed mushrooms.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n\nThe exact origin of DoggoLingo is unknown. Various social media accounts such as WeRateDogs (Twitter), Dogspotting (Facebook), as well as social news aggregation and imageboard websites like 4chan, Reddit, or Tumblr have aided in popularising the use of DoggoLingo by consistently using or hosting content that uses the lingo on their Internet pages. In 2014, the Dogspotting Facebook account gained popularity, especially in Australia where coincidentally adding \"-o\" to the end of words is also a feature of Australian slang.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "Some alternatives to traditional commercial pet foods are available. Many companies have been successful in targeting niche markets, each with unique characteristics. Some popular alternative dog food types are:\n", "Section::::Conception.:Recording.\n", "In 2018 Valastro partnered with The Pound Bakery, a pet treat manufacturing company to redesign and launch a new line of pet treats. \"We wanted to create palatable treats for dogs that are inspired by classic Italian entrees and desserts,\" said Lexie Berglund, President of The Pound Bakery. Buddy also worked with several other companies to launch a full line of ready-to-use fondant, buttercream icing, and Italian Biscotti cookies under the new brand name Buddy Valastro Foods in 2018.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "In 1987 Doggy Style appeared on the compilation record \"Rat Music for Rat People Vol. III\", recorded by producer Sylvia Massy at San Francisco's CD Presents.\n\nEd and Ray carried on with new members, Danny Johnston on drums, Hedge (D.I. and HVY-DRT) on second guitar, Mark Tolbert and Rib Finley on vocals as Doggy Style from 1987 to 1988. This line-up recorded the \"Doggy Style II\" LP originally released on Flipside Records. John \"Bosco\" Callabero (also of D.I.) eventually replaced Ed and released, \"Don't Hit Me Up\" in 1988 on Triple X Records.\n", "Drug resistance is a growing concern for many horse owners. Resistance has been noted with ivermectin to ascarids, and with fenbendazole, oxibendazole, and pyrantel to small strongyles. Development of new drugs takes many years, leading to the concern that worms could out-evolve the drugs currently available to treat them. As a result, most veterinarians now recommend deworming for small strongyles based on fecal egg counts to minimize the development of resistant parasite populations. Fecal egg count reduction tests can also be performed to identify which dewormers are effective on a particular farm.\n", "In 2004, Linda Cunningham was organizing supply packs to be sent out to U.S. Army dogs working in Iraq. During her research she came across Doggles and thought of them as protection from the sun and also from the effects of the desert sandstorms. She contacted the Doggles Company and together they have sent over 120 pairs of Doggles out to Iraq for the military working dogs. Doggles were also featured in a CNN Saturday Morning News segment about equipment being sent out to military dogs on 30 July 2005.\n", "Section::::Doggie Diner heads.\n\nSection::::Doggie Diner heads.:History.\n", "In Rhode Island the hot wiener or New York System wiener is a staple of the food culture and is served at \"New York System\" restaurants. The traditional wiener is made with a small, thin hot dog made of veal and pork, giving it a different taste from a traditional beef hot dog, served in a steamed bun, and topped with celery salt, yellow mustard, chopped onions, and a seasoned meat sauce.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.:Michigan hot dog.\n", "Danger dog\n\nA danger dog is a hot dog that has been wrapped in bacon and deep-fried. It is served on a hot dog bun with various toppings. Also known as a bacon-wrapped hot dog, it was first sold by street vendors in Mexico. Its origin has been placed in either Tijuana or Hermosillo, where it was originally served in a bolillo instead of a hot dog bun.\n\nDanger dogs are now sold by street vendors and in restaurants in urban areas in the United States such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York City.\n", "Although it is not the most commonly used sex position, it is regarded as the favoured position by men, while the reverse cowgirl position is favoured by women. Between sex partners, the person in the doggy style position is usually passive, while the other partner is active (although sometimes it can be the other way around if the person in doggy position backs up into their partner behind them). Either partner may be the dominant partner or the submissive partner. The submissive partner in the doggy position is open to a variety of additional sexual activities, with the active partner being able to penetrate the vagina, the anus during anal sex, or being in a position to perform oral sex (cunnilingus, fellatio or anilingus), or simply massage the whole body.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20521	how swallowing cough syrup (digestive system) has an almost immediate effect on the lungs (respiratory system)	If it’s immediate you probably just needed water. But remember that the esophagus (digestive) and trachea (respiratory) are the same tube higher up above the vocal cords in the back of your throat. Cough is usually from secretions dripping back in your throat (post-nasal drip) - it stimulates a forceful burst of air out to avoid getting them into your lungs. A lot of cough syrups decrease secretions and cough sensitivity, but the thick liquid also helps with secretions in the moment. This is why in pediatrics we recommend a teaspoon of honey instead (as long as it’s not an infant under 1). This has actually been studied too and shown to be just as effective and safer.	[ "BULLET::::- The abdominal muscles contract to accentuate the action of the relaxing diaphragm; simultaneously, the other expiratory muscles contract. These actions increase the pressure of air within the lungs.\n\nBULLET::::- The vocal cords relax and the glottis opens, releasing air at over 100 mph.\n\nBULLET::::- The bronchi and non-cartilaginous portions of the trachea collapse to form slits through which the air is forced, which clears out any irritants attached to the respiratory lining.\n", "In pharyngeal aspiration, the substance is placed in the pharynx, which is higher in the respiratory tract, avoiding the major source of technical difficulty and trauma to the animal. The deposition pattern of pharyngeal aspiration is also more dispersed than that of intratracheal instillation, making it more similar to inhalation, and the lung responses are qualitatively similar. Nevertheless, pharyngeal aspiration still leads to more particle agglomeration than inhalation, making its effects less potent.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n", "BULLET::::- Altered mental status: Changes in levels of consciousness affect the swallow mechanism by both disabling the body's natural protective measures against aspiration as well as possibly causing nausea and vomiting. Altered mental status can be caused by medical conditions such as seizures. However, many other agents can be responsible as well, including general anesthesia and alcohol.\n\nBULLET::::- Bacterial colonization: Poor oral hygiene can result in colonization of the mouth with excessive amounts of bacteria, which is linked to increased incidence of aspiration pneumonia.\n", "The efferent neural pathway then follows, with relevant signals transmitted back from the cerebral cortex and medulla via the vagus and superior laryngeal nerves to the glottis, external intercostals, diaphragm, and other major inspiratory and expiratory muscles. The mechanism of a cough is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Diaphragm (innervated by phrenic nerve) and external intercostal muscles (innervated by segmental intercostal nerves) contract, creating a negative pressure around the lung.\n\nBULLET::::- Air rushes into the lungs in order to equalise the pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- The glottis closes (muscles innervated by recurrent laryngeal nerve) and the vocal cords contract to shut the larynx.\n", "At therapeutic doses, dextromethorphan acts centrally (meaning that it acts on the brain) as opposed to locally (on the respiratory tract). It elevates the threshold for coughing, without inhibiting ciliary activity. Dextromethorphan is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and converted into the active metabolite dextrorphan in the liver by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2D6. The average dose necessary for effective antitussive therapy is between 10 and 45 mg, depending on the individual. The International Society for the Study of Cough recommends \"an adequate first dose of medication is 60 mg in the adult and repeat dosing should be infrequent rather than the recommended.\"\n", "Classically, patients present with acute onset of choking. In these cases, the obstruction is classified as a partial or complete obstruction. Signs of partial obstruction include choking with drooling, stridor, and the patient maintains the ability to speak. Signs of complete obstruction include choking with inability to speak or cough, and signs of respiratory distress such as cyanosis. \n", "The cough reflex has both sensory (afferent) mainly via the vagus nerve and motor (efferent) components. Pulmonary irritant receptors (cough receptors) in the epithelium of the respiratory tract are sensitive to both mechanical and chemical stimuli. The bronchi and trachea are so sensitive to light touch that slight amounts of foreign matter or other causes of irritation initiate the cough reflex. The larynx and carina are especially sensitive. Terminal bronchioles and even the alveoli are sensitive to chemical stimuli such as sulfur dioxide gas or chlorine gas. Rapidly moving air usually carries with it any foreign matter that is present in the bronchi or trachea. Stimulation of the cough receptors by dust or other foreign particles produces a cough, which is necessary to remove the foreign material from the respiratory tract before it reaches the lungs.\n", "During swallowing, elevation of the posterior portion of the tongue levers (inverts) the epiglottis over the glottis' opening to prevent swallowed material from entering the larynx which leads to the lungs, and provides a path for a food or liquid bolus to \"slide\" into the esophagus; the hyo-laryngeal complex is also pulled upwards to assist this process. Stimulation of the larynx by aspirated food or liquid produces a strong cough reflex to protect the lungs.\n", "Once inside the lungs, bacteria then take advantage of any deficiencies in the immune system (such as due to malnutrition or chemotherapy) and multiply. Patients with VAP demonstrate impaired function of key immune cells, including the neutrophil, both in the blood and in the alveolar space, with this impairment being driven by pro-inflammatory molecules such as C5a. These defects in immune function appear to be casually linked to the development of VAP, as they are seen before clinical infection develops. A combination of bacterial damage and consequences of the immune response lead to disruption of gas exchange with resulting symptoms.\n", "Swallowing\n\nSwallowing, sometimes called deglutition in scientific contexts, is the process in the human or animal body that allows for a substance to pass from the mouth, to the pharynx, and into the esophagus, while shutting the epiglottis. Swallowing is an important part of eating and drinking. If the process fails and the material (such as food, drink, or medicine) goes through the trachea, then choking or pulmonary aspiration can occur. In the human body the automatic temporary closing of the epiglottis is controlled by the swallowing reflex.\n", "Coughing is a mechanism of the body that is essential to normal physiological function of clearing the throat which involves a reflex of the afferent sensory limb, central processing centre of the brain and the efferent limb. In conjunction to the components of the body that are involved, sensory receptors are also used. These receptors include rapidly adapting receptors which respond to mechanical stimuli, slowly adapting receptors and nociceptors which respond to chemical stimuli such as hormones in the body. To start the reflex, the afferent impulses are transmitted to the medulla of the brain this involves the stimulus which is then interpreted. The efferent impulses are then triggered by the medulla causing the signal to travel down the larynx and bronchial tree. This then triggers a cascade of events that involve the intercostal muscles, abdominal wall, diaphragm and pelvic floor which in conjunction together create the reflex known as coughing.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n", "A cough is a protective reflex in healthy individuals which is influenced by psychological factors. The cough reflex is initiated by stimulation of two different classes of afferent nerves, namely the myelinated rapidly adapting receptors, and nonmyelinated C-fibers with endings in the lungs. However it is not certain that the stimulation of nonmyelinated C-fibers leads to cough with a reflex as it's meant in physiology (with its own five components): this stimulation may cause mast cells degranulation (through an asso-assonic reflex) and edema which may work as a stimulus for rapidly adapting receptors.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic approach.\n", "BULLET::::- Impaired swallowing: Conditions that cause dysphagia worsen the ability of people to swallow, causing an increased risk of entry of particles from the stomach or mouth into the airways. While swallowing dysfunction is associated with aspiration pneumonia, dysphagia may not be sufficient unless other risk factors are present. Neurologic conditions that can directly impact the nerves involved in the swallow mechanism include stroke, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Anatomical changes in the chest can also disrupt the swallow mechanism. For example, patients with advanced COPD tend to develop enlarged lungs, resulting in compression of the esophagus and thus regurgitation.\n", "In the first 15 minutes of meconium aspiration, there is obstruction of larger airways which causes increased lung resistance, decreased lung compliance, acute hypoxaemia, hypercapnia, atelectasis and respiratory acidosis. After 60 minutes of exposure, the meconium travels further down into the smaller airways. Once within the terminal bronchioles and alveoli, the meconium triggers inflammation, pulmonary oedema, vasoconstriction, bronchoconstriction, collapse of airways and inactivation of surfactant. \n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Foetal hypoxia.\n", "People with chronic neurological disorders, for example, after a stroke, are less likely to aspirate thickened fluids on an instrumental swallowing assessment. However, this does not necessarily translate into reduced risk of pneumonia in real life eating and drinking. Also, pharyngeal residue is more common with very thickened fluids: this may subsequently be aspirated and lead to a more severe pneumonia.\n", "One of the ways the chemoreceptor trigger zone implements its effects on the vomiting center is by activation of the opioid mu receptors and delta receptors. The activation of these opioid receptors in the CTZ are especially important for patients who take opioid based pain medications on a regular basis. However, opioids do not play a role in communication to the vomiting center of the brain, they only induce communication. Dopamine and serotonin have been found to play the biggest role in communication from the CTZ to the remainder of the vomiting center, as well as histamine. Chemoreceptors in the CTZ relay information about there being emetic agents in the blood to the adjacent nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS). The relaying happens by the initiation of an action potential, which is caused by the chemoreceptor causing a change in electric potential in the neuron it is embedded in, which then subsequently causes an action potential. This happens constantly, so the chemoreceptors in the CTZ are continually sending information about how much emetic agents are in the blood, even when emesis is not signaled for. The NTS is organized into subnuclei that direct many different functions relating to swallowing, gastric sensation, laryngeal and pharyngeal sensation, baroreceptor function, and respiration. The NTS directs signals about these functions to a central pattern generator (CPG). This CPG actually coordinates the sequences of physical movements during emesis. The main neurotransmitters involved in communication between the CTZ and remaining vomiting center are serotonin, dopamine, histamine, and endogenous opioids which include endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphin.\n", "The cough receptors or rapidly adapting irritant receptors are located mainly on the posterior wall of the trachea, pharynx, and at the carina of trachea, the point where the trachea branches into the main bronchi. The receptors are less abundant in the distal airways, and absent beyond the respiratory bronchioles. When triggered, impulses travel via the internal laryngeal nerve, a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve which stems from the vagus nerve (CN X), to the medulla of the brain. This is the afferent neural pathway. Unlike other areas responsible for involuntary actions like swallowing, there is no definitive area that has been identified as the cough center in the brain.\n", "Measures to prevent aspiration depend on the situation and the patient. In patients at imminent risk of aspiration, tracheal intubation by a trained health professional provides the best protection. A simpler intervention that can be implemented is to lay the patient on their side in the recovery position (as taught in first aid and CPR classes), so that any vomitus produced by the patient will drain out their mouth instead of back down their pharynx. Some anesthetists will use sodium citrate to neutralize the stomach's low pH and metoclopramide or domperidone (pro-kinetic agents) to empty the stomach.\n", "BULLET::::- The third complication occurs after inhalation of particulate matter that obstructs airways. The patients will have sudden arterial hypoxemia with development of lung atelectasis.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Location.\n", "However, if respiratory activity is arrested (e.g. in a patient with a high cervical spinal cord injury), then the primary cardiac reflex to transient hypercapnia and hypoxia is a profound bradycardia and coronary vasodilation through vagal stimulation and systemic vasoconstriction by sympathetic stimulation. In normal cases, if there is reflexive increase in respiratory activity in response to chemoreceptor activation, the increased sympathetic activity on the cardiovascular system would act to increase heart rate and contractility.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\ndiv col\|\|20em\|small=yes\n\nBULLET::::- Cell surface receptor\n\nBULLET::::- Chemosensory clusters\n\nBULLET::::- Chemoreceptor trigger zone\n\nBULLET::::- Diffuse chemosensory system\n\nBULLET::::- Haptic technology\n\nBULLET::::- Molecular sensor\n", "Discovering and tracing a toxic syrup to its source has been difficult for health care providers and governmental agencies due to difficult communication between the governments of developed countries and developing countries. For example, Dr. Michael L. Bennish, an American pediatrician who works in developing countries, had been volunteering in Bangladesh as a physician and had noticed a number of deaths that seemed to coincide with the distribution of the government-issued cough syrup. The government rebuffed his attempts at investigating the medication. In response, Dr. Bennish smuggled bottles of the syrup in his suitcase when returning to the United States, allowing pharmaceutical laboratories in Massachusetts to identify the poisonous diethylene glycol, which can appear very similar to the less dangerous glycerine. Dr. Bennish went on to author a 1995 article in the British Medical Journal about his experience, writing that, given the amount of medication prescribed, death tolls \"must [already] be in the tens of thousands.\"\n", "The lungs activate one hormone. The physiologically inactive decapeptide angiotensin I is converted to the aldosterone-releasing octapeptide, angiotensin II, in the pulmonary circulation. The reaction occurs in other tissues as well, but it is particularly prominent in the lungs. Angiotensin II also has a direct effect on arteriolar walls, causing arteriolar vasoconstriction, and consequently a rise in arterial blood pressure. Large amounts of the angiotensin-converting enzyme responsible for this activation are located on the surfaces of the endothelial cells of the alveolar capillaries. The converting enzyme also inactivates bradykinin. Circulation time through the alveolar capillaries is less than one second, yet 70% of the angiotensin I reaching the lungs is converted to angiotensin II in a single trip through the capillaries. Four other peptidases have been identified on the surface of the pulmonary endothelial cells.\n", "In another study performed with non-smoking patients, it demonstrates that oral administration of \"Passifora incarnata\" following extubation for patients surgery reduced the patients coughing versus the control group. By administering \"Passiflora incarnata\" orally with the correct dosage, it can result in antitussive activities without impairing the patient drastically. The results presented show a decrease of post extubation cough after out-patient surgery but it was only recorded early on. With this information, further research can be applied to create other medications for coughing but the authors note the limitations on the study included short observation period as well as a small sample size.\n", "The eugenol in clove smoke causes a numbing of the throat which can diminish the gag reflex in users, leading researchers to recommend caution for individuals with respiratory infections. There have also been a few cases of aspiration pneumonia in individuals with normal respiratory tracts possibly because of the diminished gag reflex.\n\nSection::::Legal status in the United States.\n\nIn the United States, cigarettes were the subject of legal restrictions and political debate, including a proposed 2009 US Senate bill that would have prohibited cigarettes from having a \"characterizing flavor\" of certain ingredients other than tobacco and menthol.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Cough syrup works alost immediately on the lungs." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The immediate relief you feel is more because you needed water." ]
2018-00714	Why does zeta(0) = 1/2?	This is more ELIKnowCalculus, but takes away all the overly technical parts to show a little more clearly what's going on. To figure out what many nonstandard values of the Riemann Zeta Function are, you need to use the [Functional Equation]( URL_0 ). This relates the analytically continued values of Zeta(s) for s < 0 to the values for s > 1, which converge and can compute using the traditional Riemann Zeta formula. The Functional Equation is as follows: * Zeta(s) = 2^(s) \* pi^(s-1) \* sin(s\pi/2) \ Gamma(1-s) \* Zeta(1-s) If s < 0, then 1-s > 1, and we can compute everything else easily, so this is a formula to compute other zeta values. For instance, if s=-1, then if you know that Zeta(2)=pi^(2)/6 and Gamma(2) = 1, then you can plug in everything else to get Zeta(-1)=-1/12. Note that we want to compute Zeta(s) at s=0, but the functional equation only helps us if s < 0. But we do know that Zeta(s) is continuous everywhere (except s=1), so we are free to compute Zeta(0) by computing the limit of Zeta(s) as s- > 0 from the left, ie using the values of the Zeta Function that are accessible through the Functional Equation. But we also run into an issue when trying to directly compute these limits, because if we plug in s=0 to the right-hand side of the Functional Equation we get that Zeta(1-0) is infinite, so there's a little more work than just plugging stuff in. The key is that, even though Zeta(1-s) goes to infinity at s=0, sin(s\pi/2) goes to zero at s=0, and so they'll balance each other out. In particular, we find that we get the limit: lim(s- > 0^(-)) Zeta(1-s)\sin(s\ pi/2) = -pi/2 So computing Zeta(0), we use the functional equation to get (with the fact that Gamma(1)=1 in mind, and all limits being from the left) Zeta(0) = lim(s- > 0) Zeta(s) = lim(s- > 0) 2^(s) pi^(s-1) sin(s pi/2) Gamma(1-s) Zeta(1-s) = 2^(0) pi^(-1) Gamma(1) lim(s- > 0) Zeta(1-s)sin(s pi/2) = (1/pi) (-\pi /2) = -1/2 (Yes, it should be negative.)	[ "To take something more interesting, let \"V\" be the projective line over \"F\". If \"F\" has \"q\" elements, then this has \"q\" + 1 points, including as we must the one point at infinity. Therefore, we shall have\n\nand\n\nfor \|\"t\"\| small enough.\n\nIn this case we have\n", "According to the generalized Riemann Hypothesis the zeros of are conjectured to lie inside the critical strip lie on the vertical lines and the poles of inside the critical strip lie on the vertical lines . \n\nThis was proved (Emil Artin, Helmut Hasse, André Weil, Alexander Grothendieck, Pierre Deligne) in positive characteristic for all . It is not proved for any scheme that is flat over . The Riemann hypothesis is a partial case of Conjecture 2.\n\nSection::::Main conjectures.:Pole orders.\n", "The latter equation can be deduced from the former using that, for any that is the disjoint union of a closed and open subscheme and , respectively,\n\nEven more generally, a similar formula holds for infinite disjoint unions. In particular, this shows that the zeta function of is the product of the ones of the reduction of modulo the primes :\n", "Proof. We follow the same line of argument as in the preceding proof. The left-hand side is now\n\nformula_66, and a term formula_67 occurs on the left-hand since once if all the formula_68 are distinct, and not at all otherwise. Thus, it suffices to show \n\nformula_69 (1)\n", "Subject to the analytic continuation, the order of the zero or pole and the residue of at integer points inside the critical strip is conjectured to be expressible by important arithmetic invariants of . An argument due to Serre based on the above elementary properties and Noether normalization shows that the zeta function of has a pole at whose order equals the number of irreducible components of with maximal dimension. Secondly, Tate conjectured\n", "Section::::Example.\n", "Note also that the interior of \"U\" may be empty, in which case there is no requirement of \"f\" being holomorphic. For example, if we take \"U\" to be a line segment, then a continuous function is nothing but a curve in the complex plane, and we see that the zeta function encodes every possible curve (i.e., any figure that can be drawn without lifting the pencil) to arbitrary precision on the considered strip.\n", "The theorem as stated applies only to regions \"U\" that are contained in the strip. However, if we allow translations and scalings, we can also find encoded in the zeta functions approximate versions of all non-vanishing holomorphic functions defined on other regions. In particular, since the zeta function itself is holomorphic, versions of itself are encoded within it at different scales, the hallmark of a fractal.\n", "Note that the ratio of the zeta functions is well defined, even for \"n\" \"s\" − 1 because the series representation of the zeta function can be analytically continued. This does not change the fact that the moments are specified by the series itself, and are therefore undefined for large \"n\".\n\nSection::::Moments.:Moment generating function.\n\nThe moment generating function is defined as\n\nThe series is just the definition of the polylogarithm, valid for formula_19 so that\n", "This series converges when the real part of \"s\" is greater than 3/2, and may be extended by analytic continuation to other values of \"s\".\n\nSection::::Evaluation at integers.\n\nLike the Riemann zeta function, whose value formula_3 is the solution to the Basel problem,\n\nthe Airy zeta function may be exactly evaluated at \"s\" = 2:\n\nwhere Γ is the Gamma function, a continuous variant of the factorial.\n\nSimilar evaluations are also possible for larger integer values of \"s\".\n\nIt is conjectured that the analytic continuation of the Airy zeta function evaluates at 1 to\n", "The only possible poles are simple poles at the points \"s\" = \"N\"/2, \"N\"/2−1, \"N\"/2−2..., 1/2,−1/2, −3/2... for \"N\" odd, and at the points \"s\" = \"N\"/2, \"N\"/2−1, \"N\"/2−2, ...,2, 1 for \"N\" even. If \"N\" is odd then \"Z\"(\"P\",\"P\",\"s\") vanishes at \"s\" = 0, −1, −2... If \"N\" is even. The residues at the poles can be explicitly found in terms of the metric and by Wiener-Ikehara theorem we find as a corollary the relation\n\nwhere the sign ~ indicates that the quotient of both the sides tend to 1 when T tends to +∞ .\n", "These conjectures are known when , that is, the case of number rings and curves over finite fields. As for , partial cases of the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture have been proven, but even in positive characteristic the conjecture remains open.\n\nSection::::Methods and theories.\n", "where the product is taken over all closed points of the scheme . Equivalently, the product is over all points whose residue field is finite. The cardinality of this field is denoted .\n\nSection::::Examples and properties.\n\nSection::::Examples and properties.:Varieties over a finite field.\n\nIf is the spectrum of a finite field with elements, then \n\nFor a variety \"X\" over a finite field, it is known by Grothendieck's trace formula that\n\nwhere formula_4 is a rational function (i.e., a quotient of polynomials).\n\nGiven two varieties \"X\" and \"Y\" over a finite field, the zeta function of formula_5 is given by\n", "There are a number of conjectures concerning the behavior of the zeta function of a regular irreducible equidimensional scheme (of finite type over the integers). Many (but not all) of these conjectures generalize the one-dimensional case of well known theorems about the Euler-Riemann-Dedekind zeta function.\n", "Such an expression ranging over each prime number is sometimes called Euler product and each factor is called Euler factor. In many cases of interest, the generic fiber is smooth. Then, only finitely many are singular (bad reduction). For almost all primes, namely when has good reduction, the Euler factor is known to agree with the corresponding factor of the Hasse-Weil zeta function of . Therefore, these two functions are closely related.\n\nSection::::Main conjectures.\n", "One method is to define its zeta regularized sum to be ζ(−1) if this is defined, where the zeta function is defined for Re(\"s\") large by\n\nif this sum converges, and by analytic continuation elsewhere.\n\nIn the case when \"a\" = \"n\", the zeta function is the ordinary Riemann zeta function, and this method was used by Euler to \"sum\" the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... to ζ(−1) = −1/12.\n", "To prove this, note first that the sign of formula_70 is positive if the permutations of cycle-type formula_44 are even, and negative if they are odd: thus, the left-hand side of (1) is the signed sum of the number of even and odd permutations in the isotropy group formula_34. But such an isotropy group has equal numbers of even and odd permutations unless it is trivial, i.e. unless the associated partition formula_35 is \n\nformula_74.\n\nSection::::The sum and duality conjectures.\n\nWe first state the sum conjecture, which is due to C. Moen.\n\nSum conjecture(Hoffman). For positive integers k and n,\n", "Passing to the logarithm, it is enough to show that for every holomorphic function and every there exists a real number \"t\" such that\n\nWe will first approximate \"g\"(\"s\") with the logarithm of certain finite products reminiscent of the Euler product for the \"ζ\"-function:\n\nwhere P denotes the set of all primes.\n\nIf formula_7 is a sequence of real numbers, one for each prime \"p\", and \"M\" is a finite set of primes, we set\n\nWe consider the specific sequence\n", "formula_75, where the sum is extended over k-tuples formula_76 of positive integers with formula_77.\n\nThree remarks concerning this conjecture are in order. First, it implies\n\nformula_78. Second, in the case formula_79 it says that formula_80, or using the relation between the formula_60 and formula_82 and Theorem 1, formula_83\n\nThis was proved by Euler and has been rediscovered several times, in particular by Williams. Finally, C. Moen has proved the same conjecture for k=3 by lengthy but elementary arguments.\n", "2. Some particular expressions for half-integer values of the argument \"z\" are:\n\nwhere \"ζ\" is the Riemann zeta function. No formulae of this type are known for higher integer orders , but one has for instance :\n\nwhich involves the alternating double sum formula_45. In general one has for integer orders \"n\" ≥ 2 :\n\nwhere \"ζ\"(\"s\", ..., \"s\") is the multiple zeta function; for example:\n\n3. As a straightforward consequence of the series definition, values of the polylogarithm at the \"p\"th complex roots of unity are given by the Fourier sum:\n", "Taking the case of \"K\" the rational number field Q, and \"V\" a non-singular projective variety, we can for almost all prime numbers \"p\" consider the reduction of \"V\" modulo \"p\", an algebraic variety \"V\" over the finite field F with \"p\" elements, just by reducing equations for \"V\". Again for almost all \"p\" it will be non-singular. We define\n\nto be the Dirichlet series of the complex variable \"s\", which is the infinite product of the local zeta functions\n", "The Taylor series expansion of this function will not necessarily yield the moments of the distribution. The Taylor series using the moments as they usually occur in the moment generating function yields\n\nwhich obviously is not well defined for any finite value of \"s\" since the moments become infinite for large \"n\". If we use the analytically continued terms instead of the moments themselves, we obtain from a series representation of the polylogarithm\n\nfor formula_23. formula_24 is given by\n\nwhere \"H\" is a harmonic number.\n\nSection::::The case \"s\" = 1.\n", "BULLET::::- A pseudo zeta function and the distribution of primes, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 97, 2000, pp. 7697–7699 (There is a typographical error: \"One can show that C(s) may be analytically continued at least into the half-plane Re s 0 except for an isolated singularity (presumably a simple pole) at s = 0.\" This should be \"at s = 1\" according to the mathematical argument given.)\n", "The scheme need not be flat over , in this case it is a scheme of finite type over some . This is referred to as the characteristic case below. In the latter case, many of these conjectures (with the most notable exception of the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture, i.e. the study of special values) are known. Very little is known for schemes that are flat over and are of dimension two and higher.\n\nSection::::Main conjectures.:Meromorphic continuation and functional equation.\n", "The first example in which zeta function regularization is available appears in the Casimir effect, which is in a flat space with the bulk contributions of the quantum field in three space dimensions. In this case we must calculate the value of Riemann zeta function at \"-3\", which diverges explicitly. However, it can be analytically continued to \"s=-3\" where hopefully there is no pole, thus giving a finite value to the expression. A detailed example of this regularization at work is given in the article on the detail example of the Casimir effect, where the resulting sum is very explicitly the Riemann zeta-function (and where the seemingly legerdemain analytic continuation removes an additive infinity, leaving a physically significant finite number).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08000	Why do younger people use emojis backwards?	I am in my early 20's and never use emojis backwards... never seen it even (maybe a couple of times...)	[ "Until 2016, mobile phone vendors HTC and LG deployed variants of NotoColorEmoji.ttf with custom glyphs; Samsung still does. Some Japanese mobile carriers used to equip branded Android devices with emoji glyphs that were closer to the original ones, but apparently have stopped updating these circa 2015.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Apple.\n", "Journalists have noted that the ambiguity of emoji has allowed them to take on culture-specific meanings not present in the original glyphs. For example, has been described as being used in English-language communities to signify \"non-caring fabulousness\" and \"anything from shutting haters down to a sense of accomplishment\". Unicode manuals sometimes provide notes on auxiliary meanings of an object to guide designers on how emoji may be used, for example noting that some users may expect to stand for \"a reserved or ticketed seat, as for an airplane, train, or theater\".\n\nSection::::History.:Cultural influence.\n", "The earliest known mobile phone in Japan to include a set of emoji was released by J-Phone on November 1, 1997. The set of 90 emoji included many that would later be added to the Unicode Standard, such as Pile of Poo, but as the phone was very expensive they were not widely used at the time.\n", "Samsung almost completely covers the rest of the Miscellaneous Symbols block (U+2600‥FF) as emoji, which includes Chess pieces, game die faces, some traffic sign as well as genealogical and astronomical symbols for instance.\n\nHTC supports most additional pictographs from the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs (U+1F300‥5FF) and Transport and Map Symbols (U+1F680‥FF) blocks. Some of them are also shown as emoji on Samsung devices.\n\nThe open source projects Emojidex and Emojitwo are trying to cover all of these extensions established by major vendors.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "In the lead-up to the 2016 Summer Olympics, the Unicode Consortium considered proposals to add several Olympic-related emoji, including medals and events such as handball and water polo. By October 2015, these candidate emoji included \"rifle\" () and \"modern pentathlon\" (). However, in 2016, Apple and Microsoft opposed these two emoji, and the characters were added without emoji presentations, meaning that software is expected to render them in black-and-white rather than color, and emoji-specific software such as onscreen keyboards will generally not include them. In addition, while the original incarnations of the modern pentathlon emoji depicted its five events, including a man pointing a gun, the final glyph contains a person riding a horse, along with a laser pistol target in the corner.\n", "Some emoji are specific to Japanese culture, such as a bowing businessman (), the shoshinsha mark used to indicate a beginner driver (), a white flower () used to denote \"brilliant homework\", or a group of emoji representing popular foods: ramen noodles (), dango (), onigiri (), Japanese curry (), and sushi (). Unicode Consortium founder Mark Davis compared the use of emoji to a developing language, particularly mentioning the American use of eggplant () to represent a phallus. Some linguists have classified emoji and emoticons as discourse markers.\n", "The second problem relates to technology and branding. When an author of a message picks an emoji from a list, it is normally encoded in a non-graphical manner during the transmission, and if the author and the reader do not use the same software or operating system for their devices, the reader's device may visualize the same emoji in a different way. Small changes to a character's look may completely alter its perceived meaning with the receiver.\n\nSection::::Emoji communications problems.:Controversial emoji.\n", "In 1998 or 1999, Japanese mobile operators NTT DoCoMo, au, and SoftBank Mobile each defined their own variants of emoji using proprietary specifications, the first of which was created by NTT DoCoMo employee Shigetaka Kurita. \n", "One of the many ways that pictorial semiotics has been changing has been through the use of emojis in email, text or other online conversations. Though not seen as works of art, these small images of happy, sad, winking faces or even a smiling poo image, have made their way into our everyday communication through digital devices. In the early advances of mobile technology and the increasing manner in which such devices are used, many in the linguistic community felt that vital communication cues, such as the importance of nonverbal cues, would be lost. Another concern is that with the high use of these symbols would begin to oversimplify our language to where the language's strength would be lost.\n", "The Emojipedia \"Adopt an Emoji\" program was shut down in November 2016, citing confusion for users and advertisers due to the similarity with Unicode's fundraising effort.\n\nSection::::Cultural impact.\n\nEmojipedia's images for future emoji designs have been used as the source of jokes in opening monologues on late night television shows such as \"The Daily Show\", \"Jimmy Kimmel Live\" and \"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\".\n", "Emoji\n\nOriginating on Japanese mobile phones in 1997, emoji became increasingly popular worldwide in the 2010s after being added to several mobile operating systems. They are now considered to be a large part of popular culture in the west. In 2015, Oxford Dictionaries named the Face with Tears of Joy emoji the Word of the Year.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe development of emoji was predated by text-based emoticons, as well as graphical representations, inside and outside of Japan.\n", "OS X 10.9 Mavericks introduced a dedicated emoji input palette in most text input boxes using the key combination .\n", "Emojipedia rose to prominence with the release of Unicode 7 in 2014, when \"The Register\" reported the \"online encyclopedia of emojis has been chucked offline after vast numbers of people visited the site\" in relation to the downtime experienced by the site at the time.\n\nIn 2015, Emojipedia entered its first partnership with Quartz to release an app that allowed users access previously-hidden country flag emojis on iOS.\n", "In the second part of 2019, a period emoji will be released that is expected to break the stigma of menstruation. In addition to normalizing periods, it will also be relevant to describe medical topics such as donating blood and other blood-related activities.\n\nA mosquito emoji was added in 2018 to raise awareness for diseases spread by the insect, such as dengue and malaria.\n\nSection::::Emoji communications problems.\n", "There has been discussion among legal experts on whether or not emoji could be admissible as evidence in court trials. Furthermore, as emoji continue to develop and grow as a \"language\" of symbols, there may also be the potential of the formation of emoji \"dialects\". Emoji are being used as more than just to show reactions and emotions. Snapchat have even incorporated emoji in their trophy and friends system with each emoji showing a complex meaning.\n\nSection::::History.:Cultural influence.:Emojis that further modern causes.\n", "On BBC Radio 4, Stephen Fry described Emojipedia as \"a kind of Académie française for your iPhone\" when assessing its impact on the English language.\n\nSection::::Legal precedent.\n", "Companies focusing on the teen market have the tendency to make use of SMS language in their advertising to capture the attention of their target audience. Since teenagers tend to be the ones using SMS language, they are able to relate to advertisements that use SMS language. \n\nUnilever's advertisement for their novel range of deodorant for teenage girls uses the phrase \"OMG! Moments.\" David Lang, president of the team who created the advertisement commented that they desired to bring across the impression that they identify with youth culture and discourse.\n", "Research has shown that emoji are often misunderstood. In some cases, this misunderstanding is related to how the actual emoji design is interpreted by the viewer; in other cases, the emoji that was sent is not shown in the same way on the receiving side.\n\nThe first issue relates to the cultural or contextual interpretation of the emoji. When the author picks an emoji, they think about it in a certain way, but the same character may not trigger the same thoughts in the mind of the receiver. (See also Models of communication.)\n", "Emoji pictograms by Japanese mobile phone brand Au are specified using the IMG tag. SoftBank Mobile emoji are wrapped between SI/SO escape sequences, and support colors and animation. DoCoMo's emoji are the most compact to transmit while Au's version is more flexible and based on open standards.\n\nFrom 2010 onwards, some emoji character sets have been incorporated into Unicode, a standard system for indexing characters, which has allowed them to be used outside Japan and to be standardized across different operating systems.\n", "Emojipedia\n\nEmojipedia is an emoji reference website which documents the meaning and common usage of emoji characters in the Unicode Standard. Emojipedia also publishes articles and provides tools for tracking new emoji characters, design changes and usage trends.\n\nEmojipedia is a voting member of The Unicode Consortium and has been called \"the world's number one resource on emoji\".\n\nSection::::History.\n\nJeremy Burge created Emojipedia in 2013, and told the \"Hackney Gazette\" \"the idea came about when Apple added emojis to iOS 6, but failed to mention which ones were new\".\n", "Oxford Dictionaries named its 2015 Word of the Year. Oxford noted that 2015 had seen a sizable increase in the use of the word \"emoji\" and recognized its impact on popular culture. Oxford Dictionaries President Caspar Grathwohl expressed that \"traditional alphabet scripts have been struggling to meet the rapid-fire, visually focused demands of 21st Century communication. It's not surprising that a pictographic script like emoji has stepped in to fill those gaps—it's flexible, immediate, and infuses tone beautifully.\" SwiftKey found that \"Face with Tears of Joy\" was the most popular emoji across the world. The American Dialect Society declared to be the \"Most Notable Emoji\" of 2015 in their Word of the Year vote.\n", "Microsoft displays all Mahjong tiles (U+1F000‥2B, not just ) and alternative card suits (, , , ) as emoji. They also support additional pencils (, ) and a heart-shaped bullet ().\n\nWhile only is officially an emoji, Microsoft and Samsung add the other three directions as well (, , ).\n\nBoth vendors pair the standard checked ballot box emoji with its crossed variant , but only Samsung also has the empty ballot box .\n", "Emoji are pictograms that can be used and displayed inline with text. They are similar to previous symbol typefaces, but with a much larger range of characters, such as symbols for common objects, animals, food types, weather and emotions. Originally developed in Japan, they are now commonly installed on many computer and smartphone operating systems. Following standardisation and inclusion in the Unicode standard, allowing them to be used internationally, the number of Emoji characters has rapidly increased to meet the demands of an expanded range of cultures using them; unlike many previous symbol typefaces, they are interchangeable with the ability to display the pictures of the same meaning in a range of fonts on different operating systems. The popularity of emoji has meant that characters have sometimes gained culture-specific meanings not inherent to the design. Both colour and monochrome emoji typefaces exist, as well as at least one animated design.\n", "Emoji characters vary slightly between platforms within the limits in meaning defined by the Unicode specification, as companies have tried to provide artistic presentations of ideas and objects. For example, following an Apple tradition, the calendar emoji on Apple products always shows July 17, the date in 2002 Apple announced its iCal calendar application for macOS. This led some Apple product users to initially nickname July 17 \"World Emoji Day\". Other emoji fonts show different dates or do not show a specific one.\n", "Some emoji have been involved in controversy due to their perceived meanings. Multiple arrests and imprisonments have followed usage of gun (), knife (), and bomb () emoji in ways that were deemed by authorities to constitute credible threats.\n" ]	[ "Younger people use emojis backwards.", "Younger people use emojis backwards." ]	[ "Have rarely seen emojis used backward.", "Not every young person uses emojis backwards. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Younger people use emojis backwards.", "Younger people use emojis backwards." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Have rarely seen emojis used backward.", "Not every young person uses emojis backwards. " ]
2018-01987	How are Mormons able to learn a language so quickly before their missions?	Most missionaries spend a few weeks to a few months at one of several training centers, and for those learning a language, that's a big part of their time. I think it comes down to a few principles: Motivation: they know that they'll be thrown into the deep end soon enough, so they're giving it everything they've got. Also, most of them are deeply committed to their mission assignments and a trying to do their best regardless. Focus: They learn how to communicate within a pretty narrow band of topics. They're good at them, but far from fluent if the topic leaves religion. Most continue getting better as time goes on, but the focus on one set of topics and related "communication objectives" both helps them learn faster, and lets them seem a bit more fluent than they actually are. Dedication: in the training center, they're in class, either being instructed or studying nearly 12 hours a day most days. It's very intense, and there are ZERO distractions. No visitors, regimented schedules, etc. It's a very intense experience. Source: was a missionary, and taught at a training center.	[ "Smith stated in a letter to the editor of \"Times and Seasons\", \"there was no Greek or Latin upon the plates from which I, through the grace of the Lord, translated the Book of Mormon.\" Brian D. Stubbs has stated that though the language of the Mulekites isn't put forward in the Book of Mormon, it could have consisted of Phoenician, Greek, or Arabic.\n", "Nelson also noted statements made by Smith's wife Emma, who gave her account of the translation method in 1856:\n", "Newly called missionaries attend a short training period at one of 15 church Missionary Training Centers (MTCs) worldwide. The largest MTC is located in Provo, Utah, adjacent to Brigham Young University. Missionaries who will not be learning a language in order to serve their missions spend three weeks at an MTC where they practice using proselytizing materials, learn expected conduct, and study the scriptures. Missionaries bound for foreign-language missions spend six to nine weeks at an MTC, depending on the language to be learned. During this period, they are encouraged not to speak in their native tongue but rather to immerse themselves in the new language.\n", "BULLET::::- 1668 – In a letter from his post in Canada, French missionary Jacques Bruyas laments his ignorance of the Oneida language: \"What can a man do who does not understand their language, and who is not understood when he speaks. As yet, I do nothing but stammer; nevertheless, in four months I have baptized 60 persons, among whom there are only four adults, baptized in \"periculo mortis\". All the rest are little children.\"\n", "A problem with linguistic reviews of the Book of Mormon is that the claimed original text is either unavailable for study or never existed. Smith said that he returned the golden plates to an angel after he finished the translation.\n\nSection::::Native American language-development.\n\nIn 1922, LDS Church general authority B. H. Roberts conducted an in-depth review of the research regarding language development and dialects among the Native American peoples; Roberts's study which was published posthumously in 1985 as \"Studies of the Book of Mormon\".\n", "Under the assumption that the majority of Native Americans descend from the peoples described in the Book of Mormon, Roberts noted that linguistic evidence among the Native American peoples does not appear to support the Book of Mormon narrative, inasmuch as the diverse language stocks and dialects that exist would not have had enough time to develop from a single language dating from A.D. 400 (the approximate date of the conclusion of the Book of Mormon record). Roberts noted:\n", "At age 18 Everett married the daughter of these missionaries, Keren. He completed a diploma in Foreign Missions from the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago in 1975. Daniel and Keren Everett subsequently enrolled in the Summer Institute of Linguistics (now SIL International), which trains missionaries in field linguistics so that they can translate the Bible into various world languages.\n", "And Alma and Amulek went forth preaching repentance to the people in their temples, and in their sanctuaries, and also in their synagogues, which were built after the manner of the Jews ().\n", "BULLET::::- about May: Smith dictates part of his translation (Third Nephi chapter 11) describing the exact mode of baptism by immersion, including the exact words to use. According to Oliver Cowdery's later reminiscence, \"after writing the account given of the Savior's ministry to the remnant of the seed of Jacob, upon this continent, it was easily to be seen . . . that . . . none had authority from God to administer the ordinances of the Gospel.\"\n", "In many cases, missionaries who already speak the language of their assigned area are sent to their mission after just three weeks. Other missionaries may spend as many as nine additional weeks in language training. The Missionary Training Center language programs encourage a full immersion experience with the motto \"SYL\", for \"Speak Your Language\". In some cases, missionaries learning foreign languages go directly to the MTC in the country where they are called to serve. This depends on the capacity of the MTC in the area.\n", "In the beginning, the LTM was intended to be a temporary place for those missionaries who were having visa difficulties. However, mission presidents who received visa-delayed missionaries started to notice a significant improvement in their proselytizing skills over similar missionaries who were able to get their visas almost immediately. It was estimated that even a few weeks of intensive language training at the beginning could save almost a full year's worth of effort trying to learn the language \"on the streets.\" Mission presidents soon asked church headquarters to have all the missionaries, regardless of their visa status, attend language training before their departure.\n", "The LDS version of the Book of Mormon has been translated into 83 languages and selections have been translated into an additional 25 languages. In 2001, the LDS Church reported that all or part of the Book of Mormon was available in the native language of 99 percent of Latter-day Saints and 87 percent of the world's total population.\n\nTranslations into languages without a tradition of writing (e.g., Kaqchikel, Tzotzil) are available on audio cassette. Translations into American Sign Language are available on videocassette and DVD.\n", "Hilton concluded that, if wordprinting is a valid technique, then this analysis suggests that it is \"statistically indefensible\" to claim that Smith, Oliver Cowdery, or Solomon Spalding wrote the 30,000 words in the Book of Mormon attributed to Nephi and Alma.\n", "LDS Church authorities do not claim to know the exact method by which translation and word choice was accomplished. In an address given in 1992 at a seminar for new mission presidents at the Missionary Training Center, church apostle Russell M. Nelson stated that \"[t]he details of this miraculous method of translation are still not fully known.\" In order to illustrate this, Nelson quoted the words Whitmer, who wrote regarding the use of a seer stone in the translation process over 50 years after it had occurred,\n", "Joseph Smith would put the seer stone into a hat, and put his face in the hat, drawing it closely around his face to exclude the light; and in the darkness the spiritual light would shine. A piece of something resembling parchment would appear, and on that appeared the writing. One character at a time would appear, and under it was the interpretation in English. Brother Joseph would read off the English to Oliver Cowdery, who was his principal scribe, and when it was written down and repeated to Brother Joseph to see if it was correct, then it would disappear, and another character with the interpretation would appear. Thus the Book of Mormon was translated by the gift and power of God, and not by any power of man.\n", "The Teaching Resource Center (TRC) gives missionaries some experience teaching in their mission language, even if it is their native tongue. All missionaries visit the TRC each week. Volunteers who speak the language role play as \"investigators\" (people who are investigating the church) in these teaching situations. At the end, Missionaries watch a video tape of their teaching session to find ways to improve their language skills and teaching style.\n", "BULLET::::- December 4: The Language Training Institute is created at Brigham Young University, to train LDS missionaries learning a foreign language. This became the Language Training Mission, and then the Missionary Training Center in 1978.\n\nSection::::1960s.:1962.\n\nBULLET::::- March: The age entrance requirement for male LDS missionaries is lowered from 20 to 19 years old.\n\nBULLET::::- April 23: George Q. Morris dies.\n\nBULLET::::- July 23: The first satellite broadcast of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir.\n\nBULLET::::- July 27: Nauvoo Restoration, Inc. is created, to preserve and renovate Mormon historical sites in Nauvoo, Illinois.\n", " The Book of Mormon describes more than one literate people inhabiting ancient America. The Nephite people are described as possessing a language and writing with roots in Hebrew and Egyptian, and writing part of the original text of the Book of Mormon in this unknown language, called reformed Egyptian. A transcript of some of the characters of this language has been preserved in what had previously been erroneously identified as the \"Anthon Transcript\" but is now known as the \"Caractors document.\"\n", "Both critics and promoters of the Book of Mormon have used linguistic methods to analyze the text. Promoters have published claims of stylistic forms that Joseph Smith and his contemporaries are unlikely to have known about, as well as similarities to Egyptian and Hebrew. Critics of the Book of Mormon claim there are places where the language is anachronistic and suggestive of a 19th-century origin consistent with Smith's upbringing and life experience, as well as the books and other literature published just preceding the time that the Book of Mormon was published.\n", "The language professor Alexander Arguelles notes that it is possible to use these recordings and the equivalent bible text in one's own language, to start learning any of the languages. For many there is no other way to learn the language.\n\nSection::::Modern technology.\n", "In part to keep the missionaries occupied while they were waiting for their visas, many of these missionaries were enrolled in courses at BYU. As language instruction was considered essential, most of these missionaries were enrolled in courses to learn the languages of the areas where they would be serving.\n", "During the 1960s, missionaries whose area of service required them to learn a new language were first sent to the Language Training Mission on the BYU campus. This later became the Missionary Training Center in 1978 where all new missionaries were sent for training not just the ones learning a language.\n\nStarting during Spencer W. Kimball's administration, it was emphasized that \"every able, worthy young man\" had a duty to serve a mission. Prior to this, missionary service for men was not viewed as obligatory. This resulted in an increase in the number of young men choosing to serve missions.\n", "When my husband was translating the Book of Mormon, I wrote a part of it, as he dictated each sentence, word for word, and when he came to proper names he could not pronounce, or long words, he spelled them out, and while I was writing them, if I made any mistake in spelling, he would stop me and correct my spelling although it was impossible for him to see how I was writing them down at the time. Even the word Sarah he could not pronounce at first, but had to spell it, and I would pronounce it for him.\n", "The missionaries developed a diagnostic procedure to determine a person's exact native language or dialect. They did so by playing audio samples in differing dialects until the individuals heard their native language. Finding their exact language helps the people relate back to their homeland because most of them have been uprooted to find jobs. These people are in need of something to fall back on and these biblical recordings helps them relate and continue their faith.\n", "Joseph Smith recorded in his journal that Parrish had been promised the ability to \"know of hidden things\" and be \"endowed with a knowledge of hidden languages.\" During the fall of 1835, Parrish, along with Oliver Cowdery, William W. Phelps and Frederick G. Williams, attempted unsuccessfully to make translations of characters from the Book of Abraham papyrii by matching them with English sentences that Smith had already produced. Parrish and Phelps eventually produced a set of documents called the \"Grammar & A[l]phabet of the Egyptian Language.\"\n\nSection::::Activity in Latter Day Saint church.:Preaching in Tennessee.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18161	Why are dark themes better for the eyes? it is true?	Usually dark themes are used at night where the environment is much darker and your brain is used to process much less visual information. Using dark themes during a bright day is similarly uncomfortable to having brighter themes at night. Essentially, your brain got used to processing an amount of information, dark themes provide less information as the darker/black colors are recognized as a void (during the night) so your brain doesn't think much of it and focuses on what is brighter. During the day, your brain is used to balance the information from different sources, that's why you have to brighten your screen to your environment so your brain doesn't strain your body into deciphering the information that is being blurred out by much stronger sources. It's a matter of balancing the different sources of information so your brain doesn't become cluttered on one single point.	[ "\"The Darker Image\" calendar became a small part of the cultural zeitgeist of the time, particularly in the urban world, with the calendar prominently featured in John Singleton’s movie \"Higher Learning\", and The Hollywood Reporter writing: “‘Phat Beach,’ the first Hollywood beach blanket-type movie featuring blacks, has just wrapped principal photography... Coolio and Paperboy will provide the rap tunes for the models from Darker Image '95 Swimsuit Calendar.”\n", "Within the Storyteller system, the Mental attributes included Perception instead of Resolve, while the social Attributes of Charisma and Appearance were replaced on the sheet by Presence and Composure, respectively. Unlike all other attributes in the Storyteller system–and unlike all attributes in the Storytelling System–Appearance could have zero dots in it, although this was only to reflect particularly hideous or monstrous characters.\n", "The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.\n", "The Acrylic material creates a translucent, blurred effect with a slight noise effect. A visual hierarchy can be created by using different opacities. For example, in an app, primary content surfaces are often opaque (with the exception of widgets or lightweight apps such as Calculator), a secondary pane can have 80% background Acrylic, and the tertiary pane can have 60% background Acrylic. Background Acrylic blurs all items behind the active Acrylic material. In-app Acrylic blurs content within the app.\n", "For a clean division of foreground from background, it is also important that clothing and hair in the foreground shot have a fairly simple silhouette, as fine details such as frizzy hair may not resolve properly. Similarly, partially transparent elements of the costume cause problems.\n\nSection::::Background color.\n", "With the introduction of iOS 8 in 2014, an additional \"Auto-Night Theme\" was introduced, which dynamically changes the theme from 'Normal' or 'Sepia' to 'Night' and vice versa based on the ambient light conditions.\n\nWith the introduction of iOS 9 in 2015, a fourth background theme was added: Gray: light grey text on a dark gray background.\n", "My films have been progressing towards a certain kind of minimalism, even though it was never intended. Elements that can be eliminated have been eliminated. This was pointed out to me by somebody who referred to the paintings of Rembrandt and his use of light: some elements are highlighted while others are obscured or even pushed back into the dark. And it's something that we do – we bring out elements that we want to emphasise.\n", "Low-key lighting\n\nLow-key lighting is a style of lighting for photography, film or television. It is a necessary element in creating a chiaroscuro effect. Traditional photographic lighting, three-point lighting uses a key light, a fill light and a back light for illumination. Low-key lighting often uses only a key light, optionally controlled with a fill light or a simple reflector. \n", "The illumination of the subject of a drawing or painting is a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.\n", "One famous example of the form is the work of Saul Bass in the 1950s and 1960s. His modish title sequences for the films of Alfred Hitchcock were key in setting the style and mood of the movie even before the action began, and contributed to Hitchcock's \"house style\" that was a key element in his approach to marketing. Another well known designer is Maurice Binder, who designed the often erotic titles for many of the James Bond films from the 1960s to the 1980s. After his death, Daniel Kleinman has done several of the titles.\n", "The key light does not have to directly illuminate the subject: it may pass through various filters, screens, or reflectors. Light passing through tree leaves, window panes, and other obstacles can make a scene more visually interesting, as well as cue the audience to the location of the subject. The key light also does not have to be white light—a colored key (especially when used with fill/back lighting of other colors) can add more emotional depth to a scene than full white alone. In mixed indoor/outdoor daytime scenes, sunlight may appear to be a \"warm\" white, and indoor lighting to be a \"neutral\" or artificially-toned white. By contrast, moonlight appears to be \"cooler\" than indoor lighting.\n", "In July 2016, \"Wiknix\"s Jay Bokhiria called Candy, Dreams, Gothic, Mosaic, and Roland the best Prisma filters. \"The Telegraph\"s Pramita Ghosh and Riddhima Khanna picked out five filters: Heisenberg, Marcus D – Lone Wolf, Mosaic, Roland, and Udnie. \"India TV\" said Bobbie, #FollowMeTo, Mondrian, The Scream, and Udnie were the best filters while \"you can ignore the rest.\" \"Stuff\"s Sam Kieldsen favored the Curtain, Electric, and MIOBI filters with \"work well with almost any sort of shot you use\" as well as Heisenberg \"can be brilliantly effective when used with the right base shot.\" However, Kieldsen critiqued the filters Impression and Mondrian with \"rarely seem to produce anything worth looking at.\" \"The Kitchn\"s Ariel Knutson used the filters Candy, Gothic, Femme, Ice Cream, Mononoke, Mosaic, Raoul, Tokyo, and Udnie for various food photography. Knutson called Gothic \"the most bold of all the filters.\" Knutson called Udnie \"my favorite filter for the whole app.\" \"Aussie Network News\"s Cat Suclo ranked Femme, Mononoke, and Tears as the three best filters.\n", "Section::::Use.\n\nAccording to Pierpoint, the visual aesthetic may have been used as early as 2014 in the television series \"Sherlock\", referencing the speculated hidden desires of Dr. Watson. The lighting has been used in numerous television and film media. The Hollywood films \"The Neon Demon\", \"Atomic Blonde\", and \"Black Panther\" all feature the use of blue, pink, and purple lighting. Similarly, the award-winning \"Black Mirror\" episode \"San Junipero\" made use of the visual aesthetic. Later, the Netflix series \"Riverdale\" was also stated to be using it.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Design.\n", "Muschietti himself found mainstream 1980s lighting too artificial thus preferred to through windows and bounce off the floor, allowing him to convey a feeling of intimacy with the characters, while admiring the approach of unsettling backlights and soft lights. Chung spoke of his experience on \"Stoker\" (2013), which taught him how to light quickly using one source: \"I feel lucky because some directors will always say, ‘Can you make more light?’ But this movie is very naturalistic. My responsibility is to the audience and to tell the story, and if you want this movie to scare people, a natural look is best.\"\n", "The advantage to high-key lighting is that it doesn't require adjustment for each scene which allows the production to complete the shooting in hours instead of days. The primary drawback is that high-key lighting fails to add meaning or drama by lighting certain parts more prominently than others.\n", "Low key light accentuates the contours of the subject by throwing areas into shade while a fill light or reflector may illuminate the shadow areas to control contrast. The relative strength of key-to-fill, known as the lighting ratio, can be measured using a light meter. Low key lighting has a higher lighting ratio, e.g., 8:1, than high-key lighting, which can approach 1:1. \n", "Section::::Background variations.\n\nThe backgrounds used in VFDA range widely from the use of true vintage pieces such as original period sheet music, fractional currency, foreign money or other items that set the time frame for the piece. Each of the items used relate the overall, theme of the art. The background can also be structured in segmented form-through the use of linear script—composed of simply drawn lines with little attempt at pictorial representation, mathematic symbolism—such as the use of angles and formulas and via free-form application—concepts chosen by the artist to represent the underlying theme in the work.\n", "Whether it is easier or healthier to read text on a dark background was disputed by vision and perception researchers; there was similar dispute between users. However, a recent article by \"Popular Science\" suggests that \"Dark mode is easier on the eyes and battery\"\n\nSection::::Energy usage.\n\nLight on dark color schemes require less energy to display on some display technologies, such as OLED, CRT and LCD displays. This can impact battery life and overall energy conservation.\n", "This decision can be assisted by knowing the characteristics of the source image and of human vision. Most noise reduction algorithms perform much more aggressive chroma noise reduction, since there is little important fine chroma detail that one risks losing. Furthermore, many people find luminance noise less objectionable to the eye, since its textured appearance mimics the appearance of film grain.\n", "A theme is not the same as the subject of a work. For example, the \"subject\" of \"Star Wars\" is \"the battle for control of the galaxy between the Galactic Empire and the Rebel Alliance\". The \"themes\" explored in the films might be \"moral ambiguity\" or \"the conflict between technology and nature\".\n", "In 1993, \"Animage\" made a male anime character popularity poll, in which Zoisite was the tenth most popular, and Nephrite was the joint seventeenth, tying with a character from \"Zettai Muteki Raijin-Oh\". The first official \"Sailor Moon\" character popularity poll ranked Zoisite as the twentieth most popular character, Kunzite was the twenty third, Nephrite was twenty-fourth, Jadeite was twenty-sixth, Endou was twenty-ninth, Beryl was thirtieth and Queen Metaria was thirty-fourth, out of thirty-eight choices.\n", "In his 1936 essay \"Style and Medium in the Motion Pictures (text online), Panofsky seeks to describe the visual symptoms endemic\" to the medium of film.\n\nSection::::Iconology.:Three strata of subject matter or meaning.\n\nIn \"Studies in Iconology\" Panofsky details his idea of three levels of art-historical understanding :\n", "Light is necessary to create an image exposure on a frame of film or on a digital target (CCD, etc.). The art of lighting for cinematography goes far beyond basic exposure, however, into the essence of visual storytelling. Lighting contributes considerably to the emotional response an audience has watching a motion picture. The increased usage of filters can greatly impact the final image and affect the lighting.\n\nSection::::Aspects.:Camera movement.\n", "When referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition.\n\nSection::::Iconography as a field of study.\n\nSection::::Iconography as a field of study.:Foundations of iconography.\n" ]	[ "Dark themes are better for the eyes." ]	[ "Using dark themes during the day can be just as uncomfortable as using bright themes during the night." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Dark themes are better for the eyes." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Using dark themes during the day can be just as uncomfortable as using bright themes during the night." ]
2018-02455	why is it so quiet when it snows?	Sound is how you perceive waves of pressure in the air. Those waves can bounce off hard surfaces, like when you hear an echo, or travel in a different medium, like when you hear sound underwater. If the medium is more dense, like solid metal, sounds travel faster but die out more quickly. When it's snowing, the snow on all the surfaces and in the air dampens all of the waves, so that sound doesn't travel as far and everything around you is quieter.	[ "Real Quiet later stood at Taylor Made Stallions in Kentucky and Pin Oak Lane Farm, then Penn Ridge, both in Pennsylvania.\n\nHe also shuttled to Australia and Uruguay, taking advantage of the reversed breeding season observed in the southern hemisphere.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Background and conception.\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Sound transmission.\n\nThis piece of lore is true in summer but conditionally false in winter. Moisture-laden air is a better conductor of sound than dry air, so moist air carries sounds farther. In winter, temperature also becomes an important factor. If the air is warm and moist, the rule holds. If the air is very cold, it is also very dense and a better sound conductor than warm air, and also likely to be much drier. When sounds carry over a long distance, the cold, clear weather is likely to linger.\n", "The Murray Hill anechoic chamber, built in 1940, is the world's oldest wedge-based anechoic chamber. The interior room measures approximately high by wide by deep. The exterior concrete and brick walls are about thick to keep outside noise from entering the chamber. The chamber absorbs over 99.995% of the incident acoustic energy above 200 Hz. At one time the Murray Hill chamber was cited in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's quietest room. It is possible to hear the sounds of skeletal joints and heart beats very prominently.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "The song is featured several times in \"Deadpool 2\" where a running joke is made out of the title character Deadpool noticing (initially while watching the film with his girlfriend), the \"obvious\" similarities between it and the song \"Do You Want to Build a Snowman?\" from the film \"Frozen\". As he is dying towards the end of the film, Deadpool sings the song's chorus to his teammates.\n", "BULLET::::- Sound refraction: Just as a submarine can use refraction to hide its acoustic signature from surface vessels, the same principle of sound refraction can be used to prevent certain observers from hearing the noise. For example, an outdoor observer close to the ground will have sound waves refracted toward him when the ground is \"cooler\" than the ambient air and away from him when the ground is \"hotter\" than the air.\n", "Maximum noise restrictions have been enacted by law for both production of snowmobiles and aftermarket components. For instance, in Quebec (Canada) noise levels must be 78 decibels or less at 20 meters from a snowmobile path. As of 2009, snowmobiles produce 90% less noise than in the 1960s but there are still numerous complaints. Efforts to reduce noise focus on suppressing mechanical noise of the suspension components and tracks. Arctic Cat in 2005 introduced \"Silent Track technology\" on touring models such as the T660 Turbo, Bearcat, and some M-Series sleds. Ski-Doo has since then also used comparative \"silent track technology\" on some models.\n", "I jumped into a seal hole, pushing the ice away as I entered, and they handed me my camera. Surprisingly, I wasn't too cold, except around where my mouth held on to my regulator, and that instantly froze and became numb. Suddenly everything was quiet and I found myself looking at easily one of the most extraordinary scenes I had ever, ever experienced. When I dropped down through a hole in the ice, I was completely surrounded by ice: a tunnel maybe twenty feet across. Everything above me on the land was roaring with wind and down there, there was absolutely no sound except for the distant trills of Weddell seals.\n", "Section::::Plot.:The same rookies a week later.\n", "According to local anecdote Frank Brittain sent a list of fifteen names with the town's application for a post office in 1914, and all of them were rejected. \"Well, I guess they put a \"quietus\" on that,\" Brittain said to his wife. She saw the opportunity, and renewed the application, and a few weeks later the name \"Quietus\" was approved.\n", "Section::::Bedouin Soundclash.\n", "Male and female Weddell seals communicate through a variety of sounds, males specifically use “trills” to communicate sometimes. Weddell seals are also able to communicate to each other through different mediums. Weddell seals on ice are able to hear the calls of Weddell seals in the water as long as noise level on land is low and they are in close proximity of one another. Sound waves can be transmitted either through the ice itself or from water to breathing holes where female Weddell seals usually are when breeding.\n", "Section::::Awareness Campaigns.:Noisy Toys Campaign.\n\nSAC has worked hard to raise awareness of the dangerous effects of noisy toys. It has encouraged the government to conduct further studies on noise related to toy safety and revise current legislation. SAC supports legislation that advocates the reduction of allowable noise decibel level in toys from the current 100 db to 75 db.\n\nSection::::Awareness Campaigns.:Auditory Processing Disorder.\n", "There are some temperature and humidity ranges that prohibit or restrict the formation of a snowball. With a powdery snow, snowballs are difficult to form. In temperatures below , there is little free water in the snow, which leads to crumbly snowballs. At or above, melted water in the snow results in a better cohesion. If a person is walking on snow and it squeaks, chances are the conditions are not appropriate for packing snow into a snowball, because squeaking means that the snow is dry.\n\nSection::::Self rolling snowballs.\n", "80 meters can be plagued with noise, with the rural noise floor set by propagated noise from distant thunderstorms and man-made noise sources. Urban and suburban noise floor is often established by local noise, and is generally 10–20 dB stronger than the typical rural noise floor. On 80 meters, nearly all areas of the world are subject to local weather induced noises from thunderstorms.\n", "Isn’t it why we often hear those sad chimes\n\nAnd calmly freeze, while looking in the sky?\n\nA tired flock of cranes still flies – their wings flap.\n\nBirds glide into the twilight, roaming free. \n\nIn their formation I can see a small gap –\n\nIt might be so, that space is meant for me.\n\nThe day shall come, when in a mist of ashen\n\nI’ll soar with cranes, and final rest I’ll find,\n\nFrom the skies calling – in a bird-like fashion –\n\nAll those of you, who I’ll have left behind. \n", "Primary contributors to environmental noise include U.S. Route 101, El Camino Real, Leavesley Road and other major arterials. The number of people exposed to sound levels above 60 CNEL is approximately 4,000.\n\nSection::::Geography.:Climate.\n", "Quietus was established as a post office in 1907 to service homesteaders and ranchers living in the valleys of the Otter and Quietus Creeks. Though never a large community, the local population eventually dwindled to less than a dozen residents, until the post office closed in 1957. Today, Quietus is a \"ghost town,\" the loop road and the post office building remains, though it has collapsed.\n\nSection::::How Quietus Got Its Name.\n", "The Laborers' Health and Safety Fund of North America indicates buying quieter equipment as a cost-effective way to reduce noise at a construction worksite in its Best Practices Guide on Controlling Noise on Construction Sites.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Health effects from noise\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental noise\n\nBULLET::::- Noise pollution\n\nBULLET::::- Noise control\n\nBULLET::::- Noise regulation\n\nBULLET::::- Industrial noise\n\nBULLET::::- Safe-in-Sound Excellence in Hearing Loss Prevention Award\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- NIOSH Power Tools Sound Pressure and Vibrations Database\n\nBULLET::::- NIOSH Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention Topic Page\n\nBULLET::::- NYC DEP Approved Vendor List\n\nBULLET::::- NYC DEP Noise Homepage\n", "Section::::History.:Renovation.\n", "When communicating vocally, they have four different types of whistles, differing in this from their close relatives, the hoary marmot and the Vancouver Island marmot. The Olympic marmot's whistles include flat calls, ascending calls, descending calls, and trills; all of these are in a small frequency range of about 2,700 Hz. Flat, ascending, and descending calls are most often voiced singly. The ascending call has a duration of about half a second, starting with a \"yell\" on one note and ending with a \"chip\" on a higher note; it is often used as a distress or warning call for unfamiliar smells and noises. These same \"yips\" are heard when Olympic marmots are play fighting, along with low growls and chattering of teeth. The descending call ends on a lower note than the one on which it started. The trill, which sounds like multiple ascending calls put together as one longer sound, consists of multiple ranging notes and is voiced as an alarm call to communicate to other marmots in the area that danger may be approaching and they should return to their burrows. Females with young have the responsibility to watch out for their young and other relatives near the burrow, and therefore voice the trill more often than other Olympic marmots. If marmots are not accustomed to human contact in a certain area, they may also sound a trill when seeing a person, in order to alert other marmots. At places like Hurricane Ridge, where seeing humans is a frequent occurrence, most marmots will not acknowledge human presence at all.\n", "In the years immediately following the First World War, Henry Cowell composed a number of piano pieces featuring tone clusters and direct manipulation of the piano's strings. One of these, titled \"The Banshee\" (1925), features sliding and shrieking sounds suggesting the terrifying cry of the banshee from Irish folklore.\n", "Section::::As nuisance.\n\nSection::::As nuisance.:Bark control.\n", "Dear Uncle Ezra,\n\nWhat is that sound coming from the Johnson Museum? It's a pingy type sound that I guess could be some kind of wind chime but it seems like it's coming from the building itself.\n\n— Just wondering\n\nDear Chiming In,\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04114	What exactly is predestination? Why do followers like Calvinists believe it? Why do they ideally try to be good people?	It is the belief that God controls all thing to such a minute detail that there is no free will. Those that God decides will go to heaven will always go to heaven and everyone else will go to hell. It does not matter how bad you are as a chosen person, and it does not matter how good you are as an unchosen you cannot change your destiny.	[ "Calvinists believe that God picked those who he will save and bring with him to Heaven before the world was created. They also believe that those people God does not save will go to Hell. John Calvin thought people who were saved could never lose their salvation and the \"elect\" (those God saved) would know they were saved because of their actions.\n", "On the spectrum of beliefs concerning predestination, Calvinism is the strongest form among Christians. It teaches that God's predestining decision is based on the knowledge of his own will rather than foreknowledge, concerning every particular person and event; and, God continually acts with entire freedom, in order to bring about his will in completeness, but in such a way that the freedom of the creature is not violated, \"but rather, established\".\n", "In this way, Middle Knowledge is thought of by its proponents to be consistent with any theological doctrines that assert God as having divine providence and man having a libertarian freedom (e.g. Calvinism, Catholicism, Lutheranism), and to offer a potential solution to the concerns that Gods providence somehow nullifies man from having true liberty in his choices.\n\nSection::::Islam.\n", "Middle Knowledge is a concept that was developed by Jesuit theologian Luis de Molina, and exists under a doctrine called Molinism. It attempts to deal with the topic of predestination by reconciling Gods sovereign providence with the notion of libertarian free will. The concept of Middle Knowledge holds that God has a knowledge of true pre-volitional counterfactuals for all free creatures. That is, what any individual creature with a free will (e.g. a human) would do under any given circumstance. Gods knowledge of counterfactuals is reasoned to occur logically prior to his divine creative decree (that is, prior to creation), and after his knowledge of necessary truths. Thus, Middle Knowledge holds that before the world was created, God knew what every existing creature capable of libertarian freedom (e.g. every individual human) would freely choose to do in all possible circumstances. It then holds that based on this information, God elected from a number of these possible worlds, the world most consistent with his ultimate will, which is the actual world that we live in.\n", "Expressed sympathetically, the Calvinist doctrine is that God has mercy or withholds it, with particular consciousness of who are to be the recipients of mercy in Christ. Therefore, the particular persons are chosen, out of the total number of human beings, who will be rescued from enslavement to sin and the fear of death, and from punishment due to sin, to dwell forever in his presence. Those who are being saved are assured through the gifts of faith, the sacraments, and communion with God through prayer and increase of good works, that their reconciliation with him through Christ is settled by the sovereign determination of God's will. God also has particular consciousness of those who are passed over by his selection, who are without excuse for their rebellion against him, and will be judged for their sins.\n", "Calvinist groups use the term Hyper-Calvinism to describe Calvinistic systems that assert without qualification that God's intention to destroy some is equal to his intention to save others. Some forms of Hyper-Calvinism have racial implications, as when Dutch Calvinist theologian Franciscus Gomarus however argued that Jews, because of their refusal to worship Jesus Christ, were members of the non-elect, as also argued by John Calvin himself, based on I John 2:22–23 in The New Testament of the Bible. Some Dutch settlers in South Africa argued that black people were sons of Ham, whom Noah had cursed to be slaves, according to Genesis 9:18–19, or drew analogies between them and the Canaanites, suggesting a \"chosen people\" ideology similar to that espoused by proponents of the Jewish nation. This justified racial hierarchy on earth, as well as racial segregation of congregations, but did not exclude blacks from being part of the elect. Other Calvinists vigorously objected to these arguments (see Afrikaner Calvinism). \n", "Calvinism places more emphasis on election than do other branches of Christianity.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "Calvinists who hold the infralapsarian view of predestination usually prefer that term to \"sublapsarianism,\" perhaps with the intent of blocking the inference that they believe predestination is on the basis of foreknowledge (\"sublapsarian\" meaning, assuming the fall into sin). The different terminology has the benefit of distinguishing the Calvinist double predestination version of infralapsarianism from Lutheranism's view that predestination is a mystery, which forbids the unprofitable intrusion of prying minds since God only reveals partial knowledge to the human race.\n", "Some Calvinists decline to describe the eternal decree of God in terms of a sequence of events or thoughts, and many caution against the simplifications involved in describing any action of God in speculative terms. Most make distinctions between the positive manner in which God chooses some to be recipients of grace, and the manner in which grace is consciously withheld so that some are destined for everlasting punishments.\n", "In common English parlance, the doctrine of predestination often has particular reference to the doctrines of Calvinism. The version of predestination espoused by John Calvin, after whom Calvinism is named, is sometimes referred to as \"double predestination\" because in it God predestines some people for salvation (i.e. unconditional election) and some for condemnation (i.e. Reprobation) which results by allowing the individual's own sins to condemn them. Calvin himself defines predestination as \"the eternal decree of God, by which he determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every man. Not all are created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestined to life or to death.\"\n", "Section::::Double predestination.\n\nDouble predestination is the idea that not only does God choose some to be saved, he also creates some people who will be damned.\n", "Martin Luther's attitude towards predestination is set out in his \"On the Bondage of the Will\", published in 1525. This publication by Luther was in response to the published treatise by Desiderius Erasmus in 1524 known as \"On Free Will\". Luther based his views on Ephesians 2:8–10, which says:\n\nSection::::Christianity.:Views of Christian branches.:Protestantism.:Calvinism.\n\nThe Belgic Confession of 1561 affirmed that God \"delivers and preserves\" from perdition \"all whom he, in his eternal and unchangeable council, of mere goodness hath elected in Christ Jesus our Lord, without respect to their works\" (Article XVI).\n", "Predestination is a doctrine in Calvinism dealing with the question of the control that God exercises over the world. In the words of the Westminster Confession of Faith, God \"freely and unchangeably ordained whatsoever comes to pass.\" The second use of the word \"predestination\" applies this to the salvation, and refers to the belief that God appointed the eternal destiny of some to salvation by grace, while leaving the remainder to receive eternal damnation for all their sins, even their original sin. The former is called \"unconditional election\", and the latter \"reprobation\". In Calvinism, people are predestined and effectually called in due time (regenerated/born again) to faith by God.\n", "Supralapsarianism is the doctrine that God's decree of predestination for salvation and reprobation logically precedes his preordination of the human race's fall into sin. That is, God decided to save, and to damn; he then determined the means by which that would be made possible. It is a matter of controversy whether or not Calvin himself held this view, but most scholars link him with the infralapsarian position. It is known, however, that Calvin's successor in Geneva, Theodore Beza, held to the supralapsarian view.\n\nSection::::Christianity.:Types of predestination.:Double predestination.\n", "Calvin's doctrine of providence is straightforward. \"All events whatsoever are governed by the secret counsel of God.\" Therefore, “nothing happens but what [God] has knowingly and willingly decreed.” This excludes \"fortune and chance.\" Calvin applied his doctrine of providence concerning \"all events\" to individuals and their salvation in his doctrine of predestination.\n", "The Council of Arles in the late fifth century condemned the position \"that some have been condemned to death, others have been predestined to life\", though this may seem to follow from Augustine's teaching. The Second Council of Orange in 529 also condemned the position that \"some have been truly predestined to evil by divine power\".\n", "Near the end of the \"Institutes\", Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of predestination, a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of Pelagius. Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther, though Calvin's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that went before him. The principle, in Calvin's words, is that \"All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death.\"\n", "Section::::Themes.:Predestination.\n", "For Calvin's biblically-based theology, this diversity reveals the \"unsearchable depth of the divine judgment\", a judgment \"subordinate to God's purpose of eternal election\". God offers salvation to some, but not to all. To many this seems a perplexing subject, because they deem it \"incongruous that... some should be predestinated to salvation, and others to destruction\". However, Calvin asserted that the incongruity can be resolved by proper views concerning \"election and predestination\".\n", "As a disciple of Augustine, John Calvin also taught double predestination. He wrote the foundational work on this topic, \"Institutes of the Christian Religion\" (1539), while living in Strasbourg after his expulsion from Geneva and consulting regularly with the Reformed theologian Martin Bucer. Calvin's belief in the uncompromised \"sovereignty of God\" spawned his doctrines of providence and predestination.\n\nFor the world, without providence it would be \"unlivable\". For individuals, without predestination \"no one would be saved\".\n", "Calvinists typically divide on the issue of predestination into infralapsarians (sometimes called 'sublapsarians') and supralapsarians. Infralapsarians interpret the biblical election of God to highlight his love (1 John 4:8; Ephesians 1:4b–5a) and chose his elect considering the situation after the Fall, while supralapsarians interpret biblical election to highlight God's sovereignty (Romans 9:16) and that the Fall was ordained by God's decree of election. In infralapsarianism, election is God's response to the Fall, while in supralapsarianism the Fall is part of God's plan for election. In spite of the division, many Calvinist theologians would consider the debate surrounding the infra- and supralapsarian positions one in which scant Scriptural evidence can be mustered in either direction, and that, at any rate, has little effect on the overall doctrine.\n", "Section::::Christianity.:Views of Christian branches.:Protestantism.\n\nSection::::Christianity.:Views of Christian branches.:Protestantism.:Comparison.\n\nThis table summarizes the classical views of three different Protestant beliefs.\n\nSection::::Christianity.:Views of Christian branches.:Protestantism.:Lutheranism.\n", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) rejects the doctrine of predestination, but does believe in foreordination. Foreordination, an important doctrine of the LDS Church, teaches that during the pre-mortal existence, God selected (\"foreordained\") particular people to fulfill certain missions (\"callings\") during their mortal lives. For example, prophets were foreordained to be the Lord's servants (see Jeremiah 1:5), all who receive the priesthood were foreordained to that calling, and Jesus was foreordained to enact the atonement.\n", "Predestination of the elect and non-elect was taught by the Jewish Essene sect, Gnosticism, and Manichaeism. In Christianity, the doctrine that God unilaterally predestines some persons to heaven and some to hell originated with Augustine of Hippo during the Pelagian controversy in 412 CE. Pelagius and his followers taught that people are not born with original sin and can choose to be good or evil. The controversy caused Augustine to radically reinterpret the teachings of the apostle Paul, arguing that faith is a free gift from God rather than something humans can choose. Noting that not all will hear or respond to God's offered covenant, Augustine considered that \"the more general care of God for the world becomes particularised in God’s care for the elect\". He explicitly defended God's justice in sending newborn and stillborn babies to hell although they had no personal sin.\n", "Thus, Calvin based his theological description of people as \"predestinated to life or to death\" on biblical authority and \"actual fact\". Calvin noted that Scripture requires that we \"consider this great mystery\" of predestination, but he also warned against unrestrained \"human curiosity\" regarding it. For believers, knowing that \"the cause of our salvation did not proceed from us, but from God alone\" evokes gratitude.\n\nSection::::Double predestination.:Reprobation: active decree, passive foreordination.\n\nCalvinists emphasise the \"active\" nature of God's decree to choose those foreordained to eternal wrath, yet at the same time the \"passive\" nature of that foreordination.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02264	What actually makes certain people more charismatic than others?	Body language and a wide scope of interests helps a lot, not to mention confidence. Smiling, lots of eye contact, knowledge about something they like (or willingness to learn, and a confident demeanor are all things people generally like and consider in evaluating charisma.	[ "George D. Chryssides asserts that not all new religious movements have charismatic leaders, and that there are differences in the hegemonic styles among those movements that do.\n\nSection::::Narcissism.\n", "Section::::Application of Weber's theories.:New religious movements.\n\nEileen Barker discusses the tendency for new religious movements to have founders or leaders who wield considerable charismatic authority and are believed to have special powers or knowledge. Charismatic leaders are unpredictable, Barker says, for they are not bound by tradition or rules and they may be accorded by their followers the right to pronounce on all aspects of their lives. Barker warns that in these cases the leader may lack any accountability, require unquestioning obedience, and encourage a dependency upon the movement for material, spiritual and social resources.\n", "Len Oakes, an Australian psychologist who wrote a dissertation about charisma, had eleven charismatic leaders fill in a psychometric test, which he called the \"adjective checklist\", and found them as a group quite ordinary. Following the psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut, Oakes argues that charismatic leaders exhibit traits of narcissism and also argues that they display an extraordinary amount of energy, accompanied by an inner clarity unhindered by the anxieties and guilt that afflict more ordinary people. He did however not fully follow Weber's framework of charismatic authority.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Authentic leadership\n\nBULLET::::- Caudillo\n\nBULLET::::- Demagogue\n\nBULLET::::- Führerprinzip\n\nBULLET::::- Monarch\n", "Charisma can be perceived as \"a quality transmitted by heredity\". This method of succession is present in Kim il Sung's charisma being passed on to his son, Kim Jong Il. This type of succession is a difficult undertaking and often results in a movement toward traditionalization and legalization in authority.\n\nSection::::Charismatic succession.:Office charisma.\n", "In the Roman Catholic church, the movement became particularly popular in the Filipino, Korean, and Hispanic communities of the United States, in the Philippines, and in Latin America, mainly Brazil. Travelling priests and lay people associated with the movement often visit parishes and sing what are known as charismatic masses. It is thought to be the second largest distinct sub-movement (some 120 million members) within global Catholicism, along with Traditional Catholicism.\n", "\"Charisma\" is an ancient Greek term that initially gained prominence through Saint Paul's letters to the emerging Christian communities in the first century. In this context, it generally referred to a divinely-originating \"gift\" that demonstrated the authority of God within the early leaders of the Church. Max Weber took this theological notion and generalized it, viewing it as something that followers attribute, thereby opening it up for use by sociologists who applied it to political, military, celebrity, and non-Christian religious contests. Other terms used are \"charismatic domination\" and \"charismatic leadership\".\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Charisma.\n\nWeber applies the term charisma to \n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Authority.\n", "In politics, charismatic rule is often found in various authoritarian states, autocracies, dictatorships and theocracies. To help to maintain their charismatic authority, such regimes will often establish a vast personality cult. When the leader of such a state dies or leaves office, and a new charismatic leader does not appear, such a regime is likely to fall shortly thereafter, unless it has become fully routinized.\n\nSection::::Charismatic succession.\n", "According to Max Weber, the methods of succession are: search, revelation, designation by original leader, designation by qualified staff, hereditary charisma, and office charisma. These are the various ways in which an individual and a society can contrive to maintain the unique energy and nature of charisma in their leadership.\n\nSection::::Charismatic succession.:Search.\n", "In the Three Levels of Leadership model, \"presence\" is not the same as \"charisma\". Scouller argued that leaders can be charismatic by relying on a job title, fame, skillful acting or by the projection of an aura of \"specialness\" by followers – whereas presence is something deeper, more authentic, more fundamental and more powerful and does not depend on social status. He contrasted the mental and moral resilience of a person with real presence with the susceptibility to pressure and immoral actions of someone whose charisma rests only on acting skills (and the power their followers give them), not their true inner qualities.\n", "Section::::Love and honor.\n", "Section::::Changing culture.:Christian identity.\n", "Charismatic authority almost always endangers the boundaries set by traditional (coercive) or rational (legal) authority. It tends to challenge this authority, and is thus often seen as revolutionary. Usually this charismatic authority is incorporated into society. Hereby the challenge that it presents to society will subside. The way in which this happens is called \"routinization\".\n\nBy routinization, the charismatic authority changes: \n", "In contrast to the current popular use of the term \"charismatic leader\", Weber saw charismatic authority not so much as character traits of the charismatic leader but as a relationship between the leader and his followers. The validity of charisma is founded on its \"recognition\" by the leader's followers (or \"adepts\" – \"Anhänger\"). \n\nHis charisma risks disappearing if he is \"abandoned by God\" or if \"his government doesn't provide any prosperity to those whom he dominates\".\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Routinizing charisma.\n", "Research into the mechanisms of authentic leadership is ongoing, but it is becoming clear that authentic leaders engender an emotional and/or psychological response from their followers that leads to an increase in individual and team performance.\n\nSection::::Empirical model of authentic leadership.:Consequences.\n", "The term \"charismatic\" derives from the Greek word \"charisma\" (\"gift\", itself derived from , \"grace\" or \"favor\").\n\nSection::::Beliefs.\n", "Historically, Christian believers have only been able to affect this level of culture change by knowing their true spiritual identity. History has shown that ministers living from the perspective of being a child of God, with God-given authority to operate in supernatural gifts, have been the most effective in shifting cultural changes in small pockets of society. In more recent history, everyday believers have also come to realize the authority given to them and have begun to effect change in their own communities and areas of influence. These believers have learned how to represent Jesus in everyday situations and environments.\n", "\"A successor (may be designated) by the charismatically qualified administrative staff... (T)his process should not be interpreted as 'election' or 'nomination'... It is not determined by merely a majority vote...Unanimity (is) often required.\" A case example of this form of succession is the papal conclave of cardinals to choose a new pope. The cardinals taking part in the papal conclave are viewed to be charismatically qualified by their Roman Catholic congregations and thus their choice is imbued with charismatic authority.\n\nSection::::Charismatic succession.:Hereditary charisma.\n", "A religion which evolves its own priesthood and establishes a set of laws and rules is likely to lose its charismatic character and move towards another type of authority. For example, Muhammad, who had charismatic authority as \"The Prophet\" among his followers, was succeeded by the traditional authority and structure of Islam, a clear example of routinization.\n", "Section::::Leadership emergence.:Authenticity.\n\nIndividuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders. See Authentic Leadership.\n\nSection::::Leadership emergence.:Big Five personality factors.\n\nThose who emerge as leaders tend to be more (order in strength of relationship with leadership emergence): extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups. Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence\n\nSection::::Leadership emergence.:Birth order.\n", "Charismatic Adventism\n\nCharismatic Adventists are a segment of the Seventh-day Adventist Church that is closely related to \"Progressive Adventism\", a liberal movement within the church.\n\nSection::::Beliefs.\n\nSection::::Beliefs.:Music.\n\nLike progressive Adventists, charismatics are typically open to a variety of styles of worship music in church including Contemporary Christian Music.\n\nSection::::Beliefs.:Speaking in tongues.\n", "BULLET::::- Comes from individuals and their personal qualities that they have to offer. Certain individuals are influential to others with their unique qualities which help them gain followers. The \"charismatic\" individuals exercise power and authority over a whole society or even a specific group of within a bigger society. The exercise of their power of these individuals are either for good or bad. Examples of these charismatic leaders can range from: Joan of Arc to Adolf Hitler or Martin Luther king Jr to Jesus Christ.\n", "Section::::History of research.\n\nThe emergence of the concept of trait leadership can be traced back to Thomas Carlyle's \"great man\" theory, which stated that \"The History of the World [...] was the Biography of Great Men\" (Carlyle 1941, p. 17). Subsequent commentators interpreted this view to conclude that the forces of extraordinary leadership\n", "By 2002, some 19,000 denominations or groups, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, were identified as neo-charismatic. Neo-charismatic tenets and practices are found in many independent, nondenominational or post-denominational congregations, with strength of numbers centered in the African independent churches, among the Han Chinese house-church movement, and in South American (especially Brazilian) churches.\n\nSection::::Adherents and denominations.:Notable churches.\n\nThe following are examples of notable neo-charismatic movement congregations:\n\nBULLET::::- Association of Vineyard Churches\n\nBULLET::::- Bethel Church (Redding, California)\n\nBULLET::::- Bible Christian Mission\n\nBULLET::::- Born Again Movement\n\nBULLET::::- Catch the Fire Toronto\n\nBULLET::::- Christ Embassy\n\nBULLET::::- International Christian Fellowship\n", "BULLET::::- Leadership presence: The best leaders usually have something beyond their behavior – something distinctive that commands attention, wins people's trust and enables them to lead successfully, which is often called \"leadership presence\" (Scouller, 2011). This is possibly why the traits approach became researchers' original line of investigation into the sources of a leader's effectiveness. However, that \"something\" – that presence – varies from person to person and research has shown it is hard to define in terms of common personality characteristics, so the traits approach failed to capture the elusive phenomenon of presence. The other leading leadership theories do not address the nature and development of presence.\n", "Leadership is the power to diffuse a positive energy and a sense of greatness. As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader. The absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority's power dissolving. However, due to its idiosyncratic nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends much more strongly on the perceived legitimacy of the authority than Weber's other forms of authority. For instance, a charismatic leader in a religious context might require an unchallenged belief that the leader has been touched by God, in the sense of a prophet. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the charismatic leader can fade quickly, which is one of the ways in which this form of authority shows itself to be unstable.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00619	how is metal made and formed? How do we create things like steel and iron?	We don't really "create" iron; it, and most other metals, exist in nature. You (typically) dig it up out of the ground and run it through a smelter, which melts the metal (allowing you to concentrate and purify it), and (by adding carbon) removes oxygen that has already reacted with the metal. Steel is different, though, as it's an alloy that mankind sort of accidentally stumbled on; putting in the right amount of carbon results in a metal that is much harder and stronger than just plain old iron. Eventually, people figured out how to reliably make steel in large quantities immediately prior to and during the Industrial Revolution.	[ "The history of metals is thought to begin with the use of copper about 11,000 years ago. Gold, silver, iron (as meteoric iron), lead, and brass were likewise in use before the first known appearance of bronze in the 5th millennium BCE. Subsequent developments include the production of early forms of steel; the discovery of sodium—the first light metal—in 1809; the rise of modern alloy steels; and, since the end of World War II, the development of more sophisticated alloys.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Form and structure.\n", "Some alloys, such as electrum which is an alloy consisting of silver and gold, occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is a mixture of the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different elements.\n", "Nowadays, the industrial production of iron or steel consists of two main stages. In the first stage, iron ore is reduced with coke in a blast furnace, and the molten metal is separated from gross impurities such as silicate minerals. This stage yields an alloy -- pig iron—that contains relatively large amounts of carbon. In the second stage, the amount of carbon in the pig iron is lowered by oxidation to yield wrought iron, steel, or cast iron. Other metals can be added at this stage to form alloy steels.\n\nSection::::Symbolic role.:Main industrial route.:Blast furnace processing.\n", "Many blacksmiths also incorporate materials such as bronze, copper, or brass in artistic products. Aluminum and titanium may also be forged by the blacksmith's process. Each material responds differently under the hammer and must be separately studied by the blacksmith.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n\nBULLET::::- Iron is a naturally occurring metallic element. It is almost never found in its native form (pure iron) in nature. It is usually found as an oxide or sulfide, with many other impurity elements mixed in.\n", "Copper, which occurs in native form, may have been the first metal discovered given its distinctive appearance, heaviness, and malleability compared to other stones or pebbles. Gold, silver, and iron (as meteoric iron), and lead were likewise discovered in prehistory. Forms of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc made by concurrently smelting the ores of these metals, originate from this period (although pure zinc was not isolated until the 13th century). The malleability of the solid metals led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons. Meteoric iron containing nickel was discovered from time to time and, in some respects this was superior to any industrial steel manufactured up to the 1880s when alloy steels become prominent.\n", "The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, billets, or blooms. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out. Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare.\n\nSection::::History of steelmaking.\n\nSection::::History of steelmaking.:Ancient steel.\n", "Common engineering metals include aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium and zinc. These are most often used as alloys. Much effort has been placed on understanding the iron-carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons. Plain carbon steels (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem. Cast irons, including ductile iron, are also part of the iron-carbon system.\n", "Tubal-Cain is mentioned in the book of Genesis of the Torah as the original smith.\n\nOgun, the god of iron, is one of the pantheon of \"orisa\" traditionally worshipped by the Yoruba of Nigeria.\n\nSection::::History, prehistory, religion, and mythology.:Before the Iron Age.\n\nGold, silver, and copper all occur in nature in their native states, as reasonably pure metals - humans probably worked these metals first. These metals are all quite malleable, and humans' initial development of hammering techniques was undoubtedly applied to these metals.\n", "Metallurgy is used to separate metals from their ore. Metallurgy is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal components for usage in products for consumers and manufacturers. The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, for technical advancement. The science of metallurgy is subdivided into chemical metallurgy and physical metallurgy.\n", "Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the prehistoric period now known as the Bronze Age. It was harder than pure copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc.\n", "Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (also known as \"black metallurgy\") and non-ferrous metallurgy (also known as \"colored metallurgy\").\n\nFerrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production.\n\nSection::::Etymology and pronunciation.\n\n\"Metallurgy\" derives from the Ancient Greek , , \"worker in metal\", from , , \"metal\" + , , \"work\".\n", "Section::::History and examples.:Steel and pig iron.:Alloy steels.\n", "Metalworking is a science, art, hobby, industry and trade. Its historical roots span cultures, civilizations, and millennia. Metalworking has evolved from the discovery of smelting various ores, producing malleable and ductile metal useful tools and adornments. Modern metalworking processes, though diverse and specialized, can be categorized as forming, cutting, or joining processes. Today's machine shop includes a number of machine tools capable of creating a precise, useful workpiece.\n\nSection::::Prehistory.\n", "Metals are \"won\" from their oxides by chemical reduction, i.e. by the addition of a chemical reagent. A common and cheap reducing agent is carbon in the form of coke. The most prominent example is that of iron ore smelting. Many reactions are involved, but the simplified equation is usually shown as:\n", "Section::::History.:Antiquity.\n", "Section::::General processes.\n\nMetalworking generally is divided into the following categories, \"forming\", \"cutting\", and, \"joining\". Most metal cutting is done by high speed steel tools or carbide tools. Each of these categories contain various processes.\n\nPrior to most operations, the metal must be marked out and/or measured, depending on the desired finished product.\n", "Iron is commonly found in the Earth's crust in the form of an ore, usually an iron oxide, such as magnetite or hematite. Iron is extracted from iron ore by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at about , and copper, which melts at about , and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than . In comparison, cast iron melts at about . Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid state, by heating the ore in a charcoal fire and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.\n", "Many raw metallic materials used in industrial purposes must first be processed into a useable state. Metallic ores are first processed through a combination of crushing, roasting, magnetic separation, flotation, and leaching to make them suitable for use in a foundry. Foundries then smelt the ore into usable metal that may be alloyed with other materials to improve certain properties. One metallic raw material that is commonly found across the world is iron, and when combined with nickel, this material makes up over 35% of the material in the Earth's inner and outer core. The iron that was initially used as early as 4000 B.C. was called meteoric iron and was found on the surface of the earth, as this type of iron came from the meteorites that struck the earth before the humans appeared and was in very limited supply. This type of iron is unlike most of the iron in the earth, as the iron in the earth was much deeper than the humans of that time period were able to excavate. Due to the nickel content of the meteoric iron, it did not need to be heated up and instead, was hammered and shaped into tools and weapons. Metallic raw materials on earth are very close to running out. We currently live in a throwaway economy, which means that we hardly ever reuse the materials that are found in the earth, and unless this changes, we have a very limited amount of time before we run out of certain materials from the earth. Between lead, tin, copper, iron ore, and bauxite there is, at most, 70 years left before we start running out of these metallic unless for more readily available veins of materials are found in the near future.\n", "In the far future of the universe, assuming that proton decay does not occur, cold fusion occurring via quantum tunnelling would cause the light nuclei in ordinary matter to fuse into Fe nuclei. Fission and alpha-particle emission would then make heavy nuclei decay into iron, converting all stellar-mass objects to cold spheres of pure iron.\n\nSection::::Origin and occurrence in nature.\n\nSection::::Origin and occurrence in nature.:Cosmogenesis.\n", "The majority of foundries specialize in a particular metal and have furnaces dedicated to these metals. For example, an iron foundry (for cast iron) may use a cupola, induction furnace, or EAF, while a steel foundry will use an EAF or induction furnace. Bronze or brass foundries use crucible furnaces or induction furnaces. Most aluminium foundries use either electric resistance or gas heated crucible furnaces or reverberatory furnaces.\n\nSection::::Process.:Degassing.\n", "BULLET::::- Lime acting as flux: CaO + SiO → CaSiO\n\nSection::::Smelting.:Trace elements.\n", "Metals up to the vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis. In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers.\n", "These types of forming process involve the application of mechanical force at room temperature. However, some recent developments involve the heating of dies and/or parts. Advancements in automated metalworking technology have made progressive die stamping possible which is a method that can encompass punching, coining, bending and several other ways below that modify metal at less cost while resulting in less scrap.\n\nBULLET::::- Bending\n\nBULLET::::- Coining\n\nBULLET::::- Decambering\n\nBULLET::::- Deep drawing (DD)\n\nBULLET::::- Flowforming\n\nBULLET::::- Hydroforming (HF)\n\nBULLET::::- Hot metal gas forming\n\nBULLET::::- Hot press hardening\n\nBULLET::::- Incremental forming (IF)\n\nBULLET::::- Spinning, Shear forming or Flowforming\n\nBULLET::::- Raising\n", "Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit people. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Around 10,000 years ago in the highlands of Anatolia (Turkey}, humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore. Around 2500 BC, people began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which was much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams. For example, arrowheads from the Chinese Qin dynasty (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.\n", "Forming (metalworking)\n\nForming, metal forming, is the metalworking process of fashioning metal parts and objects through mechanical deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without adding or removing material, and its mass remains unchanged. Forming operates on the materials science principle of plastic deformation, where the physical shape of a material is permanently deformed.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nMetal forming tends to have more uniform characteristics across its subprocesses than its contemporary processes, cutting and joining. \n\nOn the industrial scale, forming is characterized by:\n\nBULLET::::- Very high loads and stresses required, between 50 and ()\n" ]	[ "Metal is created.", "Iron and some metals are created. " ]	[ "Metal is usually dug up from the ground and refined into a more pure product. ", "Iron and other metals aren't actually created, they already exist in nature, and are found and dug up. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Metal is created.", "Iron and some metals are created. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Metal is usually dug up from the ground and refined into a more pure product. ", "Iron and other metals aren't actually created, they already exist in nature, and are found and dug up. " ]
2018-01212	Why are some mammals born with their eyes closed, and only open them after a certain amount of time has passed?	They're born before their eyesight is fully developed. It's a tradeoff that leaves the litter essentially helpless but the mother can recover from the pregnancy faster and sooner return to a state where she's more fit to hunt and defend her young. Evolution isn't intelligent design, it's 'whatever works works and if something works better it'll outdo the competition eventually', so being born a little prematurely seems to work better than longer pregnancies in some species.	[ "Statements that certain species of mammals are \"born blind\" refer to them being born with their eyes closed and their eyelids fused together; the eyes open later. One example is the rabbit. In humans the eyelids are fused for a while before birth, but open again before the normal birth time, but very premature babies are sometimes born with their eyes fused shut, and opening later. Other animals such as the blind mole rat are truly blind and rely on other senses.\n\nSection::::Totally blind species.:Colour blindness.\n", "In one experiment studying eye development, University of Maryland scientists transplanted lenses from the eyes of sighted surface-form embryos into blind cave-form embryos, and vice versa. In the cave form, lens development begins within the first 24 hours of embryonic development, but quickly aborts, the lens cells dying; most of the rest of the eye structures never develop. Researchers found that the lens seemed to control the development of the rest of the eye, as the surface-form tetras which received cave-form lenses failed to develop eyes, while cave-form tetras which received surface-form lenses grew eyes with pupils, corneas, and irises. (It is not clear whether they possessed sight, however.)\n", "Two experimental treatments for retinal problems include a cybernetic replacement and transplant of fetal retinal cells.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nStatements that certain species of mammals are \"born blind\" refers to them being born with their eyes closed and their eyelids fused together; the eyes open later. One example is the rabbit. In humans, the eyelids are fused for a while before birth, but open again before the normal birth time; however, very premature babies are sometimes born with their eyes fused shut, and opening later. Other animals, such as the blind mole rat, are truly blind and rely on other senses.\n", "In mammals, neurons in the brain that process vision actually develop after birth based on signals from the eyes. A landmark experiment by David H. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel (1963) showed that cats that had one eye sewn shut from birth to three months of age (monocular deprivation) only fully developed vision in the open eye. They showed that columns in the primary visual cortex receiving inputs from the other eye took over the areas that would normally receive input from the deprived eye. In general electrophysiological analyses of axons and neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus showed that the visual receptive field properties was comparable to adult cats. However, the layers of cortex that were deprived had less activity and fewer responses were isolated. The kittens had abnormally small ocular dominance columns (part of the brain that processes sight) connected to the closed eye, and abnormally large, wide columns connected to the open eye. Because the critical period time had elapsed, it would be impossible for the kittens to alter and develop vision in the closed eye. This did not happen to adult cats even when one eye was sewn shut for a year because they had fully developed their vision during their critical period. Later experiments in monkeys found similar results consistent with the strong critical period.\n", "Blindness at birth serves to preserve the young who are dependent on their parents. (If they could see, they could wander off.) Rabbits are born with eyes and ears closed, totally helpless. Humans have very poor vision at birth as well. See: Infant vision\n", "The location of the physical circannual timer in organisms and how it works are almost entirely unknown.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nIn one study performed by Eberhard Gwinner, two species of birds were born in a controlled environment without ever being exposed to external stimuli. They were presented with a fixed Photoperiod of 10 hours of light and 14 hours of darkness each day. The birds were exposed to these conditions for eight years and consistently molted at the same time as they would have in the wild, indicating that this physiological cycle is innate rather than governed environmentally.\n", "In humans, some babies are born blind in one or both eyes, for example, due to cataracts. Even when their vision is restored later by treatment, their sight would not function in the normal way as for someone who had binocular vision from birth or had surgery to restore vision shortly after birth. Therefore, it is important to treat babies born blind soon if their condition is treatable.\n\nExpression of the protein Lynx1 has been associated with the normal end of the critical period for synaptic plasticity in the visual system.\n\nSection::::Imprinting.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Eye opening.\n\nIn domestic chicks and other species of birds exhibiting USWS, one eye remained open contra-lateral (on the opposite side) to the \"awake\" hemisphere. The closed eye was shown to be opposite the hemisphere engaging in slow-wave sleep. Learning tasks, such as those including predator recognition, demonstrated the open eye could be preferential. This has also been shown to be the favored behavior of belugas, although inconsistencies have arisen directly relating the sleeping hemisphere and open eye. Keeping one eye open aids birds in engaging in USWS while mid-flight as well as helping them observe predators in their vicinity.\n", "While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, there is a leading hypothesis out in the evolutionary biology community. Known as the \"bottleneck theory\", it postulates that millions of years ago in the Mesozoic era, many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal characteristics isn't needed anymore due to the evolution of compensatory sensory systems, such as a heightened sense of smell and more astute auditory systems. In a recent study, recently extinct elephant birds and modern day nocturnal kiwi bird skulls were examined to recreate their likely brain and skull formation. They indicated that olfactory bulbs were much larger in comparison to their optic lobes, indicating they both have a common ancestor who evolved to function as a nocturnal species, decreasing their eyesight in favor of a better sense of smell. The anomaly to this theory were anthropoids, who appeared to have the most divergence from nocturnality than all organisms examined. While most mammals didn't exhibit the morphological characteristics expected of a nocturnal creature, reptiles and birds fit in perfectly. A larger cornea and pupil correlated well with whether these two classes of organisms were nocturnal or not.\n", "Mulholland and Peper (1971) showed that occipital alpha increases with eyes open and not focused, and is disrupted by visual focusing; a rediscovery of alpha blocking.\n", "Birds can actively control their nictitating membrane. In birds of prey, the membrane also serves to protect the parents' eyes from their chicks while they are feeding them, and when peregrine falcons go into their dives, they will blink repeatedly with their nictitating membranes to clear debris and spread moisture across the eyes. Woodpeckers tighten their nictitating membrane a millisecond prior to their beak impacting the trunk of a tree to prevent shaking-induced retinal injury.\n\nThe membrane can be used to protect the eye while attacking prey, as in sharks.\n", "Humans possess both slow wave and REM sleep, in both phases both eyes are closed and both hemispheres of the brain involved. Sleep has also been recorded in mammals other than humans. One study showed that echidnas possess only slow wave sleep (non-REM). This seems to indicate that REM sleep appeared in evolution only after therians. But this has later been contested by studies that claim that sleep in echidna combines both modes into a single sleeping state. Other studies have shown a peculiar form of sleep in odontocetes (like dolphins and porpoises). This is called the unihemispherical slow wave sleep (USWS). At any time during this sleep mode, the EEG of one brain hemisphere indicates sleep while that of the other is equivalent to wakefulness. In some cases, the corresponding eye is open. This might allow the animal to reduce predator risk and sleep while swimming in water, though the animal may also be capable of sleeping at rest.\n", "Secondly, Dawkins and Carlisle’s (1976) theory suggests that the order of gamete release, and therefore the opportunity for each parent to desert may influence which sex provides care. Internal fertilisation in the female parent may provide the male parent with an opportunity to desert first, and leave the female to care for the offspring alone. This may be observed in the case of bird and mammal species. This hypothesis suggests that the roles may be reversed with external fertilisation. In fish, males will often wait until a female lays her eggs before he can fertilise them, to prevent his small gametes from floating away. This would allow the female to desert first, and leave male parents to care for the eggs. Some external fertilisers exhibit a pattern of gamete release involving simultaneous release by the male and female, which would give both sexes an equal chance to desert. In some fish species, males may build foam nests and release sperm before the female releases her gametes. Parental care is still provided by the male in this case since the nest is in his territory, therefore denying him the opportunity to desert first.\n", "Section::::Development.:Plasticity.\n\nSection::::Development.:Plasticity.:Sensitive periods.\n\nAlthough the ocular dominance columns are formed before birth, there is a period after birth—formerly called a \"critical period\" and now called a \"sensitive period\"—when the ocular dominance columns may be modified by activity dependent plasticity. This plasticity is so strong that if the signals from both eyes are blocked the ocular dominance columns will completely . Similarly, if one eye is closed (\"monocular deprivation\"), removed(\"enucleation\"), or silenced during the sensitive period, the size of the columns corresponding to the removed eye shrink dramatically.\n\nSection::::Development.:Models.\n", "BULLET::::- There remains less chance of accidental damage and infection, since the previously useless and exposed organ is sealed with a flap of protective skin. It is unknown why this species did not develop transparent skin or eyelids instead, as some species of reptiles did.\n\nBULLET::::- The lack of eyes disables the \"body clock\", which is controlled by periods of light and dark, conserving energy. However sunlight does have minimal impact on the \"body clock\" in caves.\n", "Similarly, even when blind, house sparrows continue to be photoperiodic, i.e. show reproductive development when the days are long, but not when the days are short. This response is stronger when the feathers on top of the head are plucked, and is eliminated when India ink is injected under the skin at the top of the head, showing that the photoreceptors involved in the photoperiodic response to day length are located inside the brain.\n", "Fully developed nictitating membranes are found in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, but are rare in primates. In humans, the plica semilunaris (also known as the semilunar fold) and its associated muscles are homologous to the nictitating membranes seen in some other mammals and other vertebrates. In most primate species, a plica semilunaris is present, although fully developed nictitating membranes can be found in lemurs and lorisoid primates. Some mammals, such as camels, polar bears, seals and aardvarks, have full nictitating membranes, and many mammals retain a small, vestigial portion of the membrane remains in the corner of the eye. A gland of the third eyelid (nictitans gland) or Harder's gland are attached to the nictating membranes of some animals and may produce up to 50% of the tear film.\n", "This classification does not include tapeta lucida in birds. Kiwis, stone-curlews, the boat-billed heron, the flightless kakapo and many nightjars, owls, and other night birds such as the swallow-tailed gull also possess a tapetum lucidum. This classification also does not include the extraordinary focusing mirror in the eye of the brownsnout spookfish.\n\nLike humans, some animals lack a \"tapetum lucidum\" and they usually are diurnal. These include most primates, squirrels, some birds, red kangaroo, and pig. Among primates only the strepsirrhines, with the exception of several diurnal \"Eulemur\" species, have a \"tapetum lucidum\".\n", "The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third concealed eyelid that sweeps horizontally across the eye like a windscreen wiper. The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds when they are under water. When sleeping, the lower eyelid rises to cover the eye in most birds, with the exception of the horned owls where the upper eyelid is mobile.\n", "The critical period is a stage when a necessary amount of experience is required for the proper organization of a neural pathway. The absence of this experience may lead to the permanent formation of incorrect connections. The classic model of the critical period has been the visual system. Normally, the primary visual cortex contains neurons organized in ocular dominance columns, with groups of neurons responding preferentially to one eye or the other. If an animal's dominant eye is sutured early in life and kept sutured through the visual critical period (monocular deprivation), the cortex permanently responds preferentially to the eye that was kept open, resulting in ocular dominance shift. However, if the eye is sutured after the critical period, the shift does not occur.\n", "The nictitating membrane (from Latin \"nictare\", to blink) is a transparent or translucent third eyelid present in some animals that can be drawn across the eye from the medial canthus for protection and to moisten it while maintaining vision. Some reptiles, birds, and sharks have full nictitating membranes; in many mammals, a small, vestigial portion of the membrane remains in the corner of the eye. Some mammals, such as camels, polar bears, seals and aardvarks, have full nictitating membranes. Often called a third eyelid or haw, it may be referred to in scientific terminology as the \"plica semilunaris\", \"membrana nictitans\", or \"palpebra tertia\".\n", "Proper development of normal visual acuity depends on a human or an animal having normal visual input when it is very young. Any visual deprivation, that is, anything interfering with such input over a prolonged period of time, such as a cataract, severe eye turn or strabismus, anisometropia (unequal refractive error between the two eyes), or covering or patching the eye during medical treatment, will usually result in a severe and permanent decrease in visual acuity and pattern recognition in the affected eye if not treated early in life, a condition known as amblyopia. The decreased acuity is reflected in various abnormalities in cell properties in the visual cortex. These changes include a marked decrease in the number of cells connected to the affected eye as well as cells connected to both eyes in cortical area V1, resulting in a loss of stereopsis, i.e. depth perception by binocular vision (colloquially: \"3D vision\"). The period of time over which an animal is highly sensitive to such visual deprivation is referred to as the critical period.\n", "Section::::Anatomical variations.:Complete crossing of the optic nerve.\n\nComplete crossing (decussation) of the nerves at the optic chiasm in birds has also stimulated research. Complete decussation of the optic tract has been seen as a method of ensuring the open eye strictly activates the contralateral hemisphere. Some evidence indicates that this alone is not enough as blindness would theoretically prevent USWS if retinal nerve stimuli were the sole player. However, USWS is still exhibited in blinded birds despite the absence of visual input.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Adaptation to extrauterine life\n\nAt the end of pregnancy, the fetus must take the journey of childbirth to leave the reproductive mother. Upon its entry to the air-breathing world, the newborn must begin to adjust to life outside the uterus.\n", "Many reptiles and the vast majority of invertebrates, most fish, amphibians and all birds are oviparous, that is, they lay eggs with little or no embryonic development taking place within the mother. In aquatic organisms, fertilization is nearly always external with sperm and eggs being liberated into the water (an exception is sharks and rays, which have internal fertilization). Millions of eggs may be produced with no further parental involvement, in the expectation that a small number may survive to become mature individuals. Terrestrial invertebrates may also produce large numbers of eggs, a few of which may avoid predation and carry on the species. Some fish, reptiles and amphibians have adopted a different strategy and invest their effort in producing a small number of young at a more advanced stage which are more likely to survive to adulthood. Birds care for their young in the nest and provide for their needs after hatching and it is perhaps unsurprising that internal development does not occur in birds, given their need to fly.\n" ]	[ "Mammals should be born with their eyes open." ]	[ "Evolution isn't always logical, it just favors what works. In this case it is more favorable for young to be born sooner so the mother can quickly defend them. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mammals should be born with their eyes open." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Evolution isn't always logical, it just favors what works. In this case it is more favorable for young to be born sooner so the mother can quickly defend them. " ]
2018-09948	What are freckles and why are some parts of the body seemingly more prone to getting them?	Freckles are simply parts of the epidermis a.k.a the outermost layer of the skin that contain concentrated amounts of skin pigment i.e melanin. Susceptibility to freckles could depend on genetics or areas that are frequently exposed to UV light that will cause the formation of more freckles.	[ "Section::::Types.\n\n\"Ephelides\" describes a freckle which is flat and light brown or red and fades with reduction of sun exposure. Ephelides are more common in those with light complexions, although they are found on people with a variety of skin tones. The regular use of sunblock can inhibit their development.\n\nLiver spots (also known as sun spots and lentigines) look like large freckles, but they form after years of exposure to the sun. Liver spots are more common in older people.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Beauty mark\n\nBULLET::::- Mole\n\nBULLET::::- List of Mendelian traits in humans\n\nBULLET::::- Melanocortin 1 receptor\n", "Freckles are predominantly found on the face, although they may appear on any skin exposed to the sun, such as arms or shoulders. Heavily distributed concentrations of melanin may cause freckles to multiply and cover an entire area of skin, such as the face. Freckles are rare on infants, and more commonly found on children before puberty.\n\nUpon exposure to the sun, freckles will reappear if they have been altered with creams or lasers and not protected from the sun, but do fade with age in some cases.\n", "Freckles can appear on all types of skin tones. Of the six Fitzpatrick skin types, they are most common on skin tone 1 and 2, which usually belong to North Europeans. However, it can be found in all ethnicities.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n\nThe formation of freckles is caused by exposure to sunlight. The exposure to UV-B radiation activates melanocytes to increase melanin production, which can cause freckles to become darker and more visible. This means that one may have never developed freckles before, but after extended exposure to sunlight, they may suddenly appear.\n", "Freckles are not a skin disorder, but people with freckles generally have a lower concentration of photo-protective melanin, and are therefore more susceptible to the harmful effects of UV radiation. It is suggested that people whose skin tends to freckle should avoid overexposure to sun and use sunscreen.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Genetics.\n", "Freckles usually only occur in people with very lightly pigmented skin. They vary from very dark to brown in colour and develop a random pattern on the skin of the individual. Solar lentigines, the other types of freckles, occur among old people regardless of skin colour. People with very light skin (types I and II) make very little melanin in their melanocytes, and have very little or no ability to produce melanin in the stimulus of UV radiation. This can result in frequent sunburns and a more dangerous, but invisible, damage done to connective tissue and DNA underlying the skin. This can contribute to premature aging and skin cancer. The strongly red appearance of lightly pigmented skin as a response to high UV radiation levels is caused by the increased diameter, number, and blood flow of the capillaries.\n", "Freckles (disambiguation)\n\nFreckles are clusters of concentrated melanin which are most often visible on people with a fair complexion.\n\nFreckles may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freckles\" (novel), a 1904 American novel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freckles\" (1917 film), a 1917 film based on the novel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freckles\" (1928 film), a 1928 film based on the novel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freckles\" (1935 film), a 1935 film based on the novel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freckles\" (1960 film), a 1960 American film based on the novel\n\nBULLET::::- Freckles Brown (1921–1987), American bull rider\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Skin.\n\nBULLET::::- Flat pigmented lesions of the skin called \"café au lait\" spots, are hyper pigmented lesions that may vary in color from light brown to dark brown; this is reflected by the name of the condition, which means \"coffee with milk\". The borders may be smooth or irregular. These spots can grow from birth and can continue to grow throughout the persons lifetime. They can increase in size and numbers during puberty and during pregnancies.\n\nBULLET::::- Freckling of the axillae or inguinal regions.\n", "Section::::Function.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Downs as \"Freckles\" Winslow\n\nBULLET::::- Gale Storm as Jane Potter\n\nBULLET::::- Mantan Moreland as Jeff - the Hotel Porter\n\nBULLET::::- Irving Bacon as Constable Caleb Weaver\n\nBULLET::::- Bradley Page as Nate Quigley\n\nBULLET::::- Marvin Stephens as Danny Doyle\n\nBULLET::::- Betty Blythe as Mrs. Minerva Potter\n\nBULLET::::- Walter Sande as \"Muggsy\" Dolan, aka Jack Leach\n\nBULLET::::- Max Hoffman Jr. as Hymie\n\nBULLET::::- John Ince as Hiram Potter\n\nBULLET::::- Laurence Criner as Roxbury B. Brown, III\n\nBULLET::::- Irving Mitchell as Mr. Winslow\n\nBULLET::::- Gene O'Donnell as Monk\n\nBULLET::::- Si Jenks as Lem Perkins\n\nSection::::Soundtrack.\n", "Section::::Localization.\n", "BULLET::::- Gale Storm and Johnny Downs - \"Where We Dream Tonight\" (Written by Eddie Cherkose as Edward Cherkose and Edward J. Kay as Edward Kay)\n\nBULLET::::- The Barndance Band - \"Turkey in the Straw\"\n\nBULLET::::- The Barndance Band - \"Gwine to Rune All Night\" aka \"De Camptown Races\" (Written by Stephen Foster)\n\nBULLET::::- The Barndance Band - \"Oh! Susanna\" (Written by Stephen Foster)\n\nBULLET::::- Gale Storm - \"Swing a Little Jingle\" (Written by Eddie Cherkose as Edward Cherkose and Edward J. Kay as Edward Kay)\n", "By 1939, Freckles was 17 years old, a high school senior and the captain of Shadyside High's football team. Most of his time was spent hanging out with his girlfriend June and his pal Lard, who was often in the company of his girlfriend, Hilda. Freckles' younger brother, Tagalong, aka Tag, also made appearances.\n\nSection::::Shadyside.\n", "BULLET::::- Chloasma describes skin discolorations caused by hormones. These hormonal changes are usually the result of pregnancy, birth control pills or estrogen replacement therapy.\n\nBULLET::::- Solar lentigo, also known as \"liver spots\" or \"senile freckles\", refers to darkened spots on the skin caused by aging and the sun. These spots are quite common in adults with a long history of unprotected sun exposure.\n\nAside from sun exposure and hormones, hyperpigmentation can be caused by skin damage, such as remnants of blemishes, wounds or rashes. This is especially true for those with darker skin tones.\n", "In addition, jaggies often occur when a bit mapped image is converted to a different resolution. They can occur for variety of reasons, the most common being that the output device (display monitor or printer) does not have enough resolution to portray a smooth line.\n", "BULLET::::- Tricho–dento–osseous syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Tricho–rhino–phalangeal syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Tuberous sclerosis (Bourneville disease, epiloia)\n\nBULLET::::- Turner syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Ulnar–mammary syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Van Der Woude syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Von Hippel–Lindau syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Watson syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Werner syndrome (adult progeria)\n\nBULLET::::- Westerhof syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Whistling syndrome (craniocarpotarsal syndrome, distal arthrogryposis type 2, Freeman–Sheldon syndrome, Windmill–Vane–Hand syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Wilson–Turner syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome (4p- syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- X-linked ichthyosis (steroid sulfatase deficiency, X-linked recessive ichthyosis)\n\nBULLET::::- X-linked recessive chondrodysplasia punctata\n\nBULLET::::- Xeroderma pigmentosum (Cockayne syndrome complex)\n\nBULLET::::- XXYY genotype\n\nBULLET::::- Zimmermann–Laband syndrome\n\nSection::::Infection-related.\n\nInfection-related cutaneous conditions may be caused by bacteria, fungi, yeast, viruses, or parasites.\n\nSection::::Infection-related.:Bacterium-related.\n", "Freckle\n\nFreckles are clusters of concentrated melaninized cells which are most easily visible on people with a fair complexion. Freckles do not have an increased number of the melanin-producing cells, or melanocytes, but instead have melanocytes that overproduce melanin granules (melanosomes) changing the coloration of the outer skin cells (keratinocytes). As such, freckles are different from lentigines and moles, which are caused by accumulation of melanocytes in a small area.\n", "BULLET::::- Schinzel–Giedion syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Scleroatrophic syndrome of Huriez (Huriez syndrome, palmoplantar keratoderma with scleroatrophy, palmoplantar keratoderma with sclerodactyly, scleroatrophic and keratotic dermatosis of the limbs, sclerotylosis)\n\nBULLET::::- Segmental neurofibromatosis\n\nBULLET::::- Senter syndrome (Desmons' syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Shabbir syndrome (laryngo–onycho–cutaneous syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Silver–Russell syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Sjögren–Larsson syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Skin fragility syndrome (plakophilin 1 deficiency)\n\nBULLET::::- Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Sturge–Weber syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Supernumerary nipples–uropathies–Becker's nevus syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Terminal osseous dysplasia with pigmentary defects\n\nBULLET::::- Tooth and nail syndrome (hypodontia with nail dysgenesis, Witkop syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Townes–Brocks syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Transient bullous dermolysis of the newborn\n\nBULLET::::- Treacher Collins syndrome (Treacher Collins–Franceschetti syndrome)\n", "The presence of freckles is related to rare alleles of the MC1R gene, though it does not differentiate whether an individual will have freckles if they have one or even two copies of this gene. Also, individuals with no copies of the MC1R do sometimes display freckles. Even so, individuals with a high number of freckling sites have one or more of variants of the MC1R gene. Of the variants of the MC1R gene Arg151Cys, Arg160Trp, and Asp294His are the most common in the freckled subjects. The MC1R gene is also associated with red hair more strongly than with freckles. Most red-haired individuals have two variants of the MC1R gene and almost all have one. The variants that cause red hair are the same that cause freckling. Freckling can also be found in areas, such as Japan, where red hair is not seen. These individuals have the variant Val92Met which is also found in Caucasians, although it has minimal effects on their pigmentation. The R162Q allele has a disputed involvement in freckling.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- Disseminated superficial porokeratosis\n\nBULLET::::- Dolichol kinase deficiency\n\nBULLET::::- Dominant dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa\n\nBULLET::::- Dyskeratosis congenita (Zinsser–Cole–Engman syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa\n\nBULLET::::- Ectodermal dysplasia\n\nBULLET::::- Ectodermal dysplasia with corkscrew hairs\n\nBULLET::::- Ectrodactyly–ectodermal dysplasia–cleft syndrome (EEC syndrome, split hand–split foot–ectodermal dysplasia–cleft syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Epidermolysis bullosa herpetiformis (Dowling–Meara epidermolysis bullosa simplex)\n\nBULLET::::- Epidermolysis bullosa simplex\n\nBULLET::::- Epidermolysis bullosa simplex of Ogna\n\nBULLET::::- Epidermolysis bullosa simplex with mottled pigmentation\n\nBULLET::::- Epidermolysis bullosa simplex with muscular dystrophy\n\nBULLET::::- Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis (bullous congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma, bullous ichthyosiform erythroderma)\n\nBULLET::::- Erythrokeratodermia with ataxia (Giroux–Barbeau syndrome)\n\nBULLET::::- Familial benign chronic pemphigus (familial benign pemphigus, Hailey–Hailey disease)\n", "Lentigines are distinguished from freckles (ephelis) based on the proliferation of melanocytes. Freckles have a relatively normal number of melanocytes but an increased \"amount\" of melanin. A lentigo has an increased \"number\" of melanocytes. Freckles will increase in number and darkness with sunlight exposure, whereas lentigines will stay stable in their color regardless of sunlight exposure.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Epidermolysis Bullosa, sometimes referred to as \"Butterfly Skin\", is a rare genetic connective tissue disorder that, in all forms, results in extremely fragile skin that blisters or tears at the slightest friction or trauma. EB typically manifests at birth or early childhood. According to the Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa Research Association of America (DEBRA), an estimated 1 out of every 20,000 live births are affected with some type of EB and the disorder occurs in every racial and ethnic group throughout the world and affects both sexes equally.\n", "BULLET::::- Freckles (spots of melanin on the skin, and distinct from moles) are known to be influenced by sunlight.\n", "Section::::Worldwide population structure.\n", "The most typical cause of darkened areas of skin, brown spots or areas of discoloration is unprotected sun exposure. Once incorrectly referred to as liver spots, these pigment problems are not connected with the liver.\n\nOn lighter to medium skin tones, solar lentigenes emerge as small- to medium-sized brown patches of freckling that can grow and accumulate over time on areas of the body that receive the most unprotected sun exposure, such as the back of the hands, forearms, chest, and face. For those with darker skin colors, these discolorations can appear as patches or areas of ashen-gray skin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01327	How do massive college campuses (especially ones in major cities) provide wifi accross such a large area	This is part of what I do and the short answer is a lot of access points. The slightly longer answer is that we use special wireless access points that are meant for high density campus use. These access points have several differences to the one you probably have at home. They are only access points, for starters, and not routers. They are centrally managed, meaning that at our Network Operations Center, our technicians are able to see and monitor in real-time the status and performance of every access point at every location on every campus in our state-wide system. All the settings of the access points (channels, transmitter strength, etc.) can be remotely changed. There’s even software that dynamically monitors and adjusts those settings to try to optimize the performance. It’s very complicated, as you can imagine, and very expensive, especially once you factor in the training and salaries of the on-site technicians and the initial set up, which usually includes outside specialist engineers. And that’s why your tuition is so high.	[ "Many traditional university campuses in the developed world provide at least partial Wi-Fi coverage. Carnegie Mellon University built the first campus-wide wireless Internet network, called Wireless Andrew, at its Pittsburgh campus in 1993 before Wi-Fi branding originated. By February 1997, the CMU Wi-Fi zone was fully operational. Many universities collaborate in providing Wi-Fi access to students and staff through the Eduroam international authentication infrastructure.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Ad hoc versus Wi-Fi direct.\n", "Western Illinois University (WIU) had been surveying tower sites, south of Macomb, since the late 1960s for a planned educational television station and relocation of the university's FM station, WIUM, a guyed radio tower erected in 1956. The tower was located next to Sallee Hall in the middle of the university's rapidly expanding campus. In 1976, after examining a number of sites south of Macomb, WIU selected a tower site on land bequeathed to the university by Jack Horn, regional Coca-Cola bottler. Then, in 1977, WIU and Convocom agreed to co-locate the television station, WIUM-TV, and supporting microwave relay network on this same tower. Construction of a new tower was completed in 1980 and WIUM's transmitters were relocated to the site in 1981. Two microwave relay towers were constructed in 1983 between Peoria and Quincy at Cuba, Illinois, and Carthage, Illinois, for master control, PBS program feeds, local program feeds, and TV studios at WIU in Macomb and at WGEM-TV in Quincy.\n", "Google, in a partnership with the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA), CSIR Meraka Institute, the Wireless Access Providers Association (WAPA) and Carlson wireless delivers wireless access to 10 schools through 3 base stations at the campus of Stellenbosch University’s Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences in Tygerberg, Cape Town. There was an initial trial that took place within 10 schools in order to deliver affordable internet to the selected schools in South Africa without TV interference, and to spread awareness about future TVWS technologies in South Africa. The trial took place over 10 months, from March 25, 2013 to September 25, 2013.\n", "In 1997, Convocom purchased 30 acres of land southeast of Colchester, near Fandon, for a new tower. The WMEC transmitter was moved to this new tower. This transmitter relocation ended WIU's co-location support for WMEC at the WIUM-FM tower location (1983–1997) on WIU's Horn Campus, south of Macomb.\n", "Coffee shops, shopping malls, and other venues increasingly offer wireless access to computer networks, referred to as hotspots, for users who bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A Wi-Fi hotspot need not be limited to a confined location since multiple ones combined can cover a whole campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled.\n", "Google WiFi\n\nGoogle WiFi is a municipal wireless network deployed in Mountain View, California. It is entirely funded by Google and installed primarily on Mountain View lightposts. Google had committed to keeping the service free until 2010. The initial service was shut down by Google on May 3, 2014 at their Mountain View base, and provided a new public outdoor WiFi.\n\nSection::::Wireless access.\n", "Pinnacle, working in partnership with the City of York Council started trials of public WiFi beginning 2013, with strong publicity, the trial was a success and was later rolled out permanently under phase 1, this initially covered Coney Street; the main shopping street in York. WiFi range was later expanded into other streets, allowing for continual use with your connected device relaying signals to the nearest router, allowing for seamless connectivity whilst on the move. WiFI range has again since been expanded to cover the entire of York City Centre, the 6 Park and Ride sites, 14 council run libraries and 41 council owned buildings. WiFi within the city centre is split into 15 'Network Zones' relaying signals to the previous and next router in the sequence.\n", "Typically, the way that a WISP operates is to order a fiber circuit to the center of the area they wish to serve. From there, the WISP will start building backhauls (gigabit wireless or fiber) to elevated points in the region, such as a radio towers, tall buildings, grain silos, or water towers. Those locations will have access points to provide service to individual customers or backhauls to other towers where they have more equipment. The WISP may also use gigabit wireless links to connect a PoP (Point of Presence) to several towers, reducing the need to pay for fiber circuits to the tower. For fixed wireless connections, a small dish or antenna is mounted to the roof of the customer's building and aligned to the WISP's nearest antenna site. When operating over the tightly limited range of the heavily populated 2.4 GHz band, as nearly all 802.11-based WiFi providers do, it is not uncommon to also see access points mounted on light posts and customer buildings.\n", "Communications are run through a directed net. Net control is located in Ellettsville at Edgewood High School, and it coordinates all ham radio traffic and SAGs for the event. In recent years, the net has run on the WB9TLH 2m repeater, which is located on the Indiana University, Bloomington campus.\n", "In May 2007 ECS, wishing to provide pervasive wireless to the new students moving out of halls-of-residence into the local area, provided Dave Tarrant with a budget. He employed Paul Dart, an undergraduate, to work on SOWN during the summer of 2007. At this point the direction of SOWN changed, rather than providing wireless links across the city small wireless nodes would be given to students to connect to their home networks and share their internet will other students.\n\nSection::::Current status.\n", "The Technology and Infrastructure for Emerging Regions (TIER) project at University of California at Berkeley in collaboration with Intel, uses a modified Wi-Fi setup to create long-distance point-to-point links for several of its projects in the developing world. This technique, dubbed Wi-Fi over Long Distance (WiLD), is used to connect the Aravind Eye Hospital with several outlying clinics in Tamil Nadu state, India. Distances range from five to over fifteen kilometres (3–10 miles) with stations placed in line of sight of each other. These links allow specialists at the hospital to communicate with nurses and patients at the clinics through video conferencing. If the patient needs further examination or care, a hospital appointment can then be scheduled. Another network in Ghana links the University of Ghana, Legon campus to its remote campuses at the Korle bu Medical School and the City campus; a further extension will feature links up to apart.\n", "Rice University, in partnership with the nonprofit organization Technology For All, installed the first residential deployment of Super Wi-Fi in east Houston in April 2011. The network uses white spaces for backhaul and provides access to clients using 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi. A month later, a public Super Wi-Fi network was developed in Calgary, Alberta. Calgary based company WestNet Wireless launched the network for free and paid subscribers. The United States' first public Super Wi-Fi network was developed in Wilmington, North Carolina, on January 26, 2012. Florida based company Spectrum Bridge, Inc. launched the network for public use with access at Hugh MacRae park. West Virginia University launched the first campus Super WiFi network on July 9, 2013.\n", "Wireless community projects for the most provide best-effort Wi-Fi coverage. However, from the mid-2000s onward local authorities started to contract with wireless community networks to provide municipal wireless networks or stable Wi-Fi access in a defined urban area, such as a park. Wireless community networks started to participate in a variety of public-private partnerships. The non-profit community network ZAP Sherbrooke has partnered with public and private entities to provide Wi-Fi access and received financial support from the University of Sherbrooke and Bishop's University to extend the coverage of its wireless mesh throughout the city of Sherbrooke, Canada.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "In the 2018–19 school year, all 20 schools are wireless and connected by a high-speed wide area network. Students and staff have full-time Internet access in classrooms, libraries and computer labs, including distance learning opportunities. Kershaw County was the first school district in South Carolina to provide individual wireless personal computing devices to all high school students through an $8 million i-CAN initiative in 2004. All teachers have personal computing devices, and all classrooms are equipped with interactive whiteboards. Students in grades 3–12 are 1:1; preK-2nd grade use technology on mobile carts.\n\nSection::::Facilities.\n", "In 2004 the network was expanded by adding a node on top of the 15 story ‘Faraday Building’ to the east of the campus. This node allowed line of site access to the main student areas of Southampton and a further three nodes in peoples homes were connected to the network. All the links in the network were wireless because the university would not allow unauthenticated traffic to pass over their network and at the time SOWN was an open network with no authentication. It was proposed that the network be secured using 802.1x authentication which would allow it to tie in with Eduroam and thus authenticate academics from around the world. \n", "Section::::Wireless community networks.:SFlan.\n\nSFLan, a project of the Internet Archive, constructed an experimental cooperative wireless internet service provider (WISP) that grew to approximately 50 nodes, using an over-the-air backbone relying on line-of-sight transmission. Noise level in the ISM bands due to proliferating and competing Wi-Fi signals made many of their long-distance links (several miles) nonfunctional. The network contracted from 50 functioning nodes in February 2007 down to four by October. They are considering changing their architecture to a fiber-and-wireless hybrid by working with the City of San Francisco and leveraging their fiber network.\n", "Due to the repeated failures of high speed wireless links and costs incurred, most of SOWN's wireless nodes are now ‘SOWN[at]home’ nodes. The majority of these are loaned out to students of the university on a yearly basis. Despite this two nodes remain on campus connected via the university data network. It is planned for a third node to follow later in 2007. This has been delayed until such time that a sufficiently high building is available, and after all other problems with existing campus nodes have been worked out.\n\nSection::::SOWN[at]home nodes.\n", "BULLET::::- Melbourne, Australia - VICFREE WiFi is available outdoors in the Melbourne CBD it includes:\n\nBourke St Mall\n\nQueen Victoria Market\n\nMelbourne Convention and Exhibition Centre\n\nMelbourne Museum\n\non platforms at CBD train stations\n\nIt's also available in central Ballarat and central Bendigo.\n\nBULLET::::- NOTE Telstra also have Telstra air fon hotspots available to Telstra and fon customers Australia wide\n\nBULLET::::- Adelaide, Australia - AdelaideFree WiFi is a contiguous network available throughout the CBD, provided by Internode\n\nBULLET::::- Auckland, New Zealand - Citywide network based in all popular areas across Auckland including CBD and Waterfront from Tomizone.\n", "123.net has continued to maintain the Wireless Washtenaw network, and in the downtown Ann Arbor area has significantly expanded its transmission capabilities to include the 4G WiMAX microwave band. Their 4G WiMAX service is a business class product offered outside of the original Wireless Washtenaw project. It has also upgraded some of the network equipment of the project as well.\n\nAs of November 2010, the network provided wireless internet access options to downtown Ann Arbor, Manchester, Saline, Chelsea, and Dexter.\n", "In 2012, One Tree Hill College was connected onto the ultrafast fibre broadband network. This allows the college to develop a full wireless network to allow students to utilise their own devices across the entire college.\n\nSection::::Facilities.:Art collection.\n", "The HPWREN backbone itself operates primarily in the licensed spectrum and project researchers use off-the-shelf technology to create a redundant topology. Access links often utilize license-exempt radios.\n\nIn 2002, HPWREN researchers conducted an expedition to locate the SEALAB II/III habitat located off the Scripps pier in La Jolla, California. From the MV Kellie Chouest and utilizing a Scorpio ROV to find the site, researchers were able to conduct a live multicast from ship to shore.\n\nSection::::Topology.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 - WIUS was allowed a portion of the student activity fee for each of the following two school years. This funding allowed WIUS to further its evolution, and it added open-air AM broadcasts beginning October 3, from a low-power transmitter, identical to those used for roadside traffic reports in any cities, atop the Indiana University Library, broadcasting to an approximately three-mile radius at 1570 kHz, while maintaining its cable FM presence. This transmitter will remain in place until January 2006.\n", "In 2000, the State of California provided funding to the University of California for the Digital California Project, which allowed K-12 schools to connect to CalREN. The University of California contracted with CENIC to develop and implement the project, with county offices of education as the primary connection points.\n", "Suscom had invested heavily to keep its technological capability and what it offered to its customers both in the city and the surrounding communities as most up to date as possible. The company had installed broadband and offered digital cable as well as broadband internet service. Residents could listen to any sort of music they desire, watch nearly any type of program that interested them, receive digital and high definition television broadcast, have all sorts of pay-per-view programming and also see various programs produced locally by Suscom professionals or volunteers associated with the local access television station known as York Community Access Television.\n", "WSUI's original three self-supporting broadcast towers were located just west of Mormon Trek Boulevard on the far west side of the campus. On June 29, 1998, a fierce line of thunderstorms packing winds of nearly 100 miles-per-hour toppled two of the towers. For months afterwards, WSUI's nighttime power output from the single remaining tower was limited to 1,250 watts non-directional. Today, the towers are located about 10 miles south of Iowa City, in the community of Hills. A single tower is used during the day, when the station has a non-directional signal. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17510	Why can someone have a lung transplant if they have for example, cystic fibrosis, but it's unheard of with a lung disease like COPD?	Transplants are done with the survival rate in mind. People with COPD tend to have a similar life span after a transplant that they would continuing with their standard treatments. Someone with s Cystic Fibrosis will get many years added to their life with a transplant. So I guess the real answer is organ availability. If we had endless donations we'd transplant COPD patients more for the improved quality of life. Edit: I have a family member who received a double lung and heart transplant who has Cystic Fibrosis. The above is the information we were given when he was first put on the list over a decade ago. I know in Canada we do transplants for COPD patients who meet transplant requirements. However, your place on the list is figured through an algorithm that looks at age, survival rate, rejection rate, quality of life before and after, current health, current habits (ie smoking), and many other details to try to help the best candidates who will gain the most benefit. So the more organs available, the more people who can be helped. Maybe the default should be to have your organs donated and to sign a card if you chose not to.	[ "The incidence varies depending on which definition is used, but definitions by \"Anthonisen et al.\" the typical COPD patient averages two to three AECB episodes per year. With a COPD prevalence of more than 12 million (possibly 24 million including undiagnosed ones) in the United States, there are at least 30 million incidences of AECB annually in the US.\n", "Many health systems have difficulty ensuring appropriate identification, diagnosis and care of people with COPD; Britain's Department of Health has identified this as a major issue for the National Health Service and has introduced a specific strategy to tackle these problems.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Economics.\n", "COPD is generally irreversible although lung function can partially recover if the patient stops smoking. Smoking cessation is an essential aspect of treatment. Pulmonary rehabilitation programmes involve intensive exercise training combined with education and are effective in improving shortness of breath. Severe emphysema has been treated with lung volume reduction surgery, with some success in carefully chosen cases. Lung transplantation is also performed for severe COPD in carefully chosen cases.\n", "Advanced COPD leads to high pressure on the lung arteries, which strains the right ventricle of the heart. This situation is referred to as cor pulmonale, and leads to symptoms of leg swelling and bulging neck veins. COPD is more common than any other lung disease as a cause of cor pulmonale. Cor pulmonale has become less common since the use of supplemental oxygen.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nInfliximab, an immune-suppressing antibody, has been tested in COPD; there was a possibility of harm with no evidence of benefit.\n", "COPD usually gets gradually worse over time and can ultimately result in death. It is estimated that 3% of all disability is related to COPD. The proportion of disability from COPD globally has decreased from 1990 to 2010 due to improved indoor air quality primarily in Asia. The overall number of years lived with disability from COPD, however, has increased.\n", "Research continues into the use of telehealthcare to treat people with COPD when they experience episodes of shortness of breath; treating people remotely may reduce the number of emergency-room visits and improve the person's quality of life.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Air pollution.\n\nBoth indoor and outdoor air quality can be improved, which may prevent COPD or slow the worsening of existing disease. This may be achieved by public policy efforts, cultural changes, and personal involvement.\n\nA number of developed countries have successfully improved outdoor air quality through regulations. This has resulted in improvements in the lung function of their populations. Those with COPD may experience fewer symptoms if they stay indoors on days when outdoor air quality is poor.\n", "In England, an estimated 0.84 million people (of 50 million) have a diagnosis of COPD; this translates into approximately one person in 59 receiving a diagnosis of COPD at some point in their lives. In the most socioeconomically deprived parts of the country, one in 32 people were diagnosed with COPD, compared with one in 98 in the most affluent areas. In the United States approximately 6.3% of the adult population, totaling approximately 15 million people, have been diagnosed with COPD. 25 million people may have COPD if currently undiagnosed cases are included. In 2011, there were approximately 730,000 hospitalizations in the United States for COPD. In the United States, COPD is estimated to be the third leading cause of death in 2011.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Other symptoms.\n\nIn COPD, breathing out may take longer than breathing in. Chest tightness may occur, but is not common and may be caused by another problem. Those with obstructed airflow may have wheezing or decreased sounds with air entry on examination of the chest with a stethoscope. A barrel chest is a characteristic sign of COPD, but is relatively uncommon. Tripod positioning may occur as the disease worsens.\n", "Section::::Diseases and conditions treated.:Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD).\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of COPD should be considered in anyone over the age of 35 to 40 who has shortness of breath, a chronic cough, sputum production, or frequent winter colds and a history of exposure to risk factors for the disease. Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis. Screening those without symptoms is not recommended.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Spirometry.\n", "Section::::Induced regeneration in humans.:Lung.\n\nChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the most widespread health threats today. It affects 329 million people worldwide, which makes up nearly 5% of the global population. Having killed over 3 million people in 2012, COPD was the third greatest cause of death. Worse still is that due to increasing smoking rates and the aging populations in many countries, the number of deaths as a result of COPD and other chronic lung diseases is predicted to continue increasing. Therefore, developments in the lung’s capacity for regeneration is in high demand.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Simple\" COPD is generally where a person 65 years or less, has fewer than four exacerbations per year, has minimal or moderate impairment in respiratory function and no comorbid disease. In patients with \"simple\" COPD, therapy should be targeted towards \"Haemophilus influenzae\", \"Moraxella catarrhalis\", \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\", and possibly pathogens of atypical pneumonia. The first-line treatment is a beta-lactam antibiotic such as amoxicillin. The choice will depend on resistance patterns. In patients with penicillin allergy, doxycycline or trimethoprim are preferred.\n", "Being either underweight or overweight can affect the symptoms, degree of disability, and prognosis of COPD. People with COPD who are underweight can improve their breathing muscle strength by increasing their calorie intake. When combined with regular exercise or a pulmonary rehabilitation program, this can lead to improvements in COPD symptoms. Supplemental nutrition may be useful in those who are malnourished.\n\nSection::::Management.:Bronchodilators.\n", "A number of other factors are less closely linked to COPD. The risk is greater in those who are poor, although whether this is due to poverty itself or other risk factors associated with poverty, such as air pollution and malnutrition, is not clear. Tentative evidence indicates that those with asthma and airway hyperreactivity are at increased risk of COPD. Birth factors such as low birth weight may also play a role, as do a number of infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis. Respiratory infections such as pneumonia do not appear to increase the risk of COPD, at least in adults.\n", "Section::::Medical uses.\n\nThe NICE clinical guideline on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease states that “pulmonary rehabilitation should be offered to all patients who consider themselves functionally disabled by COPD (usually MRC [Medical Research Council] grade 3 and above)”. It is indicated not only in patients with COPD, but also in:\n\nBULLET::::- Cystic fibrosis\n\nBULLET::::- Bronchitis\n\nBULLET::::- Sarcoidosis\n\nBULLET::::- Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis\n\nBULLET::::- Before and after lung surgery\n\nIt appears not to be harmful and may be helpful for interstitial lung disease.\n\nSection::::Aim.\n\nBULLET::::- To reduce symptoms\n\nBULLET::::- To improve knowledge of lung condition and promote self-management\n", "BULLET::::- 24% other causes, including bronchiectasis and sarcoidosis.\n\nSection::::Contraindications.\n\nDespite the severity of a patient's respiratory condition, certain pre-existing conditions may make a person a poor candidate for lung transplantation:\n\nBULLET::::- Concurrent chronic illness (e.g., congestive heart failure, kidney disease, liver disease)\n\nBULLET::::- Current infections, including HIV and hepatitis\n\nBULLET::::- However, more and more often, hepatitis C patients are both being transplanted and are also being used as donors if the recipient is hepatitis C positive. Similarly, select HIV-infected individuals have received lung transplants after being evaluated on a case-by-case basis.\n\nBULLET::::- Current or recent cancer\n", "COPD often occurs along with a number of other conditions, due in part to shared risk factors. These conditions include ischemic heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, muscle wasting, osteoporosis, lung cancer, anxiety disorder, sexual dysfunction, and depression. In those with severe disease, a feeling of always being tired is common. Fingernail clubbing is not specific to COPD and should prompt investigations for an underlying lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Exacerbation.\n", "The definition of a COPD exacerbation is commonly described as \"lost in translation,\" meaning that there is no universally accepted standard with regard to defining an acute exacerbation of COPD. Many organizations consider it a priority to create such a standard, as it would be a major step forward in the diagnosis and quality of treatment of COPD.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "For people with COPD, the use of cardioselective (heart-specific) beta-blocker therapy does not appear to impair respiratory function. Cardioselective beta-blocker therapy should not be contraindicated for people with COPD.\n\nSection::::Management.:Oxygen.\n", "Section::::Qualifying conditions.\n\nLung transplantation is the therapeutic measure of last resort for patients with end-stage lung disease who have exhausted all other available treatments without improvement. A variety of conditions may make such surgery necessary. As of 2005, the most common reasons for lung transplantation in the United States were: \n\nBULLET::::- 27% chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), including emphysema;\n\nBULLET::::- 16% idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis;\n\nBULLET::::- 14% cystic fibrosis;\n\nBULLET::::- 12% idiopathic (formerly known as \"primary\") pulmonary hypertension;\n\nBULLET::::- 5% alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency;\n\nBULLET::::- 2% replacing previously transplanted lungs that have since failed;\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n\nCOPD is a type of obstructive lung disease in which chronic, incompletely reversible poor airflow (airflow limitation) and inability to breathe out fully (air trapping) exist. The poor airflow is the result of breakdown of lung tissue (known as emphysema), and small airways disease known as \"obstructive bronchiolitis\". The relative contributions of these two factors vary between people. Severe destruction of small airways can lead to the formation of large focal lung pneumatoses, known as bullae, that replace lung tissue. This form of disease is called bullous emphysema.\n", "Tobacco smoking is the most common cause of COPD, with factors such as air pollution and genetics playing a smaller role. In the developing world, one of the common sources of air pollution is poorly vented heating and cooking fires. Long-term exposure to these irritants causes an inflammatory response in the lungs, resulting in narrowing of the small airways and breakdown of lung tissue. The diagnosis is based on poor airflow as measured by lung function tests. In contrast to asthma, the airflow reduction does not improve much with the use of a bronchodilator.\n", "Keeping people from starting smoking is a key aspect of preventing COPD. The policies of governments, public health agencies, and antismoking organizations can reduce smoking rates by discouraging people from starting and encouraging people to stop smoking. Smoking bans in public areas and places of work are important measures to decrease exposure to secondhand smoke, and while many places have instituted bans, more are recommended.\n" ]	[ "Lung transplant is unheard of for a lung disease like COPD." ]	[ "There are places where lung transplants for COPD are done, for example in Canada." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Lung transplant is unheard of for a lung disease like COPD.", "Lung transplant is unheard of for a lung disease like COPD." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There are places where lung transplants for COPD are done, for example in Canada.", "There are places where lung transplants for COPD are done, for example in Canada." ]
2018-02969	Why ships are shaped like a V and not square	Yes. And many slow or towed floating platforms, like barges, have exactly that configuration. But if you want a vessel to be able to move through the water with any sort of speed, then a V shape is best for reducing drag. A ship with a square keel requires vastly more energy to push through the water than one with a V shape.	[ "Section::::Design.:Square-rigged caravel.\n\nTowards the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese developed a larger version of the caravel, bearing a forecastle and sterncastle – though not as high as those carracks, which would have made it unweatherly – but most distinguishable for its square-rigged foremast, and three other masts bearing lateen rig. In this form it was referred to in Portuguese as a \"round caravel\" (\"caravela redonda\") as in Iberian tradition, a bulging square sail is said to be round. \n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe Portuguese square-rigged caravel or round caravel appeared more frequently in the end of the fifteenth century and especially in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Traditionally considered a particular type of the caravel, but also a new and different type of ship due to its significant structural differences, was the result of an evolution in design of the caravel (\"lateen\" caravel) and a structural combination between the carrack and the same caravel, but distinct, however, from both.\n", "BULLET::::- 62 \"thranitai\" in the top row (\"thranos\" means \"deck\"). They rowed through the \"parexeiresia\", an outrigger which enabled the inclusion of the third row of oars without significant increase to the height and loss of stability of the ship. Greater demands were placed upon their strength and synchronization than on those of the other two rows.\n\nBULLET::::- 54 \"zygitai\" in the middle row, named after the beams (\"zygoi\") on which they sat.\n", "Section::::The \"torpedo-shell crisis\".\n", "\"Square ... A term peculiarly appropriated to the yards and their sails. Thus, when the yards hang at right angles with the mast they are said to be 'square by the lifts;' when perpendicular to the ship's length, they are 'square by the braces;' but when they lie in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the keel, they are 'square by the lifts and braces.' The yards are said to be very square when they are of extraordinary length, and the same epithet is applied to their sails with respect to their breadth.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Square rig\n", "The koff had been developed in the late 17th century in the Netherlands. Smaller than the fluyt, its rounded bow and stern provided however for more storage on board. This made it a popular type that saw increasing service.\n", "There were two chief design traditions in the Mediterranean, the Greek and the Punic (Phoenician/Carthaginian) one, which was later copied by the Romans. As exemplified in the trireme, the Greeks used to project the upper level of oars through an outrigger (\"parexeiresia\"), while the later Punic tradition heightened the ship, and had all three tiers of oars projecting directly from the side hull.\n", "On the other hand, the more lower and narrower lines, the tapered and pointy shape of the hull, and the beak-shaped prow, allow the navigators to achieve greater speed, while the lower height of the forecastle gave her manoeuver qualities, including greater ability to navigate at a more bushy bowline, with advantage to maneuver on confined spaces. The great firepower of these ships tended to unbalance in their favor the outcome of battles fought at sea, having been used in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Age of discovery\n\nBULLET::::- Caravel\n\nBULLET::::- Carrack\n\nBULLET::::- Galleon\n", "The use of these square-rigged caravels for exploration reconnaissance and combat (if necessary), following a more larger number of naus in each fleet, were instrumental in the exploration of North America, South America the East, and particularly in the Portuguese India Armadas - including the discovery of Brazil - from the expedition of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 and continuing in the fleets that followed. They were also important, along with naus, in decisive historic battles, as Diu.\n", "Initially, the Portuguese galleon had long beaks and spurs, and operated with three masts, the foremast and the main-mast with two square-rigged sails each, and a lateen rigged sail in the mizzen-mast. Result of the natural evolution of new requirements raised by war, soon they were built with four masts; the larger vessels had this configuration, always with lateen rigged sails in the two mizzen-masts in almost all galleons, and a third square smaller sail at the tops of the fore-mast and the main-mast (the latter in larger ships), which can be seen in the galleon São João Baptista, the \"Botafogo\", and on the galleons illustrated in the \"Roteiro do Mar Roxo\" of D. João de Castro. The galleon was so, also, a combination of the carrack and the square-rigged caravel in its sails.\n", "European, and especially English, watercraft terminology draws a strong distinction between square-rigged vessels (with square sails hung from yards mounted centrally and horizontally from masts) and fore-and-aft rigged ones (everything else). It is important to note that any other sail (such as a lug or spritsail), \"even if it is geometrically square\", is not a square sail in the technical sense used in European sail terminology. It is merely a quadrilateral fore-and-aft sail. Vessels are named by the number of square-rigged masts that they have. This is because square-rigged vessels used to be the fastest rig, and more masts were faster.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe first official loading regulations are thought to date back to maritime legislation originating with the Kingdom of Crete in 2500 BC when vessels were required to pass loading and maintenance inspections. Roman sea regulations also contained similar regulations.\n\nIn the Middle Ages the Venetian Republic, the city of Genoa and the Hanseatic League required ships to show a load line. In the case of Venice this was a cross marked on the side of the ship, and of Genoa three horizontal lines.\n", "Traditionally, naval architecture has been more craft than science. The suitability of a vessel's shape was judged by looking at a half-model of a vessel or a prototype. Ungainly shapes or abrupt transitions were frowned on as being flawed. This included rigging, deck arrangements, and even fixtures. Subjective descriptors such as \"ungainly\", \"full\", and \"fine\" were used as a substitute for the more precise terms used today. A vessel was, and still is described as having a ‘fair’ shape. The term ‘fair’ is meant to denote not only a smooth transition from fore to aft but also a shape that was ‘right.’ Determining what is ‘right’ in a particular situation in the absence of definitive supporting analysis encompasses the art of naval architecture to this day.\n", "Christopher Columbus, on his voyages to the New World in the service of Castile, used ships also called (round caravels) by the combination of sails (Possibly in based \"lateen\" caravels and other traditional ships models), they were however different from the Portuguese models, which differed by the number and arrangement of the sails and by the hull shape, among other features.\n", "The oldest archaeological evidence of use of a square-rig on a vessel is an image on a clay disk from Mesopotamia from 5000BC. Single sail square rigs were used by the ancient Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks, the Romans, and the Celts. Later the Scandinavians, the Germanic peoples, and the Slavs adopted the single square-rigged sail, with it becoming one of the defining characteristics of the classic “Viking” ships. The early, simple square-rigged ships, having only the one square sail, were more limited in their ability to sail into the wind than multi-sail square-riggers. That, along with the vulnerability of a single large sail after guns began to be used in naval warfare, led to the single sail square rig being largely abandoned beginning in the medieval period, in favor of multi-sail, multi-mast square rigs. \n", "Chined hulls may have one of three shapes:\n\nBULLET::::- Flat-bottom chined hulls\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-chined hulls\n\nBULLET::::- V-bottom chined hulls. Sometimes called hard chine.\n", "Section::::Construction.\n\nBoth vessels were constructed using the \"Vitruvian method\", a shell first building technique used by the Romans.\n\nBULLET::::- Step 1: construction of the profile.\n\nBULLET::::- Step 2: construction of the keel and the flat bottom up to the second order of cincti, in two phases.\n\nBULLET::::- Step 3: construction of the shell up to the third wale (topgallant bulwarks).\n\nBULLET::::- Step 4: Insertion of the ribs, first those with trabes (crossbeam bracing) and then those without.\n", "Section::::History.:2nd millennium BC.\n\nThe ships of Ancient Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters (80 ft) in length, and had a single mast, sometimes consisting of two poles lashed together at the top making an \"A\" shape. They mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled. The ocean and sea going ships of Ancient Egypt were constructed with cedar wood, most likely hailing from Lebanon.\n\nThe ships of Phoenicia seem to have been of a similar design.\n\nSection::::History.:1st millennium BC.\n", "A \"square rig\" is a type of sail and rigging arrangement in which the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal spars which are perpendicular, or square, to the keel of the vessel and to the masts—the sails themselves are not square but are \"symmetrically\" quadrilateral. These spars are called \"yards\" and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the \"yardarms\". A ship mainly so rigged is called a \"square-rigger\".\n\nSection::::Shape.\n", "BULLET::::- Portuguese India Armadas\n\nBULLET::::- Battle of Diu and Battle of the Gulf of Oman, for examples of square-rigged caravels used in combat.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Baker, \"Perspectives on the 15th century ship\", Congresso Internacional Bartolomeu Dias e a sua época, actas, vol. II\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The History and Development of Caravels\" - A Thesis - George Robert Schwarz, B.A., University of Cincinnati, Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Luis Filipe Vieira de Castro, May 2008\n", "If the Portuguese galleon, largely designed for better navigation and for naval defense, would be of more mixed use, warfare and transportation, as would also be the Spanish galleon (among other European ships of this \"class\" or similar style), the square-rigged caravel or , though partly bifunctional, was essentially dedicated to naval warfare and for the defense of armadas.\n", "Panokseons were propelled by both sails and oars. Of the two basic types of sail, square and lateen, the square gives a strong performance downwind but struggles windward, whereas the fore-and-aft lateen excels against the wind, though requiring a large crew to handle it. In the West, square sails were used in the galleys of Ancient Greece and the Viking longships, and the fore-and-aft variety as early as the Mediterranean dromons of the Middle Ages. When the Age of Discovery began in the fifteenth century, multiple-masted ships equipped with both types of sails eventually appeared. In Korea fore-and-aft sail equipped ships had been in use since the eighth century. The panokseon and turtle ship therefore had two masts by default, and their position and angle could easily be managed so that the sails could be used in all winds, whether adverse or favorable.\n", "The Portuguese Man o' War was named after this curious type of fighting ship.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "The Karvi (or \"karve\") is the smallest vessel that is considered a longship. According to the 10th-century Gulating Law, a ship with 13 rowing benches is the smallest ship suitable for military use. A ship with 6 to 16 benches would be classified as a Karvi. These ships were considered to be \"general purpose\" ships, mainly used for fishing and trade, but occasionally commissioned for military use. While most longships held a length to width ratio of 7:1, the Karvi ships were closer to 4.5:1. \n", "Square rig\n\nSquare rig is a generic type of sail and rigging arrangement in which the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal spars which are perpendicular, or square, to the keel of the vessel and to the masts. These spars are called \"yards\" and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the \"yardarms.\" A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05587	Why does glass look green/ opaque if you look at it through its edge? Why does occur when multiple panes of glass overlap too?	Glass is green, ever so slightly. Vsauce did something similar with mirrors which green shifted light as it got reflected over and over. The more glass the light goes through the greener it becomes	[ "Perceptual transparency\n\nPerceptual transparency is the phenomenon of seeing one surface behind another.\n\nIn our everyday life, we often experience the view of objects through transparent surfaces.\n\nPhysically transparent surfaces allow the transmission of a certain amount of light rays\n\nthrough them. Sometimes nearly the totality of rays is transmitted across the surface without\n\nsignificant changes of direction or chromaticity, as in the case of air; sometimes only light at\n\na certain wavelength is transmitted, as for coloured glass.\n\nPerceptually, the problem of transparency is much more challenging: both the light rays\n", "BULLET::::- Intensity of Reflected Color - intensity of reflected color can be measured by its relative distance from the color neutral zone (i.e. white). Due to the variability of industrial processes, some producers design their anti-reflective coatings to have more intense colors so that the statistical deviation of outcomes falls within a specific color (green or blue, etc.). The tighter a manufacturer's control of its processes, the closer the design can be to the color neutral zone, without crossing over from a designated color.\n", "Section::::Colours.:Green glass.\n\nWhile very pale green is the typical colour of transparent glass, deeper greens can be achieved by the addition of Iron(II) oxide which results in a bluish-green glass. Together with chromium it gives glass of a richer green colour, typical of the glass used to make wine bottles.\n\nThe addition of chromium yields dark green glass, suitable for flashed glass. Together with tin oxide and arsenic it yields emerald green glass.\n\nSection::::Colours.:Blue glass.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1993 film \"Philadelphia\" features a scene in which a large conference room in the middle of the law firm has walls of glass on three sides. Jason Robards says, \"Bill, will you get the windows?\", and a switch is thrown, and all the windows immediately become translucent, so that no one can see them firing Tom Hanks' character.\n", "BULLET::::- Reflected Color - Uncoated glass reflects light uniformly and does not cause reflected light to be distorted (a white light source reflected in a non-coated glass pane will still appear white). However, anti-reflective coatings typically cause some wavelengths of light to be reflected more than others, causing a \"shift\" in the reflected color. This way, a white light source reflected in an anti-reflected glass surface may appear green or blue or red, depending on the wavelengths that are favored by a particular anti-reflective coating design.\n", "Section::::Introduction.\n", "Although protection is a primary purpose of glazing, \"displaying\" an artwork is the primary purpose of framing it. Therefore, the least visible glazing best displays the artwork behind it. Visible light transmission is the primary measure of glass' \"invisibility\", since the viewer actually sees the light, reflected from the artwork. Light transmission of glass is especially important in art framing, since light passes through the glass twice – once to illuminate the artwork, and then again, reflected from the artwork, as colors - before reaching the viewer.\n", "BULLET::::- Light Transmission - the lower the light reflection and light absorption, the higher the light transmission, and therefore, the visibility of the objects displayed behind the glazing.\n", "Section::::Glass transition.\n", "Traditional photovoltaic cells are made from thin sheets of silicon covered by glass plates. In the GreenSun process, it is only the outer edges of the glass plates that are covered by thin strips of silicon. The physicists and chemists at GreenSun, led by Renata Reisfeld, coat the glass with metallic nanoparticles and dyes to cause the sunlight falling on the glass to diffuse sideways toward the edges where the silicon strips turn it into electricity. \n", "More recently, the technique has been used to study exocytosis in chromaffin cells. When imaged using DIC, chromaffin cells appear as round cells with small protrusions. When the same cell is imaged using IRM, the footprint of the cell on the glass can be clearly seen as a dark area with small protrusions. When vesicles fuse with the membrane, they appear as small light circles within the dark footprint (bright spots in the top cell in the right panel). \n", "The level of illumination on either side on the window is important to ensure the best effect. Typically a higher level of illumination is needed on the side with the printed graphics to ensure they are seen prominently and the view through to the other side is obscured. Depending upon the nature of the design itself and the level of illumination to either side of the panel, the design either obscures through vision or the observer can choose to focus upon the design or objects on the other side of the panel.\n", "Evidence of the glass cliff phenomenon has been documented in the field of law. A 2006 study found law students were much likelier to assign a high-risk case to a female lead counsel rather than a male one. A 2010 study found undergraduate students in British political science likelier to select a male politician to run for a safe seat in a by-election, and much likelier to select a female candidate when the seat was described as hard to get.\n", "Section::::Symbolic interaction.\n", "Energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDXA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) can be used to study exchange reactions in different types of glass. By quantifying and studying chemical structure and reactions at the near-surface layer, the mechanisms of glass disease can be better understood. \n", "Light transmission (for this article, the perceivable visible spectrum between 390 nm and 750 nm is considered) through glass is diminished either by light reflection or light absorption of the glazing material. The total light transferred through the glazing material (light transmission) is reduced by reflection and/or absorption. In art framing, light reflection causes glare, while light absorption also may cause the transmitted colors to be dulled or distorted. While type of the glass substrate will affect the light absorption of the glazing, the surface treatment can affect light scattering, light reflection and in some cases, light absorption. There are various glazing options to achieve this goal as explained in the following sections on Types of Picture Framing Glass.\n", "BULLET::::- Manganese dioxide, which is black, is used to remove the green color from the glass; in a very slow process this is converted to sodium permanganate, a dark purple compound. In New England some houses built more than 300 years ago have window glass which is lightly tinted violet because of this chemical change; and such glass panes are prized as antiques. This process is widely confused with the formation of \"desert amethyst glass\", in which glass exposed to desert sunshine with a high ultraviolet component develops a delicate violet tint. Details of the process and the composition of the glass vary and so do the results, because it is not a simple matter to obtain or produce properly controlled specimens.\n", "The glass used for this purpose is typically whiter in colour than the clear glasses used for other applications.\n\nThis glass can be laminated or toughened depending on the depth of the pattern to produce a safety glass.\n\nSection::::Float glass.\n", "The exact nature of the coating determines the appearance of the coated optic; common AR coatings on eyeglasses and photographic lenses often look somewhat bluish (since they reflect slightly more blue light than other visible wavelengths), though green and pink-tinged coatings are also used.\n", "BULLET::::- At the electronic level, absorption in the ultraviolet and visible (UV-Vis) portions of the spectrum depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or \"quantized\") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific frequency, and does not violate selection rules. For example, in most glasses, electrons have no available energy levels above them in range of that associated with visible light, or if they do, they violate selection rules, meaning there is no appreciable absorption in pure (undoped) glasses, making them ideal transparent materials for windows in buildings.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "BULLET::::- Light Absorption - light absorption of glazing is the light that is neither transmitted nor reflected by the glazing. Since light is not necessarily absorbed uniformly, some wavelengths may be transmitted more than others, causing the transmitted color to be distorted. A good way to detect light absorption of glazing is so-called \"white paper test\". This test, used to detect the \"transmission color\" of glazing, involves placing a piece of glazing on white paper, and comparing the paper's color with and without the glass. A slight greenish tint will indicate the presence of iron oxide in the raw materials used to produce clear float glass. Additional transmitted colors may result from the absorption of any applied coatings.\n", "Section::::Colours.\n\nSection::::Colours.:Transparent glass.\n", "4. \"The rays travel through adjacent areas of the sample, separated by the shear. The separation is normally similar to the resolution of the microscope. They will experience different optical path lengths where the areas differ in refractive index or thickness. This causes a change in phase of one ray relative to the other due to the delay experienced by the wave in the more optically dense material.\"\n\n5. \"The rays travel through the objective lens and are focused for the second Nomarski-modified Wollaston prism.\"\n", "\"Color\" in the name \"color-glass condensate\" refers to a type of charge that quarks and gluons carry as a result of the strong nuclear force. The word \"glass\" is borrowed from the term for silica and other materials that are disordered and act like solids on short time scales but liquids on long time scales. In the \"gluon walls,\" the gluons themselves are disordered and do not change their positions rapidly because of time dilation. \"Condensate\" means that the gluons have a very high density.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02528	Do you have a higher chance of winning the lottery if you place your bets based on the last 60 years of drawn numbers?	I think most people here are forgetting that lotteries are not pure mathematical constructs. It is a game built by, and manipulated by people. Yes, the Gambler's Fallacy suggests that all thing are equal in an equal game, but the game is rarely equal. Firstly, saying that the odds are the same assumes that each lottery ball is built evenly. It is very possible some balls weigh more than others, changing how likely they are of being picked. In this example, it is possible that the No.3 ball is the lightest ball, and more likely to fly to top and be picked. Also, it's possible that when they put the balls in the machine, they do so numerical order. This might make lower numbers more likely to surface than the higher numbers. Secondly, some lotteries are fixed. Intentionally using balls of different weights and sizes make more numbers more likely to appear. In some draws, people heat the key balls up so that someone picked them by hand could identify them. For whatever reason, No. 3 could intentionally chosen more often, maybe because the mob boss' son was born in March. The classic example of the Gambler's fallacy took place in Monte Carlo when the ball landed on black 26 times in a row. A lot people lost money because they kept betting on red, think falsely that there is no way that a ball would land on the same spot for as long as it did. Myself, I would have bet on black, because at that point, I would suspect that the mechanism helping the ball land on black was jammed or something, causing the ball the land on black over and over again. For those that doubt me, [something like this happened in a casino in Montreal]( URL_0 ). To summarize, the casino reset their Keno machines every morning, so their sequence of numbers repeated each day. Somebody figured this out and won $600,000	[ "Here also we have no reason to suppose that the element of interest was taken into consideration; and the assumption, that between the ages of 40 and 50 each addition of a year to the nominee's age diminishes the value of the annuity by one year's purchase, is equivalent to assuming that there is no probability of the nominee dying between the ages of 40 and 50. Considered, however, simply as a table of the average duration of life, the values are fairly accurate. At all events, no more correct estimate appears to have been arrived at until the close of the 17th century.\n", "BULLET::::- August 16: Florence, Kentucky\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: (none)\n\nBULLET::::- 2014:\n\nBULLET::::- October Atlanta, Georgia\n\nAll \"Decades of Dollars\" top-prize winners chose the cash option.\n\nDecades of Dollars drawings were conducted by the Georgia Lottery at WSB-TV in Atlanta (which hosts Mega Millions drawings); the ball sets and drawing machines moved to Virginia.\n", "The name \"Classic Lotto\" was retired on Saturday, March 9, 2013 (which did not coincide with it being drawn), as the game's name became \"Lotto!\" the next day, although the format was not changed. (\"Lotto!\" tickets, including \"Advance Action\", purchased on or before March 9, 2013 have \"Classic Lotto\" printed on them, but were valid for draw(s) under the new name. As the 6/44 matrix was not changed, \"Classic Lotto\" bet slips can still be used).\n\nSection::::Current draw games.:Connecticut-only draw games.:Lucky Links.\n", "Decades of Dollars was drawn Monday and Thursday nights. DoD winners had a choice of 30 annual payments of $250,000 each (minus withholdings) or a lump sum of $4,000,000.\n\nEach Decades of Dollars game cost $2; players chose 6 numbers from 1 through 47.\n\nDoD prize structure:\n\nBULLET::::- Match 2 of 6: free DoD play or $2; see below°\n\nBULLET::::- Match 3 of 6: $10 cash\n\nBULLET::::- Match 4 of 6: $100 cash\n\nBULLET::::- Match 5 of 6: $10,000 cash\n\nBULLET::::- Match 6 of 6: $250,000 per year in 30 installments or $4,000,000 cash\n", "Historically, Lotto began on February 19, 1983, as a Saturday-only game, with six of 40 numbered balls being drawn. On May 19, 1984, it became a 6/44 game. On December 1, 1985, advance play was introduced. On January 15, 1986, Wednesday drawings were added; the game was played twice weekly until April 15, 1987. Beginning with the May 7, 1988 drawing, the matrix in which the six numbers could be drawn increased from 44 to 54. On April 7, 1990, new balls and a Beitel Criterion drawing machine debuted. Wednesday drawings were reintroduced on August 15, 1990. On January 15, 1998, the 6/54 matrix was scaled down to 6/48, featuring an all-cash jackpot that began at $1 million (previously, the jackpot was annuitized, with no cash option). The matrix changed again to 6/52 on April 14, 1999, and added a fourth prize, $3, for matching three numbers; the jackpot again became annuitized, but with a cash option. The odds of winning a jackpot in the game's current version are 1:20,358,520 per $1 played.\n", "John Warner, later U.S. Senator from Virginia, served as ARBA director.\n\nThe New Jersey Lottery operated a special \"Bicentennial Lottery\" in which the winner received $1,776 per week (before taxes) for 20 years (a total of $1,847,040).\n", "Players would choose 6 years from 1900 to 1999 (in the 2003 version this was altered to 1901 to 2000) or a lucky dip on their Big Draw ticket for the first game, and if they matched all 5 main years drawn, they win the jackpot (lower prize tiers were also available for matching 2 to 4 main years or matching 4 main years + bonus year if the player doesn't match all 5 main years). Two years; one from the old Millennium and one from the new Millennium were also printed at the bottom of the ticket (old Millennium having anything from 1000 to 1999, and new Millennium having anything from 2000 to 2999) for the second game, and if the player matched both years on their Big Draw ticket, they would win the jackpot.\n", "These games vary; some lotteries offer multiple price points for \"lifetime\" games, with the top prize ranging from $50 daily to $1,000,000 yearly. Play for each game varies.\n\nIncreasingly, American lotteries have introduced a cash option for winners of scratch games with such prizes (as they had begun in the 20th century with fixed annuities in almost all games, drawing or scratchcard.) \n\nSection::::Draw games.\n", "While the largest lottery prizes in the early history of U.S. state lotteries were \"annuity-only\", these lotteries gradually introduced a \"cash option\" for these games.\n\nAll prizes listed below are reported as the pre-withholdings amount, as this is taxable income the player must report on their returns to be subject to taxation. Jackpots and jackpot shares listed below are annuity amounts (and the cash value.)\n", "Keno wagers may be made at any Connecticut Lottery retailer, although only those in a \"social\" setting have a monitor for witnessing the computer-drawn numbers.\n\nSection::::Current draw games.:Former draw games.\n\nSection::::Current draw games.:Former draw games.:5 Card Cash.\n", "When Kentucky dropped WFL, Georgia, Kentucky, and Virginia began \"Decades of Dollars\", which later added Arkansas. On October 19, 2014, Decades of Dollars no longer was available in Arkansas, Georgia, or Kentucky; the three lotteries participated in the launch of \"Monopoly Millionaires' Club\", whose sales were suspended in December. Decades of Dollars held its final drawing on April 30, 2015; Virginia then joined the multi-state \"Cash4Life\".\n", "Olden Times capped off his career with a 1964 win over Belmont Stakes winner Quadrangle in the prestigious Metropolitan Handicap at Aqueduct Racetrack in Queens, New York.\n\nSection::::Stud record.\n", "A multitude of websites also have been created and are updated regularly every after the morning, afternoon, and evening draws are recorded. Most of these websites also try to compile and pseudo-analyze results based on prevailing results and techniques used by bettors of the game- this even though results are drawn in random.\n", "Section::::Current draw games.:Multi-jurisdictional draw games.:Lucky For Life.\n\nIn 2009, Connecticut began a $2-per-play game called \"Lucky4Life\". Three years later, the game became \"Lucky For Life\" (drawing \"five\" numbers from the first machine), expanding to include Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont; its \"nickname\" became \"New England′s Game\".\n\nLucky for Life changed its double matrix on September 17, 2013. Players chose 5 of 43 \"white ball\" numbers, and a green \"Lucky Ball\" from a second set of 43. For the first time; a \"lifetime\" winner could choose the annuity or cash. This format change added a second \"lifetime\" tier.\n", "BULLET::::- Super Lotto 6/49 increases odds and makes winning more difficult than the previous two, this time with a lot of numbers ranging from 1 to 49. Draw mechanics are the same. The odds of winning are now higher at 1 in 13,983,816. Draws are held on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Sundays.\n", "The first Lotto drawing was held on Saturday, 16 April 1988. In its original 6/36 format, six numbered balls were drawn from a lottery machine containing 36 balls. Players could win a share of a guaranteed £250,000 jackpot by matching all six numbers, or win smaller prizes by matching four or five numbers. If no winning ticket was sold, the jackpot rolled over for the next draw. Drawings continued each Saturday night until 30 May 1990, when the National Lottery introduced a midweek Lotto draw on Wednesday nights. Lotto draws have been held twice weekly since that time. The Lotto for Saturday if Christmas Day is falling on Saturday transferred to Christmas Eve, Friday or Wednesday draw to Tuesday (1991-2002) or Thursday in 2013. \n", "Economist Mark J. Perry noted that for an even longer period of time, from 1934 to 2013, the inflation-adjusted price of the Dow Jones-AIG Commodities Index showed \"an overall significant downward trend\" and concluded that Simon was \"more right than lucky\". Economist Tim Worstall wrote that \"The end result of all of this is that yes, it is true that Ehrlich could have, would have, won the bet depending upon the starting date. ... But the long term trend for metals at least is downwards.\"\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "BULLET::::- 3+0: $5; 1 in 766\n\nBULLET::::- 2+1: $5; 1 in 473\n\nBULLET::::- 1+1: $2; 1 in 56\n\nBULLET::::- Mega Ball \"only\": $1; 1 in 21\n\nThe odds for winning the $1 prize, 1 in 21, reflected the possibility of matching \"none\" of the white balls, but matching the Mega Ball.\n\nThe annuity—which was 20 annual payments (no cash option was available) when \"The Big Game\" began—changed from 26 equal yearly installments to 30 graduated annual payments (increasing 5 percent yearly) with the format change on October 19, 2013.\n\nSection::::History.:October 2017 format/price point change.\n", "\"Cash Winfall\" was drawn Mondays and Thursdays. Six numbers 1 through 46 were chosen. The jackpot began at $500,000; it always was paid in lump sum. Lower-tier prizes were $4,000, $150, or $5 for matching five, four, or three numbers respectively; two numbers won a \"Cash Winfall\" bet. If the jackpot reached $2 million and was not won, the jackpot was \"rolled down\" with the secondary prizes increased.\n", "The 1965 Old Start Method may be only be used for beneficiaries who:\n\nBULLET::::- effectively filed an application for RIB or DIB after 1965, or who could first apply or who died after 1965 without RIB or DIB entitlement, or whose benefits are being recalculated\n\nBULLET::::- have at least one QC prior to 1951\n\nBULLET::::- were born before January 2, 1929, or were born after January 1, 1929, and have less than 6 QCs after 1950\n\nBULLET::::- can use neither the 1977 Simplified Old Start Method nor the 1967 Simplified Old Start Method\n\nSection::::Alternative Computation Methods.:Normal computations.:1965 New Start Method.\n", "BULLET::::- Survivorship bias of exchanges: exchanges often go bust (just as governments default; for example, Shanghai stock exchange during 1949 communist takeover), and this risk needs to be included – using only exchanges which have survived for the long-term overstates returns. Exchanges close often enough for this effect to matter.\n\nBULLET::::- Low number of data points: the period 1900–2005 provides only 105 independent years which is not a large enough sample size to run statistical analyses with full confidence, especially in view of the black swan effect.\n", "°Kentucky and Virginia players received a DoD play; Arkansas and Georgia winners won $2.\n\nUnexpectedly, none of the game's first 112 drawings produced a top-prize winner (of either payment option.) Finally, for the March 5, 2012 drawing, a ticket sold in Georgia matched all six numbers.\n\nArkansas never produced a top prize in DoD.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Decades of Dollars\" top-prize winners:\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 (none)\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 (7 to date):\n\nBULLET::::- March 5: Evans, Georgia\n\nBULLET::::- March 8: Smyrna, Georgia\n\nBULLET::::- April 12: Norfolk, Virginia\n\nBULLET::::- April 26: Madisonville, Kentucky\n\nBULLET::::- May 3: McDonough, Georgia\n\nBULLET::::- May 10: Waynesboro, Virginia\n", "Lottery Winner (horse)\n\nLottery Winner (foaled March 19, 1989) is an American Thoroughbred racehorse who won the 1993 Goodwood Breeders' Cup Handicap.\n\nSection::::Career.\n\nHis first race was at Santa Anita Park on November 11, 1991, where he came in 9th place.\n\nThe horse did not see victory until August 22, 1992 at Del Mar, which started a streak where he won 3 races in a row.\n\nThe highlight of his career took place on October 17, 1993, when he won the 1993 Goodwood Breeders' Cup Handicap.\n", "Connecticut's in-house jackpot game, \"Lotto!\", is drawn Tuesdays and Friday nights. Six numbers are drawn from a field of 44; the 6/44 matrix has been used continuously since 1989, when the game's name was its original name, \"Connecticut Lotto\" (without an exclamation point.)\n", "Should a selection in one of these bets \"not\" win, then the remaining winners are treated as being a wholly successful bet on the next 'family member' down. For example, only two winners out of three in a Patent means the bet is settled as a double and two singles; only three winners out of four in a Lucky 15 means it is settled as a Patent; only four winners out of six in a Lucky 63 means it is settled as a Lucky 15. The place part of each-way bets is calculated separately using reduced place odds. Thus, an each-way Lucky 63 on six horses with three winners and a further two placed horses is settled as a win Patent and a place Lucky 31.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Logical math solutions should lead to higher chances of winning the lottery." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The lottery can and is manipulated by people to reduce the chances of winning. " ]
2018-03603	Why does a loose banana turn brown quicker than when it’s attached to other bananas?	"loose banana" Anyways I'm pretty sure that it is because exposed banana is created when a banana is loosened, and this make bacterial infection much easier.	[ "Section::::Farming activities.:Exporting.\n\nAt the boxing plant, the bananas selected are hung on a conveyor and removed by hand from the stalk. They are then placed in tanks of water for at least four minutes to wash off the latex and other impurities. Every precautionary method must be taken against damage to the skin of the fruit. Wad wrapping and polythene bags are commonly used. The latex flow tends to be absorbed by the wad wrapping. \n", "Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color consumers normally associate with supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused by the artificial ripening process. Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to between during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in the environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the fruit inside remains unaffected.\n", "A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The study suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.\n\nSection::::Modern cultivation.:Storage and transport.\n", "During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas ethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a \"starchier\" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.\n", "Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at . On arrival, bananas are held at about and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process.\n", "The most likely route of infection is through the importation of infected plant material, and infection can spread rapidly in commercial areas where bananas are farmed in mono-culture. Removal of affected leaves, good drainage, and sufficient spacing also help to fight the disease. Although fungicides improved over the years, the pathogen developed resistance. Therefore, higher frequency of applications is required, increasing the impact on the environment and health of the banana workers. In regions where disease pressure is low and fungicide resistance has not been observed, it is possible to better time the application of systemic fungicides by using a biological forecasting system.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nTwo external symptoms help characterize Panama disease of banana:\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow leaf syndrome, the yellowing of the border of the leaves which eventually leads to bending of the petiole.\n\nBULLET::::- Green leaf syndrome, which occurs in certain cultivars, marked by the persistence of the green color of the leaves followed by the bending of the petiole as in yellow leaf syndrome. Internally, the disease is characterized by a vascular discoloration. This begins in the roots and rhizomes with a yellowing that proceeds to a reddish-brown color in the pseudostem, as the pathogen blocks the plant's nutrient and water transport.\n", "As is the case for most fungal diseases, Banana Freckle is diagnosed based on the presence of its spores. Fruiting bodies and spores obtained from lesions and fungal cultures are key components when identifying the pathogen. The causal strain of the fungus can then be determined by the type of banana it has infected.\n\nSection::::Disease Cycle.\n\nSection::::Disease Cycle.:Contact.\n\nSpores land on Banana plant or fruit by rain splash or movement of infected tissue and fruit.\n\nSection::::Disease Cycle.:Germination and Infection.\n", "Cultivation techniques specific to the type of banana produced may dictate the specific physical plant makeup. Much of banana cultivation since the mid-1950s has centered around a single monoculture: The Cavendish banana. The ravages of Panama Disease in that particular cultivar may cause a shift in variety selection, subsequently causing a major change in the physical plant structure of banana plantations.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n", "Some foods, such as bananas, are picked when unripe, are cooled to prevent ripening while they are shipped to market, and then are induced to ripen quickly by exposing them to propylene or ethylene, chemicals produced by plants to induce their own ripening; as flavor and texture changes during ripening, this process may affect those qualities of the treated fruit.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition.\n", "The plant is propagated by roots or from suckers and takes one year to reach maturity. Each planting area consists of one bearing plant. When the crop is bearing, bunch sleeving is carried out. Each bunch is covered with a polythene bag and treated with insecticide. \n\nSection::::Farming activities.:Harvesting and transportation.\n", "When the mature fruit is about 12 months old, it is cut directly from the tree in a green condition. A cutter grooves and cuts the tree near the base while a backer catches the cut bunch. The upper part of the pseudo-stem is not removed as it is suitable for mulching. New plants or suckers are left to grow from the rhizomes. The bananas are carried on the heads of laborers to the nearest road, then transported by trucks and motor trailers to the packing shed. From the plantations, bunches of bananas are loaded onto cable ways, leading to the packing shed where the choicest fruit is selected for export. As the crop is perishable, timing is of utmost importance. Fruit must be cut within a week's time to meet a shipping load.\n", "Labor conditions in the banana industry have historically drawn attention both in criticism of the traditionally poor industry working conditions, and more recently in attempts by labor advocacy groups and some producers to improve labor conditions.\n", "Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease that is considered one of the most devastating blights affecting contemporary banana cultivation. Present across much of the world and with the potential to reduce yields by 50%, Black Sigatoka poses a very real and acute threat to subsistence banana farmers, as most of the world’s export-grade bananas are highly susceptible to the disease.\n", "Recently, an R gene (RGA2) was transformed into Cavendish bananas which showed disease resistance to Fusarium wilt tropical race 4. One specific transformed line, which consisted of 10 plants, showed resistance in the field for all of them. Unfortunately, the field trial lasted only 3 years and the plants exhibited a yield drag. \n\nSection::::Disease management.:Banana breeding impeded by triploidy.\n", "BXW infects all parts of the plant. Disease spread has been primarily linked with the transport of plants shoots for replanting. Other parts of the plant such as the male buds (used in banana beer production) and mulch (banana waste material) can also expose novel regions to the disease.\n\nSection::::Disease management.\n", "The cultivation process involves removal of weeds, applying insecticides, covering the fruits with plastics to prevent loss due to close contact, also enclosing the bananas with plastic bags filled with insecticide, protecting plant stocks by covering them with strips of plastic coated with insecticide, removal of yellow and dead leaves, and providing support by propping up the plants with wooden stakes. The growth phases are monitored by tying coloured bands to the stalks. Thus, there are three stages of monitoring which are: harvesting fruit-laden stalks, transporting them to the packing plant, cutting the remaining stems after harvest.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.\n", "Covered fruit ripening bowls are commercially available. The manufacturers claim the bowls increase the amount of ethylene and carbon dioxide gases around the fruit, which promotes ripening.\n\nClimacteric fruits are able to continue ripening after being picked, a process accelerated by ethylene gas. Non-climacteric fruits can ripen only on the plant and thus have a short shelf life if harvested when they are ripe.\n\nSome fruits can be ripened by placing them in a plastic bag with a ripe banana, as the banana will release ethylene.\n\nSection::::Ripening indicators.\n", "Bananas are green when they are picked because of the chlorophyll their skin contains. Once picked, they begin to ripen; hormones in the bananas convert amino acids into ethylene gas, which stimulates the production of several enzymes. These enzymes start to change the color, texture and flavor of the banana. The green chlorophyll supply is stopped and the yellow color of the carotenoids replaces it; eventually, as the enzymes continue their work, the cell walls break down and the bananas turn brown.\n\nSection::::Science and nature.:Biology.:Fish.\n", "Section::::Hosts and Symptoms.\n\nOne of the most well-known diseases caused by \"Ceratocystis paradoxa\" is Black rot or stem-end rot of pineapple, but it can also infect tropical fruit plants such as banana and coconuts as well as sugarcane. The pathogen infects the fruits through wounds or other openings after harvest has already happened and the fruit is fresh. This is because the time to processing takes too long.\n", "Symptoms typically appear after 2–4 weeks after the banana cluster has opened, and seem to be primarily localized on older leaves. Infected tissues may also yellow with age, and eventually senesce in the most severe case of symptoms. Even in the cases of minor infection, the fungus renders the banana fruit unmarketable at the loss of the grower.\n", "BULLET::::- Dwarf Red – One of many red-skinned banana cultivars on the island, however this one stays short and takes up little space. Most red bananas are much esteemed for good tasting fruit, and this one is no exception. This cultivar also has red pseudostems. The red bananas take longer to ripen than most, it will take up to 24 months to fruit. The banana has a very distinct, robust flavor that makes it well worth the wait. This red banana's skin turns sunset colors through the ripening process from yellow-green to orange then to red. The skin should be almost very dark red before it is ripe enough to eat.\n", "In the early stages of the infection of the plant, the lesions start off looking rusty brown and they appear to be faint, paint-like specks on the leaves. They become more visible on the undersides of the banana leaf as the lesions and leaves grow. The spots on the undersides of leaf are the fungus itself. The sign of the pathogen consists of the ascocarp which holds the ascospores used for dissemination to infect healthy new plants when the environment is conducive. The pathogen then survives on dead plant tissue as mycelium. The dimensions of the lesions are characteristically 20 x 2mm with a well defined wall surrounding it. After further development, they become darker, sink into the leaf, and turn into depressions. The depressions themselves and the chlorosis surrounding them are the visible symptoms of the plant pathogen. They eventually will merge, and causing the rapid decline of plant morphological and physiological functions. Leaves with a large infectious lesions will start to degrade and collapse off the branches because the leaf spots interrupt the plant’s ability to perform photosynthesis, leading to the ultimate death of the plant.\n", "Bananas can be ordered by the retailer \"ungassed\" (\"i.e.\" not treated with ethylene), and may show up at the supermarket fully green. (green bananas) that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine.\n", "Section::::Transmission.\n\nSection::::Transmission.:Soil.\n\nSoil is one of the main sources for \"Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum\" inoculum. \"Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum\" may contaminate the soil for four months and more. BXW awareness campaigns have helped reduce the numbers of farmers growing bananas on contaminated plantains aiding in the control of the disease overall. Transmission of contaminated disease itself is thought to be low.\n\nSection::::Transmission.:Airborne.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03223	Why are my muscles sore after jumping in cold water?	From what I understand, our bodies defenses against hypothermia is to shiver. This involves involuntary muscle contractions to generate heat. These muscles contractions still can cause muscle soreness just like working out.	[ "Blood flow to the muscles is lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion.\n", "In these ways, winter swimmers can survive both the initial shock and prolonged exposure. Nevertheless, the human organism is not suited to freezing water: the struggle to maintain blood temperature (by swimming or conditioned metabolic response) produces great fatigue after thirty minutes or less.\n\nSection::::Cold shock response in bacteria.\n", "Immersion foot syndromes\n\nImmersion foot syndromes are a class of foot injury caused by water absorption in the outer layer of skin. There are different subclass names for this condition based on the temperature of the water to which the foot is exposed. These include trench foot, tropical immersion foot, and warm water immersion foot. In one 3-day military study, it was found that submersion in water allowing for a higher skin temperature resulted in worse skin maceration and pain.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Trench foot.\n", "The Russian immigrant professor Louis Sugarman of Little Falls, NY was the first American to become a famous ice swimmer in the 1890s. He attracted worldwide attention for his daily plunge in the Mohawk River, even when the thermometer hit 23 degrees F below zero, earning him the nickname \"the human polar bear\". \n", "BULLET::::- The diver should be kept warm throughout the dive, but active rewarming by external heating and heavy exercise should be avoided directly after the dive, as the effect of cold on risk of decompression sickness is not fully understood.\n", "Care should be taken when winter swimming in swimming pools and seas near the polar regions. The chlorine added to water in swimming pools and the salt in seawater allow the water to remain liquid at sub-zero temperatures. Swimming in such water is significantly more challenging and dangerous. The experienced winter swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh swam near the North Pole in water and suffered a frostbite injury in his fingers. It took him four months to regain sensation in his hands.\n\nSection::::Health benefits.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Heat exhaustion\", possibly developing into \"heatstroke\", can occur in hot weather, particularly if one is dehydrated or dressed too warmly. The risk of heatstroke can be minimized by avoiding direct sun, and staying wet when possible. This is a life-threatening condition: a victim must be cooled off and transported to a hospital immediately.\n", "The unprotected human body responds to cold water immersion in a progression from a stress situation to hypothermia and death, at a rate depending on time and water temperature. Hypothermia is not the major problem in the early stages of exposure as other stresses are more immediately life-threatening.\n", "The hunting reaction is one out of four possible responses to immersion of the finger in cold water. The other responses observed in the fingers after immersion in cold water are a continuous state of vasoconstriction, slow steady and continuous rewarming and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of the vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water can be classified as the hunting reaction.\n", "Stings are most common in the hours before and after low tide (especially at springs), so one possible precaution is to avoid bathing or paddling at these times. Weever stings have been known to penetrate wet suit boots even through a rubber sole (if thin), and bathers and surfers should wear sandals, \"jelly shoes\", or wetsuit boots with relatively hard soles, and avoid sitting or \"rolling\" in the shallows. Stings also increase in frequency during the summer (to a maximum in August), but this is probably the result of the greater number of bathers.\n", "As with other skin lesion retroviruses, the in-lake transmission of the WEHV particles appears to be the result of contact with water harboring released infectious viral particles or close contact with other fish. The infection proliferates in temperatures between 0–5 °C (32–41 °F), and this may be why it occurs primarily in the fall and spring. With this seasonal prevalence, it is suggested that an inverse relationship exists between water temperature and skin lesion size/abundance. This is especially evident in the fact that few walleye show signs of the condition during the summer months. The nature of the seasonality of this condition is linked to a couple possible hypotheses: (1) low water temperatures and immune suppression, and (2) the physiological stress associated with spring spawning It is important to note that this disease is not classified as zoonotic and is not known to infect humans.\n", "The soreness usually disappears within about 72 hours after appearing. If treatment is desired, any measure that increases blood flow to the muscle, such as low-intensity activity, massage, nerve mobilization, hot baths, or a sauna visit may help somewhat.\n\nImmersion in cool or icy water, an occasionally recommended remedy, was found to be ineffective in alleviating DOMS in one 2011 study, but effective in another. There is also insufficient evidence to determine whether whole-body cryotherapy – compared with passive rest or no whole-body cryotherapy – reduces DOMS, or improves subjective recovery, after exercise.\n", "BULLET::::- Water temperature: Warm water diving is comfortable and convenient, and requires less equipment. Although cold water is uncomfortable and can cause hypothermia it can be interesting because different species of underwater life thrive in cold conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- Ice baths or chilling of farmed fish on ice or submerged in near-freezing water is used to dampen muscle movements by the fish and to delay the onset of post-death decay. However, it does not necessarily reduce sensibility to pain; indeed, the chilling process has been shown to elevate cortisol. In addition, reduced body temperature extends the time before fish lose consciousness.\n\nBULLET::::- CO₂ narcosis\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Spring viraemia of carp\n\nSpring viraemia of carp, also known as swim bladder inflammation, is caused by Carp sprivivirus, also called \"Rhabdovirus carpio\". It is listed as a notifiable disease under the World Organisation for Animal Health.\n\nSection::::Impacted species.\n", "Although heat cramps can be quite painful, they usually don't result in permanent damage, though they can be a symptom of heat stroke or heat exhaustion. Heat cramps can indicate a more severe problem in someone with heart disease or if they last for longer than an hour.\n\nIn order to prevent them, one may drink electrolyte solutions such as sports drinks during exercise or strenuous work or eat potassium-rich foods like bananas and apples. When heat cramps occur, the affected person should avoid strenuous work and exercise for several hours to allow for recovery.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dehydration\n", "Winter swimming isn't dangerous for healthy persons, but should be avoided by individuals with heart or respiratory diseases, obesity, high blood pressure and arrhythmia, as well as children and the elderly. Through conditioning, experienced winter swimmers have a greater resistance to effects of the cold shock response.\n", "Hypothermia continues to be a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries.\n\nOther factors predisposing to immersion hypothermia include dehydration, inadequate rewarming between repetitive dives, starting a dive while wearing cold, wet dry suit undergarments, sweating with work, inadequate thermal insulation (for example, thin dry suit undergarment), and poor physical conditioning.\n", "Several days of cold therapy, sweats, and NSAIDs can help a \"hot\" splint. NSAIDs can help reduce the inflammation and help the bone growth by doing so. However, none of these treatments are incredibly effective. The most important factor is time. Counter-irritants, which increase inflammation, only hinder the formation of bone and can actually prolong the healing process.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nCold urticaria may be divided into the following types:\n\nSection::::Types.:Primary cold contact urticaria.\n\nPrimary cold contact urticaria is a cutaneous condition characterized by wheals, and occurs in rainy, windy weather, and after swimming in cold water and after contact with cold objects, including ice cubes.\n\nSection::::Types.:Secondary cold contact urticaria.\n\nSecondary cold contact urticaria is a cutaneous condition characterized by wheals, due to serum abnormalities such as cryoglobulinemia or cryofibrinogenemia are extremely rare, and are then associated with other manifestations such as Raynaud's phenomenon or purpura.\n\nSection::::Types.:Reflex cold urticaria.\n", "In hot weather, people need to drink plenty of cool liquids and mineral salts to replace fluids lost from sweating. Thirst is not a reliable sign that a person needs fluids. A better indicator is the color of urine. A dark yellow color may indicate dehydration.\n\nThe Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States publishes a QuickCard with a checklist designed to help protect workers from heat stress:\n\nBULLET::::- Know signs/symptoms of heat-related illnesses.\n\nBULLET::::- Block out direct sun and other heat sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Drink fluids often, and \"before\" you are thirsty.\n\nBULLET::::- Wear lightweight, light-colored, loose-fitting clothes.\n", "Summers are generally hot, at times uncomfortably so, although mornings tend to be fairly comfortable. On average, only two mornings each year will stay above , with only three mornings on record remaining at or above , although five afternoons each summer top and forty afternoons will top . The hottest temperature ever recorded in Hot Springs is , which was achieved on each of three separate occasions: July 25 of 1931, July 10 of 1933, and July 10 of 1939. The fall season is usually dry and sees increasingly variable temperatures: the first freeze can be expected as early as September 23, but maxima in the eighties Fahrenheit have occurred as late as November 8 (in 1999).\n", "There are indications that winter swimmers do not contract diseases as often as the general population. The incidence of infectious diseases affecting the upper respiratory tract is 40% lower among winter swimmers when compared to a control group. Short term exposure of the whole body to cold water produces oxidative stress, which makes winter swimmers develop improved antioxidative protection.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ice bath\n\nBULLET::::- Boxing Day Dip\n\nBULLET::::- Cold water dousing\n\nBULLET::::- Polar bear plunge\n\nBULLET::::- Stunt swimming\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Photo report of winter swimming in Russia during the Epiphany celebration\n", "Stonefish stings are extremely painful and potentially lethal. The two most recommended treatments are the application of heat to the affected area, and antivenom. Hot water (at a temperature no higher than ) applied to the injured area has been found to denature stonefish venom, and causes minimal discomfort to the victim. Antivenom is used in more extreme cases. Vinegar is found on some Australian beaches as it is said to lessen the pain.\n\nSection::::Treatment of envenomation.:Stonefish stings in Australia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17525	Why do animals tend to copy their owner's behaviour and personality?	I don't know how much merit that theory holds. Most animals tend to learn from associations and rewards. They pick up through routines: what we want them to do and what we don't. So if you think they act like their owners it might be because they're simply following routines but outside of that they're like human children in the aspect of learning, but they're not like human children in the sense that we talk to our children and teach them complex ideas that shape their behaviors to be like ours. There are more basic behaviors that a simple pet like a dog might seemingly mimic. A lazy person will most likely have a lazy dog. An abusive person will lead the dog to be scared but eventually aggressive. These are more cause and effect things however. A lazy dog has no choice but to be lazy, and an aggressive dog has to be aggressive for its own protection. Essentially, human animal bonds are largely based on operant conditioning, animals repeat routines humans teach them with the use of treats and other associations such as command or time. They can give us compassion but the fact that they aren't out species limits them from being able to copy us further (I doubt my dog would have the same political views as me).	[ "Animals as pets have a large sense of loyalty to humans. Famous cases include Greyfriars Bobby, a Skye terrier who attended his master's grave for fourteen years; Hachiko, a dog who returned to the place he used to meet his master every day for nine years after his death; and Foxie, the spaniel belonging to Charles Gough, who stayed by her dead master's side for three months on Helvellyn in the Lake District in 1805 (although it is possible that Foxie had eaten Gough's body).\n", "Section::::Evolutionary potential.\n", "Section::::Criticism.\n", "Stereotypical behaviour can sometimes be reduced or eliminated by environmental enrichment, including larger and more stimulating enclosures, training, and introductions of stimuli (such as objects, sounds, or scents) to the animal's environment. The enrichment must be varied to remain effective for any length of time. Housing social animals such as primates with other members of their species is also helpful. But once the behaviour is established, it is sometimes impossible to eliminate due to alterations in the brain.\n\nSection::::Animal welfare.\n", "Neuroticism, agreeableness and extraversion are the most commonly found personality traits among measured animals. For example, chimpanzees show emotional stability, agreeableness and surgency, audiovisual reactivity, affect-extraversion, excitability-agitation, aggression affinity and social play.\n\nSection::::Correlated traits and behaviours.\n\nSome behaviours are correlated into a set of personality traits that remain constant throughout different situations and contexts. These traits are referred to as behavioural syndromes. For example, the aggressiveness-boldness syndrome refers to the correlation between an individuals aggressiveness with conspecifics and boldness in novel environments.\n", "The extent of personality phenomenon considered when examining animal personality is significantly reduced compared to those studied in humans. Concepts such as personal objects, identity, attitudes and life stories are not considered relevant in animals. Similarly, any approach that requires the subject to explain motives, beliefs or feelings is not applicable to the study of animal behaviour.\n", "Personality in animals has been studied across a wide array of taxa. Some of these studies have investigated personality in mammals, elasmobranchs, reptiles, fish and birds, to name just a few. \n", "In 2013, a study produced the first evidence under controlled experimental observation for a correlation between the owner's personality and their dog's behaviour.\n\nSection::::Dogs in human society.:Dogs at work.\n", "Personality can be defined by “a set of behaviours that are consistent over context and time”. Human personality is often studied using models that look at broad dimensions of personality. For example, the Five Factor Model is one of the most commonly used models, and the most extensively studied. It is composed of five dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Studies of dog personality have also tried to identify the presence of broad personality traits that are stable over time. Recently, dog’s personality dimension has been shown to be relatively consistent over time.\n", "Section::::Mutual exclusivity and animals.\n", "Similar to humans, social structure plays an important role in cultural transmission in chimpanzees. Victoria Horner conducted an experiment where an older, higher ranking individual and a younger, lower ranking individual were both taught the same task with only slight aesthetic modification. She found that chimpanzees tended to imitate the behaviors of the older, higher ranking chimpanzee as opposed to the younger, lower ranking individual when given a choice. It is believed that the older higher ranking individual had gained a level of 'prestige' within the group. This research demonstrates that culturally transmitted behaviors are often learned from individuals that are respected by the group.\n", "Section::::Cultural transmission in animals.:Teaching.\n\nTeaching is often considered one mechanism of social learning, and occurs when knowledgeable individuals of some species have been known to teach others. For this to occur, a teacher must change its behavior when interacting with a naïve individual and incur an initial cost from teaching, while an observer must acquire skills rapidly as a direct consequence.\n", "Section::::Social learning mechanisms.:Imitation and emulation.\n", "The National Institutes of Health reported that capuchin monkeys preferred the company of researchers who imitated them to that of researchers who did not. The monkeys not only spent more time with their imitators but also preferred to engage in a simple task with them even when provided with the option of performing the same task with a non-imitator. Imitation has been observed in recent research on chimpanzees; not only did these chimps copy the actions of another individual, when given a choice, the chimps preferred to imitate the actions of the higher-ranking elder chimpanzee as opposed to the lower-ranking young chimpanzee.\n", "Section::::Animal behavior.:Imitation in animals.:Theories.\n", "There is considerable evidence to support true imitation in animals. Experiments performed on apes, birds and more specifically the Japanese quail have provided positive results to imitating behavior, demonstrating imitation of opaque behavior. However the problem that lies is in the discrepancies between what is considered true imitation in behavior. Birds have demonstrated visual imitation, where the animal simply does as it sees. Studies on apes however have proven more advanced results in imitation, being able to remember and learn from what they imitate. Studies have demonstrated far more positive results with behavioral imitation in primates and birds than any other type of animal. Imitation in non primate mammals and other animals have been proven difficult to conclude solid positive results for and poses a difficult question to scientists on why that is so.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nFor many years, ethologists have studied the ways that behavior can change in response to changes in external stimuli or changes in the internal state of an organism. In a parallel literature, psychologists studying learning and cognition have spent years documenting the many ways that experiences in the past can affect the behavior an individual expresses at the current time. Interest in behavioral plasticity gained prominence more recently as an example of a type of phenotypic plasticity with major consequences for evolutionary biology.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Social psychology provides a partial explanation for the phenomenon in the way \"the \"norm of social commitment\" directs us to honor our agreements...People usually stick to the deal even though it has changed for the worse\". Humanists point out that \"man inherits the capacity for loyalty, but not the use to which he shall put it...may unselfishly devote himself to what is petty or vile, as he may to what is generous and noble\".\n\nSection::::In animals.\n", "The first study that empirically examined animal personality was in 1938, Meredith Crawford quantified individual differences in the behaviour of young chimpanzee using a behaviour rating scale. Crawford conducted his research out of the Yale Laboratories of Primate Biology. Since then, psychologists have continued to investigate personality in animals across a wide range of taxa. Meanwhile, the incorporation of animal personality into the fields of ecology and evolution is a relatively new practice. Ecologist began to recognize the importance of individual differences in behaviour near the end of the twentieth century.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Rating of traits.\n", "The study of animal personality is largely based on the observation and investigation of behavioural traits. In an ecological context, traits or ‘characters’ are attributes of an organism that are shared by members of a species. Traits can be shared by all or only a portion of individuals in a population. For example, studies in animal personality often examine traits such as aggressiveness, avoidance of novelty, boldness, exploration and sociality.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "More specifically, there have been several studies that have either been notable in that they have changed scientific understandings of animal personality or have applications in the field of human personality. For example, the study of personality in chimpanzees by King and Figueredo in 1997 was one of the first studies to apply the five-factor model in animal personality. It demonstrated the existence of personality traits in animals and provided a foundation for similar assessment strategies in future studies of personality in animals. Similarly, zebrafish have been used as a neurobehavioral model species for studying personality using the trait approach in non-human animals. These studies can then be translated to study personality development and personality disorders in humans.\n", "An interesting area of research in this context concerns the similarities between our relationships and those of animals, whether animals in human society (pets, working animals, even animals grown for food) or in the wild. One idea is that as people or animals perceive a social relationship as important to preserve, their \"conscience\" begins to respect that former \"other\", and urge actions that protect it. Similarly, in complex territorial and cooperative breeding bird communities (such as the Australian magpie) that have a high degree of etiquettes, rules, hierarchies, play, songs and negotiations, rule-breaking seems tolerated on occasions not obviously related to survival of the individual or group; behaviour often appearing to exhibit a touching gentleness and tenderness.\n", "According to self psychology, an animal can be a \"self-object\" that gives a sense of cohesion, support, or sustenance to a person's sense of self. Self-psychology explains why some animals are so crucial to a person's sense of self and well-being. Dog companionship often gives people a sense of purpose by causing them to develop a daily routine and giving them something to look forward to each day. Studies also show owning a dog reduces stress and alleviates anxiety. Despite the positive relationship, there are instances where dogs have turned on their owner or other humans. The reasons for a dog to break the normally positive social bond are varied and include a background of abuse against the animal, inherent psychological issues of the dog, and where the dog may have been trained for heightened aggression. \n", "Section::::Social learning mechanisms.:Imitation and emulation.:Visual behavioral imitation.\n", "Besides the models and theories of behavior change there are methods for promoting behavior change. Among them one of the most widely used is Tailoring or personalization.\n\nSection::::Communication.:Tailoring.\n\nTailoring refers to methods for personalizing communications intended to generate higher behavior change than non personalized ones. There are two main claims for why tailoring works: Tailoring may improve preconditions for message processing and tailoring may improve impact by altering starting behavioral determinants of goal outcomes. The different message processing mechanisms can be summarized into: Attention, Effortful processing, Emotional processing and self-reference. \n" ]	[ "Animals tend to copy their owner's behavior and personality.", "Animals tend to copy their owner's behaviour and personality." ]	[ "Animals don't copy their owner's behavior and personality, they learn from associations and rewards.", "That theory may not hold merit; animals repeat routines humans teach them with the use of treats and other associations such as commands." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Animals tend to copy their owner's behavior and personality.", "Animals tend to copy their owner's behaviour and personality." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Animals don't copy their owner's behavior and personality, they learn from associations and rewards.", "That theory may not hold merit; animals repeat routines humans teach them with the use of treats and other associations such as commands." ]

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