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2018-08975	Why don’t tornadoes develop in extremely urban areas with skyscrapers such as New York City or Chicago?	URL_0 Basically not alot of major cities lie in tornado zones so its already unlikely	[ "Not every thunderstorm, supercell, squall line, or tropical cyclone will produce a tornado. Precisely the right atmospheric conditions are required for the formation of even a weak tornado. On the other hand, 700 or more tornadoes a year are reported in the contiguous United States.\n", "The misconception, like most, has a small basis in truth. Research has been done in a few metropolitan areas suggesting that the urban heat island effect may discourage the formation of weak tornadoes in city centers, due to turbulent warm air disrupting their formation. This does not apply to significant tornadoes, however, and it is possible that the presence of tall buildings may actually storms which move into downtown areas.\n\nSection::::Geographical and temporal influences.:During winter.\n", "The thunderstorm system can be divided into two zones in the figure to the left: the precipitation-free zone, located on the left where the airmass has a widespread up motion, and the precipitation zone, on the right where the airmass is sinking. At the point where the two zones meet, there is a wall cloud that could initiate tornadoes. Moreover, even the cumulus congestus associated with a supercell thunderstorm can be very dangerous. Tornadoes can be produced up to from the main cell.\n", "Tornadoes can occur west of the continental divide, but they are infrequent and usually relatively weak and short-lived. Recently, tornadoes have struck the Pacific coast town of Lincoln City, Oregon (1996), Sunnyvale, California (1998), Port Orchard, Washington (2018), and downtown Salt Lake City, Utah (1999 - see Salt Lake City Tornado). The California Central Valley is an area of some frequency for tornadoes, albeit of weak intensity. Though tornadoes that occur on the Western Seaboard are typically weak, more powerful and damaging tornadoes, such as the tornado that occurred on 22 May 2008 in Perris, California, can also occur.\n", "Tornadoes can form in any month, providing the conditions are favorable. For example, a freak tornado hit South St. Louis County Missouri on 31 December 2010, causing pockets of heavy damage to a modest area before dissipating. The temperature was unseasonably warm that day. They are least common during the winter and most common in spring. Since autumn and spring are transitional periods (warm to cool and vice versa) there are more chances of cooler air meeting with warmer air, resulting in thunderstorms. Tornadoes in the late summer and fall can also be caused by hurricane landfall.\n", "While there are abundant kinematic datasets gathered by mobile radar of the tornadic region of supercells, the number of quality mobile mesonet or sticknet thermodynamic datasets of the flow field proximate to the tornadic region, generally within the supercell rear-flank downdraft (RFD) outflow, are comparatively rare. Even rarer are mesonet datasets reaching within about 1.5 km of tornadoes and datasets sampling the thermodynamic evolution of the RFD outflow.\n", "Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter. The seasonal transition during autumn and spring promotes the development of extratropical cyclones and frontal systems that support strong convective storms. Tornadoes are also common in landfalling tropical cyclones, where they are focused in the right poleward section of the cyclone. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall. However, favorable conditions for tornado development can occur any time of the year.\n", "Other areas of the world that have frequent strong tornadoes include Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy, Spain, China, and the Philippines. Australia, France, Russia, areas of the Middle East, Japan, and parts of Mexico have a history of multiple damaging tornado events.\n\nSection::::Tornadoes in the United States.\n", "Although favorable conditions for tornadoes in the United States can occur at any time, they are most common in spring and least common in winter. Because spring is a transitional period for the climate, there are more chances of cooler air meeting with warmer air, resulting in more thunderstorms. Tornadoes can also be spawned by landfalling tropical cyclones, which usually occur in late summer and autumn. In the United States, thunderstorms capable of producing tornadoes usually form when the temperature is at its highest, typically from 4:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m.\n", "Research has been done in a few areas suggesting that metropolitan areas are less susceptible to weak tornadoes due to the turbulent mixing caused by the warmth of the urban heat island. Using satellite images, researchers discovered that city climates have a noticeable influence on plant growing seasons up to away from a city's edges. Growing seasons in 70 cities in eastern North America were about 15 days longer in urban areas compared to rural areas outside of a city's influence.\n", "Some people mistakenly believe that tornadoes only occur in the countryside. This is hardly the case. While it is true that the plains states are tornado-prone, it should be noted that tornadoes have been reported in every U.S state, including Alaska and Hawaii. One likely reason tornadoes are so common in the central U.S is because this is where Arctic air, cold fronts that have not been \"weakened\" yet first collide with warm tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico. As these fronts head further east, they sometimes lose their strength as they travel over more warm air. For this reason, tornadoes are not as common on the East Coast as they are in the Midwest. However, they have happened on rare occasion, such as the F3 twister that struck Limerick Township, Pennsylvania near Philadelphia on 27 July 1994, the F2 twister that struck the northern suburbs of New York City on 12 July 2006, the EF2 twister in the borough of Brooklyn on 8 August 2007, or the F4 twister that struck La Plata, Maryland on 28 April 2002.\n", "Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating. Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm. Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day, as evidenced by the Gainesville Tornado of 1936 (one of the deadliest tornadoes in history) that occurred at 8:30 am local time.\n\nSection::::Geography.\n", "Tornadoes do occur in extreme southern Africa (including the countries of South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland). In October 2011 (i.e. in the spring), two people were killed and nearly 200 were injured after a tornado formed, near Ficksburg in the Free State; more than 1,000 shacks and houses were flattened. There is also the seasonal incidence of tornadoes in the coast of western Africa. These occur during the onset of rainy season when tumultuous winds accompanied by sheets of rain as well as spectacular thunder and lightning batter the coast. The tornadoes, however, were welcomed by settlers in the region since it dissipates extreme heat and humidity during the last days of the dry season. These tornadoes are often embedded in the African squall lines and produced by the severe thunderstorms that they bring. There are experts that attribute the formation of the tornado to the large hail, supported by wind shears in the northern part of the squall lines that veer and increase in height. These tornadoes damage crops, diminishing the positive impact of its rains.\n", "Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Outbreaks and families.\n", "In addition, many areas near the Great Lakes region reached the mid to upper 60s (17–20 °C) which allowed the northern cells to form, while several areas in southern Ontario and Quebec near the Canada-US border reached near 60 °F (16 °C).\n", "Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña. Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.\n", "Section::::Europe.\n", "As spring passes and summer begins, the mass of warm moist air moves northwest into the Great Plains and Midwestern states. During the months of May and June, tornado activity is as its peak in the southern Great Plains. The air mass then moves northward into the Northern Great Plains and the Great Lakes area, causing a tornado activity peak in these areas during the summer months. During the late summer and early fall months, tornado activity in the United States tapers off. This is due to the relatively small difference between the temperature at the boundary of the hot air mass and the cool air mass at that time and an extension of the Bermuda High sitting over parts of the United States. Though there may be some thunderstorms, they don't often become severe enough to spawn tornadoes.\n", "Satellite tornadoes are relatively uncommon. When a satellite tornado does occur, there is often more than one orbiting satellite spawned during the life cycle of the tornado or with successive primary tornadoes spawned by the parent supercell (a process known as cyclic tornadogenesis and leading to a tornado family). On tornado outbreak days, if satellite tornadoes occur with one supercell, there is an elevated probability of their occurrence with other supercells.\n", "Another third of Canadian tornadoes strike Southern Ontario, especially in the region halfway between the Great Lakes from Lake St. Clair to Ottawa. This happens because tornadoes in this region are triggered or augmented by lake breeze fronts from Lake Huron, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Georgian Bay. Tornadoes do not often hit lake shadow regions, although they are not unknown, and some, such as the 2011 Goderich, Ontario tornado, have been violent. However, most Ontario tornadoes are concentrated in a narrow corridor from Windsor and Sarnia through London, and then northeast to Barrie and Ottawa. Tornadoes up to EF4 in strength have been documented in this region.\n", "There are many misconceptions involving the effect of terrain features—bodies of water, mountains, valleys, and others—on tornado formation and behavior. While most modes of tornadogenesis are poorly understood, no terrain feature can prevent the occurrence of a tornado.\n", "Tornadoes may seem rare in downtown areas because downtown areas cover such a small geographical area. Considering the size of a central business district is very small compared to the city limits, tornadoes will strike outside of the downtown area more often.\n", "Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the stretching of low-level vorticity which tightens into a tornado, in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.\n\nIn particular, the role of downdrafts, particularly the rear-flank downdraft, and the role of baroclinic boundaries, are intense areas of study.\n", "In areas where these thunderstorms form in isolation and horizontal visibility is good, pilots can evade these storms rather easily. In more moist atmospheres which become hazy, pilots navigate above the haze layer in order to get a better vantage point of these storms. Flying under the anvil of thunderstorms is not advised, as hail is more likely to fall in such areas outside the thunderstorm's main rain shaft. When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain-cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm, both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three-dimensional boundary. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become.\n", "Toronto is situated by Lake Ontario and a lake breeze often develops during the day. This wind brings cooler air at the surface and causes a marine temperature inversion which could have been enough to keep the rotation aloft. To the west of the city, there is the Niagara Escarpment, reaching above sea level (ASL), while the shores of Lake Ontario are just ASL. This drop could equally have cut off the rotation from the surface.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21914	Why hasn’t albinism been weeded out of the gene pool?	The siblings of an albino will carry the recessive gene, and so can pass it on, even if it's not active for them. In this way even if there is selection pressure against albinos individually, its very difficult to select against the gene since its so often effectively hidden	[ "South African human geneticist, Trefor Jenkins has made vast contributions to assist in understanding the social and cultural milieu of albinism, the medical risks and implications, resolving the molecular basis and aetiology for OCA2 in Southern Africa.\n\nSection::::Other African countries.:South Africa.:Skin cancer.\n", "In African countries such as Tanzania and Burundi, there has been an unprecedented rise in witchcraft-related killings of people with albinism in recent years, because their body parts are used in potions sold by witchdoctors. Numerous authenticated incidents have occurred in Africa during the 21st century. For example, in Tanzania, in September 2009, three men were convicted of killing a 14-year-old albino boy and severing his legs in order to sell them for witchcraft purposes. Again in Tanzania and Burundi in 2010, the murder and dismemberment of a kidnapped albino child was reported from the courts, as part of a continuing problem. The US-based National Geographic Society estimated that in Tanzania a complete set of albino body parts is worth US$75,000.\n", "There are a number of national support groups across the globe which come under the umbrella of the World Albinism Alliance.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "The novelty of albino animals has occasionally led to their protection by groups such as the Albino Squirrel Preservation Society. They have also been protected in studies on their ecology and behaviour.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Reduced viability.\n\nStudies on medaka fish in the laboratory, i.e. with no predators, sufficient food supply, controlled temperatures, etc., found that albinos had considerably reduced viability; from 800 albino embryos, only 29 survived to full adulthood. Early studies on fish led some researchers to describe albinism as a \"semi-lethal mutation\".\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Hearing disorders.\n", "All the genetic traits for albinism are recessive traits. This means that their influence is hidden when paired with stronger traits. For the recessive albino trait to be expressed in a mammal, the offspring must inherit a recessive gene from both parents.\n", "In 2006 some of the first publicly reported killings were spoken about in the media, such as 34-year-old albino woman, Arithi, who was murdered with her arms and legs hacked off and sold. Some cases which have been key in recent years firstly occurred in 2008 when a Tanzanian man tried to sell his albino wife for a price of US$3,000 to Congolese businessmen. Although the businessmen managed to escape their arrest, Interpol has been assigned to attempt to track these men. this is what led to President Jakaya Kikewere ordering a tightening of police and protection from prosecution, however due to corruption there is still proof that even policeman are being bribed and \"bought off\" to turn a blind eye to certain crimes if they are receiving pecuniary gain. Although according to BBC News one hundred and seventy witch doctors have been arrested for involvement in inhumane interactions and intentions with albinos.\n", "BULLET::::- In Games Workshop's tabletop game \"The Horus Heresy\" the Emperor's Children Space Marine legion is described as having a gene-seed defect that results in an \"occasional incidence of albinism, and a shift in iris colour to violet in some recruits.\" The Emperor's Children are initially depicted as being obsessed with achieving personal perfection in all ways, though they seemed not to care about this defect. They were the only legion allowed to bear the Emperor's name, and the only legion allowed to bear his personal standard, the \"Palatine Aquila.\" However, they were also one of the legions which betrayed the Imperium during the Horus heresy event. Whether or not this makes them evil is entire subjective, as arguments can be made for both the Imperium and the Traitor Legions being good or evil. It is unknown whether this gene-seed defect still exists in Warhammer 40,000 (of which the Horus Heresy is a spin-off game.)\n", "US congressman Gerry Connolly in 2010 introduced legislation to protect albinos and urge local governments to protect albinos, stating that \"With their help and the passage of this resolution today, maybe we can bring an end to these horrific and heinous crimes.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Chobbal, an albino camel, is the hero of \"Sophie and the Albino Camel\" and other books by British children's author Stephen Davies. He experiences rejection by his own mother, and is fed and nurtured by a young African boy. He has a cheerful and generous disposition.\n\nBULLET::::- Ghost, in George R. R. Martin's \"A Song of Ice and Fire\", is an albino dire wolf trained to aid his companion Jon Snow, and does so many times, as the second most frequently referred to companion animal of this sort in the story.\n", "Many individual albino mammals are in captivity and were caught as youngsters. It is doubtful whether these individuals would have survived to become adults without the protection and care they receive in captivity.\n\nSection::::In mammals.:Naturally occurring.\n", "Albinism occurs throughout the animal kingdom. The condition is most commonly seen in birds, reptiles and amphibians, but more rarely seen in mammals and other taxa. It is often difficult to explain occasional occurrences, especially when only one documented incidence has occurred, such as only one albino gorilla and one albino koala. In mammals, albinism occurs once in every 10,000 births, but in birds, the rate is once in every 1,764 births.\n", "Section::::Organizations to prevent persecution.:Amnesty International (AI).\n", "BULLET::::- Samuel Aboah from \"The X-Files\" episode \"Teliko\". He was a Burkinabé immigrant who, lacking a pituitary gland, harvested them from other African or African-American men to restore his skin tone. He is compared unfavourably to a vampire like creature from West African folklore (the eponymous Teliko) by a Burkinabé ambassador. He is depicted as a merciless killer with a seemingly inhuman ability to squeeze into small spaces (a la previous X-Files villain Eugene Victor Tooms)\n", "BULLET::::- The detective, in \"What's the Worst that Could Happen?\". Like the villain in \"Foul Play\", he wears all-white suits.\n", "Another example which occurred where two mothers who were attacked by gangs with machetes in order to get to their albino children. The men broke into a refugee house known as the Lugufu Camp in Kigoma in search of the children; although the children remained untouched the women received severe injuries. A further case uncovered by US congressman Gerry Connolly was the November 2008 in Ruyigi, Burundi where the case of a 6-year old albino girl who was shot dead and her head and limbs where hacked off, leaving only her dismembered torso.\n\nSection::::Organizations to prevent persecution.\n", "Famous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor-comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston \"Yellowman\" Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Hermeto Pascoal, Willie \"Piano Red\" Perryman; and fashion models Connie Chiu and Shaun Ross. Emperor Seinei of Japan is thought to have been an albino because he was said to have been born with white hair.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:International Albinism Awareness Day.\n", "Oculocutaneous albinism, OCA2, is the most common gene type of albinism inherited disorders among the Bantu population of southern Africa. It occurs at a frequency of 1:4000. The incidence in Sotho people in northern South Africa is at its highest, with a ratio of 1:1500 in neonates. Albinism is the largest cause of childhood visual impairment in northern South Africa with a frequency of 1:1900 among the black population. Statistics on albinism in South Africa are largely incomplete however, studies quoted by the World Health Organization in 2006 reported that 1:4000 were born with albinism, compared to about 1:20 000 worldwide.\n", "International federation Secretary General Bekele Geleta states that \"Albinism is one of the most unfortunate vulnerabilities… and needs to be addressed immediately at international level.\" This is a cry for international exposure and help to ensure that people suffering from albinism can be protected from inhumane killings and to be sheltered from the merciless hunters of albino body parts for their potions and spiritual medicine. \"The main issues that should be addressed include skin cancer prevention education, stigma and discrimination denouncement, and swift prosecution of albino hunters and their sponsors.\" Therefore, it is clear that albinos are facing many issues in their lives, and must be protected on the basis of human rights even if they look different and unlike any other race on earth. It is \"imperative to inform the medical community and the general national and international public about the tragedies faced by albinos to protect them from skin cancer and ritualistic murders by individuals seeking wealth through clandestine markets perpetuating witchcraft.\"\n", "Section::::Notable albino animals.\n", "BULLET::::- In C.S. Lewis's novel \"Out of the Silent Planet\", the protagonist Ransom (an Englishman visiting Mars) encounters three species of intelligent Martians. One Martian individual is unpigmented.\n\nBULLET::::- El Blanco, in \"\", is an albino graboid that while inaccurately portrayed as being sterile as a result of albinism, otherwise behaves as any other predator of this sort in the film/TV series.\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"Perils of Penelope Pitstop\" episode \"Arabian Desert Danger\", Penelope tries to cross a desert to donate a young albino camel to a zoo without having to put the animal in danger.\n", "The Canada- and Tanzania-based Under The Same Sun albinism activist organisation praised the breakthrough but its founder Peter Ash remarked: \"This is one conviction. There are 52 other families still awaiting justice\". The Tanzania Albino Society's chairman Ernest Kimaya called for the hanging to be made public to further demonstrate to others that the issue of killing albinos was to be taken seriously.\n", "The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes. An exception to this is ocular albinism, which it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus, ocular albinism occurs more frequently in males as they have a single X and Y chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are characterized by two X chromosomes.\n", "BULLET::::- Autumn Lynn Henderson, the sister of the protagonist in \"Mercy Among the Children\" by David Adams Richards. Already an outcast in their small New Brunswick town because of their father's reputation, she is further alienated during her adolescence due to her albinism. Her brother (and protagonist) Lyle tries to make Autumn's life easier by purchasing a wig and contact lenses for her, but it helps very little in the treatment of her by the other children.\n", "This issue with witchcraft and its power and influence is that a witch doctor has, as he is almost always \"revered by society as ultimate truth.\" Most tribes in ancient times would have committed infanticide upon an albino child seeing it as a bad omen, practiced by the Sukuma, the Digo and the Maasai. However, in some tribes the albinos were made the sacrifices of offerings to the gods or for such uses as potions which is what they are still hunted for today in the 21st century. \"One of the most dangerous myths and the crux of recent attacks against PWA is that their body parts can be made into potions that give good luck and wealth to its users.\"\n", "The prevalence of albinism is much higher in Africa. While numbers vary, in North America and Europe it is estimated that 1 in every 17,000 to 20,000 people have some form of albinism. In Tanzania, and throughout East Africa, albinism is much more prevalent, with estimates of 1 in 2,000 people being affected. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03897	How do reflectors withstand the weight and pressure of heavy cars and trucks and continue to function for a long time?	They are very resilient. It also helps that the weight of the vehicles going over is mostly on the other tires. Take a balanced car that weighs 3,000lbs. Each tire is carrying 750lbs and that weight is then distributed over approximately 37 inches^2 per tire, yielding only 20 psi. Throw in some speed and that increases a bit. That's easy to handle. The actual reflector is then embedded and protected in the housing, so it gets hit by much less force. It seems like a lot of weight and force to handle at first glance, but it actually isn't that much.	[ "Safety reflectors are based from the way raccoons eyes work when light such as from a headlight hits their eyes and reflect back.\n", "Section::::Transformers: Generation 1.:Comics.:Marvel Comics.\n\nReflector's sole appearance in the Marvel Comics series was in the story \"The Last Stand\", where Spectro, Spyglass and Viewfinder are shown working with the Decepticon medic to repair their fellow Decepticons. Subsequently an oddly colored Viewfinder was seen decorating the cavern floor of Mount St. Hilary after all the Decepticons were rendered inoperable by Sparkplug Witwicky's poisoned fuel. They were unnamed in their appearance.\n\nSection::::Transformers: Generation 1.:Games.\n", "Section::::Transformers: Generation 1.:Comics.:Fun Publications.\n\nReflector was among Megatron's troops when Megatron attacked Iacon with his new weapon, Devastator.\n\nSection::::Transformers: Generation 1.:Comics.:IDW Publishing.\n", "Protecting the inside of the vessel from fast neutrons escaping from the fuel assembly is a cylindrical shield wrapped around the fuel assembly. Reflectors send the neutrons back into the fuel assembly to better utilize the fuel. The main purpose though is to protect the vessel from fast neutron induced damage that can make the vessel brittle and reduce its useful life.\n\nSection::::Materials for reactor pressure vessels.\n", "Retroreflectors can be embedded in the road (level with the road surface), or they can be raised above the road surface. Raised reflectors are visible for very long distances (typically 0.5–1 kilometer or more), while sunken reflectors are visible only at very close ranges due to the higher angle required to properly reflect the light. Raised reflectors are generally not used in areas that regularly experience snow during winter, as passing snowplows can tear them off the roadways. Stress on roadways caused by cars running over embedded objects also contributes to accelerated wear and pothole formation.\n", "Industry requirements for the reliability and quality of OTDRs are specified in the Generic Requirements for Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) Type Equipment.\n\nSection::::Types of OTDR-like test equipment.\n\nThe common types of OTDR-like test equipment are:\n\nBULLET::::1. Full-feature OTDR:\n", "Unlike reflective stripes that are permanently fixed to clothing, the safety reflector is a stand-alone device that can be attached to any article of clothing as needed, often using a safety pin and some string. For vehicles, the reflector is usually a fixed part. In bicycles, reflectors are usually on wheels, pedals, under the seat, on the back of the luggage rack, and in front of the front fork. In motorcycles, automobiles, and other vehicles, reflectors are built into the front and rear ends (and sides) next to the headlights and brake lights.\n", "The reflector is a Finnish creation, invented by a farmer Mr. Arvi Lehti from Pertteli, a small township in Western Finland. The inventor did not consider pedestrian safety when creating the first reflectors: he simply wished to protect his horse carts and carriages. Reflectors were introduced to Finns in 1960. Nowadays one can find reflectors of all possible shapes and colours, as design and fashion industries have turned their faces towards this diminutive gadget. Special 'clip-on' reflectors for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also common.\n\nSection::::Bicycle reflector.\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nSection::::Design.:Reflectors.\n", "Section::::Single-stage reflectron.\n", "Another advantage is when used in 12-volt track lighting systems the bare wires/connectors can be touched without fear of electrocution.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "Time domain reflectometers are commonly used for in-place testing of very long cable runs, where it is impractical to dig up or remove what may be a kilometers-long cable. They are indispensable for preventive maintenance of telecommunication lines, as TDRs can detect resistance on joints and connectors as they corrode, and increasing insulation leakage as it degrades and absorbs moisture, long before either leads to catastrophic failures. Using a TDR, it is possible to pinpoint a fault to within centimetres.\n", "The concept of a modulating retro-reflector is not new, dating back to the 1940s. Various demonstrations of such devices have been built over the years, though the demonstration of the first MQW MRR in 1993 was notable in achieving significant data rates. However, MRRs are still not widely used, and most research and development in that area is confined to rather exploratory military applications, as free-space optical communications in general tends to be a rather specialized niche technology.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Used in anchor cables in dams.\n\nThe Dam Safety Interest Group of CEA Technologies, Inc. (CEATI), a consortium of electrical power organizations, has applied Spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry to identify potential faults in concrete dam anchor cables. The key benefit of Time Domain reflectometry over other testing methods is the non-destructive method of these tests.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Used in the earth and agricultural sciences.\n", "Linear Fresnel reflectors use long, thin segments of mirrors to focus sunlight onto a fixed absorber located at a common focal point of the reflectors. This concentrated energy is transferred through the absorber into some thermal fluid (this is typically oil capable of maintaining liquid state at very high temperatures). The fluid then goes through a heat exchanger to power a steam generator. As opposed to traditional LFR's, the CLFR utilizes multiple absorbers within the vicinity of the mirrors.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "If a pure resistive load is placed on the output of the reflectometer and a step signal is applied, a step signal is observed on the display, and its height is a function of the resistance. The magnitude of the step produced by the resistive load may be expressed as a fraction of the input signal as given by:\n\nwhere formula_2 is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.\n\nSection::::Method.:Reactive load.\n\nFor reactive loads, the observed waveform depends upon the time constant formed by the load and the characteristic impedance of the line.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Reflector made his IDW Publishing debut in the \"\" issue on Wheelie, once again in a cartoon accurate form. Having crashed their ship on a deserted planet, killing Viewfinder, Spectro and Spyglass captured a shapeshifting alien for the sheer pleasure of torturing it. After its escape was engineered by Wheelie in an effort to get to their ship, the Decepticons pursued it but appeared once again as Wheelie and the alien attempted to flee the planet in a rocket, wounding Varta. Wheelie let them take the rocket to save the alien's life. However, Wheelie had sabotaged the rocket and it exploded, taking the Decepticons with it.\n", "Section::::Usage.:In geotechnical usage.\n", "Reflector\n\nReflector may refer to:\n\nSection::::Science.\n\nBULLET::::- Reflector, a device that causes reflection (for example, a mirror or a retroreflector)\n\nBULLET::::- Reflector (photography), used to control lighting contrast\n\nBULLET::::- Reflecting telescope\n\nBULLET::::- Reflector (antenna), the part of an antenna that reflects radio waves\n\nBULLET::::- Reflector (cipher machine), a component of some rotor machines in cryptography\n\nBULLET::::- Reflector (microsatellite), space debris research microsatellite\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reflector\", the newsletter of the Boston section of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers\n\nBULLET::::- Reflector, in math, the left adjoint in a reflective subcategory\n\nBULLET::::- Neutron reflector, in physics\n\nSection::::Computing.\n", "TDR equipment is also an essential tool in the failure analysis of modern high-frequency printed circuit boards with signal traces crafted to emulate transmission lines. By observing reflections, any unsoldered pins of a ball grid array device can be detected. Short circuited pins can also be detected in a similar fashion.\n\nThe TDR principle is used in industrial settings, in situations as diverse as the testing of integrated circuit packages to measuring liquid levels. In the former, the time domain reflectometer is used to isolate failing sites in the same. The latter is primarily limited to the process industry.\n", "Generally, the reflections will have the same shape as the incident signal, but their sign and magnitude depend on the change in impedance level. If there is a step increase in the impedance, then the reflection will have the same sign as the incident signal; if there is a step decrease in impedance, the reflection will have the opposite sign. The magnitude of the reflection depends not only on the amount of the impedance change, but also upon the loss in the conductor.\n", "For layered and finite media, according to the CIE, reflectivity is distinguished from \"reflectance\" by the fact that reflectivity is a value that applies to \"thick\" reflecting objects. When reflection occurs from thin layers of material, internal reflection effects can cause the reflectance to vary with surface thickness. Reflectivity is the limit value of reflectance as the sample becomes thick; it is the intrinsic reflectance of the surface, hence irrespective of other parameters such as the reflectance of the rear surface. Another way to interpret this is that the reflectance is the fraction of electromagnetic power reflected from a specific sample, while reflectivity is a property of the material itself, which would be measured on a perfect machine if the material filled half of all space.\n", "In case of a wider variation of \"dU\", the relative width of the time-of-flight peaks \"dt/t\" in such a reflectron is determined by the uncompensated part of the flight time \"t(U)\" proportional to the second derivative \n\nwhere k is a constant depending on the parameters of the single-stage reflector.\n\nSection::::Dual-stage reflectron.\n", "Fast rise time steps are also used. Instead of looking for the reflection of a complete pulse, the instrument is concerned with the rising edge, which can be very fast. A 1970s technology TDR used steps with a rise time of 25 ps.\n\nStill other TDRs transmit complex signals and detect reflections with correlation techniques. See spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry.\n\nSection::::Example traces.\n", "Unusual at the time, TVR offered a five-year guarantee against corrosion on the M-series chassis. Corrosion was prevented by leaving a film of oil from the manufacturing process on the metal, capping the ends of the tubes, and fastening components without driving fasteners through the tube walls.\n" ]	[ "Reflectors should get destroyed by cars rolling over them.", "Reflectors should not be able to handle the weight of trucks and/or cars for long periods of time and sustain functionality. " ]	[ "Reflectors don't get that much pressure due to the car splitting the weight to other tires and it being spread out over the area of the tire. ", "The weight of the vehicle is mainly on the tire and not the reflector, reflectors are very resilient. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Reflectors should get destroyed by cars rolling over them.", "Reflectors should not be able to handle the weight of trucks and/or cars for long periods of time and sustain functionality. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Reflectors don't get that much pressure due to the car splitting the weight to other tires and it being spread out over the area of the tire. ", "The weight of the vehicle is mainly on the tire and not the reflector, reflectors are very resilient. " ]
2018-10839	Why must I completely shut my patchy Wi-Fi off in order for my mediocre data to kick in? Would it not be possible for them work hand in hand like super hero and sidekick to provide the fastest possible connection always? And can they not together make a stronger connection than either alone?	Basically what happens is that Mr Wi-Fi is told to deliver a bunch of packages to your house. He delivers some of them but on one of the trips a bad guy distracts him and now he can't deliver the packages. Command center doesn't know that until suddenly they can't contact Mr Wi-Fi anymore! Now they have to finish the delivery, but they forgot what already made it to your house. It's Data Boy to the rescue! Data Boy lives on the other side of town and has to find a new way to bring you what you need. He goes to a new warehouse nearer to his house to get you everything, since Command Center forgot what they gave you. Anyways my point is; since Mr Wi-Fi and Data Boy don't start from the same place, and they can't communicate, Data Boy has to start from scratch to give you the package. . Edit: Gold! Thank you kind stranger. Edit2: a lot of people are asking why you can't have them work together. I did some digging on Google and it's time to ELI5! So as I understand it, the way it works right now is that Command Center is working hard to send things to everybody, but this is hard because they have itty bitty roads. Not only are these tiny roads, they are also tough to walk on! So right now only one hero at a time on a tiny road. Very smart people are making a nice highway so heroes and side kicks can work together, but that is very hard and they are still figuring put how to build it. Also, the highway will be easy to walk on, so normal people can walk on it too! Until we have the highway, we have to be good kids and wait for the heroes to send the packages. Source: URL_0	[ "On October 1, 2009, some users of Microsoft's Sidekick handset temporarily lost personal data, including contacts, notes, and calendars. On October 8, most data services were restored to users. The company and Microsoft announced on October 10 that Sidekick device data \"almost certainly has been lost as a result of a server failure at Microsoft/Danger.\" On October 15, Microsoft said it had been able to recover most or all data and would begin to restore it. A few weeks later, all Sidekick customers were able to recover their data via Danger's sync website using a restore file or had the option to wait until data was restored to the device itself.\n", "In early October 2009, a server malfunction or technician error at Danger's data centers resulted in the loss of all Sidekick user data. As Sidekicks store users' data on Danger's servers—versus using local storage—users lost contact directories, calendars, photos, and all other media not locally backed up. Local backup could be accomplished through an app ($9.99 USD) which synchronized contacts, calendar, and tasks, but not notes, between the web and a local Windows PC. In an October 10 letter to subscribers, Microsoft expressed its doubt that any data would be recovered.\n", "The Sidekick smartphones were originally produced by Danger, Inc., a company that was bought by Microsoft in February 2007. After the acquisition, the former Danger staff were then absorbed into the Mobile Communications Business (MCB) of the Entertainment and Devices Division at Microsoft, where they worked on a future Microsoft mobile phone platform known as \"Project Pink\". However, most of the ex-Danger employees soon left Microsoft to pursue other things. Microsoft took over the running of the data servers, and its data centers were hosting the customers' data at the time it was lost.\n", "On February 28, 2011 Engadget reported Microsoft would discontinue Danger's cloud service on May 31, 2011. After that date, Sidekicks no longer had access to any data services, though voice service still functioned.\n", "In April 2011, T-Mobile revived the Sidekick brand for a new 4G HSPA+-compatible Android smartphone developed by Samsung, known as the Sidekick 4G, based on the Galaxy S. It incorporates features from the original series, including the keyboard, 3.2-megapixel camera (minus LED flash), and the four-button layout, and adds a new Android-powered interface incorporating elements from the Hiptop's operating system. It should not be confused for a Danger device, which these have no relation to besides the T-Mobile exclusive \"Sidekick\" branding.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "The mobile web primarily utilizes lightweight pages like this one written in Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) or Wireless Markup Language (WML) to deliver content to mobile devices. Many new mobile browsers are moving beyond these limits by supporting a wider range of Web formats, including variants of HTML commonly found on the desktop web.\n\nSection::::Top-level domain.\n", "Although systems like UPnP and Bonjour provide many of the needed capabilities and are included in some devices, a single widely supported standard was lacking, and support within existing devices was far from universal. A guest using their smart phone would likely be able to find a hot spot and connect to the Internet with ease, perhaps using Protected Setup to do so. But the same device would find streaming music to a computer or printing a file might be difficult, or simply not supported between differing brands of hardware.\n", "Section::::Versions.:Windows.:2.0.\n\nSidekick 2.0 was also developed and initially released by Borland before the move to Starfish.\n\nNew/modified features included:\n\nBULLET::::- overlapping appointments in the Scheduler,\n\nBULLET::::- multiple contact files in the Address Book,\n\nBULLET::::- print layouts that enabled users to print to commercial day planner pages,\n\nBULLET::::- View-in-View,\n\nBULLET::::- Backup & Restore of user's files,\n\nBULLET::::- password protection.\n\nSidekick Deluxe added more than 40 content files for access to online information, Dashboard 3.0 for Windows, and the \"Organized for Success\" video. It was distributed in CD format.\n\nSection::::Versions.:Windows.:Sidekick 95.\n", "Each Sidekick had an IM client (with AIM, Yahoo Messenger, and MSN Messenger); an Email client with an included T-Mail account; a pre-installed game (Rockets and Rocks or Bob's Journey); an organizer with planner, a calendar, and calculator; a SMS and phone app; a Download Catalog (also called Download Fun Catalog); and a Communities app, which was where social networks were accessed. Devices released in Europe also had a WAP browser (Wapaka) developed by the french company Digital Airways. \n", "Many smartphones for wireless LANs remember they are already connected, and this mechanism prevents the user from having to re-identify with each connection. However, an attacker could create a WIFI access point twin with the same parameters and characteristics as the real network. Using the fact that some smartphones remember the networks, they could confuse the two networks and connect to the network of the attacker who can intercept data if it does not transmit its data in encrypted form.\n", "Links are influenced by the node's resources (e.g., transmitter power, computing power and memory) and behavioral properties (e.g., reliability), as well as link properties (e.g. length-of-link and signal loss, interference and noise). Since links can be connected or disconnected at any time, a functioning network must be able to cope with this dynamic restructuring, preferably in a way that is timely, efficient, reliable, robust, and scalable.\n\nThe network must allow any two nodes to communicate by relaying the information via other nodes.\n", "Section::::Comparisons.\n", "A recent requirement beginning February 1, 2018 from Google requires the canonical page content should match the content on accelerated mobile pages. In creating a great user experience and to avoid user interface traps it's important to display the same content on Accelerated Mobile Pages as there are with the standard canonical pages.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n", "Sidekick user data is stored at Danger facilities, under the ownership of Microsoft. Unsubstantiated reports suggest Microsoft vendor Hitachi, Danger's storage area network (SAN) provider may have had a part in the temporary data loss. Lawsuits against Microsoft claim that Microsoft had inadequate backups or an insufficient disaster recovery plan. Litigation against Microsoft and others is pending as of this writing.\n\nAs a result of the outage, T-Mobile suspended sales of all Sidekicks and Sidekick Data Plans until the outage was resolved. Sales and new activations resumed on November 16, 2009.\n\nSection::::Danger cloud service discontinuation.\n", "Although many of the \"fun\" features were taken out, Danger and Sharp did keep some of the features previously seen on the Sidekick 1, 2 and 3. This included the Sidekick-patented swivel screen, the hidden keyboard, and the trackball. However, a new feature were removable colored \"bumpers\", allowing the appearance of the Sidekick to be easily changed.\n\nSection::::Hardware and releases.:T-Mobile Sidekick LX (Danger/Sharp).\n", "Danger notified its development community via their Danger Developer Zone forums that it would no longer accept submissions for its application store, called the Download Catalog, on September 21, 2010. The development of applications for the Sidekick platform was also halted on September 21, 2010.\n\nThis was followed by the closure of the Danger Developer Zone forums and related archives September 30, 2010. However the Canadian company Mobilicity later began selling the Sidekick LX (2009) under the name Mobiflip.\n\nSection::::Hardware and releases.:Mobilicity Mobiflip / Sharp Jump / Sharp PV300GR (Sharp).\n", "The format of the URI used to trigger or deep link an app is often different depending on the mobile operating system. Android devices work through intents, BlackBerry 10 devices work through BB10's invocation framework, Firefox OS devices work through Web Activities, iOS devices work through the openUrl application method, and Windows Phone 8 devices work through the UriMapper class.\n", "In the fall of 2015, Google announced it would be rolling out an open source initiative called \"Accelerated Mobile Pages\" or AMP. The goal of this project is to improve the speed and performance of content-rich pages which include video, animations, and graphics. Since the majority of the population now consumes the web through tablets and smartphones, having web pages that are optimized for these products is the primary need to AMP.\n\nThe three main types of AMP are AMP HTML, AMP JS, and Google AMP Cache.\n\nSection::::Accelerated Mobile Pages.:Parity between accelerated mobile pages and canonical pages.\n", "BULLET::::- Lack of good authoring tools: The problems above might have succumbed in the face of a WML authoring tool that would have allowed content providers to easily publish content that would interoperate flawlessly with many models, adapting the pages presented to the User-Agent type. However, the development kits which existed did not provide such a general capability. Developing for the web was easy: with a text editor and a web browser, anybody could get started, thanks also to the forgiving nature of most desktop browser rendering engines. By contrast, the stringent requirements of the WML specifications, the variability in terminals, and the demands of testing on various wireless terminals, along with the lack of widely available desktop authoring and emulation tools, considerably lengthened the time required to complete most projects. , however, with many mobile devices supporting XHTML, and programs such as Adobe Go Live and Dreamweaver offering improved web-authoring tools, it is becoming easier to create content, accessible by many new devices.\n", "The Hiptop/Sidekick became incredibly popular in the U.S. and has been considered to be iconic in the mobile devices market.\n\nSection::::Hardware and releases.\n\nScreens on all Sidekick devices (excluding the Slide and 4G models) slide vertically to \n", "On Friday, October 2, 2009, T-Mobile Sidekick phone users started noticing data service outages occurring. The outages lasted approximately two weeks, and on October 10, 2009, T-Mobile announced that personal information stored on Sidekick phones would be permanently lost, which turned out to be incorrect.\n", "BULLET::::- Types of pages accessible – many sites that can be accessed on a desktop cannot on a mobile device. Many devices cannot access pages with a secured connection, Flash or other similar software, PDFs, or video sites, although as of 2011, this has been changing.\n\nBULLET::::- Speed – on most mobile devices, the speed of service is slow, sometimes slower than dial-up Internet access.\n\nBULLET::::- Broken pages – on many devices, a single page as viewed on a desktop is broken into segments, each treated as a separate page. This further slows navigation.\n", "T-Mobile Germany used Flash-OFDM to backhaul Wi-Fi HotSpots on the Deutsche Bahn's ICE high speed trains between 2005 and 2015, until switching over to UMTS and LTE.\n\nAmerican wireless carrier Nextel Communications field tested wireless broadband network technologies including Flash-OFDM in 2005. Sprint purchased the carrier in 2006 and decided to deploy the mobile version of WiMAX, which is based on Scalable Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (SOFDMA) technology.\n", "Project Sidekick\n\nSidekick is a project developed by NASA and Microsoft to provide virtual aid for astronauts using the Microsoft HoloLens augmented-reality headset. As of December 2015, Sidekick is deployed at the International Space Station.\n\nSection::::Functionality.\n", "The growing pervasiveness of mobile widgets is easily understood. While widgets are a convenience in the online world, they can be looked at as near-essential in the mobile world. The reason: the mobile device is small and the interface is often challenging. Wading through large amounts of information in a mobile environment is not just a nuisance; it is a near impossibility.\n\nAndroid, of all mobile operating systems, has supported mobile widgets natively since April 30, 2009.\n\nSome of the most popular widgets on the Android operating system include DashClock, Google Keep and HD Widgets.\n\nSection::::Types.:Web widgets.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10828	how does a bank even make money?	Interest! Interest on loans, mortgages, etc. They also make money from banking accounts and credit accounts, which you need to pay money to have.	[ "A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities.\n", "Non-bank institutions also frequently support investments in property and prepare feasibility, market or industry studies for companies. However they are typically not allowed to take deposits from the general public and have to find other means of funding their operations such as issuing debt instruments.\n\nNBFCs are not providing the cheque book nor saving account and current account. It only takes fixed deposit or time deposits.\n\nSection::::Role in financial system.:Growth.\n", "Here is a list of the largest deals in history in terms of value with participation from at least one bank:\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n\nCurrently, commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate.\n\nUsually, the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer's order – although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition.\n", "In this respect, credit creation is the most significant function of commercial banks. While sanctioning a loan to a customer, they do not provide cash to the borrower. Instead, they open a deposit account from which the borrower can withdraw. In other words, while sanctioning a loan, they automatically create deposits.\n\nSection::::Role.:Primary functions.\n\nBULLET::::- Commercial banks accept various types of deposits from public especially from its clients, including saving account deposits, recurring account deposits, and fixed deposits. These deposits are returned whenever the customer demands it or after a certain time period.\n", "The bank is wholly owned by its members, who are all equal shareholders. As a co-operative, it is not focused on profits or paying dividends to shareholders. All profits from the bank's products and services are reinvested into the organisation for members to directly benefit. Their key responsibility is to help members achieve a more secure financial future.\n", "Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers in the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machines (ATMs).\n", "The Bank offers its services through a network of branches, online, phone and mobile banking to personal customers (in Retail, Prestige and Private Banking segments), to sole traders and microbusinesses as well as medium and large companies in the Corporate Banking segment.\n", "Bank First differs from some other banks as it is owned by the customers, not external shareholders. Each customer owns an equal share of the organisation and profits are reinvested to add to its strength and security rather than to pay external shareholders.\n\nBeing a customer owned financial institution; Bank First is an Authorised Deposit taking Institution and is regulated by the same authorities as all other banks. The Mutual Bank has all the safeguards as other banks, including the Commonwealth Government’s bank deposit guarantee.\n", "As Britain's seventh biggest lender, the majority of the bank's revenue is made from interest charges on loans.\n", "Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending.\n\nBanks provide different payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account.\n", "DHB Bank's retail operations consist of retail deposits and consumer loans. Retail deposits are collected from Germany and the Netherlands via Internet and call centre channels.\n", "Section::::Operations and services.:Community banking.:Consumer lending.\n", "Under English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking by conducting current accounts for his customers, paying cheques drawn on him/her and also collecting cheques for his/her customers.\n", "Banks DIH also imports and distributes whiskey, vodka and other products from abroad.\n\nIn 2011 the Banks DIH Group reported a group pre-tax profit of G$4.046B, a 31% increase over the previous year.\n\nThe results were announced in January 2012 at the 56th Annual General Meeting, held at the Banks DIH Thirst Park in Georgetown.\n\nMore than 1,000 shareholders attended the meeting.\n\nSection::::Recent events.\n", "Unlike a federally chartered savings bank, a mortgage bank generally specializes only in making mortgage loans. Many do not take deposits from customers, and call themselves Mortgage Lenders, to avoid being confused with a typical bank.\n", "BULLET::::- Universal banks, more commonly known as financial services companies, engage in several of these activities. These big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, also distribute insurance – hence the term bancassurance, a portmanteau word combining \"banque or bank\" and \"assurance\", signifying that both banking and insurance are provided by the same corporate entity.\n\nSection::::Types of banking.:Other types of banks.\n", "For example, a customer would usually pay interest to borrow from a bank, so they pay the bank an amount which is more than the amount they borrowed; or a customer may earn interest on their savings, and so they may withdraw more than they originally deposited. In the case of savings, the customer is the lender, and the bank plays the role of the borrower.\n", "They provide a limited range of financial services to a targeted sector. For example, real estate financiers channel capital to prospective homeowners, leasing companies provide financing for equipment and payday lending companies that provide short term loans to individuals that are Underbanked or have limited resources. for example Uganda Development Bank\n\nSection::::Types.:Financial service providers.\n", "Public banks come in a variety of models. A public bank might be capitalized through an initial investment by the city or state, as well as through tax and fee revenue. A public bank, like a private bank, can take tax revenues and other government income as deposits, create money in the form of bank credit, and lend at very low interest rates. Where private banks are committed by their business model to take advantage of low interest rates by charging higher rates to borrowers, a public bank has no shareholders to pay, and so can pass the low rates onto borrowers such as public agencies, local businesses, residents, and students.\n", "Bank Lombard Odier & Co\n", "Countrywide Bank primarily originates and purchases mortgage loans and home equity lines of credit for investment purposes. The majority of these loans are sourced through its mortgage banking subsidiary, Countrywide Home Loans. The Bank obtains retail deposits, primarily certificates of deposit, through the Internet, call centers and more than 200 financial centers, many of which were located in Countrywide Home Loans' retail branch offices as of April 1, 2007.\n", "Since 1989, the bank has operated as a multi-functional commercial bank. In addition to continuing its previous retail and municipal activities, the bank has been authorised to solicit corporate loan accounts and deposits, and to provide commercial loans and banking services for correspondent banking and export-import transactions.\n", "A bank is a business that is based almost entirely on financial transactions. In addition to acting as a lender for loans and mortgages, banks act as a borrower in a special type of loan called an account. The lender is known as a customer and gives unspecified amounts of money to the bank for unspecified amounts of time. The bank agrees to repay any amount in the account at any time and will pay small amounts of interest on the amount of money that the customer leaves in the account for a certain period of time. In addition, the bank guarantees that the money will not be stolen while it is in the account and will reimburse the customer \n", "BULLET::::- Irish Life Building Society, acquired in 1993, and\n\nBULLET::::- Postal Service Permanent Building Society, acquired in 1985.\n\nIn 1994 First National acquired Mortgage Trust Limited, a UK centralised mortgage lending business. In 1995 a deposit taking subsidiary commenced business in Guernsey, Channel Islands. The Group's UK operations were expanded in 1996 through the acquisition of The Mortgage Corporation. A retail deposit taking operation was established in England in 1996 to obtain sterling deposits to fund the Group's growing mortgage business in the UK.\n", "The principal assets of the FHLBanks are advances (secured loans to members), mortgage loans held for portfolio, and other investments. The FHLBanks are required by regulation to hold collateral in excess of the actual loan amount for any given borrower. The FHLBanks are funded through the daily sale of debt securities in the global capital markets. All 11 FHLBanks are jointly and severally liable for the liabilities of each individual FHLBank. Since August 2006, all 11 Banks have been registered with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission and all financial statements and other filings are available to the public at the SEC web site (EDGAR). (See external links)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08005	Why do so many medications have the side effect of depression/thoughts of suicide?	You'll notice most of them are for medications that treat depression. So, there you are depressed, suicidal; and too depressed to do anything about it. The you take the medicine, and you;re not all the way better. Still depressed and suicidal, but have cheered up enough to try something. As a Pharmacist, remember you live in the most oleaginous society in the world. Where if anyone who takes one of their drugs and commits suicide WILL be sued for all kinds of money if people weren't warned. If you doubt me keep listening to the commercials. You find like "This may cause PML a lethal viral infraction." They also tell you that it has never done so. Why do they mention it in every 309 second commercials? Not wanting lawyers to sue their $ off.	[ "Some prescription drugs, such as selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can have suicidal ideation as a side effect. Moreover, these drugs' intended effects, can themselves have unintended consequence of an increased individual risk and collective rate of suicidal behavior: Among the set of persons taking the medication, a subset feel bad enough to want to attempt suicide (or to desire the perceived results of suicide) but are inhibited by depression-induced symptoms, such as lack of energy and motivation, from following through with an attempt. Among this subset, a \"sub-subset\" may find that the medication alleviates their physiological symptoms (such as lack of energy) and secondary psychological symptoms (e.g., lack of motivation) before or at lower doses than it alleviates their primary psychological symptom of depressed mood. Among this group of persons, the desire for suicide or its effects persists even as major obstacles to suicidal action are removed, with the effect that the incidences of suicide attempt and of completed suicide increase.\n", "There is controversy around the benefit-versus-harm of antidepressants. In young persons, some antidepressants, such as SSRIs, appear to increase the risk of suicidality from 25 per 1000 to 40 per 1000. In older persons, however, they might decrease the risk. Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk in those with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression to nearly the same levels as the general population. Clozapine may decrease the thoughts of suicide in some people with schizophrenia. Ketamine, which is a dissociative anaesthetic, seems to lower the rate of suicidal ideation. In the United States, health professionals are legally required to take reasonable steps to try to prevent suicide.\n", "In a long-term follow-up study of patients dependent on benzodiazepines, it was found that 10 people (20%) had taken drug overdoses while on chronic benzodiazepine medication despite only two people ever having had any pre-existing depressive disorder. A year after a gradual withdrawal program, no patients had taken any further overdoses.\n", "Substance misuse is the second most common risk factor for suicide after major depression and bipolar disorder. Both chronic substance misuse as well as acute intoxication are associated. When combined with personal grief, such as bereavement, the risk is further increased. Substance misuse is also associated with mental health disorders.\n", "Although research is largely in favor of the use of antidepressants for the treatment of suicidal ideation, in some cases antidepressants are claimed to be the cause of suicidal ideation. Upon the start of using antidepressants, many clinicians will note that sometimes the sudden onset of suicidal ideation may accompany treatment. This has caused the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to issue a warning stating that sometimes the use of antidepressants may actually increase the thoughts of suicidal ideation. Medical studies have found antidepressants help treat cases of suicidal ideation and work especially well with psychological therapy. Lithium reduces the risk of suicide in people with mood disorders. Tentative evidence finds clozapine in people with schizophrenia reduces the risk of suicide.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Medication.\n\nPrescribing medication to treat suicidal ideation can be difficult. One reason for this is that many medications lift patients' energy levels before lifting their mood. This puts them at greater risk of following through with attempting suicide. Additionally, if a person has a comorbid psychiatric disorder, it may be difficult to find a medication that addresses both the psychiatric disorder and suicidal ideation.\n\nAntidepressants may be effective. Often, SSRIs are used instead of TCAs as the latter typically have greater harm in overdose.\n", "Psychiatric medications carry risk for adverse effects. The occurrence of adverse effects can potentially reduce drug compliance. Some adverse effects can be treated symptomatically by using adjunct medications such as anticholinergics (antimuscarinics). Some rebound or withdrawal adverse effects, such as the possibility of a sudden or severe emergence or re-emergence of psychosis in antipsychotic withdrawal, may appear when the drugs are discontinued, or discontinued too rapidly.\n\nSection::::Adverse and withdrawal effects.:Medicine combinations with clinically untried risks.\n", "Discontinuing benzodiazepines or antidepressants abruptly due to concerns of teratogenic effects of the medications has a high risk of causing serious complications, so is not recommended. For example, abrupt withdrawal of benzodiazepines or antidepressants has a high risk of causing extreme withdrawal symptoms, including suicidal ideation and a severe rebound effect of the return of the underlying disorder if present. This can lead to hospitalisation and potentially, suicide. One study reported one-third of mothers who suddenly discontinued or very rapidly tapered their medications became acutely suicidal due to 'unbearable symptoms'. One woman had a medical abortion, as she felt she could no longer cope, and another woman used alcohol in a bid to combat the withdrawal symptoms from benzodiazepines. Spontaneous abortions may also result from abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic medications, including benzodiazepines. The study reported physicians generally are not aware of the severe consequences of abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic medications such as benzodiazepines or antidepressants.\n", "A study in 2012, involving the analysis of data from 41 clinical trials with more than 9,000 patients, concluded \"Fluoxetine and venlafaxine decreased suicidal thoughts and behavior for adult and geriatric patients. This protective effect is mediated by decreases in depressive symptoms with treatment. For youths, no significant effects of treatment on suicidal thoughts and behavior were found, although depression responded to treatment. No evidence of increased suicide risk was observed in youths receiving active medication\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Paradoxical effect\n\nBULLET::::- Black-box warning\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "In rare cases antidepressants can make users obsessively violent or have suicidal compulsions, which is in marked contrast to their intended effect. This can be regarded as a paradoxical reaction but, especially in the case of suicide, may in at least some cases be merely due to differing rates of effect with respect to different symptoms of depression: If generalized overinhibition of a patient's actions enters remission before that patient's dysphoria does and if the patient was already suicidal but too depressed to act on his/her inclinations, the patient may find him/herself in the situation of being both still dysphoric enough to want to commit suicide but newly free of endogenous barriers against doing so. Children and adolescents are more sensitive to paradoxical reactions of self-harm and suicidal ideation while taking antidepressants but cases are still very rare.\n", "To a certain extent, emotional security is a function of brain chemistry: some people are naturally predisposed to feel less happy, and to be more adversely affected by natural events, for example in the case of hypothyroidism. Certain medications, such as SSRI's or even stimulants, are often prescribed to address such natural deficiencies. The side-effects of these medications, however, in many cases can negate their positive effects, for example when certain anti-depressants make it difficult or impossible to experience orgasm by making the brain incapable of cutting off the flow of certain hormones usually associated with positive emotions but necessary to suddenly block for short periods of time in order for orgasm to occur. It is also said that such medications blunt both 'the highs and the lows,' sapping, for some people, a valuable, inspiring energy from life. However, weighing the pros against the cons of such situations is something different for each individual, and in many cases the dangers of \"naturally low emotional security\" may be worse than the side-effects of the appropriate medication, especially such as when a person is suicidal.\n", "One promising epidemiological approach involves examining the associations between trends in psychotropic medication use and suicide over time across a large number of small geographic regions. Until the results of more detailed analyses are known, prudence dictates deferring judgment concerning the public health effects of the FDA warnings.\" Subsequest follow-up studies have supported the hypothesis that antidepressant drugs reduce suicide risk.\n\nSection::::Antidepressants decrease suicide risk.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1985, serial killer Leonard Lake died by suicide using cyanide pills sewn into his clothes after he was arrested for possessing a suppressor and an unregistered handgun, knowing that further investigation into his life would uncover his more serious crimes.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1987, two North Korean agents bit into ampoules hidden in the filter tips of cigarettes after they were detained in Bahrain as suspects in an airplane bombing. One agent died.\n", "Young patients should be closely monitored for signs of suicidal ideation or behaviors, especially in the first eight weeks of therapy.\n\nSertraline, tricyclic agents and venlafaxine were found to increase the risk of attempted suicide in severely depressed adolescents on Medicaid.\n\nSection::::Increased risk for quitting medication.\n\nA 2009 study showed increased risk of suicide after initiation, titration, and discontinuation of medication. A study of 159,810 users of either amitriptyline, fluoxetine, paroxetine or dothiepin found that the risk of suicidal behavior is increased in the first month after starting antidepressants, especially during the first 1 to 9 days.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n", "Depressed people with agitation, severe insomnia, anxiety symptoms, and co-morbid anxiety disorders are particularly at-risk. Antidepressants have been linked with suicide as Healy (2009) stated that people on antidepressant have the tendency to commit suicide after 10–14 days of commencement of antidepressant.\n", "Sometimes, people stop taking antidepressant medications due to side effects, although side effects often become less severe over time. Suddenly stopping treatment or missing several doses may cause withdrawal-like symptoms. Some studies have shown that antidepressants may increase short-term suicidal thoughts or actions, especially in children, adolescents, and young adults. However, antidepressants are more likely to reduce a person's risk of suicide in the long run.\n\nBelow are listed the main classes of antidepressant medications, some of the most common drugs in each category, and their major side effects:\n", "The previously mentioned studies point out the difficulty that mental health professionals have in motivating individuals to seek and continue treatment. Ways to increase the number of individuals who seek treatment may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Increasing the availability of therapy treatment in early stage\n\nBULLET::::- Increasing the public’s knowledge on when psychiatric help may be beneficial to them\n\nBULLET::::- Those who have adverse life conditions seem to have just as much risk of suicide as those with mental illness\n", "Ketamine has been tested for treatment-resistant bipolar depression, major depressive disorder, and people in a suicidal crisis in emergency rooms, and is being used this way off-label. The drug is given by a single intravenous infusion at doses less than those used in anesthesia, and preliminary data have indicated it produces a rapid (within 2 hours) and relatively sustained (about 1–2 weeks long) significant reduction in symptoms in some patients. Initial studies with ketamine have sparked scientific and clinical interest due to its rapid onset, and because it appears to work by blocking NMDA receptors for glutamate, a different mechanism from most modern antidepressants that operate on other targets. Some studies have shown that Lithium can reduce suicidal ideation within 48 hours of administration.\n", "Another possible problem with antidepressants is the chance of antidepressant-induced mania or hypomania in patients with or without a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Many cases of bipolar depression are very similar to those of unipolar depression. Therefore, the patient can be misdiagnosed with unipolar depression and be given antidepressants. Studies have shown that antidepressant-induced mania can occur in 20–40% of bipolar patients. For bipolar depression, antidepressants (most frequently SSRIs) can exacerbate or trigger symptoms of hypomania and mania.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Suicide.\n", "DSM-5 axis I disorders, particularly major depressive disorder, and axis II disorders, particularly borderline personality disorder, increase the risk of suicide. Individuals with co-occurring mental illness and substance use disorders are at increased risk compared to individuals with just one of the two disorders. While antidepressants may not directly decrease suicide risk in adults, they are in many cases effective at treating major depressive disorder, and as such are recommended for patients with depression. There is evidence that long-term lithium therapy reduces suicide in individuals with bipolar disorder or major depressive disorder. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or shock therapy, rapidly decreases suicidal thinking. Choice of treatment approach is made based on the patient's presenting symptoms and history. In cases where a patient is actively attempting suicide even while on a hospital ward, a fast-acting treatment such as ECT may be first-line.\n", "Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women.\n", "Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women.\n", "There are several psychiatric disorders that appear to be comorbid with suicidal ideation or considerably increase the risk of suicidal ideation. The following list includes the disorders that have been shown to be the strongest predictors of suicidal ideation. These are not the only disorders that can increase risk of suicidal ideation. The disorders in which risk is increased the greatest include:\n\nBULLET::::- Anxiety disorders\n\nBULLET::::- Autism spectrum disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Major depressive disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Dysthymia\n\nBULLET::::- Bipolar disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)\n\nBULLET::::- Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (C-PTSD)\n\nBULLET::::- Personality disorders\n", "Suicide, which is both a stereotypic yet highly individualized act, is a common endpoint for many patients with severe psychiatric illness. The mood disorders (depression and bipolar manic-depression) are by far the most common psychiatric conditions associated with suicide. At least 25% to 50% of patients with bipolar disorder also attempt suicide at least once. With the exception of lithium--which is the most demonstrably effective treatment against suicide-remarkably little is known about specific contributions of mood-altering treatments to minimizing mortality rates in persons with major mood disorders in general and bipolar depression in particular. Suicide is usually a manifestation of severe psychiatric distress that is often associated with a diagnosable and treatable form of depression or other mental illness. In a clinical setting, an assessment of suicidal risk must precede any attempt to treat psychiatric illness.\n", "Among approximately 80% of completed suicides, the individual has seen a physician within the year before their death, including 45% within the prior month. Approximately 25–40% of those who completed suicide had contact with mental health services in the prior year. Antidepressants of the SSRI type appear to increase the frequency of suicide among children but do not change the risk among adults. An unwillingness to get help for mental health problems also increases the risk.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Previous attempts and self harm.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03822	Why does rubbing alcohol expire but alcohol for drinking does not?	Drinking alcohol (ethanol) absolutely expires. Beer and wine have limited shelf lives, where proteins and many of the complex molecules within it break down. This leads to musty beer and sour wine. Most wine is not meant to be aged but drank, only certain wines benefit at all from aging. 10-buck-chuck from the local grocery or liquor store is not it. Beer typically peaks at 13 weeks, but that's only if it's unpasteurized bottle conditioned beers, Bud-lite does not mature in the can. But also notice most beers and wines are in dark bottles, or beer in cans. This is because all alcohols are light sensitive, and will break down when exposed. Same thing with isopropyl alcohol, which is why rubbing alcohol is in an opaque plastic bottle. It's best to store any alcohol in a cool, dark place. Put that stuff in clear glass in sunlight, and I don't even know what you're going to get...	[ "Under its alternative name of \"wintergreen oil\", methyl salicylate is a common additive to North American rubbing alcohol products. Individual manufacturers are permitted to use their own formulation standards in which the ethanol content for retail bottles of rubbing alcohol is labeled as and ranges from 70-99% v/v.\n\nAll rubbing alcohols are unsafe for human consumption: isopropyl rubbing alcohols do not contain the ethyl alcohol of alcoholic beverages; ethyl rubbing alcohols are based on denatured alcohol, which is a combination of ethyl alcohol and one or more bitter poisons that make the substance toxic.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The United States Pharmacopeia defines 'isopropyl rubbing alcohol USP' as containing approximately 70 % alcohol by volume (≈ 95º alcohol proof) of pure isopropyl alcohol and\n\ndefines 'rubbing alcohol USP' as containing approximately 70 percent by volume of denatured alcohol. In Ireland and the UK, the comparable preparation is surgical spirit B.P., which the British Pharmacopoeia defines as 95% methylated spirit, 2.5% castor oil, 2% diethyl phthalate, and 0.5% methyl salicylate.\n", "The term \"rubbing alcohol\" came into prominence in North America in the mid-1920s. The \"original\" rubbing alcohol was literally used as a liniment for massage; hence the name. This original rubbing alcohol was rather different from today's precisely formulated surgical spirit; in some formulations it was perfumed and included different additives, notably a higher concentration of methyl salicylate.\n\nThe name \"rubbing\" also emphasized that the alcohol was not intended for consumption, a significant distinction in Prohibition-era America; nonetheless it had become a well-documented surrogate alcohol as early as 1925.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n", "There is also an increasing usage of distillation of gin under glass and PTFE, and even at reduced pressures, to facilitate a fresher product. This is irrelevant to alcohol quality, because the process starts with triple distilled grain alcohol, and the distillation is used solely to harvest botanical flavors such as limonene and other terpene like compounds. The ethyl alcohol is relatively unchanged.\n", "Alcohol-free hand sanitizer efficacy is heavily dependent on the ingredients and formulation, and historically has significantly under-performed alcohol and alcohol rubs. More recently, formulations that use benzalkonium chloride have been shown to have persistent and cumulative antimicrobial activity after application, unlike alcohol, which has been shown to decrease in efficacy after repeated use, probably due to progressive adverse skin reactions.\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Ash or mud.\n", "Petroleum jelly is slightly soluble in alcohol. To avoid damage to plastics and minimize ventilation issues, isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol can be used to remove petroleum jelly from most surfaces. Isopropyl alcohol is inert to most household surfaces, including almost every plastic, and removes petroleum jelly efficiently. While alcohol causes fewer ventilation problems than petroleum solvents, ventilation is still recommended, especially if large surface areas are involved.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1964, a seven-car crash kills drivers Dave MacDonald and Eddie Sachs on the second lap of the Indianapolis 500, as over of gasoline burned. Johnny Rutherford, who was also involved in the crash, survived, mainly because his methanol-fueled car had not ignited. The United States Auto Club bans gasoline and switches all cars to methyl alcohol (methanol), a rule which would stay for 41 years before ending after the 2005 race.\n", "The rate-limiting steps for the elimination of ethanol are in common with certain other substances. As a result, the blood alcohol concentration can be used to modify the rate of metabolism of methanol and ethylene glycol. Methanol itself is not highly toxic, but its metabolites formaldehyde and formic acid are; therefore, to reduce the rate of production and concentration of these harmful metabolites, ethanol can be ingested. Ethylene glycol poisoning can be treated in the same way.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n", "BULLET::::- fatty alcohol (C12–C18), precursors to detergents\n\nMethanol is the most common industrial alcohol, with about 12 million tons/y produced in 1980. The combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same, distributed roughly equally.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n\nWith respect to acute toxicity, simple alcohols have low acute toxicities. Doses of several milliliters are tolerated. For pentanols, hexanols, octanols and longer alcohols, LD50 range from 2–5 g/kg (rats, oral). Methanol and ethanol are less acutely toxic. All alcohols are mild skin irritants.\n", "Side effects of alcohols include skin irritation. Care should be taken with electrocautery as ethanol is flammable. Types of alcohol used include ethanol, denatured ethanol, 1-propanol, and isopropyl alcohol. It is effective against a range of microorganisms though does not inactivate spores. Concentrations of 60 to 90% work best.\n", "To protect alcohol tax revenue in the United States all preparations classified as \"Rubbing Alcohols\" (defined as those containing ethanol) must have poisonous additives to limit human consumption in accordance with the requirements of the US Treasury Department, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, using Formula 23-H (8 parts by volume of acetone, 1.5 parts by volume of methyl isobutyl ketone, and 100 parts by volume of ethyl alcohol). It contains 87.5–91% by volume of absolute ethyl alcohol. The rest consists of water and the denaturants, with or without color additives, and perfume oils. Rubbing alcohol contains in each 100 ml more than 355 mg of sucrose octaacetate or more than 1.40 mg of denatonium benzoate. The preparation may be colored with one or more color additives. A suitable stabilizer may also be added.\n", "A downside of using alcohol as a solvent is that ethanol has a tendency to denature some organic compounds, reducing or destroying their effectiveness. This tendency can also have undesirable effects when extracting botanical constituents, such as polysaccharides. Certain other constituents, common among them proteins, can become irreversibly denatured, or \"pickled\" by the alcohol. Alcohol can also have damaging effects on some aromatic compounds.\n\nEther and propylene glycol based tinctures are not suitable for internal consumption, although they are used in preparations for external use, such as personal care creams and ointments.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "The removal of ethanol (drinking alcohol) through oxidation by alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver from the human body is limited. Hence the removal of a large concentration of alcohol from blood may follow zero-order kinetics. Also the rate-limiting steps for one substance may be in common with other substances. For instance, the blood alcohol concentration can be used to modify the biochemistry of methanol and ethylene glycol. In this way the oxidation of methanol to the toxic formaldehyde and formic acid in the human body can be prevented by giving an appropriate amount of ethanol to a person who has ingested methanol. Note that methanol is very toxic and causes blindness and death. A person who has ingested ethylene glycol can be treated in the same way. Half life is also relative to the subjective metabolic rate of the individual in question.\n", "Methanol and ethanol are also incompatible with some polymers. The alcohol reacts with the polymers causing swelling, and over time the oxygen breaks down the carbon-carbon bonds in the polymer causing a reduction in tensile strength. For the past few decades though, most cars have been designed to tolerate up to 10% ethanol (E10) without problem. This includes both fuel system compatibility and lambda compensation of fuel delivery with fuel injection engines featuring closed loop lambda control. In some engines ethanol may degrade some compositions of plastic or rubber fuel delivery components designed for conventional petrol, and also be unable to lambda compensate the fuel properly. \n", "Care must be taken during drying to ensure that volatile oil, such as eugenol, remains in the end products.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Typically, when considering the quality of a powdered product such as coffee, freeze drying seems to be better than spray drying, but this does not apply to alcohol powder production. In fact, \"\"freeze-dried beer spice\"\" was made by university students for their research. Carbon dioxide, water and alcohol have all been lost.\n\nDue to the volatility of alcohol, relatively higher than water, time-consuming methods, such as freeze drying, should not be used. By selective diffusion, loss of alcohol is relatively small.\n\nSection::::Production process.:Non-commercial production.\n", "The Texas Constitution requires the Texas Legislature to revise, digest, and publish the laws of the state; however, it has never done so regularly. In 1925 the Texas Legislature reorganized the statutes into three major divisions: the \"Revised Civil Statutes\", \"Penal Code\", and \"Code of Criminal Procedure\". In 1963, the Texas legislature began a major revision of the 1925 Texas statutory classification scheme, and as of 1989 over half of the statutory law had been arranged under the recodification process.\n", "All rubbing alcohols are volatile and flammable. They have an extremely bitter taste from additives. The specific gravity of Formula 23-H is between 0.8691 and 0.8771 at .\n\nIsopropyl rubbing alcohols contain from 50% to 99% by volume of isopropyl alcohol, the remainder consisting of water. Boiling points vary with the proportion of isopropyl alcohol from to ; likewise freezing point vary from to . Surgical spirit BP boils at .\n\nNaturally colorless, products may contain color additives. They may also contain medically-inactive additives for fragrance, such as wintergreen oil (methyl salicylate), or for other purposes.\n\nSection::::US legislation.\n", "One must write with a ball point pen on top of Tipp-ex, as a liquid ink pen will smudge. Gel ink will require some seconds to fully dry, but can be used if no ball point pen is available.\n\nSection::::Toxicology.\n", "BULLET::::- Alcohols Commonly encountered alcohols in veterinary medicine are isopropanol and methanol found in household products and ethanol from alcoholic beverages. They all pose toxicity to dogs. Isopropanol which is found in rubbing alcohol has twice the toxicity of ethanol; however methanol which can be found in windshield washer fluid does not have the same retinal and neuronal toxicity on dogs as it does to humans and primates due to the differences in the way its metabolite formic acid is processed.\n", "BULLET::::- Benzodiazepines, while useful in the management of acute alcohol withdrawal, if used long-term can cause a worse outcome in alcoholism. Alcoholics on chronic benzodiazepines have a lower rate of achieving abstinence from alcohol than those not taking benzodiazepines. This class of drugs is commonly prescribed to alcoholics for insomnia or anxiety management. Initiating prescriptions of benzodiazepines or sedative-hypnotics in individuals in recovery has a high rate of relapse with one author reporting more than a quarter of people relapsed after being prescribed sedative-hypnotics. Those who are long-term users of benzodiazepines should not be withdrawn rapidly, as severe anxiety and panic may develop, which are known risk factors for relapse into alcohol abuse. Taper regimes of 6–12 months have been found to be the most successful, with reduced intensity of withdrawal.\n", "A wide variety of solvents can be used for extraction, such as chloroform, dichloromethane, petroleum ether, naphtha, benzene, butane, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, and olive oil. Currently, resinoids are often obtained by extraction with supercritical carbon dioxide. The alcohols extract undesirable water-soluble substances such as chlorophyll and sugars (which can be removed later by washing with water). Non-polar solvents such as benzene, chloroform and petroleum ether will not extract the water-soluble constituents of marijuana or hashish while still producing hash oil. In general, non-polar cannabis extracts taste much better than polar extracts. Alkali washing further improves the odor and taste.\n", "Elgood Flag Porter is based on a traditional 19th century British recipe using yeast that was salvaged from containers or barrels in a ship that sank in the English Channel in 1825. In 1988, several bottles of the brew were obtained from the sunken ship in the Channel. They were still in their original containers, with their wood stoppers and wax seals intact. When opened, the beer were said to taste like wet boots according to brewer and microbiologist, Dr Keith Thomas. Upon examining the beer under a microscope, he found a small percentage of the yeast was still alive. He spent months growing this yeast and brewed a porter using an 1850 recipe.\n", "In 2014, an article on the website PopSci.com published instructions on how to make pulverized alcohol easily, through a simple mixture of alcohol and dextrin.\n\nIn this method, the powder is not encapsulated, and also not yet fully dried. Consequently, alcohol continues to evaporate from it very rapidly.\n\nDue to flaws in the powdered alcohol produced by this method, this form of powdered alcohol was said to be unsuitable for drinking, carrying, or preserving.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Medical.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Medical.:Antiseptic.\n" ]	[ "Drinking alcohol does not expire.", "Drinking alcohol does not expire, whilst rubbing alcohol does. " ]	[ "Drinking alcohol does expire.", "Drinking alcohol definitely expires, and has a limited shelf life." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Drinking alcohol does not expire.", "Drinking alcohol does not expire, whilst rubbing alcohol does. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Drinking alcohol does expire.", "Drinking alcohol definitely expires, and has a limited shelf life." ]
2018-23670	How to hospitals reverse a heroin overdose?	Narcan is one of a couple drugs that are administered to people who have overdosed on an opiate. It works by binding to the same receptors that opiates do, thus blocking their effects until the body can filter out the drugs itself. It can take multiple doses or narcan to save someone life as the drug will also wear off over time, possibly while there is still opiates present in the body	[ "The 2010 MSIC evaluators found that over 9 years of operation it had made no discernable impact on heroin overdoses at the community level with no improvement in overdose presentations at hospital emergency wards.\n\nResearch by injecting room evaluators in 2007 presented statistical evidence that there had been later reductions in ambulance callouts during injecting room hours, but failed to make any mention of the introduction of sniffer dog policing, introduced to the drug hot-spots around the injecting room a year after it opened.\n\nSection::::Evaluations.:Site experience of overdose.\n", "On August 26, 2016 Health Canada issued regulations amending prior regulations it had issued under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act; the \"New Classes of Practitioners Regulations\", the \"Narcotic Control Regulations\", and the \"Food and Drug Regulations\", to allow doctors to prescribe diamorphine to people who have a severe opioid addiction who have not responded to other treatments. The prescription heroin can be accessed by doctors through Health Canada's Special Access Programme (SAP) for \"emergency access to drugs for patients with serious or life-threatening conditions when conventional treatments have failed, are unsuitable, or are unavailable.\"\n\nSection::::Routes of administration.\n", "Initial treatment involves supporting the person's breathing and providing oxygen. Naloxone is then recommended among those who are not breathing to reverse the opioid's effects. Giving naloxone into the nose or as an injection into a muscle appears to be equally effective. Among those who refuse to go to hospital following reversal, the risks of a poor outcome in the short term appear to be low. Efforts to prevent deaths from overdose include improving access to naloxone and treatment for opioid dependence.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nStabilization of the victim's airway, breathing, and circulation (ABCs) is the initial treatment of an overdose. Ventilation is considered when there is a low respiratory rate or when blood gases show the person to be hypoxic. Monitoring of the patient should continue before and throughout the treatment process, with particular attention to temperature, pulse, respiratory rate, blood pressure, urine output, electrocardiography (ECG) and O saturation. Poison control centers and medical toxicologists are available in many areas to provide guidance in overdoses to both physicians and the general public.\n\nSection::::Management.:Antidotes.\n", "Opioid overdoses can often be prevented. Clear protocols for staff at emergency departments and urgent care centers can reduce opioid prescriptions for individuals presenting in these settings who engage in drug seeking behaviors or who have a history of substance abuse. Drug seeking behaviors include but are not limited to obsessiveness or impatience when it comes to attaining medications, seeking multiple pain adjunct medications, and inconsistent physiological presentation. A limited amount of evidence suggests opioid therapy with extended-release or long-acting formulations may increase the risk of an unintentional overdose compared to shorter-acting agents. Routinely screening using tools such as the CAGE-AID and the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10) in adults and the CRAFFT in those aged 14–18 years is recommended. Other “drug seeking” behaviors and physical indications of drug use should be used as clues to perform formal screenings.\n", "Governments that support a harm reduction approach usually fund needle and syringe exchange programs, which supply new needles and syringes on a confidential basis, as well as education on proper filtering before injection, safer injection techniques, safe disposal of used injecting gear and other equipment used when preparing diamorphine for injection may also be supplied including citric acid sachets/vitamin C sachets, steri-cups, filters, alcohol pre-injection swabs, sterile water ampules and tourniquets (to stop use of shoe laces or belts).\n", "In the case of heroin-assisted treatment however, users are provided with a form of pharmaceutical-grade heroin injection solution which doctors consider fit for injection. And as doctors refrain from drastic changes in dose and provide post-injection monitoring, overdoses are rare and can be quickly treated with opioid antagonists like naloxone. Thus, patients in heroin-assisted treatment are relieved from the major complex of problems that defines illicit heroin use. Synthetic heroin taken under the aforementioned conditions is not neurotoxic and has few long-term side effects beside constipation and dependency. And while it had been speculated that the availability of such treatment options might change public perception of the risks associated with drug use and might lead to an increase in illicit drug use, the incidence of heroin abuse in Switzerland has declined sharply since the introduction of heroin-assisted treatment. As a study published in The Lancet concluded:\n", "Heroin-assisted treatment is fully a part of the national health system in Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands, Canada, and Denmark. Additional trials are being carried out in the United Kingdom, Norway, and Belgium.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Also in 2018, Pittsburgh and its surrounding communities began developing their own QRT-inspired, multi-agency response program — the Post Overdose Response Team (POST) — funded in part by the University of Pittsburgh (Pitt) Center for Emergency Medicine of Western Pennsylvania via a $150,000 grant from the Pennsylvania Commission on Crime and Delinquency. The Congress of Neighboring Communities (CONNECT) — a Pitt-based project that develops programs to address problems shared by Pittsburgh and its several dozen suburbs — will supply community medics and has indicated it will hire a peer recovery specialist to staff the team. Police officers will be provided by the city of Pittsburgh.\n", "According to Barbara Garcia, the Director of the San Francisco Department of Public Health, there were about 22,500 intravenous drug users in San Francisco and more than 100 resultant injectable drug overdoses a year as of 2016. This population has risen approximately 50% within the past decade and saw the steepest increase of 121% throughout the years of 2005 to 2012. Currently, in a statement presented by Senator Scott Wiener, as a result of the opioid and heroin overdose statewide epidemic, 125 Americans die each day and hospitals in California need to treat 1 patient for this indication every 45 minutes.\n", "Treatment of heroin addiction often includes behavioral therapy and medications. Medications can include buprenorphine, methadone, or naltrexone. A heroin overdose may be treated with naloxone. An estimated 17 million people use opiates, of which heroin is the most common, and opioid use resulted in 122,000 deaths. The total number of heroin users worldwide as of 2015 is believed to have increased in Africa, the Americas, and Asia since 2000. In the United States, approximately 1.6 percent of people have used heroin at some point, with 950,000 using it in the last year. When people die from overdosing on a drug, the drug is usually an opioid and often heroin.\n", "Middletown, Ohio, implemented its QRT program in 2016; the city's fire chief, Paul Lolli, reported that 92% of users contacted by the unit had \"been able to enter treatment,\" although he acknowledged that the program had not recorded the results experienced by those who entered treatment, rendering the program's efficacy unclear.\n\nIn June, 2017, citing opiate addiction as his community's \"No. 1 public safety issue,\" Boone County, Ky., Judge-Executive Gary Moore announced that county's launch of its own Colerain-inspired overdose response team.\n", "While overdoses are managed on-site at Vancouver, Sydney and the facility near Madrid, German consumption rooms are forced to call an ambulance due to naloxone being administered only by doctors. A study of German consumption rooms indicated that an ambulance was called in 71% of emergencies and naloxone administered in 59% of cases. The facilities in Sydney and Frankfurt indicate 2.2-8.4% of emergencies resulting in hospitalization.\n", "A review of the MSIC registration surveys recording each client’s previous overdose histories reveals that MSIC clients’ previous overdose history were less prone to overdose than various other previously studied heroin injector cohorts in Australia.\n\nSection::::Evaluations.:People living with HIV/AIDS.\n", "In 2016, the Pennsylvania Department of Health distributed to each Pennsylvania high school the overdose antidote drug naloxone in a nasal spray. School nurses were also provided with educational materials and training developed by the National Association of School Nurses. The cost was covered by a grant from a private foundation.\n\nBULLET::::- Health eTools program:\n", "Section::::Overdose.\n\nHeroin overdose is usually treated with the opioid antagonist, naloxone. This reverses the effects of heroin and causes an immediate return of consciousness but may result in withdrawal symptoms. The half-life of naloxone is shorter than some opioids, such that it may need to be given multiple times until the opioid has been metabolized by the body.\n\nBetween 2012 and 2015 it was the leading cause of drug related deaths in the United States. Since then fentanyl is a more common cause of drug related deaths.\n", "Supervised injecting rooms, also known as Medically Supervised Injecting Centres (MSIC's) or safe injecting facilities (SIF's), are legal areas set up to provide drug-takers a safe environment to inject in, under the supervision of trained medical personal, The first official legal recommendation for a Medical Supervised Injecting Centre in Australia originated from the 1997 Wood Royal Commission into NSW's police corruption, however, the trial for one was denied the following year. A second campaign for a Sydney-based MSIC occurred after the \"Sun Herald,\" a Sydney-based newspaper, ran a story that featured a photo of a young teenager injecting heroin on its front page. After he was re-elected, Premier of NSW Bob Carr, summoned a drug summit which took place in 1999. The summit approved of a trial MSIC in Kings Cross for 18 months, which opened in May 2001. The MSIC was the first supervised injecting room outside of Europe, and it received public backlash from Australia's own Prime Minister at the time John Howard, as well as the Vatican. In 2010, the status of the Sydney MSIC was promoted from trial to a permanent health service. Heroin was the most predominant drug injected on site from 2001-2007, but more than half the overdoses that occurred from 2014 to 2017 were heroin-induced.\n", "The distribution of naloxone to injection drug users and other opioid drug users decreases the risk of death from overdose. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that U.S. programs for drug users and their caregivers prescribing take-home doses of naloxone and training on its utilization are estimated to have prevented 10,000 opioid overdose deaths. Healthcare institution-based naloxone prescription programs have also helped reduce rates of opioid overdose in the U.S. state of North Carolina, and have been replicated in the U.S. military. Nevertheless, scale-up of healthcare-based opioid overdose interventions is limited by providers' insufficient knowledge and negative attitudes towards prescribing take-home naloxone to prevent opioid overdose. Programs training police and fire personnel in opioid overdose response using naloxone have also shown promise in the U.S.\n", "In 2016, the Pennsylvania Department of Health distributed to each Pennsylvania high school the overdose antidote drug naloxone in a nasal spray. School nurses were also provided with educational materials and training developed by the National Association of School Nurses. The cost was covered by a grant from a private foundation.\n\nBULLET::::- Health eTools program:\n", "Evidence of effects of heroin maintenance compared to methadone are unclear as of 2010. A Cochrane review found some evidence in opioid users who had not improved with other treatments. In Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, long-term injecting drug users who do not benefit from methadone and other medication options may be treated with injectable heroin that is administered under the supervision of medical staff. Other countries where it is available include Spain, Denmark, Belgium, Canada, and Luxembourg.\n", "However, some of the very rationale for the projects in Sydney and Vancouver are specifically to gather data, as they are created as scientific pilot projects. The approach at the centers is also more clinical in nature, as they provide true supervision with a staff that is equipped and trained to administer Oxygen or Naloxone in the case of a heroin or other opioid overdose.\n\nSection::::Operating and proposed facilities.:United States.\n", "Heroin-assisted treatment, or diamorphine assisted treatment, refers to the prescribing of synthetic, injectable heroin to opiate addicts who do not benefit from or cannot tolerate treatment with one of the established drugs used in opiate replacement therapy like methadone or buprenorphine (brand name Subutex). For this group of patients, heroin-assisted treatment has proven superior in improving their social and health situation. It has also been shown to save money, as it significantly reduces costs incurred by trials, incarceration, health interventions and delinquency. It has also drastically reduced overdose deaths in the countries utilizing it, as patients take their dose in a controlled, professionally supervised setting, and Narcan (naloxone) is on hand in the case of an accidental overdose. Opiate related overdoses in the U.S. kill around 70,000 people per year.\n", "Testimony of ex-clients reported to the NSW Legislative Council alleged that the extremely high overdose rates were due to clients experimenting with poly-drug cocktails and higher doses of heroin in the knowledge that staff were present to ensure their safety. The 2003 evaluation explanation for high overdose rates citing greater amounts of heroin used has been cited by Drug Free Australia as cause for concern. NSW Member of Parliament, Andrew Fraser, made the same allegation regarding the MSIC as a site for experimentation, citing testimony of another ex-client in a Parliamentary speech in 2010.\n", "Projects of this type are under way in many North American cities. CDC estimates that the US programs for drug users and their caregivers prescribing take-home doses of naloxone and training on its use have prevented 10,000 opioid overdose deaths. Healthcare institution-based naloxone prescription programs have also helped reduce rates of opioid overdose in North Carolina, and have been replicated in the US military. Programs training police and fire personnel in opioid overdose response using naloxone have also shown promise in the US, and effort is increasing to integrate opioid fatality prevention in the overall response to the overdose crisis.\n", "Specific antidotes are available for certain overdoses. For example, naloxone is the antidote for opiates such as heroin or morphine. Similarly, benzodiazepine overdoses may be effectively reversed with flumazenil. As a nonspecific antidote, activated charcoal is frequently recommended if available within one hour of the ingestion and the ingestion is significant. Gastric lavage, syrup of ipecac, and whole bowel irrigation are rarely used.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology and statistics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01208	How do people regain their hearing after hearing loss?	This is actually quite a complicated question, since “hearing” isn’t as simple as it sounds (haha, get it?). The ear has three subdivisions: outer, middle, inner. The outer ear is everything from the outside to your eardrum (called the tympanic membrane). The middle ear has 3 small bones in it that transmit and magnify the sound. The inner ear has the cochlea, which is what actually senses sound waves and creates a neural (electrical) impulse. The inner ear also has some other structures that are very important but not related to hearing. Hearing loss is broadly divided into two main categories when it has to do with the ear itself: conductive & sensorineural. Conductive hearing loss occurs because there is something that prevents sound from being transmitted to the cochlea in the inner ear. An example of this could be that there is a tumor growing into the canal of the outer ear and literally blocking the sound waves. Another possibility is that the bones in the inner ear may have broke, due to some trauma perhaps. Yet another possibility is that there’s a really bad infection going on and this is resulting in bad sound conduction. Generally, the conductive problems are either temporary or relatively easily treatable with medication and/or surgery. Sensorineural hearing loss occurs because of one of two things. First, the cochlea may be damaged, so while sound waves are normally reaching it, the special cells (hair cells) inside that are capable of turning the physical energy of sound into electrical and chemical energy are for some reason unable to do so, or do so less efficiently than before. This is the more common cause of sensorineural hearing loss. This is also why people can get worse hearing as they age. Second, the cochlea may be working fine, but the nerve (cochlear nerve) that carries the neural impulses generated by the cochlea to the brain may be damaged. This is fairly rare. In both cases, these are generally problems that are harder to fix than the conductive ones. If the cochlea is working, but not well, a hearing aid that can amplify the sound might be enough to help. If the cochlea isn’t working at all, surgeons can implant speakers into a person that will do the job of the cochlea (convert sound to electrical impulses) and connect this directly to the nerve. I do not know if anything can be done when the nerve itself is damaged, but if it can it would be another step up in difficulty. One other possibility for deafness is if the problem isn’t with the ear, or the nerve connecting the ear to the brain, but with the brain itself. Something like a stroke can damage the areas of the brain that are responsible for taking the electrical impulses generated by the cochlea and carried by the cochlear nerve and translating those into what we actually “hear”. Generally, a stroke or other brain injury wouldn’t wipe out just the hearing centers - it would probably affect other cognitive areas as well. Sadly, when this is the cause of hearing loss, there is realistically nothing that can be done in the current world of medicine. I hope this gives you a good basic summary. Frankly there’s a lot more detail to all parts of the system, especially how the cochlear nerve gets to the brain and the stops it makes along the way to its final destination, as well as how the nerves between the right and left ear communicate along the way, but I thought those details to be unnecessary to properly answer your question.	[ "Section::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment modalities fall into three categories: pharmacological, surgical, and management. As SNHL is a physiologic degradation and considered permanent, there are as of this time, no approved or recommended treatments.\n\nThere have been significant advances in identification of human deafness genes and elucidation of their cellular mechanisms as well as their physiological function in mice. Nevertheless, pharmacological treatment options are very limited and clinically unproven. Such pharmaceutical treatments as are employed are palliative rather than curative, and addressed to the underlying cause if one can be identified, in order to avert progressive damage.\n", "Section::::Factors.:Hearing impairment.\n\nPeople with mild and moderate hearing loss were tested for the effectiveness of phonemic restoration. Those with mild hearing loss performed at the same level of a normal listener. Those with moderate hearing loss had almost no perception and failed to identify the missing phonemes. This research is also dependent on the amount of words the observer is comfortable understanding because of the nature of top-down processing.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Cochlear implants.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nManagement depend on the specific cause if known as well as the extent, type and configuration of the hearing loss. Most hearing loss, that resulting from age and noise, is progressive and irreversible, and there are currently no approved or recommended treatments. A few specific kinds of hearing loss are amenable to surgical treatment. In other cases, treatment is addressed to underlying pathologies, but any hearing loss incurred may be permanent.\n\nSome management options include hearing aids, cochlear implants, assistive technology, and closed captioning. This choice depends on level of hearing loss, type of hearing loss, and personal preference.\n", "Section::::Hearing loss.:Management.\n\nThe loss of hearing, when it is caused by neural loss, cannot presently be cured. Instead, its effects can be mitigated by the use of audioprosthetic devices, i.e. hearing assistive devices such as hearing aids and cochlear implants. In a clinical setting, this management is offered by otologists and audiologists.\n\nSection::::Hearing loss.:Relation to health.\n\nHearing loss is associated with Alzheimer's disease and dementia with a greater degree of hearing loss tied to a higher risk. There is also an association between type 2 diabetes and hearing loss.\n\nSection::::Hearing underwater.\n", "Section::::Assistive devices.\n\nMany deaf and hard of hearing individuals use assistive devices in their daily lives:\n", "In cases where the causes are environmental, the treatment is to eliminate or reduce these causes first of all, and then to fit patients with a hearing aid, especially if they are elderly. When the loss is due to heredity, total deafness is often the end result. On the one hand, persons who experience gradual deterioration of their hearing are fortunate in that they have learned to speak. Ultimately the affected person may bridge communication problems by becoming skilled in sign language, speech-reading, using a hearing aid, or accepting elective surgery to use a prosthetic devices such as a cochlear implant.\n", "At the present time, no established clinical treatments exist to reverse the effects of permanent NIHL. However, current research for the possible use of drug and genetic therapies look hopeful. In addition, management options such as hearing aids and counseling exist.\n", "BULLET::::4. preservation of the ear canal wall. If poorly performed, it may result in a high rate of both residual and recurrent cholesteatoma.\n\nBULLET::::5. reconstruction of the chain of hearing bones.\n\nClearly, preservation and restoration of ear function at the same time as total removal of cholesteatoma requires a high level of surgical expertise.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nIt is important that the patient attend periodic follow-up checks, because even after careful microscopic surgical removal, cholesteatomas may recur. Such recurrence may arise many years, or even decades, after treatment.\n", "Management of hearing loss\n\nTreatment depends on the specific cause if known as well as the extent, type and configuration of the hearing loss. Most hearing loss, that resulting from age and noise, is progressive and irreversible, and there are currently no approved or recommended treatments; management is by hearing aid. A few specific kinds of hearing loss are amenable to surgical treatment. In other cases, treatment is addressed to underlying pathologies, but any hearing loss incurred may be permanent.\n\nSection::::Hearing aids.\n", "In some cases, the loss is extremely sudden and can be traced to specific diseases, such as meningitis, or to ototoxic medications, such as Gentamicin. In both cases, the final degree of loss varies. Some experience only partial loss, while others become profoundly deaf. Hearing aids and cochlear implants may be used to regain a sense of hearing, with different people experiencing differing degrees of success. It is possible that the affected person may need to rely on speech-reading and/or sign language for communication.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Presbycusis.\n", "Because of risk and expense, such surgery is reserved for cases of severe and disabling hearing impairment\n\nManagement of sensorineural hearing loss involves employing strategies to support existing hearing such as lip-reading, enhanced communication etc. and amplification using hearing aids. Hearing aids are specifically tuned to the individual hearing loss to give maximum benefit.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nSection::::Research.:Pharmaceuticals.\n", "People with cochlear implants are at a higher risk for bacterial meningitis. Thus, meningitis vaccination is recommended. People who have hearing loss, especially those who develop a hearing problem in childhood or old age, may need support and technical adaptations as part of the rehabilitation process. Recent research shows variations in efficacy but some studies show that if implanted at a very young age, some profoundly impaired children can acquire effective hearing and speech, particularly if supported by appropriate rehabilitation.\n\nSection::::Education.\n", "Hearing may deteriorate gradually from chronic and repeated noise exposure (such as to loud music or background noise) or suddenly from exposure to impulse noise, which is a short high intensity noise (such as a gunshot or airhorn). In both types, loud sound overstimulates delicate hearing cells, leading to the permanent injury or death of the cells. Once lost this way, hearing cannot be restored in humans.\n", "There is no proven or recommended treatment or cure for SNHL; management of hearing loss is usually by hearing strategies and hearing aids. In cases of profound or total deafness, a cochlear implant is a specialised hearing aid which may restore a functional level of hearing. SNHL is at least partially preventable by avoiding environmental noise, ototoxic chemicals and drugs, and head trauma, and treating or inoculating against certain triggering diseases and conditions like meningitis.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment options that offer \"cures\" for NIHL are under research and development. Currently there are no commonly used cures, but rather assistive devices and therapies to try and manage the symptoms of NIHL.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute acoustic trauma.\n", "Researchers reported in 2015 that genetically deaf mice which were treated with TMC1 gene therapy recovered some of their hearing. In 2017, additional studies were performed to treat Usher syndrome and here, a recombinant adeno-associated virus seemed to outperform the older vectors.\n\nSection::::Research.:Audition.\n", "BULLET::::- The advent of the Internet's World Wide Web and closed captioning has given the deaf and hard of hearing unprecedented access to information. Electronic mail and online chat have reduced the need for deaf and hard-of-hearing people to use a third-party Telecommunications Relay Service to communicate with the hearing and other deaf people.\n", "Section::::Education.:Resource program.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nAuditory perception can improve with time.There seems to be a level of neuroplasticity that allows patients to recover the ability to perceive environmental and certain musical sounds. Patients presenting with cortical hearing loss and no other associated symptoms recover to a variable degree, depending on the size and type of the cerebral lesion. Patients whose symptoms include both motor deficits and aphasias often have larger lesions with an associated poorer prognosis in regard to functional status and recovery.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).\n\nAs part of differential diagnosis, an MRI scan may be done to check for vascular anomalies, tumors, and structural problems like enlarged mastoids. MRI and other types of scan cannot directly detect or measure age-related hearing loss.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nAt present, presbycusis, being primarily sensorineural in nature, cannot be prevented, ameliorated or cured. Treatment options fall into three categories: pharmacological, surgical and management.\n\nBULLET::::- There are no approved or recommended pharmaceutical treatments for presbycusis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Cochlear implant.\n", "BULLET::::- Individuals with hearing loss require phones with amplifiers that have a higher power of amplification when compared to a regular phone. The Hearing Aid Telephone Interconnect System is a hands free amplification system which allows people to amplify sound when using telephones, cell phones, computer and pay phones by way of the attachment of a portable unit.\n\nSection::::Assistive devices.:Surgery.\n\nThere is no treatment, surgical or otherwise, for sensorineural hearing loss due to the most common causes (age, noise, and genetic defects). For a few specific conditions, surgical intervention can provide a remedy:\n\nBULLET::::- surgical correction of superior canal dehiscence\n", "In most cases, tympanosclerosis does not cause any recognisable hearing loss up to ten years after the initial disease onset. Sclerotic changes seem to stabilise, but not resolve or dissolve, after 3 years.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Education.:Mainstream.\n", "BULLET::::- Coenzyme Q10 – a substance similar to a vitamin, with antioxidant properties. It is made in the body, but levels fall with age.\n\nBULLET::::- ebselen, a synthetic drug molecule that mimics glutathione peroxidase (GPx), a critical enzyme in the inner ear that protects it from damage caused by loud sounds or noise\n\nSection::::Research.:Stem cell and gene therapy.\n\nHair cell regeneration using stem cell and gene therapy is years or decades away from being clinically feasible. However, studies are currently underway on the subject, with the first FDA-approved trial beginning in February 2012.\n\nSection::::Sudden sensorineural hearing loss.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01381	Why does the majority of the United States have such extreme weather changes throughout the year?	Other than the West Coast and the southeast bit, most of the USA gets its weather from over land rather than over the sea. This means we don't have the temperature-moderating effect of that massive body of water.	[ "In the Northern Hemisphere winter, the subtropical highs retreat southward. The polar jet stream (and associated conflict zone between cold, dry air masses from Canada and warm, moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more frequent periods of stormy weather, with rain, ice and snow, and much more variable temperatures, with rapid temperature rises and falls not uncommon. Areas in the southern U.S. (Florida, the Gulf Coast, the Desert Southwest, and southern California) however, often have more stable weather, as the polar jet stream's impact does not usually reach that far south.\n", "While phenology fairly consistently points to an earlier spring across temperate regions of North America, a recent comprehensive study of the subarctic showed greater variability in the timing of green-up, with some areas advancing, and some having no discernible trend over a recent 44-year period.\n\nAnother 40 year phenological study in China found greater warming over that period in the more northerly sites studied, with sites experiencing cooling mostly in the south, indicating that the temperature variation with latitude is decreasing there.\n", "During El Niño, the northern tier of the lower 48 United States and southern Alaska will exhibit above normal temperatures during the fall and winter. The Gulf Coast of the United States will experience below normal temperatures, during the winter season.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.\n", "Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States\n\nThe El Niño–Southern Oscillation affects the location of the jet stream, which alters rainfall patterns across the West, Midwest, the Southeast, and throughout the tropics. The shift in the jet stream also leads to shifts in the occurrence of severe weather, and the number of tropical cyclones expected within the tropics in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans affected by changes in the ocean temperature and the subtropical jet stream. The winter will have a negative phase according to the Arctic oscillation (AO).\n\nSection::::Temperature.\n", "Precipitation (whether by annual amount, annual distribution or characteristic[s]) varies significantly across the United States and its possessions. Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western, southern, and southeast Alaska annually. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation. Most of Florida has a subtropical monsoon rainfall pattern (wet summer and dry winter).\n", "According to the American government's Climate Change Science Program, \"With continued global warming, heat waves and heavy downpours are very likely to further increase in frequency and intensity. Substantial areas of North America are likely to have more frequent droughts of greater severity. Hurricane wind speeds, rainfall intensity, and storm surge levels are likely to increase. The strongest cold season storms are likely to become more frequent, with stronger winds and more extreme wave heights.\"\n", "Section::::Precipitation.:Snowfall.\n\nDuring an El Niño, snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well-below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states. During a La Niña, snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes.\n\nSection::::Severe weather.\n\nDuring El Niño, the jet stream is oriented from west to east across the southern portion of the United States, making the region more susceptible to severe weather outbreaks. During La Niña, the jet stream and severe weather are likely to be farther north than normal.\n\nSection::::Tropical cyclones.\n", "BULLET::::- Winter of 2009–10 in Europe\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 West Africa floods\n\nBULLET::::- 2013–14 North American winter storms\n\nBULLET::::- Global storm activity of 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Global storm activity of 2010\n\nBULLET::::- East Asian snowstorms of late 2009\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat wave\n\nBULLET::::- Global storm activity of 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Winter of 1946–47 in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Winter of 1962–63 in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- February 2009 Great Britain and Ireland snowfall\n\nBULLET::::- Winter of 1990–91 in Western Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclogenesis\n\nBULLET::::- Jet stream\n\nBULLET::::- Arctic oscillation\n\nBULLET::::- North Atlantic oscillation\n\nBULLET::::- Pacific-North American teleconnection pattern\n", "Many of the most memorable and devastating storms in eastern North America and western Europe, popularly known as superstorms, have been winter cyclonic storms, though sometimes occurring in late fall or early spring, that generate near-hurricane-force winds and often large amounts of snowfall. Continued warming of low latitude oceans in coming decades will provide more water vapor to strengthen such storms. If this tropical warming is combined with a cooler North Atlantic Ocean from AMOC slowdown and an increase in midlatitude eddy energy, we can anticipate more severe baroclinic storms.\n", "Recent research suggests that the AMO is related to the past occurrence of major droughts in the US Midwest and the Southwest. When the AMO is in its warm phase, these droughts tend to be more frequent or prolonged. Two of the most severe droughts of the 20th century occurred during the positive AMO between 1925 and 1965: The Dust Bowl of the 1930s and the 1950s drought. Florida and the Pacific Northwest tend to be the opposite—warm AMO, more rainfall.\n", "Section::::Changes due to climate cycles.:Effects of ENSO.:La Niña.\n\nAcross North America during La Niña, increased precipitation is diverted into the Pacific Northwest due to a more northerly storm track and jet stream. The storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal conditions (in the form of increased snowfall) to the Midwestern states, as well as hot and dry summers. Snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes. Across the North Atlantic, the jet stream is stronger than normal, which directs stronger systems with increased precipitation towards Europe.\n\nSection::::Changes due to climate cycles.:Dust Bowl.\n", "Over North America, the main temperature and precipitation impacts of El Niño, generally occur in the six months between October and March. In particular the majority of Canada generally has milder than normal winters and springs, with the exception of eastern Canada where no significant impacts occur. Within the United States, the impacts generally observed during the six-month period include; wetter-than-average conditions along the Gulf Coast between Texas and Florida, while drier conditions are observed in Hawaii, the Ohio Valley, Pacific Northwest and the Rocky Mountains. Over California and the South-Western United States, there is a weak relationship between El Nino and above-average precipitation, as it strongly depends on the strength of the El Niño event and other factors.\n", "Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western, southern, and southeast Alaska annually. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation. Nor'easters moving up the East coast bring cold season precipitation to the Mid-Atlantic and New England states. During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the country as well as the Great Plains. Tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern sections of the country, as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and American Samoa. Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.\n", "Across the central states from late fall to spring, \"Panhandle hook\" storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas, then northeast toward the Great Lakes. They generate unusually large temperature contrasts, and often bring copious Gulf moisture northward, resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track, and warm conditions, heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously. Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward, \"Alberta clipper\" storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from Montana and the Dakotas across the upper Midwest and Great Lakes states to New England, and often, windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them. When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward, \"Gulf lows\" can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico, then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states, or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters. They sometimes bring rain, but can bring snow or ice across the South, mostly in interior or northern areas. \n", "Section::::Gulf Coast and Southeast.\n\nSection::::Gulf Coast and Southeast.:Cold season.\n", "The characteristics of United States rainfall climatology differ significantly across the United States and those under United States sovereignty. Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western, southern, and southeast Alaska annually. During the winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring Hawaii and the western United States most of their precipitation. Nor'easters moving down the East coast bring cold season precipitation to the Carolinas, Mid-Atlantic and New England states. Lake-effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes, as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season. The snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States averages 13:1, meaning of snow melts down to of water.\n", "The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle, the migration north/south of the subtropical highs, and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream.\n", "The strongest impacts of intraseasonal variability on the United States occur during the winter months over the western U.S. During the winter this region receives the bulk of its annual precipitation. Storms in this region can last for several days or more and are often accompanied by persistent atmospheric circulation features. Of particular concern are extreme precipitation events linked to flooding. Strong evidence suggests a link between weather and climate in this region from studies that have related the El Niño Southern Oscillation to regional precipitation variability. In the tropical Pacific, winters with weak-to-moderate cold, or La Nina, episodes or ENSO-neutral conditions are often characterized by enhanced 30- to 60-day Madden–Julian oscillation activity. A recent example is the winter of 1996–1997, which featured heavy flooding in California and in the Pacific Northwest (estimated damage costs of $2.0–3.0 billion at the time of the event) and a very active MJO. Such winters are also characterized by relatively small sea surface temperature anomalies in the tropical Pacific compared to stronger warm and cold episodes. In these winters, there is a stronger link between the MJO events and extreme west coast precipitation events.\n", "The question of whether events such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and other unusual storms have been altered by climate change in the U.S. is a subject of much uncertainty, as found in the aforementioned \"Nature Climate Change\" study. A fundamental problem exists in that records for those such events are of worse quality with poorer details than temperature and rainfall records. A comprehensive article in \"Geophysical Research Letters\" in 2006 found \"no significant change in global net tropical cyclone activity\" during past decades, a period when considerable warming of ocean water temperatures occurred. Significant regional trends exist such as a general rise of activity in the North Atlantic area besides the U.S. eastern coast.\n", "In the central and upper eastern United States, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, although summer rainfall increases as one moves southeastward. Lake-effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes, as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season. The average snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States is 13:1, meaning of snow melts down to of water. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the West, Midwest, the Southeast, and throughout the tropics.\n", "Section::::Winter of 2015–16 in Europe.\n\nDespite one of the strongest El Nino ever recorded in the Pacific Ocean, a largely positive North Atlantic Oscillation prevailed over Europe during the Winter of 2015-2016. For example, Cumbria in England registered one of the wettest months on record. Meanwhile, the Maltese Islands in the Mediterranean Sea registered one of the driest years ever recorded up to beginning of March as the Island's national average was only 235mm to date with some areas registering even less than 200mm.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Arctic oscillation\n\nBULLET::::- Antarctic oscillation\n\nBULLET::::- Atlantic Ocean\n\nBULLET::::- Anticyclone\n\nBULLET::::- Azores High\n", "During El Niño events, increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly, zonal, storm track. During the Niño portion of ENSO, increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal, and more southerly, polar jet stream. Snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states. The northern tier of the lower 48 exhibits above normal temperatures during the fall and winter, while the Gulf coast experiences below normal temperatures during the winter season. The subtropical jet stream across the deep tropics of the Northern Hemisphere is enhanced due to increased convection in the equatorial Pacific, which decreases tropical cyclogenesis within the Atlantic tropics below what is normal, and increases tropical cyclone activity across the eastern Pacific. In the Southern Hemisphere, the subtropical jet stream is displaced equatorward, or north, of its normal position, which diverts frontal systems and thunderstorm complexes from reaching central portions of the continent.\n", "United States temperature extremes\n\nFor the United States, the extremes are in Death Valley, California in 1913 and recorded in Prospect Creek, Alaska in 1971.\n\nThe largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15, 1972 in Loma, Montana, when the temperature rose from . \n\nThe most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds. For example, the largest 2-minute temperature change of occurred in Spearfish, South Dakota, a rise from .\n\nSection::::Lack of extremes.\n", "Section::::Gulf Coast and Southeast.:Warm season.\n", "There are many global patterns that affect and contribute to the climate of the Eastern Temperate Forest region, such as global ocean currents, El Nino, La Nina, the Gulf Stream current, and global air circulation patterns. El Niño, caused by warmer sea-surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, can lead to \"wet winters\" and warm episodes occurring between the months of December and February in the southeastern region of the United States Eastern Temperate Forest. La Niña is caused by cooler than normal sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, it leads to drier than normal conditions in the winter months in the Southeast region of the Eastern Temperate Forest. The global ocean current that effects the Eastern Temperate Forest most is the Gulf Stream current which brings a warm flow of water from South to North along the eastern coast of North America in the Atlantic Ocean, it keeps temperatures in this region relatively warm. The winds that have the greatest effect on the climate of the region are the prevailing westerlies and the tropical easterlies. The prevailing westerlies, caused by the Coriolis Effect, explain why most major events that occur in North America come from the west and proceed east, which is where the majority of the Eastern Temperate Forest is located.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17057	How do we adopt new fears and irrational phobias?	Most often a phobia (which is defined as an irrational* fear) is caused by a traumatic experience that featured the feared thing, or repeated negative association, usually in childhood. For example, if you fell out of a tree as a child and were badly hurt, you might develop a fear of high places. An adult that gets seriously assaulted (physically) or raped by somebody of a certain race, or physical trait (e.g. really tall people) could develop a phobia of people with that trait or race. If you get seasick every time you went on an oceangoing ship (unlikely, these days) you might develop a phobia of wide open water. * a phobia is, by definition, an irrational fear. There's no phobia for axe-wielding psychopaths because that's a perfectly rational fear (your life is in danger, you're supposed to be afraid).	[ "With the changes of technologies, new challenges are coming up on a daily basis. New kinds of phobias have emerged (the so-called techno-phobias). Since the first mobile phone was introduced to the consumer market in 1983, these devices have become significantly mainstream in the majority of societies. \n", "The second stage is contemplation. It is the stage at which an individual is actively considering stopping risky behavior or starting a healthy behavior. It is predicted that individuals will remain at this stage for a long period of time due to the difficulty in evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of behavior change.\n\nThe process of change to the following stage is expedited by self-reevaluation.\n\nSection::::Models.:Transtheoretical model.:Preparation.\n\nThis is the third stage at which individuals have been persuaded and commit to change their behavior.\n", "The process of change to the action stage involves a self-liberation process in which the fear appeal influences a changed behavior.\n\nSection::::Models.:Transtheoretical model.:Action.\n\nAction is the stage at which the individual engages in behavior change. They have tried to stop their risky behavior. The process of change that helps facilitate progression includes behavioral processes, such as reinforcement management, helping relationships, counterconditioning, and stimulus control.\n\nSection::::Models.:Transtheoretical model.:Maintenance.\n\nMaintenance is the final stage for changing risky behavior. This is the stage at which individuals adopt healthy behavior into their lifestyle, and try to prevent regression into the risk behavior.\n", "Section::::Models.:Transtheoretical model.:Pre-contemplation.\n\nThe pre-contemplation stage is a period in which individuals have no intentions to stop a risky behavior or start a healthy behavior. This may be due to a lack in knowledge of the risk involving their current behavior, or an unwillingness to acknowledge that their behavior puts them at risk. The process of change from the pre-contemplation phase to the contemplation phase includes the response of conscious raising, dramatic relief, and an environmental reevaluation process to the argument.\n\nSection::::Models.:Transtheoretical model.:Contemplation.\n", "Section::::Impact of the media.\n", "Participant modeling, in which the therapist models how the patient should respond to fears, has been proven effective for children and adolescents. This encourages patients to practice the behavior and reinforces their efforts. In a manner similar to systematic desensitization, phobic patients are gradually introduced to their feared objects. The main difference between participant modeling and systematic desensitization involves observations and modeling; participant modeling encompasses a therapist modeling and observing positive behaviors over the course of gradual exposure to the feared object.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Age.\n\nJeanette M. Bruce and William C. Sanderson, in their book \"Specific Phobias\", concluded that the age of onset for animal phobias is usually early childhood, between the ages of five and nine. A study done in South Africa by Drs. Willem A. Hoffmann and Lourens H. Human further confirms this conclusion for patients suffering from cynophobia and additionally found dog phobia developing as late as age 20.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Gender.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n\nSection::::Biography.:\"Odd How People Shake\" (2002-2003).\n", "In vivo or exposure therapy is considered the most effective treatment for cynophobia and involves systematic and prolonged exposure to a dog until the patient is able to experience the situation without an adverse response. This therapy can be conducted over several sessions or, as Dr. Lars-Göran Öst showed in a study done in 1988, can be done in a single multi-hour session. This study utilized 20 female patients suffering from various specific phobias and ranging in age from 16 to 44. Patients were each provided with an individual therapy session in which Dr. Öst combined exposure therapy with modeling (where another person demonstrates how to interact with the feared object) to reduce or completely cure the phobia. As each patient was gradually exposed to the feared stimulus, she was encouraged to approach and finally interact with it as her anxiety decreased, concluding the session when fear had been reduced by 50% or completely eliminated. Once the session was concluded, the patient was then to continue interaction with the feared object on her own to reinforce what had been learned in the therapy session. Dr. Öst's results were collected over a seven-year period and concluded that \"90% of the patients were much improved or completely recovered after a mean of 2.1 hours of therapy\".\n", "There is no exhaustible list of reasons cited for fearing the digital world and, whilst research into both the cause and consequence of developing a digital phobia remains in its infancy, the presence of digital phobia regardless contributes towards an increasingly comprehensive picture of a series of profiles among digital users.\n", "Vicarious fear acquisition is learning to fear something, not by a subject's own experience of fear, but by watching others reacting fearfully (observational learning). For instance, when a child sees a parent reacting fearfully to an animal, the child can become afraid of the animal as well. Through observational learning, humans can to learn to fear potentially dangerous objects—a reaction also observed in other primates. In a study focusing on non-human primates, results showed that the primates learned to fear snakes at a fast rate after observing parents’ fearful reactions. An increase of fearful behaviors was observed as the non-human primates continued to observe their parents’ fearful reaction. Even though observational learning has been proven effective in creating reactions of fear and phobias, it has also been shown that by physically experiencing an event, chances increase of fearful and phobic behaviors. In some cases, physically experiencing an event may increase the fear and phobia more so than observing a fearful reaction of another human or non-human primate.\n", "A sharp rise in technological innovations during the 21st century has been responsible for changing much of the way we work, socialize, and learn – all of which can be at the foundation of distrust in the technological age. Psychologists, academics and researchers have begun to consider the base of these fears and consider the social, cultural and environmental circumstances which might catalyze someone to becoming 'digital phobic'.\n", "As Christopher meets with Roosevelt Frost, an ex-football player who now focuses on a talent of communication with animals, Christopher is again warned off his investigation yet feels compelled to unravel this mystery. Frost hints at unusual, uncommonly intelligent animals escaping from the military base. He cryptically mentions that Christopher is protected by the legacy of his mother.\n", "Virtual reality therapy is another technique that helps phobic people confront a feared object. It uses virtual reality to generate scenes that may not have been possible or ethical in the physical world. It offers some advantages over systematic desensitization therapy. People can control the scenes and endure more exposure than they might handle in reality. Virtual reality is more realistic than simply imagining a scene—the therapy occurs in a private room and the treatment is efficient.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Medications.\n", "The protection motivation theory has been applied to analyzing the efficacy of health campaigns such as those encouraging self-breast examinations for detecting breast cancer. Studies found that perceptions of threat concerning breast cancer prompted adaptive actions, such as performing self-examinations, and maladaptive actions, such as to avoid thinking about breast cancer.\n\nSection::::Models.:Health belief model.\n\nThe health belief model predicts that perceived susceptibility and severity of a risk motivates individuals to engage in preventive actions, and the type of preventative action depends on the perceived benefits and hindrances of performing the action.\n", "In his 2004 BBC documentary film series, \"The Power of Nightmares\", subtitled \"The Rise of the Politics of Fear\", the journalist Adam Curtis argues that politicians have used our fears to increase their power and control over society. Though he does not use the term \"culture of fear,\" what Curtis describes in his film is a reflection of this concept. He looks at the American neo-conservative movement and its depiction of the threat first from the Soviet Union and then from radical Islamists. Curtis insists there has been a largely illusory fear of terrorism in the west since the September 11 attacks and that politicians such as George W Bush and Tony Blair had stumbled on a new force to restore their power and authority; using the fear of an organised \"web of evil\" from which they could protect their people. Curtis's film castigated the media, security forces and the Bush administration for expanding their power in this way. The film features Bill Durodié, then Director of the International Centre for Security Analysis, and Senior Research Fellow in the International Policy Institute, King's College London, saying that to call this network an \"invention\" would be too strong a term, but he asserts that it probably does not exist and is largely a \"(projection) of our own worst fears, and that what we see is a fantasy that's been created.\"\n", "Although Rachman's theory is the accepted model of fear acquisition, cases of cynophobia have been cited in which none of these three causes apply to the patient. In a speech given at the 25th Annual Meeting of the Society for Psychophysiological Research, Dr. Arne Öhman proposed that animal fears in particular are likely to be an evolutionary remnant of the necessity \"to escape and to avoid becoming the prey of predators\". Furthermore, in his book \"Overcoming Animal/Insect Phobias\", Dr. Martin Antony suggests that in the absence of Rachman's three causes, providing that the patient's memory is sound, biological factors may be a fourth cause of fear acquisition—meaning that the fear is inherited or is a throwback to an earlier genetic defense mechanism. In any case, these causes may in actuality be a generalization of a complicated blend of both learning and genetics.\n", "In September 2006 they began a series of four public forums with The New School and The Rose & Erwin Wolfson Center for National Affairs about the culture of fear in America. \"At a time when people are safer and live longer than ever before, every day new media driven fears fuel our sense that the sky is falling in. Underlying all of this is a concern that human civilization has perhaps gone too far and we should be more cautious – particularly of other people. Few put forward a positive view of what the future holds in store.\n", "Cognitive behavioral therapy has been successful in helping people overcome their fear. Because fear is more complex than just forgetting or deleting memories, an active and successful approach involves people repeatedly confronting their fears. By confronting their fears in a safe manner a person can suppress the \"fear-triggering memories\" or stimuli.\n\nExposure therapy has known to have helped up to 90% of people with specific phobias to significantly decrease their fear over time.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nThe most common methods for the treatment of specific phobias are systematic desensitization and in vivo or exposure therapy.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Systematic desensitization therapy.\n", "Advertisers have also entered the arena with their discovery that \"fear sells\". Ad campaigns based on fear, sometimes referred to as shockvertising, have become increasingly popular in recent years. Fear is a strong emotion and it can be manipulated to steer people into making emotional rather than reasoned choices. From car commercials that imply that having fewer airbags will cause your family harm, to disinfectant commercials that show bacteria lurking on every surface, fear-based advertising works. While using fear in ads has generated some negative reactions by the public, there is evidence to show that \"shockvertising\" is a highly effective persuasion technique, and over the last several years, advertisers have continued to increase their usage of fear in ads in what has been called a \"never-ending arms race in the advertising business\".\n", "Systematic desensitization therapy was introduced by Joseph Wolpe in 1958 and employs relaxation techniques with imagined situations. In a controlled environment, usually the therapist's office, the patient will be instructed to visualize a threatening situation (i.e., being in the same room with a dog). After determining the patient's anxiety level, the therapist then coaches the patient in breathing exercises and relaxation techniques to reduce their anxiety to a normal level. The therapy continues until the imagined situation no longer provokes an anxious response.\n", "Bijou designed an online survey that would help people identify which core emotion causes them the most trouble in their lives, and which attitudes were most predominant. Based on answers from over 1,000 participants, she discovered that the most dominant emotion respondents experience is fear.\n", "A survey conducted by SecurEnvoy showed that young adults and adolescents are more likely to suffer from nomophobia. The same survey reported that 77% of the teens reported anxiety and worries when they were without their mobile phones, followed by the 25-34 age group and people over 55 years old. Some psychological predictors to look for in a person who might be suffering of this phobia are \"self negative views, younger age, low esteem and self-efficacy, high extroversion or introversion, impulsiveness and sense of urgency and sensation seeking\".\n", "Frank Furedi, a former professor of Sociology and writer for \"Spiked\" magazine, says that today's culture of fear did not begin with the collapse of the World Trade Center. Long before September 11, he argues, public panics were widespread – on everything from GM crops to mobile phones, from global warming to foot-and-mouth disease. Like Durodié, Furedi argues that perceptions of risk, ideas about safety and controversies over health, the environment and technology have little to do with science or empirical evidence. Rather, they are shaped by cultural assumptions about human vulnerability. Furedi say that \"we need a grown-up discussion about our post-September 11 world, based on a reasoned evaluation of all the available evidence rather than on irrational fears for the future.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00539	What are scientists doing to combat drug-resistant bacteria and superbugs?	A lot of the work that is done is preventing antibiotic resistance bacteria from spreading. They can become a huge problem in hospitals, for example. All it takes is one sick person to be admitted, and it's possible for the bacteria in them to spread to other patients through a variety of routes. There's all sorts of new methods of sterilizing rooms and equipment, and routinely gathering samples from at-risk patients so you know early on if they've caught it. There are lots of new antibiotics in development, but there are also other possible treatments being studied, such as bacteriophages. Bacteriophages are viruses that infect and kill bacteria, but aren't dangerous for us. Research is also being done on how, exactly, bacteria can survive antibiotics. There are a lot of mechanisms, such as the bacteria having an enzyme that changes the structure of the antibiotic, being able to "spit" the antibiotic particles out of itself faster than they can get in, or mutating so that their molecules can no longer be recognized by the antibiotic. If we know these mechanisms, it's possible to try to develop new treatments that specifically target them.	[ "Destruction of the resistant bacteria can also be achieved by phage therapy, in which a specific bacteriophage (virus that kills bacteria) is used.\n\nThere is research being done using antimicrobial peptides. In the future, there is a possibility that they might replace novel antibiotics.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Antibiotic resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Fecal bacteriotherapy\n\nBULLET::::- Mass drug administration\n\nBULLET::::- Multidrug resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmacoepidemiology\n\nBULLET::::- Small multidrug resistance protein\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eleftheria terrae\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations—An EU project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European hospitals\n\nBULLET::::- Merck - Tolerance and Resistance\n", "To limit the development of antimicrobial resistance, it has been suggested to:\n\nBULLET::::- Use the appropriate antimicrobial for an infection; e.g. no antibiotics for viral infections\n\nBULLET::::- Identify the causative organism whenever possible\n\nBULLET::::- Select an antimicrobial which targets the specific organism, rather than relying on a broad-spectrum antimicrobial\n\nBULLET::::- Complete an appropriate duration of antimicrobial treatment (not too short and not too long)\n\nBULLET::::- Use the correct dose for eradication; subtherapeutic dosing is associated with resistance, as demonstrated in food animals.\n\nBULLET::::- More thorough education of and by prescribers on their actions' implications globally.\n", "In addition to drugs being specific to a certain kind of organism (bacteria, fungi, etc.), some drugs are specific to a certain genus or species of organism, and will not work on other organisms. Because of this specificity, medical microbiologists must consider the effectiveness of certain antimicrobial drugs when making recommendations. Additionally, strains of an organism may be resistant to a certain drug or class of drug, even when it is typically effective against the species. These strains, termed resistant strains, present a serious public health concern of growing importance to the medical industry as the spread of antibiotic resistance worsens. Antimicrobial resistance is an increasingly problematic issue that leads to millions of deaths every year.\n", "There are four hospitals capable of caring for anyone with an exposure to a BSL3 or BSL4 pathogen, the special clinical studies unit at National Institutes of Health is one of them. National Institutes of Health built a facility in April 2010. This unit has state of the art isolation capabilities with a unique airflow system. This unit is also being trained to care for patients who are ill due to a highly infectious pathogen outbreak, such as ebola. The doctors work closely with USAMRIID, NBACC and IRF. Special trainings take place regularly in order to maintain a high level of confidence to care for these patients.\n", "Infection prevention is the most efficient strategy of prevention of an infection with a MDR organism within a hospital, because there are few alternatives to antibiotics in the case of an extensively resistant or panresistant infection; if an infection is localized, removal or excision can be attempted (with MDR-TB the lung for example), but in the case of a systemic infection only generic measures like boosting the immune system with immunoglobulins may be possible. The use of bacteriophages (viruses which kill bacteria) is a developing area of possible therapeutic treatments.\n", "Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that \"most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections.\" On 26 May 2016 an E coli bacteria \"superbug\" was identified in the United States resistant to colistin, \"the last line of defence\" antibiotic.\n", "\"Streptomyces\" research is expected to provide new antibiotics, including treatment against MRSA and infections resistant to commonly used medication. Efforts of John Innes Centre and universities in the UK, supported by BBSRC, resulted in the creation of spin-out companies, for example Novacta Biosystems, which has designed the type-b lantibiotic-based compound NVB302 (in phase 1) to treat \"Clostridium difficile\" infections.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the hospital level.\n\nAntimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Limiting antibiotic use.:At the farming level.\n", "Some bacteria have developed resistance to multiple antibiotics, so-called \"superbugs.\" Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one example, and can be life-threatening without the appropriate therapy. Other examples of emerging resistant organisms include vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE), \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\" carbapenemase (KPC), and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing E coli (ESBL).\n\nIn order to combat the rise of antimicrobial resistance, antimicrobial stewardship programs have begun that focus on educating clinicians to improve their use of antibiotics by focusing on evidence-based approaches to minimize resistance.\n\nSection::::Examples of broad-spectrum antibiotics.\n\nIn humans: \n\nBULLET::::- Aminoglycosides (except for streptomycin)\n\nBULLET::::- Ampicillin\n\nBULLET::::- Amoxicillin\n\nBULLET::::- Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (Augmentin)\n", "It is necessary to develop new antibiotics over time since the selection of resistant bacteria cannot be prevented completely. This means with every application of a specific antibiotic, the survival of a few bacteria which already got a resistance gene against the substance is promoted, and the concerning bacterial population amplifies. Therefore, the resistance gene is farther distributed in the organism and the environment, and a higher percentage of bacteria means they no longer respond to a therapy with this specific antibiotic. In addition to developing new antibiotics, new strategies entirely must be implemented in order to keep the public safe from the event of total resistance. New strategies are being tested such as UV light treatments and bacteriophage utilization, however more resources must be dedicated to this cause.\n", "BARDA medical countermeasures include vaccines, antimicrobial drugs, therapeutic products, diagnostics and non-pharmaceutical medical supplies and devices for public health medical emergencies including chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear threats, pandemic influenza and emerging infectious diseases. BARDA currently has three programs dedicated to overseeing the advanced development of these medical countermeasures: Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN); pandemic influenza; and emerging infectious diseases. BARDA's Influenza and Emerging Diseases Division is in the planning phase for its Emerging Infectious disease program. This program will, when stood up, support the advanced development of vaccine, therapeutic and diagnostic medical countermeasures that address emerging disease threats.\n", "In 2017, BARDA signed a three-year $8.1 million contract with InBios International, Inc. of Seattle, Washington to develop a “point-of-care diagnostic test that may be able to determine within 15 minutes whether a patient has been infected with the bacterium that causes anthrax.”\n", "The clinical use of most antibiotics result in a mutation of the pathogen organism leading to their resistance against the drug. Therefore, development of new drugs is always needed. A potential first step in developing new drugs against currently threatening diseases (e.g. tubercolosis) is to find new drug targets in the causative agent of the disease, i.e. the pathogen microorganism, let it be either a bacterium, or a protozoan parasite. After finding the target protein in the bacterium (or protozoan parasite), one could design small molecular drug compounds that bind to the protein and inhibit it.\n", "In the 1980s the antibiotic class of cephalosporins was introduced, further increasing bacterial resistance. During this decade infection control programs began to be established in hospitals, which systematically recorded and investigated hospital-acquired infections. Evidence-based treatment guidelines and regulation of antibiotic use surfaced. Australian researchers published the first medical guideline outcomes research.\n", "Since the discovery of antibiotics, research and development (R&D) efforts have provided new drugs in time to treat bacteria that became resistant to older antibiotics, but in the 2000s there has been concern that development has slowed enough that seriously ill people may run out of treatment options. Another concern is that doctors may become reluctant to perform routine surgeries because of the increased risk of harmful infection. Backup treatments can have serious side-effects; for example, treatment of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis can cause deafness or psychological disability. The potential crisis at hand is the result of a marked decrease in industry R&D. Poor financial investment in antibiotic research has exacerbated the situation. The pharmaceutical industry has little incentive to invest in antibiotics because of the high risk and because the potential financial returns are less likely to cover the cost of development than for other pharmaceuticals. In 2011, Pfizer, one of the last major pharmaceutical companies developing new antibiotics, shut down its primary research effort, citing poor shareholder returns relative to drugs for chronic illnesses. However, small and medium-sized pharmaceutical companies are still active in antibiotic drug research.\n", "In short, the lack of concerted effort by governments and the pharmaceutical industry, together with the innate capacity of microbes to develop resistance at a rate that outpaces development of new drugs, suggests that existing strategies for developing viable, long-term anti-microbial therapies are ultimately doomed to failure. Without alternative strategies, the acquisition of drug resistance by pathogenic microorganisms looms as possibly one of the most significant public health threats facing humanity in the 21st century.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "The prime example for MDR against antiparasitic drugs is malaria. \"Plasmodium vivax\" has become chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistant a few decades ago, and as of 2012 artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum has emerged in western Cambodia and western Thailand.\n\n\"Toxoplasma gondii\" can also become resistant to artemisinin, as well as atovaquone and sulfadiazine, but is not usually MDR\n\nAntihelminthic resistance is mainly reported in the veterinary literature, for example in connection with the practice of livestock drenching and has been recent focus of FDA regulation.\n\nSection::::Preventing the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.\n", "BULLET::::- a low-barrier access to free antimicrobial screening\n\nBULLET::::- a program to uncover and test chemical diversity sitting on chemists’ shelves\n\nBULLET::::- a communal knowledge base for antimicrobial discovery\n\nSection::::The Superbug Crisis.\n\nResistance of bacteria to commonly used antibiotics is increasing and contributes significantly to patient morbidity and mortality. \"Klebsiella\" species, \"Acinetobacter baumannii\", \"P. aeruginosa\", and \"Enterobacter\" species, together with the gram-positive \"Enterococcus faecium\" and \"Staphylococcus aureus\" are responsible for two-thirds of all health care-associated infections.\n", "Multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria\n\nMultidrug resistant Gram-negative bacteria (MDRGN bacteria) are a type of Gram-negative bacteria with resistance to multiple antibiotics. They can cause bacteria infections that pose a serious and rapidly emerging threat for hospitalized patients and especially patients in intensive care units. Infections caused by MDR strains are correlated with increased morbidity, mortality, and prolonged hospitalization. Thus, not only do these bacteria pose a threat to global public health, but also create a significant burden to healthcare systems.\n\nSection::::Emerging Threat.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Drug resistance\n\nBULLET::::- MDRGN bacteria\n\nBULLET::::- Xenobiotic metabolism\n\nBULLET::::- NDM1 enzymatic resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Herbicide resistance\n\nBULLET::::- P-glycoprotein\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations - An EU-Project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European Hospitals\n\nBULLET::::- European Centre of Disease Prevention and Control and (ECDC): Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: An international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/activities/diseaseprogrammes/ARHAI/Pages/public_consultation_clinical_microbiology_infection_article.aspx\n\nBULLET::::- State of Connecticut Department of Public Health MDRO information http://www.ct.gov/dph/cwp/view.asp?a=3136&q=424162\n\nAPUA or Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/multi_drug.shtml\n", "Other project:\n\nSection::::Key achievements.:Global Antibiotic Research & Development Partnership (GARDP).\n\nIn 2016, in collaboration with the World Health Organization, DNDi launched the Global Antibiotic Research & Development Partnership (GARDP), a not-for-profit research and development organization that addresses global public health needs by developing and delivering new or improved antibiotic treatments, while endeavouring to ensure their sustainable access. In 2018, GARDP set up as an independent legal entity.\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "In a followed up policy report released on April 17, 2013, titled \"10 X '20 Progress – Development of New Drugs Active Against Gram-Negative Bacilli: An Update From the Infectious Diseases Society of America\", IDSA expressed grave concern over the weak pipeline of antibiotics to combat the growing ability of bacteria, especially the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB), to develop resistance to antibiotics. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in United States, and the number of new antibiotics annually approved for marketing continues to decline. The report could identify only seven antibiotics currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials to treat the GNB which includes \"E. coli\", \"Salmonella\", \"Shigella\" and the \"Enterobacteriaceae\" bacteria, and these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of the resistance developed by those bacteria. Some of these seven new antibiotics are combination of existent antibiotics. There are positive signs that the governments and health authorities in US and Europe have recognized the urgency of the situation. Collaborations are formed between the regulatory bodies and pharmaceutical industry with funding and added incentives. The IDSA's prognosis for sustainable R&D infrastructure for antibiotics development will depend upon clarification of FDA regulatory clinical trial guidance which would facilitate the speedy approval of new drugs, and the appropriate economic incentives for the pharmaceuticals companies to invest in this endeavor.\n", "A survey of pediatric infectious disease consultants in 2008 by the Emerging Infectious Disease Network revealed that only 45 (33%) respondents had an AMS program, mostly from before 2000, and another 25 (18%) planned an ASP (data unpublished).\n\nIn 2012, the SHEA, IDSA and PIDS published a joint policy statement on AMS.\n\nThe CDC's NHSN has been monitoring antimicrobial use and resistance in hospitals that volunteer to provide data.\n\nIn 2014, the CDC recommended, that all US hospitals have an antibiotic stewardship program.\n", "Common multidrug-resistant organisms are usually bacteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE)\n\nBULLET::::- Methicillin-Resistant \"Staphylococcus\" \"aureus\" (MRSA)\n\nBULLET::::- Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBLs) producing Gram-negative bacteria\n\nBULLET::::- \"Klebsiella\" \"pneumoniae\" carbapenemase (KPC) producing Gram-negatives\n\nBULLET::::- Multidrug-Resistant Gram negative rods (MDR GNR) MDRGN bacteria such as \"Enterobacter species\", \"E.coli\", \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\", \"Acinetobacter baumannii\", \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\"\n\nA group of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria of particular recent importance have been dubbed as the ESKAPE group (\"Enterococcus faecium\", \"Staphylococcus aureus\", \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\", \"Acinetobacter baumannii\", \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and Enterobacter species).\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis\n\nSection::::Bacterial resistance to antibiotics.\n", "Antibacterials are among the most commonly used drugs and among the drugs commonly misused by physicians, for example, in viral respiratory tract infections. As a consequence of widespread and injudicious use of antibacterials, there has been an accelerated emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens, resulting in a serious threat to global public health. The resistance problem demands that a renewed effort be made to seek antibacterial agents effective against pathogenic bacteria resistant to current antibacterials. Possible strategies towards this objective include increased sampling from diverse environments and application of metagenomics to identify bioactive compounds produced by currently unknown and uncultured microorganisms as well as the development of small-molecule libraries customized for bacterial targets.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02162	What happens internally when someone loses their voice (from either overuse or illness)	Your vocal cords in your throat are controlled by muscles. It's much like like playing a musical instrument. If you play an instrument too long, your hands can get tired enough that you can barely get any sounds out of the instrument. Overuse of the instrument can also wear it down over time so that it doesn't sound right. Proper maintainence is needed. Luckily our bodies can self heal with enough rest but excessive use can cause permanent damage. If you are sick, parts of your throat can get sore or swell. This is like playing an instrument that is not tuned or assembled properly so you can't make the correct sounds.	[ "People with vocal cord dysfunction often complain of \"difficulty in breathing in” or “fighting for breath”, which can lead to subjective respiratory distress, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. They may report tightness in the throat or chest, choking, stridor on inhalation and wheezing, which can resemble the symptoms of asthma. These episodes of dyspnea can be recurrent and symptoms can range from mild to severe and prolonged in some cases. Agitation and a sense of panic are not uncommon and can result in hospitalization.\n", "Paradoxical vocal fold movement (PVFM) is also treated medically and behaviorally. Behavioral interventions will focus on voice exercises, relaxation strategies, and techniques that can be used to support breath. More generally, however, PVFM interventions focus on helping an individual to understand what triggers the episode, and how to deal with it when it does occur.\n\nWhile there is no cure for spasmodic dysphonia, medical and psychological interventions can alleviate some of the symptoms. Medical interventions involve repeated injections of Botox into one or both of the vocal cords. This weakens the laryngeal muscles, and results in a smoother voice.\n", "There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. \n\nBULLET::::- Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Reinke’s edema.\n\nA voice pathology called Reinke’s edema, swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid, occurs in the superficial lamina propria or Reinke’s space. This causes the vocal fold mucosa to appear floppy with excessive movement of the cover that has been described as looking like a loose sock. The greater mass of the vocal folds due to increased fluid lowers the fundamental frequency (\"f\") during phonation.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Wound healing.\n", "Treatment is often supportive in nature, and depends on the severity and type of laryngitis (acute or chronic). General measures to relieve symptoms of laryngitis include behaviour modification, hydration and humidification.\n\nVocal hygiene (care of the voice) is very important to relieve symptoms of laryngitis. Vocal hygiene involves measures such as: resting the voice, drinking sufficient water, reducing caffeine and alcohol intake, stopping smoking and limiting throat clearing.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.\n\nIn general, acute laryngitis treatment involves vocal hygiene, painkillers (analgesics), humidification, and antibiotics.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Viral.\n", "The acute form generally resolves without specific treatment. Resting the voice and sufficient fluids may help. Antibiotics generally do not appear to be useful in the acute form. The acute form is common while the chronic form is not. The chronic form occurs most often in middle age and is more common in men than women.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe primary symptom of laryngitis is a hoarse voice. Because laryngitis can have various causes, other signs and symptoms may vary. They can include\n\nBULLET::::- Dry or sore throat\n\nBULLET::::- Coughing (both a causal factor and a symptom of laryngitis)\n", "Laryngitis can be infectious as well as noninfectious in origin. The resulting inflammation of the vocal folds results in a distortion of the sound produced there. It normally develops in response to either an infection, trauma to the vocal folds, or allergies. Chronic laryngitis may also be caused by more severe problems, such as nerve damage, sores, polyps, or hard and thick lumps (nodules) on the vocal cords.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acute.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Acute.:Viral.\n", "Many of the symptoms are not limited to the disorder, as they may resemble a number of conditions that affect the upper and lower airway. Such conditions include asthma, angioedema, vocal cord tumors, and vocal cord paralysis.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nThe following increase an individual's chances for acquiring VCD:\n\nBULLET::::- Upper airway inflammation (allergic or non-allergic rhinitis, chronic sinusitis, recurrent upper respiratory infections)\n\nBULLET::::- Gastroesophageal reflux disease\n\nBULLET::::- Past traumatic event that involved breathing (e.g. near-drowning, suffocation)\n\nBULLET::::- Severe emotional trauma or distress\n\nBULLET::::- Female gender\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a wind instrument\n\nBULLET::::- Playing a competitive or elite sport\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Recovery from congenital VFP varies and is reliant on the severity of the condition. Some cases of VFP recover spontaneously, often within the first year. If the paresis is persistent, surgical options such as vocal fold injections or tracheotomy can be taken into consideration.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Infection.\n\nMany viral infections have been reported as a cause for VF paresis, including herpes simplex virus, Epstein-Barr virus, Varicella-Zoster, cytomegalovirus, HIV, West Nile virus, and upper respiratory infection. Bacterial infections have also been reported to cause VF paresis, such as syphilis and Lyme disease.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Tumors.\n", "In severe cases of bacterial laryngitis, such as supraglottitis or epiglottitis, there is a higher risk of the airway becoming blocked. An urgent referral should be made to manage the airway. Treatment may involve humidification, corticosteroids, intravenous antibiotics, and nebulised adrenaline.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Fungal.\n\nFungal laryngitis can be treated with oral antifungal tablets and antifungal solutions. These are typically used for up to three weeks and treatment may need to be repeated if the fungal infection returns.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acute laryngitis.:Trauma.\n\nLaryngitis caused by excessive use or misuse of the voice can be managed though vocal hygiene measures.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chronic laryngitis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Chronic laryngitis.:Reflux.\n", "There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production. Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.\n\nSection::::Vocal cord nodules and polyps.\n", "Laryngitis is categorised as acute if it lasts less than three weeks and chronic if symptoms last more than three weeks. Acute cases usually occur as part of a viral upper respiratory tract infection. Other infections and trauma such as from coughing are other causes. Chronic cases may occur due to smoking, tuberculosis, allergies, acid reflux, rheumatoid arthritis, or sarcoidosis. The underlying mechanism involves irritation of the vocal cords.\n", "CereProc voice cloning technology is currently being used in the UK by MND sufferers, to create synthesis voices before they lose the power of speech. This process was featured in a BBC Radio 4 documentary, \"Giving the Critic Back His Voice\", broadcast in August 2011.\n\nSection::::System compatibility.\n", "BULLET::::- Often due to excessive use of the vocal folds such as excessive yelling, screaming, or singing. Though this often results in damage to the outer layers of the vocal folds, the subsequent healing may lead to changes in the physiology of the folds. Another potential cause of inflammation may be overuse of the vocal cords. Laryngeal trauma, including iatrogenic (caused by endotracheal intubation), can also result in inflammation of the vocal cords.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Chronic.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Chronic.:Allergies.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nThe treatment of vocal fold paralysis varies depending on its cause and main symptoms. For example, if laryngeal nerve paralysis is caused by a tumor, suitable therapy should be initiated. In the absence of any additional pathology, the first step of clinical management should be observation to determine whether spontaneous nerve recovery will occur. Voice therapy with a speech-language pathologist is suitable at this time, to help manage compensatory vocal behaviours which may manifest in response to the paralysis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Voice therapy.\n", "Laryngitis\n\nLaryngitis is inflammation of the larynx (voice box). Symptoms often include a hoarse voice and may include fever, cough, pain in the front of the neck, and trouble swallowing. Typically, these last under two weeks.\n", "I never lost my voice, but I lost strength in my diaphragm. ... Because of those organic complaints, I lost my courage and boldness. My vocal cords were and still are in excellent condition, but my 'sound boxes' have not been working well even though I have been to all the doctors. The result was that I overstrained my voice, and that caused it to wobble. (\"Gente\", October 1, 1977)\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Potential comorbidities.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nAlthough there is no universal classification of voice problems, voice disorders can be separated into certain categories: organic (structural or neurogenic), functional, neurological (psychogenic) or iatrogenic, for example. Depending on the diagnosis and severity of the voice problem, and depending on the category that the voice disorder falls into, there are various treatment methods that can be suggested to the patient. The professional has to keep in mind there is not one universal treatment, but rather the clinical approach must find what the optimal effective course of action for that particular patient is.\n", "Nodules may prevent complete closure of the glottis, also known as glottal closure, and their presence may lead to an hourglass-shaped glottal closure. Voice problems may result from the presence of vocal fold nodules. They are diagnosed based on the presence of perceptual features not explicable by other causes. Such symptoms include: vocal fatigue, breathiness, loss of high pitch notes, lack of vocal control, or increased phonatory effort (i.e. increased effort to produce speech).\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Regulating voice use.\n", "Section::::Device lifetime.\n\nThe device lifetime can range from a couple of weeks up to two years, depending on individual circumstances. The lifetime is influenced by daily food intake, especially dairy products, but also radiotherapy and GERD (Gastro Esophageal Reflux Disease) affects the voice prosthesis and its lifetime.\n\nThe cause of the prothesis' life time end is mostly leakage, but also growing of fistulae, granulation tissue, increasing valve's opening pressure and prothesis' loss \n\nSection::::Voice quality and speaking effort.\n", "Hoarseness or breathiness that lasts for more than two weeks is a common symptom of an underlying voice disorder such as nodes or polyps and should be investigated medically.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Accent (dialect)\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic phonetics\n\nBULLET::::- Belt (music)\n\nBULLET::::- Histology of the Vocal Folds\n\nBULLET::::- Intelligibility (communication)\n\nBULLET::::- List of voice actors\n\nBULLET::::- Lombard effect\n\nBULLET::::- Manner of articulation\n\nBULLET::::- Paralanguage: nonverbal voice cues in communication\n\nBULLET::::- Phonation\n\nBULLET::::- Phonetics\n\nBULLET::::- Puberphonia\n\nBULLET::::- Speaker recognition\n\nBULLET::::- Speaker verification\n\nBULLET::::- Speech Synthesis\n\nBULLET::::- Vocal loading\n\nBULLET::::- Vocal range\n\nBULLET::::- Vocal rest\n\nBULLET::::- Vocal warm up\n\nBULLET::::- Vocology\n", "Section::::Rehabilitation.\n\nSection::::Rehabilitation.:Voice restoration.\n\nTotal laryngectomy results in the removal of the larynx, an organ essential for natural sound production. The loss of voice and of normal and efficient verbal communication is a negative consequence associated with this type of surgery and can have significant impacts on the quality of life of these individuals. Voice rehabilitation is an important component of the recovery process following the surgery. Technological and scientific advances over the years have led to the development of different techniques and devices specialized in voice restoration.\n", "Concerning signs that may require further investigation include stridor, history of radiation therapy to the neck, trouble swallowing, duration of more than three weeks, and a history of smoking. If concerning signs are present the vocal cords should be examined via laryngoscopy. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include epiglottitis, croup, inhaling a foreign body, and laryngeal cancer.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16734	Why are Jet Engine Planes smoother rides than Propeller Planes?	Jet engine planes tend to be heavier and go faster making them less affected by wind currents.	[ "Section::::General physical principles.:Comparison of types.\n\nPropeller engines handle larger air mass flows, and give them smaller acceleration, than jet engines. Since the increase in air speed is small, at high flight speeds the thrust available to propeller-driven aeroplanes is small. However, at low speeds, these engines benefit from relatively high propulsive efficiency.\n", "Jet aircraft fly considerably differently to propeller aircraft.\n\nOne difference is that jet engines respond relatively slowly. This complicates takeoff and landing maneuvers.\n\nIn particular, during takeoff, propeller aircraft engines blow air over their wings and that gives more lift and a shorter takeoff. These differences caught out some early BOAC Comet pilots.\n\nSection::::Propulsive efficiency.\n", "A milestone in the direction of a better understanding of Coandă effect has been the large scientific literature produced by ACHEON EU FP7 project This project about a particular symmetric nozzle produced an effective modeling of Coandă effect; Das et al., . It has been possible to determine innovative STOL aircraft configurations based on Coanda effect, This activity has been expanded by Dragan in the turbomachinery sector, with the objective of better optimizing the shape of rotating blades by Rumanian Comoti Research Centre's work on turbomachinery.\n", "Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount, which is why high-bypass turbofans and turboprops are commonly used on cargo planes and airliners.\n", "The early jet airliners had much lower interior levels of noise and vibration than contemporary piston-engined aircraft, so much so that in 1947, after piloting a jet powered aircraft for the first time, Wing Commander Maurice A. Smith, editor of \"Flight\" magazine, said, \"Piloting a jet aircraft has confirmed one opinion I had formed after flying as a passenger in the Lancastrian jet test beds, that few, if any, having flown in a jet-propelled transport, will wish to revert to the noise, vibration and attendant fatigue of an airscrew-propelled piston-engined aircraft\"\n\nSection::::1950s.\n", "In addition to propulsive efficiency, another factor is \"cycle efficiency\"; a jet engine is a form of heat engine. Heat engine efficiency is determined by the ratio of temperatures reached in the engine to that exhausted at the nozzle. This has improved constantly over time as new materials have been introduced to allow higher maximum cycle temperatures. For example, composite materials, combining metals with ceramics, have been developed for HP turbine blades, which run at the maximum cycle temperature. The efficiency is also limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved. Cycle efficiency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%), as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures. Cycle efficiency in turbojet and similar is nearer to 30%, due to much lower peak cycle temperatures.\n", "In a typical military installation, where the engine is buried within the airframe, only some of the above installation effects apply.\n\nSection::::Off-design.:Transient model.\n\nSo far we have examined steady state performance modelling.\n", "Section::::Propeller versus jet propulsion.\n", "The most effective way to counteract this problem (to some degree) is by adding more blades to the propeller, allowing it to deliver more power at a lower rotational speed. This is why many World War II fighter designs started with two or three-blade propellers but by the end of the war were using up to five blades; as the engines were upgraded, new propellers were needed to more efficiently convert that power. The major downside to this approach is that adding blades makes the propeller harder to balance and maintain, and the additional blades cause minor performance penalties due to drag and efficiency issues. But even with these sorts of measures, eventually the forward speed of the plane combined with the rotational speed of the propeller blade tips (altogether known as the helical tip speed) will again result in wave drag problems. For most aircraft, this will occur at speeds over about .\n", "Jet engine performance\n\nIn fixed-wing aircraft driven by one or more jet engines, certain aspects of performance such as thrust relate directly to the safe operation of the aircraft whereas other aspects of the engine operation such as noise and engine emissions affect the environment.\n\nThe thrust, noise and emission elements of the operation of a jet engine are of vital importance in the takeoff phase of operation of the aircraft. The thrust and fuel consumption elements, and their variation with altitude, are of vital importance in the climb and cruise phases of operation of the aircraft.\n", "Section::::Design point.:Cycle improvements.\n", "Roll mode can be improved by dihedral effects coming from design characteristics, such as high wings, dihedral angles or sweep angles.\n\nSection::::Lateral-directional modes.:Dutch roll mode.\n", "BULLET::::- The Ilyushin Il-118, an upgrade to the four-turboprop Ilyushin Il-18 airliner; proposed in 1984, the aircraft would instead be powered by two D-236 propfans, with the eight-bladed front propeller on each engine rotating at a speed of 1,100 rpm and the six-bladed back propeller turning at 1,000 rpm to lower noise and vibration\n\nBULLET::::- A re-engined Antonov An-124, with the four Progress D-18T turbofans being replaced by Kuznetsov NK-62 propfans\n\nSection::::Development.:1970s–1980s.:Decline.\n", "Virtually all high-performance propeller-driven aircraft have constant-speed propellers, as they greatly improve fuel efficiency and performance, especially at high altitude.\n\nSection::::Constant-speed units.\n", "Jet aircraft possess high cruising speeds () and high speeds for takeoff and landing (). Due to the speed needed for takeoff and landing, jet aircraft use flaps and leading edge devices to control the lift and speed. Many jet aircraft also use thrust reversers to slow down the aircraft upon landing.\n\nSection::::Propulsion.:Jet.:Ramjet.\n", "BULLET::::- Dzyne Technologies reduces the thickness of the blended wing body for a 110–130-seat super-regional, a configuration usually too thick for a narrowbody replacement and better suited for large aircraft, by placing the landing gear outward and storing baggage in the wing roots, enabling 20% fuel savings;\n", "The effect was also implemented during the U.S. Air Force's AMST project. Several aircraft, notably the Boeing YC-14 (the first modern type to exploit the effect), NASA's Quiet Short-Haul Research Aircraft, and the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan's Asuka research aircraft have been built to take advantage of this effect, by mounting turbofans on the top of the wings to provide high-speed air even at low flying speeds, but to date only one aircraft has gone into production using this system to a major degree, the Antonov An-72 \"Coaler.\" The Shin Meiwa US-1A flying boat utilizes a similar system, only it directs the propwash from its four turboprop engines over the top of the wing to generate low-speed lift. More uniquely, it incorporates a fifth turboshaft engine inside of the wing center-section solely to provide air for powerful blown flaps. The addition of these two systems gives the aircraft an impressive STOL capability.\n", "Jet aircraft fly faster than conventional propeller-driven aircraft. However, they use more fuel, so that for the same fuel consumption a propeller installation produces more thrust. As fuel costs become an increasingly important aspect of commercial aviation, engine designers continue to seek ways to improve aero engine efficiency. The propfan concept was developed to deliver 35% better fuel efficiency than contemporary turbofans. In static and air tests on a modified Douglas DC-9, propfans reached a 30% improvement over the OEM turbofans. This efficiency came at a price, as one of the major problems with the propfan is noise, particularly in an era where aircraft are required to comply with increasingly strict aircraft noise regulations. The propfan research in the 1980s discovered ways to reduce noise, but at the cost of reduced fuel efficiency.\n", "General methods for reducing noise include lowering the blade tip speeds and decreasing the blade loading, or the amount of thrust per unit of blade surface area. A concept similar to wing loading, blade loading can be reduced by lowering the thrust requirement or by increasing the amount, chord (width), and/or span (length) of the blades. For contra-rotating propfans, which can be louder than turboprops or single-rotating propfans, noise can also be lowered by:\n\nBULLET::::- increasing the gap between the front propeller and the back propeller;\n", "By definition, compressor corrected speed, formula_158, must remain constant at a given non-dimensional point.\n\nSection::::Rated Performance.\n\nSection::::Rated Performance.:Civil.\n\n Nowadays, civil engines are usually flat-rated on net thrust up to a 'kink-point' climate. So at a given flight condition, net thrust is held approximately constant over a very wide range of ambient temperature, by increasing (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature (RIT or SOT). However, beyond the kink-point, SOT is held constant and net thrust starts to fall for further increases in ambient temperature. Consequently, aircraft fuel load and/or payload must be decreased.\n", "Section::::Longitudinal modes.:Short period oscillations.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Trim tab\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Quest for Reduced Control Forces (NASA) — Monographs in Aerospace History: William Hewitt Phillips. A thorough dissertation on the reduction of control forces in high speed and large aircraft in the 1940s, with excellent links to NACA reports of the time, holding present day validity\n", "An engine with a low design \"T\" combines high corrected flow with high rotor turbine temperature (SOT), maximizing net thrust at low \"T\" conditions (e.g. Mach 0.9, 30000 ft, ISA). However, although turbine rotor inlet temperature stays constant as \"T\" increases, there is a steady decrease in corrected flow, resulting in poor net thrust at high \"T\" conditions (e.g. Mach 0.9, sea level, ISA).\n", "Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Applied Materials Research (IFAM) have researched a sharkskin-imitating paint that would reduce drag through a riblet effect. Aviation is a major potential application for new technologies such as aluminium metal foam and nanotechnology.\n\nThe International Air Transport Association (IATA) technology roadmap envisions improvements in aircraft configuration and aerodynamics. It projects the following reductions in fuel consumption:\n\nBULLET::::- 10–15% from advanced and geared turbofans in 2016\n\nBULLET::::- 15–20% from open rotor/unducted fans in 2019\n\nBULLET::::- 5–10% by natural laminar flow and 10–15% by hybrid laminar flow in 2022\n\nBULLET::::- 15–20% from Counter-rotating propellers in 2023\n", "Section::::Limitations and solutions.\n\nSection::::Limitations and solutions.:Blade design.\n\nTurboprops have an optimum speed below about , because all propellers lose efficiency at high speed, due to an effect known as wave drag that occurs just below supersonic speeds. This powerful form of drag has a sudden onset, and it led to the concept of a sound barrier when first encountered in the 1940s. In the case of a propeller, this effect can happen any time the propeller is spun fast enough that the blade tips approach the speed of sound, even if the aircraft is motionless on the ground.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03903	How was monsanto allowed to sue farmers when monsanto seeds invaded their land and crops due to winds?	Monsanto has stated they don't pursue if they find trace amounts, but the harvests of some they have sued have been found to be 95-98% patented seed- far more than could be due to an accident.	[ "In 2014, Monsanto reached a settlement with soft wheat farmers over the 2013 discovery of experimental glyphosate-resistant wheat in a field in Oregon which had led to South Korea and Japan temporarily stopping some US wheat importation. The settlement included the establishment of a $2.125 million fund for economically affected soft-wheat farmers.\n\nSection::::As plaintiff or appellant.\n", "In 1980, the first US Agent Orange class-action lawsuit was filed for the injuries military personnel in Vietnam suffered through exposure to dioxins in the defoliant. The chemical companies involved denied that there was a link between Agent Orange and the veterans' medical problems. On May 7, 1984, seven chemical companies settled the class-action suit out of court just hours before jury selection was to begin, offering $180 million as compensation if the veterans dropped all claims against them. Slightly over 45% of the sum was ordered to be paid by Monsanto alone.\n", "OSGATA presents this case as protecting members against prosecution following \"accidental contamination\" with Monsanto patented crops, but Monsanto's chief counsel clarified that \"Monsanto never has and has committed it never will sue if our patented seed or traits are found in a farmer's field as a result of inadvertent means.\" For example, in Monsanto Canada Inc v Schmeiser, an initial claim of accidental contamination is balanced against a finding of fact that 95%-98% of the crop was actually infringing.\n", "Monsanto has been criticized for a mistaken lawsuit. In 2002, Monsanto mistakenly sued Gary Rinehart of Eagleville, Missouri for patent violation. Rinehart was not a farmer or seed dealer, but sharecropped land with his brother and nephew, who were violating the patent. Monsanto dropped the lawsuit against him when it discovered the mistake. It did not apologize for the mistake or offer to pay Rinehart's attorney fees.\n", "In one case, a farmer committed misconduct while defending a Monsanto lawsuit, which resulted in criminal penalties. In 2003, a farmer received a four-month prison sentence and ordered to pay $165,649 in restitution after pleading guilty to conspiracy to commit mail fraud during litigation with Monsanto. The same farmer was ordered to pay nearly $3 million in a civil action brought by Monsanto after a jury found him liable for $803,402 damages, which the judge trebled due to willful infringement, added attorneys fees and sanctions for misconduct, all of which were affirmed by the Federal Circuit. Such damages may not be relieved through bankruptcy; in one case where a farmer was found to be willfully infringing Monsanto's patent, the damages awarded to Monsanto were found to be non-dischargeable in the farmer’s Chapter 7 bankruptcy, as they \"fell within the Bankruptcy Act’s exception for willful and malicious injuries.\"\n", "In 2004, Monsanto, along with Dow and other chemical companies, were sued in a US court by a group of Vietnamese for the effects of its Agent Orange defoliant, used by the US military in the Vietnam War. The case was dismissed, and plaintiffs appealed all the way to the Supreme Court, which also denied the appeal.\n", "In 2003, Monsanto and Solutia Inc., a Monsanto corporate spin-off, reached a $700 million settlement with the residents of West Anniston, Alabama who had been affected by the manufacturing and dumping of PCBs. In a trial lasting six weeks, the jury found that \"Monsanto had engaged in outrageous behavior, and held the corporations and its corporate successors liable on all six counts it considered - including negligence, nuisance, wantonness and suppression of the truth.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Clarence Thomas—Supreme Court Justice who worked as an attorney for Monsanto in the 1970s, then wrote the majority opinion in J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. finding that \"newly developed plant breeds are patentable under the general utility patent laws of the United States.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Veneman—Secretary of the Department of Agriculture, and member of the board of directors of Calgene\n\nSection::::Government relations.:United Kingdom.\n", "In 1969, Monsanto sued Rohm and Haas for infringement of Monsanto's patent for the herbicide propanil. In Monsanto Co. v. Rohm and Haas Co., the Third Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Monsanto on the basis that the company had fraudulently procured the patent it sought to enforce.\n", "Monsanto has filed patent infringement suits against 145 farmers, but proceeded to trial with only 11. In some of the latter, the defendants claimed unintentional contamination by gene flow, but Monsanto won every case. Monsanto Canada's Director of Public Affairs stated, \"It is not, nor has it ever been Monsanto Canada's policy to enforce its patent on Roundup Ready crops when they are present on a farmer's field by accident ... Only when there has been a knowing and deliberate violation of its patent rights will Monsanto act.\" In 2009 Monsanto announced that after its soybean patent expires in 2014, it will no longer prohibit farmers from planting soybean seeds that they grow.\n", "Section::::Chemical pollution.\n\nMonsanto presently operates as an agricultural company, but it was founded in 1901 as a chemical company. In 1997 Monsanto split the chemical sector of its business into an independent company, Solutia Inc. In 2008 Monsanto agreed “to assume financial responsibility for all litigation relating to property damage, personal injury, products liability or premises liability or other damages related to asbestos, PCB, dioxin, benzene, vinyl chloride and other chemicals manufactured before the Solutia Spin-off.”\n\nSection::::Chemical pollution.:Agent Orange.\n", "One example of such litigation is the Monsanto v. Schmeiser case. This case is widely misunderstood. In 1997, Percy Schmeiser, a canola breeder and grower in Bruno, Saskatchewan, discovered that one of his fields had canola that was resistant to Roundup. He had not purchased this seed, which had blown onto his land from neighboring fields. He later harvested the area and saved the crop in the back of a pickup truck. Before the 1998 planting, Monsanto representatives informed Schmeiser that using this crop for seed would infringe the patent, and offered him a license, which Schmeiser refused. According to the Canadian Supreme Court, after this conversation \"Schmeiser nevertheless took the harvest he had saved in the pick-up truck to a seed treatment plant and had it treated for use as seed. Once treated, it could be put to no other use. Mr. Schmeiser planted the treated seed in nine fields, covering approximately 1,000 acres in all ... A series of independent tests by different experts confirmed that the canola Mr. Schmeiser planted and grew in 1998 was 95 to 98 percent Roundup resistant.\" After further negotiations between Schmeiser and Monsanto broke down, Monsanto sued Schmeiser for patent infringement and prevailed in the initial case. Schmeiser appealed and lost, and appealed again to the Canadian Supreme Court, which in 2004 ruled 5 to 4 in Monsanto's favor, stating that \"it is clear on the findings of the trial judge that the appellants saved, planted, harvested and sold the crop from plants containing the gene and plant cell patented by Monsanto\".\n", "Since the mid‑1990s, Monsanto indicates that it has filed suit against 145 individual U.S. farmers for patent infringement and/or breach of contract in connection with its genetically engineered seed but has proceeded through trial against only eleven farmers, all of which it won. The Center for Food Safety has listed 90 lawsuits through 2004 by Monsanto against farmers for claims of seed patent violations. Monsanto defends its patents and their use, explaining that patents are necessary to ensure that it is paid for its products and for all the investments it puts into developing products. As it argues, the principle behind a farmer’s seed contract is simple: a business must be paid for its product., but that a very small percentage of farmers do not honor this agreement. While many lawsuits involve breach of Monsanto's Technology Agreement, farmers who have not signed this type of contract, but do use the patented seed, can also be found liable for violating Monsanto's patent. That said, Monsanto has stated it will not \"exercise its patent rights where trace amounts of our patented seed or traits are present in farmer's fields as a result of inadvertent means.\" The Federal Circuit found that this assurance is binding on Monsanto, so that farmers who do not harvest more than a trace amount of Monsanto's patented crops \"lack an essential element of standing\" to challenge Monsanto's patents.\n", "Monsanto legal cases\n\nMonsanto has been involved in several high-profile lawsuits, as both plaintiff and defendant. It has been defendant in a number of lawsuits over health and environmental issues related to its products. Monsanto has also made frequent use of the courts to defend its patents, particularly in the area of agricultural biotechnology, as have other companies in the field, such as Dupont Pioneer and Syngenta.\n\nSection::::Patent litigation.\n", "Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the biotechnology industry business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by Genentech and other biotech drug companies in the late 1970s in California. In this business model, companies invest heavily in research and development, and recoup the expenses through the use and enforcement of biological patents.\n\nSection::::Patent litigation.:As plaintiff.\n", "In the early 1990s, Monsanto faced several lawsuits over harm caused by PCBs from workers at companies such as Westinghouse that bought PCBs from Monsanto and used them to build electrical equipment. Monsanto and its customers, such as Westinghouse and GE, also faced litigation from third parties, such as workers at scrap yards that bought used electrical equipment and broke them down to reclaim valuable metals. Monsanto settled some of these cases and won the others, on the grounds that it had clearly told its customers that PCBs were dangerous chemicals and that protective procedures needed to be implemented.\n", "The adoption of genetically modified (GMOs) cropping by the government of Western Australia in 2010 and the subsequent failure of crop segregation has led to the contamination of at least one organic farm by Monsanto's GM canola. The organic certification of the certified organic farm of Steve and Sue Marsh was withdrawn in 2010 due to GM contamination. A court case in the Supreme Court of Western Australia for nuisance and negligence failed to achieve any relief or protection for the organic farm. However, the organic certification of the Marsh farm was reinstated in 2013.\n\nSection::::Academic perspectives.\n", "In 2009–2010, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California has been considering the case involving the planting of genetically modified sugar beets. This case involves Monsanto's breed of pesticide-resistant sugar beets. This lawsuit was also organised by Center for Food Safety.\n", "In July 2015, a St Louis county court in Missouri found that Monsanto, Solutia, Pharmacia and Pfizer were not liable for a series of deaths and injuries caused by PCBs manufactured by Monsanto Chemical Company until 1977. The trial took nearly a month and the jury took a day of deliberations to return a verdict against the plaintiffs from throughout the USA. Similar cases are ongoing. \"The evidence simply doesn’t support the assertion that the historic use of PCB products was the cause of the plaintiffs’ harms. We are confident that the jury will conclude, as two other juries have found in similar cases, that the former Monsanto Company is not responsible for the alleged injuries,” a Monsanto statement said.\n", "This is a case where Monsanto was not a party, but was alleged to have been involved in the events under dispute. In 1997, the news division of WTVT (Channel 13), a Fox–owned station in Tampa, Florida, planned to air an investigative report by Steve Wilson and Jane Akre on the health risks allegedly associated with Monsanto's bovine growth hormone product, Posilac. Just before the story was to air, Fox received a threatening letter from Monsanto, saying the reporters were biased and that the story would damage the company. Fox tried to work with the reporters to address Monsanto's concerns, and the negotiations between Fox and the reporters broke down. Both reporters were eventually fired. Wilson and Akre alleged the firing was for retaliation, while WTVT contended they were fired for insubordination. The reporters then sued Fox/WTVT in Florida state court under the state's whistleblower statute. In 2000, a Florida jury found that while there was no evidence Fox/WTVT had bowed to any pressure from Monsanto to alter the story, Akre, but not Wilson, was a whistleblower and was unjustly fired. Fox appealed the decision stating that under Florida law, a whistleblower can only act if \"a law, rule, or regulation”\" has been broken and argued that the FCC's news distortion policy did not fit that definition. The appeals court overturned the verdict, finding that Akre was not a whistleblower because of the Florida \"legislature's requirement that agency statements that fit the definition of a “rule” (must) be formally adopted (rules). Recognizing an uncodified agency policy developed through the adjudicative process as the equivalent of a formally adopted rule is not consistent with this policy, and it would expand the scope of conduct that could subject an employer to liability beyond what Florida's Legislature could have contemplated when it enacted the whistle-blower's statute.\"\n", "In March 2017, 40 plaintiffs filed a lawsuit in the Alameda County Superior Court, a branch of the California Superior Court, against Monsanto alleging damages related to certain forms of cancer caused by Monsanto's Roundup product. \n", "In 2005, a \"documentary theatre\" production dramatizing the court battle, entitled \"Seeds\", by Annabel Soutar, was staged in Montreal, Quebec. The dialogue was derived entirely verbatim from various archival sources.\n", "In 2016, Monsanto filed a lawsuit against its former computer programmer Jiunn-Ren Chen, alleging that he stole files from its systems.\n\nSection::::Patent litigation.:As defendant.\n", "Moreover, argued Kayton, the fact that the Third Circuit and the judge in the similar Texas case disagreed over whether Monsanto was just \"putting its best foot forward\" or instead was intentionally defrauding the Patent Office indicates that reasonable men can differ: \"This being so, is it not an inescapable conclusion . . . that the Monsanto patent solicitor's [conduct] . . . was at worst a nonculpable mistake of judgment?\" Again, co-author Stern disagreed: \"No. The Third Circuit, on the contrary, appears to have thought that Judge Singleton's views were plainly erroneous, and that his acceptance of the patentee's theory that 'it is all right to put your best foot forward with the Patent Office' was contrary to the legal standard as to candor required in ex parte proceedings of this type. Given so thoroughly erroneous a concept of the standard of candor, it is neither surprising that in the circumstances\n", "The Supreme Court of Canada had issued a similar decision in \"Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser\" (2004). That case concerned Percy Schmeiser, who claimed to have discovered that some canola growing on his farm in 1997 was Roundup resistant. Schmeiser harvested the seed from the Roundup resistant plants, and planted the seed in 1998. Monsanto sued Schmeiser for patent infringement for the 1998 planting. Schmeiser claimed that because the 1997 plants grew from seed that was pollinated with pollen blown into his field from neighboring fields, he owned the harvest and was entitled to do with it whatever he wished, including saving the seeds from the 1997 harvest and planting them in 1998. The initial Canadian Federal Court rejected Schmeiser's defense and held for Monsanto, finding that in 1998 Schmeiser had intentionally planted the seeds he had harvested from the wind-seeded crops in 1997, and so patent infringement had indeed occurred. Schmeiser appealed and lost again. Schmeiser appealed to the Supreme Court which took the case and held for Monsanto by a 5‑4 vote in late May 2004. Schmeiser won a partial victory, as the Supreme Court reversed on damages, finding that because Schmeiser did not gain any profit from the infringement, he did not owe Monsanto any damages nor did he have to pay Monsanto's substantial legal bills. The case caused Monsanto's enforcement tactics to be highlighted in the media over the years it took to play out. The case is widely cited or referenced by the anti-GM community in the context of a fear of a company claiming ownership of a farmer’s crop based on the inadvertent presence of GM pollen grain or seed. \"The court record shows, however, that it was not just a few seeds from a passing truck, but that Mr Schmeiser was growing a crop of 95–98% pure Roundup Ready plants, a commercial level of purity far higher than one would expect from inadvertent or accidental presence. The judge could not account for how a few wayward seeds or pollen grains could come to dominate hundreds of acres without Mr Schmeiser’s active participation, saying ‘...none of the suggested sources could reasonably explain the concentration or extent of Roundup Ready canola of a commercial quality evident from the results of tests on Schmeiser’s crop’\" – in other words, the original presence of Monsanto seed on his land in 1997 was indeed inadvertent, but the crop in 1998 was entirely purposeful.\n" ]	[ "Mosanto sued anyone that had their crops infected due to wind.", "Monsanto seeds invaded farmers land due to wind. " ]	[ "Mosanto only sues people whos harvests have been found to contain 95% or more of Mosanto seed. ", "Monsanto seeds have been found in percentages higher than could be caused by wind." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mosanto sued anyone that had their crops infected due to wind.", "Monsanto seeds invaded farmers land due to wind. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mosanto only sues people whos harvests have been found to contain 95% or more of Mosanto seed. ", "Monsanto seeds have been found in percentages higher than could be caused by wind." ]
2018-04374	Why is it easy to put on plastic gloves with dry hands, but extremely difficult with damp/clammy hands?	Wet/ moist hands have the raised water ridges for grip assistance, so your hands grip the glove, making it hard to slide your hand in without the lack of friction of a dry, ridge-free hand.	[ "Because the leather is natural as well as delicate, the wearer must take precaution as to not damage them. The constant handling of damp or wet surfaces will discolor lighter-colored gloves and stiffen the leather of any glove. The wearer will often unknowingly damage or stain their gloves while doing such tasks as twisting a wet door knob or wiping a running nose with a gloved hand.\n", "Gloves are frequently used to keep the hands warm, a function that is particularly necessary when cycling in cold weather. The hands are also relatively inactive, and do not have a great deal of muscle mass, which also contributes to the possibility of chill. Gloves are therefore vital for insulating the hands from cold, wind, and evaporative cooling. Putting a hand out to break a fall is a natural reaction, however, the hands are one of the more difficult parts of the body to repair. There is little or no spare skin, and immobilising the hands sufficiently to promote healing involves significant inconvenience to the patient. Fingerless gloves, have a lightly padded palm of leather (natural or synthetic), gel or other material. Full-finger gloves are useful in winter, when real warmth is not an issue. These are also generally waterproof but will become soggy in heavy rain.\n", "Fingerless gloves are often padded in the palm area, to provide protection to the hand, and the exposed fingers do not interfere with sensation or gripping. In contrast to traditional full gloves, often worn for warmth, fingerless gloves will often have a ventilated back to allow the hands to cool; this is commonly seen in weightlifting gloves.\n", "Household rubber gloves have been used for washing dishes and cleaning in the home since the 1960s. Many different designs of gloves have been available in a multitude of colors but traditional designs are yellow or pink with long cuffs. While these still remain the most popular patterns today, gloves can be obtained that range from wrist-length to those that are shoulder-length. There are even gloves that are pre-attached to shirts and bodysuits for added protection.\n", "Permanently attached gloves or mitts are unusual, It is more common for them to be connected by attachment rings. Either way, the absence of a wrist seal makes getting in and out of the suit much easier since there is no need for the suit to tightly seal around the wrists. It may be necessary to use a wrist strap to prevent loose gloves pulling off the hands when filled with air. Dry gloves can also be fitted over a wrist seal, which prevents leakage into the sleeves if the gloves are penetrated.\n", "Gloves are used in the Foodservice Industry for minimizing contact with ready to eat foods. Generally, foodservice employees are required to wash hands before starting work or putting on single-use gloves. Due to the incidence of latex allergies, many people switch to vinyl or nitrile gloves. Poly gloves are a very inexpensive alternative. Latex, Vinyl and Nitrile gloves are available in powder and powder-free varieties. The powder in the gloves are made of USDA cornstarch. Powder-free gloves are generally more expensive than powdered gloves because gloves must be powdered to be removed from the mold they are made on. The majority of disposable gloves are manufactured in China, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam.\n", "Gloves protect the worker from exposure to the live part being worked upon sometimes referred to as the 1st point of contact; the point where current would enter the body should an inadvertent contact be made.\n\nCovers of insulating material such as blankets and linehose are employed in rubber glove working to protect the worker from exposure to a part at a different potential sometimes referred to as the 2nd point of contact; the point where current would leave the body should an inadvertent contact be made.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Bare hand.\n", "Wetsuit gloves are worn to keep the hands warm and to protect the skin while working. They are available in a range of thicknesses. Thicker gloves reduce manual dexterity and limit feel. Wetsuit gloves are also commonly worn with dry suits. Some divers cut the fingertips of the gloves off on the fingers most used for delicate work like operating the controls on a camera housing.\n", "The differentiation between \"minimal\" and \"strong\" preempts and between \"poor\" and \"good\" hands is a matter of partnership agreement, and typically depends upon the partnership's strictness in preemptive bidding. Partnerships that are very strict typically regard a suits with only two of the top three or three of the top four honors as \"poor\" while partnerships that preempt with poorer suits may regard such suits as \"good.\" Hands that respond 3 or 3NT typically do not have outside entries, as their long suits contain nearly all of their high card points.\n\nSection::::The law of total tricks.\n", "Full-hand diving mitts can be sometimes useful in extreme environments such as ice diving, but significantly reduce dexterity and grip. Dry gloves and mitts usually allow a dry insulating glove to be worn underneath.\n\nThree-finger mitts are a compromise between gloves and mittens. In the three-finger mitts, the fingers are arranged with the index finger in a separate pocket to the other three fingers. This provides slightly better hand-grasping dexterity while still permitting heavy insulation around the hands.\n\nSection::::Components.:Accessories.:Hoods.\n", "The most common material used for making household gloves is latex, a form of rubber. Usually, the gloves have a cotton \"flock\" lining for easily taking them on and off. They are available in a wider range of colors and cuff lengths. Problems with latex rubber include allergic reactions and poor protection against such substances as solvents. Other materials used to alleviate this are PVC, nitrile, and neoprene. Natural rubber that has been chemically treated to reduce the amount of antibody generators, such as Vytex Natural Rubber Latex, can be used to produce a glove that retains the properties of traditional rubber while exposing the user to significantly reduced amounts of latex allergens.\n", "A better solution can be found by assigning each person his or her own glove, which is to be used for the entire operation. Every pairwise encounter is then protected by a double layer. Note that the outer surface of the doctors's gloves meets only the inner surface of the patients's gloves. This gives an answer of \"M\" + \"N\" gloves, which is significantly lower than \"MN\".\n", "BULLET::::- Full fingered - Gloves should fit snugly but not be tight. Pay particular attention to the length of the fingers as the fingertips can become very cold if the glove's fingers are not long enough. Ideally the glove should be loose on the fingers and fit comfortably around the palm. A tight glove will tend to restrict blood flow and make the hand cold as it is at an extreme distance from the heart.\n\nBULLET::::- Fingerless - Fingerless gloves have the fingers cut off. The exposed fingers interfere less with the sensation of gripping.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Baseball glove\n", "Section::::Other factors.\n\nThe statement of the problem does not make it clear that the principle of contagion applies, i.e. if the inside of one glove has been touched by the outside of another that previously touched some person, then that inside also counts as touched by that person.\n\nAlso, medical gloves are reversible; therefore a better solution exists, which uses\n\ngloves where the less numerous group are equipped with a glove each, the more numerous in pairs. The first of each pair use a clean interface, the second reverse the glove.\n", "Cut resistance has many dimensions such as force, direction, sharpness of the blade, length of the cut and flexibility of object. Different products should be evaluated in relation to the expected type of cut risk and environment that they are expected to face.\n\nSection::::Standards.\n", "Washing skin repeatedly can damage the protective external layer and cause transepidermal loss of water. This can be seen in roughness characterized by scaling and dryness, itchiness, dermatitis provoked by microorganisms and allergens penetrating the corneal layer and redness. Wearing gloves can cause further problems since it produces a humid environment favoring the growth of microbes and also contains irritants such as latex and talcum powder.\n", "Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens still remain on the hands.\n", "For an actual working fire, structural firefighting gloves must be worn. Structural gloves tend to be the last piece of protective equipment to be donned; usually because the free dexterity of the fingers is required to perform functions such as properly placing an SCBA mask on and accurately tightening a helmet strap. The gloves will fit over the wristlets and under the distal part of the coat sleeve, ensuring full enclosure of the latter arm. Gloves are designed to protect from extreme heat and various penetrating objects and to allow dexterity. Usually the latter is sacrificed to give adequate protection to heat and sharp objects. Newer gloves are more lightweight and don't lose their dexterity when they dry after becoming wet, the way leather gloves may.\n", "Gloves protect and comfort hands against cold or heat, damage by friction, abrasion or chemicals, and disease; or in turn to provide a guard for what a bare hand should not touch. Latex, nitrile rubber or vinyl disposable gloves are often worn by health care professionals as hygiene and contamination protection measures. Police officers often wear them to work in crime scenes to prevent destroying evidence in the scene. Many criminals wear gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints, which makes the crime investigation more difficult. However, the gloves themselves can leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints. After collecting glove prints, law enforcement can then match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence. In many jurisdictions the act of wearing gloves itself while committing a crime can be prosecuted as an inchoate offense.\n", "However, the substrate can still be affected by humidity and UV exposure if the substrate is applied in an environment that it was not designed for. For instance, one could get substrate failure by using a tape that was made to be used in a desert in a place such as Florida. The difference in temperature might not be very large, but there is a huge difference in humidity. Any environmental effect on the substrate is dependent on the identity and purpose of the substrate.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Mechanical wear.\n", "With the belief that individual offenders possess preferences for specific types of gloves (style and fabric/material), forensic scientists have also used glove print databases to create complex computations and charts that isolate, geographically, \"hot spots\" where prints taken from specific types of gloves are matched against similar types of crimes. Forensic scientists have even had success matching partial glove prints by using these databases and related software. Offenders may prefer a specific type of glove depending on its perceived inherent benefits. Latex, nitrile, plastic, rubber, or vinyl gloves are worn because they are thin and cling to the wearer's skin which in turn provides a level of dexterity to the wearer. Leather gloves possess pores that provides the wearer with an enhanced gripping ability. Leather gloves that are thin and tight-fitting provide both enhanced gripping and dexterity to the wearer.\n", "In the absence of interstitial materials, as in a vacuum, the contact resistance will be much larger, since flow through the intimate contact points is dominant.\n\nSection::::Factors influencing contact conductance.:Surface roughness, waviness and flatness.\n", "These gloves are traditionally used by people cleaning in the home and are popular with professional cleaners and for clearing up in shops, cafes and other public places. The thickness of the gloves and the long cuffs provide excellent protection for all general cleaning tasks and are useful for all chores where the hands need to be put into water, and provide protection when vacuuming, dusting, and polishing.\n", "Wearing gloves does not replace the need for handwashing due to the possibility of contamination when gloves are replaced, or by damage to the glove. Doctors wearing the same gloves for multiple patient operations presents an infection control hazard.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Surface sanitation.\n", "An alternative to using a glovebox for air sensitive work is to employ Schlenk methods using a Schlenk line. One disadvantage of working in a glovebox is that organic solvents will attack the plastic seals. As a result, the box will start to leak and water and oxygen can then enter the box. Another disadvantage of a glovebox is that oxygen and water can diffuse through the plastic gloves.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11370	Why can we easily walk for hours on end, but struggle when running just for a few minutes?	Think of your body as a machine, like an engine. At cruising speed (walking) it can run pretty much forever until it runs out of fuel. That's because the energy being asked of it is in the range that it is easy/efficient to produce with little to no extra fuel. Moving to higher speeds (running) requires more power which requires extra fuel be consumed. This requires more effort, which causes wear and more fuel to be consumed, which generates more heat that requires more effort and energy to disperse. So, in much the same way a car's engine will try to overheat when you press the gas to make it go faster, your muscles are drawing more oxygen from your blood (fuel) and generating heat due to the extra effort of running. Harder to analogize is the fact that this means your lungs are working hard to gather oxygen and expel CO2, which your hearts is pumping harder to distribute to your muscles which need that fuel to generate the extra effort required by running. At the same time, the muscles are trying to dissipate the heat the extra effort generates as well as the lactic acid strenuous exercise may be generating Then there's the whole effect of the difference in impact/weight distribution between walking and running, which varies by surface, body motion, etc.... tl;dr - It takes a lot more effort for your entire body to turn fuel into motion when running than it does to walk at a leisurely pace	[ "Section::::Physiology of long-distance running.\n\nHumans are considered among the best distance runners among all running animals: game animals are faster over short distances, but they have less endurance than humans. Unlike other primates whose bodies are suited to walk on four legs or climb trees, the human body has evolved into upright walking and running around 2-3 million years ago. The human body can endure long distance running through the following attributes:\n", "In humans, the PTS is believed by some to occur at critical levels of ankle dorsiflexor moments and power. Dorsiflexor muscles show high levels of activation when walking near the PTS and human subjects describe feeling fatigue in these muscles. Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) also decrease after the transition to running, despite a higher energetic expenditure.\n", "Section::::Fatigue effects.:Hindrance of effective force application techniques.\n", "Fatigue is a prominent factor in sprinting, and it is already widely known that it hinders maximal power output in muscles, but it also affects the acceleration of runners in the ways listed below.\n\nSection::::Fatigue effects.:Submaximal muscle coordination.\n", "This view was largely unchallenged until the late 1980s. Since that time, several studies have shown that transitioning from walking to running actually resulted in an increase in energy expenditure, while other studies have supported an energetic benefit from the transition. In the time since the energetics optimization view was first challenged, a number of mechanical, kinetic, and kinematic factors have been explored to explain the transition. Weak to moderately strong correlations have been found between several variables and the PTS, but work from a variety of researchers in the 1990s and 2000s agrees that ultimately it is fatigue and discomfort (or imminent fatigue/discomfort) in the tibialis anterior and other dorsiflexor muscles of the ankle that is the primary stimulus for the transition from walking to running in humans.\n", "Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours.\n", "Running and walking incorporated different biomechanisms. Walking requires an \"inverted pendulum\" where the body's center of mass is shifted over the extended leg, to exchange potential and kinetic energy with each step. Running involves a \"mass spring\" mechanism to exchange potential and kinetic energy, with the use of tendons and ligaments. Tendons and ligaments are elastic tissues that store energy. They are stretched and then release energy as they recoil. This mass spring mechanism becomes less energetically costly at faster speeds and is therefore more efficient than the inverted pendulum of walking mechanics when traveling at greater speeds. Tendons and ligaments, however, do not provide these benefits in walking.\n", "Although the mass spring mechanism can be more energetically favorable at higher speeds, it also results in an increase in ground reaction forces and is less stable because there is more movement and pitching of the limbs and core of the body. Ground forces and body pitching movement is less of an issue in the walking gait, where the position of the body's center of mass varies less, making walking an inherently more stable gait. In response to the destabilization of the running gait, the human body appears to have evolved adaptations to increase stabilization, as well as for the mass-spring mechanism in general. These adaptations, described below, are all evidence for selection for endurance running.\n", "Low level theories exist that suggest that fatigue is due mechanical failure of the exercising muscles (\"peripheral fatigue\"). However, such low level theories do not explain why running muscle fatigue is affected by information relevant to cost benefit trade offs. For example, marathon runners can carry on running longer if told they are near the finishing line, than far away. The existence of a central governor can explain this effect.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Central governor\n\nBULLET::::- Deployment cost–benefit selection in physiology\n\nBULLET::::- Evolutionary medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Health science\n\nBULLET::::- Management control system\n\nBULLET::::- Mind–body\n\nBULLET::::- Neural top–down control of physiology\n", "Aerobic capacity depends on the transportation of large amounts of blood to and from the lungs to reach all tissues. This in turn is dependent on having a high cardiac output, sufficient levels of hemoglobin in blood, and an optimal vascular system to distribute of blood. A 20 fold increase of local blood flow within skeletal muscle is necessary for endurance athletes, like marathon runners, to meet their muscles' oxygen demands at maximal exercise that are up to 50 times greater than at rest. \n", "Section::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Muscle architecture and fiber type.\n", "There is some evidence that differences in COT across speed exist between species. It has been observed that quadrupeds exhibit optimal speeds within gaits. Meaning that there are speeds at which the energetic cost to run a given distance is minimized. In humans, it is commonly thought that the COT remains constant across all submaximal running speeds, though a recent study has challenged this assumption. If this is true, the energetic cost of running a mile fast or slow in humans is the same, and no optimal speed of running exists for humans.\n", "Both the architecture and type of muscle play a crucial role in determining foot contact time and production of GRF. In humans, it has been shown that sprinters have longer muscle fascicle lengths and smaller pennation angles than non-sprinters. This contributes by increasing the muscle's shortening velocity. Other studies have shown that particular muscle fiber types are favored in sprinters versus non-sprinters, as well as within different levels of sprinters. Faster individuals tend to have a greater percentage of Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers. Higher percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers lead to increased force production capability, as well as increased speed of contractions leading to shorter contact times.\n", "Section::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Foot morphology.\n", "The proposed benefit of endurance running in scavenging is the ability of early hominins to outcompete other scavengers in reaching food sources. However paleoanthropological studies suggest that the savanna-woodland habitat caused a very low competition environment. Due to low visibility, carcasses were not easily located by mammalian carnivores, resulting in less competition.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The endurance running hypothesis, the idea that humans evolved as long-distance runners, may have legs thanks to a new study on toes – SEED Magazine\n", "BULLET::::- Foot contact time, or stance time, is the time that the foot is in contact with the ground. There is evidence that shows that foot contact time is significantly decreased in humans as speed is increased.\n", "In \"The Lore of Running\", Tim Noakes, a professor of exercise and sports science at the University of Cape Town, and also recreational runner, describes a number of variables that may affect running economy: vertical motion while running, the ability of the muscles to absorb energy during the shock of landing and transfer it to push-off, biomechanical factors, technique and type of activity, fitness and training, age, fatigue, gender, race, weight of clothing and shoes, and environmental conditions.\n", "The energetics of movement are typically measured indirectly through oxygen consumption. Most of the energy for walking is produced through the combustion of nutrients in the presence of oxygen (as opposed to anaerobic or high-intensity exercise which relies increasingly on energy that does not require oxygen for breakdown). Oxygen consumption increases when transitioning from walking to running, despite Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) decreasing. Therefore people feel that they are not working as hard by switching from walking to running, even though their energy expenditure has increased. Humans would have to transition to running at much faster speeds than 2.0 m/s (4.5 mph) in order for the transition to represent a decrease in energy consumption.\n", "Section::::Physiology of long-distance running.:Factors.\n\nSection::::Physiology of long-distance running.:Factors.:Aerobic capacity.\n\nOne's aerobic capacity or VOMax is the ability to maximally take up and consume oxygen during exhaustive exercise. Long distance runners typically perform at around 75–85 % of peak aerobic capacity, while short distance runners perform at closer to 100% of peak.\n", "Section::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Other.\n\nOther factors also play a role:\n\nBULLET::::- Muscle Strength\n\nBULLET::::- Larger muscles are able to generate higher amounts of force and are therefore able to produce larger GRF's\n\nBULLET::::- Elastic Energy Storage\n\nBULLET::::- Cheetahs use flexion and extension of the spine to contribute significantly to speed by increasing foot contact time and swing time\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Footspeed\n\nBULLET::::- Sprint (running)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Department of Kinesiology - Biomechanics Lab \n", "Limb length and mass: \"Homo\" has longer legs relative to body mass, which helps to decrease the energetic costs of running, as time in contact with the ground increases. There is also a decrease in mass of distal parts of limbs of humans, which is known to decrease metabolic costs in endurance running, but has little effect on walking. Additionally, the mass of the upper body limbs in \"Homo\" has decreased considerably, relative to total body mass, which is important to reduce the effort of stabilizing the arms in running.\n", "Uncertainty exists in regards to how lactate threshold effects endurance performance. The contribution of one's blood lactate levels accumulating is attributed to potential skeletal muscle hypoxemia but also to the production of more glucose that can be used as energy. The inability to establish a singular set of physiological contributions to blood lactate accumulation's effect on the exercising individual creates a correlative role for lactate threshold in marathon performance as opposed to a causal role.\n\nSection::::Alternative factors contributing to marathon performance.\n\nSection::::Alternative factors contributing to marathon performance.:Fuel.\n", "BULLET::::1. Bone and muscle structure: unlike quadruped mammals, which have their center of mass in front of the hind legs or limbs, in biped mammals including humans the center of mass lies right above the legs. This leads to different bone and muscular demands especially in the legs and pelvis.\n\nBULLET::::2. Dissipation of metabolic heat: humans’ ability to cool the body by sweating through the body surface provides many advantages over panting through the mouth or nose. These include a larger surface of evaporation and independence of the respiratory cycle.\n", "BULLET::::- 100 m sprint: in a sprint, the athlete must be trained to work anaerobically throughout the race, an example of how to do this would be interval training.\n\nBULLET::::- Century Ride: cyclists must be prepared aerobically for a bike ride of 100 miles or more.\n\nBULLET::::- Middle distance running: athletes require both speed and endurance to gain benefit out of this training. The hard-working muscles are at their peak for a longer period of time as they are being used at that level for the longer period of time.\n", "In a study conducted in year 2004, the gait patterns of distance runners, sprinters, and non-runners was measured using video recording. Each group ran a 60-meter run at 5.81 m/s (to represent distance running) and at maximal running speed. The study showed that non-sprinters ran with an inefficient gait for the maximal speed trial while all groups ran with energetically efficient gaits for the distance trial. This indicates that the development of an economical distance running form is a natural process while sprinting is a learned technique that requires practice.\n\nSection::::Kinetics.:Arm Swing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18473	How come when 3G was new it was cutting edge fast connection but now that LTE is out whenever I only have 3G connection nothing works at all?	When LTE is out it's either because of congestion or bad signal strength. So when you drop down to 3G, so are a bunch of other users. Also, most towers upgraded to 4G LTE, leaving a small portion of its capacity for 3G.	[ "BULLET::::- Circuit-switched fallback (CSFB): In this approach, LTE just provides data services, and when a voice call is to be initiated or received, it will fall back to the circuit-switched domain. When using this solution, operators just need to upgrade the MSC instead of deploying the IMS, and therefore, can provide services quickly. However, the disadvantage is longer call setup delay.\n", "Most carriers supporting GSM or HSUPA networks can be expected to upgrade their networks to LTE at some stage. A complete list of commercial contracts can be found at:\n\nBULLET::::- August 2009: Telefónica selected six countries to field-test LTE in the succeeding months: Spain, the United Kingdom, Germany and the Czech Republic in Europe, and Brazil and Argentina in Latin America.\n\nBULLET::::- On November 24, 2009: Telecom Italia announced the first outdoor pre-commercial experimentation in the world, deployed in Torino and totally integrated into the 2G/3G network currently in service.\n", "Section::::4G – Native IP networks.\n\nBy 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.\n", "By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.\n", "The higher number of cells in HetNet results in user equipment changing the serving cell more frequently when in motion.\n\nThe ongoing work on LTE-Advanced in Release 12, amongst other areas, concentrates on addressing issues that come about when users move through HetNet, such as frequent hand-overs between cells. It also included use of 256-QAM.\n\nSection::::First technology demonstrations and field trials.\n", "Implementations of Mobile WiMAX and first-release LTE are largely considered a stopgap solution that will offer a considerable boost until WiMAX 2 (based on the 802.16m spec) and LTE Advanced are deployed. The latter's standard versions were ratified in spring 2011, but are still far from being implemented.\n", "3G adoption\n\n3G mobile telephony was relatively slow to be adopted 3Gglobally. In some instances, 3G networks do not use the same radio frequencies as 2G so mobile operators must build entirely new networks and license entirely new frequencies, especially so to achieve high data transmission rates. Other delays were due to the expenses of upgrading transmission hardware, especially for UMTS, whose deployment required the replacement of most broadcast towers. Due to these issues and difficulties with deployment, many carriers were not able to or delayed acquisition of these updated capabilities.\n", "By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on 3G networks worldwide, which reflected 9% of the total worldwide subscriber base. About two thirds of these were on the WCDMA standard and one third on the EV-DO standard. The 3G telecoms services generated over $120 billion of revenues during 2007 and at many markets the majority of new phones activated were 3G phones. In Japan and South Korea the market no longer supplies phones of the second generation.\n", "The performance of wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video. The use of this technology also gives room for expansions, such as from 2G to 3G and, 4G and 5G technologies, which stand for the fourth and fifth generation of cell phone mobile communications standards. As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication increases through configuration of network hardware and software, and greater capacity to send and receive larger amounts of data, faster, is achieved. Now the wireless network has been running on LTE, which is a 4G mobile communication standard. Users of an LTE network should have data speeds that are 10x faster than a 3G network. \n", "In September 2017, Swazi Mobile was the first to activate VoLTE in Swaziland.\n\nAfter this Bharti Airtel also launched the commercial VoLTE service in India.\n\nIn October 2017, Nova was the first to activate VoLTE in Iceland.\n\nIn November 2017, Telia Company was the first to activate VoLTE in Lithuania.\n", "Just as Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and WiMAX are being vigorously promoted in the global telecommunications industry, the former (LTE) is also the most powerful 4G mobile communications leading technology and has quickly occupied the Chinese market. TD-LTE, one of the two variants of the LTE air interface technologies, is not yet mature, but many domestic and international wireless carriers are, one after the other turning to TD-LTE.\n", "On December 6, 2010, ITU noted that while current versions of LTE, WiMax and other evolved 3G technologies do not fulfill IMT-Advanced requirements for 4G, some may use the term \"4G\" in an \"undefined\" fashion to represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced that show \"a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed.\"\n\nSection::::Candidate systems.:LTE Advanced.\n", "BULLET::::- In November 2009, Nokia Siemens Networks and LG completed first end-to-end interoperability testing of LTE.\n", "BULLET::::- Support for MBSFN (multicast-broadcast single-frequency network). This feature can deliver services such as Mobile TV using the LTE infrastructure, and is a competitor for DVB-H-based TV broadcast only LTE compatible devices receives LTE signal.\n\nSection::::Voice calls.\n\nThe LTE standard supports only packet switching with its all-IP network. Voice calls in GSM, UMTS and CDMA2000 are circuit switched, so with the adoption of LTE, carriers will have to re-engineer their voice call network. Three different approaches sprang up:\n\nBULLET::::- Voice over LTE (VoLTE):\n", "Since next generation devices, networks and services need to be synchronized for a successful launch, NGMN in February 2009 released a white paper which provided generic definitions for next generation (data only) devices to ensure that devices were available at the time when first networks were launched in 2010.\n\nAfter the launch of the first LTE networks in 2010,\n\nthe alliance then addressed challenges of network deployment, operations, and interworking, while focusing on LTE and its evolved packet core, as defined by the System Architecture Evolution.\n", "The network used the UMTS IV frequency band, commonly known as Advanced Wireless Services or AWS-1, to provide UMTS service with HSPA data (\"3G\"). Using this band, user equipment transmitted at 1710–1755 MHz, and received at 2110–2155 MHz. The same frequencies are used by Eastlink Wireless, Wind Mobile and Vidéotron Mobile in Canada; as well as T-Mobile in the United States. Mobilicity's network was compatible with the same 3G handsets and devices offered by these carriers.\n", "Likewise, 'WiMAX 2', 802.16m, has been approved by ITU as the IMT Advanced family. WiMAX 2 is designed to be backward compatible with WiMAX 1 devices. Most vendors now support conversion of 'pre-4G', pre-advanced versions and some support software upgrades of base station equipment from 3G.\n", "With the increasing availability of inter-device networks (e.g. Bluetooth or WifiDirect) there is also the possibility of offloading delay tolerant data to the \"ad hoc\" network layer. In this case, the delay tolerant data is sent to only a subset of data receivers via the 3G network, with the rest forwarded between devices in the \"ad hoc\" layer in a multi-hop fashion.\n\nAs a result, the traffic on the cellular network is reduced, or gets shifted to inter-device networks.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- LTE in unlicensed spectrum\n\nBULLET::::- Generic Access Network\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Global Wi-Fi Offload Summit\n", "BULLET::::- In December 2009, ST-Ericsson and Ericsson first to achieve LTE and HSPA mobility with a multimode device.\n\nBULLET::::- In January 2010, Alcatel-Lucent and LG complete a live handoff of an end-to-end data call between Long Term Evolution (LTE) and CDMA networks.\n\nBULLET::::- In February 2010, Nokia Siemens Networks and Movistar test the LTE in Mobile World Congress 2010 in Barcelona, Spain, with both indoor and outdoor demonstrations.\n", "BULLET::::- In October 2009, Ericsson and Samsung demonstrated interoperability between the first ever commercial LTE device and the live network in Stockholm, Sweden.\n\nBULLET::::- In October 2009, Alcatel-Lucent's Bell Labs, Deutsche Telekom Innovation Laboratories, the Fraunhofer Heinrich-Hertz Institut and antenna supplier Kathrein conducted live field tests of a technology called Coordinated Multipoint Transmission (CoMP) aimed at increasing the data transmission speeds of Long Term Evolution (LTE) and 3G networks.\n\nBULLET::::- In November 2009, Alcatel-Lucent completed first live LTE call using 800 MHz spectrum band set aside as part of the European Digital Dividend (EDD).\n", "Section::::Wireless networks.:Cellular network.:Packet-switched data upgrade.\n\nPacket-switched data service first became available to users in the form of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Packet-switched data speeds increased when Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) was incorporated into the network. EDGE coverage was available within at least forty percent of the GSM footprint.\n", "With the implementation of their new LTE network, Yoigo's terminals suffered some errors with notifications on various applications like Twitter, Facebook and WhatsApp Messenger. The problem laid in delays in the reception of instantaneous notifications which required adjustments in the network configuration.\n", "BULLET::::- Europe – 450, 700, 800, 900, 1500, 1800, 2100, 2300, 2600, 3500, 3700 MHz (bands 1, 3, 7, 8, 20, 22, 28, 31, 32, 38, 40, 42, 43)\n\nBULLET::::- Asia – 450, 700, 800, 850, 900, 1500, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2300, 2500, 2600, 3500 MHz (bands 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 18, 19, 21, 26, 21, 31, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42)\n\nBULLET::::- Africa – 700, 800, 850, 900, 1800, 2100, 2500, 2600 MHz (bands 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 20, 28, 41)\n", "Six years after the end of the auction of 700 MHz spectrum, block A remained largely unused, although T-Mobile USA began to deploy its extended-range LTE in 2015 on licenses purchased from Verizon Wireless and cleared of RF interference in several areas by TV stations changing off of channel 51. This delay was caused by technical issues which were regulatory and possibly anticompetitive in nature.\n", "A final enhancement is RLC-non persistent mode. With EDGE, the RLC interface could operate in either acknowledged mode, or unacknowledged mode. In unacknowledged mode, there is no retransmission of missing data blocks, so a single corrupt block would cause an entire upper-layer IP packet to be lost. With non-persistent mode, an RLC data block may be retransmitted if it is less than a certain age. Once this time expires, it is considered lost, and subsequent data blocks may then be forwarded to upper layers.\n\nSection::::Evolved EDGE.:Technology.:Downlink Dual Carrier.\n" ]	[ "If 3G is an impressively fast connection, it should maintain it's strength when LTE is out." ]	[ "The loss of connection speed is due to congestion, bad signal strength, and many towers no longer using 3G speeds. It is irrelevant to the capabilities of a 3G connection." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If 3G is an impressively fast connection, it should maintain it's strength when LTE is out.", "If 3G is an impressively fast connection, it should maintain it's strength when LTE is out." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The loss of connection speed is due to congestion, bad signal strength, and many towers no longer using 3G speeds. It is irrelevant to the capabilities of a 3G connection.", "The loss of connection speed is due to congestion, bad signal strength, and many towers no longer using 3G speeds. It is irrelevant to the capabilities of a 3G connection." ]
2018-16338	Why Kids tend to fall more easily from bed while sleeping, then adults	I don’t think there’s a 100% proven answer, but... since children are still developing a sense of space (spatial cognition if you’re a fancy-pants) there’s no sub/unconscious safeguard preventing a roll off the bed in the middle of the night.	[ "Infant bed\n\nAn infant bed (commonly called a cot in British English, and, in American English, a crib or cradle, or far less commonly, stock) is a small bed especially for infants and very young children. Infant beds are a historically recent development intended to contain a child capable of standing. The cage-like design of infant beds restricts the child to the bed. Between one and two years of age, children are able to climb out and are moved to a toddler bed to prevent an injurious fall while escaping the bed.\n", "Studies have shown that old adults above the age of 65 years are more prone to falls than young healthy adults. The most falls in older adults are due to: \n", "Design standards all identify and address four broad hazards: \n\nBULLET::::- Falls: To prevent injuries such as concussion and bone fractures from falls when trying to climb out, footholds are not permitted. Minimum cot side heights are defined for various mattress positions.\n\nBULLET::::- Strangulation: Infants can become trapped and strangled if their clothing gets caught on parts of a cot that stick out, or if their head becomes trapped between gaps. Neither gaps large enough for a child's head nor protrusions are permitted.\n", "Toddlers typically enjoy climbing up things with steps. This includes furniture. Heavy furniture in the home is often not secured to the wall. These pieces of furniture can include bookcases and dressers that can weigh hundreds of pounds. Heavy objects like televisions that are on the furniture can also fall onto the child. If the toddler climbs up the furniture it is likely to fall onto the child. This has resulted in the deaths and injuries of children. Even if the children appears uninjured, it is possible that internal injuries have occurred with serious consequences. Often these injuries are not apparent to caregivers and as a consequence treatment can be delayed. Serious head injuries have also occurred.\n", "A sleepsack can be used instead to keep the baby warm. Older children can use items such as pillows and toys to construct a platform to facilitate escape, defeating the major design criteria and endangering the child.\n", "Various kinds of individuals of different ages and conditions are at a constant risk of falling.\n\nSection::::Risk factors of falls.:Healthy young individuals.\n\nThe most common cause of falls in healthy adults is due to accidents. It may be by slipping or tripping from stable surfaces or stairs, improper footwear, dark surroundings, uneven ground, or lack of exercise. Studies suggest that women are more prone to falling than men in all age groups. The most common injuries in the young population due to falls occur at the wrist/hand, knees and ankles.\n\nSection::::Risk factors of falls.:Older adults.\n", "In the study \"\"Sleepwalking and Sleep Terrors in Prepubertal Children\"\" it was found that, if a child had another sleep disorder — such as restless leg syndrome (RLS) or sleep-disorder breathing (SDB) — there was a greater chance of sleepwalking. The study found that children with chronic parasomnias may often also present SDB or, to a lesser extent, RLS. Furthermore, the disappearance of the parasomnias after the treatment of the SDB or RLS periodic limb movement syndrome suggests that the latter may trigger the former. The high frequency of SDB in family members of children with parasomnia provided additional evidence that SDB may manifest as parasomnias in children. Children with parasomnias are not systematically monitored during sleep, although past studies have suggested that patients with sleep terrors or sleepwalking have an elevated level of brief EEG arousals. When children receive polysomnographies, discrete patterns (e.g., nasal flow limitation, abnormal respiratory effort, bursts of high or slow EEG frequencies) should be sought; apneas are rarely found in children. Children's respiration during sleep should be monitored with nasal cannula/pressure transducer system and/or esophageal manometry, which are more sensitive than the thermistors or thermocouples currently used in many laboratories. The clear, prompt improvement of severe parasomnia in children who are treated for SDB, as defined here, provides important evidence that subtle SDB can have substantial health-related significance. Also noteworthy is the report of familial presence of parasomnia. Studies of twin cohorts and families with sleep terror and sleepwalking suggest genetic involvement of parasomnias. RLS and SDB have been shown to have familial recurrence. RLS has been shown to have genetic involvement.\n", "All U.S. makers of infant cribs carry JPMA safety and quality certifications.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Co-sleeping, a practice in which babies and young children sleep with one or both parents\n\nBULLET::::- Bassinet, a common precursor bed for babies\n\nBULLET::::- Toddler bed, a common subsequent bed for toddlers\n\nBULLET::::- Single bed/Twin bed, a less common subsequent bed for toddlers due to bed height (making it hard to get in and out) and a lack of integral cot sides to stop the child accidentally rolling out while asleep (although temporary cot sides are widely available)\n", "It wasn't until the 19th century that infant beds developed from bassinettes, acquiring a role of keeping the child in their bed. The development of a distinction between infant beds and bassinettes was natural because it was \"considered vital that the child's bed be raised off the ground.\" This was due to a perception of noxious fumes below knee level, and explosive vapours near the ceiling, with good air in between. Once children's beds were raised off the ground the role of the sides changed from a convenience to a safety feature.\n", "affect SIDS risk. It is common to place a waterproof membrane between the mattress and the bedding to prevent uncontained bed wetting from damaging the mattress. Bed sheets ought to fit the mattress tightly so that the child cannot become entangled and suffocate; a common safety recommendation is to short sheet the bed.\n\nBecause of the pronounced risk of suffocation in very young children, and the danger of a fall from the bed for other children, the addition of anything other than sheets (including quilts, pillows and stuffed toys) into an infant bed is not recommended by health authorities. \n", "Placing an infant to sleep while lying on the stomach or the side increases the risk. This increased risk is greatest at two to three months of age. Elevated or reduced room temperature also increases the risk, as does excessive bedding, clothing, soft sleep surfaces, and stuffed animals. Bumper pads may increase the risk of SIDS due to the risk of suffocation. They are not recommended for children under one year of age as this risk of suffocation greatly outweighs the risk of head bumping or limbs getting stuck in the bars of the crib.\n", "An infant bed is typically used after it is no longer safe to leave the baby in a bassinet. They have a lower center of gravity, more mass, a broader base of support and can hold a larger baby than a bassinet. Infant beds are more stable than bassinets and as such become desirable when a baby can roll, transferring inertia with their actions; a bassinet may tip, an infant bed won't without concerted effort. Around two or three years of age children are able to defeat their confinement and should be moved to a toddler bed to prevent an injurious fall while escaping their bed (falls account for 66% of emergency room admissions due to infant beds in the United States.).\n", "Falling (accident)\n\nFalling is the second leading cause of accidental death worldwide and is a major cause of personal injury, especially for the elderly. Falls in older adults are an important class of preventable injuries. Builders, electricians, miners, and painters are occupations with high rates of fall injuries.\n\nLong-term exercise appears to decrease the rate of falls in older people. About 226 million cases of significant accidental falls occurred in 2015. These resulted in 527,000 deaths.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Accidents.\n", "The most common cause of falls in healthy adults is accidents. It may be by slipping or tripping from stable surfaces or stairs, improper footwear, dark surroundings, uneven ground, or lack of exercise. \n\nStudies suggest that women are more prone to falling than men in all age groups.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Age.\n\nOlder people and particularly older people with dementia are at greater risk than young people to injuries due to falling. Older people are at risk due to accidents, gait disturbances, balance disorders, changed reflexes due to visual, sensory, motor and cognitive impairment, medications and alcohol consumption, infections, and dehydration.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Illness.\n", "Long-term exercise appears to decrease the rate of falls in older people. Rates of falls in hospital can be reduced with a number of interventions together by 0.72 from baseline in the elderly. In nursing homes fall prevention problems that involve a number of interventions prevent recurrent falls.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nIn 2013 unintentional falls resulted in 556,000 deaths up from 341,000 deaths in 1990. They are the second most common cause of death from unintentional injuries after motor vehicle collisions. \n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:United States.\n", "Section::::In humans.:Infants.\n\nStudies done by psychologists Eleanor J. Gibson and Richard D. Walk have further explained the nature of this fear. One of their more famous studies is the \"visual cliff. Below is their description of the cliff: \n", "According to one meta-analysis, the two most prevalent sleep disorders among children are confusional arousals and sleep walking. An estimated 17.3% of kids between 3 and 13 years old experience confusional arousals. About 17% of children sleep walk, with the disorder being more common among boys than girls. The peak ages of sleep walking are from 8 to 12 years old. A different systematic review offers a high range of prevalence rates of sleep bruxism for children. Between 15.29 and 38.6% of preschoolers grind their teeth at least one night a week. All but one of the included studies reports decreasing bruxist prevalence as age increased as well as a higher prevalence among boys than girls.\n", "BULLET::::- Stairs with inadequate handrails, or too steep, encouraging trips and falls. The steps should be spaced widely with low risers, and surfaces should be slip-resistant. Softer surfaces can help limit impact injuries by cushioning loads.\n\nBULLET::::- Doorways with adequate headroom so that the user's head does not hit the lintel. Doorways of low headroom (less than about 2 metres) are common in old houses and cottages for example.\n\nBULLET::::- Rugs/floor surfaces with low friction, causing poor traction and individual instability. All surfaces should have a high friction coefficient with shoe soles.\n", "There exist many risks for injury to older adults in the common household, therefore impacting upon their capability to successfully age in place. Among the greatest threats to an ability to age in place is falling. According to the CDC, falls are the leading cause of injurious death among older adults. Therefore, engagement in fall prevention is crucial to one's ability to age in place. Common features in an everyday household, such as a lack of support in the shower or bathroom, inadequate railings on the stairs, loose throw rugs, and obstructed pathways are all possible dangers to an older person. However, simple and low-cost modifications to an older person's home can greatly decrease the risk of falling, as well as decreasing the risk of other forms of injury. Consequently, this increases the likelihood that one can age in place.\n", "Studies show that balance, flexibility, and strength training not only improve mobility but also reduce the risk of falling. This may be achieved through group and home-based exercise programs. The majority of older adults do not exercise regularly and 35% of people over the age of 65 do not participate in any leisurely physical activities. \n\nSection::::Occupational and physical therapy.:Older adults.\n", "The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that infants under 12 months share a room (but not a bed) with their parents, as this has shown to be protective against sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Other sleep environment factors include supine positioning (back sleeping), use of a firm sleep surface, breastfeeding, consideration of a pacifier (dummy), and avoidance of soft bedding, overheating, and exposure to tobacco smoke.\n\nSection::::Accessories.\n\nScientific research has shown that the mattress influences SIDS outcomes; a firm, clean and well-fitting mattress lowers SIDS risk. However, neither mattress materials\n\nnor using a second-hand mattress\n", "It was recognised that once children learn to stand they may be able to get out of a bed with low sides. According to an expert of the time, infant beds were used once the child was 12 months old. Often one side was hinged to open the enclosure, a function fulfilled in modern infant beds with a dropside. With the hinge side lowered, the bed could be moved on casters, and they could be moved right up to the carer's bed when needed.\n", "By the time infants reach the age of two, their brain size has reached 90 percent of an adult-sized brain; a majority of this brain growth has occurred during the period of life with the highest rate of sleep. The hours that children spend asleep influence their ability to perform on cognitive tasks. Children who sleep through the night and have few night waking episodes have higher cognitive attainments and easier temperaments than other children.\n", "Risk factors may be grouped into intrinsic factors, such as existence of a specific ailment or disease. External or extrinsic factors includes the environment and the way in which it may encourage or deter accidental falls. Such factors as lighting and illumination, personal aid equipment and floor traction are all important in fall prevention.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Intrinsic factors.\n\nBULLET::::- Balance and Gait\n\nBULLET::::- Visual and Motor Reaction Time Problems\n\nBULLET::::- Medications\n\nBULLET::::- Polypharmacy is common in older people\n\nBULLET::::- Sedatives significantly increase the risk of falling\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiovascular medications can contribute towards falls\n\nBULLET::::- Visual impairment\n", "Many health institutions in USA have developed screening questionnaires. Enquiry includes difficulty with walking and balance, medication use to help with sleep/mood, loss of sensation in feet, vision problems, fear of falling, and use of assistive devices for walking.\n\nOlder adults who report falls should be asked about their circumstances and frequency to assess risks from gait and balance which may be compromised. A fall risk assessment is done by a clinician to include history, physical exam, functional capability, and environment.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Kids have the same spatial cognition as adults." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Kids are still developing their spatial cognition." ]
2018-10453	Why does bread have a thin layer of crust instead of a continuous gradient from most cooked to least?	Bread dough isn't very good at conducting heat, so the outside layer gets really hot but it cools down quickly away from the edge. Also, when the dough rises and gets all puffy, it prevents the dough from browning even more since the air bubbles are even better at insulating than the dough itself. So you end up with an uneven texture where only the outside is browned and crunchy.	[ "BULLET::::- The \"shortening method\", also known as the \"biscuit method\", is used for biscuits and sometimes scones. This method cuts solid fat (whether lard, butter, or vegetable shortening) into flour and other dry ingredients using a food processor, pastry blender, or two hand-held forks. The layering from this process gives rise and adds flakiness as the folds of fat melt during baking. This technique is said to produce \"shortened\" cakes and breads, regardless of whether or not the chosen fat is vegetable shortening.\n\nSection::::Dough consistency.\n", "Alternatively, a \"couche\" (pronounced \"koosh\"), bakery couche, or proofing cloth, can be used on which to proof dough. They are used for longer loaves, such as baguettes. Couches are typically made of linen. They should not be washed as flour collects in the weave creating a less-sticky surface. The couche is dusted lightly with flour, then shaped doughs are laid on top of it and folds are placed to separate and support them while proofing.\n\nBreads such as sandwich loaves and brioche are normally proofed in the bread pan in which they will be baked.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bread\n", "The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The browning is caused by caramelization of sugars and the Maillard reaction. Maillard browning occurs when \"sugars break down in the presence of proteins. Because foods contain many different types of sugars and proteins, Maillard browning contributes to the flavour of a wide range of foods, including nuts, roast beef and baked bread.\" The moisture is never entirely \"sealed in\"; over time, an item being baked will become dry. This is often an advantage, especially in situations where drying is the desired outcome, like drying herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.\n", "While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, which are cooked directly on a griddle. Fried dough foods are also common in many cultures.\n\nPancakes, waffles, some kinds of bar cookies such as brownies, and many cakes and quick breads (including muffins and the like) are often made with a semi-liquid batter of flour and liquid that is poured into the final shape, rather than a solid dough. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network.\n", "The ratio of ingredients and mixing method determines the texture of the crust. If the flour is not well mixed with the shortening, then water can bind to the available flour causing the gluten protein matrix to become over developed. This would result in a tough crust, as opposed to a flaky crust, which is more desirable. \n", "BULLET::::- The \"creaming method\" is frequently used for cake batters. The butter and sugar are \"creamed\", or beaten together until smooth and fluffy. Eggs and liquid flavoring are mixed in, and finally dry and liquid ingredients are added in. The creaming method combines rise gained from air bubbles in the creamed butter with the rise from the chemical leaveners. Gentle folding in of the final ingredients avoids destroying these air pockets.\n", "The same principle applies to non-bread products such as meatloaf and cakes that are cooked so as to retain their shape during the cooking process. In determining the size of the loaf, the cook or baker must take into consideration the need for heat to penetrate the loaf evenly during the cooking process, so that no parts are overcooked or undercooked. Many kinds of mass-produced bread are distinctly squared, with well-defined corners on the bottom of the loaf. Loaves of rectangular shape can be made more or less identical, and can be packed and shipped efficiently.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "\"Panko\" is produced worldwide, particularly in Asian countries, including Japan, Korea, Thailand, China, and Vietnam.\n\nSection::::Types.:Panko.:Etymology.\n\nThe Japanese first learned to make bread from Europeans. The word \"panko\" is derived from \"pan\", the word for bread in Portuguese, Spanish, and Japanese, and \"-ko\", a Japanese suffix indicating \"flour\", \"coating\", \"crumb\", or \"powder\" (as in \"komeko\", \"rice powder\", \"sobako\", \"buckwheat flour\", and \"komugiko\", \"wheat flour\").\n\nSection::::Breading.\n", "The lower layer is made of the grains of Aleppo pines, \"zgougou\", not to be confused with pine nuts, stone pines, or pinus armandii. The grains are cleaned, then ground in water and sieved to very small sizes. The resulting juicy substance is then mixed with wheat flour and/or starch depending on the recipe. Sometimes concentrated milk is added. Then everything is cooked at low heat while stirred. Powdered sugar is added gradually as the mixture thickens, giving rise to a grayish-brown color.\n", "The origin of the current practice of stretching raw dough into paper-thin sheets is highly debated, unclear, and unknown. Many credit the origins of Filo as far back as antiquity. Ancient Greeks would bake thin breads sweetened with walnuts and honey, arguably the ancestor to Baklava. In fact the first documented such food was written in Homer's Odyssey written around 800 B.C. In the fifth century B.C. Philoxenos states in his poem \"Banquet\" the final drinking course of a meal, hosts would prepare and serve cheesecake made with milk and honey that was baked into to a pie.\n", "BULLET::::- Pâte Sablée same ingredients as pâte sucrée, but the butter is creamed with the sugar and the eggs before the flour is folded in. This mixes the butter more evenly, which makes the dough puff much less, creating a more \"snappy\" and dry pastry, instead of the crumbly texture of the previous doughs. Sablé works better for sweet tarts, tea biscuits, and piped shapes than other short doughs, as they hold their shape much more efficiently, and are the basis for gingerbread and sandwich biscuits. No water is needed, neither is the dough particularly temperature-sensitive.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n", "A bread that is properly proofed will balance gas production with the ability of the bread's gluten structure to contain it, and will exhibit good oven spring when baked. A bread that is under- or overproofed will have less oven spring and be more dense. An overproofed bread may even collapse in the oven as the volume of gas produced by the yeast can no longer be contained by the gluten structure.\n", "It is thin and crisp, usually in the form of a dish half a meter wide. It is made by taking baked flat bread (made of durum wheat flour, salt, yeast, and water), then separating it into two sheets which are baked again. The recipe is very ancient and was conceived for shepherds, who used to stay far from home for months at a time. \"Pane carasau\" can last up to one year if it is kept dry. The bread can be eaten either dry or wet (with water, wine, or sauces).\n", "The breads used to make soft or fresh bread crumbs are not quite as dry, so the crumbs are larger and produce a softer coating, crust, or stuffing. The \"crumb\" of \"bread crumb\" also refers to the texture of the soft, inner part of a bread loaf, as distinguished from the crust, or \"skin\".\n\nSection::::Types.:Panko.\n", "During the chemical leavening process, agents (one or more food-grade chemicals—usually a weak acid and a weak base) are added into the dough during mixing. These agents undergo a chemical reaction to produce carbon dioxide, which increases the baked good's volume and produces a porous structure and lighter texture. Yeast breads often take hours to rise, and the resulting baked good's texture can vary greatly based on external factors such as temperature and humidity. By contrast, breads made with chemical leavening agents are relatively uniform, reliable, and quick. Usually, the resulting baked good is softer and lighter than a traditional yeast bread.\n", "Meat, including cured meats, such as ham can also be baked, but baking is usually reserved for meatloaf, smaller cuts of whole meats, or whole meats that contain stuffing or coating such as bread crumbs or buttermilk batter. Some foods are surrounded with moisture during baking by placing a small amount of liquid (such as water or broth) in the bottom of a closed pan, and letting it steam up around the food, a method commonly known as braising or slow baking. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are more often roasted, which is a similar process, using higher temperatures and shorter cooking times. Roasting, however, is only suitable for finer cuts of meat, so other methods have been developed to make tougher meat cuts palatable after baking. One of these is the method known as \"en croûte\" (French for \"in a pastry crust\"), which protects the food from direct heat and seals the natural juices inside. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking \"en croûte\". Well-known examples include Beef Wellington, where the beef is encased in pastry before baking; pâté en croûte, where the terrine is encased in pastry before baking; and the Vietnamese variant, a meat-filled pastry called pâté chaud. The \"en croûte\" method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favorite method of cooking venison. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten. Another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking is to cook it \"en papillote\" (French for \"in parchment\"). In this method, the food is covered by baking paper (or aluminium foil) to protect it while it is being baked. The cooked parcel of food is sometimes served unopened, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves which adds an element of surprise.\n", "A typical modern recipe for 12 cakes requires about 200 g of flour, 100 g of butter or margarine, 50 g of sugar, 1 beaten egg, 1 teaspoon of baking powder, 2 tablespoons of milk, 150 g of dried fruit such as currants, raisins, candied orange peel, etc., and a pinch of nutmeg and mixed spices. Usually, flour and butter are first mixed until the mixture resembles breadcrumbs; then the other ingredients are added to create a stiff dough, which is dropped from a spoon to a baking tray or roughly formed with two forks. The cakes (optionally sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon) are baked for about 15 minutes at 200 °C, retaining an uneven form and contour.\n", "Bread crust is formed from surface dough during the cooking process. It is hardened and browned through the Maillard reaction using the sugars and amino acids and the intense heat at the bread surface. The crust of most breads is harder, and more complexly and intensely flavored, than the rest. Old wives tales suggest that eating the bread crust makes a person's hair curlier. Additionally, the crust is rumored to be healthier than the remainder of the bread. Some studies have shown that this is true as the crust has more dietary fiber and antioxidants such as pronyl-lysine, which is being researched for its potential colorectal cancer inhibitory properties.\n", "By using a baking sheet pan placed above the grill surface, as well as a drip pan below the surface, it is possible to combine grilling and roasting to cook meats that are stuffed or coated with breadcrumbs or batter, and to bake breads and even casseroles and desserts. When cooking stuffed or coated meats, the foods can be baked first on the sheet pan, and then placed directly on the grilling surface for char marks, effectively cooking twice; the drip pan will be used to capture any crumbs that fall off from the coating or stuffing.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Gridironing.:Grill-braising.\n", "Section::::Preparation.\n\n Most pita are baked at high temperatures (), which turns the water in the dough into steam, thus causing the pita to puff up and form a pocket. When removed from the oven, the layers of baked dough remain separated inside the deflated pita, which allows the bread to be opened to form a pocket. However, pita is sometimes baked without pockets and is called \"pocket-less pita\". Regardless of whether it is made at home or in a commercial bakery, pita is proofed for a very short time—only 15 minutes.\n", "This opinion is shared by , scholar and philologist from Kolozsvár (Cluj): \"...when taken off from the spit in one piece, the cake assumes the shape of a long vent or tube. Since the cake is served in this tubular form to family and guests, and consumers are faced with this typical, vent-like image of the dough to be torn off in strips, it is self-evident that its name must have been given with regard to the vent shape of the cake\".\n", "Some protein is lost during traditional bulk fermentation of bread; this does not occur to the same degree in mechanically developed doughs, allowing CBP to use lower-protein wheat. This feature had an important impact in the United Kingdom where, at the time, few domestic wheat varieties were of sufficient quality to make high-quality bread; the CBP permitted a much greater proportion of lower-protein domestic wheat to be used in the grist.\n\nSection::::Details.\n", "The process of making panforte is fairly simple. Sugar is dissolved in honey and various nuts, fruits and spices are mixed together with flour. The entire mixture is baked in a shallow pan. The finished disc is dusted with icing sugar. Commercially produced panforte often have a band of rice-paper around the edge.\n", "Section::::Preparation.:Fats or shortenings.\n\nFats, such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs, affect the development of gluten in breads by coating and lubricating the individual strands of protein. They also help to hold the structure together. If too much fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect causes the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the concentration that produces the greatest leavening action. In addition to their effects on leavening, fats also serve to tenderize breads and preserve freshness.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Bread improvers.\n", "Section::::Preparation.:Liquids.\n\nWater, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of 3 parts liquid to 5 parts flour is common for yeast breads. Recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of 1 part liquid to 1 part flour. Instead of water, recipes may use liquids such as milk or other dairy products (including buttermilk or yoghurt), fruit juice, or eggs. These contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17620	Why do stars twinkle?	Stars twinkle because their light must pass through pockets of Earth's atmosphere that vary in temperature and density, and it's all very turbulent. On rough nights, a star appears to shift position constantly as its light is refracted this way and that. - Live Science	[ "Stars twinkle because they are so far from Earth that they appear as point sources of light easily disturbed by Earth's atmospheric turbulence, which acts like lenses and prisms diverting the light's path. Large astronomical objects closer to Earth, like the Moon and other planets, encompass many points in space and can be resolved as objects with observable diameters. With multiple observed points of light traversing the atmosphere, their light's deviations average out and the viewer perceives less variation in light coming from them.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Interplanetary scintillation\n\nBULLET::::- Observational astronomy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\"\n", "Twinkling\n\nTwinkling, or scintillation, is a generic term for variations in apparent brightness or position of a distant luminous object viewed through a medium. If the object lies outside the Earth's atmosphere, as in the case of stars and planets, the phenomenon is termed \"astronomical scintillation\"; within the atmosphere, the phenomenon is termed \"terrestrial scintillation\". As one of the three principal factors governing astronomical seeing (the others being light pollution and cloud cover), atmospheric twinkling is defined as variations in illuminance only.\n", "Section::::Media.\n\nSection::::Media.:Manga.\n", "Astronomical seeing\n\nAstronomical seeing refers to the amount of apparent blurring and twinkling of astronomical objects like stars due to turbulent mixing in the atmosphere of Earth, causing variations of the optical refractive index. The seeing conditions on a given night at a given location describe how much Earth's atmosphere perturbs the images of stars as seen through a telescope.\n", "BULLET::::1. It causes the images of point sources (such as stars), which in the absence of atmospheric turbulence would be steady Airy patterns produced by diffraction, to break up into speckle patterns, which change very rapidly with time (the resulting speckled images can be processed using speckle imaging)\n\nBULLET::::2. Long exposure images of these changing speckle patterns result in a blurred image of the point source, called a \"seeing disc\"\n\nBULLET::::3. The brightness of stars appears to fluctuate in a process known as scintillation or twinkling\n\nBULLET::::4. Atmospheric seeing causes the fringes in an astronomical interferometer to move rapidly\n", "Turbulence in Earth's atmosphere scatters the light from stars, making them appear brighter and fainter on a time-scale of milliseconds. The slowest components of these fluctuations are visible as twinkling (also called \"scintillation\").\n\nTurbulence also causes small, sporadic motions of the star image, and produces rapid distortions in its structure. These effects are not visible to the naked eye, but can be easily seen even in small telescopes. They perturb astronomical seeing conditions. Some telescopes employ adaptive optics to reduce this effect.\n\nSection::::Terrestrial refraction.\n", "Section::::Explanations.:Astronomical object.:Double occultation.\n", "Twinkle bulb\n\nA twinkle bulb is a special type of light bulb which blinks on and off for decorative effect. They are most commonly used on Christmas lights and other string lights, but can also be used for other ornamental purposes like electric jack-o-lanterns for Halloween and replica traffic lights.\n\nSection::::Incandescent.\n", "Section::::Extrasolar planets.:Recent developments.\n\nIn May 2017, glints of light from Earth, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. The technology used to determine this may be useful in studying the atmospheres of distant worlds, including those of exoplanets.\n\nSection::::From the Large Magellanic Cloud.\n", "Stars twinkle for the same reason. They are so far from Earth that they appear as point sources of light easily disturbed by Earth's atmospheric turbulence which acts like lenses and prisms diverting the light's path. Viewed toward the collimated light of a star, the shadows bands from atmospheric refraction pass over the eye.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 9th century CE, shadow bands during a total solar eclipse were described for the first time – in the Völuspá, part of the old Icelandic poetic edda.\n", "While light from stars and other astronomical objects are likely to twinkle, twinkling usually does not cause images of planets to flicker appreciably.\n", "Historically, the zenith of naked-eye astronomy was the work of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601). He built an extensive observatory to make precise measurements of the heavens without any instruments for magnification. In 1610, Galileo Galilei pointed a telescope towards the sky. He immediately discovered the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus, among other things.\n\nMeteor showers are better observed by naked eye than with binoculars. Such showers include the Perseids (10–12 August) and the December Geminids. Some 100 satellites per night, the International Space Station and the Milky Way are other popular objects visible to the naked eye.\n", "Section::::LEDs.\n\nLEDs also have twinkling versions, though they contain an oscillator that alternates on and off at a very regular intervals rather than the irregular blinking of the thermal bimetallic strips. Dimmers or low batteries generally do not affect the twinkling interval, but as with incandescent bulbs, having them off part of the time extends battery life.\n", "BULLET::::- The Winter Triangle visible in the northern sky's winter and comprise the first magnitude stars Procyon, Betelgeuse and Sirius.\n\nSection::::Large or bright asterisms.:Constellation based asterisms.\n\nBULLET::::- A familiar asterism is the Big Dipper, Plough or Charles's Wain, which is composed of the seven brightest stars in Ursa Major. These stars delineate the Bear's hindquarters and exaggerated tail, or alternatively, the \"handle\" forming the upper outline of the bear's head and neck. With its longer tail, Ursa Minor hardly appears bearlike at all, and is widely known by its pseudonym, the Little Dipper.\n", "Section::::Environmental pollution.\n\nA clean atmosphere is indicated by the fact that the Milky Way is visible. Comparing the zenith with the horizon, shows how the \"blue quality\" is degraded depending on the amount of air pollution and dust. The twinkling of a star is an indication of the turbulence of the air. This is of importance in meteorology and for the \"seeing\" of astronomy.\n\nLight pollution is a significant problem for amateur astronomers but becomes less late at night when many lights are shut off. Air dust can be seen even far away from a city by its \"light dome\".\n", "Section::::Sun.\n", "Shortly after sunset and before sunrise, artificial satellites often look like stars—similar in brightness and size—but move relatively quickly. Those that fly in low Earth orbit cross the sky in a couple of minutes. Some satellites, including space debris, appear to blink or have a periodic fluctuation in brightness because they are rotating. Satellite flares can appear brighter than Venus, with notable examples including the International Space Station (ISS) and Iridium Satellites.\n", "The meteorologist Sakuhei Fujiwhara wrote \"Atmospheric Light Phenomena\" in 1933, but in it, he wrote that he did not know the cause of shiranui, and due to some who profited from delighting sightseers, he pointed out the possibility that they are from noctiluca.\n", "BULLET::::- At the conclusion of \"The Insect Play\", by brothers Karel and Josef Čapek and translated by Paul Selver, a group of school children sing: \"As I went down to Shrewsbury Town, / I saw my love in a dimity gown: / And all so gay I gave it away, / I gave it away—my silver crown.\"\n", "Night sky\n\nThe term night sky, usually associated with astronomy from Earth, refers to the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.\n\nNatural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. Aurorae light up the skies above the polar circles. Occasionally, a large coronal mass ejection from the Sun or simply high levels of solar wind may extend the phenomenon toward the Equator.\n", "Section::::Commonly observed objects.\n\nThe most commonly observed objects tend to be ones that do not require a telescope to view, such as the Moon, meteors, planets, constellations, and stars.\n", "Several sources can be identified as the source of the intrinsic brightness of the sky, namely airglow, indirect scattering of sunlight, scattering of starlight, and artificial light pollution.\n\nSection::::During the night.\n", "Section::::Declination of the Sun as seen from Earth.:Atmospheric refraction.\n", "Section::::Features.:Deep-sky objects.\n", "Common optical phenomena are often due to the interaction of light from the sun or moon with the atmosphere, clouds, water, dust, and other particulates. One common example is the rainbow, when light from the sun is reflected and refracted by water droplets. Some, such as the green ray, are so rare they are sometimes thought to be mythical. Others, such as Fata Morganas, are commonplace in favored locations.\n\nOther phenomena are simply interesting aspects of optics, or optical effects. For instance, the colors generated by a prism are often shown in classrooms.\n\nSection::::A list of optical phenomena.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00461	Why do CG movies like Coco only get 2K upscaled releases on 4K Blu Ray?	You can't "just export it". It's a massive undertaking. I found a quote that for Monsters University, the rendering time was 29 hours per frame. This is of course massively parallelized, so rather than working a frame at a time, they're going to do say, 5000 frames at once by dedicating a lot of hardware to it, and finish it in a month. Setting up such an operation takes real work and effort, you don't just randomly decide "Oh, it would be nice to increase the resolution" and do it. Also, raytracing scales linearly with the number of pixels, so 4K takes 4 times longer than full HD to render. So if their hardware rendered HD in a month, releasing 4K is going to take about 4.	[ "The film was originally scheduled to be released on May 15, 2015, but on August 12, 2014, the release date was changed to July 24, 2015. In the United States and Canada, it was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema, which is the first ever for Sony. It was released in China on September 15, 2015.\n\nSection::::Release.:Marketing.\n", "Disney began releasing new releases (with the exception of \"Christopher Robin\") on Ultra HD Blu-ray starting with \"Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2\" on August 22, 2017 (under the Marvel Studios label). More films like \"\" (which is the first 4K UHD title released under the main Disney label), \"Cars 3\" (which is Pixar's first film on the Ultra HD Blu-ray format), \"Coco\", \"\", \"\" (which is the first film released on UHD under the Lucasfilm label, the first Star Wars film to be released on Ultra HD Blu-ray, and Disney's first physical UHD release with Dolby Vision HDR), \"Black Panther\", \"\", \"\", \"Ant-Man and the Wasp\", \"Incredibles 2\", \"The Nutcracker and the Four Realms\", and \"Ralph Breaks the Internet\" have subsequently been released on the format in certain countries.\n", "The movie also sold Blu-ray copies worth 370million yen (US$4.1million) in Japan, placing it 3rd out of 10 in the top 10 overall Blu-ray category.\n\nIn March 2011, Warner Bros. offered \"The Dark Knight\" for rent on Facebook, becoming the first movie ever to be released via digital distribution on a social networking site. Users in the United States were able to use Facebook Credits to view the film. \"The Dark Knight\" was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on December 19, 2017.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "BULLET::::- Warner Home Video released \"\", \"The Lego Movie\", \"Pan\", and \"San Andreas\".\n\nBULLET::::- 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released \"The Martian\", \"\", \"\", \"\", \"\", \"The Maze Runner\", \"Wild\", \"\", \"Fantastic Four\", and \"Life of Pi\".\n\nbr\n\nThe first Ultra HD Blu-ray Discs officially released from other studios after March 1, 2016:\n\nBULLET::::- Paramount Home Media Distribution released \"Star Trek\" and \"Star Trek Into Darkness\" on June 14, 2016.\n\nBULLET::::- Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released \"Lucy\", \"Oblivion\", and \"Lone Survivor\" on August 9, 2016.\n", "The first 50 GB dual-layer Blu-ray Disc release was the movie \"Click\", which was released on October 10, 2006. As of July 2008, over 95% of Blu-ray movies/games are published on 50 GB dual layer discs with the remainder on 25 GB discs. 85% of HD DVD movies are published on 30 GB dual layer discs, with the remainder on 15 GB discs.\n", "In addition to DVDs, Universal was a major supporter of the HD DVD format until Toshiba discontinued the format. Since July 22, 2008, UPHE released Blu-rays and it was the last major Hollywood movie studio to do so. The very first three Blu-ray releases to come out in the U.S. were \"The Mummy\", its sequel and \"The Scorpion King\". Since August 9, 2016, UPHE started releasing Ultra HD Blu-rays\".\n", "Section::::History.:Future scope and market trends.\n", "The film was also released in both high-definition formats, HD DVD, which featured both standard and high definitions on the same disc, and Blu-ray. It was the best-selling title on both formats in 2006, and was among the best-sellers of both formats of 2007.\n\nSection::::Unproduced sequel and reboot.\n", "\"The Equalizer\" was released on Blu-ray and DVD on December 30, 2014. Later, it was released on Ultra HD Blu-ray on July 10, 2018, 10 days before the second film was released in U.S. theaters.\n\nSection::::Sequel.\n", "In early March 2009, Warner Bros. announced they would be supporting the CBHD format, launching with titles including the \"Harry Potter\" series and \"Blood Diamond\", with discs selling for between 50 and 70 yuan (roughly $7.25 to $10.15). \n\nAccording to an August 2009 television story by \"TV-Tokyo\", CBHD was outselling rival Blu-ray by a margin of 3 to 1 in China (due to heavy advertisement and favored backing from the government). \n", "In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format eliminating 35mm film entirely. \"Anchorman 2\" was the last Paramount production to include a 35mm film version, while \"The Wolf of Wall Street\" was the first major movie distributed entirely digitally.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Warner Bros.' sister studio New Line Cinema followed suit, canceling tentative plans to release titles on HD DVD. Other small studios and producers moving exclusively to Blu-ray included National Geographic Society, Constantin Film, and Digital Playground.\n", "The format war's resolution in favour of Blu-ray was primarily decided by two factors: shifting business alliances, including decisions by major film studios and retail distributors, and Sony's decision to include a Blu-ray player in the PlayStation 3 video game console.\n\nSection::::Deciding factors.:Studio, distributor alliances.\n", "On March 1, 2016, the BDA released Ultra HD Blu-ray with mandatory support for HDR10 Media Profile video and optional support for Dolby Vision.\n\nAs of January 23, 2018, the BDA spec v3.2 also includes optional support for HDR10+ and Philips/Technicolor's SL-HDR2.\n\nSection::::Initial titles.\n\nThe first Ultra HD Blu-ray Discs were officially released from four studios on March 1, 2016.:\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released \"The Amazing Spider-Man 2\", \"Salt\", \"Hancock\", \"Chappie\", \"Pineapple Express\", and \"The Smurfs 2\".\n\nBULLET::::- Lionsgate Home Entertainment released \"Sicario\", \"The Last Witch Hunter\", \"The Expendables 3\", and \"Ender's Game\".\n", "Following these new developments, on February 19, 2008, Toshiba announced it would end production of HD DVD devices, allowing Blu-ray Disc to become the industry standard for high-density optical discs. Universal Studios, the sole major movie studio to back HD DVD since its inception, said shortly after Toshiba's announcement: \"While Universal values the close partnership we have shared with Toshiba, it is time to turn our focus to releasing new and catalog titles on Blu-ray Disc.\" Paramount Pictures, which started releasing movies only in HD DVD format during late 2007, also said it would start releasing in Blu-ray Disc. Both studios announced initial Blu-ray lineups in May 2008. With this, all major Hollywood studios supported Blu-ray.\n", "HD DVD players and movies were released in the United States on April 18, 2006. The first Blu-ray Disc titles were released on June 20, 2006 and the first movies using dual layer Blu-ray discs (50 GB) were introduced in October 2006.\n\nSection::::Alliances.\n", "BULLET::::- 2004: \"Spider-Man 2\" – The first digital intermediate on a new Hollywood film to be done entirely at 4K resolution. Although scanning, recording, and color-correction was done at 4K by EFILM, most of the visual effects were created at 2K and were upscaled to 4K.\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: \"Serenity\" - The first film to fully conform to Digital Cinema Initiatives specifications, marking \"a major milestone in the move toward all-digital projection\".\n", "In 2011, CPG introduced a certification program for films deemed to have completed procedures required for quality stereoscopic film production. Specifically, the certification program seeks to provide a guidepost (akin to Dolby’s certification program) to filmgoers to ensure a positive viewing experience, free of the headaches or discomfort caused by subpar 3D production. \"Avatar\", Martin Scorsese’s \"Hugo\" and \"Walking with Dinosaurs\" have received CPG certification.\n", "Despite the fact that today, virtually all global movie theaters have converted their screens to digital cinemas, many major motion pictures even as of November 2018 are shot on film. Christopher Nolan also released his latest film \"Dunkirk\" in IMAX, 70 mm, and 35 mm in selected theaters across the world.\n\nSection::::Elements.\n", "One of the first studios to use digital 3D was Walt Disney Pictures. In promoting their first CGI animated film \"Chicken Little\", they trademarked the phrase Disney Digital 3-D and teamed up with RealD in order to present the film in 3D in the United States. A total of over 62 theaters in the US were retrofitted to use the RealD Cinema system. The 2008 animated feature \"Bolt\" was the first movie which was animated and rendered for digital 3D whereas Chicken Little had been converted after it was finished.\n", "On January 20, 2012 Lucasfilms' Red Tails' was released as the first Hollywood movie in the Auro 11.1 format. The next movie to use Auro-3D is a Tamil movie named Vishwaroopam. On November 1, 2012 it was announced that DreamWorks Animation SKG will mix 15 of their upcoming features in the Auro 11.1 format. The first animated film in Auro 11.1 was \"Rise of the Guardians\" which was released in November 2012. Subsequently also \"The Croods\" and \"Turbo\" were mixed and released in the format, as well as all subsequent DreamWorks Animation films.\n", "The film was released in 2015 in the US and Germany. On January 29, 2015, WB and IMAX Corporation announced that they would digitally re-master the film into the immersive IMAX DMR format, also for release on the same date.\n\nSection::::Release.:Box office.\n\n\"Focus\" grossed $53.9 million in North America and $105.2 million in other territories for a total gross of $159.1 million, against a production budget of $50.1 million.\n", "\"Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol\" was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and digital download on April 17, 2012. The home media releases, however, do not preserve the original IMAX imagery, and its aspect ratio is consistently cropped to 2.40:1 rather than switching to a 1.78:1 aspect ratio during the IMAX scenes. Blu-ray Disc releases such as \"The Dark Knight\", \"\", and \"\" will switch between 2.40:1 for regular scenes and 1.78:1 for IMAX scenes. The film was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on June 26, 2018.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical response.\n", "On April 3, 2009, the Surprise Pointe 14 theatre in Surprise, Arizona with its 22 D-BOX Motion Controlled seats was among the first to present motion-enhanced theatrical films. The Apple Valley, California theatre also features 22 D-BOX seats since July 15, 2009, with the release of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. The Mission Valley, San Diego, California theatre installed 23 motion-enhanced seats for the opening of Sherlock Holmes on December 25, 2009.\n", "Universal Pictures had originally slated the film for a 27 February 2015 release date in the United States and Canada. However, the film was released on 18 September 2015 exclusively in IMAX 3D, followed by a wide theatrical release on 25 September 2015. In the United States and Canada, it was released in Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema, the first ever for Universal Pictures. It was screened at the 2015 CineEurope on 23 June 2015 at the Centre Convencions Internacional Barcelona in full 3D Dolby Atmos. The film's world premiere took place on 2 September 2015 at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival in the Sala Grande, at the city's Palazzo del Cinema in Venice.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01978	Why does food taste so much better when you’re drunk/high?	So I don't have the exact science but basically when you're high, everything that you like the taste of becomes even better tasting. Additionally, the THC interacts with brain chemistry so that you can't feel as full. Add this to the fact that if you're smoking (anything), you have dry mouth. Eating/drinking is very satisfying. When drunk, you're body is trying to adjust the balance in your stomach, so having carbs will fill your stomach. Your brain rewards that behavior and so you feel more satisfied by it.	[ "Food drunk\n\nFood drunkenness is the physiological state of a person after consuming large amounts of food. \n\nSection::::Historical meaning.\n\nThe use of the word \"drunk\" to signify being overcome by substances other than alcohol is long-established, e.g. drunk with opium (1585), or with tobacco (1698).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, Buffett frequently sang the song in concert with one of the choruses replaced with \"why don't we get stoned and screw.\" This can be heard on the 1978 live album release \"You Had to Be There\", where Buffett declares \"I just bought some Colombian herb and we'll smoke it all, me and you.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Distilled liquors (ouzo, tequila or akvavit)\n\nBULLET::::- Liquor cocktails (Black Russian, Rusty Nail, etc.)\n\nBitter digestifs typically contain carminative herbs, which are thought to aid digestion.\n\nIn many countries, people drink alcoholic beverages at lunch and dinner. Studies have found that when food is eaten before drinking alcohol, alcohol absorption is reduced and the rate at which alcohol is eliminated from the blood is increased. The mechanism for the faster alcohol elimination appears to be unrelated to the type of food. The likely mechanism is food-induced increases in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and liver blood flow.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bitters\n", "Section::::Specific Examples.:Alcohol.\n\nInformation encoded and stored while intoxicated is retrieved more effectively when later recall tests are performed while intoxicated as compared to recall while sober. This finding is a variation of the context-dependency effect of the encoding specificity principle and is much more apparent with low-imagery words than high-imagery words. Both high and low imagery words, however, are less likely to be recalled while intoxicated due to the inherent nature of intoxication.\n\nSection::::Specific Examples.:Advertising.\n", "This process is most commonly illustrated by a standard buffet. People are more likely to eat a larger amount of food at a buffet because the variety of foods and flavors presented renews a sense of appetite in the individual. A study conducted by Rolls and van Duijvenvoorde in 1984 verified this process by simulating a buffet-style meal. They fed participants four meals that included sausages, bread and butter, chocolate dessert, and bananas. They then fed the participants four courses of one of these foods. The results revealed a 44% increase in overall food consumption when exposed to the meals with a variety of foods.\n", "Section::::Physical properties of wine.:Alcohol.\n\nAlcohol is the primary factor in dictating a wine's weight and body. Typically the higher the alcohol level, the more weight the wine has. An increase in alcohol content will increase the perception of density and texture. In food and wine pairing, salt and spicy heat will accentuate the alcohol and the perception of \"heat\" or hotness in the mouth. Conversely, the alcohol can also magnify the heat of spicy food making a highly alcoholic wine paired with a very spicy dish one that will generate a lot of heat for the taster.\n\nSection::::Other pairing principles.\n", "Section::::Food.:Effect of processing.\n", "Food in the gastrointestinal system and hence gastric emptying is the most important factor that influences the absorption of orally ingested ethanol. The absorption of ethanol is much more rapid on an empty stomach than with a full one. The delay in ethanol absorption caused by food is similar regardless of whether food is consumed just before, at the same time, or just after ingestion of ethanol. The type of food, whether fat, carbohydrates, or protein, also is of little importance. Not only does food slow the absorption of ethanol, but it also reduces the bioavailability of ethanol, resulting in lower circulating concentrations. People who have fasted overnight have been found to reach peak ethanol concentrations more rapidly, at within 30 minutes of ingestion.\n", "Section::::Commissioning.\n", "Section::::Processing in the cerebral cortex.\n\nThe primary taste perception areas in the cerebral cortex are located in the insula and regions of the somatosensory cortex; the nucleus of the solitary tract located in the brainstem also plays a major role in taste perception. These regions were identified when human subjects were exposed to a taste stimulus and their cerebral blood flow measured with magnetic resonance imaging. Although these regions have been identified as the primary zones for taste processing in the brain, other cortical areas are also activated during eating, as other sensory inputs are being signaled to the cortex.\n", "Section::::Neurological basis (and binaural processing).\n\nAuditory attention in regards to the cocktail party effect primarily occurs in the left hemisphere of the superior temporal gyrus (where the primary auditory cortex is); a fronto-parietal network involving the inferior frontal gyrus, superior parietal sulcus, and intraparietal sulcus also accounts for the acts of attention-shifting, speech processing, and attention control. Both the target stream (the more important information being attended to) and competing/interfering streams are processed in the same pathway within the left hemisphere, but fMRI scans shows that target streams are treated with more attention than competing streams. \n", "Many dishes incorporate alcoholic beverages into the food itself. Such dishes include \"coq au vin\", chicken cacciatore, and \"boeuf bourguignon\". More modern examples are beer grilled chicken and bratwursts boiled in beer. Adding beer, instead of water, to chili during cooking is popular. An overnight marinade of chicken, pork or beef in beer and spices is another example.\n", "Out of all the sensory modalities, olfaction contributes most to the sensation and perception of flavor processing. Olfaction has two sensory modalities, orthonasal smell, the detection of odor molecules originating outside the body, and retronasal smell, the detection of odor molecules originating during mastication. It is retronasal smell, whose sensation is felt in the mouth, that contributes to flavor perception. Anthropologically, over human evolution, the shortening of the nasopharynx and other shifts in bone structure suggest a constant improvement of flavor perception capabilities.\n", "Section::::Whisky and food pairings.\n", "A bit of Texas tradition is captured in \"Sangria Wine,\" a recollection of nights passed in the company of friends, Mexican food, and the titular potent potable. \"Get It Out\" and \"Wheel\", which both make their lone showings in Walker's recorded output here, are twin sides of the same coin: the first a declaration of defiant living, the second a meditation on the fragile and transitory nature of life.\n", "Mexican rompope is typical of recipes that came out of the convents during the Colonial period, particularly from Puebla de Los Angeles. According to tradition, the original Mexican rompope beverage was created in Puebla's Convento de Santa Clara in the 17th century.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n", "Section::::Single release.\n", "Section::::Effects by dosage.:Moderate doses.\n\nEthanol inhibits the ability of glutamate to open the cation channel associated with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors. Stimulated areas include the cortex, hippocampus, and nucleus accumbens, which are all responsible for both thinking and pleasure seeking. Another one of alcohol's agreeable effects is body relaxation, which is possibly caused by neurons transmitting electrical signals in an alpha waves-pattern; such waves are actually observed (with the aid of EEGs) whenever the body is relaxed.\n", "BULLET::::5. Anterior Temporal Cortex: this area is associated with processing the differences between semantic categories.\n\nSome of the category differences are thought to be produced by the adjacent hubs. For example, category specificity is greatest close to the piriform and anterior insular olfactory cortex. Here, odor words such as “cinnamon” lead to greater activation than control words. In the gustatory cortex in the anterior insula and frontal operculum, taste words such as “sugar” lead to a stronger activation.\n\nSection::::Experiential Trace Hypothesis.\n", "Ethanol's rewarding and reinforcing (i.e., addictive) properties are mediated through its effects on dopamine neurons in the mesolimbic reward pathway, which connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). One of ethanol's primary effects is the allosteric inhibition of NMDA receptors and facilitation of GABA receptors (e.g., enhanced GABA receptor-mediated chloride flux through allosteric regulation of the receptor). At high doses, ethanol inhibits most ligand-gated ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels in neurons as well.\n", "Both consistency studies and fMRI scans have validated JIW’s lexical-gustatory synesthesia. A fMRI scan showed the bilateral activation of the Broca’s area 43 in the brain during JIW’s taste experiences. The Broca’s area 43 is a part of the primary gustatory cortex which is responsible for the perception of taste. Further studies of the underlying brain regions involved in synesthetes like JIW could aid in identifying the root physiological mechanisms involved in lexical-gustatory synesthesia.\n\nSection::::Experimental studies.:Case studies.:SC.\n", "Section::::Cognition.\n\nThe color of food can affect sweetness perception. Adding more red color to a drink increases its perceived sweetness. In a study darker colored solutions were rated 2–10% higher than lighter ones despite having 1% less sucrose concentration. The effect of color is believed to be due to cognitive expectations. Some odors smell sweet and memory confuses whether sweetness was tasted or smelled.\n\nSection::::Historical theories.\n", "The phrase was echoed by Dr J E Rullfson of Toledo after fasting for sixty days from January 5, 1907. He holds that the entire human race is food drunk, saying \"the dinner eaten by Napoleon just before the battle of Leipsic proved so indigestible that the monarch's brain was clouded and as a result the battle was lost and a pie which King Philip failed to digest caused the revolt of the Netherlands.\"\n\nSection::::State of being food drunk.\n", "High doses of alcohol severely disrupt the storage process of semantic memories. Alcohol was found to impair the storage of novel stimuli but not that of previously learned information. Since alcohol affects the central nervous system, it hinders semantic storage functioning by restricting the consolidation of the information from encoding.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nIt has been found that an aqueous extract of \"S. striatus\", when fed to rats with a genetic disposition to consume alcohol to excess, reduced their voluntary intake of alcohol. This line of research was inspired by an oral tradition that Jesuit property-owners in South America in the 17th and 18th century fed \"starfish soup\" to their workers to encourage sobriety.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13032	why getting into a hot bath is so pleasurable, despite the body having to work harder to maintain a safe body temperature.	A hot bath is much closer to body temp than a room temperature bath. Your premise is wrong.	[ "The roman writer Vitruvius actually linked this purpose to the birth of Architecture. David Linden also suggests that the reason why we associate tropical beaches with paradise is because in those environments is where our bodies need to do less metabolic effort to maintain our core temperature. Temperature not only supports human life; coolness and warmth have also become in different cultures a symbol of protection, community and even the sacred.\n", "Thomas Guidott set up a medical practice in the English town of Bath in 1668. He became interested in the curative properties of the waters. In 1676, he wrote \"A discourse of Bathe, and the hot waters there. Also, Some Enquiries into the Nature of the water\". This brought the health-giving properties of the hot mineral waters to the attention of the aristocracy. Doctors and quacks set up spa towns such as Harrogate, Bath, Matlock and Buxton soon after taking advantage of mineral water from chalybeate springs.\n\nSection::::History.:18th century.\n\nSection::::History.:18th century.:England.\n", "Although details of services were left to bathhouse operators, the Park's superintendent set various rules. In the 1930s a tub bath could not take more than 20 minutes and shower no more than 90 seconds. During the next decade shower time was reduced to a minute, with maximum temperatures specified for several services. After a bath of about , the patient might spend 2–5 minutes in a vapor cabinet, get 15 minutes of packs (wet, hot or cold), followed by a tepid needle shower and light massage and alcohol rub.\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "During the peak popularity of the hot springs, until the 1950s, the many patients staying for three weeks, six weeks, or longer were a large source of business for the numerous hotels, boarding houses, doctors, and drugstores. As the daily treatments required only an hour or two, the visitors' idle time created opportunities for other businesses in the town.\n\nSection::::Bathing customs.\n", "The specific use of heat was however often associated with the Turkish bath. This was introduced by David Urquhart into England on his return from the East in the 1850s, and ardently adopted by Richard Barter. The Turkish bath became a public institution, and, with the morning tub and the general practice of water drinking, is the most noteworthy of the many contributions by hydropathy to public health.\n\nSection::::History.:Spread to the United States.\n", "Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since Paleolithic times. The oldest known spa is a stone pool on China's Mount Li built in the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC, at the same site where the Huaqing Chi palace was later built. Geothermal energy supplied channeled district heating for baths and houses in Pompeii around 0 AD. In the first century AD, Romans conquered Aquae Sulis in England and used the hot springs there to feed public baths and underfloor heating. The admission fees for these baths probably represents the first commercial use of geothermal power. A 1,000-year-old hot tub has been located in Iceland, where it was built by one of the island's original settlers. The world's oldest working geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France, has been operating since the 14th century. The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy.\n", "Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since Paleolithic times. The oldest known spa is a stone pool on China's Lisan mountain built in the Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BC, at the same site where the Huaqing Chi palace was later built. In the first century AD, Romans conquered \"Aquae Sulis\", now Bath, Somerset, England, and used the hot springs there to feed public baths and underfloor heating. The admission fees for these baths probably represent the first commercial use of geothermal power. The world's oldest geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France, has been operating since the 14th century. The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy.\n", "During the 1870s the bathing regimen became more diverse, and physicians prescribed various types of baths for patients. The period of time for tub baths became six to ten minutes and the time in the steam bath shortened to two minutes, with only one bath a day.\n", "Temperature and pain are thought to be represented as “feelings” of coolness/warmness and pleasantness/unpleasantness in the brain. These sensory and affective characteristics of thermoregulation may motivate certain behavioral responses depending on the state of the body (for example, moving away from a source of heat to a cooler space). Such perturbations in the internal homeostatic environment of an organism are thought to be key aspects of a motivational process giving rise to emotional states, and have been proposed to be represented principally by the insular cortex as feelings. These feelings then influence drives when the anterior cingulate cortex is activated.\n", "By the beginning of the 19th century, the European bathing regimen consisted of numerous accumulated traditions. The bathing routine included soaking in hot water, drinking the water, steaming in a vapor room, and relaxing in a cooling room. In addition doctors ordered that patients be douched with hot or cold water and given a select diet to promote a cure. Authors began writing guidebooks to the health resorts of Europe explaining the medical benefits and social amenities of each. Rich Europeans and Americans traveled to these resorts to take in cultural activities and the baths.\n", "The Romans also constructed baths in their colonies, taking advantage of the natural hot springs occurring in Europe to construct baths at Aix and Vichy in France, Bath and Buxton in England, Aachen and Wiesbaden in Germany, Baden in Austria, and Aquincum in Hungary, among other locations. These baths became centers for recreational and social activities in Roman communities. Libraries, lecture halls, gymnasiums, and formal gardens became part of some bath complexes. In addition, the Romans used the hot thermal waters to relieve their suffering from rheumatism, arthritis, and overindulgence in food and drink.\n", "By the late 1930s more than 2,000 hot- or cold-springs health resorts were operating in the United States. This number had diminished greatly by the 1950s and continued to decline in the following two decades. In the recent past, spas in the U.S. emphasized dietary, exercise, or recreational programs more than traditional bathing activities.\n\nUp until recently, the public bathing industry in the U.S. remained stagnant. Nevertheless, in Europe, therapeutic baths have always been very popular, and remain so today. The same is true in Japan, where the traditional hot springs baths, known as \"onsen\", always attracted plenty of visitors.\n", "The earliest hot tubs were calderas in which hot stones were placed to heat the water. Therma in Ikaria has been a very popular place particularly for hydrotherapy ever since the 4th century BC. The remains of wrecked marble bathtubs along with a pre-historic aqueduct that have been unearthed from this area bear ample testimony of the place’s popularity in the ancient times.\n\nIn 737 A.D., Japan's first onsen opened near Izumo, Shimane, and centuries later the first ryokan (inns) were built, offering food, accommodations, and soaking tubs called ofuro.\n", "The body has compensatory mechanisms, like the cremaster muscle relaxing and letting the testicle hang further away from the warm body, sweating and a countercurrent exchange of blood cooling inflowing blood. However, despite these compensations, there are activities that should not be performed too often, in order to prevent infertility due to heat;\n\nBULLET::::- sauna sessions\n\nBULLET::::- bathing for a long time in hot water\n\nBULLET::::- Long-time tanning bed sessions\n\nBULLET::::- Placement of a laptop computer over the groin for extended use\n\nFever raises the body temperature, which can strike sperm quality.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "In ancient Rome there were three types of baths: baths at home (balnea), private baths (balnea privata), and public baths (balnea publica). The practice of bathing was so engrained that the Roman legions, during their long occupations in foreign lands, built their own baths at mineral and thermal springs in the newly conquered lands. Examples are found all over Europe.\n", "Cezanne's monumental male bathers derive from memories of a happy childhood rather than direct observation. This was described by his friend Emile Zola as a time when \"they were possessed with the joys of plunging (naked) into the deeper pools where the waters flowed, or spending the days stark naked in the sun, drying them selves on the burning sand, diving in once more to live in the river...\"\n", "BULLET::::- One of the highly potential geothermal energy reservoirs in India is the Tattapani thermal springs of Madhya Pradesh.\n\nSection::::Etiquette.\n\nThe customs and practices observed differ depending on the hot spring. It is common practice that bathers should wash before entering the water so as not to contaminate the water (with/without soap). In many countries, like Japan, it is required to enter the hot spring with no clothes on, including swimwear. Typically in these circumstances, there are different facilities or times for men and women. In some countries, if it is a public hot spring, swimwear is required.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Temperature play\n\nTemperature play is a form of BDSM sensual play where objects and substances are used to stimulate the body's neuroreceptors for heat and cold for sensual effect.\n\nSection::::Temperature play in general.\n\nSubstances can include water, oil, molten wax, ice, chocolate syrup, whipped cream, melted butter, chilled fresh fruit and steamed vegetables.\n\nObjects can include cutlery, ball chains, necklaces and many others, often pre-heated in hot water or chilled in ice water. \n\nSpace heaters, radiators, and other sources of heat can also be used for stimulating sensory arousal with heat.\n", "Satisfaction with the thermal environment is important because thermal conditions are potentially life-threatening for humans if the core body temperature reaches conditions of hyperthermia, above 37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F), or hypothermia below 35.0 °C (95.0 °F). Buildings modify the conditions of the external environment and reduce the effort that our body needs to do in order to stay stable at a normal human body temperature, important for the correct functioning of our physiological processes.\n", "The frescoes in all rooms but the \"caldarium\" reflect the advice of contemporary Arab physicians. They believed that baths drained the spirits of the bathers, and that to revive \"the three vital principles in the body, the animal, the spiritual and the natural,\" the bath's walls should be covered with pictures of activities like hunting, of lovers, and of gardens and palm trees.\n", "Hydro massage is a natural remedy has been known and used for years. The history of hydro therapy goes centuries back, as far as ancient Greece, but it was truly made popular by Romans, who introduced the benefits of bathing and massage to the countries they conquered. Roman public baths were always recognized as a great source of relaxation where members of high society and all free people alike could enjoy the benefits of hot and cold water as well as massage.\n", "Some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing regimens that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures. These Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the palace complex at Knossos, Crete, and the luxurious alabaster bathtubs excavated in Akrotiri, Santorini; both date from the mid-2nd millennium BC. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation and personal hygiene. Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring healing. Supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes of a cure. The Spartans developed a primitive vapor bath. At Serangeum, an early Greek \"balneum\" (bathhouse, loosely translated), bathing chambers were cut into the hillside from which the hot springs issued. A series of niches cut into the rock above the chambers held bathers' clothing. One of the bathing chambers had a decorative mosaic floor depicting a driver and chariot pulled by four horses, a woman followed by two dogs, and a dolphin below. Thus, the early Greeks used the natural features, but expanded them and added their own amenities, such as decorations and shelves. During later Greek civilization, bathhouses were often built in conjunction with athletic fields.\n", "Other leading spas in the U.S. during this period were French Lick, Indiana; Hot Springs and White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia; Hot Springs, Arkansas; and Warm Springs, Georgia. French Lick specialized in treating obesity and constipation through a combination of bathing and drinking the water and exercising. Hot Springs, Virginia, specialized in digestive ailments and heart diseases, and White Sulphur Springs, Virginia, treated these ailments and skin diseases. Both resorts offered baths where the water would wash continuously over the patients as they lay in a shallow pool. Warm Springs, Georgia, gained a reputation for treating infantile paralysis by a procedure of baths and exercise. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who earlier supported Saratoga, became a frequent visitor and promoter of this spa.\n" ]	[ "The body has to work hard when getting into a hot bath to maintain a safe body temperature.", "Body has to work harder to maintain safe temp in hot bath." ]	[ "A hot bath is closer to body temperature than a room temperature bath, so getting into a hot bath doesn't require extra effort to maintain body temperature.", "Hot bat his closer to body temperature so it does less work to remain at safe temp." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The body has to work hard when getting into a hot bath to maintain a safe body temperature.", "Body has to work harder to maintain safe temp in hot bath." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "A hot bath is closer to body temperature than a room temperature bath, so getting into a hot bath doesn't require extra effort to maintain body temperature.", "Hot bat his closer to body temperature so it does less work to remain at safe temp." ]
2018-10226	How come tornadoes promarily effect rural area rather than suburban areas where there are lots of buildings?	There is much, MUCH more rural land area than there is suburban or urban land area, especially in tornado alley where the majority of tornados occur (at least in the US). While tornadoes are products of specific weather conditions, there is still a large element of randomness for the specific location a tornado occurs. Plot that over any given area and most tornados will by chance occur in rural areas. In sufficiently built up areas, buildings can act to weaken or even break up tornados or proto-tornado conditions, but this is more secondary to chance.	[ "On a less broad scale, Sims and Baumann explained how regions in the United States cope with natural disasters differently. The example they used was tornados. They \"applied Rotter's theory to explain why more people have died in tornado[e]s in Alabama than in Illinois\". They explain that after giving surveys to residents of four counties in both Alabama and Illinois, Alabama residents were shown to be more external in their way of thinking about events that occur in their lives. Illinois residents, however, were more internal. Because Alabama residents had a more external way of processing information, they took fewer precautions prior to the appearance of a tornado. Those in Illinois, however, were more prepared, thus leading to fewer casualties.\n", "Tornadoes may seem rare in downtown areas because downtown areas cover such a small geographical area. Considering the size of a central business district is very small compared to the city limits, tornadoes will strike outside of the downtown area more often.\n", "The misconception, like most, has a small basis in truth. Research has been done in a few metropolitan areas suggesting that the urban heat island effect may discourage the formation of weak tornadoes in city centers, due to turbulent warm air disrupting their formation. This does not apply to significant tornadoes, however, and it is possible that the presence of tall buildings may actually storms which move into downtown areas.\n\nSection::::Geographical and temporal influences.:During winter.\n", "Similarly, the downtown areas of two then-small towns (now large cities) in North Carolina were struck during the 1884 Enigma outbreak: Concord and Cary. Downtown Concord was struck a second time by a tornado in May 1936.\n", "Tornadoes can occur west of the continental divide, but they are infrequent and usually relatively weak and short-lived. Recently, tornadoes have struck the Pacific coast town of Lincoln City, Oregon (1996), Sunnyvale, California (1998), Port Orchard, Washington (2018), and downtown Salt Lake City, Utah (1999 - see Salt Lake City Tornado). The California Central Valley is an area of some frequency for tornadoes, albeit of weak intensity. Though tornadoes that occur on the Western Seaboard are typically weak, more powerful and damaging tornadoes, such as the tornado that occurred on 22 May 2008 in Perris, California, can also occur.\n", "Research has been done in a few areas suggesting that metropolitan areas are less susceptible to weak tornadoes due to the turbulent mixing caused by the warmth of the urban heat island. Using satellite images, researchers discovered that city climates have a noticeable influence on plant growing seasons up to away from a city's edges. Growing seasons in 70 cities in eastern North America were about 15 days longer in urban areas compared to rural areas outside of a city's influence.\n", "Of the states around the Rocky Mountains, Colorado reports by far the greatest numbers of tornadoes. Eastern Colorado, both climatically and physically, has much more in common with the neighboring Plains states of Kansas and Nebraska than with the mountainous areas further west. Small cities such as Limon, Kit Carson, Thurman, and Flagler are some places in Eastern Colorado that have experienced dangerous tornadoes. The same can be said, to a lesser extent, of eastern Wyoming. Tornadoes are less frequent in mountainous areas. Of the states in this region – according to NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period – Colorado reported 1,617 tornadoes, followed by Wyoming with 560, Montana (345), Idaho (175), and Utah (114).\n", "The southeastern United States is particularly prone to violent, long track tornadoes. Much of the housing in this region is less robust compared to other areas in the United States, and many people live in mobile homes. As a result, tornado-related casualties in the southern United States are higher. Significant tornadoes occur less frequently than in the traditionally recognized tornado alley, however, very severe and expansive outbreaks occur every few years.\n\nSection::::Frequency of tornadoes.\n", "In the lower Midwest (and southern Plains states, especially), temperatures can rise or drop rapidly; winds can be extreme; and clashing air masses, including hot, dry air of Mexican and/or Southwestern origin, warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and cold, dry air from Canada can spawn severe thunderstorms and tornadoes, particularly from April to June. The \"dryline,\" separating hot, dry air of Mexican/Southwestern U.S. origin from warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, often causes severe, occasionally violent, thunderstorms to fire in central and eastern Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas; these sometimes contribute toward the hailstorms and tornado outbreaks that the Southern Plains are well known for. Reflecting these air-mass conflicts, central Oklahoma, including the Oklahoma City and Moore-Norman areas, has the highest frequency of tornadoes per unit land area on planet Earth, with May the highest-risk month for tornadoes throughout \"Tornado Alley,\" from northern Texas north-northeastward toward western and central Iowa.\n", "Section::::Long-term trends.\n", "Section::::Geographical and temporal influences.:Attraction to mobile homes and/or trailer parks.\n\nThe idea that manufactured housing units, or mobile homes, attract tornadoes has been around for decades. This may appear to be true at first from looking at tornado fatality statistics: from 2000 to 2008, 539 people were killed by tornadoes in the US, with more than half (282) of those deaths in mobile homes. Only around 6.8% of homes in the US are \"manufactured/mobile homes\".\n", "Section::::Geographical and temporal influences.:Downtown areas.\n\nSome people believe that, for various reasons, large cities cannot be struck by tornadoes. More than 100 tornadoes have been reported to strike downtown areas of large cities. Many cities have been struck twice or more, and a few—including Lubbock, Texas; St. Louis, Missouri; Topeka, Kansas; and London, England—have been struck by violent tornadoes (F4 or stronger).\n", "Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating. Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 3 pm and 7 pm local time, with a peak near 5 pm. Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day, as evidenced by the Gainesville Tornado of 1936 (one of the deadliest tornadoes in history) that occurred at 8:30 am local time.\n\nSection::::Geography.\n", "While there are abundant kinematic datasets gathered by mobile radar of the tornadic region of supercells, the number of quality mobile mesonet or sticknet thermodynamic datasets of the flow field proximate to the tornadic region, generally within the supercell rear-flank downdraft (RFD) outflow, are comparatively rare. Even rarer are mesonet datasets reaching within about 1.5 km of tornadoes and datasets sampling the thermodynamic evolution of the RFD outflow.\n", "The frequency of tornadoes in the U.S. have increased, and some of said trend takes place due to climatological changes though other factors such as better detection technologies also play large roles. According to a 2003 study in \"Climate Research\", the total tornado hazards resulting in injury, death, or economic loss \"shows a steady decline since the 1980s\". As well, the authors reported that tornado \"deaths and injuries decreased over the past fifty years\". They state that addition research must look into regional and temporal variability in the future.\n", "Section::::Climatology.:Associations with climate and climate change.\n\nAssociations with various climate and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the sea surface temperature of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in severe weather and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.\n", "Tornadoes are common in many states but are most common to the west of the Appalachian Mountains and to the east of the Rockies. The Atlantic seaboard states – North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Virginia – are also very vulnerable, as well as Florida. The areas most vulnerable to tornadoes are the Southern Plains and Florida, though most Florida tornadoes are relatively weak. The Southern United States is one of the worst-affected regions in terms of casualties.\n", "It is a common myth that tornadoes do not strike downtown areas. The odds are much lower due to the small areas covered, but paths can go anywhere, including over downtown areas. St. Louis, Missouri has taken a direct hit four times in less than a century. Many of the tornadoes listed were extremely destructive or caused numerous casualties, and the occurrence of a catastrophic event somewhere is inevitable.\n", "There are many misconceptions involving the effect of terrain features—bodies of water, mountains, valleys, and others—on tornado formation and behavior. While most modes of tornadogenesis are poorly understood, no terrain feature can prevent the occurrence of a tornado.\n", "Other areas of the world that have frequent strong tornadoes include Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy, Spain, China, and the Philippines. Australia, France, Russia, areas of the Middle East, Japan, and parts of Mexico have a history of multiple damaging tornado events.\n\nSection::::Tornadoes in the United States.\n", "Some people mistakenly believe that tornadoes only occur in the countryside. This is hardly the case. While it is true that the plains states are tornado-prone, it should be noted that tornadoes have been reported in every U.S state, including Alaska and Hawaii. One likely reason tornadoes are so common in the central U.S is because this is where Arctic air, cold fronts that have not been \"weakened\" yet first collide with warm tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico. As these fronts head further east, they sometimes lose their strength as they travel over more warm air. For this reason, tornadoes are not as common on the East Coast as they are in the Midwest. However, they have happened on rare occasion, such as the F3 twister that struck Limerick Township, Pennsylvania near Philadelphia on 27 July 1994, the F2 twister that struck the northern suburbs of New York City on 12 July 2006, the EF2 twister in the borough of Brooklyn on 8 August 2007, or the F4 twister that struck La Plata, Maryland on 28 April 2002.\n", "The reliable climatology of tornadoes is limited in geographic and temporal scope; only since 1976 in the United States and 2000 in Europe have thorough and accurate tornado statistics been logged. However, some trends can be noted in tornadoes causing significant damage in the United States, as somewhat reliable statistics on damaging tornadoes exist as far back as 1880. The highest incidence of violent tornadoes seems to shift from the Southeastern United States to the southern Great Plains every few decades. Also, the 1980s seemed to be a period of unusually low tornado activity in the United States, and the number of multi-death tornadoes decreased every decade from the 1920s to the 1980s, suggesting a multi-decadal pattern of some sort.\n", "Section::::Regional activity.\n", "Section::::Exceptional coincidences.:Moore, Oklahoma.\n\nThe south Oklahoma City suburb of Moore, Oklahoma was hit by violent tornadoes (which have ratings of at least F/EF4) in 1999, 2003, 2010, and 2013. The 1999 and 2013 events were rated F5 and EF5, respectively. In total, about 23 tornadoes have struck within the immediate vicinity of Moore since 1890, the most recent of which was an EF2 on March 25, 2015.\n\nSection::::Exceptional coincidences.:Jackson, Tennessee.\n", "Although favorable conditions for tornadoes in the United States can occur at any time, they are most common in spring and least common in winter. Because spring is a transitional period for the climate, there are more chances of cooler air meeting with warmer air, resulting in more thunderstorms. Tornadoes can also be spawned by landfalling tropical cyclones, which usually occur in late summer and autumn. In the United States, thunderstorms capable of producing tornadoes usually form when the temperature is at its highest, typically from 4:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07553	Does the thickness of a wire effect how much electricity can go through it like the thickness of a pipe does with water?	Yes. The thickness of a wire, referred to as the gauge, determines how much current that wire can carry. If you try to force too current down too thin a wire, the wire will overheat and can melt, potentially starting a fire.	[ "The resistance and conductance of a wire, resistor, or other element is mostly determined by two properties:\n\nBULLET::::- geometry (shape), and\n\nBULLET::::- material\n\nGeometry is important because it is more difficult to push water through a long, narrow pipe than a wide, short pipe. In the same way, a long, thin copper wire has higher resistance (lower conductance) than a short, thick copper wire.\n", "In commerce, the sizes of wire are estimated by devices, also called gauges, which consist of plates of circular or oblong form having notches of different widths around their edges to receive wire and sheet metals of different thicknesses. Each notch is stamped with a number, and the wire or sheet, which just fits a given notch, is stated to be of, say, No. 10, 11, 12, etc., of the wire gauge.\n", "Wire gauge\n\nWire gauge is a measurement of wire diameter. This determines the amount of electric current a wire can safely carry, as well as its electrical resistance and weight.\n\nSection::::Types of wire gauge.\n", "Fluid velocity and resistance of metals: As with water hoses, the carrier drift velocity in conductors is directly proportional to current. However, water only experiences drag via the pipes' inner surface, while charges are slowed at all points within a metal, as with water forced through a filter. Also, typical velocity of charge carriers within a conductor is less than centimeters per minute, and the \"electrical friction\" is extremely high. If charges ever flowed as fast as water can flow in pipes, the electric current would be immense, and the conductors would become incandescently hot and perhaps vaporize. To model the resistance and the charge-velocity of metals, perhaps a pipe packed with sponge, or a narrow straw filled with syrup, would be a better analogy than a large-diameter water pipe. Resistance in most electrical conductors is a linear function: as current increases, voltage drop increases proportionally (Ohm's Law). Liquid resistance in pipes is not linear with volume, varying as the square of volumetric flow (see Darcy–Weisbach equation).\n", "The resistance of a given conductor depends on the material it is made of, and on its dimensions. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. For example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The resistance and conductance of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as\n", "Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size. 1/2\" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2\" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2\" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.\n\nSection::::Difference between pipes and tubes.:Materials.\n", "The resistance of a given object depends primarily on two factors: What material it is made of, and its shape. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area; for example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The resistance and conductance of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as\n", "While pure water is not an electrical conductor, even a small portion of ionic impurities, such as salt, can rapidly transform it into a conductor.\n\nSection::::Wire size.\n\nWires are measured by their cross sectional area. In many countries, the size is expressed in square millimetres. In North America, conductors are measured by American wire gauge for smaller ones, and circular mils for larger ones. The size of a wire contributes to\n\nSection::::Conductor ampacity.\n", "formula_1\n\nwhere a = aperture, b = mesh count and c = wire diameter.\n\nOther calculations regarding woven wire cloth/mesh can be made including weight and open area determination. Of note, wire diameters are often referred to by their standard wire gauge (swg); e.g. a 1.6mm wire is a 16 swg.\n", "In a hydraulic analogy, passing current through a high-resistivity material is like pushing water through a pipe full of sand—while passing current through a low-resistivity material is like pushing water through an empty pipe. If the pipes are the same size and shape, the pipe full of sand has higher resistance to flow. Resistance, however, is not \"solely\" determined by the presence or absence of sand. It also depends on the length and width of the pipe: short or wide pipes have lower resistance than narrow or long pipes.\n", "The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's law for conductor size, which states that the size is at its optimum when the annual cost of energy wasted in the resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At times of lower interest rates, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal; while, when metals are expensive, thinner conductors are indicated: however, power lines are designed for long-term use, so Kelvin's law has to be used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates for capital.\n", "Wires and cables are rated by the circuit voltage, temperature rating and environmental conditions (moisture, sunlight, oil, chemicals) in which they can be used. A wire or cable has a voltage (to neutral) rating and a maximum conductor surface temperature rating. The amount of current a cable or wire can safely carry depends on the installation conditions.\n\nThe international standard wire sizes are given in the IEC 60228 standard of the International Electrotechnical Commission. In North America, the American Wire Gauge standard for wire sizes is used.\n\nSection::::Cables.\n\nSection::::Cables.:Modern wiring materials.\n", "None of the above systems of measurement is part of the metric system.\n\nThe current British Standard for metallic materials including wire is BS 6722:1986, which is a solely metric standard, superseding 3737:1964, which used the SWG system.\n\nSection::::Measuring.\n", "There is a lower limit for the length of the interconnect that will allow higher current carrying capability. It is known as \"Blech length\". Any wire that has a length below this limit will have a stretched limit for Electromigration. Here, a mechanical stress buildup causes an atom back flow process which reduces or even compensates the effective material flow towards the anode. The Blech length must be considered when designing test structures for electromigration.\n\nSection::::Electromigration-aware design.:Via arrangements and corner bends.\n", "AWG gauges are also used to describe stranded wire. The AWG gauge of a stranded wire represents the sum of the cross-sectional areas of the individual strands; the gaps between strands are not counted. When made with circular strands, these gaps occupy about 25% of the wire area, thus requiring the overall bundle diameter to be about 13% larger than a solid wire of equal gauge.\n", "The table below shows various data including both the resistance of the various wire gauges and the allowable current (ampacity) based on a copper conductor with plastic insulation. The diameter information in the table applies to \"solid\" wires. Stranded wires are calculated by calculating the equivalent cross sectional copper area. Fusing current (melting wire) is estimated based on ambient temperature. The table below assumes DC, or AC frequencies equal to or less than 60 Hz, and does not take skin effect into account. \"Turns of wire per unit length\" is the reciprocal of the conductor diameter; it is therefore an upper limit for wire wound in the form of a helix (see solenoid), based on uninsulated wire.\n", "The ampacity of a conductor, that is, the amount of current it can carry, is related to its electrical resistance: a lower-resistance conductor can carry a larger value of current. The resistance, in turn, is determined by the material the conductor is made from (as described above) and the conductor's size. For a given material, conductors with a larger cross-sectional area have less resistance than conductors with a smaller cross-sectional area.\n", "Leaking pipes: The electric charge of an electrical circuit and its elements is usually almost equal to zero, hence it is (almost) constant. This is formalized in Kirchhoff's current law, which does not have an analogy to hydraulic systems, where the amount of the liquid is not usually constant. Even with incompressible liquid the system may contain such elements as pistons and open pools, so the volume of liquid contained in a part of the system can change. For this reason, continuing electric currents require closed loops rather than hydraulics' open source/sink resembling spigots and buckets.\n", "Section::::Impedance of round wire.:Resistance.\n\nThe most important effect of the skin effect on the impedance of a single wire, however, is the increase of the wire's resistance, and consequent losses. The effective resistance due to a current confined near the surface of a large conductor (much thicker than \"δ\") can be solved as if the current flowed uniformly through a layer of thickness \"δ\" based on the DC resistivity of that material. The effective cross-sectional area is approximately equal to \"δ\" times the conductor's circumference.\n", "Most consumer applications use two conductor wire. A common rule of thumb is that the resistance of the speaker wire should not exceed 5 percent of the rated impedance of the system. The table below shows recommended lengths based on this guideline:\n\nThe gauge numbers in SWG (standard wire gauge) and AWG (American wire gauge) reduce as the wire gets larger. Sizing in square millimeters is common outside of the US. Suppliers and manufacturers often specify their cable in strand count. A 189 strand count wire has a cross-sectional area of 1.5 mm which equates to 126.7 strands per mm.\n", "In the North American electrical industry, conductors larger than 4/0 AWG are generally identified by the area in thousands of circular mils (kcmil), where 1 kcmil = 0.5067 mm. The next wire size larger than 4/0 has a cross section of 250 kcmil. A \"circular mil\" is the area of a wire one mil in diameter. One million circular mils is the area of a circle with 1000 mil (1 inch) diameter. An older abbreviation for one thousand circular mils is \"MCM\".\n\nSection::::Stranded wire AWG sizes.\n", "or equivalently:\n\nThe gauge can be calculated from the diameter using \n\nand the cross-section area is\n\nThe standard ASTM B258 - 02(2008) \"Standard Specification for Standard Nominal Diameters and Cross-Sectional Areas of AWG Sizes of Solid Round Wires Used as Electrical Conductors\" defines the ratio between successive sizes to be the 39th root of 92, or approximately 1.1229322. ASTM B 258-02 also dictates that wire diameters should be tabulated with no more than 4 significant figures, with a resolution of no more than 0.0001 inches (0.1 mils) for wires larger than No. 44 AWG, and 0.00001 inches (0.01 mils) for wires No. 45 AWG and smaller.\n", "where \"d\" is the diameter of the wire and \"D\" is the center to center separation between the wires.\n\nIf the second figure is taken to be two round pads on a printed circuit board that has surface contamination resulting in a surface resistivity of \"R\" (50 MΩ per square, for example) then the resistance between the two pads is given by:\n\nSection::::Examples.:Multi-mode transmission line.\n", "Thus a long cylindrical conductor such as a wire, having a diameter \"D\" large compared to \"δ\", has a resistance \"approximately\" that of a hollow tube with wall thickness \"δ\" carrying direct current. The AC resistance of a wire of length \"L\" and resistivity formula_40 is:\n\nThe final approximation above assumes formula_42.\n\nA convenient formula (attributed to F.E. Terman) for the diameter \"D\" of a wire of circular cross-section whose resistance will increase by 10% at frequency \"f\" is:\n", "A relatively wide pipe completely filled with water is equivalent to conducting wire. When comparing to a piece of wire, the pipe should be thought of as having semi-permanent caps on the ends. Connecting one end of a wire to a circuit is equivalent to un-capping one end of the pipe and attaching it to another pipe. With few exceptions (such as a high-voltage power source), a wire with only one end attached to a circuit will do nothing; the pipe remains capped on the free end, and thus adds nothing to the circuit.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04247	how bear hibernation works? Nothing can actually sleep for that long, can they?	Bears don't actually hibernate. They enter what's known as torpor. It's basically hibernation lite. They can still be woken up in winter due to noise, prodding, or other things like that. In true hibernation the animal would slip until some specific triggers signal spring. And yes, animals can sleep that long. When you enter hibernation or torpor your metabolism slows down. Your body basically runs on the bare minimum settings, lowering your heart rate and breathing in the process. Usually the animal will have fat stores that can be used during this time. In the case of bears this can be up to 100 days if I remember correctly.	[ "Section::::Biology.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Hibernation.\n", "During their time in hibernation, an American black bear's heart rate drops from 40–50 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute and the metabolic rate can drop to a quarter of the bear's (non-hibernating) basal metabolic rate (BMR). These reductions in metabolic rate and heart rate do not appear to decrease the bear's ability to heal injuries during hibernation.\n", "Historically there was a question of whether or not [[bears]] truly hibernate since they experience only a modest decline in body temperature (3–5 °C) compared with the much larger decreases (often 32 °C or more) seen in other hibernators. Many researchers thought that their deep sleep was not comparable with true, deep hibernation, but recent research has refuted this theory in captive black bears.\n\nHibernating bears are able to recycle their proteins and urine, allowing them both to stop urinating for months and to avoid [[muscle atrophy]].\n\nSection::::Birds.\n", "American black bears were once not considered true or \"deep\" hibernators, but because of discoveries about the metabolic changes that allow American black bears to remain dormant for months without eating, drinking, urinating or defecating, most biologists have redefined mammalian hibernation as \"specialized, seasonal reduction in metabolism concurrent with scarce food and cold weather\". American black bears are now considered highly efficient hibernators. The physiology of American black bears in the wild is closely related to that of bears in captivity. Understanding the physiology of bears in the wild is vital to the bear's success in captivity.\n", "Bears are an exception to this rule; species in the family Ursidae are famous for their ability to survive unfavorable environmental conditions of low temperatures and limited nutrition availability during winter by means of hibernation. During that time, bears go through a series of physiological, morphological, and behavioral changes. Their ability to maintain skeletal muscle number and size during disuse is of significant importance.\n", "Section::::Behavior and life history.:Hibernation.\n", "Obligate hibernators are animals that spontaneously, and annually, enter hibernation regardless of ambient temperature and access to food. Obligate hibernators include many species of [[ground [[mouse lemur]]s, [[European hedgehog]]s and other [[insectivores]], [[monotremes]], and [[marsupials]]. These species undergo what has been traditionally called \"hibernation\": a physiological state wherein the body temperature drops to near ambient temperature, and heart and respiration rates slow drastically.\n", "Grizzly bears are at the weakest point into their annual cycle following emergence from hibernation, in terms of lacking mineral and protein nutrition. Grizzly bears (\"Ursus arctos\"), after emerging from hibernation, may be experiencing a skewed phosphorus-to-calcium ratio due to the lack of consumption of animal resources during the period of hibernation.\n", "In the summer period they feed on blueberries, crowberries, humpback salmon, and steelhead. In autumn, they eat nuts from nut-pines and mountain ash, and fish. In times of famine they eat dead fish or marine mammals, berries, and graminoid vegetation.\n", "BULLET::::- The closely related [[black-tailed prairie dog]] is a \"facultative\" hibernator.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Primates.\n\nWhile hibernation has long been studied in [[rodent]]s (namely [[ground squirrel]]s) no [[primate]] or [[tropical]] [[mammal]] was known to hibernate until the discovery of hibernation in the [[fat-tailed dwarf lemur]] of Madagascar, which hibernates in tree holes for seven months of the year. [[Madagascar\|Malagasy]] winter temperatures sometimes rise to over , so hibernation is not exclusively an adaptation to low ambient temperatures.\n", "Hibernation is common in each of the species for \"Erinaceus\". Most have the ability to lower the body temperature close that of the environmental temperature. In particular \"Erinaceus europaeus\" the body temperature can drop down to 1 °C and lower its heart rate down to 22 beats per minute.\n\nSection::::Reproduction and lifespan.\n", "These marmots are \"deep hibernators\"; they cannot easily be awoken. Their body temperature drops to below and heart rate can slow to three beats per minute. Marmots warm their bodies about every ten days. Olympic marmots lose 50% of their body mass over the seven to eight months of winter hibernation. Hibernation is the most dangerous time for them as, in years of light snowfall, as many as 50% of the young born that year will die from the cold because of the lack of insulation that is provided by good snow cover. When they emerge in early May, thick snow cover is still present from the preceding winter, so they are not very active at this time. Sometimes they are so disoriented after awaking from hibernation that they have to relearn the colony's landmarks (which are now covered in snow, which obscures them even more); they wander around aimlessly until they find their burrows.\n", "There are a variety of different definitions for terms that describe hibernation in mammals, and different mammal clades hibernate differently. The following subsections discuss the terms \"obligate\" and \"facultative\" hibernation. The last two sections point out in particular primates, none of whom were thought to hibernate until recently, and bears, whose winter topor had been contested as not being \"true hibernation\" during the late 20th century, since it is dissimilar from hibernation seen in rodents.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Obligate hibernation.\n", "The body temperature of the American black bear does not drop significantly, like other mammalian hibernators (staying around ) and they remain somewhat alert and active. If the winter is mild enough, they may wake up and forage for food. Females also give birth in February and nurture their cubs until the snow melts. During winter, American black bears consume 25–40% of their body weight. The footpads peel off while they sleep, making room for new tissue.\n", "To cope with limited food resources and low temperatures, some mammals hibernate during cold periods. To remain in \"stasis\" for long periods, these animals build up brown fat reserves and slow all body functions. True hibernators (e.g., groundhogs) keep their body temperatures low throughout hibernation whereas the core temperature of false hibernators (e.g., bears) varies; occasionally the animal may emerge from its den for brief periods. Some bats are true hibernators and rely upon a rapid, non-shivering thermogenesis of their brown fat deposit to bring them out of hibernation.\n", "They require a proper cycle which contains cooling them in winters. Pair is heavily fed till November and left to hibernate. During their hibernation period you just have to leave a water bowl in their enclosure and a hiding spot. no light or heat source was used in this period.\n", "The hibernation of this lemur is strongly dependent on the thermal behaviour of its tree hole: If the hole is poorly insulated, the lemur's body temperature fluctuates widely, passively following the ambient temperature; if well insulated, the body temperature stays fairly constant and the animal undergoes regular spells of arousal. Dausmann found that [[hypometabolism]] in hibernating animals is not necessarily coupled with low body temperature.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Bears.\n\n[[File:Bear hibernating.jpg\|thumb\|[[American black bear\|Black bear]] mother and cubs \"denning\"]]\n", "With the exception of pregnant females, polar bears are active year-round, although they have a vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood. Unlike brown and black bears, polar bears are capable of fasting for up to several months during late summer and early fall, when they cannot hunt for seals because the sea is unfrozen. When sea ice is unavailable during summer and early autumn, some populations live off fat reserves for months at a time, as polar bears do not 'hibernate' any time of the year.\n", "Grizzly bears hibernate for 5–7 months each year except where the climate is warm, as the California grizzly did not hibernate. During this time, female grizzly bears give birth to their offspring, who then consume milk from their mother and gain strength for the remainder of the hibernation period. To prepare for hibernation, grizzlies must prepare a den, and consume an immense amount of food as they do not eat during hibernation. Grizzly bears do not defecate or urinate throughout the entire hibernation period. The male grizzly bear's hibernation ends in early to mid-March, while females emerge in April or early May.\n", "Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced. This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Growing season\n\nBULLET::::- Cereal germ — the part of the cereal seed that grows into a plant\n\nBULLET::::- Seed dormancy\n\nBULLET::::- Stratification — the simulation of natural winter conditions for seeds\n", "Section::::Behaviour and life history.\n", "Hibernacula vary greatly, but are typically:\n\nBULLET::::- Underground (i.e. ground squirrels, mouse lemurs, bears) or in a protected shelter (i.e. bats, bears)\n\nBULLET::::- Concealed\n\nBULLET::::- Attuned to environmental conditions, such as temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Either reused consistently (i.e. bats, ground squirrels) or very rarely (i.e. bears, mouse lemurs)\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Bears.\n", "The bears went into hibernation after a goodbye dinner at a local restaurant held on New Year's Day and a final appearance at the \"mairie\" on 7 January, at the end of the Christmas season. Expected to reappear in late 2019, they returned in April.\n", "Mike once spent 5 days asleep in a badger set for a social experiment. \n", "Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.\n" ]	[ "Bears are sleep when they hibernate." ]	[ "Bears are in a torpor state and can be woken up." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bears are sleep when they hibernate." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bears are in a torpor state and can be woken up." ]
2018-13382	Why do our bodies feel uncomfortably hot at temperatures less than our normal internal temperature?	Our metabolism constantly burns energy. We react food with oxygen, just like a fire, and it produces heat, like a fire. Living things are a heat source. We need to shed heat.	[ "Thermoregulation in humans\n\nAs in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n", "As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body’s core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body’s “thermostat.” This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature.\n", "Section::::Control system.\n\nThe core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus. As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).\n\nSection::::In hot conditions.\n", "The neural activation mechanisms involved in the regulation of body temperature are largely undefined. It is known that sympathetic pathways are involved in increasing heat production and reducing heat loss and are activated by neurons in the rostal medullary raphe (RMR). These neurons were identified as playing an important role in the elevation of body temperature during both cold exposure and induced fever by observation that hyperpolarization prior to exposure to these conditions inhibits the elevation of body temperature in response.\n\nSection::::Role in thermoregulation.:Febrile response.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.\n\nWhen humans are exposed to certain climates for extended periods of time, physiological changes occur to help the individual adapt to hot or cold climates. This helps the body conserve energy.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Cold.\n", "Temperature and pain are thought to be represented as “feelings” of coolness/warmness and pleasantness/unpleasantness in the brain. These sensory and affective characteristics of thermoregulation may motivate certain behavioral responses depending on the state of the body (for example, moving away from a source of heat to a cooler space). Such perturbations in the internal homeostatic environment of an organism are thought to be key aspects of a motivational process giving rise to emotional states, and have been proposed to be represented principally by the insular cortex as feelings. These feelings then influence drives when the anterior cingulate cortex is activated.\n", "Origins of heat and cold adaptations can be explained by climatic adaptation. This can be traced back to the body’s responses to differing environments immediately after leaving Africa, such as extreme cold, humid heat, desert conditions, and high altitudes. Ambient air temperature affects how much energy investment the human body must make. The temperature that requires the least amount of energy investment is 21 °C (69.8 °F). The body controls its temperature through the hypothalamus. Thermoreceptors in the skin send signals to the hypothalamus, which indicate when vasodilation and vasoconstriction should occur.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Cold.\n", "The concept of thermal comfort is closely related to thermal stress. This attempts to predict the impact of solar radiation, air movement, and humidity for military personnel undergoing training exercises or athletes during competitive events. Values are expressed as the wet bulb globe temperature or the discomfort index. Generally, humans do not perform well under thermal stress. People's performances under thermal stress is about 11% lower than their performance at normal thermal wet conditions. Also, human performance in relation to thermal stress varies greatly by the type of task which the individual is completing. Some of the physiological effects of thermal heat stress include increased blood flow to the skin, sweating, and increased ventilation.\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Core temperature.\n\nMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Heat.\n\nThe only mechanism the human body has to cool itself is by sweat evaporation. Sweating occurs when the ambient air temperatures is above 28 °C (82 °F) and the body fails to return to the normal internal temperature. The evaporation of the sweat helps cool the blood beneath the skin. It is limited by the amount of water available in the body, which can cause dehydration.\n", "In particular, when the body is described by stating its internal energy , an extensive variable, as a function of its entropy , also an extensive variable, and other state variables , with ), then the temperature is equal to the partial derivative of the internal energy with respect to the entropy:\n\nLikewise, when the body is described by stating its entropy as a function of its internal energy , and other state variables , with , then the reciprocal of the temperature is equal to the partial derivative of the entropy with respect to the internal energy:\n", "Section::::Thermal stress.\n", "The human body has two methods of thermogenesis, which produces heat to raise the core body temperature. The first is shivering, which occurs in an unclothed person when the ambient air temperature is under 25 °C (77 °F). It is limited by the amount of glycogen available in the body. The second is non-shivering, which occurs in brown adipose tissue.\n", "Thermal comfort as a \"condition of mind\" is \"defined\" in psychological terms. Among the factors that affect the condition of mind (in the laboratory) are a sense of control over the temperature, knowledge of the temperature and the appearance of the (test) environment. A thermal test chamber that appeared residential \"felt\" warmer than one which looked like the inside of a refrigerator.\n\nSection::::Models.:Adaptive comfort model.:Physiological Adaptation.\n", "In most cases, as the body is exposed to physical activity, the core temperature of the body tends to rise as heat gain becomes larger than the amount of heat lost. “The factors that contribute to heat gain during exercise include anything that stimulate metabolic rate, anything from the external environment that causes heat gain, and the ability of the body to dissipate heat under any given set of circumstances”. In response to an increase in core temperature, there are a variety of factors which adapt in order to help restore heat balance. The main physiological response to an increase in body temperature is mediated by the thermal regulatory center located in the hypothalamus of the brain which connects to thermal receptors and effectors. There are numerous thermal effectors including sweat glands, smooth muscles of blood vessels, some endocrine glands, and skeletal muscle. With an increase in the core temperature, the thermal regulatory center will stimulate the arterioles supplying blood to the skin to dilate along with the release of sweat on the skin surface to reduce temperature through evaporation. In addition to the involuntary regulation of temperature, the hypothalamus is able to communicate with the cerebral cortex to initiate voluntary control such as removing clothing or drinking cold water. With all regulations taken into account, the body is able to maintain core temperature within about two or three degrees Celsius during exercise.\n", "It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television rays that are not related to temperature. Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. People are constantly radiating their body heat, but at different rates. From these values, the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer, which explains the “chill” we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same.\n", "Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atwater system\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical energy\n\nBULLET::::- Food chain\n\nBULLET::::- Food composition\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by food energy intake\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition facts label\n\nBULLET::::- Table of food nutrients\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "The “radiation effect” results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces, such as walls and ceilings. It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature. For example, in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22° Celsius at all times, but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10° Celsius in the winter or 25° Celsius in the summer, heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur, resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature.\n", "ASHRAE 55-2010 defines SET as \"the temperature of an imaginary environment at 50% relative humidity, average air speed, and mean radiant temperature equal to average air temperature, in which total heat loss from the skin of an imaginary occupant with an activity level of 1.0 met and a clothing level of 0.6 clo is the same as that from a person in the actual environment, with actual clothing and activity level.\"\"\"\n", "An organism at optimum temperature is considered \"afebrile\" or \"apyrexic\", meaning \"without fever\". If temperature is raised, but the setpoint is not raised, then the result is hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hyperthermia.\n", "This mechanism of vasodilation is supported by research, and the effectiveness of the vasomotor response can be explained by the value of Tau (the time constant of the blood circulation over that area experiences effect from a sensor). In general, the value of Tau does not change much in temperatures of 39 °C and higher, whereas temperatures below 39 °C will exhibit a significant variance in the value of Tau. The vasodilation causing signal originates from an increase in skin temperature, approaching a threshold of around 40 °C. The cooling phase of Tau will depend on body mechanics and an individual’s ability to radiate heat from the body.\n", "Thus, when local thermodynamic equilibrium prevails in a body, temperature can be regarded as a spatially varying local property in that body, and this is because temperature is an intensive variable.\n\nSection::::Basic theory.\n", "Thermoception\n\nThermoception or thermoreception is the sense by which an organism perceives temperature, or more accurately, temperature differences inferred from heat flux. The details of how temperature receptors work are still being investigated. Ciliopathy is associated with decreased ability to sense heat, thus cilia may aid in the process. Transient receptor potential channels (TRP channels) are believed to play a role in many species in sensation of hot, cold, and pain. Vertebrates have at least two types of sensor: those that detect heat and those that detect cold.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03003	How can scientist determine things like top speeds of dinosaurs if all they have to go off of is bones?	The bones are pretty informative really. When put together into a skeleton the same way you can roughly imagine the way the original dinosaur looked scientists have developed methods to very accurately figure out how the thing looked as well. Muscles are attached directly to bones (hence the name 'skeletal muscles'). The way they are attached to the bone allows scientists to understand how big the muscle is, what it is shaped like and where it's positioned. You would also need the size, approximate weight and air resistance of the dinosaur which is all very conveniently presented by the skeleton. By measuring the skeleton you can easily get all this. With that information along with a lot of trial and error they can slowly understand what is the most comfortable way for the dinosaur to run. This is done in the same way an physiotherapist discerns something about their patients. (I don't really know how its done. I'm not a physiotherapist. Maybe they bring a physiotherapist with them while figuring this out.) The last thing they need something that you can also tell from just the bones. Or more specifically the DNA. The DNA basically tells the body how it should grow and function. From the DNA scientists can decode 2 different things: 1. how enduring the muscles are and 2. How fast the muscles are. Every muscle is a certain amount enduring and certain amount fast because of what kind of DNA the animal has inherited. Its the same for humans, mammals and pretty much all animals so it's only slightly harder to figure out the same for dinosaurs. With all this information; muscle size, muscle position, muscle speed, muscle endurance, optimal sprint patterns, and size, using simulation programs or very complicated math/physics you can calculate the max speed. The physics is very complicated but I know it's possible. The simulations are really cool. I've seen some myself. The simulations in Jurassic park are pretty accurate as well or so I've heard.	[ "In a study published in PLoS ONE on October 30, 2013, by Bill Sellers, Rodolfo Coria, Lee Margetts \"et al.\", \"Argentinosaurus\" was digitally reconstructed to test its locomotion for the first time. Before the study, the most common way of estimating speed was through studying bone histology and ichnology. Commonly, studies about sauropod bone histology and speed focus on the postcranial skeleton, which holds many unique features, such as an enlarged process on the ulna, a wide lobe on the ilia, an inward-slanting top third of the femur, and an extremely ovoid femur shaft. Those features are useful when attempting to explain trackway patterns of graviportal animals. When studying ichnology to calculate sauropod speed, there are a few problems, such as only providing estimates for certain gaits because of preservation bias, and being subject to many more accuracy problems.\n", "Manning's team used a large-scale CT scanner, provided by NASA and the Boeing Company, to generate high-resolution scans of the preserved muscles and tendons of the rear legs. Because the intervertebral discs which space out the spinal column of the tail have been fossilized, researchers have been able to calculate its length more accurately. The preservation of its muscles and tendons allow the calculation of its mass. The results indicate the dinosaur could likely have run at 45 km/h (28 mph), faster than the estimated top speed of \"Tyrannosaurus rex\", at 32 km/h (20 mph).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the absolute bone volume in five human long bones from the Sima de los Huesos site is published by Carretero \"et al.\" (2018), who interpret their findings as indicating that Sima de los Huesos hominins had on average heavier long bones than extant humans of the same size.\n", "In 2013, in a study published in \"PLoS ONE\" on October 30, 2013 by Dr. Bill Sellers, Dr. Rodolfo Coria, Lee Margetts and colleagues, \"Argentinosaurus\" was digitally reconstructed to test its locomotion for the first time. Before computer simulations, the most common way of estimating speed was through studying bone histology and ichnology. Commonly, studies about sauropod bone histology and speed focus on the postcranial skeleton which holds many unique features, such as an enlarged process on the ulna, a wide lobe on the ilia, an inward-slanting top third of the femur, and an extremely ovoid femur shaft. Those features are useful when attempting to explain trackway patterns of graviportal animals. When studying ichnology to calculate sauropod speed, there are a few problems, such as only providing estimates for certain gaits because of preservation bias, and being subject to many more accuracy problems.\n", "BULLET::::- Even the earliest archosauriformes may have been capable of very fast growth, which suggests they had fairly high metabolic rates. Although drawing conclusions about the earliest archosauriformes from later forms is tricky, because species-specific variations in bone structure and growth rate are very likely, there are research strategies than can minimize the risk that such factors will cause errors in the analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- The presence of the atlas rib in \"Archaeopteryx\" is reported for the first time by Tsuihiji (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- A tooth attributed to an archaeopterygid bird is described from the Early Cretaceous of France by Louchart & Pouech (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- A well-preserved skull of a juvenile specimen of \"Sapeornis chaoyangensis\" is described by Wang \"et al.\" (2017), preserving what the authors consider to be the complete dentition.\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the flight capabilities of \"Sapeornis chaoyangensis\" is published by Serrano & Chiappe (2017).\n", "To estimate the gait and speed of \"Argentinosaurus\", the study performed a musculoskeletal analysis. The only previous musculoskeletal analysises were conducted on hominoids, terror birds, and other dinosaurs. Before they could conduct the analysis, the team had to create a digital skeleton of the animal in question, show where there would be muscle layering, locate the muscles and joints, and finally find the muscle properties before finding the gait and speed. The results of the biomechanics study revealed that \"Argentinosaurus\" was mechanically competent at a top speed of 2 m/s (5 mph) given the great weight of the animal and the strain that its joints were capable of bearing. The results further revealed that much larger terrestrial vertebrates might be possible, but would require significant body remodeling and possible sufficient behavioral change to prevent joint collapse.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the feeding behaviour of \"Tyrannosaurus rex\" and the factors that enabled members of this species to pulverize bones before eating them is published by Gignac & Erickson (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the running abilities of \"Tyrannosaurus rex\" is published by Sellers \"et al.\" (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- Horner observed that fossil eggs and hadrosaur hatchlings were common in sediments deposited in the upper regions of what were once coastal plains.\n\nBULLET::::- Weishampel described hadrosaur chewing and cranial kinetics.\n\nBULLET::::- Norman described hadrosaur chewing and cranial kinetics.\n\nBULLET::::- Weishampel argued that hadrosaurs fed mainly on vegetation of 2 m in height or less but had a maximum browsing height of 4 m.\n\nBULLET::::- Bonaparte and others described the new species \"Kritosaurus australis\".\n\n1985\n\nBULLET::::- Norman and Weishampel described hadrosaur chewing and cranial kinetics.\n\n1987\n", "BULLET::::- A study on whether sternal keel length and ilium length were correlated in bird evolution, based on data from extant birds and Mesozoic birds, is published by Zhao, Liu and Li (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the impact of varying oxygen concentrations, global temperatures and air densities on the flight performance of extinct birds and on major diversification events which took place during the evolution of birds is published by Serrano \"et al.\" (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- A study evaluating whether reported set of unique collagen peptides of \"Tyrannosaurus rex\" and \"Brachylophosaurus canadensis\" could reflect cross-sample contamination from the modern reference material used is published by Buckley \"et al.\" (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the relationship between step width and speed (stride length) in Late Triassic theropod trackways, its implications for non-avian theropod locomotion and for how it compared to bird and human locomotion is published by Bishop \"et al.\" (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- A study of the bone histology of \"Tenontosaurus tilletti\" is published by Sarah Werning (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A study of the bone histology of \"Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki\" is published by Tom R. Hübner (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- A study questioning the interpretation of \"Torosaurus\" as a junior synonym and a growth stage of \"Triceratops\" was published by Nicholas R. Longrich and Daniel J. Field (2012).\n", "BULLET::::- Bishop \"et al.\" (2018) present predictive equations that may be used to model non-avian theropod locomotion, developed on the basis of a study of extant ground-running birds.\n\nBULLET::::- A three-part series of papers investigating the architecture of cancellous bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs, and evaluating its implications for inferring locomotor biomechanics in extinct non-avian theropods, is published by Bishop \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the postnatal skeletal development of limb bones in four species of extant aquatic birds (the streaked shearwater, the Japanese cormorant, the black-tailed gull and the rhinoceros auklet) and its implications for the assessment of ontogenetic stage of fossil and skeletal bird specimens is published by Watanabe (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- A study estimating values of body weight, wing span and wing area of the trackmakers of the Cretaceous ichnotaxa \"Archaeornithipus meijidei\", \"Hwangsanipes choughi\" and \"Yacoraitichnus avis\" is published by Tanaka (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- \"[E]xtensive exostoses\" of the first phalanx of the third toe.\n\nBULLET::::- Coossification of centra in the vertebrae near the end of the tail.\n\nBULLET::::- Bone spurs in a premaxilla, claw, and two metacarpals.\n\nBULLET::::- Exostosis in a toe bone possibly attributable to an infectious disease.\n\nBULLET::::- A metacarpal with a round depressed fracture.\n", "BULLET::::- Langston found additional support for Sternberg's reclassification of \"Triceratops\" among the long-frilled ceratopsids among the anatomical characteristics of its premaxilla. He also classified \"Pachyrhinosaurus\" among the short-frilled ceratopsids.\n\n1969\n\nBULLET::::- Steel followed Lull's division of the Ceratopsidae into short-frilled and long-frilled forms.\n\nSection::::20th century.:1970s.\n\n1971\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Thulborn followed Lull's division of the Ceratopsidae into short-frilled and long-frilled forms.\n\n1972\n\nBULLET::::- Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska and Rinchen Barsbold reported the associated remains of a \"Velociraptor\" and \"Protoceratops\" apparently killed and preserved while fighting.\n\nBULLET::::- Sergei Mikhailovich Kurzanov reported sexual dimorphism in the skull of \"Protoceratops andrewsi\".\n\n1975\n", "BULLET::::- A study aiming to estimate body mass of \"Orrorin tugenensis\" and \"Ardipithecus ramidus\" is published by Grabowski, Hatala & Jungers (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study comparing the calcar femorale of \"Orrorin tugenensis\" and other hominoids is published by Kuperavage \"et al.\" (2018), who interpret their findings as indicating that \"O. tugenensis\" was an early bipedal hominin.\n", "BULLET::::- Farlow and others calculated that an adult \"T. rex\" running at 20 m/s or faster would sustain fatal injuries if it tripped, suggesting that they didn't actually run that fast.\n", "BULLET::::- Horner and others studied the histology of \"Maiasaura peeblesorum\" bones. They found that \"Maiasaura\" only took 8–10 years to reach adult body size. A adult \"Maiasaura\" could have an adult body mass of over despite hatching at a length of about half a meter and with a body mass of less than a kilogram. This disparity implies a rate or growth similar to those found in modern mammals.\n\n2001\n\nBULLET::::- Horner and others published additional research on the histology of \"Maiasaura peeblesorum\" bones.\n\n2003\n\nBULLET::::- You and others described the new genus and species \"Equijubus normani\".\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Sandrak, a seven-year-old bodybuilder / Byron Ferguson, a highly skilled archer / , a man who balances himself on a chair while it sits atop another chair on the rooftop of a tall church building in his hometown of Saint-Étienne. He later performs the same stunt at the Preikestolen cliff in Norway / A dog capable of doing math / An annual crucifixion event in the Philippines / The Gomez family, which suffers from an overgrowth of hair known as hypertrichosis / The Techno Bra, which emits an alert to authorities if it detects a sudden struggle between the wearer and a mugger / Although the velociraptors in the film \"Jurassic Park\" (1993) are fictionalized to be larger than their real-life counterparts, a new, larger dinosaur known as \"Utahraptor\" more similar to the film's velociraptors is discovered shortly before the film's release.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the hip joint mobility of the extant common quail, and its implications for inferring the hip joint range of motion in extinct ornithodirans, is published by Manafzadeh & Padian (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the soft tissue anatomy of the hip joint in non-dinosaurian dinosauromorphs and early dinosaurs is published by Tsai \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "However, recent analysis of the tiny holes in fossil leg bones of dinosaurs provides a gauge for blood flow rate and hence metabolic rate. The holes are called nutrient foramina, and the nutrient artery is the major blood vessel passing through to the interior of the bone, where it branches into tiny vessels of the Haversian canal system. This system is responsible for replacing old bone with new bone, thereby repairing microbreaks that occur naturally during locomotion. Without this repair, microbreaks would build up, leading to stress fractures and ultimately catastrophic bone failure. The size of the nutrient foramen provides an index of blood flow through it, according to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The size is also related to the body size of animal, of course, so this effect is removed by analysis of allometry. Blood flow index of the nutrient foramen of the femurs in living mammals increases in direct proportion to the animals' maximum metabolic rates, as measured during maximum sustained locomotion. Mammalian blood flow index is about 10 times greater than in ectothermic reptiles. Ten species of fossil dinosaurs from five taxonomic groups reveal indices even higher than in mammals, when body size is accounted for, indicating that they were highly active, aerobic animals. Thus high blood flow rate, high blood pressure, a four-chambered heart and sustained aerobic metabolism are all consistent with endothermy.\n", "Scientists have produced a wide range of maximum speed estimates, mostly around , but a few as low as , and a few as high as . Researchers have to rely on various estimating techniques because, while there are many tracks of very large theropods walking, so far none have been found of very large theropods running—and this absence \"may\" indicate that they did not run.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the effect of inclusion and exclusion of autapomorphies on the analyses of phylogenetic relationships of early eureptiles is published by Matzke & Irmis (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the anatomy and histology of the caudal vertebrae of Permian captorhinids from the Richards Spur locality (Oklahoma, United States), supporting previous hypotheses that \"Captorhinus\" and other early Permian captorhinids were capable of tail autotomy, is published by LeBlanc \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "BULLET::::- Thulborn noted that estimates for ornithomimosaur running speeds puts them between 35 and 60 km/h.\n\n1991\n\nBULLET::::- Yacobucci performed a cladistic analysis of ornithomimosaurs.\n\n1993\n\nBULLET::::- Currie and Eberth suggested that some fossils once thought to belong to \"Archaeornithomimus\" were actually \"Garudimimus\" remains. They also noted that some fossil eggs discovered at Iren Debasu in China may have been laid by ornithomimosaurs. However, without ornithomimosaur skeletal remains of either adults who could have laid the eggs or embryos inside them there is no solid evidence for this proposal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "You cannot tell how fast a dinosaur was from its bones." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The bone and its attachments allow scientists to understand how big the muscle is, what it is shaped like and where it's positioned." ]
2018-03692	Why depressed people feel like there is a "curtain" between them and reality?	Disclaimer beforehand: as always, don't take medical advice from the internet. But more than that, be especially careful when it's about mental health - the human mind is complicated and fuzzy and it's easy to jump to strange conclusions by taking information from the internet. You may be suffering from depersonalisation. Depersonalisation is when people feel detached from bodily sensations and the world around them, as well as from their own sense of identity. It's a generally discomforting experience - a couple friends of mine have noted experiencing depersonalisation regularly. They report it as if they experience the world is not real, as if they are trapped behind a screen they can not escape from. A couple different friends of mine have experienced it too, but after taking drugs - it's actually similar, but they don't associate it negatively. Depersonalisation is usually, according to my Google Fu, a symptom of various mental disorders, including depression. It can also be a cause of anxious and depressive thoughts though. For more information I'd like to send you a link of someone more knowledgeable than me. URL_0 It is likewise possible though that what you experience is not like depersonalisation. I can't look in your mind, but a medical professional may be able to assume what you do feel.	[ "That process of substitution was well under way by the 1990s, when notoriously \"surface was depth\", and in the new millennium has led to a state of what has been called hypervisibility: everything is on view. In this new era of exposure we are all submerged in what the psychoanalyst Michael Parsons has called \"the totalist world where there is a horror of inwardness; everything must be revealed\".\n", "Such withdrawal can also be seen as a schizoid regression in Fairbairn's sense, the borderline patient tending to shun contact with both himself and his objects. Steiner here refers to the little-known theories of Henri Rey about 'the \"marsupial space\"' of earliest life — a psychological space on analogy to the kangaroo's pouch, which continues until the individual has found a personal space separate from the breast area: 'the borderline patient often feels he has been prematurely and cruelly pushed out of this maternal space', producing the '\"claustro-agoraphobic\" dilemma...trapped in a psychic retreat'.\n", "Section::::Effects on the mind.\n", "Psychogeographical depression overlaps somewhat with the theory of \"deprejudice\", a portmanteau of depression and prejudice proposed by Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon in 2012, who argue for an integrative approach to studying the often comorbid experiences. Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon are concerned with the ways in which social stereotypes are often internalized, creating negative self-stereotypes that then produce depressive symptoms.\n", "Another noteworthy type of isolation is referred to as \"temporal bracketing\", in which some perceived failure or shortcoming is buried away in one's past, effectively removing its impact on the current self. This type of separation from the past can be seen in religious conversion or \"born again\" experiences, in certain drug addiction recovery programs, and in the throwing away of delinquent files in the legal system. These socially accepted practices effectively make isolation socially permissible, at least in certain instances; and those behaviors seem to relieve some of the stress from past events. People with low self-esteem often use temporal bracketing when describing past failures. By isolating themselves from whatever misdeed they are bringing to cognition, they contend that it has nothing to do with their current state or relationships with people.\n", "In a development which Grotstein terms the \"primal split\", the infant becomes aware of separateness from the mother. This awareness allows guilt to arise in response to the infant’s previous aggressive phantasies when bad was split from good. The mother’s temporary absences allow for continuous restoration of her “as an image of representation” in the infant mind. Symbolic thought may now arise, and can only emerge once access to the depressive position has been obtained. With the awareness of the primal split, a space is created in which the symbol, the symbolized, and the experiencing subject coexist. History, subjectivity, interiority, and empathy all become possible.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Yoav wrote about \"A Way Out\": \"this time it's personal. It discusses 'me', 'us', 'with us', and how they're all blending together inside my head. Emotions, which define us, how we perceive and deal with our feelings, those we can control, but especially those we cannot - loneliness, anger, fear, desperation and even hope - they play such an important role in our lives, both as individuals and as a society. This is our strength but also our weakness - this is why we're both special and cursed at the same time. 'A Way Out' deals with those emotions of mine (mostly). It is heavy and aggressive, silent and scared, and might even be political.\"\n", "In a SuicideGirls interview, Lieberstein noted that \"as an actor, which is just a very small percentage of me, I don’t feel Toby while I’m writing. It’s the hardest of the characters to access.\" In an interview for his alma mater, Hamilton College, Lieberstein commented on the bigger picture:\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "A similar and overlapping concept called ipseity disturbance (ipse is Latin for \"self\" or \"itself\") may be part of the core process of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. However, specific to the schizophrenia spectrum seems to be \"a \"dis\"location of first-person perspective such that self and other or self and world may seem to be non-distinguishable, or in which the individual self or field of consciousness takes on an inordinate significance in relation to the objective or intersubjective world\" (emphasis in original).\n", "The world of \"Outer Dark\" is a brutally nihilistic one. It represents a gestalt of irrationality and incoherence, a world that is completely strange and unapproachable. McCarthy might have had in mind the eight chapter of Gospel of Matthew verses 11 to 12: I say to you that many will come from the east and the west, and will take their places at the feast with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven. But the subjects of the kingdom will be thrown outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.” There are thus two options for this world: the kingdom of heaven and the outer dark of hell.\n", "It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of the brain’s energy, as the PGO spikes are continually firing, so depressed people tend to wake early but exhausted and lacking in motivation, setting the scene for more worry and distress the following day. (This has been termed the cycle of depression.) The expectation fulfilment theory of dreaming is used by Human Givens therapists to help people see the need to stop worrying and introspecting and to focus on productive ways to meet unmet needs instead.\n", "BULLET::::- 25 Years Ago, 'Darkness Visible' Broke Ground Detailing Depression — this is an audio file of an NPR broadcast of an interview with writer Andrew Solomon, who chronicled his own battle with depression in his book \"The Noonday Demon\", about how Styron's work opened up discussions of mental illness. (Original airdate: December 17, 2014)\n", "The Coens decided early in the writing process to include the picture as a key element in the room. \"Our intention,\" Joel explained later, \"was that the room would have very little decoration, that the walls would be bare and that the windows would offer no view of any particular interest. In fact, we wanted the only opening on the exterior world to be this picture. It seemed important to us to create a feeling of isolation.\"\n", "The gene-pool politics which monitor power struggles among terrestrial humanity are transcended in this info-world, i.e. seen as static, artificial charades. One is neither coercively manipulated into another's territorial reality nor forced to struggle against it with reciprocal game-playing (the usual soap opera dramatics). One simply elects, consciously, whether or not to share the other's reality tunnel.\n\nSection::::Considerations.\n", "In working through depressive anxiety, projections are withdrawn, allowing the other more autonomy, reality, and a separate existence. The infant, whose destructive phantasies were directed towards the bad mother who frustrated, now begins to realize that bad and good, frustrating and satiating, it is always the same mother. Unconscious guilt for destructive phantasies arises in response to the continuing love and attention provided by caretakers.\n", "Such a person can appear to be available, interested, engaged and involved in interacting with others, but he or she may in reality be emotionally withdrawn and sequestered in a safe place in an internal world. Withdrawnness is a characteristic feature of schizoid pathology, but it is sometimes overt and sometimes covert. Overt withdrawnness matches the usual description of the schizoid personality, but withdrawnness is just as often a covert, hidden, internal state of the patient.\n", "Because the other man can see what things are really like he holds a bleaker vision of what the future has in store. Up until hearing the sound of music he has hardly ventured out and not travelled far at that. Although he has offered to be the fiddler’s eyes he becomes annoyed when continually asked to describe how things are and when he tells him that it’s “day” he feels the need to add an “if you like” casting a shadow of doubt on even this simple answer. Later on when he imagines things they might come across in their travels he only mentions the gutter and a muckheap. He doesn’t believe anyone will ever return so when things start to fall apart between the pair he laments: “I’ll never see anyone again.”\n", "Because of this interplay, a person's negative thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, such as pessimistic predictions about the future, regretful ruminations upon the past, low self-esteem, and depleted belief in self-determination and a capacity to cope can undermine the efficiency of the immune system, increasing vulnerability to ill health. Simultaneously, the biochemical indicators of ill health monitored by the immune system feeds back to the brain via the nervous system, which exacerbates thoughts and feelings of a negative nature. That is to say, we feel and think of ourselves as unwell, which contributes to physical conditions of ill health, which in turn cause us to feel and think of ourselves as unwell.\n", "Psychodynamic theory formed the basis for the conceptualization of dissociation as a defense mechanism. Within this framework, depersonalization is understood as a defense against a variety of negative feelings, conflicts, or experiences. Sigmund Freud himself experienced fleeting derealization when visiting the Acropolis in person; having read about it for years and knowing it existed, seeing the real thing was overwhelming and proved difficult for him to perceive it as real.\n", "Whilst depression is frequently associated with negative rumination of verbal thought patterns manifested as unspoken inner speech, ninety percent of depressed patients reporting distressing intrusive mental imagery that often simulates and recollect previous negative experiences, and which the depressed person often interprets in a way that intensifies feelings of despair and hopelessness. In addition, people suffering from depression have difficulty in evoking prospective imagery indicative of a positive future. The prospective mental imagery experienced by depressed persons when at their most despairing commonly includes vivid and graphic images related to suicide, which some psychologists and psychiatrists refer to as \"flash-forwards\".\n", "Client: ...ever recovering to the extent where I could become self supporting and live alone I thought that I was doomed to hospitalization for the rest of my life and seeing some of the people over in the main building, some of those old people who are, who need a lot of attention and all that sort of thing, is the only picture I could see of my own future, just one of complete hopelessness, that there was any...\n\nTherapist: Mhm \n\nTherapist: (Interrupting) You didn't see any hope at all, did you?\n", "The anxieties characteristic of the depressive position shift from a fear of being destroyed to a fear of destroying others. In fact or phantasy, one now realizes the capacity to harm or drive away a person who one ambivalently loves. The defenses characteristic of the depressive position include the manic defenses, repression and reparation. The manic defenses are the same defenses evidenced in the paranoid-schizoid position, but now mobilized to protect the mind from depressive anxiety. As the depressive position brings about an increasing integration in the ego, earlier defenses change in character, becoming less intense and allowing for in increased awareness of psychic reality.\n", "Originally produced at The Store Room as part of their inaugural Store Room Theatre Workshop series, A Mile in Her Shadow explores depression, depersonalisation and other stress related mental health issues. Written by Reid it was originally directed by Ben Harkin and has subsequently been supported by the R. E. Ross Trust Development award, and presented at the 33rd Australian National Playwright Centre’s Conference.\n\n\"All of Which are American Dreams\" \n", "Walter Benjamin (1936) declared that the art of storytelling is coming to an end. We can no longer tell a tale of trauma properly. We can no longer exchange our experiences of trauma of war (PTSD), economic collapse sending millions into homelessness, including veterans of the recent wars, the ubiquitousness of sweatshops, and so on. Of relevance to paraspace, the lost art of storytelling has an accumulated effect (Fisch, 2004: p. 365); it gets worth with cyber-real. /When the ‘real’ pokes through the cyberspace, it gets quickly displaced by obfuscation. Our ‘real’ in hyperspace is not closer to Lacanian Real (FIsch, p. 372).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00198	Why do soft and fuzzy blankets become less soft and fuzzy after washing them?	My softest blankets usually shed a lot of lint when they go in the dryer. A LOT. I'd guess that makes a noticable difference over time. I don't ever use fabric softener.	[ "Older surfaces, such as double jute-backed carpets and loose rugs with natural foundation yarns, could shrink after a wet treatment, leading to suppositions that wet-cleaning could also remove wrinkles. However, this notion is antiquated and this method could also occasionally tear seams or uproot strips. Newer carpets, such as with synthetic backing and foundation yarns, do not shrink, and they smooth easily; in such carpets, wrinkles indicate an underlying problem, such as delamination where the secondary backing becomes unstuck from the primary backing, that may need a certified carpet inspector to determine.\n", "An important and oldest textile finishing is brushing or raising. Using this process a wide variety of fabrics including blankets, flannelettes and industrial fabrics can be produced. The process of raising consists of lifting from the body of the fabric a layer of fibers which stands out from the surface which is termed as \"pile\". The formation of pile on a fabric results in a \"lofty\" handle and may also subdue the weave or pattern and color of the cloth.\n", "The wash durability of a calendared finish on thermoplastic fibers like polyester is higher than on cellulose fibers such as cotton. On blended fabrics such as Polyester/Cotton the durability depends largely on the proportion of synthetic fiber component present as well as the amount and type of finishing additives used and the machinery and process conditions employed.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nSeveral different finishes can be achieved through the calendering process by varying different parts. The main different types of finishes are \"beetling\", \"watered\", \"embossing\" and \"Schreiner\".\n\nSection::::Variations.:Beetled.\n", "To stretch the cling-wrap plastic tightly over the bale, the tension is actively adjusted with a knob on the end of the roll, which squeezes the ends of the roll in the shuttle. In this example wrapping video, the operator is attempting to use high tension to get a flat, smooth seal on the right end. However, the tension increases too much and the plastic tears off. The operator recovers by quickly loosening the tension and allows the plastic to feed out halfway around the bale before reapplying the tension to the sheeting.\n", "Section::::Alkaline collagen swelling.\n\nThe presence of calcium hydroxide results in the alkaline swelling of skin. The result is an influx of water into the hide/skin, and a marked increase in fibre diameter and fibre shortening. The thickness of the skin increases, but the surface area of the pelt decreases. The weight increase, owing to the uptake of water, results in a doubling of the hide/skin weight. However, this weight also needs to take into consideration that proteins (especially the hair) have been removed, and the fleshing operation is often performed after liming.\n\nSection::::Collagen fibre bundle splitting.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Brush Mattress.\n", "Machine washing puts great mechanical stress on textiles, particularly natural fibers such as cotton and wool. The fibers at the fabric surface are squashed and frayed, and this condition hardens while drying the laundry in air, giving the laundry a harsh feel. Adding a liquid fabric softener to the final rinse (rinse-cycle softener) results in laundry that feels softer.\n", "Section::::Dilatant fluids.\n\nDilatant, or \"shear-thickening\" fluids increase in apparent viscosity at higher shear rates. They are rarely encountered, but one common example is an uncooked paste of cornstarch and water, sometimes known as oobleck. Under high shear rates the water is squeezed out from between the starch molecules, which are able to interact more strongly.\n", "The viscosity of a shear thickening fluid, or dilatant fluid, appears to increase when the shear rate increases. Corn starch dissolved in water (\"oobleck\", see below) is a common example: when stirred slowly it looks milky, when stirred vigorously it feels like a very viscous liquid.\n\nSection::::Types of non-Newtonian behaviour.:Shear thinning fluid.\n", "Calendering (textiles)\n\nCalendering of textiles is a finishing process used to smooth, coat, or thin a material. With textiles, fabric is passed between calender rollers at high temperatures and pressures. Calendering is used on fabrics such as moire to produce its watered effect and also on cambric and some types of sateens.\n", "MLI blankets are constructed with sewing technology. The layers are cut, stacked on top of each other, and sewn together at the edges. Seams and gaps in the insulation are responsible for most of the heat leakage through MLI blankets. A new method is being developed to use polyetheretherketone (PEEK) tag pins (similar to plastic hooks used to attach price tags to garments) to fix the film layers in place instead of sewing to improve the thermal performance.\n\nSection::::Additional properties.\n", "The fabric passes over brushes to raise the fibers, then passes over a plate heated by gas flames. When done to fabrics containing cotton, this results in increased wetability, better dyeing characteristics, improved reflection, no \"frosty\" appearance, a smoother surface, better clarity in printing, improved visibility of the fabric structure, less pilling and decreased contamination through removal of fluff and lint.\n", "In preparation for calendering, the fabric is folded lengthwise with the front side, or face, inside, and stitched together along the edges. The fabric can be folded together at full width, however this is not done as often as it is more difficult. The fabric is then run through rollers that polish the surface and make the fabric smoother and more lustrous. High temperatures and pressure are used as well. Fabrics that go through the calendering process feel thin, glossy and papery.\n", "\"A common household example of a strongly shear-thinning fluid is styling gel, which primarily composed of water and a fixative such as a vinyl acetate/vinylpyrrolidone copolymer (PVP/PA). If one were to hold a sample of hair gel in one hand and a sample of corn syrup or glycerine in the other, they would find that the hair gel is much harder to pour off the fingers (a low shear application), but that it produces much less resistance when rubbed between the fingers (a high shear application).\" \n", "Section::::Calendering textiles.\n\nCalendering is a finishing process used on cloth and fabrics. A calender is employed, usually to smooth, coat, or thin a material.\n\nWith textiles, fabric is passed under rollers at high temperatures and pressures. Calendering is used on fabrics such as moire to produce its watered effect and also on cambric and some types of sateens.\n\nSection::::Other materials.\n", "The fabrics used in most blanket sleepers have a strong tendency to pill. Although this does not adversely affect the garment's functional utility, it has the effect that a used garment can be clearly, visually distinguished from a new one after only a small number of wearings or washings.\n", "Syneresis (also spelled 'synæresis' or 'synaeresis'), in chemistry, is the extraction or expulsion of a liquid from a gel, as when serum drains from a contracting clot of blood. Another example of syneresis is the collection of whey on the surface of yogurt. Syneresis can also be observed when the amount of diluent in a swollen polymer exceeds the solubility limit as the temperature changes. A household example of this is the counter intuitive expulsion of water from dry gelatin when the temperature increases. Syneresis has also been proposed as the mechanism of formation of the amorphous silicate composing the frustule of diatoms.\n", "As of 2012, there are no documented or proven examples of sticky-shed from Maxell. TDK has been showing signs as of late of shedding its lubricant in the form of a white powder or white/yellowish goo. This has shown up on the TDK SA and some LX and BX tapes. There have been a few reports of some tape from the current manufacturers ATR and RMGI exhibiting symptoms of sticky-shed. But these may be isolated incidents relating to prototype or single bad batches and are not necessarily indicative of the overall product line integrity.\n", "Because of their low surface area, static cling causes fibers that have detached from an article of clothing to continue to stick to one another and to that article or other surfaces with which they come in contact. Other small fibers or particles also accumulate with these clothing fibers, including human and animal hair and skin cells, plant fibers, and pollen, dust, and microorganisms.\n", "Certain gels or fluids that are thick (viscous) under static conditions will begin to thin and flow as they are shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed. When stress ceases, they regress to their more viscous state after a passage of time. Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such as ketchup, and are called pseudoplastic fluids. Others, such as yogurt, take much longer and can become nearly solid. Many gels and colloids are thixotropic materials, exhibiting a stable form at rest but becoming increasingly fluid when agitated.\n\nSection::::Thixotropic fluids.:Examples and Applications.\n", "A further possibility is mercerizing, during which the fabric is treated with caustic soda solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye affinity. Cotton is mercerized under tension, and all alkali must be washed out before the tension is released or shrinkage will take place. Mercerizing can take place directly on grey cloth, or after bleaching.\n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Coloration.\n", "Section::::Non-ideal rough solid surfaces.:Cassie–Baxter model.:\"Petal effect\" vs. \"lotus effect\".\n", "Keratin that is present in the hair, scales and in the epidermis of the skin is hydrolyzed in the presence of alkali (at pH values greater than 11.5). The disulfide bridges found in keratin protein are cleaved but can be reformed. Long periods of liming will result in hair removal. The main removal of keratin is performed during the unhairing operation. In traditional processing, liming and unhairing were indivisible and took place at the same time. During modern liming methods, and in particular the processing of sheepskins, the hair is removed first and then limed in a liming drum. In hair-save technology, the hides are unhaired first and then limed for a further 12–18 hours.\n", "BASF tape production did not use the unstable formulation, and their tape production rarely shows this type of coating instability, although BASF LH Super SM cassettes manufactured in the mid-70s are prone to the problem.\n\nAs of 2015, some 35 mm magnetic fullcoat tapes produced by Kodak, such as those used for the audio portion of older IMAX films, are also reported to be exhibiting sticky-shed. As tapes remain in storage for a longer time, it is possible that other binder formulations may develop problems.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n", "Briefly, when sheared genomic DNA in solution is heated to near boiling temperature, the molecular forces holding complementary base pairs together are disrupted, and the two strands of each double-helix dissociate or ‘denature.’ If the denatured DNA is then slowly returned to a cooler temperature, sequences will begin to ‘reassociate’ (renature) with complementary strands. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14396	Does video quality get worse by watching 21:9 content on a 16:9 screen?	Let us do some math: 2560 x 1080 = 2,764,800 pixels. 1920 x 1080 = 2,073,600 pixels. The first has a third more pixels than the second. Now we have to consider, if the screen cannot display about 700,000 pixels from the source is the quality reduced? Yes. Yes it is.	[ "The major benefit in shooting 16:9 with protection for 14:9 (rather than 4:3) is improving the usable screen real-estate for titles, logos and scrolling text. The visible enhancement is significant due to the restrictive requirements of overscan. When shooting in 16:9 for potential 4:3 distribution the \"Shoot And Protect\" method (from the BBC's \"Widescreen Book\") is employed. As the name suggests footage is shot in 16:9 but important visual information is protected inside the 14:9 or 4:3 safe areas.\n\nSection::::Usage.:With native 4:3 material.\n", "Amazon Prime Video and YouTube support ultrawide movies/videos, while Tubi TV does not. Netflix has now added support for ultrawide displays when viewing via web browser for recent content.\n\nSection::::Consumer devices.\n\nSection::::Consumer devices.:Flat panel TV.\n", "BULLET::::- The 16:9 panels provide an opportunity for PC brands to further diversify their products.\n\nIn 2011, Bennie Budler, product manager of IT products at Samsung South Africa, confirmed that monitors capable of 1920×1200 resolutions aren't being manufactured anymore. \"It is all about reducing manufacturing costs. The new 16:9 aspect ratio panels are more cost effective to manufacture locally than the previous 16:10 panels.\"\n", "However the European Broadcasting Union has safe area recommendations regarding Television Production for 16:9 Widescreen.\n\nThe official BBC suggestions actually say 3.5% / 5% per side (see p21, p19). The following is a summary:\n\nMicrosoft's Xbox game developer guidelines recommend using 85 percent of the screen width and height, or a title safe area of 7.5% per side.\n\nSection::::Overscan amounts.:Terminology.\n", "Netflix production and post-production requirements state that they prefer content up to 2:1 aspect ratio anything wider must be evaluated and discussed.\n\nSection::::Univisium in use.:Aspect ratio used in music videos.\n\nBULLET::::- Miranda Cosgrove: \"Kissin U\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Girls' Generation: \"Hoot\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Shawn Mendes and Camila Cabello: \"Señorita\" (2019)\n\nSection::::Univisium in use.:Aspect ratio used in devices.\n", "Section::::Availability.:Spain.\n\nIn Spain, the Catalan public television, TV3, trialled the PALplus format in the late 1990s, with a weekly broadcast of a film in this format. Other public regional stations (like Galicia's TVG) tested the format too, but after these trials the technology was dropped and 16:9 digital broadcasts were not introduced until 2007.\n\nSection::::Availability.:United Kingdom.\n", "BULLET::::- Aspect ratio: The ratio of the display width to the display height. The aspect ratio of a traditional television is 4:3, which is being discontinued; the television industry is currently changing to the 16:9 ratio typically used by large-screen, high-definition televisions.\n", "However, films shot at aspect ratios of 2.20:1, 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.55:1, and especially 2.76:1 (\"Ben-Hur\" for example) might still be problematic when displayed on televisions of any type. But when the DVD is \"anamorphically enhanced for widescreen\", or the film is telecast on a high-definition channel seen on a widescreen TV, the black spaces are smaller, and the effect is still much like watching a film on a theatrical wide screen. Though 16:9 (and occasionally 16:10, mostly for computers and tablets) remain standard as of 2018, wider-screen consumer TVs in 21:9 have been released to the market by multiple brands.\n", "At the CES 2014, LG presented the 105UC9, a 105-inch curved LCD TV with a 5120×2160 panel, one of the first two Ultra-Wide 5K 21:9 screens. LG started selling the TV in early 2015 for approx. $100,000 in the U.S., the only 21:9 TV in the market that year.\n\nSection::::Consumer devices.:Flat panel TV.:Samsung.\n\nAlso at CES 2014, Samsung presented a 105-inch curved LCD TV with 5120×2160 resolution as well, the other first UW5K 21:9 screen.\n\nSection::::Consumer devices.:Flat panel TV.:BOE.\n", "Since there are such a wide variety of television screens that may display pictures slightly differently, programs produced in 4:3 aspect ratio are transmitted with picture information in the yellow and red areas to ensure the picture takes up the entire screen with no black area around the edges.\n\nWidescreen programs in 14:9 or 16:9 aspect ratio, on the other hand, are produced with zero overscan at the top and bottom of the picture, where the letterbox bars appear on a 4:3 television.\n", "As of 2017, this ratio is rarely used in TVs, due to it causing pillarboxing with standard 16:9 content. It is still prevalent in projection systems, and supported by a number of consumer electronics devices, including Blu-ray players and video scalers.\n\nIt also started to appear in higher-end computer monitors, where the term \"21:9\" can represent aspect ratios of 43:18 and 12:5 in addition to 64:27. The wider screen provides advantages in multitasking as well as a more immersive gaming experience.\n\nSection::::Constant image height.\n", "Ultimately, the use of 4:3 windowboxing on video is dependent on whether or not the issue of overscan is better solved via hardware (through the use of newer equipment, to the detriment of those with older displays) or via software (through the use of windowboxing, to the detriment of those with newer displays).\n", "Chinese panel manufacturer BOE presented an Ultra-Wide 10K 21:9 TV with a resolution of 10240x4320 (UW10K) at the 2015 Display Week conference.\n\nSection::::Consumer devices.:Front projection.\n\nWide screen projectors with a 16:9 aspect ratio can be converted to 21:9 by attaching a 4/3 horizontal stretch or vertical squeeze anamorphic lens. This will optically scale standard projection images with e.g. 1920×1080 (FullHD) or 3840×2160 (UHD) to a 21:9 aspect ratio. These lenses are manufactured by optical companies like Isco and Zeiss, and provided to the home theater market by companies such as Panamorph.\n", "In 2011 Bennie Budler, product manager of IT products at Samsung South Africa, confirmed that monitors capable of 1920×1200 resolutions aren't being manufactured anymore. \"It is all about reducing manufacturing costs. The new 16:9 aspect ratio panels are more cost-effective to manufacture locally than the previous 16:10 panels\". Since computer displays are advertised by their diagonal measure, for monitors with the same display area, a wide screen monitor will have a larger diagonal measure, thus sounding more impressive. Within limits, the amount of information that can be displayed, and the cost of the monitor depend more on area than on diagonal measure.\n", "Although standards-compliant video processing software should never fill all 720 pixels with active picture (only the center 704 pixels must contain the actual image, and the remaining 8 pixels on the sides of the image should constitute vertical black bars), recent digitally generated content (e.g. DVDs of recent movies) often disregards this rule. This makes it difficult to tell whether these pixels represent wider than 4x3 or 16x9 (as they would do if following Rec.601), or represent exactly 4x3 or 16x9 (as they would do if created using one of the fudged 720-referenced pixel aspect ratios).\n", "With content of different aspect ratios, adjustments have to be made when showing such content on a display with a fixed aspect ratio. To avoid loss of content (due to cropping) or distortions (due to stretching), horizontal or vertical bars of a uniform color, usually black to make them less noticeable, are added to adjust the image. With the black bars being unnoticed, this has the effect of a changing image image size when switching content aspect ratios. Due to the horizontal nature of the human Field of view, it is more jarring if the image changes vertically rather than horizontally.\n", "Advanced Blu-ray players, like the Oppo BDP-203/205, can be put into a 21:9 output mode. In this mode, the player has the capability to extract the 21:9 center portion of the movie content of a letterboxed disc, while re-arranging the 16:9 menus and subtitles for 21:9.\n\nSection::::Standardization.:Streaming services.\n", "In March 2011 the 16:9 resolution 1920×1080 became the most common used resolution among Steam's users. The earlier most common resolution was 1680×1050 (16:10).\n\nSection::::Properties.\n\n16:9 is the only widescreen aspect ratio natively supported by the DVD format. Anamorphic DVD transfers store the information as 5:4 (PAL) or 3:2 (NTSC) square pixels, which is set to expand to either 16:9 or 4:3, which the television or video player handles. \n", "Many modern HDTV sets have the capability to detect black areas in any video signal, and to smoothly re-scale the picture independently in both directions (horizontal and vertical) so that it fills the screen. However, some sets are 16:10 (1.6:1) like some computer monitors, and will not crop the left and right edges of the picture, meaning that all programming looks slightly (though usually imperceptibly) tall and thin.\n", "BULLET::::- 4:3 Letterbox (Widescreen with black bars – Original Aspect Ratio)\n\nBULLET::::- 16:9 (Anamorphic Widescreen)\n\nBULLET::::- 4:3 (Pan & scan)\n\nChoosing the format of the picture is in the digital set-top box setup. The setup does not affect shows which are not broadcast in Widescreen. \"yes Comedy HD\" airs the shows in High Definition 1080i and in widescreen (16:9) at all times. Shows that are not shot in HD are upscaled to 1080i.\n", "With the adoption of high definition television, the majority of modern televisions are now produced with 16:9 displays instead. Apple's iPad series of tablets, however, continue to use 4:3 displays (despite other Apple products typically using widescreen aspect ratios) to better suit use as an e-reader.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:16:9 standard.\n", "Private broadcaster TVI started using the 14:9 format in August 2012 to broadcast 16:9 material instead of using 4:3 Pan & Scan, as they refused to broadcast in 16:9. However, on October 3, 2015, it began to broadcast in full widescreen.\n\nSection::::Mathematics.\n", "BULLET::::- Pan & Scan (4:3)\n\nBULLET::::- Widescreen (16:9)\n\nIn order to watch widescreen (16:9) shows on a 4:3 TV, there are 3 options to see the picture: \n\nBULLET::::- 4:3 Letterbox (Widescreen with black bars - Original Aspect Ratio)\n\nBULLET::::- 16:9 (Anamorphic Widescreen)\n\nBULLET::::- 4:3 (Pan & scan)\n\nChoosing the format of the picture is in the digital set-top box setup. The setup does not affect shows which are not broadcast in Widescreen.\n\nSection::::Broadcasting Formats.:yes stars HD.\n", "Section::::Aspect ratios.:Aspect ratio incompatibility.\n\nThe television industry's changing of aspect ratios is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem.\n\nDisplaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square or 4:3) display can be shown:\n\nBULLET::::- in \"letterbox\" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom\n\nBULLET::::- with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in \"pan and scan\", parts selected by an operator or a viewer)\n\nBULLET::::- with the image horizontally compressed\n", "Section::::History.:Embrace of vertical video.\n\nVertical video has presented significant challenges to video publishers, as many of them have been traditionally geared for horizontal video. In October 2015, social video platform Grabyo, which is used by major sports federations such as La Liga and the National Hockey League (NHL), launched technology to help video publishers adapt horizontal 16:9 video into mobile formats such as vertical and square.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00398	why some NYPD officers still use horses when there are other more modern options	Cop here: Not just NYPD, but a lot of departments still use horses in urban settings. The issue isn't lack of available options. Horses put officers high above crowds which lets them see more. They also provide good community engagement because people like seeing the horses. Horses are also great for crowd control. They're more easily maneuverable through busy streets than any vehicle and faster than officers being on foot.	[ "Mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. Today, many cities still have mounted police units. In rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol.\n", "Many cities in the United States have mounted units, New York having one of the largest with 55 horses as of 2016, but numerous mounted units were disbanded or downsized in the 2010s. For example, units in Boston and San Diego were disbanded by 2011, while New York City’s mounted unit was reduced considerably over the last decade with 79 police officers and 60 horses in 2011 – down from the 130 officers and 125 horses it had before the downsizing. Philadelphia's mounted police unit was disbanded in 2004, but reinstated in 2011 with four horses from the disbanding unit of Newark, New Jersey. The Houston, Texas Police Department's Mounted Patrol Unit, started in 1983 and now consisting of 1 lieutenant, 4 sergeants and 24 officers, has become increasingly well known due to the decision to, by the middle of 2008, remove the shoes of all its 38 mounted horses and embrace the concept of naturalizing their horses' diet and care in addition to riding them barefoot.\n", "This type of competition is seen primarily in American Saddlebred and Morgan horse competition. However, this type of attire is occasionally still seen on horses ridden in real parades, particularly major events in the southwestern United States, where there is still a strong Spanish cultural tradition, such as the Tournament of Roses Parade.\n", "In rural areas, law enforcement that operates outside of incorporated cities may also have mounted units. These include specially deputised, paid or volunteer mounted search and rescue units sent into roadless areas on horseback to locate missing people. Law enforcement in protected areas may use horses in places where mechanised transport is difficult or prohibited. Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot, can transport heavy equipment, and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found.\n\nSection::::Modern uses.:Ceremonial and educational uses.\n", "In 1877, the first horses were bought for the city fire department. The department would continue to use horses for its equipment for almost fifty years, phasing out the last horse drawn equipment on July 19, 1921.\n", "Numerous arguments broke out in 2013 and 2014 concerning the use of horse-drawn carriages in urban settings or on roads. In New York City, the mayor proposed a ban of horse-drawn carriages, symbols of the city for a century, in Central Park for protection reasons. However, an inquiry showed possible collusion with the real estate sector. Israel became the first country to completely ban horse-drawn carriage traffic on the roads and the streets of its cities in 2014, to fight mistreatment of horses and donkeys. The only exception is for tourist attractions. This action was accompanied by a peace march that brought together 4000 supporters of animal rights.\n", "Horses used by the mounted Police generally include a variety of breeds, including heavier horses such as warm bloods, draft horses and Clydesdale crosses. Historically horses were donated to the section, and ex race horses have been included in the donations. It can take up to two years to train a mount.\n\nSection::::Modern-day duties.\n", "As an IRS 501C Corporation, the Auxiliary solicits funding to purchase horses, tack and provide training for both the Volunteers and the Professional Officers. Since inception it has provided several hundred thousand dollars towards the operation of the Mounted Unit, including the Capital Construction of a new barn. Former Parks Commissioner Adrian Benepe was quoted as saying \"there is some doubt that the Parks Department could afford to run a mounted unit without the Mounted Auxiliary.\"\n", "Section::::Notable modern units.:Canadian police forces.\n\nAlthough the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Canada's national and federal police force, is called the \"Mounted Police\", today it only has a small mounted section (~36 horses) and horses are now primarily used for ceremonies.\n\nA few other Canadian police forces have mounted units:\n\nSection::::Notable modern units.:Canadian police forces.:Current.\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Newfoundland Constabulary has had a mounted unit since 1873, but full time after 2003; unit has 4 horses\n\nBULLET::::- Toronto Police Service Mounted Unit - created in 1886 and has largest unit currently with 27 horses\n", "Section::::Notable modern units.:Royal Oman Police.\n\nThe Royal Oman Police have many horse and camel mounted troopers.\n\nSection::::Notable modern units.:US Border Patrol.\n\nThe United States Border Patrol had 200 horses in 2005. Most of these are employed along the U.S.-Mexico border. In Arizona, these animals are fed special processed feed pellets so that their wastes do not spread non-native plants in the national parks and wildlife areas they patrol.\n\nSection::::Notable modern units.:United States cities.\n", "\"For thousands of years the horse has been mankind's closest ally. The horse made travel and development possible. We tethered, weighted and reigned them. We captured, stabled and trained them.\n\nEver willing, the horse was the magnificent tool of man’s ingenuity. The horse is a beast of legend, taking on its own character, personality, emotion and mythology.\n\nHowever, with the advent of the steam engine the horse was made obsolete, and now they are resigned to the realm of shows and races, a world of equestrian sport, a mere shadow of the beast’s former glory.\n", "Historically, horses were trained for warfare, farm work, sport and transport. Today, most horse training is geared toward making horses useful for a variety of recreational and sporting equestrian pursuits. Horses are also trained for specialized jobs from movie stunt work to police and crowd control activities, circus entertainment, and equine-assisted psychotherapy.\n", "NYCLASS is a 501(c)4 non-profit animal rights organization committed to ending New York City's carriage horse industry. NYCLASS advocated for retiring the carriage horses to sanctuary, while modernizing the current industry with their alternative - an electric car called \"the 21st Century Horseless Carriage.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Nassau County Police Department Mounted Unit, New York\n\nBULLET::::- New York City Police Department Mounted Unit, New York, established 1875\n\nBULLET::::- New York State Park Police Mounted Unit, Saratoga Springs, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Rochester Police Department The Mounted Section, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Saratoga Springs Mounted Patrol, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Westchester County Department of Public Safety Mounted Unit, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Rockland County Sheriff's Office Mounted Police Division (Rockland County, NY)\n\nSection::::United States of America.:North Carolina.\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina State University Police Department Mounted Unit, Raleigh, North Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- Raleigh Police Department Mounted Unit, North Carolina\n", "Section::::Modern uses.\n\nToday, many of the historical military uses of the horse have evolved into peacetime applications, including exhibitions, historical reenactments, work of peace officers, and competitive events. Formal combat units of mounted cavalry are mostly a thing of the past, with horseback units within the modern military used for reconnaissance, ceremonial, or crowd control purposes. With the rise of mechanised technology, horses in formal national militias were displaced by tanks and armored fighting vehicles, often still referred to as \"cavalry\".\n\nSection::::Modern uses.:Active military.\n", "At the beginning of Operation Enduring Freedom, Operational Detachment Alpha 595 teams were covertly inserted into Afghanistan on October 19, 2001. Horses were the only suitable transportation for the difficult mountainous terrain of Northern Afghanistan. They were the first U.S. soldiers to ride horses into battle since January 16, 1942, when the U.S. Army’s 26th Cavalry Regiment charged an advanced guard of the 14th Japanese Army as it advanced from Manila.\n\nThe only remaining operationally ready, fully horse-mounted regular regiment in the world is the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry.\n\nSection::::Modern uses.:Law enforcement and public safety.\n", "Section::::21st century.\n\nWorking horses all but disappeared from Britain's streets by the 21st century; among few exceptions are heavy horses pulling brewers' wagons, or drays. However, when Young's Brewery ceased brewing in Wandsworth, London, in 2006, it ended more than 300 years' use of dray horses by the brewery: its team of Shire horses was retired from delivery work and given a new career with the head horsekeeper, offering heavy horse team driving as a recreational event, although they continue to appear at opening ceremonies for new Young's pubs and other publicity events.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rein It In,\" Georgina Bloomberg and Catherine Hapka, 2013\n\nSection::::Current Show Jumping Horses.\n\nBloomberg currently has several show jumping horses.\n\nM40 to Grand Prix divisions: Paola 233, Lilli, Cessna 24, Crown 5, Calista, Quibelle, Manodie, Cliff Z and South Street.\n\nYoung horse divisions: Manhattan, Excelsior, Starry Night.\n\nSection::::Philanthropy.\n\nAt 23, Bloomberg founded the Rider's Closet, which collects new and gently used riding clothing and boots and provides them to therapeutic riding programs, pony clubs, intercollegiate riding programs and individuals in need.\n", "NYRA maintains its own law enforcement force comprising over 150 sworn law enforcement officers. The force consists of uniformed officers and supervisors, fire marshals, and plain clothed investigators and inspectors, all of whom maintain New York State Peace Officer status, thus giving them arrest and investigatory powers, the authority to issue summonses, and the ability to carry defensive weapons including a firearm, baton, pepper spray, and handcuffs. Uniformed members wear navy blue style uniforms. Basic training is conducted yearly. NYRA also employs New York State registered security guards at Saratoga Race Course during its racing meet, as well sub contracts private security guard companies to assist with large details downstate such as Belmont Stakes.\n", "In addition to automobiles, the Highway Patrol continues to use motorcycles in its daily traffic duties; currently the Highway Patrol uses Harley-Davidson Road Kings, and these are most prominently used when escorting visiting national or foreign dignitaries to New York, or when opening many of the city's parades.\n\nSection::::Auxiliary Police Highway Patrol Unit.\n", "Small areas still exist where draft horses are widely used as transportation, due to legislation preventing automotive traffic, such as on Mackinac Island in the United States.\n\nSection::::Care.\n", "Once humans domesticated horses, that animal became a favorite way to escape a crime scene. Jesse James and many old \"Wild West\" bank robbers and train robbers of the 19th century used horses to get way from the scene of their larceny.\n", "Many of the horse-drawn carriages from Central Park stay in stables just off the West Side Highway. It is not uncommon to hear the sound of horses in the neighborhood. There have been calls for banning horse-drawn carriages, especially from Mayor of New York City Bill de Blasio following a handful of collisions between cars and carriages. The carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state-of-the-art sprinkler systems. As horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor.\n", "In the early 1900's, some of the unit were issued with bicycyles instead of horses, as a cost saving measure \n\nThe Victorian Mounted Police moved out of their Melbourne city Southbank stables which had been used by them continuously since 1912, into new purpose built stables in Attwood near Melbourne Airport in 2016 \n\nThe unit had its own breeding program for much of its history, which ended in 2006 when they started to source horses commercially.\n\nSection::::Modern Duties.\n", "The Brunswick, at East 26th Street and Fifth Avenue, was the hotel favored by the horsey set. The male-only New York Coaching Club, established in 1875 by Col. Delancey Astor Kane and William Jay, was headquartered there, and elevated \"four-in-hand\" carriage riding to an art form. Holding the reins of all four horses in one fist, the drivers (\"whips\") guided their horses from the Brunswick to the carriage drives in Central Park and staged parades twice a year.\n" ]	[ "Police using horses is old-fashioned.", "There is no point for a cop to use a horse if more modern options exist. " ]	[ "Horses have advantage over more modern options in urban settings.", "Horses place cops in an elevated position, allowing them to see crowds well, they are also more maneuverable and provide great crowd control. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Police using horses is old-fashioned.", "There is no point for a cop to use a horse if more modern options exist. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Horses have advantage over more modern options in urban settings.", "Horses place cops in an elevated position, allowing them to see crowds well, they are also more maneuverable and provide great crowd control. " ]
2018-04605	Why do people play sad music when they are sad?	I think because music can be so therapeutic. Sometimes it’s just nice to have a “friend” there who gets what you’re going through.	[ "Music as a form of coping has been used multiple times in cancer patients, with promising results. A study done on 113 patients going through stem cell transplants split the patients into two group; one group made their own lyrics about their journey and then produced a music video, and the other group listened to audiobooks. The results of the study showed that the music video group had better coping skills and better social interactions in comparison, by taking their mind of the pain and stress accompanying treatment, and giving them an outlet to express their feelings.\n", "It also cannot be ignored the importance of coping strategies in families and caregivers of those going through serious and even terminal illness. These family members are often responsible for a vast majority of the care of their loved ones, on top of the stress of seeing them struggle. Therapists have worked with these family members, singing and playing instruments, to help them take their minds off of the stress of helping their loved ones undergo treatment. Just like in the patients themselves, the music therapy has been shown to help them cope with the intense emotions and situations they deal with on a daily basis.\n", "...came about from a few different sources, but one was, you know, those sort of old movies that were called weepies, where you could basically be guaranteed that if you needed a good cry, you could go and see one of these and bring your hanky and have a good time. And we want to be able to provide that for people. We want to make music that touches them and moves them in that way, the place where tears come from, for joy and for sorrow.\n", "Music has been used to treat dementia patients by utilizing methods similar to the treatments that are used in the management of PTSD. However, in the treatment of dementia, more emphasis is placed on providing the patient with music that triggers pleasant memories or feelings, rather than avoiding music that triggers negative emotions. After the music is listened to, one sees the change in mood and attitude from closed and distant to joyful, open and happy.\n", "From the beginning, Sojourn has believed songs for worship should run the gamut of human emotion, including expressions of grief—much like the psalms of the Bible—and all of God's attributes, including wrath. They have resisted drawing lines between “Christian” and “secular” music, and have been influenced by everything from the psalms of David to the great hymns of the Reformation, and artists of the 20th and 21st centuries like Thelonious Monk, Muddy Waters, Bessie Smith, Hank Williams, Johnny Cash, The Beatles, Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Radiohead, Elbow, Over The Rhine, Wilco and U2.\n\nSection::::Accolades.\n", "BULLET::::- 1920's – American Delta blues artist Delta Blind Billy in his song \"Hidden Man Blues\" had the line \"Man of sorrow all my days / Left the home where I been raised.\"\n", "Section::::Cultural considerations.\n", "While there are hundreds of different coping strategies, the use of music is one specific example of a coping strategy that is used to combat the negative effects of stress. Due to the substantially large number of strategies to choose from, psychologists break down coping strategies into three types:\n\nBULLET::::1. Appraisal-based - Intended to modify the individual's thought process Stress is typically eliminated through rationalization, changes in values or thinking patterns, or with humor.\n", "A more theoretical critique of this coping strategy is that the use of music in stress coping is largely a short-term coping response and therefore lacks long-term sustainability. These critics argue that while music may be effective in lowering perceived stress levels of patients, it is not necessarily making a difference on the actual cause of the stress response. Because the root cause of the stress is not affected, it is possible that the stress response may return shortly after therapy is ended. Those who hold this position advocate instead for a more problem-focused coping strategy that directly deals with the stressors affecting the patient.\n", "A technique that is starting to be employed more often is vibroacoustic therapy. During therapy the patient lies on his/her back on a mat with speakers within it that send out low frequency sound waves, essentially sitting on a subwoofer. This therapy has been found to help with Parkinson's disease, fibromyalgia, and depression. Studies are also being conducted on patients with mild Alzheimer's disease in hopes to identify possible benefits from vibroacoustic therapy. Vibroacoustic therapy can also be used as an alternative to music therapy for the deaf.\n\nSection::::Controversies.\n", "BULLET::::12. \"Pause\" (\"Interlude\"; B major): \"Is it the echo of my love's pain? Or the prelude to new songs?\" – the Miller, his heart too full to sing, hangs his lute on the wall with a green ribbon and reflects on the heavy burden of happiness. He muses anxiously whether the stirrings of his lute are ominous. Through-composed, a repetitive lute-like motif and static harmony in the accompaniment create the interlude atmosphere. Dissonant minor harmonies reflect the Miller's misgivings before they are shrugged off in the outro.\n", "Christian Music Zine's Tyler Hess stated \"there are songs out there that sound convoluted, but when it is known that the pain is real, that is when it is easiest to relate to and apply personally. When Hammitt sings his heart out, replacing grief with joy in the Lord Jesus Christ, that is when it is obvious that through the testing of fire, his faith has come out pure.\" In addition, Hess said \"you don’t have to be going through a tragedy to appreciate what is happening here, though it is certain to cause great comfort to those who are.\"\n", "Akornefa Akyea's review of their song \"That's Alright\" on Afropop Worldwide stated that: \"you hear the common theme in most spirituals of looking to life after death as a welcome reprieve from the inhumane conditions experienced by enslaved black people in America...it’s this incredible duality of profound sadness positioned in front of a forward-moving rhythm section that quite frankly makes you want to dance and sing along with hope.\"\n", "The audio sample from \"Christianized Magick\" was taken from the 2000 film \"\", a documentary about the West Memphis Three.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Conclusion.\n", "Section::::Diagnosing bereavement.\n\nAt the moment, bereavement is listed as its own diagnosis in the DSM-IV TR, but proposed changes in the DSM-V may impact the way bereavement is diagnosed. The DSM-IV TR states the following about bereavement:\n\nSection::::Music therapy in grief treatment.\n", "Another study done at UNC showed remarkable improvement in a young girl who was born without the ability to speak. A therapist would come in and sing with her, as the only thing she could do was sing. Miraculously, the singing allowed to her gain the ability of speech, as music and speech are similar in nature and help the brain form new connections. In the same hospital, the therapist visits children daily and plays music with them, singing and using instruments. The music fosters creativity and reduces stress associated with treatments, and takes the children's minds off of their current surroundings.\n", "In a 2003 interview, Matt Skiba stated that \"Good Mourning\": is pretty good. I mean it took us a long time to do and I think most of the people that I talk to that make records and stuff, there's always stuff that you wish you did better or maybe a little differently. I've never been able to avoid that, even with this. There's things that I wish I had done maybe a little differently. But that also comes with just listening to it and living with it for so long that until it's done you won't really hear things in that way until it's like too late I guess. But I would say for the most part that I'm really happy with it.\n", "The use of music as a stress coping strategy has a demonstrated effect on the human response to stress. The use of music has been proven to lower the perceived levels of stress in patients, while greatly reducing the physical manifestations of stress as well– such as heart rate, blood pressure, or levels of stress hormones. It seems as though different types of music have different effects on stress levels, with classical and self-selected genres being the most effective. However, despite demonstrated effectiveness in empirical studies, there are many who still question the effectiveness of this coping strategy. Nevertheless, it is still an attractive option for some patients who want an easy and inexpensive way to respond to stress.\n", "I shared the fight of my people for their freedom, I lived paying attention to the fight protagonized by the thousands of combatants that cautiously prepared the for coming of the nation. And my singing was forming like this, between vibrant and melancholic exaltations of those lights and shadows that, alternatively, sadden the soul. I don’t know if soon, or late, I understood that I should pick up in my poetry all the states of mood that came from that sadness and revelry. So I opened all windows for all the winds in the world to get in, and that’s how I could collect all the leaves of the decay of a combative fire. All of my feelings, all of them, mixed, and that’s where a gold pigeon came out flying to the warm of my passions and imaginations.\n", "Music therapy sessions may have the ability to help drug users who are attempting to break a drug habit, with users reporting feeling better able to feel emotions without the aid of drug use. Music therapy may also be a viable option for people experiencing extended stays in a hospital due to illness. In one study, music therapy provided child oncology patients with enhanced environmental support elements and elicited more engaging behaviors from the child. When treating troubled teenagers, a study by Keen revealed that music therapy has allowed therapists to interact with teenagers with less resistance, thus facilitating self-expression in the teenager.\n", "Section::::Empirical evidence.\n", "In the film \"[[The Men Who Stare at Goats (film)\|The Men Who Stare at Goats]]\", a take-off of the [[Barney & Friends]] ending song \"I Love You\" is played in the cells of Iraqi detainees as a form of torture.\n\nIn the TV series \"[[Homeland (TV series)\|Homeland]]\", [[Grindcore]] is used to keep a prisoner awake.\n\nIn \"Power Rangers Megaforce\", Emma sings a song to help the rangers defeat Dischord.\n\nIn the series 'Lost', [[drum and bass]] music is used to keep an islander's boyfriend awake and indoctrinated and tortured.\n", "Section::::Specific techniques.\n", "Bereavement, as defined by Webster, is the state of being bereaved or deprived of something or someone. The DSM-IV TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) lists bereavement as a mental health diagnosis when the focus of clinical attention is related to the loss of a loved one and when symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder are present for up to two months. A number of treatments for bereavement have been used and evaluated, but music therapy models have been found to be the most successful in treating grief and bereavement (Rosner, Kruse & Hagl, 2010).\n\nSection::::Music therapy practice.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00888	What about a person’s brain or tongue decides what foods they’ll like and dislike?	I actually don't know the answer precisely, but generally speaking ones taste in anything (including but not limited to taste) comes from a bunch of different information. Here's what in think some of that is : Taste buds send information to a particular part of your brain to describe the taste --is it salty, sweet, bitter, etc--but they don't determine the preference. The taste buds just deal with raw info...like your fingers can tell if a polar fleece jacket is fuzzy and soft, etc. but they don't determine whether you like the feel of fleece. Other sensory receptors also give information to your brain about food, smell being the most common one (but also sight and the mouth feel of texture and temperature; maybe even sound...like if you hear it sizzling on a plate). But this is still all raw materials. Whether you like the taste of something then depends probably on more things than we can really imagine. Some of it will be evolutionary. We would have evolved to find some tastes, like rotting meat or very bitter plants, well, distasteful. Those of us who didn't eat the rotten meat or poisonous berry passes those taste genes along. Some of it will have to do with associations, and memories. Some will associate the taste with how our bodies feel after. So if chilis give you indigestion, you might not like the taste so much. And some will have to do with more nuanced stuff around sensory processing. Ed: bad apostrophe	[ "Many environmental cues influence food choice and intake, although consumers may not be aware of their effects (see mindless eating). Examples of environmental influences include portion size, serving aids, food variety, and ambient characteristics (discussed below).\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Portion size.\n", "Even the \"perceived\" variety of food can increase consumption; individuals consumed more M&M candies when they came in ten versus seven colors, despite identical taste. Furthermore, simply making a food assortment appear more disorganized versus organized can increase intake.\n\nIt has been suggested that this variety effect may be evolutionarily adaptive, as complete nutrition cannot be found in a single food, and increased dietary variety increases the likelihood of meeting nutritional requirements for various vitamins and minerals.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Salience.\n", "Sensory design plays a critical role the modern food and beverage industry. The food and beverage industry attempts to maintain specific sensory experiences. In addition to smell and flavor, the color of food (e.g. ripe fruits), and texture of food (e.g. potato chips) are critical. Even the environment is important as \"Color affects the appetite, in essence, the taste of food\".\n\nSection::::Sensory Design Technologies.\n", "Awareness Although the presence and behavior of others can have a strong impact on eating behavior, many individuals are not aware of these effects, and instead tend to attribute their eating behavior primarily to other factors such as hunger and taste. Relatedly, people tend to perceive factors like cost and health effects as significantly more influential than social norms in determining their own fruit and vegetable consumption.\n\nSection::::Social influences.:Weight bias.\n", "Researchers have found that consumers cite taste as the primary determinant of food choice. Genetic differences in the ability to perceive bitter taste are believed to play a role in the willingness to eat bitter-tasting vegetables and in the preferences for sweet taste and fat content of foods. Approximately 25 percent of the US population are supertasters and 50 percent are tasters. Epidemiological studies suggest that nontasters are more likely to eat a wider variety of foods and to have a higher body mass index (BMI), a measure of weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.\n", "Section::::Determinants.\n\nExpectations about the post-ingestive effects of a food are learned over time. In particular, it would appear that the expected satiety and expected satiation of foods increases as they become familiar.\n", "Flavor is the sensory impression of food or other substances and is determined primarily by the chemical senses of taste and smell. Flavor is said to be 80 percent aroma, detected primarily through the retronasal smell mechanism. Sight, sound, and touch also impact flavor. The color of a food, sound as one bites into it, and texture are all factors that contribute to a person’s perception of food. In addition, culture provides a context to food. All these experiences put together can affect a person’s description of the food item.\n", "There are several sets of receptors located in the head: eyes, nose, tongue, and throat. The most important role of head factors in satiety is that taste and odor can serve as stimuli that permit learning about caloric contents of different foods. Tasting and swallowing of food contributes to the feeling of fullness caused by the presence of food in the stomach.\n\nSection::::Satiety signals.:Short-term signals.:Gastric and intestinal factors.\n", "Plate color has also been shown to influence perception and liking; in one study individuals perceived a dessert to be significantly more likable, sweet, and intense when it was served on a white versus a black plate.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Food variety.\n", "Section::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Distractions.\n\nDistractions can increase food intake by initiating patterns of consumption, obscuring ability to accurately monitor consumption, and extending meal duration. For example, greater television viewing has been associated with increased meal frequency and caloric intake. A study in Australian children found that those who watched two or more hours of television per day were more likely to consume savory snacks and less likely to consume fruit compared to those who watched less television. Other distractors such as reading, movie watching, and listening to the radio have also been associated with increased consumption.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Temperature.\n", "Leary and Kowalski define impression management in general as the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them. Previous research has shown that certain types of eating companions make people more or less eager to convey a good impression, and individuals often attempt to achieve this goal by eating less. For example, people who are eating in the presence of unfamiliar others during a job interview or first date tend to eat less.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Animals.:Diet.\n\nPhenotypic plasticity of the digestive system allows some animals to respond to changes in dietary nutrient composition, diet quality, and energy requirements.\n", "Personal factors determine food choice. They are preference, associations, habits, ethnic heritage, tradition, values, social pressure, emotional comfort, availability, convenience, economy, image, medical conditions, and nutrition.\n\nSection::::Number of options and paradox.\n", "The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell.\n\nSection::::Process and terminology.\n", "Postingestive feedback factors such as energy density and nutrient composition could affect the palatability of a food which in turn would inhibit or facilitate \"sensory-specific satiety\". Studies done by Birch & Deysher (1986) and B.J. Rolls \"et al.\", summarized in a paper by Raynor and Epstein, show that postingesitive feedback does not influence \"sensory-specific satiety\" very much. Since postingestive feedback seems to have little effect of sensory-specific satiety, it is probable that sensory-specific satiety is more driven by external factors, such as the sensory properties of the food, than internal factors.\n\nSection::::Obesity in relation to sensory-specific satiety.\n", "As a given food is increasingly consumed, the hedonic pleasantness of the food's taste, smell, appearance, and texture declines, an effect commonly referred to as sensory-specific satiety. Consequently, increasing the variety of foods available can increase overall food intake. This effect has been observed across both genders and across multiple age groups, although there is some evidence that it may be most pronounced in adolescence and diminished among older adults.\n", "Section::::Research.:Genotypic and phenotypic adaptation in humans.:PTC taste perception.\n", "In an attempt to model how the brain learns, a temporal difference learning algorithm has been developed which takes into account expected reward, stimuli presence, reward evaluation, temporal error, and individual differences. As yet this is a theoretical equation, but it may be solved in the near future.\n\nSection::::Branding.:How branding affects consumers.\n", "Learned taste preferences develop as early as in utero, where the fetus is exposed to flavors through amniotic fluid. Early, innate, preferences exhibit tendencies towards calorie and protein dense foods. As children grow older, more factors such as peers, repeated exposures, environments and food availability will modulate taste preferences.\n\nSection::::Describing odors.\n", "Along with social environmental factors, ingestive behaviors are also influenced by atmospheric environmental factors. Atmospheric factors include:\n\nSection::::Initiating ingestion.:Signals from stomach.\n", "Food choice of older adults\n\nFood preferences in older adults and seniors takes into consideration how people's experiences change with aging; that is, including conditions like taste, diet (nutrition) and food choice. Primarily, this occurs when most people approach the age of 70 or older. Influencing variables can include: social and cultural environment; male or female sex; personal habits; as well as physical and mental health. Scientific studies explain why people like or dislike certain foods.\n\nSection::::Science of food preferences.\n", "Over 70 percent of one's total intake is consumed using serving aids such as plates, bowls, glasses, or utensils. Consequently, serving aids can act as visual cues or cognitive shortcuts that inform us of when to stop serving, eating, or drinking.\n", "Association is also relevant in enhancing our generic memory, one which contains the knowledge that each of us has. Many New Zealanders associate Phil Collins’s song ‘In the air tonight’ and a gorilla playing on a drum set with a Cadbury Chocolate advertisement.\n\nSection::::Nurture and consumer behaviour.:Language.\n", "These behaviors facilitate survival. Different species are physiologically adapted to consume different foods that must be acquired in different ways, and the manner in which they feed must correspond to these unique characteristics.\n", "Appetite is controlled by a direct loop and an indirect one. In both the direct and indirect loops there are two feedback mechanisms. First a positive feedback involving its stimulation by palatability food cues, and second, a negative feedback due to satiation and satiety cues following ingestion. In the indirect loop these cues are learnt by association such as meal plate size and work by modulating the potency of the cues of the direct loop. The influence of these processes can exist without subjective awareness. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01283	How do USB cables/ sticks become faster?	Whenever you design a computer component, figuring out how to balance the cost of it against the performance is a major decision to make. The first versions of USB were designed around low power, low speed devices, like mice, keyboards with some webcams and printers at the high end of things. As such, the standard was designed to be slow enough that it could be run by controller chips that were cheap back in 1996. More modern updates to USB were designed around faster speeds, as things like external hard drives became more common. Advances in technology & increases in production vlume meant that faster chips could now be built at a low enough price point to target the desired market.	[ "The USB 2.0 specification was released in April 2000 and was ratified by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) at the end of 2001. Hewlett-Packard, Intel, Lucent Technologies (now Nokia), NEC, and Philips jointly led the initiative to develop a higher data transfer rate, with the resulting specification achieving 480 Mbit/s, 40 times as fast as the original USB 1.1 specification.\n", "BULLET::::- High-speed (HS) rate of 480 Mbit/s was introduced in 2001. All hi-speed devices are capable of falling back to full-bandwidth operation if necessary; i.e., they are backward compatible with USB 1.1 standard. Connectors are identical for USB 2.0 and USB 1.x.\n\nBULLET::::- SuperSpeed (SS) rate of 5.0 Gbit/s. The written USB 3.0 specification was released by Intel and its partners in August 2008. The first USB 3.0 controller chips were sampled by NEC in May 2009, and the first products using the USB 3.0 specification arrived in January 2010. USB 3.0 connectors are generally backward compatible, but include new wiring and full-duplex operation.\n", "USB 2.0 was released in April 2000, adding a higher maximum signaling rate of 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) named \"High Speed\" or \"High Bandwidth\", in addition to the USB 1.x \"Full Speed\" signaling rate of 12 Mbit/s.\n\nModifications to the USB specification have been made via Engineering Change Notices (ECN). The most important of these ECNs are included into the USB 2.0 specification package available from USB.org:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mini-A and Mini-B Connector;\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Micro-USB Cables and Connectors Specification 1.01;\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"InterChip USB Supplement;\"\n", "Several decades of rapid progress in areal density advancement slowed significantly around 2010, because of noise related to smaller grain size of the disk media, thermal stability, and writability using available magnetic fields.\n\nFiber-optic capacity – The number of bits per second that can be sent down an optical fiber increases exponentially, faster than Moore's law. Keck's law, in honor of Donald Keck.\n", "By 2002, USB flash drives had USB 2.0 connectivity, which has 480 Mbit/s as the transfer rate upper bound; after accounting for the protocol overhead that translates to a 35 MB/s effective throughput. That same year, Intel sparked widespread use of second generation USB by including them within its laptops.\n", "BULLET::::- Synchronization Pattern: A USB packet begins with an 8-bit synchronization sequence, 00000001₂. That is, after the initial idle state J, the data lines toggle KJKJKJKK. The final 1 bit (repeated K state) marks the end of the sync pattern and the beginning of the USB frame. For high-bandwidth USB, the packet begins with a 32-bit synchronization sequence.\n", "Section::::Device classes.:Human interface devices.\n\nJoysticks, keypads, tablets and other human-interface devices (HIDs) are also progressively migrating from MIDI, and PC game port connectors to USB.\n", "Section::::File transfer speeds.\n\nTransfer speeds are technically determined by the slowest of three factors: the USB version used, the speed in which the USB controller device can read and write data onto the flash memory, and the speed of the hardware bus, especially in the case of add-on USB ports.\n", "On 25 July 2017, a press release from the USB 3.0 Promoter Group detailed a pending update to the USB Type-C specification, defining the doubling of bandwidth for existing USB-C cables. Under the USB 3.2 specification, existing SuperSpeed certified USB-C 3.1 Gen 1 cables will be able to operate at 10 Gbit/s (up from 5 Gbit/s), and SuperSpeed+ certified USB-C 3.1 Gen 2 cables will be able to operate at 20 Gbit/s (up from 10 Gbit/s). The increase in bandwidth is a result of multi-lane operation over existing wires that were intended for flip-flop capabilities of the USB-C connector.\n", "BULLET::::- A USB device pulls one of the data lines high with a 1.5 kΩ resistor. This overpowers one of the pull-down resistors in the host and leaves the data lines in an idle state called \"J\".\n\nBULLET::::- For USB 1.x, the choice of data line indicates what signal rates the device is capable of:\n\nBULLET::::- full-bandwidth devices pull D+ high,\n\nBULLET::::- low-bandwidth devices pull D− high.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"K\" state has opposite polarity to the \"J\" state.\n\nSection::::Signaling (USB PHY).:Transmission.\n", "Various protocol converters are available that convert USB data signals to and from other communications standards.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- DockPort\n\nBULLET::::- Easy Transfer Cable\n\nBULLET::::- Extensible Host Controller Interface (XHCI)\n\nBULLET::::- LIO Target\n\nBULLET::::- List of device bit rates#Peripheral\n\nBULLET::::- Media Transfer Protocol\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile High-Definition Link\n\nBULLET::::- WebUSB\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- USB Document Library (USB 3.2, USB 2.0, Wireless USB, USB-C, USB Power Delivery)\n\nBULLET::::- Muller, Henk. \"How To Create And Program USB Devices,\" \"Electronic Design\", July 2012\n\nBULLET::::- An Analysis of Throughput Characteristics of Universal Serial Bus, June 1996, by John Garney\n", "As USB has become faster, devices have also become hungrier for data and so there is now demand for sending large amounts of data - either to be stored on the device, or be relayed over wireless links (see 3GPP Long Term Evolution).\n\nSince the new devices, although faster than before, are still much lower in power than desktop PCs, the issue of careful data handling arises, to maximize use of DMA resources on the device and minimize (or eliminate) copying of data (zero-copy). The NCM protocol has elaborate provisions for this. See link below for careful protocol comparisons.\n", "The original USB 1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, defined data transfer rates of 1.5 Mbit/s \"Low Speed\" and 12 Mbit/s \"Full Speed\". Microsoft Windows 95, OSR 2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, which was released in September 1998. The 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc.'s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB and the iMac's success popularized USB itself. Following Apple's design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard.\n", "When a device doesn't recognize the faster-charging standard, generally the device and the charger fallback to the USB battery-charging standard of 5 V at 1.5 A (7.5 W).\n\nWhen a device detects it is plugged into a charger with a compatible faster-charging standard, the device pulls more current or the device tells the charger to increase the voltage or both to increase power (the details vary between standards).\n\nSuch standards include:\n\nBULLET::::- Qualcomm Quick Charge\n\nBULLET::::- MediaTek Pump Express\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Adaptive Fast Charging\n\nBULLET::::- Oppo Super VOOC Flash Charge, also called OnePlus Dash Charge\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei SuperCharge\n", "BULLET::::- Interconnect innovations Interconnect innovations of the late 1990s, including chemical-mechanical polishing or chemical mechanical planarization (CMP), trench isolation, and copper interconnects—although not directly a factor in creating smaller transistors—have enabled improved wafer yield, additional layers of metal wires, closer spacing of devices, and lower electrical resistance.\n", "According to a USB-IF chairman, \"at least 10 to 15 percent of the stated peak 60 MB/s (480 Mbit/s) of Hi-Speed USB goes to overhead—the communication protocol between the card and the peripheral. Overhead is a component of all connectivity standards\". Tables illustrating the transfer limits are shown in Chapter 5 of the USB spec.\n\nFor isochronous devices like audio streams, the bandwidth is constant, and reserved exclusively for a given device. The bus bandwidth therefore only has an effect on the number of channels that can be sent at a time, not the \"speed\" or latency of the transmission.\n", "The specification introduces a reversible 32-pin superMHL connector, which (along with USB Type-C) supports a higher charging power of up to 40 W (20 V / 2 A), and is designed for future bandwidth expansion. The increase in bandwidth over previous MHL versions is achieved by using multiple A/V lanes, each operating at 6 Gbit/s, with a maximum of six A/V lanes supported depending on device and connector type. For example, Micro-USB and HDMI Type-A support one A/V lane, USB Type-C supports up to four A/V lanes, and the superMHL connector supports up to six A/V lanes (36 Gbit/s).\n", "BULLET::::- Anker PowerIQ\n\nSection::::Power.:Non-standard devices.\n", "BULLET::::- One of the first laptop computers, the GRiD Compass, is designed by Bill Moggridge.\n\nBULLET::::- 1984\n\nBULLET::::- DNA profiling is discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester.\n\nBULLET::::- One of the world's first computer games to use 3D graphics, Elite, is developed by David Braben and Ian Bell.\n\nBULLET::::- 1989\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Tim Berners-Lee writes a proposal for what will become the World Wide Web. The following year, he specified HTML, the hypertext language, and HTTP, the protocol.\n\nBULLET::::- The Touchpad pointing device is first developed for Psion computers.\n\nBULLET::::- 1991\n", "BULLET::::- USB, Ethernet, CAN interfacing support\n\nBULLET::::- External memory interface\n\nBULLET::::- Integrated analog RF front ends (PIC16F639, and rfPIC).\n\nBULLET::::- KEELOQ Rolling code encryption peripheral (encode/decode)\n\nBULLET::::- And many more\n\nSection::::Hardware features.:Trends.\n", "BULLET::::- Low-speed (LS) rate of 1.5 Mbit/s is defined by USB 1.0. It is very similar to full-bandwidth operation except each bit takes 8 times as long to transmit. It is intended primarily to save cost in low-bandwidth human interface devices (HID) such as keyboards, mice, and joysticks.\n\nBULLET::::- Full-speed (FS) rate of 12 Mbit/s is the basic USB data rate defined by USB 1.0. All USB hubs can operate at this speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Interrupt transfers: Devices that need guaranteed quick responses (bounded latency) such as pointing devices, mice, and keyboards\n\nBULLET::::- Bulk transfers: Large sporadic transfers using all remaining available bandwidth, but with no guarantees on bandwidth or latency (e.g., file transfers)\n", "Micro-USB connectors, which were announced by the USB-IF on 4 January 2007, have a similar width to Mini-USB, but approximately half the thickness, enabling their integration into thinner portable devices. The Micro-A connector is with a maximum overmold boot size of , while the Micro-B connector is with a maximum overmold size of .\n\nThe thinner Micro-USB connectors were introduced to replace the Mini connectors in devices manufactured since May 2007, including smartphones, personal digital assistants, and cameras. \n", "Ray Kurzweil postulates a law of accelerating returns in which the speed of technological change (and more generally, all evolutionary processes) increases exponentially, generalizing Moore's law in the same manner as Moravec's proposal, and also including material technology (especially as applied to nanotechnology), medical technology and others. Between 1986 and 2007, machines' application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers has doubled every 18 months; the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; and the world's storage capacity per capita doubled every 40 months.\n", "BULLET::::- Syndication stage: This stage represents the demonstration and commercialisation of a new technology, such as, product, material or process with potential for immediate utilisation. Many innovations are put on hold in R&D laboratories. Only a very small percentage of these are commercialised. Commercialisation of research outcomes depends on technical as well non-technical, mostly economic factors.\n\nBULLET::::- Diffusion stage: This represents the market penetration of a new technology through acceptance of the innovation, by potential users of the technology. But supply and demand side factors jointly influence the rate of diffusion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01362	How do PDFs get so much data into a such a small file?	Unlike a picture which has to store color information about every single pixel, a PDF document is a container holding only the instructions needed to recreate all the parts of the newspaper. How does this work? Say you want to draw a simple line across a page, depending on the size of the page that line could be made up of hundreds of pixels each with their own set of colors, in a PDF you can instead say draw a line starting from left side and ending on the right side, make it black. This is much simpler and doesn't take room to store those two instructions. Sometimes objects are too complex to store as drawing instructions and must stored directly as a picture, in this case the PDF will use compression to reduce the picture data as much as possible.	[ "Adobe distributed its Adobe Reader (now Acrobat Reader) program free of charge from version 2.0 onwards, and continued supporting the original PDF, which eventually became the \"de facto\" standard for fixed-format electronic documents.\n\nIn 2008 Adobe Systems' PDF Reference 1.7 became ISO 32000:1:2008. Thereafter, further development of PDF (including PDF 2.0) is conducted by ISO's TC 171 SC 2 WG 8 with the participation of Adobe Systems and other subject matter experts.\n\nSection::::Adobe specifications.\n", "Often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized. Any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file. Therefore, the entire PostScript world (fonts, layout, measurements) remains intact.\n\nAs a document format, PDF has several advantages over PostScript:\n\nBULLET::::- PDF contains tokenized and interpreted results of the PostScript source code, for direct correspondence between changes to items in the PDF page description and changes to the resulting page appearance.\n", "PDF\n\nThe Portable Document Format (PDF) (redundantly: PDF format) is a file format developed by Adobe in the 1990s to present documents, including text formatting and images, in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Based on the PostScript language, each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, vector graphics, raster images and other information needed to display it. PDF was standardized as ISO 32000 in 2008, and no longer requires any royalties for its implementation.\n", "Two PDF files that look similar on a computer screen may be of very different sizes. For example, a high resolution raster image takes more space than a low resolution one. Typically higher resolution is needed for printing documents than for displaying them on screen. Other things that may increase the size of a file is embedding full fonts, especially for Asiatic scripts, and storing text as graphics.\n\nSection::::Software.\n\nPDF viewers are generally provided free of charge, and many versions are available from a variety of sources.\n", "PDF was a proprietary format controlled by Adobe until it was released as an open standard on July 1, 2008, and published by the International Organization for Standardization as ISO 32000-1:2008, at which time control of the specification passed to an ISO Committee of volunteer industry experts. In 2008, Adobe published a Public Patent License to ISO 32000-1 granting royalty-free rights for all patents owned by Adobe that are necessary to make, use, sell, and distribute PDF compliant implementations.\n", "PDF documents can be opened within the application itself or imported through the web interface. Open documents can be modified using a set of tools similar, but more limited, than those found in PDF applications such as Adobe Acrobat.\n\nThe following features are available:\n\nBULLET::::- Open PDF Files from local computer and web\n\nBULLET::::- Fill Out PDF Forms using PDF form fields\n\nBULLET::::- Edit PDF files & forms\n\nBULLET::::- Add Text & Shapes to PDF files, allowing customization & markup of PDF\n\nBULLET::::- Move & Delete Pages in PDF files\n", "About PDF and PPT Files:\n\nPDF (Portable Document Format) files are high-quality image files that appear and print like the original artwork. These finely detailed illustrations will download quickly and include required fonts. PDF files of Glossary illustrations can be downloaded and saved for later uses, such as overhead transparencies, school reports, or for handouts in class or at a talk or other event. Each PDF file is formatted to print on regular printer paper or standard overhead transparency.\n", "In the Spring of 1991, Warnock outlined a system called \"Camelot\", that evolved into the Portable Document Format (PDF) file-format. The goal of Camelot was to \"effectively capture documents from any application, send electronic versions of these documents anywhere, and view and print these documents on any machines\". Warnock's document contemplated, \"Imagine if the IPS (Interchange PostScript) viewer is also equipped with text searching capabilities. In this case the user could find all documents that contain a certain word or phrase, and then view that word or phrase in context within the document. Entire libraries could be archived in electronic form...\"\n", "Section::::Products.:Solid Converter PDF.\n\nThe company’s flagship product, Solid Converter PDF, was released in 2003 and has been translated into 15 languages and distributed in over 60 countries. This product allows documents to be converted into and out of PDF and securely archived in accordance with ISO standards. The last major update to this product, version 9.0, was released in June 2014 and included functionality improvements like feature integration, legacy driver support and reconstruction enhancements.\n", "PDFs can be created either from an application’s print function or through Solid PDF Tool’s drag-and-drop WYSIWYG interface. Users are also able to document properties, permissions, and passwords upon creation.\n\nSection::::Features.:Scanning, Archiving.\n\nSolid PDF Tools users may scan a paper document into a PDF/A-1b file for archiving purposes and by relying upon built-in Microsoft Office Document Imaging (MODI) Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software, the document becomes keyword searchable. The software converts existing PDF documents into PDF/A-1b files which make them searchable, consistent, and archivable providing PDF/A validation compliance to make sure they reproduce similarly in the future.\n\nSection::::Features.:Editing.\n", "Solid PDF to Word for Mac was released in April 2010 allowing Apple users to manipulate documents out of PDF into Word, Excel, HTML, text, or iWork formats. An updated version 2 of the tool was released to Mac users in September 2013.\n\nSection::::Products.:Solid PDF Tools.\n", "Today, PDF files may contain a variety of content besides flat text and graphics including logical structuring elements, interactive elements such as annotations and form-fields, layers, rich media (including video content) and three dimensional objects using U3D or PRC, and various other data formats. The PDF specification also provides for encryption and digital signatures, file attachments and metadata to enable workflows requiring these features.\n\nSection::::History and standardization.\n", "Solid PDF Tools recognizes columns, can remove headers, footers and image graphics and can extract flowing text content. Selective content extraction is supported, allowing the conversion of specific text, tables, or images from a PDF file while also providing for the combination of multiple PDF tables into a single Excel worksheet.\n\nBatching is supported for converting multiple PDF documents at the same time or for combining multiple PDF documents into a single file and compression options allow users to reduce the size of a PDF, optimizing it for a variety of media.\n\nSection::::Features.:PDF Creation.\n", "The following specialized subsets of PDF specification has been standardized as ISO standards (or are in standardization process):\n\nBULLET::::- PDF/X (since 2001 - series of ISO 15929 and ISO 15930 standards) - a.k.a. \"PDF for Exchange\" - for the \"Graphic technology - Prepress digital data exchange\" - (working in ISO Technical committee 130), based on PDF 1.3, PDF 1.4 and later also PDF 1.6\n", "PDFs may be encrypted so that a password is needed to view or edit the contents. PDF 2.0 defines 256-bit AES encryption as standard for PDF 2.0 files. The PDF Reference also defines ways that third parties can define their own encryption systems for PDF.\n\nPDF files may be digitally signed; complete details on implementing digital signatures in PDF is provided in ISO 32000-2.\n\nPDF files may also contain embedded DRM restrictions that provide further controls that limit copying, editing or printing. These restrictions depend on the reader software to obey them, so the security they provide is limited.\n", "The computer program pdfTeX is an extension of Knuth's typesetting program TeX, and was originally written and developed into a publicly usable product by Hàn Thế Thành as a part of the work for his PhD thesis at the Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. The idea of making this extension to TeX was conceived during the early 1990s, when Jiří Zlatuška and Phil Taylor discussed some developmental ideas with Donald Knuth at Stanford University. Knuth later met Hàn Thế Thành in Brno during his visit to the Faculty of Informatics to receive an honorary doctorate from Masaryk University.\n", "PDF24 Creator is installed as a virtual printer via a device driver in the operating system. This allows PDF files to be created directly from any application that provides a printing function. The commands sent to the supposed printer are used to create a PDF file. PDF24 Creator uses the free PDF interpreter Ghostscript , which is automatically installed as a private instance for the PDF24 Creator.\n", "There are many software options for creating PDFs, including the PDF printing capabilities built into macOS, iOS, and most Linux distributions, LibreOffice, Microsoft Office 2007 (if updated to SP2) and later, WordPerfect 9, Scribus, numerous PDF print drivers for Microsoft Windows, the pdfTeX typesetting system, the DocBook PDF tools, applications developed around Ghostscript and Adobe Acrobat itself as well as Adobe InDesign, Adobe FrameMaker, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop. Google's online office suite Google Docs also allows for uploading and saving to PDF.\n", "As is characteristic of many portable applications, Sumatra uses little disk space. In 2009, Sumatra 1.0 had a 1.21 MB setup file, compared to Adobe Reader 9.5's 32 MB. In January, 2017, the latest version of SumatraPDF, 3.1.2, had a single 6.1 Mb executable file; in comparison, Adobe Reader XI used 320 MB of disk space.\n", "Section::::Technical overview.\n\nSection::::Technical overview.:File structure.\n\nA PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for certain elements that may have binary content.\n\nA PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number and the version of the format such as codice_4. The format is a subset of a COS (\"Carousel\" Object Structure) format. A COS tree file consists primarily of \"objects\", of which there are eight types:\n\nBULLET::::- Boolean values, representing \"true\" or \"false\"\n\nBULLET::::- Numbers\n\nBULLET::::- Strings, enclosed within parentheses (codice_5), may contain 8-bit characters.\n\nBULLET::::- Names, starting with a forward slash (codice_6)\n", "PDF files can contain two types of metadata. The first is the Document Information Dictionary, a set of key/value fields such as author, title, subject, creation and update dates. This is stored in the optional Info trailer of the file. A small set of fields is defined, and can be extended with additional text values if required. This method is deprecated in PDF 2.0.\n", "Solid PDF Tools\n\nSolid PDF Tools is a document reconstruction software product which allows users to convert PDFs into editable documents and create PDFs from a variety of file sources. The same technology used in the software's Solid Framework SDK is licensed by Adobe for Acrobat X\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nSolid PDF Tools supports conversion from the following formats into PDF:\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Word .docx and .doc\n\nBULLET::::- Rich text format .rtf\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Excel .xlsx\n\nBULLET::::- .xml\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft PowerPoint .pptx\n\nBULLET::::- .html\n\nBULLET::::- Plain text .txt\n", "Since 1995, Adobe participated in some of the working groups that create technical specifications for publication by ISO and cooperated within the ISO process on specialized subsets of PDF standards for specific industries and purposes (e.g. PDF/X or PDF/A). The purpose of specialized subsets of the full PDF specification is to remove those functions that are not needed or can be problematic for specific purposes and to require some usage of functions that are only optional (not mandatory) in the full PDF specification.\n", "BULLET::::- Combine pages with a digital paper\n\nBULLET::::- Convert to and from PDF\n\nBULLET::::- Full featured and lightweight PDF reader since version 8.7.0\n\nBULLET::::- OCR engine since version 8.8.0\n\nSection::::Distribution and fields of application.\n\nPDF24 Creator is credited with more than 5 million downloads within the top 3 (2017-01-17) in the category \"PDF Software\" on the German site Chip.de. The site techradar shows also more than 5 million downloads and rank 2 in the category PDF readers and editors.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of PDF software\n\nBULLET::::- List of virtual printer software\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Older versions of doPDF do not use Ghostscript or .NET, and therefore is self-contained. It has a very small download file size, which was 1.73 MB in doPDF version 6.3.311 and 2.98 MB in version 7.0.321. Softland claims that doPDF in use \"Barely uses any computer resources - compared to other free PDF converters, doPDF barely uses any memory or CPU resources when doing the actual conversion to PDF.\"\n\nAccording to their site: \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00885	Why are return (round trip) tickets the same price as single tickets. It's something i have never understood	Because they can. It's as simple as that. More often than not the person booking a one-way flight has a more dire need to get to where they are going. So they charge a lot. It's not always the same as a round trip but it will be close. Also, many people using one way tickets are probably flying for business because they are going on an open ended trip, and so it's a business expense, and the company will probably just pay it. People don't worry as much about the cost if they aren't paying it themselves.	[ "Section::::Structure.\n", "In the case of a passenger that wants to stay at the destination for more than 365 days (12 months in one year) then a one-way ticket is advised by airlines and travel agents (as normal return tickets are valid for 12 months or 365 days).\n\nOne way tickets are more expensive (especially when the origin of travel is from one zone to another zone) but if within the same zone then it can be half of the return ticket price.\n", "Section::::Specialist travel agencies.\n", "Littlewood's rule\n\nThe earliest Revenue Management model is known as \"Littlewood’s rule\", developed by Ken Littlewood while working at British Overseas Airways Corporation.\n\nSection::::The two class model.\n\nLittlewood proposed the first static single resource quantity based RM model. It was a solution method for the seat inventory problem for a single leg flight with two fare classes. Those two fare classes have a fare of formula_1 and formula_2, whereby formula_3. The total capacity is formula_4 and demand for class formula_5 is indicated with formula_6. \n", "BULLET::::- During each November from 1985 to 1990 inclusive, and in November 1995, Saver return tickets were available at a range of flat rates, offering substantial discounts (generally over 50%) on the full fare. These were marketed, and shown on tickets, under various names, such as Senior Citizen Promotion and Senior November Bargain. Children and dogs received flat-rate discounts until 1988.\n\nBULLET::::- During spring 1988, First Class travel was available at the Standard Class price on Saver-rate fares.\n", "Travel tickets can be singles (SGL), the outward portion of a return (OUT) or the return portion of a return (RTN). Some tickets issued for special trains and charters were single-portion returns showing OUT&RTN, although ordinary tickets for scheduled services were never issued in this format. In the illustrated example, this is the journey back \"to\" Bradford-on-Avon. The distinction between the two portions of a return ticket is required because certain ticket types have different restrictions for the outward and return portions. For example, Savers allow a break of journey on the return portion, but not the outward portion; also the outward portion must be on the date shown, but the return portion can be on days within a month of the date shown.\n", "Back-to-back ticketing is a type of nested ticketing whereby a traveler tries to circumvent minimum stay requirements. For example, say a traveler wants to make two round trips midweek in two different weeks. At one time, airlines typically charged more for midweek round trips than for trips that involved a Saturday-night stay. The back-to-back ticketing ploy allows the traveler to book two round-trip tickets with Saturday stays even though the actual travel is all midweek. If a business traveler wanted to make two round trips from New York to Los Angeles in two consecutive weeks, instead of booking two round-trips in separate weeks in the following way:\n", "A paper ticket is only good for the coach operator for which it was purchased. Usually the paper ticket is for a specific journey. It is sometimes possible to purchase an 'open' ticket which allows travel on any coach between the destinations listed on the ticket. The cost for doing this is often greater than a ticket for a specific journey.\n\nSome tickets are refundable. However the lower cost tickets are usually not refundable and may carry many additional restrictions.\n", "In addition to being noted in top seller lists, publications across the country have looked to Coast to Coast Tickets as a reference in stories and articles about the secondary ticket market, including Bloomberg.com, Red Herring, GQ Magazine, American Way, the Miami Herald, the Austin Business Journal, the Chicago Tribune, the Boston Globe and the San Francisco Chronicle.\n", "Within North America, the usefulness of this strategy has diminished materially, as most airlines have abandoned the discount for a Saturday-night stay-over for these types of trips. However, many intercontinental round-trip tickets still have minimum length of stay requirements. Back-to-back ticketing is useful with tickets when there is a minimum length of stay on the discount (e.g., 7 days), and the traveler needs to stay only in the destination for a shorter period of time.\n\nSection::::Legal status.\n", "Section::::Multiple fare basis.\n\nIt is common for a multi-sector air ticket to have more than one fare basis, particularly if it is for carriage on more than one airline, or different classes of travel are involved. The issuing airline may often have an interline agreement to allow other airlines on the ticket. One disadvantage of this system is that if any change is made, the most restrictive fare rule, and/or the highest change fee, may apply to the entire ticket, not just the portion being changed.\n\nSection::::Global Distribution Systems.\n", "In some cases, this type of arrangement is needed for boat cruises that do not return to the departure city. In other cases, the traveller wishes to explore between two points and using alternative transport (e.g. buses, trains, ferries or flights on another ticket). For example, a traveller might fly from London to Bangkok, travel around Thailand by public transport and fly back home to London from Phuket. Another example would be a traveller flying from New York City to London, travelling around different countries in Europe by taking buses / trains or low-cost carrier flights, then returning from Vilnius. Open-jaw tickets are a flexible and relatively inexpensive way of flying as they are priced as a round-trip ticket, in most cases less expensive than purchasing two one-way flights between the destinations visited.\n", "Throwaway ticketing is purchasing a ticket with the intent to use only a portion of the included travel. This situation may arise when a passenger wants to travel only one way, but where the discounted round-trip excursion fare is cheaper than a one-way ticket. This can happen on mainline carriers where all one-way tickets are full price. For instance, a passenger only intending to fly from Los Angeles to New York may find the one-way ticket costs $800, but that the round-trip fare is $500. The passenger, therefore, purchases the round trip from Los Angeles to New York and back to Los Angeles, boards the flight to New York, but stays in New York and \"throws away\" the second half of the ticket by not showing up for the return flight. It is only possible to \"throw away\" the final segment(s) of a ticket, because throwing away a segment by not showing up for the outbound trip will often lead to the airline's canceling the entire reservation.\n", "The pricing scheme was based on tickets for NOK 399, 499, 599 and 699, plus NOK 71 in taxes. At least ten tickets were available at the lowest price per departure, and the first to order were granted the cheapest tickets. Tickets had no restrictions on cancellation, and were not subject to restrictions on return dates.\n", "Supplementary fees are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Children that are 10 or under, a flat fee of €10 is charged no matter the journey.\n\nBULLET::::- Additional baggage (per piece) is €10 if booked at the time of booking, €20 on-line prior to travel, or €30 if purchased at the station immediately before travel.\n", "Certain services, often long-distance modes such as high-speed trains, will charge a variable fare with a price that depends on complex factors such as how early the ticket is bought or the demand for the service. A prominent example is airline ticketing. Other examples include high-speed rail services such as Eurostar and regional buses such as Megabus.\n\nSection::::Farebox.\n", "The extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.\n", "BULLET::::1. A switching cost where the seller actually creates the cost is described in Klemperer (1986). For instance, in the case of airline frequent-flyer miles programs, many consumers find it important that an airline provides this service; and they are actually willing to pay more for an airfare ticket if it means they will earn points towards their next flight.\n", "There is a separate scheme in Scotland. Photocards are issued for periods of up to six months, but discounts are only available on seven day season tickets for journeys wholly within Scotland. JobCentres themselves also sell certain Standard Day Return tickets for Scottish journeys, again at a 50% discount. These arrangements began on 6 April 1998.\n\nDocument explaining the New Deal Scheme, including full details of discounted tickets\n\nSection::::Campaign for a National Railcard.\n", "Frequently, smart cards, as a convenience, allow the user to run a negative balance. If this balance is greater than the cost of the card, the user may profit by simply discarding the card and purchasing another.\n\nOne method is called scissoring, used for business air travel when return tickets are cheaper with a weekend between, assuming that tourists, not business people, travel like that. If two return journeys are done, A-B-B-A and once again a different week, two tickets can be purchased, A-B,B-A and B-A,A-B with weekends between in both tickets.\n", "BULLET::::- Double open-jaw, where two totally separate fares exist. For example, flying from London to New York, but on the return trip flying from Boston to Manchester.\n\nUsing different airports in the same city is not considered an open-jaw, so a passenger on a London to JFK trip who returned from Newark would still be a simple round trip as both airports are considered to be in New York.\n\nSection::::ARNK.\n", "In some situations over-booking is actively encouraged by rail companies in order to inflate sales and therefore the importance/prominence of a particular line in Government statistics. For example, a single journey from the Glasgow neighbourhood of Queen's Park, to Glasgow Central station in the city centre is £2.10 while an off-peak return is £1.90. Ticket staff will therefore routinely issue return tickets even when passengers state they do not intend to return that day.\n", "On the other hand, because sellers on the secondary ticket market set the price, there is a wide range of prices to choose from, which can be beneficial, but can also lead to uncertainty for the buyer. Sellers could take advantage of uninformed buyers and thus overcharge with prices of up to 300% above face value.\n\nSection::::Opinions.\n", "Section::::Railcards.\n\nBefore the rail network was privatised, British Rail introduced several discount cards that were available to certain groups of people. Various reasons are usually cited:\n\nBULLET::::- To encourage off-peak and leisure travel\n\nBULLET::::- To provide greater access to rail services for low-income groups, creating a social benefit\n\nBULLET::::- To generate new sources of income: certain groups of people may be encouraged to perform a modal switch to rail transport if given the benefit of cheaper fares\n", "Several ticketing options exist for passengers. Riders may choose to purchase one-way tickets, ten-ride tickets, weekend passes or monthly passes.\n\nBULLET::::- A one-way ticket is used for one-way travel between two stations. For roundtrip travel, two one-way tickets can be purchased. One-way tickets can be purchased from ticket agents or on the train from a conductor. Conductors will charge an extra $5 if a ticket agent was available at the passenger's departing station.\n" ]	[ "Round trip tickets should not be the same cost as a single flight ticket." ]	[ "Round trip and single flight tickets are not always the same price." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Round trip tickets should not be the same cost as a single flight ticket.", "Round trip tickets should not be the same cost as a single flight ticket." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Round trip and single flight tickets are not always the same price.", "Round trip and single flight tickets are not always the same price." ]
2018-03955	Why does popcorn seem lighter after it's popped?	It actually gets lighter! Because some of the water particles get evaporated from the kernel. Also, the density gets reduced, which makes you think even more that it became lighter.	[ "When the popcorn has finished popping, sometimes unpopped kernels remain. Known in the popcorn industry as \"old maids\", these kernels fail to pop because they do not have enough moisture to create enough steam for an explosion. Re-hydrating prior to popping usually results in eliminating the unpopped kernels.\n", "As the oil and the water within the kernel are heated, they turn the moisture in the kernel into pressurized steam. Under these conditions, the starch inside the kernel gelatinizes, softens, and becomes pliable. The internal pressure of the entrapped steam continues to increase until the breaking point of the hull is reached: a pressure of approximately and a temperature of . The hull thereupon ruptures rapidly and explodes, causing a sudden drop in pressure inside the kernel and a corresponding rapid expansion of the steam, which expands the starch and proteins of the endosperm into airy foam. As the foam rapidly cools, the starch and protein polymers set into the familiar crispy puff. Special varieties are grown to give improved popping yield. Though the kernels of some wild types will pop, the cultivated strain is \"Zea mays everta,\" which is a special kind of flint corn.\n", "Popcorn will pop when freshly harvested, but not well; its high moisture content leads to poor expansion and chewy pieces of popcorn. Kernels with a high moisture content are also susceptible to mold when stored. For these reasons, popcorn growers and distributors dry the kernels until they reach the moisture level at which they expand the most. This differs by variety and conditions, but is generally in the range of 14–15% moisture by weight. If the kernels are over-dried, the expansion rate will suffer and the percentage of kernels that pop will decline.\n", "One example of this first came to public attention in the mid-1990s, when the Center for Science in the Public Interest produced a report about \"Movie Popcorn\", which became the subject of a widespread publicity campaign. The movie theaters surveyed used coconut oil to pop the corn, and then topped it with butter or margarine. \"A medium-size buttered popcorn\", the report said, \"contains more fat than a breakfast of bacon and eggs, a Big Mac and fries, and a steak dinner combined\". The practice continues today. For example, according to DietFacts.com, a small popcorn from Regal Cinema Group (the largest theater chain in the United States) still contains 29 g of saturated fat. the equivalent of a full day-and-a-half's reference daily intake.\n", "Puffed rice is formed by the reaction of both starch and moisture when heated within the shell of the grain. Unlike corn, rice kernels are naturally lacking in moisture and must first be conditioned with steam. Puffed rice can be created by heating the steam-conditioned kernels either with oil or in an oven. Rice puffed in this way is crisp, and known as \"crisped rice\". Oven-crisped rice is used to produce the Rice Krispies breakfast cereal as well as the crisped rice used in Lion Bars, Nestlé Crunch, Krackel, and similar chocolate bars. Though not as dramatic a change when compared to popcorn, the process and end result are the same.\n", "CFOH + ·OH → CFO· + HO\n\nCFO·→ CF· + CFO\n\nIn Cycle B:\n\nCFOH → CFCFO + HF\n\nCFCFO + HO → CFCOO + HF + H\n\nCFCFO +·OH → CFOH·\n\nCFOH· → CFCOO· + HF\n\nIn Cycle C:\n\nCF· + O → CFOO·\n\nCFOO· + RCOO· → CFO· + RCO· + O\n\nCFO· → CF· + CFO\n\nCOF + HO → CO + 2HF\n\nIn cycle D, volatile fluorinated organic contaminants are released.\n", "The design of a microwave popcorn bag is specifically keyed to avoid popped kernel scorching, an undesirable effect that takes place when popped kernels are heated above .\n", "Popping results are sensitive to the rate at which the kernels are heated. If heated too quickly, the steam in the outer layers of the kernel can reach high pressures and rupture the hull before the starch in the center of the kernel can fully gelatinize, leading to partially popped kernels with hard centers. Heating too slowly leads to entirely unpopped kernels: the tip of the kernel, where it attached to the cob, is not entirely moisture-proof, and when heated slowly, the steam can leak out of the tip fast enough to keep the pressure from rising sufficiently to break the hull and cause the pop.\n", "Each kernel of popcorn contains a certain amount of moisture and oil. Unlike most other grains, the outer hull of the popcorn kernel is both strong and impervious to moisture and the starch inside consists almost entirely of a hard type.\n", "Frank is a deacon at First Baptist Church in Wichita Falls. He and his wife, Alisha, have six sons, Glen, Jerod, Jonathan, Hixon, Elijah and Isaiah.\n\nSection::::Political life.\n\nWhen Lanham Lyne, the one-term Republican state representative in District 69, who had been mayor of Wichita Falls from 2005 to 2010, declined to seek reelection to the House, Frank ran unopposed for the Republican nomination in 2012. In the general election on November 6, 2012, Frank defeated a Libertarian opponent, Richard Brown, 87-13 percent.\n", "A simplified every-day-life example of a gas-solid fluidized bed would be a hot-air popcorn popper. The popcorn kernels, all being fairly uniform in size and shape, are suspended in the hot air rising from the bottom chamber. Because of the intense mixing of the particles, akin to that of a boiling liquid, this allows for a uniform temperature of the kernels throughout the chamber, minimizing the amount of burnt popcorn. After popping, the now larger popcorn particles encounter increased aerodynamic drag which pushes them out of the chamber and into a bowl.\n", "A recent innovation in hay storage has been the development of the silage or haylage bale, which is a high-moisture bale wrapped in plastic film. These are baled much wetter than hay bales, and are usually smaller than hay bales because the greater moisture content makes them heavier and harder to handle. These bales begin to ferment almost immediately, and the metal bale spear stabbed into the core becomes very warm to the touch from the fermentation process.\n", "Tiny but Mighty Popcorn\n\nTiny but Mighty Popcorn is an American brand of heirloom popcorn, introduced in 1981, when Iowa farmer Richard Kelty founded K&K Popcorn. Iowa farmers Gene and Lynn Mealhow later purchased the company in 1999, and subsequently renamed it.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Kelty family.\n", "Popcorn\n\nPopcorn (popped corn, popcorns or pop-corn) is a variety of corn kernel, which expands and puffs up when heated.\n\nA popcorn kernel's strong hull contains the seed's hard, starchy endosperm with 14–20% moisture, which turns to steam as the kernel is heated. Pressure from the steam continues to build until the hull ruptures, allowing the kernel to forcefully expand from 20 to 50 times its original size—and finally, cool.\n", "In the \"MythBusters\" episode, \"Car vs. Rain\", first broadcast on June 17, 2009, the \"MythBusters\" team tried to determine whether the final scene in the film, the destruction of Dr. Hathaway's house with laser-popped popcorn, is actually possible. First they used a ten-watt laser to pop a single kernel wrapped in aluminum foil, showing that popping corn is possible with a laser, then they tested a scaled-down model of a house. The popcorn was popped through induction heating because a sufficiently large laser was not available. The result was that the popcorn was unable to expand sufficiently to break glass, much less break open a door or move the house off its foundation. Instead, it ceased to expand and then simply charred.\n", "In the image at right, the entire region to the right of the \"edge\" in the middle looks slightly lighter than the area to the left of the edge, but in fact the brightness of both areas is exactly the same, as can be seen by blacking out the region containing the edge. (The graded darker and lighter regions around the edge span only 14% of the total width of the image.)\n\nThis phenomenon is similar to the phenomenon of simultaneous contrast and Mach bands, but differs from it in two important respects.\n", "After the kernels have been cooled down, the peanuts will undergo either heat blanching or water blanching to remove the remaining seed coats. Compared to heat blanching, water blanching is a new process. Water blanching first appeared in 1949.\n\nSection::::Production process.:Blanching.:Heat blanching.\n", "Cave popcorn can also form by evaporation in which case it is chalky and white like edible popcorn. In the right conditions, evaporative cave popcorn may grow on the windward side of the surface to which it is attached or appear on the edges of projecting surfaces.\n\nSection::::On manmade structures (outside the cave environment).\n", "BULLET::::- One of the main things he noted was the composition of the endosperm of the maize kernels. He wrote: “The texture of the endosperm is one of the unique features of this maize. Cut in any direction it separates with a sort of cleavage, exposing a dull, smooth surface. The texture suggests that of the hardest waxes, though it is still harder and more crystalline. From this optical resemblance to wax the term cereous or waxy endosperm is suggested.” The moisture content of the kernel must be 16% or lower before the waxy trait can be recognised visually.\n", "Corn on the cob is normally eaten while still warm. It is often seasoned with salt and buttered before serving. Some diners use specialized skewers, thrust into the ends of the cob, to hold the ear while eating without touching the hot and sticky kernels.\n\nWithin a day of corn being picked it starts converting sugar into starch, which results in reduction in the level of natural sweetness. Corn should be cooked and served the same day it has been harvested, as it takes only a single day for corn to lose up to 25% of its sweetness.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "In the popcorn industry, a popped kernel of corn is known as a \"flake\". Two shapes of flakes are commercially important. \"Butterfly\" (or \"snowflake\") flakes are irregular in shape and have a number of protruding \"wings\". \"Mushroom\" flakes are largely ball-shaped, with few wings. Butterfly flakes are regarded as having better mouthfeel, with greater tenderness and less noticeable hulls. Mushroom flakes are less fragile than butterfly flakes and are therefore often used for packaged popcorn or confectionery, such as caramel corn. The kernels from a single cob of popcorn may form both butterfly and mushroom flakes; hybrids that produce 100% butterfly flakes or 100% mushroom flakes exist, the latter developed only as recently as 1998. Growing conditions and popping environment can also affect the butterfly-to-mushroom ratio.\n", "Section::::Production process.:Cooling.\n\nAfter dry roasting, peanuts are removed from the oven as quickly as possible and directly placed in a blower-cooler cylinder. There are suction fans in the metal cylinder that can pull a large volume of air through, so the peanuts can be cooled more efficiently. The peanuts will not be dried out because cooling can help retain some oil and moisture. The cooling process is completed when the temperature in the cylinder reaches .\n\nSection::::Production process.:Blanching.\n", "BULLET::::- Mike and Ikes and Hot Tamales, also a good seller, degrade in humid environments. Spraying a large plastic spoon with an unflavored, non-stick cooking spray and then stirring the candy around until it has a shiny look to it can prevent the pieces from sticking together. It is important not to use too much cooking spray, or the candy will seem greasy.\n\nBULLET::::- Runts, a hard fruity candy, are well-suited to surviving hot, humid summer months.\n", "A different method of popcorn-making involves the \"popcorn hammer\", a large cast-iron canister that is sealed with a heavy lid and slowly turned over a fire in rotisserie fashion.\n\nSection::::Cooking methods.:Expansion and yield.\n", "Since 1854, the ancestors of Richard Kelty (1936-2015) had been growing a heirloom popcorn variety out of small kernels, whose hulls would disintegrate after being popped, resulting in a richer taste. The popcorn had been introduced to the Kelty family by Native Americans, who shared it with them. The Kelty family had never sold the popcorn, which was only grown for personal consumption.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04990	Why does a word start to sound foreign the more you repeat it over and over out loud?	“Semantic satiation” is the phrase used to describe this. Basically, your brain becomes somewhat fatigued and numbed to the sound and the repition and over time as it tapers in neural response. This practice is actually described to combat speech anxiety where the repition of phrases decrease any associated fears or inhibitions with said phrases in the speaker.	[ "Hypercorrection can also occur when learners of a new-to-them (aka second, foreign) language try to avoid applying grammatical rules from their native language to the new language (a situation known as language transfer). The effect can occur, for example, when a student of a new language has learned that certain sounds of his or her original language must usually be replaced by another in the studied language, but has not learned when \"not\" to replace them.\n\nSection::::English.\n", "Section::::Pronunciation change.:Adaptation to a different language.\n", "Many words (\"e.g.\" the words \"beef\" and \"pocket\") entered the English language from the Norman language following the Conquest of 1066. They have been so thoroughly integrated into the language that they are not generally considered to be foreign, and they follow the usual laws of English phonetics perfectly. Their current pronunciations have generally changed from the original ones, but no-one considers them to be mispronunciations, because the words were adopted so long ago.\n", "It is generally accepted in psycholinguistics that (1) when the beginning of a word is heard, a set of words that share the same initial sound become activated in memory, (2) the words that are activated compete with each other while more and more of the word is heard, (3) at some point, due to both the auditory input and the lexical competition, one word is recognized.\n", "The effect was first described by Cattell (1886), and important contributions came from Reicher (1969) and Wheeler (1970). Cattell first wrote, \"I find it takes about twice as long to read...words which have no connexion as words which make sentences, and letters which have no connexions as letters which make words. When the words make sentences and the letters words, not only do the processes of seeing and naming overlap, but by one mental effort the subject can recognize a whole group of words or letters\".\n", "An example of this lexical phenomenon in Spanglish is the emergence of new verbs when the productive Spanish verb-making suffix \"-ear\" is attached to an English verb. For example, the Spanish verb for \"to eat lunch\" (\"almorzar\" in standard Spanish) becomes \"lonchear\" (occasionally \"lunchear\"). The same process produces \"watchear\", \"parquear\", \"emailear\", \"twittear\", etc.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Loan words.\n", "James presented several experiments that demonstrated the operation of the semantic satiation effect in various cognitive tasks such as rating words and figures that are presented repeatedly in a short time, verbally repeating words then grouping them into concepts, adding numbers after repeating them out loud, and bilingual translations of words repeated in one of the two languages. In each case, the subjects would repeat a word or number for several seconds, then perform the cognitive task using that word. It was demonstrated that repeating a word prior to its use in a task made the task somewhat more difficult.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nSpeakers experiencing linguistic insecurity exhibit alterations of their normal speech which are reflective of their insecurity, and often are a result of the speaker attempting to compensate for the perceived deficiencies in their own speech variety. These effects of linguistic insecurity can come in the form of changes in pronunciation, as in the case of the retail store employees in William Labov's example, or even syntactic deviations from the speaker's normal speech variant.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Hypercorrection.\n", "Word salad may describe a symptom of neurological or psychiatric conditions in which a person attempts to communicate an idea, but words and phrases that may appear to be random and unrelated come out in an incoherent sequence instead. Often, the person is unaware that he or she did not make sense. It appears in people with dementia and schizophrenia, as well as after anoxic brain injury. Clang associations are especially characteristic of mania, as seen in bipolar disorder, as a somewhat more severe variation of flight of ideas. In extreme mania, the patient's speech may become incoherent, with associations markedly loosened, thus presenting as a veritable word salad.\n", "A study by Macé and Caza looked at the role of articulatory suppression on immediate false recognition. During their first experiment, they created two groups of participants randomly. Participants in both groups were asked to listen to a list of words through headphones; and were instructed to point to \"yes\" or \"no\" during the second list in whether they recalled that word from the first list. Participants in the articulatory suppression group were instructed to count 1 to 10 during both presentations of the lists and until completion of responding to the second list. Results from this study indicated, the effects of articulatory suppression increased false recognition of mismatching words on the second list.\n", "BULLET::::4. There are consistent stress patterns in speech errors. Predominantly, both interacting segments receive major or minor stress.\n\nBULLET::::- These four generalizations support the idea of the lexical bias effect. This effect states that our phonological speech errors generally form words rather than non-words. Baars (1975) showed evidence for this effect when he presented word pairs in rapid succession and asked participants to say both words in rapid succession back. In most of the trials, the mistakes made still formed actual words.\n\nSection::::Information obtained from performance additions.\n", "The effect links to the needs of effective communication, as there is a reduced effect when words are repeated or lists are read where communication intelligibility is not important. Since the effect is involuntary it is used as a means to detect malingering in those simulating hearing loss. Research on birds and monkeys find that the effect also occurs in the vocalizations of animals.\n\nThe effect was discovered in 1909 by Étienne Lombard, a French otolaryngologist.\n\nSection::::Lombard speech.\n", "\"Jamais vu\" is most commonly experienced when a person momentarily does not recognise a word or, less commonly, a person or place, that he or she knows. This can be achieved by anyone by repeatedly writing or saying a specific word out loud. After a few seconds one will often, despite knowing that it is a real word, feel as if \"there's no way it is an actual word\".\n\nThe phenomenon is often grouped with \"déjà vu\" and \"presque vu\" (\"tip of the tongue\").\n", "In \"Ladle Rat Rotten Hut\" the classic Little Red Riding Hood tale is told, purposely replacing its usual words with similar-sounding words that are strung together in what might at first appear to a reader as a nonsensical sequence. While they are actual words, they are in a meaningless sequence, except when heard and interpreted by someone familiar with the story. Each phrase, taken as a whole and, especially, heard aloud, so closely resembles phrases most speakers of English recognize as telling a well-known story, that hearers may take a moment to realize that every word is simply and purposely wrong. The tale begins \"Wants pawn term dare worsted ladle gull,\" which is easily deciphered, when spoken with appropriate intonation, to mean \"Once upon a time there was a little girl.\" The word replacement continues throughout the story.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Shifting registers.\n", "A special case of where multiple causation comes into play creating new verbal forms is in what Skinner describes as fragmentary responses. Such combinations are typically vocal, although this may be due to different conditions of self-editing rather than any special property. Such mutations may be \"nonsense\" and may not further the verbal interchange in which it occurs. Freudian slips may be one special case of fragmentary responses which tend to be given reinforcement and may discourage self-editing. This phenomenon appears to be more common in children, and in adults learning a second language. Fatigue, illness and insobriety may tend to produce fragmentary responding.\n", "Section::::Factors.:Intensity.\n\nOnly when the intensity of the noise replacing the phonemes is the same or louder as the surrounding words, does the effect properly work. This effect is made apparent when listeners hear a sentence with gaps replaced by white noise repeat over and over with the white noise volume increasing with each iteration. The sentence becomes more and more clear to the listener as the white noise is louder. \n\nSection::::Factors.:Dichotic listening.\n", "Slips of the tongue are another form of \"errors\" that can help us understand the process of speech production better. Slips can happen at many levels, at the syntactic level, at the phrasal level, at the lexical semantic level, at the morphological level and at the phonological level and they can take more than one form like: additions, substations, deletion, exchange, anticipation, perseveration, shifts, and haplologies M.F. Garrett, (1975). Slips are orderly because language production is orderly.\n", "There are some biases shown through slips of the tongue. One kind is a lexical bias which shows that the slips people generate are more often actual words than random sound strings. Baars Motley and Mackay (1975) found that it was more common for people to turn two actual words to two other actual words than when they do not create real words. This suggests that lexemes might overlap somewhat or be stored similarly.\n", "BULLET::::- Phoneme deletion, also referred to as phoneme elision: e.g., \"Say \"coat\". Now say it again but don't say /k/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme segmentation with words or non-words: e.g., \"How many sounds can you hear in the word \"it\"?\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme reversal: e.g., \"Say \"na\" (as in \"nap\"). Now say na backwards\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme manipulation: e.g., \"Say \"dash\". Now say it again, but instead of /æ/ say /I/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spoonerism: e.g., \"felt made\" becomes \"melt fade\"\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "After increasing until a certain point, overextensions diminish over time as the child receives corrective feedback. This feedback most often comes from parents and teachers, who help the child revise his or her word meaning boundaries. However, parents can also unintentionally prolong the use of overextensions. Parents often respond to overextensions with acceptance, and the use of joint labeling (e.g. referring to both wolves and dogs as puppies) reinforces overextended language.\n\nSection::::Underextension.\n", "Mirror neurons have been identified that both process the perception and production of motor movements. This is done not in terms of their exact motor performance but an inference of the intended motor goals with which it is organized. Mirror neurons that both perceive and produce the motor movements of speech have been identified. Speech is mirrored constantly into its articulations since speakers cannot know in advance that a word is unfamiliar and in need of repetition—which is only learnt after the opportunity to map it into articulations has gone. Thus, speakers if they are to incorporate unfamiliar words into their spoken vocabulary\n", "The related theory, proposed by William Wang in 1969, is that all sound changes originate in a single word or a small group of words and then spread to other words with a similar phonological make-up, but may not spread to all words in which they potentially could apply. The theory of lexical diffusion stands in contrast to the Neogrammarian hypothesis that a given sound change applies simultaneously to all words in which its context is found.\n", "Word frequency effect\n\nThe word frequency effect is a psychological phenomenon where recognition times are faster for words seen more frequently than for words seen less frequently. Word frequency depends on individual awareness of the tested language. The phenomenon can be extended to different characters of the word in non-alphabetic languages such as Chinese.\n", "In fast conditions, cognitive processes that result in a phonetic plan, fail to keep up with articulation, and thus, the articulation of the existing plan is restarted, resulting in the repetition of words which is more likely to happen but no more likely than fillers.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Discourse features.:Frequency of words.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01380	How did so many people die of the flu in 1900’s?	Vaccinations have done wonders at lessening the effects of flu symptoms and also help by making it harder for those who are more vulnerable are less likely to get it and die. Moreover the flu in the early 1900s actually came back in the 2000s "swine flu" and it actually caused a few hundred thousand deaths despite all the efforts that were made to immunize and protect the population. Just be really, really super thankful that so much effort is being made to protect us now, and remember - get your damn flu shot!~	[ "Infectious disease already limited life expectancy in the early 20th century. But in the first year of the pandemic, life expectancy in the United States dropped by about 12 years. Most influenza outbreaks have a U-shaped mortality rate, disproportionately killing the very young and the very old, with higher survival rate for those inbetween, but the 1918 pandemic had a W-shaped mortality rate, with a higher than expected mortality rate for young adults.\n", "The pandemic mostly killed young adults. In 1918–1919, 99% of pandemic influenza deaths in the U.S. occurred in people under 65, and nearly half in young adults 20 to 40 years old. In 1920, the mortality rate among people under 65 had decreased sixfold to half the mortality rate of people over 65, but still 92% of deaths occurred in people under 65. This is unusual, since influenza is normally most deadly to weak individuals, such as infants (under age two), the very old (over age 70), and the immunocompromised. In 1918, older adults may have had partial protection caused by exposure to the 1889–1890 flu pandemic, known as the Russian flu.\n", "Later flu pandemics were not so devastating. They included the 1957 Asian Flu (type A, H2N2 strain) and the 1968 Hong Kong Flu (type A, H3N2 strain), but even these smaller outbreaks killed millions of people. In later pandemics antibiotics were available to control secondary infections and this may have helped reduce mortality compared to the Spanish flu of 1918.\n", "BULLET::::- Prince Erik, Duke of Västmanland (\"Erik Gustav Ludvig Albert Bernadotte\"), Prince of Sweden (September 20, 1918)\n\nBULLET::::- William Walker, English diver (1918)\n\nBULLET::::- King Watzke, American violinist and bandleader, (1920)\n\nBULLET::::- Max Weber, German political economist and sociologist (June 14, 1920)\n\nBULLET::::- David Franklin Williams, father of American film actress, Myrna Loy (November 1918)\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Yawkey, Major League Baseball executive and owner of the Detroit Tigers, in Augusta, Georgia, US (March 5, 1919)\n\nBULLET::::- Ella Flagg Young, American educator (October 26, 1918)\n\nBULLET::::- Niko Pirosmani, Georgian naïve painter (April 1918)\n\nSection::::In utero deaths.\n", "A letter from a physician at one U.S. Army camp in the 1918 pandemic said:\n\nSection::::Nature of a flu pandemic.:Wave nature.\n\nFlu pandemics typically come in waves. The 1889–1890 and 1918–1919 flu pandemics each came in three or four waves of increasing lethality. But within a wave, mortality was greater at the beginning of the wave.\n\nSection::::Nature of a flu pandemic.:Variable mortality.\n\nMortality varies widely in a pandemic. In the 1918 pandemic:\n\nSection::::Influenza pandemics.\n\nSection::::Influenza pandemics.:Spanish flu (1918–1920).\n", "Even in areas where mortality was low, so many adults were incapacitated that much of everyday life was hampered. Some communities closed all stores or required customers to leave orders outside. There were reports that health-care workers could not tend the sick nor the gravediggers bury the dead because they too were ill. Mass graves were dug by steam shovel and bodies buried without coffins in many places.\n", "While public health facilities grew rapidly in the Progressive Era, and hospitals and medical schools were modernized, the nation in 1918 lost 675,000 lives to the Spanish flu pandemic.\n", "In addition, the outbreak coincided with the deaths and media focus on the First World War. Another explanation involves the age group affected by the disease. The majority of fatalities, from both the war and the epidemic, were among young adults. The deaths caused by the flu may have been overlooked due to the large numbers of deaths of young men in the war or as a result of injuries. When people read the obituaries, they saw the war or postwar deaths and the deaths from the influenza side by side. Particularly in Europe, where the war's toll was extremely high, the flu may not have had a great, separate, psychological impact, or may have seemed a mere extension of the war's tragedies.\n", "In a 2009 paper published in the journal \"Clinical Infectious Diseases\", Karen Starko proposed that aspirin poisoning contributed substantially to the fatalities. She based this on the reported symptoms in those dying from the flu, as reported in the post mortem reports still available, and also the timing of the big \"death spike\" in October 1918. This occurred shortly after the Surgeon General of the United States Army and the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" both recommended very large doses of 8 to 31 grams of aspirin per day as part of treatment. These levels will produce hyperventilation in 33% of patients, as well as lung edema in 3% of patients. Starko also notes that many early deaths showed \"wet,\" sometimes hemorrhagic lungs, whereas late deaths showed bacterial pneumonia. She suggests that the wave of aspirin poisonings was due to a \"perfect storm\" of events: Bayer's patent on aspirin expired, so many companies rushed in to make a profit and greatly increased the supply; this coincided with the Spanish flu; and the symptoms of aspirin poisoning were not known at the time.\n", "BULLET::::- Anton Dilger, medical doctor, mastermind of Germany's World War I secret bioterror sabotage\n\nBULLET::::- John Francis Dodge (January 14, 1920), American automobile manufacturing pioneer\n\nBULLET::::- Horace Elgin Dodge (December 10, 1920), American automobile manufacturing pioneer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Admiral\" Dot (1864–1918), American circus performer under P. T. Barnum\n\nBULLET::::- Angus Douglas, Scottish international footballer, (December 14, 1918)\n\nBULLET::::- Charles A. Doyen, United States Marine Corps brigadier general (October 6, 1918)\n\nBULLET::::- George Freeth, father of modern surfing and lifeguard (April 7, 1919)\n\nBULLET::::- Harold Gilman, British painter (February 12, 1919)\n", "Section::::Outbreak and spread.\n\nModern transport infrastructure assisted the spread of the 1889 influenza. The 19 largest European countries, including the Russian Empire, had 202,887 km of railroads and transatlantic travel by boat took less than six days (not significantly different than current travel time by air, given the time scale of the global spread of a pandemic).\n", "A new strain of the virus emerged in 1918, and the subsequent pandemic of Spanish flu was one of the worst natural disasters in history. The death toll was enormous; throughout the world around 50 million people died from the infection. There were 550,000 reported deaths caused by the disease in the US, ten times the country's losses during the First World War, and 228,000 deaths in the UK. In India there were more than 20 million deaths, and in Western Samoa 22 per cent of the population died. Although cases of influenza occurred every winter, there were only two other pandemics in the 20th century.\n", "On 18 January 2007, Kobasa et al. (2007) reported that monkeys (\"Macaca fascicularis\") infected with the recreated flu strain exhibited classic symptoms of the 1918 pandemic, and died from cytokine storms—an overreaction of the immune system. This may explain why the 1918 flu had its surprising effect on younger, healthier people, as a person with a stronger immune system would potentially have a stronger overreaction.\n", "In the U.S., about 28% of the population became infected, and 500,000 to 675,000 died. Native American tribes were particularly hard hit. In the Four Corners area alone, 3,293 deaths were registered among Native Americans. Entire Inuit and Alaskan Native village communities died in Alaska. In Canada 50,000 died.\n\nIn Brazil, 300,000 died, including president Rodrigues Alves. In Britain, as many as 250,000 died; in France, more than 400,000.\n", "Scientists offer several possible explanations for the high mortality rate of the 1918 influenza pandemic. Some research suggests that the specific variant of the virus was unusually aggressive. One group of researchers recovered the virus from the bodies of frozen victims, and transfected animals with it, causing a rapidly progressive respiratory failure and death through a cytokine storm (overreaction of the body's immune system). It was postulated that the strong immune reactions of young adults ravaged the body, whereas the weaker immune systems of children and middle-aged adults resulted in fewer deaths among those groups.\n", "The fact that most of those who recovered from first-wave infections had become immune showed that it must have been the same strain of flu. This was most dramatically illustrated in Copenhagen, which escaped with a combined mortality rate of just 0.29% (0.02% in the first wave and 0.27% in the second wave) because of exposure to the less-lethal first wave. For the rest of the population, the second wave was far more deadly; the most vulnerable people were those like the soldiers in the trenches – young previously healthy adults.\n\nSection::::Mortality.:Devastated communities.\n", "In the worldwide 1918 flu pandemic, \"physicians tried everything they knew, everything they had ever heard of, from the ancient art of bleeding patients, to administering oxygen, to developing new vaccines and sera (chiefly against what we now call \"Hemophilus influenzae\"—a name derived from the fact that it was originally considered the etiological agent—and several types of pneumococci). Only one therapeutic measure, transfusing blood from recovered patients to new victims, showed any hint of success.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Influenza research\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Sykes – exhumation of a British flu victim in the UK\n", "BULLET::::- The development of medical insulin during the 1920s helped raise the life expectancy of diabetics to three times of what it had been earlier.\n\nBULLET::::- Vaccines, hygiene and clean water improved health and decreased mortality rates, especially among infants and the young.\n\nSection::::Biology and medicine.:Notable diseases.\n\nBULLET::::- An influenza pandemic, Spanish Flu, killed anywhere from 20 to 100 million people between 1918 and 1919.\n", "This pandemic has been described as \"the greatest medical holocaust in history\" and may have killed more people than the Black Death. It is said that this flu killed more people in 24 weeks than AIDS killed in 24 years, and more in a year than the Black Death killed in a century, although the Black Death killed a much higher percentage of the world's smaller population at the time.\n", "Data analysis revealed 6,520 recorded deaths in Savannah-Chatham County, Georgia (population = 83,252) for the three-year period from January 1, 1917, to December 31, 1919. Of these deaths, influenza was specifically listed as the cause of death in 316 cases, representing 4.85 percent of all causes of death for the total time period.\n\nSection::::Mortality.:Less-affected areas.\n", "A large factor in the worldwide occurrence of this flu was increased travel. Modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors, and civilian travelers to spread the disease.\n", "The 1918 flu pandemic was truly global, spreading even to the Arctic and remote Pacific islands. The unusually severe disease killed between two and twenty percent of those infected, as opposed to the more usual flu epidemic mortality rate of 0.1%. Another unusual feature of this pandemic was that it mostly killed young adults, with 99% of pandemic influenza deaths occurring in people under 65, and more than half in young adults 20 to 40 years old. This is unusual since influenza is normally most deadly to the very young (under age 2) and the very old (over age 70). The total mortality of the 1918–1919 pandemic is not known, but it is estimated that 2.5% to 5% of the world's population was killed. As many as 25million may have been killed in the first 25 weeks; in contrast, HIV/AIDS has killed 25million in its first 25 years.\n", "The 1918 flu epidemic began with a wave of mild cases in the spring, followed by more deadly waves in the autumn, eventually killing hundreds of thousands in the United States and 50–100 million worldwide. The great majority of deaths in the 1918 flu pandemic were the result of secondary bacterial pneumonia. The influenza virus damaged the lining of the bronchial tubes and lungs of victims, allowing common bacteria from the nose and throat to infect their lungs. Subsequent pandemics have had many fewer fatalities due to the development of antibiotic medicines which can treat pneumonia.\n", "Researchers have tried for many years to identify the subtypes of Influenza A responsible for the 1889–1890, 1898–1900 and 1918 epidemics. Initially, this work was primarily based on \"seroarcheology\"—the detection of antibodies to influenza infection in the sera of elderly people—and it was thought that the 1889–1890 pandemic was caused by Influenza A subtype H2, the 1898–1900 epidemic by subtype H3, and the 1918 pandemic by subtype H1. With the confirmation of H1N1 as the cause of the 1918 flu pandemic following identification of H1N1 antibodies in exhumed corpses, reanalysis of seroarcheological data has indicated that Influenza A subtype H3 (possibly the H3N8 subtype), is the most likely cause for the 1889–1890 pandemic.\n", "In New Zealand the flu killed an estimated 6400 Europeans and 2500 indigenous Maori in six weeks\".\" Dr Geoffrey Rice has found that Maori died at eight times the rate of Pakeha.\n\nIn Iran, the mortality was very high: according to an estimate, between 902,400 and 2,431,000, or 8.0% to 21.7% of the total population died.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02325	Can climate conditions affect the speed of sound?	Yes, the air pressure and temperature will change the speed of sound propagation, since the molecules are closer together or farther apart.	[ "In the Earth's atmosphere, the chief factor affecting the speed of sound is the temperature. For a given ideal gas with constant heat capacity and composition, the speed of sound is dependent \"solely\" upon temperature; see Details below. In such an ideal case, the effects of decreased density and decreased pressure of altitude cancel each other out, save for the residual effect of temperature.\n", "The speed of sound is raised by humidity but decreased by carbon dioxide. The difference between 0% and 100% humidity is about at standard pressure and temperature, but the size of the humidity effect increases dramatically with temperature. The carbon dioxide content of air is not fixed, due to both carbon pollution and human breath (e.g., in the air blown through wind instruments).\n", "In fact, assuming an ideal gas, the speed of sound \"c\" depends on temperature only, not on the pressure or density (since these change in lockstep for a given temperature and cancel out). Air is almost an ideal gas. The temperature of the air varies with altitude, giving the following variations in the speed of sound using the standard atmosphere—\"actual conditions may vary\".\n\nGiven normal atmospheric conditions, the temperature, and thus speed of sound, varies with altitude:\n\nSection::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.\n\nSection::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:General physical considerations.\n", "However, there are variations in this trend above . In particular, in the stratosphere above about , the speed of sound increases with height, due to an increase in temperature from heating within the ozone layer. This produces a positive speed of sound gradient in this region. Still another region of positive gradient occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above .\n\nSection::::Practical formula for dry air.\n\nThe approximate speed of sound in dry (0% humidity) air, in metres per second, at temperatures near , can be calculated from\n\nwhere \"formula_4\" is the temperature in degrees Celsius (°C).\n", "Section::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:Practical application to air.\n\nBy far the most important factor influencing the speed of sound in air is temperature. The speed is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, giving an increase of about per degree Celsius. For this reason, the pitch of a musical wind instrument increases as its temperature increases.\n", "In non-ideal gas behavior regimen, for which the van der Waals gas equation would be used, the proportionality is not exact, and there is a slight dependence of sound velocity on the gas pressure.\n\nHumidity has a small but measurable effect on the speed of sound (causing it to increase by about 0.1%–0.6%), because oxygen and nitrogen molecules of the air are replaced by lighter molecules of water. This is a simple mixing effect.\n\nSection::::Altitude variation and implications for atmospheric acoustics.\n", "A range of different methods exist for the measurement of sound in air.\n", "Here it is the case that \"v\" = \"fλ\".\n\nSection::::Experimental methods.:High-precision measurements in air.\n", "The speed of sound in air varies with temperature, meaning that a vessel flute's pitch will change in hot or cold air. However, varying the playing airspeed can change the pitch by three semitones. This is enough to cancel the expected pitch effects of any probable temperature change.\n\nAir pressure variations do not affect pitch (the ratio of pressure to air density in an ideal gas is constant. Air pressure and density changes therefore cancel, and have no effect on the speed of sound; air is nearly an ideal gas, so there is nearly no effect).\n", "The medium in which a sound wave is travelling does not always respond adiabatically, and as a result, the speed of sound can vary with frequency.\n", "A practical example can be observed in Edinburgh when the \"One o' Clock Gun\" is fired at the eastern end of Edinburgh Castle. Standing at the base of the western end of the Castle Rock, the sound of the Gun can be heard through the rock, slightly before it arrives by the air route, partly delayed by the slightly longer route. It is particularly effective if a multi-gun salute such as for \"The Queen's Birthday\" is being fired.\n\nSection::::Basic concepts.:Compression and shear waves.\n", "In the standard atmosphere:\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is (= ), giving a theoretical value of (= = = = ). Values ranging from 331.3 to 331.6 m/s may be found in reference literature, however;\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is (= = ), giving a value of (= = = = );\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is (= = ), giving a value of (= = = = ).\n", "The above derivation includes the first two equations given in the \"Practical formula for dry air\" section above.\n\nSection::::Details.:Effects due to wind shear.\n", "The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. Wind shear of 4 m/(s · km) can produce refraction equal to a typical temperature lapse rate of . Higher values of wind gradient will refract sound downward toward the surface in the downwind direction, eliminating the acoustic shadow on the downwind side. This will increase the audibility of sounds downwind. This downwind refraction effect occurs because there is a wind gradient; the sound is not being carried along by the wind.\n", "Speed of sound\n\nThe speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave as it propagates through an elastic medium. At , the speed of sound in air is about , or a kilometre in or a mile in . It depends strongly on temperature, but also varies by several metres per second, depending on which gases exist in the medium through which a soundwave is propagating.\n", "Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Density and mass.\n", "Section::::Non-gaseous media.\n\nSection::::Non-gaseous media.:Speed of sound in solids.\n\nSection::::Non-gaseous media.:Speed of sound in solids.:Three-dimensional solids.\n\nIn a solid, there is a non-zero stiffness both for volumetric deformations and shear deformations. Hence, it is possible to generate sound waves with different velocities dependent\n", "In gases, adiabatic compressibility is directly related to pressure through the heat capacity ratio (adiabatic index), while pressure and density are inversely related to the temperature and molecular weight, thus making only the completely independent properties of \"temperature and molecular structure\" important (heat capacity ratio may be determined by temperature and molecular structure, but simple molecular weight is not sufficient to determine it).\n", "Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In air at sea level, the speed of sound is approximately using the formula . In fresh water, also at 20 °C, the speed of sound is approximately . In steel, the speed of sound is about . The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive, being subject to a second-order anharmonic effect, to the sound amplitude, which means there are non-linear propagation effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound (see parametric array).\n", "In fluids, only the medium's compressibility and density are the important factors, since fluids do not transmit shear stresses. In heterogeneous fluids, such as a liquid filled with gas bubbles, the density of the liquid and the compressibility of the gas affect the speed of sound in an additive manner, as demonstrated in the hot chocolate effect.\n", "Speeds of sound of the elements\n\nThe speed of sound in any chemical element in the fluid phase has one temperature-dependent value. In the solid phase, different types of sound wave may be propagated, each with its own speed: among these types of wave are longitudinal (as in fluids), transversal, and (along a surface or plate) extensional.\n\nSection::::Notes.\n\nBULLET::::- Ref. CRC: Values are \"at room temperature\" unless noted, and \"for normal atmospheric pressure\" (\"at 1 atm\" for gases).\n", "Air conducts sound at a certain speed, the \"speed of sound\". This becomes slower as the air becomes cooler. Because the temperature of the atmosphere generally decreases with altitude (until the tropopause), the speed of sound also decreases with altitude. (See the International Standard Atmosphere for more on temperature as a function of altitude.)\n", "As shown above, the approximate value 1000/3 = 333.33... m/s is exact a little below 5 °C and is a good approximation for all \"usual\" outside temperatures (in temperate climates, at least), hence the usual rule of thumb to determine how far lightning has struck: count the seconds from the start of the lightning flash to the start of the corresponding roll of thunder and divide by 3: the result is the distance in kilometers to the nearest point of the lightning bolt.\n\nSection::::Mach number.\n", "The frequency of the vibrational modes depends on the speed of sound in air, which varies with air density. A change in temperature, and only to a much smaller degree also a change in humidity, influences the air density and thus the speed of sound, and therefore affects the tuning of wind instruments. The effect of thermal expansion of a wind instrument, even of a brass instrument, is negligible compared to the thermal effect on the air.\n\nSection::::Parts.\n", "The lower limit of audibility is defined as SPL of , but the upper limit is not as clearly defined. While ( or ) is the largest pressure variation an undistorted sound wave can have in Earth's atmosphere, larger sound waves can be present in other atmospheres or other media such as under water, or through the Earth.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04360	when you are holding a pencil and you move your arm up and down, why does it look like the pencil is flexibel	Different parts of your vision are good at different things. The part of your vision that is good at seeing detail is a very small part of the very center of your vision. You can see how small it is by keeping your eyes focused on a single word in a text, and trying to read the next few words without looking at them. Outside of that focused area, the eye is more dedicated to identifying motion rather than detail. The very edges of your vision, your peripherals, are entirely dedicated to motion, which is why you can see movement out of the corner of your eye if you had no idea something was there. The area just outside of your detailed center of vision can pick up a good amount of detail, but relies on your brain to fill in the blanks. When you wave the pencil in front of your face, the center of your vision can see that the pencil is rigid, but the area just outside of the center sees motion and less detail. Your brain fills in the blanks, interpreting the image as "the pencil is loose and wavy"	[ "It was intended to emulate the \"Doppler sound\" of a Leslie speaker. Though not very successful as a Leslie simulator, the Uni-Vibe became an effect in its own right, putting its stamp on tracks like Robin Trower's \"Bridge of Sighs\", Jimi Hendrix's \"Machine Gun\" and Pink Floyd's \"Breathe\". \n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nThe effect, though often associated with chorus, is in fact created through a staggered series of phasing filters, unlike the usually aligned filters of a normal phasing effect. Unlike most other phaser pedals, this is achieved without the use of op-amps.\n", "FlexiSign is a software package designed for the commercial sign and print industry. It is designed for generating graphics to be cut using a vinyl plotter or printer using a variety of sign industry related wide-format printers. Later versions of the software incorporate a number of features found in Raster editing software such as Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator. These features help to utilize some of the advancements in wide-format digital printing, earlier releases of the software were geared more towards vector art for vinyl plotters. As of February 2018, the latest Flexi line of products was Version 12. \n", "Flex (comics)\n\nFlex (Adrian Corbo) is a fictional character, a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is a former member of the superhero team Alpha Flight, but later got downgraded to Beta Flight.\n\nSection::::Fictional character biography.\n", "First, back to vowels. The signature of CP is within-category compression and/or between-category separation. The size of the CP effect is merely a scaling factor; it is this compression/separation \"accordion effect\", that is CP's distinctive feature. In this respect, the \"weaker\" CP effect for vowels, whose motor production is continuous rather than categorical, but whose perception is by this criterion categorical, is every bit as much of a CP effect as the ba/pa and ba/da effects. But, as with colors, it looks as if the effect is an innate one: Our sensory category detectors for both color and speech sounds are born already \"biased\" by evolution: Our perceived color and speech-sound spectrum is already \"warped\" with these compression/separations.\n", "He studied furniture design under Tage Frid and Hank Gilpin at the Rhode Island School of Design for two semesters and attended Harvard University's Graduate School of Design for the first year of a three year Master's program.\n\nSection::::Career.\n\nFrom 2008 to 2012, Shapiro served as President of the Metropolitan Television Alliance, LLC (MTVA). The MTVA was formed by the New York area television broadcast stations shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Those attacks completely destroyed New York’s analog and digital over-the-air television broadcast infrastructure.\n", "Section::::Signal acquisition and analysis.\n\nSignal obtained by the AFM (and captured by lock-in amplifier) are actually representations of the cantilever deflection at a specific frequency. However, besides thermal expansion, several other sources may also result in cantilever deflection.\n\nSection::::Signal acquisition and analysis.:Thermally induced cantilever bending.\n", "Beville's article, entitled \"Compressors and Limiters,\" was reprinted in the same magazine in June 1988. A follow-up article by Richard Hulse in the April 1996 \"Studio Sound\" included application tips and a description of implementing the technique in a digital audio workstation. Bob Katz coined the term \"parallel compression\", and has described it as an implementation of \"upward compression\", the increase in audibility of softer passages. Studio engineers in New York City became known for reliance on the technique, and it picked up the name \"New York compression\".\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "In 1951 Franklin Moss, then the president of the Mosstype Corporation, conducted a poll among the readers of his journal \"The Mosstyper\" to submit new names for the printing process. Over 200 names were submitted, and a subcommittee of the Packaging Institute's Printed Packaging Committee narrowed the selection to three possibilities: \"permatone process\", \"rotopake process\", and \"flexographic process\". Postal ballots from readers of \"The Mosstyper\" overwhelmingly chose the last of these, and \"flexographic process\" was chosen.\n\nSection::::History.:Evolution.\n", "Flex Mentallo first appeared in 1991 in issue #35 of Grant Morrison's run on \"Doom Patrol\" as a member of the audience for Danny the Street's Perpetual Cabaret. Later in the storyline, Flex reveals that he is actually \"The Man of Muscle Mystery\", and tidies his appearance. In issue #42, Flex is revealed to be not an entirely original creation, but rather a parody of the post-workout protagonist of Charles Atlas' long-running \"The Insult that made a Man out of Mac\" advertisements seen in American comics from the past.\n", "Polarized light microscopy is commonly used in biological tissue, as many biological materials are birefringent. Collagen, found in cartilage, tendon, bone, corneas, and several other areas in the body, is birefringent and commonly studied with polarized light microscopy. Some proteins are also birefringent, exhibiting form birefringence.\n", "In order to reduce the interference from the fringe area transmitters transmitting in the same channels, a method named frequency offset is often used. By this method, a slightly shifted RF is assigned for a transmitter which may experience interference from other transmitters. \n\nIn TV transmission, the shifted RF is calculated by the formula;\n\nwhere, \n\nPrecision offset is the same as frequency offset, except that in this case, the offset frequency is produced by a cesium controlled oscillator.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\n8p offset of channel 9 in system B can be found readily\n", "The flexatone is sometimes heard in funk music, and occasionally in pop music for special effect. It is occasionally used in the soundtracks of films or cartoons to represent \"ghosts\" or other paranormal phenomena.\n", "Sometimes the 20 log ratio definition is applied to electron counts or photon counts directly, which are proportional to sensor signal amplitude without the need to consider whether the voltage response to intensity is linear.\n", "Echo (Marvel Comics)\n\nEcho (Maya Lopez) is a fictional character, a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has been depicted as a supporting character of Daredevil. She makes her first appearance in \"Daredevil\" Vol. 2, #9 (Dec. 1999), and was created by David Mack and Joe Quesada. \n\nA Native American and one of the very few deaf comic characters, her \"Echo\" guise includes a white handprint that covers most of her face.\n\nSection::::Publication history.\n", "One Austin-created ad featured the Brooklyn Bridge in the background, along with a picture of Levitas under the heading, \"Elliott Levitas: The Best Congressman Queens, New York, has ever had.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The sub-cardioid microphone has no null points. It is produced with about 7:3 ratio with 3–10 dB level between the front and back pickup.\n\nSection::::Polar patterns.:Bi-directional.\n", "where the sign is negative because charge leaves this plate (the charge is decreasing), and where \"S\" is the area of the surface \"R\". The electric field at surface \"L\" is nearly zero because the field due to charge on the left-hand plate is nearly cancelled by the equal but opposite charge on the right-hand plate. Under the assumption of a uniform electric field distribution inside the capacitor, the displacement current density \"J\" is found by dividing by the area of the surface:\n", "Section::::Up-gliding.:Coil–curl merger.\n\nIn some cases, particularly in New York City, the sound gliding from a schwa upwards even led to a phonemic merger of the vowel classes associated with the General American phonemes as in with the of ; thus, words like \"coil\" and \"curl\", as well as \"voice\" and \"verse\", were homophones. The merged vowel was typically a diphthong , with a mid central starting point, rather than the back rounded starting point of of in most other accents of English. \n", "Section::::Optical Transport Network properties of FlexE.:Optional transport features.\n\nThe optional use of FlexE-aware OTN equipment provides additional functionality such as matching client and line rates. A scenario where this can be of use is when the transport equipment equipped with coherent links delivers a flexible amount of bandwidth to a channel based on reach differences or other factors. This bandwidth can be used more precisely by having the FlexE-aware MAC produce the right amount of traffic at the source.\n\nSection::::FlexE 2.0.\n", "While this technique can be very useful in the analysis there are several situations in which the process will not work. Semblance analysis will not work properly when the offset from the shot is greater than the depth of the reflecting layers because the data no longer has a hyperbolic pattern. To correct this it is necessary to use more complex equations that model non-hyperbolic moveout. Also in situations where there is large offset there can also be polarity reverses with moveout then the data will be heavily distorted. To make moveout analysis suitable for data with polarity reversals a method known as AK semblance developed. This method first worked only for 2D models but has since been further refined for 3D as well. \n", "The main feature of the fasegraphy method is the transition from the scalar ECG-signal \"z(t)\" in any of the leads to its mapping on the phase plane with the coordinates \"z\"(\"t\"), \"dz\"/\"dt\", where \"dz\"/\"dt\" is the rate of change in the heart electrical activity. It fundamentally distinguishes fasegraphy from other similar approaches, based on the mapping of the signal on the plane with the coordinates \"z\"(\"t\"), \"z\"(\"t-tau\"), where \"tau\" is the time delay.\n", "BULLET::::- Flex Mentallo appears in \"Doom Patrol\", portrayed by Devan Chandler Long. In the episode \"Frances Patrol,\" Cyborg and Crazy Jane pursue Flex Mentallo until Cyborg is captured by the Bureau of Normalcy. In the episode \"Flex Patrol,\" a flashback revealed that the Bureau of Normalcy captured Flex Mentallo in 1964. In the present, Flex's memories were restored by Robotman, Negative Man, and Crazy Jane as they plan to reunite him with his wife Dolores. When Dolores disintegrates in front of him during their reunion, Flex unleashes his powers in his agony causing an electrical outage over a large region. In the episode \"Penultimate Patrol,\" Flex is still coping with the loss of Dolores as he and the Doom Patrol find Danny the Street who agrees to help them find where Mr. Nobody is holding Chief.\n", "The present example with \"A\" frequency independent shows the implications of the Miller effect, and therefore of \"C\", upon the frequency response of this circuit, and is typical of the impact of the Miller effect (see, for example, common source). If \"C\" = 0 F, the output voltage of the circuit is simply \"A v\", independent of frequency. However, when \"C\" is not zero, Figure 2B shows the large Miller capacitance appears at the input of the circuit. The voltage output of the circuit now becomes\n", "For example, if six bits are used to represent the number \"codice_1\" (decimal positive 10) and the sign extend operation increases the word length to 16 bits, then the new representation is simply \"codice_2\". Thus, both the value and the fact that the value was positive are maintained.\n\nIf ten bits are used to represent the value \"codice_3\" (decimal negative 14) using two's complement, and this is sign extended to 16 bits, the new representation is \"codice_4\". Thus, by padding the left side with ones, the negative sign and the value of the original number are maintained.\n", "2. Mounting\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15934	Why do metal playgrounds shock you if they are (literally) always grounded?	It’s always grounded...you are not :) you must be generating a charge and then discharging it on the play structure	[ "Sometimes the safety of playgrounds is disputed in school or among regulators. Over at least the last twenty years, the kinds of equipment to be found in playgrounds has changed, often towards safer equipment built with plastic. For example, an older jungle gym might be constructed entirely from steel bars, while newer ones tend to have a minimal steel framework while providing a web of nylon ropes for children to climb on. Playgrounds with equipment that children may fall off often use rubber mulch on the ground to help cushion the impact.\n", "As a result of what some experts say is overprotectiveness driven by a fear of lawsuits, playgrounds have been designed to be, or at least to appear, excessively safe. This overprotectiveness may protect the playground owner from lawsuits, but it appears to result in a decreased sense of achievement and increased fears in children.\n", "The appearance of safety encourages unreasonable risk-taking in children, who might take more reasonable risks if they correctly understood that it is possible to break a bone on the soft surfaces under most modern equipment.\n\nFinally, the playground that is designed to appear low-risk is boring, especially to older children. As a result, they tend to seek out alternative play areas, which may be very unsafe.\n", "ASTM International has issued what it calls the “ASTM Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment”, which is known by its numerical designation, F1292. This standard accounts for both the deceleration of the head during impact and the length of time the head takes to stop moving. The test simulates the impact of a child’s head hitting the surface from various heights of the playground equipment.\n\nSection::::Accessibility.\n", "BULLET::::- First to use sliding footers on slides to allow plastic parts to expand and contract, 1994\n\nBULLET::::- First U.S. playground equipment manufacturer to achieve ISO 9001 Certification, 1996; Certified to ISO 9001:2000 standard, 2003 and ISO 9001:2008, 2009\n\nBULLET::::- First U.S. playground equipment manufacturer and seventh company in the state of Minnesota to achieve ISO 14000 Certification for conservation and recycling process, 1998, and the updated 14001:2004 standard, 2005\n\nBULLET::::- First to use injection molding around steel cables to produce flexible climbing material as part of a system, 1999\n", ", EPI power-generating play equipment was installed at 42 rural schools.\n\nSection::::Products and services.\n", "Risk management is an important life skill, and risk aversion in playgrounds is unhelpful in the long term. Experts studying child development such as Tim Gill have written about the over-protective bias in provision for children, particularly with playgrounds. Instead of a constructed playground, allowing children to play in a natural environment such as open land or a park is sometimes recommended; children gain a better sense of balance playing on uneven ground, and learn to interpret the complexity and signals of nature more effectively.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nPlaygrounds can be\n", "For a static dissipative mat to be reliably grounded it must be attached to a path to ground. Normally, both the mat and the wrist strap are connected to ground by using a common point ground system (CPGS).\n\nIn computer repair shops and electronics manufacturing workers must be grounded before working on devices sensitive to voltages capable of being generated by humans. For that reason static dissipative mats can be and are also used on production assembly floors as \"floor runner\" along the assembly line to draw static generated by people walking up and down.\n\nSection::::Isolation.\n", "Possibility Playground has a \"poured-rubber surface\", while the equipment is formed from structural plastic. This allows children in wheelchairs to navigate around the playground more easily. The playground is surrounded by a picket fence to prevent children from straying off.\n\nThe playground has a pirate ship that is adorned with a Lake Michigan design. It is also outfitted with a lighthouse, monkey bars, swings, a sandbox, balance beams, as well as tunnels and a police car. Some of the swings are specially fashioned to give more support to children who have little muscle strength.\n", "A building code example is the use of ungrounded (\"2-prong\") electrical receptacles. Over time, these older devices were widely deprecated in favor of safer grounded (\"3-prong\") receptacles. The older, ungrounded receptacles were still permitted in many places by \"grandfathering\" them in existing electrical wiring, while prohibiting them for new installations. Thus, though ungrounded receptacles may still be available for legal purchase in a location where they are obsolete, they would generally be intended only for repairs to existing older electrical installations.\n", "Also concerning the safety of playgrounds is the material in which they are built. Wooden playgrounds act as a more natural environment for the children to play but can cause even more minor injuries. Slivers are the main concern when building with wood material. Wet weather is also a threat to children playing on wooden structures. Most woods are treated and do not wear terribly fast, but with enough rain, wooden playgrounds can become slippery and dangerous for children to be on.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Regulation.\n", "A grounding (earthing) system must be designed. The total ground potential rise, and the gradients in potential during a fault (called \"touch\" and \"step\" potentials), must be calculated to protect passers-by during a short-circuit in the transmission system. Earth faults at a substation can cause a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface during a fault can cause metal objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch potential presents a hazard of electrocution. Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded to protect people from this hazard.\n", "On February 23, 2012, 14-year-old Gabriela Yukari Nichimura died after falling from the drop tower, because its lock opened at about 66 feet (20 meters) high. The problem was in Gabriela's chair which had been unused for 10 years, due to the seat's location where a person could bump into the metal frame of the toy, in addition to the absence of a seat belt. The park closed hours after the accident. A full review that began in March 2 of the same year was performed on all toys. Upon completion of the review and signing of a Conduct Adjustment Term (CAT), the park was reopened on March 25, 2012, but the tower remained banned.\n", "The equipment limitations result in the children receiving less value from the play time. The enclosed, padded, constrained, low structures prevent the child from taking risks and developing a sense of mastery over his or her environment. Successfully taking a risk is empowering to children. For example, a child climbing to the top of a tall jungle gym feels happy about successfully managing the challenging climb to the top, and he experiences the thrill of being in a precarious, high position. By contrast, the child on a low piece of equipment, designed to reduce the incidence of injuries from falls, experiences no such thrill, sense of mastery, or accomplishment. Additionally, a lack of experience with heights as a child is associated with increased acrophobia (fear of heights) in adults.\n", "Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. Such a condition can arise spontaneously from mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship issues.\n", "Solar trackers can be built using a “floating” foundation, which sits on the ground without the need for invasive concrete foundations. Instead of placing the tracker on concrete foundations, the tracker is placed on a gravel pan that can be filled with a variety of materials, such as sand or gravel, to secure the tracker to the ground. These “floating” trackers can sustain the same wind load as a traditional fixed mounted tracker. The use of floating trackers increases the number of potential sites for commercial solar projects since they can be placed on top of capped landfills or in areas where excavated foundations are not feasible.\n", "Thirdly, a floating ground can help eliminate ground loops, which reduces the noise coupled to the system. An example of such a configuration is shown in the image on the right. Systems isolated in this manner can and do drift in potential and if the transformer is capable of supplying much power, they can be dangerous. This is particularly likely if the floated system is near high voltage power lines. To reduce the danger of electric shocks, the chassis of the instruments are usually connected separately to Earth ground.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "If an area is prone to lightning, modern designs place lightning ground straps in the poles when they are constructed, before erection. The straps and wiring can be arranged to be a low-cost lightning arrestor with rounded edges to avoid attracting a lightning strike.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Safety.\n\nSWER is promoted as safe due to isolation of the ground from both the generator and user. Most other electrical systems use a metallic neutral connected directly to the generator or a shared ground.\n", "In 2003, the Firetruck used as play equipment at Columbia Park was determined to not meet the Federal Safety Guidelines for preventing head and hand entrapment, and protecting children from falling off the vehicle. In response to concerns about children playing on the firetruck it was fenced off. Three years later in January 2006 both the firetruck and fencing were removed, with plans to replacement with \"neat, fun, and attractive play equipment with rubberized matting.\"\n\nSection::::Park challenges.:Dogs.\n", "Most modern fences emit pulses of high voltage at a given interval of time, and don't take into account whether there is an animal or person touching the conductive wires, except for the voltage multiplier based electric fence charger that stores high voltage potential and dumps its charges as soon as a conductive load (grounded animal/person) touches the wires.\n", "On public playgrounds, more injuries occur on climbers than on any other equipment. On home playgrounds, swings are responsible for most injuries.\n\nPlaygrounds in low-income areas have more maintenance-related hazards than playgrounds in high-income areas. For example, playgrounds in low-income areas had significantly more trash, rusty play equipment, and damaged fall surfaces.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Unintended consequences.\n", "In 2009, an EPI intern traveled to Ghana for three months to meet with the Ghanaian Ministry of Education, elementary education developers, and the students and teachers of rural villages to assess which needs were not being met. It was decided that EPI playground equipment could work for teaching general mechanics, physics, energy transfer, and other basic principles of science for instance demonstrating the conversion of power to electricity.\n", "Typically these are caused by poor design. Where there is mixed signal technology on a printed circuit board, e.g. analogue, digital and possibly RF, it is usually necessary for a highly skilled engineer to specify the layout of where the grounds are to be interconnected. Typically the digital section will have its own ground plane to obtain the necessary low inductance grounding and avoid ground bounce which can cause severe digital malfunction. But digital ground current must not pass through the analog grounding system, where voltage drop due to the finite ground impedance would cause noise to be injected into the analog circuits. Phase lock loop circuits are particularly vulnerable because the VCO loop filter circuit is working with sub-microvolt signals when the loop is locked, and any disturbance will cause frequency jitter and possible loss of lock.\n", "BULLET::::- installing a more flexible surface under and around play equipment, so that a child who falls is less likely to break a bone.\n\nHow effective these strategies are at preventing injuries is debated by experts, because when playgrounds are made from padded materials, children often take more risks.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Playground injury.\n", "Many fences are made entirely of standard smooth or high-tensile wire, although high quality synthetic fencing materials are also beginning to be used as part of permanent fences, particularly when visibility of the fence is a concern.\n" ]	[ "Grounded metal playgrounds may shock you if you touch them." ]	[ "Metal playgrounds are grounded so you must be generating the charge when you touch it." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Grounded metal playgrounds may shock you if you touch them." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Metal playgrounds are grounded so you must be generating the charge when you touch it." ]
2018-21965	How did the first person create the first computer language?	The first computers were programmed manually, directly in binary by flipping switches. Later efforts were taken to more easily enter binary such as punch cards which could be automatically read, and then later symbols were invented to represent binary values. From then it shifted more towards symbolic programming languages.	[ "In c. 1050–771 BC, the south-pointing chariot was invented in ancient China. It was the first known geared mechanism to use a differential gear, which was later used in analog computers. The Chinese also invented a more sophisticated abacus from around the 2nd century BC known as the Chinese abacus.\n\nIn the 5th century BC in ancient India, the grammarian Pāṇini formulated the grammar of Sanskrit in 3959 rules known as the Ashtadhyayi which was highly systematized and technical. Panini used metarules, transformations and recursions.\n", "Very early computers, such as Colossus, were programmed without the help of a stored program, by modifying their circuitry or setting banks of physical controls.\n", "Section::::History.:Early constructed languages.\n\nA legend recorded in the seventh-century Irish work Auraicept na n-Éces claims that Fénius Farsaid visited Shinar after the confusion of tongues, and he and his scholars studied the various languages for ten years, taking the best features of each to create \"in Bérla tóbaide\" (\"the selected language\"), which he named \"Goídelc\"—the Irish language. This appears to be the first mention of the concept of a constructed language in literature.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nCodes and information by machines were first conceptualized by Charles Babbage in the early 1800s. Babbage imagined that these codes would give him instructions for his Motor of Difference and Analytical Engine, machines that Babbage had designed to solve the problem of error in calculations.\n\nBetween 1822 and 1823, Ada Lovelace, mathematics, wrote the first instructions for calculating numbers on Babbage engines. Lovelace's instructions are now believed to be the first computer program.\n", "During the Middle Ages, several European philosophers made attempts to produce analog computer devices. Influenced by the Arabs and Scholasticism, Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull (1232–1315) devoted a great part of his life to defining and designing several \"logical machines\" that, by combining simple and undeniable philosophical truths, could produce all possible knowledge. These machines were never actually built, as they were more of a thought experiment to produce new knowledge in systematic ways; although they could make simple logical operations, they still needed a human being for the interpretation of results. Moreover, they lacked a versatile architecture, each machine serving only very concrete purposes. In spite of this, Llull's work had a strong influence on Gottfried Leibniz (early 18th century), who developed his ideas further, and built several calculating tools using them.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Snow Crash\", by Neal Stephenson, explores the (controversial) concept of neuro-linguistic programming and presents the Sumerian language as the firmware programming language for the brain stem which is supposedly functioning as the BIOS for the human brain. According to characters in the book, the goddess Asherah is the personification of a linguistic virus similar to a computer virus. The god Enki created a counter program which he called a nam-shub that caused all of humanity to speak different languages as a protection against Asherah, supposedly giving rise to the biblical story of the Tower of Babel.\n", "Section::::Early computation.\n\nThe earliest known tool for use in computation is the Sumerian abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon c. 2700–2300 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known computer and most advanced system of calculation known to date - preceding Greek methods by 2,000 years.\n", "During 1842–1843 Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea about Charles Babbage's newest proposed machine: the Analytical Engine; she supplemented the memoir with notes that specified in detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the engine, recognized by some historians as the world's first published computer program.\n\nThe first computer codes were specialized for their applications: e.g., Alonzo Church was able to express the lambda calculus in a formulaic way and the Turing machine was an abstraction of the operation of a tape-marking machine.\n", "Musical languages from the Renaissance were tied up with mysticism, magic and alchemy, sometimes also referred to as the language of the birds. The Solresol project of 1817 re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic context.\n\nSection::::History.:17th and 18th century: advent of philosophical languages.\n\nThe 17th century saw the rise of projects for \"philosophical\" or \"a priori\" languages, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Francis Lodwick's \"A Common Writing\" (1647) and \"The Groundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended) for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and a Universal Common Writing\" (1652)\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Thomas Urquhart's \"Ekskybalauron\" (1651) and \"Logopandecteision\" (1652)\n", "BULLET::::- Suppes on Computer Chronicles TV program. \"Computer Chronicles: Computers In Education (1984): An early look at how computers are being used in formal education. Guests include Professor Patrick Suppes of Stanford University and Glenn Kleiman, author of 'Brave New Schools'. Includes demonstrations of the LOGO and BASIC languages. Guest host is Herb Lechner of SRI International.\"\n", "Section::::Hardware and software systems.:Atari.\n\nArguably, the first speech system integrated into an operating system was the 1400XL/1450XL personal computers designed by Atari, Inc. using the Votrax SC01 chip in 1983. The 1400XL/1450XL computers used a Finite State Machine to enable World English Spelling text-to-speech synthesis. Unfortunately, the 1400XL/1450XL personal computers never shipped in quantity.\n\nThe Atari ST computers were sold with \"stspeech.tos\" on floppy disk.\n\nSection::::Hardware and software systems.:Apple.\n", "The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to \"circa\" 100 BC.\n", "Section::::History.:Perfecting language.\n\nRenaissance interest in Ancient Egypt, notably the discovery of the \"Hieroglyphica\" of Horapollo, and first encounters with the Chinese script directed efforts towards a perfect written language. Johannes Trithemius, in \"Steganographia\" and \"Polygraphia\", attempted to show how all languages can be reduced to one. In the 17th century, interest in magical languages was continued by the Rosicrucians and Alchemists (like John Dee and his Enochian). Jakob Boehme in 1623 spoke of a \"natural language\" (\"Natursprache\") of the senses.\n", "Some consider these devices to be the oldest examples of the computer. \"The Writer\", a mechanical boy who writes with a quill pen upon paper with real ink, has an input device to set tabs, defining individual letters written by the boy, that form a programmable memory. It has 40 cams that represent the read-only programme. The work of Pierre Jaquet-Droz predates that of Charles Babbage by decades.\n", "Both the medieval monarch Frederick II and Akbar are said to have tried similar experiments; the children involved in these experiments did not speak. The current situation of deaf people also points into this direction.\n\nSection::::History.:History of research.\n", "A NeXT Computer and its object-oriented development tools and libraries were used by Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau at CERN to develop the world's first web server software, CERN httpd, and also used to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb.\n", "The earliest known tool for use in computation was the abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon circa 2400 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known calculation aid - preceding Greek methods by 2,000 years.\n", "The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.\n", "History contains a number of anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment. The first such tale was told by Herodotus (\"Histories\" 2.2). He relates that Pharaoh Psammetichus (probably Psammetichus I, 7th century BC) had two children raised by a shepherd, with the instructions that no one should speak to them, but that the shepherd should feed and care for them while listening to determine their first words. When one of the children cried \"bekos\" with outstretched arms the shepherd concluded that the word was Phrygian, because that was the sound of the Phrygian word for \"bread\". From this, Psammetichus concluded that the first language was Phrygian. King James V of Scotland is said to have tried a similar experiment; his children were supposed to have spoken Hebrew.\n", "The emergence of computer programming languages was featured in a milestone showing how for the first time, different computers were programmed to accept a common language - COBOL. A 1970s vignette portrayed a PDP-8 minicomputer being used backstage to control theater lighting, and applications to scientific computer were shown with a CRAY-1 at the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. A student publishing her school newspaper using a Macintosh showed the beginning of personal computing.\n\nSection::::Permanent exhibitions.:Tools & Toys: The Amazing Personal Computer (1992).\n", "Section::::Development.:Early computers.\n\nIn former Yugoslavia, at the end of 1962 there were 30 installed electronic computers, in 1966, there were 56, and in 1968 there were 95.\n", "To some people, some degree of expressive power and human-readability is required before the status of \"programming language\" is granted. Jacquard Looms and Charles Babbage's Difference Engine both had simple, extremely limited languages for describing the actions that these machines should perform.\n\nSection::::First programming languages.\n\nIn the 1940s, the first recognizably modern electrically powered computers were created. The limited speed and memory capacity forced programmers to write hand tuned assembly language programs. It was eventually realized that programming in assembly language required a great deal of intellectual effort.\n", "The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog \"computer\", according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to . Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.\n", "This ultimately led to the idea that beyond merely performing calculations, computers could be used to augment the capabilities of the human mind.\n\nSection::::Demonstration.\n", "By this time, the first mechanical devices driven by a binary pattern had been invented. The industrial revolution had driven forward the mechanization of many tasks, and this included weaving. Punched cards controlled Joseph Marie Jacquard's loom in 1801, where a hole punched in the card indicated a binary \"one\" and an unpunched spot indicated a binary \"zero\". Jacquard's loom was far from being a computer, but it did illustrate that machines could be driven by binary systems .\n\nSection::::Creation of the computer.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18946	Why do people get sick from viruses and sometimes die? Wouldn’t a virus want to keep a low profile and have the host alive so it too can live?	Some viruses do exactly this. But others grow quickly and spread quickly, benefiting from their ability to infect another person before the first person's immune system has time to fight back.	[ "The mechanisms for infection, proliferation, and persistence of a virus in cells of the host are crucial for its survival. For example, some diseases such as measles employ a strategy whereby it must spread to a series of hosts. In these forms of viral infection, the illness is often treated by the body's own immune response, and therefore the virus is required to disperse to new hosts before it is destroyed by immunological resistance or host death. In contrast, some infectious agents such as the Feline leukemia virus, are able to withstand immune responses and are capable of achieving long-term residence within an individual host, whilst also retaining the ability to spread into successive hosts.\n", "from non-human organisms to protect against a human virus while Pastorian methods use serial passage. This Pastorian method is very similar to directive evolution of oncolytic viruses. Selected viruses that target humans are passed through multiple non-human organisms for multiple generations. Over time the viruses adapt to the foreign environments of their new hosts. These now maladapted viruses have minimal capacity for harming humans and are used as attenuated viruses for clinical use. An important consideration is to not reduce the replicative ability of the virus beyond the point where the immune system response will be compromised. A secondary immune response would therefore be insufficient to provide protection against the live virus should it be reintroduced to the host.\n", "Every lethal viral disease presents a paradox: killing its host is obviously of no benefit to the virus, so how and why did it evolve to do so? Today it is believed that most viruses are relatively benign in their natural hosts; some viral infection might even be beneficial to the host. The lethal viral diseases are believed to have resulted from an \"accidental\" jump of the virus from a species in which it is benign to a new one that is not accustomed to it (see zoonosis). For example, viruses that cause serious influenza in humans probably have pigs or birds as their natural host, and HIV is thought to derive from the benign non-human primate virus SIV.\n", "A provirus is a virus genome that is integrated into the DNA of a host cell.\n\nAdvantages include automatic host cell division results in replication of the virus's genes, and the fact that it is nearly impossible to remove an integrated provirus from an infected cell without killing the cell.\n\nA disadvantage of this method is the need to enter the nucleus (and the need for packaging proteins that will allow for that). However, viruses that integrate into the host cell's genome can stay there as long as the cell lives.\n", "Virus latency (or viral latency) is the ability of a pathogenic virus to lie dormant (latent) within a cell, denoted as the lysogenic part of the viral life cycle. A latent viral infection is a type of persistent viral infection which is distinguished from a chronic viral infection. Latency is the phase in certain viruses' life cycles in which, after initial infection, proliferation of virus particles ceases. However, the viral genome is not fully eradicated. The result of this is that the virus can reactivate and begin producing large amounts of viral progeny (the lytic part of the viral life cycle) without the host becoming reinfected by new outside virus, and stays within the host indefinitely.\n", "Generally, if a virus kills its host too quickly, the host will not have a chance to come in contact with other hosts and transmit the virus before dying. However, in serial passage, when a virus was being transmitted from host to host regardless of its virulence, such as Subbaro’s experiment, the viruses that grow the fastest (and are therefore the most virulent) are selected for.\n\nThis principle has public health implications, because it suggests that, in very densely populated or overcrowded areas, such as slums, natural selection may favour more virulent viruses.\n", "Virus latency is not to be confused with clinical latency during the incubation period when a virus is \"not\" dormant.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Episomal latency.\n\nEpisomal latency refers to the use of genetic episomes during latency. In this latency type, viral genes are stabilized, floating in the cytoplasm or nucleus as distinct objects, either as linear or lariat structures. Episomal latency is more vulnerable to ribozymes or host foreign gene degradation than proviral latency (see below).\n", "Viruses also have notable virulence factors. Experimental research, for example, often focuses on creating environments that isolate and identify the role of \"niche-specific virulence genes\". These are genes that perform specific tasks within specific tissues/places at specific times; the sum total of niche-specific genes is the virus' virulence. Genes characteristic of this concept are those that control latency in some viruses like herpes. Murine gamma herpesvirus 68 (γHV68) and human herpesviruses depend on a subset of genes that allow them to maintain a chronic infection by reactivating when specific environmental conditions are met. Even though they are not essential for lytic phases of the virus, these latency genes are important for promoting chronic infection and continued replication within infected individuals.\n", "The cell from which the virus itself buds will often die or be weakened and shed more viral particles for an extended period. The lipid bilayer envelope of these viruses is relatively sensitive to desiccation, heat, and detergents, therefore these viruses are easier to sterilize than non-enveloped viruses, have limited survival outside host environments, and typically must transfer directly from host to host. Enveloped viruses possess great adaptability and can change in a short time in order to evade the immune system. Enveloped viruses can cause persistent infections.\n\nSection::::Enveloped examples.\n\nClasses of enveloped viruses that contain human pathogens:\n", "When developing vaccines for viruses, the emphasis is on attenuating the virus, or decreasing its virulence, in a given host. Sometimes, too, it is useful to employ serial passage to increase the virulence of a virus. Usually, when serial passage is performed in a species, the result is a virus that is more virulent to that species.\n", "They determine whether infection occurs and how severe the resulting viral disease symptoms are. Viruses often require receptor proteins on host cells to which they specifically bind. Typically, these host cell proteins are endocytosed and the bound virus then enters the host cell. Virulent viruses such as HIV, which causes AIDS, have mechanisms for evading host defenses. HIV infects T-Helper Cells, which leads to a reduction of the adaptive immune response of the host and eventually leads to an immunocompromised state. Death results from opportunistic infections secondary to disruption of the immune system caused by AIDS. Some viral virulence factors confer ability to replicate during the defensive inflammation responses of the host such as during virus-induced fever. Many viruses can exist inside a host for long periods during which little damage is done. Extremely virulent strains can eventually evolve by mutation and natural selection within the virus population inside a host. The term \"neurovirulent\" is used for viruses such as rabies and herpes simplex which can invade the nervous system and cause disease there.\n", "BULLET::::- Latent infection: Being the ultimate infection, the latent virus infections tend to exist inside the host for its entire lifetime. A well-known example of such infection is the herpes simplex virus in humans. This virus is able to stop its replication and restrict its gene expression in order to stop the recognition of the infected cell by the host's immune system.\n\nSection::::Viral infections.:Prevention and treatment.\n", "The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive. These are called \"cytopathic effects\". Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis (bursting), alterations to the cell's surface membrane and apoptosis (cell \"suicide\"). Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activity due to proteins produced by the virus, not all of which are components of the virus particle.\n", "Many viruses specialize in infecting related hosts. Viral generalists that infect hosts across taxonomic orders may exist. Most CRISPR spacer matches were from viral sequences to hosts within one species or genus. Some mVCs were linked to multiple hosts from higher taxa. A viral group composed of macs from human oral samples contained three distinct photo-spacers with nearly exact matches to spacers in Actionbacteria and Firmicutes.\n", "BULLET::::- Persistent infection: There is a delicate balance between the host and the virus in this pattern. The virus adjusts its replication and pathogenecitiy levels to keep the host alive for its own benefit. While it is possible for the virus to live and replicate inside the host for its entire lifetime, oftentimes the host eventually eliminates the virus.\n", "Both proviral and episomal latency may require maintenance for continued infection and fidelity of viral genes. Latency is generally maintained by viral genes expressed primarily during latency. Expression of these \"latency-associated\" genes may function to keep the viral genome from being digested by cellular ribozymes or being found out by the immune system. Certain viral gene products (RNA transcripts such as non-coding RNAs and proteins) may also inhibit apoptosis or induce cell growth and division to allow more copies of the infected cell to be produced.\n", "Although viruses and other pathogens can be transmitted to cimicids, they rarely transmit them to their hosts. \"O. vicarius\" is a vector of several arboviruses, but is not killed by these viruses. \"Trypanosoma cruzi\", the trypanosome that causes Chagas disease, is rarely transmitted from cimicids to bats, but it has not been observed replicating after such transmission. The viruses HIV and hepatitis B can persist in \"C. lectularius\" for two weeks, but with no viral replication. The possibility of these and most other viruses being transmitted from \"C. lectularius\" to humans is considered extremely remote.\n", "Researchers indicated that infection of human tissues by PERVs is very possible, especially in immunosuppressed individuals. An immunosuppressed condition could potentially permit a more rapid and tenacious replication of viral DNA, and would later on have less difficulty adapting to human-to-human transmission. Although known infectious pathogens present in the donor organ/tissue can be eliminated by breeding pathogen-free herds, unknown retroviruses can be present in the donor. These retroviruses are often latent and asymptomatic in the donor, but can become active in the recipient. Some examples of endogenous viruses that can infect and multiply in human cells are from baboons (BaEV), cats (RD114), and mice.\n", "Another study by Kanta Subbaro involved a serial passage experiment by infecting mice with SARS. SARS usually does not make mice particularly sick, however, after the virus had undergone serial passage in the mice, it had become lethal.\n\nChanging the virulence of SARS in this way was important, because without a virulent form of SARS to infect laboratory animals, scientists would have been unable to test the effects of SARS in an animal model.\n\nHowever, more generally, this experiment also reflects a general medicinal principle: The virulence of a virus is mediated by the difficulty of its transmission.\n", "CPEs are important aspects of a viral infection in diagnostics. Many CPEs can be seen in unfixed, unstained cells under the low power of an optical microscope, with the condenser down and the iris diaphragm partly closed. However, with some CPEs, namely inclusion bodies, the cells must be fixed and stained then viewed under light microscopy. Some viruses' CPEs are characteristic and therefore can be an important tool for virologists in diagnosing an infected animal or human. The rate of CPE appearance is also an important characteristic that virologists may use to identify virus type. If CPE appears after 4 to 5 days in vitro at low multiplicity of infection, then the virus is considered slow. If the CPE appears after 1 to 2 days in vitro at low multiplicity of infection, then the virus is thought to be rapid. Inoculations always occur at low multiplicity of infection because at high multiplicity of infection, all CPEs occur rapidly.\n", "Several serial passage experiments have been conducted to determine the feasibility of the virus becoming transmissible in humans. In particular, Ron Fouchier and his colleagues did a 10-step serial passage experiment in ferrets. In doing so, they created a strain of influenza that not only infected ferrets, but was transmissible between ferrets. Notably, this strain was very similar to the original strain with which they had infected the first ferret—in other words, there were only a few mutations that were necessary for the virus to become transmissible from ferret to ferret. Similarly, researcher Yoshihiro Kawaoka found that a single mutation is necessary to make the virus transmissible in ferrets.\n", "The human immunodeficiency virus exhibits host tropism for CD4 related immune cells (e.g. T helper cells, macrophages or dendritic cells). These cells express a CD4 receptor, to which HIV can bind, through the gp120 and gp41 proteins on its surface. HIV also requires a second co-receptor along with the CD4-gp120 complex to enter the target cells - either CCR5 or CXCR4. This demonstrates an example of how cell surface receptors can affect the tropism of a viral pathogen. Since humans are the only organisms that have cells with these receptors, HIV only displays host tropism for humans. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a virus similar to HIV, is capable of infecting primates.\n", "There are also some ideas behind the idea that virulence, or the harm that the virus does on its host, depends on a few factors. These factors also have an effect on how the level of virulence will change over time. Viruses that transmit through vertical transmission (transmission to the offspring of the host) will evolve to have lower levels of virulence. Viruses that transmit through horizontal transmission (transmission between members of the same species that don't have a parent-child relationship) will usually evolve to have a higher virulence. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- DNA virus\n\nBULLET::::- RNA virus\n", "However, in contrast to their role as a source of mortality and population control, viruses have also been postulated to enhance survival of prokaryotes in extreme environments, acting as reservoirs of genetic information. The interactions of the virosphere with microorganisms under environmental stresses is therefore thought to aide microorganism survival through dispersal of host genes through Horizontal Gene Transfer.“There's roughly Avogadro’s number of infections going on in the ocean, and every one of those interactions can result in the transfer of genetic information between virus and host” — Curtis Suttle Temperate phages (those not causing immediate lysis) can sometimes confer phenotypes that improve fitness in prokaryotes The lysogenic life-cycle can persist stably for thousands of generations of infected bacteria and the viruses can alter the host's phenotype by enabling genes (a process known as lysogenic conversion) which can therefore allow hosts to cope with different environments. Benefits to the host population can also be conferred by expression of phage-encoded fitness-enhancing phenotypes.\n", "Cytomegalovirus (CMV) establishes latency in myeloid progenitor cells, and is reactivated by inflammation. Immunosuppression and critical illness (sepsis in particular) often results in CMV reactivation. CMV reactivation is commonly seen in patients with severe colitis.\n\nAdvantages of episomal latency include the fact that the virus may not need to enter the nucleus, and hence may avoid nuclear domain 10 (ND10) from activating interferon via that pathway.\n\nDisadvantages include more exposure to cellular defenses, leading to possible degradation of viral gene via cellular enzymes.\n\nReactivation may be due to stress, UV, etc.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Proviral latency.\n" ]	[ "All viruses would benefit from not growing and spreading quickly." ]	[ "Some viruses benefit from growing and spreading quickly, and some viruses benefit from not growing and spreading quickly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All viruses would benefit from not growing and spreading quickly.", "All viruses would benefit from not growing and spreading quickly. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some viruses benefit from growing and spreading quickly, and some viruses benefit from not growing and spreading quickly.", "Some viruses benefit from growing and spreading quickly, and some viruses benefit from not growing and spreading quickly. " ]
2018-22189	Why can't the person I'm talking to on the phone cannot hear any music or sound effects coming from an app playing on my phone?	Phones typically include a special circuit which recognizes the sound being output from the phone itself and removes it from the incoming sound (Acoustic Echo Cancellation). This is very important to avoid things like feedback or echo when on speakerphone mode, but it also works to avoid something like music coming from your phone's speakers being sent over the call.	[ "Before iOS 4, multitasking was limited to a selection of the applications Apple included on the device. Users could, however \"jailbreak\" their device in order to unofficially multitask. Starting with iOS 4, on third-generation and newer iOS devices, multitasking is supported through seven background APIs:\n\nBULLET::::1. Background audio – application continues to run in the background as long as it is playing audio or video content\n\nBULLET::::2. Voice over IP – application is suspended when a phone call is not in progress\n\nBULLET::::3. Background location – application is notified of location changes\n\nBULLET::::4. Push notifications\n", "The advantage of this solution is that the mobile app does not need to run at all on the device, consuming no additional battery power, and is still able to receive incoming calls. The media of the call (audio and video) are still transferred directly to the mobile app, for lowest latency and security - no extra relaying is done. Using push notifications doesn't require any support on the SIP server side and uses only SIP protocol standard.\n", "In their response to the FCC, Google stated that the Google Voice application uses the carrier's voice network to place phone calls, dispelling misconceptions that it is a Voice over Internet Protocol application. AT&T stated that they had no role in approval or rejection of the Google Voice application. Apple stated that they had not rejected the application but were continuing to examine it. One argument against allowing the Google Voice app on the iPhone is that they are concerned that it replaces the iPhone user interface with its own; however many dialers and messaging apps are available from the app store.\n", "Section::::Purpose.\n\nWeb and mobile apps require a similar set of features on the backend, including push notifications, integration with social networks, and cloud storage. Each of these services has its own API that must be individually incorporated into an app, a process that can be time-consuming and complicated for app developers. BaaS providers form a bridge between the frontend of an application and various cloud-based backends via a unified API and SDK.\n", "These acoustic technologies must also remove or reduce the noise levels so that the caller is well understood. A person making a call from a handsfree device who is in a busy restaurant or while driving will introduce large levels of noise into the call. This situation is complicated as the software must not only remove the noise around him, but must transmit his voice clearly and loudly to whoever is connected to him. \n", "In addition, Apple has removed software licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) from the App Store after complaints from one of the program's developers (the VLC media player), claiming that the App Store's terms of service are inconsistent with the GPL.\n\nSection::::Functional restrictions.\n", "Some users of the iPhone 4S reported the random appearance of echoes during phone calls made with earphones in the initial release of iOS 5. The other party in the call was sometimes unable to hear the conversation due to this problem.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Recording.\n", "Android applications run in a sandbox, an isolated area of the system that does not have access to the rest of the system's resources, unless access permissions are explicitly granted by the user when the application is installed, however this may not be possible for pre-installed apps. It is not possible, for example, to turn off the microphone access of the pre-installed camera app without disabling the camera completely. This is valid also in Android versions 7 and 8.\n", "Because Automator is made to comply with AppleScript applications only, most third party or non AppleScript applications, such as Limewire or Final Cut Studio apps will not work with speakable items, unless you configure commands only with \"define a keyboard command\": in which you'll just select \"this application only\" after making a keyboard command.\n\nSection::::Problems.\n\nWhile Speakable Items is useful, as well as innovative, recognition gets hard and distorted some times.\n\nBULLET::::1. In Macs without dual beamforming microphones (pre-2012), background noise interferes with recognition, and limits the usefulness of the \"listening continuously\" option.\n", "Direct recording of mobile phone calls requires a hardware adapter connected to the handset. There are many other ways to record mobile phone calls. One approach is to route calls via a new PBX system linked to the recorder. However, such systems are typically expensive to purchase and change the way that calls are made, incurring running costs. Another approach links directly into existing recording systems from a PDA phone. Both of these approaches allow recordings to be timestamped, often required for legal reasons. Recording directly onto mobile devices does provide a legally valid recording in many countries.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has opened an inquiry regarding the rejection of Google Voice for the iPhone. \"The FCC asked why Apple rejected the Google Voice application for the iPhone and removed related 'third-party applications' from its store.\" The FCC has also requested Google to submit a letter describing the application of Google Voice. \"The request is part of a broader-ranging inquiry by the commission on exclusive deals between cell phone carriers and handset manufacturers for hot phones.\"\n", "After a rainbow flag emoji with an interdictory sign over it appeared on Twitter, several users accused Apple of encouraging anti-LGBT attitudes. However, Emojipedia has clarified that this occurs when a user tweets the two emojis together and is not an intended feature. This can be used with other emojis as well.\n\nSection::::Problems.:FaceTime eavesdropping issue.\n\nEarlier this year Apple acknowledged a widespread eavesdropping FaceTime issue impacting several versions of iOS 12 (versions 12.1–12.1.3) that allowed users to call someone via FaceTime and hear the audio coming from their phone before answering the call.\n\nSection::::Supported devices.\n", "Acrobits Softphone uses a proprietary SIP Instance Server (SIPIS) to register on behalf of user when the mobile app is not running in foreground on the mobile device. As soon as the app is suspended to background or exited completely, SIPIS server takes over, registers the account and starts listening for incoming calls. When a call arrives, the mobile app is woken up using the Apple Push Notification Service (APNS) and the call is handed over to the mobile app.\n", "The challenge with VoIP on mobile devices is to make sure that the device is ready to receive incoming calls while keeping the power consumption as low as possible. Due to the inherent mobility of mobile devices, the network conditions change often and frequent SIP re-registrations and keep-alive traffic are needed to make sure the mobile client is properly registered and will receive incoming call at all times. This has a significant impact on battery life.\n", "Section::::One layer versus multilayer authentication.:Voice authentication with Siri.\n\nThe \"Hey Siri\" function allows the iPhone to listen through ambient sound until this phrase (\"Hey Siri\") is spotted. Once this phrase is spotted, Siri is triggered to respond. In order to not always be listened to, an iPhone user can turn off the “Hey Siri” function. Without this function turned on, the device will not always be listening for those two words and other information will not be overheard in the process. This voice authentication serves as a singular layer, since only the voice is used to authenticate the user.\n", "Sonos Controller sets up and controls the speaker only, with all third and first-party apps incompatible with the speakers. Furthermore, other music services such as Spotify, Apple Music, Tidal, Pandora and others can be connected to the app and streamed through.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "An app named \"WhatsApp Sniffer\" was made available on Google Play in May 2012, able to display messages from other WhatsApp users connected to the same network as the app user. At that time WhatsApp used an XMPP infrastructure with encryption, not plain-text communication.\n\nSection::::Exploits.:DroidSheep.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nAlthough transcoding can be found in many areas of content adaptation, it is commonly used in the area of mobile phone content adaptation. In this case, transcoding is a must, due to the diversity of mobile devices and their capabilities. This diversity requires an intermediate state of content adaptation in order to make sure that the source content will adequately function on the target device to which it is sent.\n", "The iPad comes with several pre-installed applications, including Siri, Safari, Mail, Photos, Video, Music, iTunes, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Game Center, Photo Booth, and Contacts. Like all iOS devices, the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes, although iOS 5 and later can be managed and backed up without a computer. Although the tablet is not designed to make phone calls over a cellular network, users can use a headset or the built-in speaker and microphone to place phone calls over Wi-Fi or cellular using a VoIP application, such as Skype. The device has a dictation application, using the same voice recognition technology as the iPhone 4S. The user speaks and the iPad types what they say on the screen, though the iPad must have an internet connection available (via Wi-Fi or cellular network) due to the feature's reliance on Apple servers to translate the speech.\n", "Most often, voice-based search uses the voice channel to deliver the caller's utterance to a server-based search application. In some cases, a small application on the mobile device undertakes the first part of speech recognition, breaking down the utterance into a series of elementary components or 'phones', and then sending the phones over the data channel to a server application.\n\nMultimedia-based search will be prevalent as a hybrid form of both \"voice-based\" and \"screen-based\" search that will establish a time-memory tradeoff in the implementation process of fast-evolving mobile equipment.\n\nSection::::Types of information.\n", "Moreover, COPPA is a significant law to protect minors using the Internet. With an increasing number of minors interacting with voice computing devices (e.g. the Amazon Alexa), the Federal Trade Commission recently relaxed the COPAA rule so that children can issue voice searches and commands.\n", "To discourage distracted driving, Siri is used extensively, providing Apple Maps voice navigation, and voice-input for text messages. Newscast style weather and stock results are announced instead of visual information. Requests that bring up visual information may be blocked when CarPlay is in use; most native CarPlay Apps deliver audio content with minimal interaction. Developers must apply to Apple for entitlement to develop CarPlay-enabled apps. \n", "The iPhone 4 supports video calling using either the front or back camera over Wi-Fi, a feature Apple calls FaceTime. Voice control, introduced in the iPhone 3GS, allows users to say a contact's name or number and the iPhone will dial it. The first two models only support voice dialing through third-party applications.\n", "Voice Control was introduced as an exclusive feature of the iPhone 3GS and allows for the controlling of the phone and music features of the phone by voice. There are two ways to activate Voice Control: hold the Home button while in the home screen for a few seconds; or, change the effect of what double-clicking the home button does so it will activate Voice Control (only on iOS 3.x; on iOS 4 or later, double clicking the Home button opens the multitasking bar).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01549	Why can't you put metal in the microwave?	You can, but it's going to kill your microwave. The flat metal case around the microwave will ground the microwave energy away from the magnatron . A sharp object like a fork in a bowl is going to collect that excess energy till the electric potential sparks to a wall. These energy burst also cause feedback in the magnatron and harm it.	[ "It is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.\n", "SAC alloys are the main choice for lead-free surface-mount technology (SMT) assembly in the electronics industry. SMT is a process where components of circuit assemblies are mounted directly onto the surface of a printed circuit board and soldered in place. SMT has largely replaced “through-hole technology” where components are fitted with wire leads into holes in the circuit board.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In 2000, there were several lead-free assemblies and chip products initiatives being driven by the Japan Electronic Industries Development Association (JEIDA) and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE). These initiatives resulted in tin-silver-copper alloys being considered and tested as lead-free solder ball alternatives for array product assemblies.\n", "Metallised films are used as a susceptor for cooking in microwave ovens. An example is a microwave popcorn bag.\n\nMany food items are also packaged using metallised films for appearance only, as these produce a package with greater sparkle when compared to competing products that use printed paper or polymer films.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Insulation.\n", "Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes. Commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver.\n\nSection::::Materials for MEMS manufacturing.:Ceramics.\n", "In 2003, tin-silver-copper was being used as a lead-free solder. However, its performance was criticized because it left a dull, irregular finish and it was difficult to keep the copper content under control. In 2005, tin-silver-copper alloys constituted approximately 65% of lead-free alloys used in the industry and this percentage has been increasing. Large companies such as Sony and Intel switched from using lead-containing solder to a tin-silver-copper alloy.\n\nSection::::Constraints and tradeoffs.\n", "Implant resistance welding can be a low cost solution for welding parts that are flat or with curved surfaces. The heating element used is often a metal mesh or carbon strips, which provides uniform heating. However, advanced thermoplastic composites that contain conductive fibers can’t be used due to unwanted power leakages. \n\nSection::::Welding techniques.:Electromagnetic welding.:Implant induction welding.\n", "BULLET::::- Certain metals and alloys, such as Ti, cannot be melted in open air furnaces\n\nSection::::Process description.\n", "Section::::Bare-metal advocacy.\n", "Any object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwaves is safe, see below), twist-ties containing metal wire, the metal wire carry-handles in paper Chinese take-out food containers, or almost any metal formed into a poorly conductive foil or thin wire, or into a pointed shape. Forks are a good example: the tines of the fork respond to the electric field by producing high concentrations of electric charge at the tips. This has the effect of exceeding the dielectric breakdown of air, about 3 megavolts per meter (3×10 V/m). The air forms a conductive plasma, which is visible as a spark. The plasma and the tines may then form a conductive loop, which may be a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities.\n", "BULLET::::- Some wearfacing/surfacing alloys\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n\nOf course, all of the usual issues that occur in welding can occur in FCAW such as incomplete fusion between base metals, slag inclusion (non-metallic inclusions), and cracks in the welds. But there are a few concerns that come up with FCAW that are worth taking special note of:\n\nBULLET::::- Melted contact tip – when the contact tip actually contacts the base metal, fusing the two and melting the hole on the end.\n\nBULLET::::- Irregular wire feed – typically a mechanical problem.\n", "Liquid metals, being electrically highly conductive, can be moved by electromagnetic pumps. Disadvantages include difficulties associated with inspection and repair of a reactor immersed in opaque molten metal, and depending on the choice of metal, fire hazard risk (for alkali metals), corrosion and/or production of radioactive activation products may be an issue.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "The development of an affordable, efficient, and long-lived microwave source is a technological hurdle to cost reduction and commercial success. The lamp prototypes were only available in high wattages (1000+ W), which impeded adoption in applications where light output demands were not great. The sulfur lamp has problems with the life of the magnetron and the motor that rotates the bulb and noise from the cooling fan. Because most sulfur lamps have moving parts, reliability remains a critical issue, and system maintenance may impede market adoption, however newer-design lamps which no longer require active cooling are commercially available.\n", "Only few manufacturer of vacuum interrupters worldwide produce the contact material itself. The basic raw materials copper and chrome are combined to a powerful contact material by means of the arc-melting procedure. The resulting raw parts are processed to RMF or AMF contact discs, whereby the slotted AMF discs are deburred at the end. Contact materials require the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. High breaking ability: Excellent electrical conductivity, small thermal conductivity, bigger heat capacity and low hot electron emission capability\n\nBULLET::::2. High breakdown voltage and resistance to electrical erosion\n\nBULLET::::3. Resistance to welding\n\nBULLET::::4. Low cutoff current value\n", "Section::::History.:Post-World War II developments.:Bulk metallic glasses.\n", "Another hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave will form. The energy is reflected back and forth between the tube and the cooking chamber. This may cause the tube to overload and burn out. High reflected power may also cause magnetron arcing, possibly resulting in primary power fuse failure, though such a causal relationship isn't easily established. Thus, dehydrated food, or food wrapped in metal which does not arc, is problematic for overload reasons, without necessarily being a fire hazard.\n", "RuBee works well in harsh environments because most steel items resonate well at the RuBee frequency of 131 kHz. As the frequency goes up over 1 MHz fewer steel items resonate. At a frequency of 10 MHz for example, nothing large made of steel can be tuned to resonance.\n", "Certain foods such as grapes, if properly arranged, can produce an electric arc. Prolonged arcing from food carries similar risks to arcing from other sources as noted above.\n\nSome other objects that may conduct sparks are plastic/holographic print thermoses (such as Starbucks novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell will burst off the object or melt.\n", "Section::::Principles.:Mechanical contact.:Boundary conditions.\n\nAny impairment of the electric contact between sensor scanning element and workpiece is, in the case of electric-contact sensors, problematic, e.g. welding spatters at the shielding gas nozzle, scale and rolling skin on the workpiece surface or through a wire electrode end which has molten spheroidally and has adherence of slag.\n", "Section::::Compatible materials.\n", "Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another.\n\nSection::::Cookware materials.:Metal.:Aluminium.\n", "Section::::Terahertz metamaterial devices.\n\nDevelopment of metamaterials has traversed the electromagnetic spectrum up to terahertz and infrared frequencies, but does not yet include the visible light spectrum. This is because, for example, it is easier to build a structure with larger fundamental elements that can control microwaves. The fundamental elements for terahertz and infrared frequencies have been progressively scaled to smaller sizes. In the future, visible light will require elements to be scaled even smaller, for capable control by metamaterials.\n", "Products that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Metal objects.\n\nAny metal or conductive object placed into the microwave will act as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.\n", "Ageing of infrastructure is becoming a serious problem worldwide. For example, in reinforced concrete structures, corrosion of their steel reinforcements is the main cause of their deterioration. In U.S. alone, repair and maintenance cost due to such corrosion is about $276 billion per year, .\n", "Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties.\n\nThe thermal conductivity of metals is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame. Metals are also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating.\n" ]	[ "Cannot put metal in microwave." ]	[ "You can it just will destroy the microwave from sparks. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cannot put metal in microwave." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can it just will destroy the microwave from sparks. " ]
2018-00864	Why piston engines are less efficient and being used less than turbine engines.	Turbines are more efficient for several reasons, but one of the top reasons is that they are not constantly reversing direction. Yarr! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5 How Do jet engines work and what’s the benefits of using them over a standard internal combustion or Wankel engine? Is it possible to use a jet engine in a car? ]( URL_2 ) ^(_35 comments_) 1. [ELI5: How do plane engines get more efficient? ]( URL_0 ) ^(_7 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Usage of jet engines vs turboprop ]( URL_3 ) ^(_11 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Plane Turbines ]( URL_1 ) ^(_19 comments_)	[ "In practical applications, other factors are usually highly significant in determining the fuel efficiency of a particular engine design in that particular application. For instance, in aircraft, turbine (jet and turboprop) engines are typically much smaller and lighter than equivalently powerful piston engine designs, both properties reducing the levels of drag on the plane and reducing the amount of power needed to move the aircraft. Therefore, turbines are more efficient for aircraft propulsion than might be indicated by a simplistic look at the table below.\n", "Turbine engines use as much as 65% of their overall generated power to run the compressor at the front of the engine. This means that when the engine is set to idle, with no net energy output, the engine is still burning 65% of the fuel it would at full speed. This makes turbine engines attractive only in roles where they are run at high power settings for long periods of time, as is the case in aircraft, power generation, or long-range train service. They are generally unattractive in roles where low-power operation is common, which is why they have also been unsuccessful in automobiles.\n", "Whittle continued working on the motorjet principle after his thesis work but eventually abandoned it when further calculations showed it would weigh as much as a conventional engine of the same thrust. Pondering the problem he thought: \"Why not substitute a turbine for the piston engine?\" Instead of using a piston engine to provide the compressed air for the burner, a turbine could be used to extract some power from the exhaust and drive a similar compressor to those used for superchargers. The remaining exhaust thrust would power the aircraft.\n", "For base loads diesel generators or gas engines are usually preferred, since they offer better fuel efficiency, however, such stationary engines have a lower power density and are built only up to about 10 MW power per unit.\n\nThe efficiency of larger gas turbines (50 MW or more) can be enhanced by using a combined cycle, where the remaining energy of hot exhaust gases is used to generate steam which drives another steam turbine on same shaft or a separate generator set.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Less responsive to changes in power demand compared with reciprocating engines.\n\nBULLET::::- Characteristic whine can be hard to suppress.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n", "It is generally recognized that the piston-type engine will continue to play an important role in air transportation for an indefinite period in spite of the intensive effort now being devoted to gas turbine power plants. For this reason, past researches conducted in piston engines are still of interest in the solution of current problems relating to such engines. \n", "Section::::Disadvantages.\n\nA simple cycle combustion turbine has a lower thermal efficiency than a combined cycle machine. Although, they may be less expensive to build simple cycle combustion turbines, due to their low efficiency, cost more to run than most other plants. This results in increased cost per kWh during peak electricity times. Since compared to other NG fuel using turbines, such Combined Cycle Turbines, the lack of efficiency causes the need to increase the amount of NG fuel consumed to produce the same amount of electricity.\n", "By the late-war era, turbine development had improved dramatically and led to a new turbine design known as the \"blowdown turbine\" or \"power-recovery turbine\". This design extracts energy from the momentum of the moving air, but does not appreciably increase back-pressure. This means it does not have the undesirable effects of conventional designs when connected to the exhaust of a piston engine, and a number of manufacturers began studying the design.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "This led to something of a technology race as the companies developing turbines, including Leyland, Ford and Detroit Diesel, modified their designs for increased fuel economy while conventional diesel designs were doing the same. Ultimately, all of these efforts were abandoned.\n", "BULLET::::- Smooth rotation of the main shaft produces far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.\n\nBULLET::::- Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines results in lower maintenance cost and higher reliability/availability over its service life.\n\nBULLET::::- Greater reliability, particularly in applications where sustained high power output is required.\n\nBULLET::::- Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the exhaust. This results in a high-temperature exhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a combined cycle, or for cogeneration.\n\nBULLET::::- Lower peak combustion pressures than reciprocating engines in general.\n", "BULLET::::- Wide range of operation. Most combustors must be able to operate with a variety of inlet pressures, temperatures, and mass flows. These factors change with both engine settings and environmental conditions (I.e., full throttle at low altitude can be very different from idle throttle at high altitude).\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental emissions. There are strict regulations on aircraft emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides, so combustors need to be designed to minimize those emissions. (See \"Emissions\" section below)\n\nSources:\n\nSection::::Fundamentals.:History.\n", "BULLET::::- 1921: Maxime Guillaume patents the axial-flow gas turbine engine. It uses multiple stages in both the compressor and turbine, combined with a single very large combustion chamber.\n\nBULLET::::- 1923: Edgar Buckingham at the United States National Bureau of Standards publishes a report on jets, coming to the same conclusion as W.J. Stern, that the turbine engine is not efficient enough. In particular he notes that a jet would use five times as much fuel as a piston engine.\n", "In addition to propulsive efficiency, another factor is \"cycle efficiency\"; a jet engine is a form of heat engine. Heat engine efficiency is determined by the ratio of temperatures reached in the engine to that exhausted at the nozzle. This has improved constantly over time as new materials have been introduced to allow higher maximum cycle temperatures. For example, composite materials, combining metals with ceramics, have been developed for HP turbine blades, which run at the maximum cycle temperature. The efficiency is also limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved. Cycle efficiency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%), as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures. Cycle efficiency in turbojet and similar is nearer to 30%, due to much lower peak cycle temperatures.\n", "Section::::Materials.\n\nA key limiting factor in early jet engines was the performance of the materials available for the hot section (combustor and turbine) of the engine. The need for better materials spurred much research in the field of alloys and manufacturing techniques, and that research resulted in a long list of new materials and methods that make modern gas turbines possible. One of the earliest of these was Nimonic, used in the British Whittle engines.\n", "Section::::Turbine physics and derivation.:Efficiency.\n\nA wheel power divided by the initial jet power, is the turbine efficiency, \"η\" = 4\"u\"(\"V\" − \"u\")/\"V\". It is zero for \"u\" = 0 and for \"u\" = \"V\". As the equations indicate, when a real Pelton wheel is working close to maximum efficiency, the fluid flows off the wheel with very little residual velocity. In theory, the energy efficiency varies only with the efficiency of the nozzle and wheel, and does not vary with hydraulic head.\n\nThe term \"efficiency\" can refer to: Hydraulic, Mechanical, Volumetric, Wheel, or overall efficiency.\n\nSection::::System components.\n", "Steam turbine-powered turbopumps are employed when there is a source of steam, e.g. the boilers of steam ships. Gas turbines are usually used when electricity or steam is not available and place or weight restrictions permit the use of more efficient sources of mechanical energy.\n", "Engineers in the 1930s realized that the maximum performance of piston engines was limited, as propulsive efficiency declined as blade tips approached the speed of sound. For engine performance to increase beyond this barrier, a way would have to be found to radically improve the design of the piston engine, or a wholly new type of powerplant would have to be developed. Gas turbine engines, commonly called \"jet\" engines, could do that.\n", "BULLET::::- 1916: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressors to improve high-altitude performance, the first example of the turbocharger.\n\nSection::::1920–1980.\n\nBULLET::::- 1920: William Joseph Stern reports to the Royal Air Force that there is no future for the turbine engine in aircraft. He bases his argument on the extremely low efficiency of existing compressor designs. Due to Stern's eminence, his paper is so convincing there is little official interest in gas turbine engines anywhere, although this does not last long.\n", "Most piston engines have a hot exhaust that still contains considerable undeveloped energy that could be used for propulsion if extracted. A turbine is often used to extract energy from such a stream of gases. A conventional gas turbine is fed high-pressure, high-velocity air, extracts energy from it, and leaves as a lower-pressure, slower-moving stream. This action has the side-effect of increasing the upstream pressure, which makes it undesirable for use with a piston engine as it increases the back-pressure in the engine, which decreases scavenging of the exhaust gas from the cylinders and thereby lowers the efficiency of the piston portion of a compound engine.\n", "SFC is dependent on engine design, but differences in the SFC between different engines using the same underlying technology tend to be quite small. Increasing overall pressure ratio on jet engines tends to decrease SFC.\n", "In terms of fuel economy, Rover's previous work had improved mileage from 4 mpg on the JET1 to 31 mpg on the BRM. While the Diesel outperformed the turbine at lower power settings, theoretical studies suggested the turbine was increasingly competitive as one approached 300 BHP, and above that was more efficient. Given a typical workload during a journey, it was expected a turbine would burn somewhere between 10 and 25% more fuel, but at the time, this represented between 2 and 5% of overall operational costs.\n\nSection::::Mark I.\n", "Section::::Engine.\n", "BULLET::::- Correlation based on geometric similarity is used.\n\nSection::::Secondary flow.\n\nThe main points to consider are:\n\nBULLET::::- The rotation of a blade row causes non-uniformity in radial velocity, stagnation pressure, stagnation enthalpy, and stagnation temperature. Distribution in both tangential and radial directions generates secondary flow.\n\nBULLET::::- Secondary flow generates two velocity components V, V, hence introducing three-dimensionality in the flow field.\n\nBULLET::::- The two components of velocity result in flow-turning at the tailing end of the blade profile, which directly affects pressure rise-and-fall in turbomachinery. Hence efficiency decreases.\n", "Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount, which is why high-bypass turbofans and turboprops are commonly used on cargo planes and airliners.\n", "There are several ways to reduce energy usage in air transportation, from modifications to the planes themselves, to how air traffic is managed. As in cars, turbochargers are an effective way to reduce energy consumption; however, instead of allowing for the use of a smaller-displacement engine, turbochargers in jet turbines operate by compressing the thinner air at higher altitudes. This allows the engine to operate as if it were at sea-level pressures while taking advantage of the reduced drag on the aircraft at higher altitudes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04229	How is the United States paying off its debt to China?	Most of the US debt is domestic. [source]( URL_0 ) As for paying back China: [China would not call in its debt all at once. If it did so, the demand for the dollar would plummet like a rock. This dollar collapse would disrupt international markets even more than the 2008 financial crisis. China's economy would suffer along with everyone else's.]( URL_1 ) So basically it's like buying bonds. You cash in those bonds when you want to.	[ "Furthermore, China has made investments into African human resource development programs. This can be seen in various programs that have been developed since 2010, including the China–Africa Science and Technology Partnership Plan, China–Africa joint research and exchange plan, and the China–Africa partnership to address climate change. Human resource development has also been seen in agriculture and technology, where teams from China continue to go into African countries each year to further their training in these ever-changing fields. While these debts to China do increase with these human resource development exchanges, it has also helped reduce the rates of unemployment in African countries, because many on the continent who have been trained through these programs seek employment in infrastructural development projects in their countries.\n", "Historically, the share held by foreign governments had grown over time, rising from 13 percent of the public debt in 1988 to 34 percent in 2015. In more recent years, foreign ownership has retreated both in percent of total debt and total dollar amounts. China's maximum holding of 9.1% or $1.3 trillion of US debt occurred in 2011, subsequently reduced to 5% in 2018. Japan's maximum holding of 7% or $1.2 trillion occurred in 2012, subsequently reduced to 4% in 2018.\n", "Over four fifths of China's investments are spent on infrastructure projects in underdeveloped and developing countries. Forecasts of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) show that economic growth rate of China will fall to around 6.2%, which is around 0.4% from 2018 of 6.6%. The reason for the possible decline is the increasing trade disputes of China and US. Another is the sudden increase of debts in the past decade, which was used to fuel infrastructure programs. Africa fears the slow growth of China, as this may result to impending government infrastructure projects.\n", "Africa's loans to China are in exchange for long-term high value resources of the country that includes ports and minerals that most likely end at exploitation of the natural resources by the African government, and the Chinese government through giving them advantage of access to utilize the country's resources. Most importantly, China was allowed to interfere with the country's economy and gain strategic advantage in Africa and other host countries. Jonathan Hillman, director of the Reconnecting Asia project for the Center for Strategic and International Studies states “If it can carry goods, it can carry troops”.\n", "Although the money invested by China in Africa may help it close the gap for its infrastructure needs, the practice is questionably unethical as China slows down and expands elsewhere across the globe, it just leads Africa to swelling debt and fear of losing of local jobs if China chooses to relocate. The rising debt of developing nations in the world from China has become a part of the economic growth history. The far-reaching approach of China in promoting its lending history is said to be dramatic. Studies of economic experts in the practices of China found that the patterns of China's bank lending are purposefully done to trap governments and gather strategic opportunities for China. Indian strategist Brahma Chellaney explains that “It’s clearly part of China’s geostrategic vision”.\n", "BULLET::::- A US$115 million loan to Tonga to redevelop infrastructure.\n\nBULLET::::- US$2 billion in loans to Papua New Guinea totalling almost a quarter of its total debt.\n\nBULLET::::- China is financing the new capital of Egypt, New Cairo. In an interview, Gen. Ahmed Zaki Abdeen, who heads the Egyptian state-owned company overseeing the new capital, criticized American reluctance to invest in Egypt, saying: “Stop talking to us about human rights,” he says. “Come and do business with us. The Chinese are coming — they are seeking win-win situations. Welcome to the Chinese.”\n", "have borrowed heavily from China and others. Any new FOCAC loan pledges will likely take Africa’s growing debt burden into account. \"\n\nSection::::China.\n", "China is a major creditor and the second largest foreign holder of US public debt and has been critical of US deficits and fiscal policy, advising for policies that maintain the purchasing value of the dollar although it had little few options other than to continue to buy United States Treasury bonds. China condemned the US monetary policy of quantitative easing, responding to S&P's downgrade of U.S. credit rating, and advised the United States not to continue with the accumulation of debt, concluding with the statement that America cannot continue to borrow to solve financial problems.\n", "BULLET::::- Chinese loans to the Venezuelan governments of Nicolás Maduro and Hugo Chávez\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese loans to the Malaysia government of Najib Razak\n\nBULLET::::- Loans to Djibouti to develop a strategic port. Chinese loans total 77% of the country's total debt.\n\nBULLET::::- An estimated $7.1-billion in Chinese debt is held by the Republic of the Congo. The exact number is unknown even to the Congolese government.\n\nBULLET::::- Loans to Kyrgyzstan, as part of the Belt and Road Initiative\n\nBULLET::::- Loans to Laos, as part of the Belt and Road Initiative\n", "The International Monetary Fund, the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and other sources, such as the Article IV Consultation Reports, state that, at the end of 2014, the \"general government gross debt\"-to-GDP ratio for China was 41.54 percent. With China's 2014 GDP being 10,356.508 billion, this makes the government debt of China approximately 4.3 trillion.\n", "One of the most cited examples of alleged debt-trap diplomacy by China is a loan given to the Sri Lankan government by the Exim Bank of China to build the Magampura Mahinda Rajapaksa Port and Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport. The state-owned Chinese firms China Harbour Engineering Company and Sinohydro Corporation were hired to build the Magampura Port at a cost of US$361 million which was 85% funded by China's state-owned Export–Import Bank at an annual interest rate of 6.3%. Due to Sri Lanka's inability to service the debt on the port, it was leased to the Chinese state-owned China Merchants Port Holdings Company Limited on a 99-year lease in 2017. This caused concern in the United States, Japan, and India that the port might be used as a Chinese naval base to contain China's geopolitical rivals.\n", "The U.S. Treasury statistics indicate that, at the end of 2006, non-US citizens and institutions held 44% of federal debt held by the public. , China, holding $1.26 trillion in treasury bonds, is the largest foreign financier of the U.S. public debt.\n\nThe overall financial position of the United States as of 2014 includes $269.6 trillion of assets owned by households, businesses, and governments within its borders, representing more than 15.7 times the annual gross domestic product of the United States. Debts owed during this same period amounted to $145.8 trillion, about 8.5 times the annual gross domestic product.\n", "China will continue to deepen the reform of its financial system, which has supported the process of transforming its economic development model, developing a financial system that consists of diverse institutions, provides efficient service, controls risks, and encourages financial innovation. China will increase the use of direct financing channels, including stocks, bonds and private equity, to better satisfy the diverse demands in its economy for investment capital and financing. In accordance with the medium- and long-term development perspectives, China will push forward the market-based reform of interest rates.\n\n……\n", "The U.S. economy is rebalancing toward sustainable growth, emphasizing higher domestic savings, a commitment to improving long-term fiscal sustainability and productivity-enhancing investments. The personal savings rate was 5.8 percent in 2010, which is the highest rate since 1993 and well above the 2.7 percent average between 2000 and 2007. Thus, much of the transition on the private side to higher saving has already taken place. To increase public saving, the President's Budget freezes discretionary spending for five years, freezes government salaries for two years, and brings the deficit to three percent of GDP by the second half of this decade – a path consistent with the Administration's commitments to cut the deficit in half by 2013, and to stabilize or reduce the national debt as a share of the economy. To lay the foundation for future growth, including through greater U.S. exports, the United States will increase and improve investment in innovation, infrastructure, and education.\n", "Section::::Africa.:Kenya.\n\nChina lent Kenya extensive loans to build a standard gauge railway between Mombasa and Nairobi and highways in Kenya.\n\nIt was reported in late December 2018 that Kenya may soon face default on Chinese loans to develop its largest and most lucrative port, the Port of Mombasa. This could force Kenya to relinquish control of the port to China.\n\nThe Kenyan media has debated whether Chinese loans are worth the risk of falling into debt traps, drawing analogies with , and some commentators have argued that these loans could jeopardize Kenyan sovereignty.\n\nSection::::Latin America.\n", "China holds the world's largest foreign exchange reserves, which reached US$1 trillion in November 2006. The figure doubled in the second quarter of 2009 and had risen by almost 14 times within the past decade. According to a Deutsche Bank official, \"China's reserves will allow the [United States] to run a higher fiscal deficit than other nations\". This deficit was caused by the US government's additional spending in an effort to revive the economy from a recession. The reserves reached US$2.27 trillion in September 2009, and the country's sovereign wealth fund—the China Investment Corporation—had become more aggressive in its foreign investments.\n", "Chinese dependency on the US dollar became prevalent after the purchase of shares of the United States debt during the Great Recession. Due to this purchase, the two nations share a deeply rooted economic relationship. US depends on China for holding their debt and, in turn, China cannot sell their debt without decreasing the value of the US dollar in which the Chinese depend on for economic development. As result, the two countries depend on each other for further economic development. The economic connection between China and the United States is a powerful factor in reducing conflict between the two nations. Cooperation is essential between China and the US in order to uphold their economic status.\n", "Following the passage of the Dodd-Frank Act, the United States is implementing comprehensive financial reform that better serves households, workers, entrepreneurs, and businesses by reducing systemic risk, raising prudential standards, establishing a comprehensive regulatory framework for derivatives, ending the problem of “too big to fail” financial institutions, creating a Federal Insurance Office, and ensuring robust consumer financial protection.\n", "The exact composition of the foreign-exchange reserves of China is a classified information. Foreign analysts agree that about two-thirds of Chinese foreign-exchange reserves are held in U.S. Dollars, approximately one-fifth in Euros, and almost all the rest in Japanese Yen and British pounds.\n\nMost of China's foreign-exchange reserves are held in U.S. dollar-denominated financial assets such as U.S. Treasury securities. Since 2008, when it overtook Japan in this respect, China is the largest foreign owner of U.S. Treasury securities, accounting for about 22 percent of all U.S. Treasuries held by non-Americans.\n\nSection::::Concerns over Chinese holdings of U.S. Debt.\n", "BULLET::::- It was reported in late 2018 that the Zambian government is in talks with China that may result in the total surrender of the state electricity company ZESCO as a form of debt repayment since the country has defaulted on plethora of Chinese loans for Zambia's infrastructure projects.\n\nSection::::Africa.\n\nSection::::Africa.:Debt-trap Diplomacy and Africa’s Economy.\n", "Chinese authorities have dismissed analysts' worries, insisting that \"the country still has room to increase government debt.\" Finance Minister Lou Jiwei stated that China's \"fiscal income is in a severe situation,\" yet the government \"need[s] to expand the fiscal deficit, but it is hard to say how much room is appropriate.\"\n", "In 2001 it received US$1.4 billion in foreign aid, or about US$1.10 per capita. This total was down from the 1999 figure of US$2.4 billion, or US$1.90 per capita. In 2003 China received US$1.3 billion in aid, or about US$1 per capita. Like other countries in recent years, the United States has rapidly lowered foreign aid to China, reaching about $12 million from USAID for 2011. The aid goes to Tibetan communities, rule of law initiatives, and climate change policy. In 2011, an aid package amounting to $3.95 million and designated for climate change was the subject of a critical Congressional panel hearing titled \"Feeding the Dragon: Reevaluating U.S. Development Assistance to China\".\n", "Chinese-issued U.S. dollar bonds\n\nChinese-issued U.S. dollars bonds are dollar-denominated bond issued by Chinese financial institutions and corporations.\n\nIn 2017 this part of the bond market doubled to $214 billion as tighter domestic regulations and market conditions saw Chinese companies look offshore to raise capital. This far outpaced the other major foreign currency bonds issued in Asia. Chinese issuance of dollar bonds make up nearly 70% of corporate dollar bonds in Asia (excluding Japan).\n", "According to a 2017 study, described as “The most detailed study so far of Chinese aid,” by AidData, between 2000 and 2014 China gave about $75 billion, and lent about $275 billion — compared to $424 billion given by America during the same period. A fifth of this Chinese aid, $75 billion, was in the form of grants (about equivalent to Britain’s), while the rest was concessional lending at below-market interest rates.\n\nSection::::Forms of aid and recipients.\n", "If the external debt represents foreign ownership of domestic assets, the result is that rental income, stock dividends, capital gains and other investment income is received by foreign investors, rather than by U.S. residents. On the other hand, when American debt is held by overseas investors, they receive interest and principal repayments. As the trade imbalance puts extra dollars in hands outside of the U.S., these dollars may be used to invest in new assets (foreign direct investment, such as new plants) or be used to buy existing American assets such as stocks, real estate and bonds. With a mounting trade deficit, the income from these assets increasingly transfers overseas.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07263	When you hold a sea shell up to your ear, what is the "ocean" noise that you can hear?	The shell itself acts like a resonance chamber, allowing sound waves to bounce around, amplifying some frequencies. The ocean sound is simply ambient sounds such as the wind or even the sound of blood flowing around your ear being resonated by the shell.	[ "The resonator is simply attenuating some frequencies of the ambient noise in the environment, including air flowing within the resonator and sound originating within the human body itself, more than others.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nFollowing the First World War, when sonar was first used for the detection of submarines, echo sounders began to find uses outside the military. The French explorer Rallier du Baty reported unexpected midwater echoes, which he attributed to fish schools, in 1927. In 1929, the Japanese scientist Kimura reported disruptions in a continuous acoustic beam by sea bream swimming in an aquaculture pond.\n", "Multiples from the bottom of a body of water (the interface of the base of water and the rock or sediment beneath it) and the air-water interface are common in marine seismic data, and are suppressed by seismic processing.\n\nSection::::Outline of the method.:Sources of noise.:Cultural noise.\n\nCultural noise includes noise from weather effects, planes, helicopters, electrical pylons, and ships (in the case of marine surveys), all of which can be detected by the receivers.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "BULLET::::- The Triton shell also known as \"Triton's trumpet\" \"Charonia tritonis\" which is used as a trumpet in Melanesian and Polynesian culture and also in Korea and Japan. In Japan this kind of trumpet is known as the horagai. In Korea it is known as the nagak. In some Polynesian islands it is known as \"\"pu\"\".\n\nBULLET::::- The Queen Conch \"Lobatus gigas\", has been used as a trumpet in the Caribbean.\n", "Despite the use of the SOFAR channel in naval applications, the idea that animals might make use of this channel was not proposed until 1971. Roger Payne and Douglas Webb calculated that before ship traffic noise permeated the oceans, tones emitted by fin whales could have traveled as far as four thousand miles and still be heard against the normal background noise of the sea. Payne and Webb further determined that, on a quiet day in the pre–ship-propeller oceans, fin whale tones would only have fallen to the level of background noise after traveling thirteen thousand miles, that is, more than the diameter of the Earth.\n", "Section::::Acoustics.:Hearing.\n", "Section::::Animal sounds.\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "Section::::Instruments.\n\nSection::::Instruments.:Echosounders.\n", "In 2005, architect Nikola Bašić built a Sea organ in Zadar, Croatia, which is an experimental musical instrument which plays music by way of sea waves and tubes located underneath a set of large marble steps. Concealed under these steps is a system of polyethylene tubes and a resonating cavity that turns the site into a huge musical instrument, played by the wind and the sea. The waves create somewhat random but harmonic sounds.\n", "Offering another point of view, a joint paper from the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) and the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (IOGP) argue that the noise created by marine seismic surveys is comparable to natural sources of seismic noise, stating:\n", "For the 1966 paper that made the question famous, Kac was given the Lester R. Ford Award in 1967 and the Chauvenet Prize in 1968.\n", "Upsweep is an unidentified sound detected on the American NOAA's equatorial autonomous hydrophone arrays. This sound was present when the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory began recording its sound surveillance system SOSUS in August, 1991. It consists of a long train of narrow-band upsweeping sounds of several seconds in duration each. The source level is high enough to be recorded throughout the Pacific.\n", "In the case of the ATOC, the source was mounted on the bottom about a half mile deep, hence marine mammals, which are bound to the surface, were generally further than a half mile from the source. This fact, combined with the modest source level, the infrequent 2% duty cycle (the sound is on only 2% of the day), and other such factors, made the sound transmissions benign in its effect on marine life.\n\nSection::::Types of transmitted acoustic signals.\n", "Seashell resonance\n\nThere is a popular folk myth that if one holds a seashell—specifically, most often, a conch shell—to one's ear, one can hear the sound of the ocean.\n\nThe rushing sound that one hears is in fact the noise of the surrounding environment, resonating within the cavity of the shell. The same effect can be produced with any resonant cavity, such as an empty cup or even by simply cupping one's hand over one's ear. The similarity of the noise produced by the resonator to that of the oceans is due to the resemblance between ocean movements and airflow.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "Slow Down is a sound recorded on May 19, 1997, in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The source of the sound was most likely a large iceberg as it became grounded.\n\nSection::::NOAA (formerly unidentified).:Slow Down.:Analysis.\n", "In a metaphor for an eroded love affair, \"I Still Hear the Bells\", co-written by Gwyneth Herbert and Fiona Bevan, refers to the \"drowned\" Suffolk village of Dunwich which was severely flooded in the 13th century. A popular local legend says that, at certain tides, church bells can still be heard from beneath the waves.\n\nInstead of the usual two or three seconds of silence between tracks, Herbert inserts the sound of her walking across the stones at Aldeburgh.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "The sound appears to be seasonal, generally reaching peaks in spring and autumn, but it is unclear whether this is due to changes in the source or seasonal changes in the propagation environment. The source can be roughly located at , near the location of inferred volcanic seismicity, but the origin of the sound is unresolved. The overall source level has been declining since 1991, but the sounds can still be detected on NOAA's equatorial autonomous hydrophone arrays.\n\nSection::::NOAA (unidentified).:Whistle.\n", "A plasma sound source (PSS), otherwise called a spark gap sound source, or simply a sparker, is a means of making a very low frequency sonar pulse underwater. For each firing, electric charge is stored in a large high-voltage bank of capacitors, and then released in an arc across electrodes in the water. The underwater spark discharge produces a high-pressure plasma and vapor bubble, which expands and collapses, making a loud sound. Most of the sound produced is between 20 and 200 Hz, useful for both seismic and sonar applications.\n", "The hearing organ in fish is called an otolith, which is sensitive to particle motion, not sound pressure. Some fish also have a lateral line.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Affected mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Affected mechanisms.:Traveling wave theory.\n", "Besides mechanical produced vibrations, other sources are caused by the motion of the sea, slamming of the vessel on the waves and water depth to mention just a few. The main problem here is that they are less controllable.\n\nSection::::Exposure Limits.\n\nExposure to noise and vibrations is regulated and limits for maritime vessels are given in the \"ISO standard 6954: Guidelines for permissible mechanical vibrations on board seagoing vessels\" to protect personnel and crew. \n", "Many measurements have been made of sound absorption in lakes and the ocean\n\nSection::::Measurements.:Ambient noise.\n\nMeasurement of acoustic signals are possible if their amplitude exceeds a minimum threshold, determined partly by the signal processing used and partly by the level of background noise. Ambient noise is that part of the received noise that is independent of the source, receiver and platform characteristics. This it excludes reverberation and towing noise for example.\n", "Dear Uncle Ezra,\n\nWhat is that sound coming from the Johnson Museum? It's a pingy type sound that I guess could be some kind of wind chime but it seems like it's coming from the building itself.\n\n— Just wondering\n\nDear Chiming In,\n", "BULLET::::- The famous Old English riddle \"Ic wæs be Sonde\" describes a conch: \"I was by sound, near seawall, at ocean-stream; I dwelt alone in my first resting place... Little did I know that I, ere or since, ever should speak mouthless over mead-benches.\" Another meaning given to this riddle \"Ic wæs be Sonde\" is that the sound of the conch corresponds to spiritualised sound as heard in higher realms. In the Hindu tradition, the conch shell is used in ceremony as the sound it makes is said to correspond with higher frequency universal sounds associated with music of the spheres.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01649	What makes certain types of cardboard (like pizza boxes) un-recyclable?	With pizza boxes, it's not the type of cardboard that makes it unrecyclable; it's the oils from the pizza that soak into the cardboard. Those oils cannot be separated back out from the paper fibers, so they're no longer any good for making paper/cardboard out of.	[ "Most types of cardboard are recyclable. Boards that are laminates, wax coated, or treated for wet-strength are often more difficult to recycle. Clean cardboard (\"i.e.,\" cardboard that has not been subject to chemical coatings) \"is usually worth recovering, although often the difference between the value it realizes and the cost of recovery is marginal\". Cardboard can be recycled for industrial or domestic use. For example, cardboard may be composted or shredded for animal bedding.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Pizza boxes have a large amount of corrugated fiberboard, individually and in total volume produced each year, but they are not accepted by some municipal recycling programs because the cardboard is often soaked with grease, making them unsuitable for some forms of recycling. Boxes may thus be commonly thrown away with household waste into landfills; a more environmentally friendly disposal option that has been proposed is a form of composting for pizza boxes. It is also possible to tear off unstained or unsaturated sections such as the lid and/or sides of the box and recycle those.\n\nSection::::Delivery technology.:Pizza saver.\n", "Recyclable materials that may be separately collected from municipal waste include:\n\n\"Biodegradable waste component\"\n\nBULLET::::- Green waste\n\nBULLET::::- Kitchen and food waste\n\n\"Recyclable materials\", depending on location\n\nBULLET::::- Office paper\n\nBULLET::::- Newsprint\n\nBULLET::::- Paperboard\n\nBULLET::::- Cardboard\n\nBULLET::::- Corrugated fiberboard\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics (#1 PET, #2 HDPE natural and colored, #3 PVC narrow-necked containers, #4 LDPE, #5 PP, #6 Polystyrene (however, not EXPANDED polystyrene, an example of recyclable polystyrene may be a plastic yoghurt pot) #7 other mixed resin plastics)\n\nBULLET::::- Glass\n\nBULLET::::- Copper\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminium\n\nBULLET::::- Steel and Tinplate\n\nBULLET::::- Co-mingled recyclables- can be sorted by a clean materials recovery facility\n", "Biodegradable litters are made from various plant resources, including pine wood pellets, recycled newspaper, clumping sawdust, Brazilian cassava, corn, wheat, walnuts, barley, soy pulp and dried orange peel.\n", "The type of recycling material accepted varies by city and country. Each city and country have different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials.\n\nSection::::Materials used as a source.:Wastewater and excreta.\n", "The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, rubber tyres, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.\n", "Recycling by product\n\nProducts made from a variety of materials can be recycled using a number of processes.\n\nSection::::Building and construction waste.\n\nSection::::Building and construction waste.:Aggregates and concrete.\n", "In the United States, steel containers, cans, automobiles, appliances, and construction materials contribute the greatest weight of recycled materials. For example, in 2008, more than 97% of structural steel and 106% of automobiles were recycled, comparing the current steel consumption for each industry with the amount of recycled steel being produced (the late 2000s recession and the associated sharp decline in automobile production in the US explains the over-100% calculation). A typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron.\n", "According to PullApart’s current Teignbridge (2011) survey of over 2000 products, 2.84% are ideally suited for kerbside recycling and a further 29.32% are good, whilst the rest fail. The sample area, Teignbridge, and therefore Teignbridge District Council, has a current recycling rate of 57% (2008/2009), (by weight). Quoting from their periodical, “Teignbridge Life” explaining to local people how PullApart works: “The online packaging recycling guide features a free search function which classifies ordinary consumer products, like cereal boxes, with a 'PullApart' rating. The rating breaks the product down into its components, explaining which parts can be recycled in Teignbridge.”\n", "Almost all paper can be recycled today, but some types are harder to recycle than others. Papers coated with plastic or aluminium foil, and papers that are waxed, pasted, or gummed are usually not recycled because the process is too expensive. Gift-wrap paper also cannot be recycled due to its already poor quality.\n", "As with environmental economics, care must be taken to ensure a complete view of the costs and benefits involved. For example, paperboard packaging for food products is more easily recycled than most plastic, but is heavier to ship and may result in more waste from spoilage.\n\nSection::::Criticisms and responses.:Energy and material flows.\n", "Molded pulp products are made from recycled newsprint and are formed under heat and pressure into plates, bowls, trays and cup carriers. Molded pulp is readily recyclable.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Wood and Bamboo.\n", "Section::::Materials collected.\n\nThe different types of recyclable materials collected include:\n\nBULLET::::- All types of paper/paperboard (excluding plastics, metal fragments and organic contamination)\n\nBULLET::::- Glass jars and bottles - by common collection points\n\nBULLET::::- Compostable materials\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics - Type 1 and 2 PETE\n\nBULLET::::- Motor oil\n\nBULLET::::- Tires - some re-treaded, some mixed with asphalt for road resurfacing\n\nBULLET::::- Metal cans - beverage and soup cans, although usually extracted from trash by separation techniques\n\nBULLET::::- Beer bottles through deposit systems\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic soda containers through deposit systems\n\nBULLET::::- Ink cartridge\n\nBULLET::::- All types of batteries\n", "Councils also have kerbside collection of bulky waste. There may be different kinds of collection, e.g.:\n\nBULLET::::- Large branches\n\nBULLET::::- E-waste (e.g. TVs, computers) which the council may recycle\n\nBULLET::::- Hard rubbish (anything else too bulky for the wheelie bin\n", "BULLET::::- Clothing. While thrift stores routinely refuse used goods which they cannot cheaply and easily resell, the items which they do accept cost them nothing. There is therefore no shrinkage cost associated with discarding mendable garments, repairable appliances or even working donated items which are overstock or find no buyer after some arbitrary length of time.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal. Sometimes waste may contain recyclable metals and materials that can be reused or sold to recycling plants and scrap yards. The most common recyclable metals found are steel and aluminum.\n", "BULLET::::- Many items from unsoiled paper, cardboard, glass, plastic bottles and jugs, aluminum cans and plastic tarps to corrugated polypropylene signs can be recycled depending on the services available in a given municipality or county. In many cases, such services are less costly than disposal of the same items;\n\nBULLET::::- Having a dedicated Recycling Team onsite throughout the event to supervise recycling stations and sort materials to maximize landfill diversion and minimize contamination; and\n", "Sometimes recyclers ask for the removal of the glossy paper inserts from newspapers because they are a different type of paper. Glossy inserts have a heavy clay coating that some paper mills cannot accept. Most of the clay is removed from the recycled pulp as sludge, which must be disposed of. If the coated paper is 20% by weight clay, then each ton of glossy paper produces more than 200 kg of sludge and less than 800 kg of fibre.\n\nThe price of recycled paper has varied greatly over the last 30 or so years.\n", "Many plastics are marked with the SPI recycling codes for identification.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Paper and paperboard.\n\nDisposable foodservice products made from paper, paperboard, and corrugated fiberboard: including cups, plates, bowls, napkins, carryout bags, trays, egg cartons, doilies and tray liners. Some paper products are coated - mostly with plastic - or treated to improve wet strength or grease resistance. Paper and paperboard packaging like pizza trays, French fry trays, Chinese noodle soup boxes, hamburger clamshell trays, etc., are developed by printers utilizing paper converting equipment such as tray formers.\n", "If a vehicle is abandoned on the roadside or in empty lots, licensed dismantlers in the United States can legally obtain them so that they are safely converted into reusable or recycled commodities.\n\nSection::::Facts.\n\nBULLET::::- The typical passenger car consists of about 65 percent steel and iron, by weight. Also, car bodies typically are made 25 percent of recycled steel.\n\nBULLET::::- Recycling one ton of steel conserves 2500 pounds of iron ore, 1400 pounds of coal and 120 pounds of limestone.\n\nBULLET::::- Approximately 10 million vehicles are recycled annually.\n", "Section::::Textiles.\n\nIn many countries, there is an active market in re-selling used clothes. In Britain, this dominated by charity shops who sell donated clean clothes. Less saleable clothes are put into the re-cycling waste stream. \n\nTextiles are made of a variety of materials including cotton, wool, synthetic plastics, linen, modal and a variety of other materials. The textile's composition will affect its durability and method of recycling.\n", "BULLET::::- 115 billion sheets of paper are used annually for personal computers. The average web user prints 16 pages daily.\n\nBULLET::::- Most corrugated fiberboard boxes have over 25% recycled fibers. Some are 100% recycled fiber.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1997, 299,044 metric tons of paper was produced (including cardboard).\n\nBULLET::::- In the United States, the average consumption of paper per person in 1999 was approximately 354 kilograms. This would be the same consumption for 6 people in Asia or 30 people in Africa.\n", "Section::::Environmental concerns.:Cost of recycling.\n\nCollection costs, the value of scrap material, and increased energy expenditures create an additional economic barrier to recycling foodservice packaging. While recycling foodservice packaging is difficult, recycled materials are being used in some foodservice packaging.\n\nSection::::Environmental concerns.:Environmental footprint.\n\nMany people are working on reducing the environmental footprint of packaging for food service. Often a Life-cycle assessment is valuable to determine the effects throughout the entire system. Some actions include:\n", "Corrugated fiberboard is a combination of paperboards, usually two flat liners and one inner fluted corrugated medium. It is often used for making corrugated boxes for shipping or storing products. This type of cardboard is also used by artists as original material for sculpting.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n", "Section::::Requirements.:Heat insulation and humidity regulation.\n", "Section::::Zabbaleen recycling methods.:Use of pigs.\n" ]	[ "Certain types of cardboard makes pizza boxes unrecylable. " ]	[ "The fact that the pizza boxes are unrecylable have nothing to do with the type of cardboard, but more so to do with the oils of the pizza that seap into the cardboard." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Certain types of cardboard makes pizza boxes unrecylable. ", "Certain types of cardboard makes pizza boxes unrecylable. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The fact that the pizza boxes are unrecylable have nothing to do with the type of cardboard, but more so to do with the oils of the pizza that seap into the cardboard.", "The fact that the pizza boxes are unrecylable have nothing to do with the type of cardboard, but more so to do with the oils of the pizza that seap into the cardboard." ]
2018-07147	Why is it that when it is really windy outside, the water in the toilet moves.	The water in the toilet is in a plumbing trap. This little loop of water keeps smelly sewer gasses out of your house. The idea is that they go up vent pipes and are discharged above your house. When it's gusty, the variable wind can change the pressure in these vent pipes. That moves the water.	[ "It is a commonly held misconception that when flushed, the water in a toilet bowl swirls one way if the toilet is north of the equator and the other way if south of the equator, due to the Coriolis effect – usually, counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. In reality, the direction that the water takes is much more determined by the direction that the bowl's rim jets are pointed, and it can be made to flush in either direction in either hemisphere by simply redirecting the rim jets during manufacture. On the scale of bathtubs and toilets, the Coriolis effect is too weak to be observed except under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.\n", "An island fixture vent provides an elegant solution for this necessity: when the drain is opened, water displaces the sewer gas up to the sanitary tee, the water flows downward while sewer gas is displaced upward and toward the vent. The vent can also provide air to fill any vacuum created.\n\nThe key to a functional island fixture vent is that the top elbow must be at least as high as the \"flood level\" (the peak possible drain water level in the sink). This ensures that the vent never becomes waterlogged.\n\nSection::::Island fixture vent.:Cost.\n", "Contrary to popular misconception, bathtubs, toilets and other residential water receptacles do not drain in opposite directions in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres because the magnitude of the Coriolis force is negligible at this scale. Forces determined by the initial conditions of the water (e.g. the geometry of the drain, the geometry of the receptacle, pre-existing momentum of water, etc.) are likely to be orders of magnitude greater than the Coriolis force and hence will determine the direction of water rotation, if any. For example, identical toilets flushed in each hemisphere will drain in the same direction, and this direction will be determined mostly by the shape of the toilet bowl.\n", "All plumbing fixtures have traps in their drains; these traps are either internal or external to the fixtures. Traps are pipes which curve down then back up; they 'trap' a small amount of water to create a water seal between the ambient air space and the inside of the drain system. This prevents sewer gas from entering buildings. \n\nMost water closets, bidets, and many urinals have the trap integral with the fixture itself. The visible water surface in a toilet is the top of the trap's water seal.\n", "A blocked vent is a relatively common problem caused by anything from leaves, to dead animals, to ice dams in very cold weather, or a horizontal section of the venting system, sloped the wrong way and filled with water from rain or condensation. Symptoms range from bubbles in the toilet bowl when it is flushed, to slow drainage, and all the way to siphoned (empty) traps which allow sewer gases to enter the building.\n", "An island fixture vent, sometimes colloquially called a \"Chicago Loop\", “Boston loop” or \"Bow Vent\", is an alternate way of venting the trap installed on an under counter island sink or other similar applications where a conventional vertical vent stack or air admittance valve is not feasible or allowed.\n\nAs with all drains, ventilation must be provided to allow the flowing waste water to displace the sewer gas in the drain, and then to allow air (or some other fluid) to fill the vacuum which would otherwise form as the water flows down the pipe.\n", "The plot of the episode is based on the story of Michael Fay, an American teenager who was caned in Singapore in 1994 for vandalizing cars. This episode perpetuated a popular myth that the Coriolis effect affects the motion of drains in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. In reality, the Coriolis effect affects global weather patterns. The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it.\n", "When a fixture trap is venting properly, a \"sucking\" sound can often be heard as the fixture vigorously empties out during normal operation. This phenomenon is harmless, and is different from \"trap suckout\" induced by pressure variations caused by wastewater movement \"elsewhere\" in the system, which is not supposed to allow interactions from one fixture to another. Toilets are a special case, since they are usually designed to self-siphon to ensure complete evacuation of their contents; they are then automatically refilled by a special valve mechanism.\n\nSection::::Internal venting.\n", "Water entering sanitary sewers from inappropriate connections is called \"inflow\". Typical sources include sump pumps, roof drains, cellar drains, and yard drains where urban features prevent surface runoff, and storm drains are not conveniently accessible or identifiable. Inflow tends to peak during precipitation events, and causes greater flow variation than infiltration. Peak flows caused by inflow may generate a foul flush of accumulated biofilm and sanitary solids scoured from the dry weather wetted perimeter of oversized sewers during peak flow turbulence. Sources of inflow can sometimes be identified by smoke testing. Smoke is blown into the sewer during dry weather while observers watch for smoke emerging from yards, cellars, or roof gutters.\n", "Some of the heavier sediment and small objects may settle in a catch basin, or sump, which lies immediately below the outlet, where water from the top of the catch basin reservoir overflows into the sewer proper. The catchbasin serves much the same function as the \"trap\" in household wastewater plumbing in trapping objects.\n", "Excessive negative air pressure, behind a \"slug\" of water that is draining, can siphon water from traps at plumbing fixtures. Generally, a toilet outlet has the shortest trap seal, making it most vulnerable to being emptied by induced siphonage. An empty trap can allow noxious sewer gases to enter a building.\n", "The rapid influx of water into the bowl causes the standing water in the bowl to rise and fill the S-shaped siphon tube mounted in the back of the toilet. This starts the toilet's siphonic action. The siphon action quickly \"pulls\" nearly all of the water and waste in the bowl and the on-rushing tank water down the drain in about 4–7 seconds —it flushes. When most of the water has drained out of the bowl, the continuous column of water through the siphon is broken when air enters the siphon tube. The toilet then gives its characteristic gurgle as the siphonic action ceases and no more water flows out of the toilet.\n", "Estuarine water circulation\n\nEstuarine water circulation is controlled by the inflow of rivers, the tides, rainfall and evaporation, the wind, and other oceanic events such as an upwelling, an eddy, and storms. Estuarine water circulation patterns are influenced by vertical mixing and stratification, and can affect residence time and exposure time.\n\nSection::::Residence time.\n", "Section::::Applied to the Earth.:Draining in bathtubs and toilets.\n", "The water in the toilet bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain. The bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line.\n", "In the United States, unlike the plumbing trap, the catch basin does not necessarily prevent sewer gases such as hydrogen sulfide and methane from escaping. However, in the United Kingdom, where they are called gully pots, they are designed as true water-filled traps and do block the egress of gases and rodents.\n", "Approximately one-quarter of United States SSOs occur during heavy rainfall events, which can cause inflow of stormwater into sanitary sewers through damage, improper connections, or flooding buildings and lift stations in low-lying areas of the collection system. The combined flow of sewage and stormwater exceeds the capacity of the sanitary sewer system and sewage is released into homes, businesses and streets. This circumstance is most prevalent in older cities whose subsurface infrastructure is quite old; Paris, London, Stockholm, New York City, Washington, DC, and Oakland, California are typical examples of such locations. Inflow into the sanitary lines can be caused by tree root rupture of subsurface lines or by mechanical fracture due to age and overpressure from trucks and buildings.\n", "Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm sewer networks are engineered to deal with stormwater. In some cities, such as the Victorian era London sewers or much of the old City of Toronto, the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system. In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water.\n\nAutonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways:\n", "A \"true siphonic toilet\" can be easily identified by the noise it makes. If it can be heard to suck air down the drain at the end of a flush, then it is a true siphonic toilet. If not, then it is either a double trap siphonic or a non-siphonic toilet.\n\nIf water is poured slowly into the bowl it simply flows over the rim of the waterway and pours slowly down the drain—thus the toilet does not flush properly.\n", "A sewer pipe is normally at neutral air pressure compared to the surrounding atmosphere. When a column of waste water flows through a pipe, it compresses air ahead of it in the pipe, creating a \"positive\" pressure that must be released so it does not push back on the waste stream and downstream trap water seals. As the column of water passes, air must freely flow in behind the waste stream, or \"negative\" pressure results. The extent of these pressure fluctuations is determined by the fluid volume of the waste discharge.\n", "The principal mechanism of ventilation in VIP latrines is the action of wind blowing across the top of the vent pipe. The wind creates a strong circulation of air through the superstructure, down through the squat hole, across the pit and up and out of the vent pipe. Unpleasant fecal odors from the pit contents are thus sucked up and exhausted out of vent pipe, leaving the superstructure odor-free. In some cases solar-powered fans are added giving a constant outwards flow from the vent pipe.\n", "On the other hand, if the air pressure within the drain becomes suddenly higher than ambient, this positive transient could cause waste water to be pushed into the fixture, breaking the trap seal, with serious hygiene and health consequences if too forceful. Tall buildings of three or more stories are particularly susceptible to this problem. Vent stacks are installed in parallel to waste stacks to allow proper venting in tall buildings.\n\nSection::::External venting.\n", "Gravity currents are frequently encountered in the built environment in the form of doorway flows. These occur when a door (or window) separates two rooms of different temperature and air exchanges are allowed to occur. This can for example be experienced when sitting in a heated lobby during winter and the entrance door is suddenly opened. In this case the cold air will first be felt by ones feet as a result of the outside air propagating as a gravity current along the floor of the room.\n", "The Coriolis force still affects the direction of the flow of water, but only minutely. Only if the water is so still that the effective rotation rate of the Earth is faster than that of the water relative to its container, and if externally applied torques (such as might be caused by flow over an uneven bottom surface) are small enough, the Coriolis effect may indeed determine the direction of the vortex. Without such careful preparation, the Coriolis effect is likely to be much smaller than various other influences on drain direction such as any residual rotation of the water and the geometry of the container. Despite this, the idea that toilets and bathtubs drain differently in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres has been popularized by several television programs and films, including \"Escape Plan\", \"Wedding Crashers\", \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Bart vs. Australia\", \"Pole to Pole\", and \"The X-Files\" episode \"Die Hand Die Verletzt\". Several science broadcasts and publications, including at least one college-level physics textbook, have also stated this.\n", "At the top of the toilet bowl is a rim with many angled drain holes that are fed from the tank, which fill, rinse, and induce swirling in the bowl when it is flushed. Some designs use a large hole in the front of the rim to allow faster filling of the bowl. There may also be a siphon jet hole about one inch (2.5 cm) diameter in the bottom of the toilet.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01238	Why aren't clouds a uniform sheet of vapor in the sky?	First things first: water vapour is invisible. Clouds are condensed water, ie actual droplets. Sometimes cloud cover is connected across the whole sky, other times not. The type of cloud formation depends on variables like the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, pressure and temperature - these control things like relative humidity, dew point and wind speed. Also, even if conditions were calm, water is not evaporating in uniform amounts from all regions of the Earth's surface.	[ "A sea of clouds forms generally in valleys or over seas in very stable air mass conditions such as in a temperature inversion. Humidity can then reach saturation and condensation leads to a very uniform stratocumulus cloud, stratus cloud or fog. Above this layer, the air must be dry. This is a common situation in a high-pressure area with cooling at the surface by radiative cooling at night in summer, or advection of cold air in winter or in a marine layer.\n\nSection::::Artistic uses.\n", "There are five main ways water vapor can be added to the air. Increased vapor content can result from wind convergence over water or moist ground into areas of upward motion. Precipitation or virga falling from above also enhances moisture content. Daytime heating causes water to evaporate from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land. Transpiration from plants is another typical source of water vapor. Lastly, cool or dry air moving over warmer water will become more humid. As with daytime heating, the addition of moisture to the air increases its heat content and instability and helps set into motion those processes that lead to the formation of cloud or fog.\n", "In meteorology, its role is crucial in the formation of rain. As droplets are carried by the updrafts and downdrafts in a cloud, they collide and coalesce to form larger droplets. When the droplets become too large to be sustained on the air currents, they begin to fall as rain. Adding to this process, the cloud may be seeded with ice from higher altitudes, either via the cloud tops reaching , or via the cloud being seeded by ice from cirrus clouds.\n", "Clouds and convection often arise from small-scale processes that occur within the ABL. Additionally, clouds and convection help tie together the ABL with the free atmosphere, as convection helps grow the ABL. Furthermore, when the environment is sufficiently unstable, convection may help wash away the temperature inversion that caps the ABL. Also, \"the convective motions associated with clouds produce important fluxes of mass, momentum, heat, and moisture\". The scales at which these fluxes are set come about are usually much smaller than GCM grids. However, these fluxes are often greater than those of the synoptic flow. Parameterizations of clouds and convection aim to address the scaling differences between GCM grids and cloud/convective scales.\n", "Distribution in the mesosphere is similar to the stratosphere except at much higher altitudes. Because of the need for maximum cooling of the water vapor to produce noctilucent clouds, their distribution tends to be restricted to polar regions of Earth. A major seasonal difference is that convective lift from below the mesosphere pushes very scarce water vapor to higher colder altitudes required for cloud formation during the respective summer seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres. Sightings are rare more than 45 degrees south of the north pole or north of the south pole.\n\nSection::::Extraterrestrial.\n", "As water evaporates from an area of Earth's surface, the air over that area becomes moist. Moist air is lighter than the surrounding dry air, creating an unstable situation. When enough moist air has accumulated, all the moist air rises as a single packet, without mixing with the surrounding air. As more moist air forms along the surface, the process repeats, resulting in a series of discrete packets of moist air rising to form clouds.\n", "While places such as the Californian coast regularly produce open cellular convection, atmospheric storm systems can also spur the production of open cellular clouds in regions of low climatological production. Open cellular patterns can often be found behind cold fronts in the cold unstable air, and produce multiple cloud types including cumulus congenstus, cumulonimbus, and stratocumulus clouds. However, the open cells formed in subtropical regions are not normally associated with synoptic storms.\n\nSection::::Planetary boundary layer clouds.:Closed cells.\n", "This distribution of molecular gas is averaged out over large distances; however, the small scale distribution of the gas is highly irregular with most of it concentrated in discrete clouds and cloud complexes.\n\nSection::::Types of molecular cloud.\n\nSection::::Types of molecular cloud.:Giant molecular clouds.\n", "BULLET::::3. The air must contain condensation nuclei, small solid particles, where condensation/sublimation starts.\n\nThe current use of fossil fuels enhances any of these three conditions. First, fossil fuel combustion generates water vapor. Additionally, this combustion also generates the formation of small solid particles that can act as condensation nuclei. Finally, all the combustion processes emit energy that enhance vertical upward movements. \n", "Water vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and 66% for clear sky conditions and between 66% and 85% when including clouds. Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally, but human activity does not directly affect water vapor concentrations except at local scales, such as near irrigated fields. Indirectly, human activity that increases global temperatures will increase water vapor concentrations, a process known as water vapor feedback. The atmospheric concentration of vapor is highly variable and depends largely on temperature, from less than 0.01% in extremely cold regions up to 3% by mass in saturated air at about 32 °C. (See Relative humidity#other important facts.)\n", "Divergence is the opposite of convergence. In the Earth's troposphere, it involves the horizontal outflow of air from the upper part of a rising column of air, or from the lower part of a subsiding column often associated with an area or ridge of high pressure. Cloudiness tends to be least prevalent near the poles and in the subtropics close to the 30th parallels, north and south. The latter are sometimes referred to as the horse latitudes. The presence of a large-scale high-pressure subtropical ridge on each side of the equator reduces cloudiness at these low latitudes. Similar patterns also occur at higher latitudes in both hemispheres.\n", "There are forces throughout the homosphere (which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere) that can impact the structural integrity of a cloud. However, as long as the air remains saturated, the natural force of cohesion that hold the molecules of a substance together acts to keep the cloud from breaking up. Dissolution of the cloud can occur when the process of adiabatic cooling ceases and upward lift of the air is replaced by subsidence. This leads to at least some degree of adiabatic warming of the air which can result in the cloud droplets or crystals turning back into invisible water vapor. Stronger forces such as wind shear and downdrafts can impact a cloud, but these are largely confined to the troposphere where nearly all the Earth's weather takes place. A typical cumulus cloud weighs about 500 metric tons, or 1.1 million pounds, the weight of 100 elephants.\n", "In the decades after Otto Jesse's death in 1901, there were few new insights into the nature of noctilucent clouds. Wegener's conjecture, that they were composed of water ice, was later shown to be correct. Study was limited to ground-based observations and scientists had very little knowledge of the mesosphere until the 1960s, when direct rocket measurements began. These showed for the first time that the occurrence of the clouds coincided with very low temperatures in the mesosphere.\n", "Noctilucent clouds are composed of tiny crystals of water ice up to 100 nm in diameter and exist at a height of about , higher than any other clouds in Earth's atmosphere. Clouds in the Earth's lower atmosphere form when water collects on particles, but mesospheric clouds may form directly from water vapour in addition to forming on dust particles.\n", "The formation of stars occurs exclusively within molecular clouds. This is a natural consequence of their low temperatures and high densities, because the gravitational force acting to collapse the cloud must exceed the internal pressures that are acting \"outward\" to prevent a collapse. There is observed evidence that the large, star-forming clouds are confined to a large degree by their own gravity (like stars, planets, and galaxies) rather than by external pressure. The evidence comes from the fact that the \"turbulent\" velocities inferred from CO linewidth scale in the same manner as the orbital velocity (a virial relation).\n\nSection::::Processes.:Physics.\n", "After relaxation, the speed of some low mass members can be greater than the escape velocity of the cluster, which results in these members being lost to the cluster. This process is called evaporation. (A similar phenomenon explains the loss of lighter gases from a planet, such as hydrogen and helium from the Earth—after equipartition, some molecules of sufficiently light gases at the top of the atmosphere will exceed the escape velocity of the planet and be lost.)\n", "Under certain conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere.\n", "Some of the processes driving this uniformity include heating convection and air flow patterns. In the troposphere, rising warm air replaces higher cooler air which mix gases vertically. Wind patterns push air across the surface mixing it horizontally. At higher altitudes, other atmospheric circulation regimes exist, such as the Brewer-Dobson circulation in the terrestrial stratosphere, which mixes the air. In Earth's mesophere, atmospheric waves become unstable and dissipate, creating turbulent mixing of this region. In general, all stable planetary atmospheres will have a homosphere where bulk gas distributions are well mixed by turbulence. \n\nSection::::Earth's Homosphere.\n", "In the mid-1950s, dense pockets of gas were first discovered outside of the galactic plane. This was quite notable because the models of the Milky Way showed the density of gas decreasing with distance from the galactic plane, rendering this a striking exception. According to the prevailing galactic models, the dense pockets should have dissipated long ago, making their very existence in the halo quite puzzling. In 1956 the solution was proposed that the dense pockets were stabilized by a hot, gaseous corona that surrounds the Milky Way. Inspired by this proposal, Jan Oort, of Leiden University, Netherlands, proposed that cold gas clouds might be found in the galactic halo, far away from the galactic plane.\n", "As the mesosphere contains very little moisture, approximately one hundred millionth that of air from the Sahara, and is extremely thin, the ice crystals can form only at temperatures below about . This means that noctilucent clouds form predominantly during summer when, counterintuitively, the mesosphere is coldest as a result of seasonally varying vertical winds, leading to cold summertime conditions in the upper mesosphere (upwelling and adiabatic cooling) and wintertime heating (downwelling and adiabatic heating). Therefore they can't be observed (even if they are present) inside the Polar circles because the Sun is never low enough under the horizon at this season at these latitudes. Noctilucent clouds form mostly near the polar regions, because the mesosphere is coldest there. Clouds in the southern hemisphere are about higher than those in the northern hemisphere.\n", "Complicating this picture of a collapsing cloud are the effects of turbulence, macroscopic flows, rotation, magnetic fields and the cloud geometry. Both rotation and magnetic fields can hinder the collapse of a cloud. Turbulence is instrumental in causing fragmentation of the cloud, and on the smallest scales it promotes collapse.\n\nSection::::Protostar.\n", "Observed from the ground, this phenomenon is known as noctilucent clouds. From satellites, PMCs are most frequently observed above 70°–75° in latitude and have a season of 60 to 80 days duration centered about a peak which occurs about 20 days after the summer solstice. This holds true for both hemispheres. Great variability in scattering is observed from day-to-day and year-to- year, but averaging over large time and space scales reveals a basic underlying symmetry and pattern. The long- term behaviour of polar mesospheric cloud frequency has been found to vary inversely with solar activity.\n", "Section::::Other effects of cloud feedback.\n\nIn addition to how clouds themselves will respond to increased temperatures, other feedbacks affect clouds properties and formation. The amount and vertical distribution of water vapor is closely linked to the formation of clouds. Ice crystals have been shown to largely influence the amount of water vapor. Water vapor in the subtropical upper troposphere has been linked to the convection of water vapor and ice. Changes in subtropical humidity could provide a negative feedback that decreases the amount of water vapor which in turn would act to mediate global climate transitions.\n", "Data from the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere satellite suggests that noctilucent clouds require water vapour, dust, and very cold temperatures to form. The sources of both the dust and the water vapour in the upper atmosphere are not known with certainty. The dust is believed to come from micrometeors, although particulates from volcanoes and dust from the troposphere are also possibilities. The moisture could be lifted through gaps in the tropopause, as well as forming from the reaction of methane with hydroxyl radicals in the stratosphere.\n", "Section::::Cloud formation: how the air becomes saturated.:Bergeron process.\n" ]	[ "Clouds should be uniform in the sky." ]	[ "Clouds are different due to differing atmospheric conditions." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Clouds should be uniform in the sky." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Clouds are different due to differing atmospheric conditions." ]
2018-20276	How does somebody lose their voice	You know how when you exercise too much you are sore the next day and can't run/jump/whatever as much as normal? It's like that except instead of your arms or legs being sore it's your vocal chords. When your vocal chords can't work as well your speech is handicapped similar to running when your legs are sore.	[ "I never lost my voice, but I lost strength in my diaphragm. ... Because of those organic complaints, I lost my courage and boldness. My vocal cords were and still are in excellent condition, but my 'sound boxes' have not been working well even though I have been to all the doctors. The result was that I overstrained my voice, and that caused it to wobble. (\"Gente\", October 1, 1977)\n", "CereProc voice cloning technology is currently being used in the UK by MND sufferers, to create synthesis voices before they lose the power of speech. This process was featured in a BBC Radio 4 documentary, \"Giving the Critic Back His Voice\", broadcast in August 2011.\n\nSection::::System compatibility.\n", "People with vocal cord dysfunction often complain of \"difficulty in breathing in” or “fighting for breath”, which can lead to subjective respiratory distress, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. They may report tightness in the throat or chest, choking, stridor on inhalation and wheezing, which can resemble the symptoms of asthma. These episodes of dyspnea can be recurrent and symptoms can range from mild to severe and prolonged in some cases. Agitation and a sense of panic are not uncommon and can result in hospitalization.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Noah Taylor as Danny Embling\n\nBULLET::::- Loene Carmen as Freya Olson\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Mendelsohn as Trevor Leishman\n\nBULLET::::- Graeme Blundell as Nils Olson\n\nBULLET::::- Lynette Curran as Anne Olson\n\nBULLET::::- Malcolm Robertson as Bruce Embling\n\nBULLET::::- Judi Farr as Sheila Embling\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nThe treatment of vocal fold paralysis varies depending on its cause and main symptoms. For example, if laryngeal nerve paralysis is caused by a tumor, suitable therapy should be initiated. In the absence of any additional pathology, the first step of clinical management should be observation to determine whether spontaneous nerve recovery will occur. Voice therapy with a speech-language pathologist is suitable at this time, to help manage compensatory vocal behaviours which may manifest in response to the paralysis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Voice therapy.\n", "In July 2008, Curreri suffered a throat injury, which caused him to cancel the majority of his remaining concerts for the year. He explains: \"Basically I quit smoking, and it turns out that you can damage your vocal chords right after that pretty easily because they expand in their newfound health.\"\n", "There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production. Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.\n\nSection::::Vocal cord nodules and polyps.\n", "Signs of laryngeal paralysis include voice change (the dog's bark becomes hoarse-sounding), gagging or coughing (often during or after eating or drinking), exercise intolerance, inspiratory stridor (noisy breathing on inspiration), difficulty breathing, and in severe cases cyanosis or syncope (fainting). Secondary problems may also occur, including aspiration or edema in the lungs, though often the problem remains an upper respiratory problem. Affected dogs are vulnerable to heat stroke and heat exhaustion due to their limited ability to cool themselves down by panting, but the disorder itself can be mistaken for heat stroke. \n", "Paradoxical vocal fold movement (PVFM) is also treated medically and behaviorally. Behavioral interventions will focus on voice exercises, relaxation strategies, and techniques that can be used to support breath. More generally, however, PVFM interventions focus on helping an individual to understand what triggers the episode, and how to deal with it when it does occur.\n\nWhile there is no cure for spasmodic dysphonia, medical and psychological interventions can alleviate some of the symptoms. Medical interventions involve repeated injections of Botox into one or both of the vocal cords. This weakens the laryngeal muscles, and results in a smoother voice.\n", "Doctors had told him that his condition could cause him to not being able to talk or sing, due to the facial muscles that are not working. \n\nThis is the reason why he keeps on singing while he still can. He will undergo a procedure called “facial sling”, which is said to temporarily help the situation.\n", "BULLET::::4. recovery period\n\nThese stages must be under conscious control by the singer until they become conditioned reflexes. Many singers abandon conscious controls before their reflexes are fully conditioned which ultimately leads to chronic vocal problems.\n\nSection::::Topics of study.:Voice classification.\n", "There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. \n\nBULLET::::- Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.\n", "Section::::Rehabilitation.\n\nSection::::Rehabilitation.:Voice restoration.\n\nTotal laryngectomy results in the removal of the larynx, an organ essential for natural sound production. The loss of voice and of normal and efficient verbal communication is a negative consequence associated with this type of surgery and can have significant impacts on the quality of life of these individuals. Voice rehabilitation is an important component of the recovery process following the surgery. Technological and scientific advances over the years have led to the development of different techniques and devices specialized in voice restoration.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "Rhea Zakich, then a young mother from Garden Grove, California, was forced not to speak for months after her doctor found polyps on her vocal cords. Although the polyps were removed and she made a full recovery, the experience affected her: unable to speak for that long period, and afraid that the problem might return, she felt emotionally estranged from her family. This led her to the realization that, as she put it, \"we all spend so much time talking... but we never really communicate.\"\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Potential comorbidities.\n", "After experiencing vocal trouble for almost a decade, Sickmen had surgery to remove vocal polyps in 2015. Though the operation may not have improved his singing voice, he says, his voice is \"stronger\" as a result of undergoing it.\n\nSection::::History.:\"The Dirty Bird\".\n", "Patients with either vocal fold paresis or paralysis may exhibit a breathy voice quality. This voice quality results from the increased activity of the vocal folds to compensate for the immobility of the PCA muscle(s). Patients may need to use more effort than normal when speaking and may find that their voice quiets or grows tired after speaking for a long time. This is known as vocal fatigue. Patients may also complain about having a limited pitch range and trouble varying their pitch at quick rate. It is often difficult for the speaker to project their voice and speak loud enough to be heard in noisy environments, over background noise, or when speaking to someone from a distance. It is possible for symptoms to surface only in situations where the environmental acoustics are poor, such as outdoors. Patients may report feeling pain in the throat or experiencing bouts of choking. A patient presenting with diplophonia is of major concern as this typically means that the mass and tension of their vocal folds are asymmetrical which may also indicate vocal fold paresis.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nIn most cases, the cause of laryngeal paralysis is unknown or idiopathic. However, the disorder may arise secondary to general neuropathies, generalized neuromuscular diseases, muscular diseases, neoplasia either in the cervical (neck) region or the cranial mediastinum, or trauma. This acquired form occurs predominantly in middle-aged to old large breed or giant breed dogs such as the Labrador Retriever, golden retriever, Siberian Husky, Newfoundland, and St. Bernard. Usually these dogs are born with a normal larynx, but over time the nerves and muscles that control the laryngeal cartilages lose function.\n", "BULLET::::- The Smoking Family: A family of serial smokers who only spend their money on their incredibly heavy addiction to cigarettes. They have all lost their voices (due to throat cancer) so they have to rely on voice boxes to communicate.\n\nBULLET::::- The Sewer Workers: Two sewer workers who find strange ways of amusing themselves in the sewer, including playing with faeces.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Reinke’s edema.\n\nA voice pathology called Reinke’s edema, swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid, occurs in the superficial lamina propria or Reinke’s space. This causes the vocal fold mucosa to appear floppy with excessive movement of the cover that has been described as looking like a loose sock. The greater mass of the vocal folds due to increased fluid lowers the fundamental frequency (\"f\") during phonation.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Wound healing.\n", "Section::::Howard loses his voice.\n", "The symptoms of vocal fold cysts vary but most commonly include a hoarse voice and problems with the pitch of the voice. Vocal fold cysts are diagnosed based on gathering a case history, perceptual examination, and laryngeal imaging. Practicing good vocal hygiene is recommended to prevent vocal fold cysts. Initial treatment of the cysts involves voice therapy to reduce harmful vocal behaviours. If symptoms remain after voice therapy, patients may require surgery to remove the cyst. Surgery is typically followed by vocal rest and further voice therapy to improve voice function. Cysts may also be treated using vocal fold steroid injection.\n", "Besides complications of surgery and anesthesia in general, there may be drainage, swelling, or redness of the incision, gagging or coughing during eating or drinking, or pneumonia due to aspiration of food or liquids. Undesirable complications are estimated to occur in 10-30% of cases. If medical therapy is unsuccessful and surgery cannot be performed due to concurrent disease (such as heart or lung problems) or cost, euthanasia may be necessary if the animal's quality of life is considered unacceptable due to the disease.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Until My Voice Goes Out\n\nUntil My Voice Goes Out is the fifth studio album by country band Josh Abbott Band. It was released on August 18, 2017 via Pretty Damn Tough and Reviver. The album title comes from Josh Abbott recording all the vocals for the album in one night. It peaked at number 22 on the \"Billboard\" Country Albums chart.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09935	Do alcoholics metabolize alcohol differently from average drinkers? How so?	There are 2 methods for the body to metabolize alcohol. Light, occasional drinkers mostly only use one, the "alcohol dehydrogenase pathway." When this pathway is overwhelmed, the "microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system" starts. This pathway is also why stronger drinks are linked with a warm feeling, this pathway wastes some energy as heat. Someone who drinks heavily and regularly will have more enzymes for MEOS, speeding their breakdown of alcohol.	[ "Ethanol metabolism\n\nEthanol, an alcohol found in nature and in alcoholic drinks, is metabolized through a complex catabolic metabolic pathway.\n\nSection::::Human metabolic physiology.\n\nSection::::Human metabolic physiology.:Ethanol and evolution.\n", "In human embryos and fetuses, ethanol is not metabolized via this mechanism as ADH enzymes are not yet expressed to any significant quantity in human fetal liver (the induction of ADH only starts after birth, and requires years to reach adult levels). Accordingly, the fetal liver cannot metabolize ethanol or other low molecular weight xenobiotiocs. In fetuses, ethanol is instead metabolized at much slower rates by different enzymes from the cytochrome P-450 superfamily (CYP), in particular by CYP2E1. The low fetal rate of ethanol clearance is responsible for the important observation that the fetal compartment retains high levels of ethanol long after ethanol has been cleared from the maternal circulation by the adult ADH activity in the maternal liver. CYP2E1 expression and activity have been detected in various human fetal tissues after the onset of organogenesis (ca 50 days of gestation). Exposure to ethanol is known to promote further induction of this enzyme in fetal and adult tissues. CYP2E1 is a major contributor to the so-called Microsomal Ethanol Oxidizing System (MEOS) and its activity in fetal tissues is thought to contribute significantly to the toxicity of maternal ethanol consumption. In presence of ethanol and oxygen, CYP2E1 is known to release superoxide radicals and induce the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to toxic aldehyde products like 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE).\n", "Some individuals have less effective forms of one or both of the metabolizing enzymes of ethanol, and can experience more marked symptoms from ethanol consumption than others. However, those having acquired alcohol tolerance have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Elimination.\n\nEthanol is mainly eliminated from the body via metabolism into carbon dioxide and water. Around 5 to 10% of ethanol that is ingested is eliminated unchanged in urine, breath, and sweat. Ethanol or its metabolites may be detectable in urine for up to 96 hours after ingestion.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Urine and blood tests.\n\nThere are reliable tests for the actual use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content (BAC). These tests do not differentiate alcoholics from non-alcoholics; however, long-term heavy drinking does have a few recognizable effects on the body, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV)\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated GGT\n\nBULLET::::- Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and an AST: ALT ratio of 2:1\n\nBULLET::::- High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT)\n", "Research by Vaillant and others found that there were no obvious factors or personality differences to distinguish alcoholics from abstainers; “To a large extent, relapse to and remission from alcoholism remains a mystery.” As was observed in the 1940s in patients with tuberculosis—at that time incurable—recovery depended largely on the patient's own resistance and morale. The same applies to alcoholism, which at present still has no known ‘cure’. As with diabetes, professional help is in training to prevent a relapse and in crisis intervention until patients are strong enough to heal themselves. If natural forces are dominant in the healing process, then treatment should aim to strengthen and support these natural forces, Vaillant argued. The alcoholic needs support in making the required personality change. Thus, achieving long-term sobriety usually involves \n", "On average, it takes about one hour for the body to metabolise (break down) one UK unit of alcohol, 10 ml (8 grams). However, this can vary with body weight, sex, age, personal metabolic rate, recent food intake, the type and strength of the alcohol, and medications taken. Alcohol may be metabolised more slowly if liver function is impaired.\n", "Certain alcoholic beverages can also contain congeners that may also be bioactive; therefore, the consumption of varying alcoholic beverages may result in different health consequences. An individual’s nutritional intake also plays a role in the development of this disease. Depending on the specific dietary habits, they may have a deficiency of one or more of the following: thiamine (vitamin B1), pyridoxine (vitamin B6), pantothenic acid and biotin, vitamin B12, folic acid, niacin (vitamin B3), and vitamin A.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Acetaldehyde.\n", "It is difficult to assess the prognosis of a patient because it is hard to convince chronic alcoholics to abstain from drinking alcohol completely. It has been shown that a good prognosis may be given for mild neuropathy if the alcoholic has abstained from drinking for 3–5 years. During the early stages of the disease the damage appears reversible when people take adequate amounts of vitamins, such as thiamine. If the polyneuropathy is mild, the individual normally experiences a significant improvement and symptoms may be completely eliminated within weeks to months after proper nutrition is established. When those people diagnosed with alcohol polyneuropathy experience a recovery, it is presumed to result from regeneration and collateral sprouting of the damaged axons.\n", "BULLET::::- According to Alcohol and You Northern Ireland resource website, \"Most alcopops contain 1.1–1.5 units per bottle. For example, a normal 275 ml bottle of WKD contains 1.1 units, whereas Bacardi Breezer and Smirnoff Ice both contain 1.5 units of alcohol.\"\n\nSection::::Time to metabolise.\n\nOn average, it takes about one hour for the body to metabolise (break down) one unit of alcohol. However, this will vary with body weight, sex, age, personal metabolic rate, recent food intake, the type and strength of the alcohol, and medications taken. Alcohol may be metabolised more slowly if liver function is impaired.\n\nSection::::Recommended maximum.\n", "Research on alcohol’s effects on cortisol dates back to the 1950s. Many studies showed a relation between the two, however they were limited to short-term alcohol ingestion. The first human study to assess the long-term effects of alcohol ingestion on cortisol was conducted in 1966 (Mendelson et al.). They found heightened cortisol levels in both alcoholics and non-alcoholics while actively drinking. Cortisol was overall higher in alcoholics than non-alcoholics, indicating that alcohol has long-term effects on the endocrine system. Also, alcoholics had the highest cortisol levels after drinking stopped, demonstrating symptoms of withdrawal (a hormonal marker of alcohol addiction).\n", "Section::::Gene expression and ethanol metabolism.:Ethanol to acetaldehyde in human adults.:Ethanol to acetaldehyde in human fetuses.\n", "Non-alcoholic and alcoholic fatty liver disease share similar histological features, which suggests that they might share common pathogenic pathways. Indeed, NASH patients can have elevated levels of blood ethanol and proteobacteria (which produce alcohol), with dysbiosis proposed as a mechanism for this elevation. Fructose can cause inflammation and addiction similarly to ethanol by using similar metabolic pathways, unlike glucose, which prompts some researchers to argue that non-alcoholic and alcoholic fatty liver disease are similar diseases. Excessive macronutrients intake contributes to tissue inflammation and perturbation of homeostasis, and micronutrients might also be involved. Lifestyle changes, in addition to reducing weight and risk factors, might also prompt changes in the gut microbiota.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Adenylyl Cyclase.\n\nAdenylyl cyclase (AC) plays a role in ethanol induced signaling pathways. Acute ethanol may increase AC activity resulting in increased levels of cAMP and altered activity of cAMP targets. Of the cAMP targets, protein kinase A (PKA) has been associated with ethanol use. While acute ethanol use increases the activity of AC, chronic use tends to desensitize AC such that more simulation, increased ethanol consumption, is required to elicit the same response.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Kinases.\n", "Alcohol use disorders often cause a wide range of cognitive impairments that result in significant impairment of the affected individual. If alcohol-induced neurotoxicity has occurred a period of abstinence for on average a year is required for the cognitive deficits of alcohol abuse to reverse.\n", "Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\n", "The CYP epoxygenases, similar to essentially all CYP450 enzymes, are involved in the metabolism of diverse xenobiotics and natural compounds. Since many of these same compounds also induce increases in the levels of the epoxygenases, CYP oxygenase levels and consequently EET levels in humans vary widely and are highly dependent on their recent consumption history.\n\nSection::::Metabolism of EETs.\n", "Section::::Organic reaction scheme.\n\nSection::::Organic reaction scheme.:Steps of the reaction.\n\nThe first three steps of the reaction pathways lead from ethanol to acetaldehyde to acetic acid to acetyl-CoA. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, it is free to enter directly into the citric acid cycle.\n\nSection::::Gene expression and ethanol metabolism.\n\nSection::::Gene expression and ethanol metabolism.:Ethanol to acetaldehyde in human adults.\n", "Retrograde extrapolation is the mathematical process by which someone's blood alcohol concentration at the time of driving is estimated by projecting backwards from a later chemical test. This involves estimating the absorption and elimination of alcohol in the interim between driving and testing. The rate of elimination in the average person is commonly estimated at .015 to .020 grams per deciliter per hour (g/dl/h), although again this can vary from person to person and in a given person from one moment to another. Metabolism can be affected by numerous factors, including such things as body temperature, the type of alcoholic beverage consumed, and the amount and type of food consumed.\n", "At even low physiological concentrations, ethanol completely saturates alcohol dehydrogenase. This is because ethanol has high affinity for the enzyme and very high concentrations of ethanol occur when it is used as a recreational substance. For this reason, the metabolism of ethanol follows zero-order kinetics at typical physiological concentrations. That is, ethanol does not have an elimination half-life (i.e., is not metabolized at an exponential rate), and instead, is eliminated from the circulation at a constant rate. The mean elimination rates for ethanol are 15 mg/dL per hour for men and 18 mg/dL per hour for women, with a range of 10 to 34 mg/dL per hour. At very high concentrations, such as in overdose, it has been found that the rate of elimination of ethanol is increased. In addition, ethanol metabolism follows first-order kinetics at very high concentrations, with an elimination half-life of about 4 or 4.5 hours (which implies a clearance rate of approximately 6 L/hour/70 kg). This seems to be because other processes, such as the MEOS/CYP2E1, also become involved in the metabolism of ethanol at higher concentrations. However, the MEOS/CYP2E1 alone does not appear sufficient to fully explain the increase in ethanol metabolism rate.\n", "Despite intense research efforts, the exact mechanism for the development of FAS or FASD is unknown. On the contrary, clinical and animal studies have identified a broad spectrum of pathways through which maternal alcohol can negatively affect the outcome of a pregnancy. Clear conclusions with universal validity are difficult to draw, since different ethnic groups show considerable genetic polymorphism for the hepatic enzymes responsible for ethanol detoxification.\n\nGenetic examinations have revealed a continuum of long-lasting molecular effects that are not only timing specific but are also dosage specific; with even moderate amounts being able to cause alterations.\n", "All four diagnostic systems show virtual agreement on their criteria for CNS damage at the neurological level, and evidence of a CNS neurological impairment due to prenatal alcohol exposure will result in a diagnosis of FAS or pFAS, and functional impairments are highly likely.\n", "Section::::Human metabolic physiology.:Physiologic structures.\n\nA basic organizing theme in biological systems is that increasing complexity in specialized tissues and organs, allows for greater specificity of function. This occurs for the processing of ethanol in the human body. The enzymes required for the oxidation reactions are confined to certain tissues. In particular, much higher concentration of such enzymes are found in the liver, which is the primary site for alcohol catabolism. Variations in genes influence alcohol metabolism and drinking behavior.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.:Energy thermodynamics.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamic considerations.:Energy thermodynamics.:Energy calculations.\n", "Absorption of alcohol continues for anywhere from 20 minutes (on an empty stomach) to two-and-one-half hours (on a full stomach) after the last consumption. Peak absorption generally occurs within an hour. During the initial absorptive phase, the distribution of alcohol throughout the body is not uniform. Uniformity of distribution, called equilibrium, occurs just as absorption completes. In other words, some parts of the body will have a higher blood alcohol content (BAC) than others. One aspect of the non-uniformity before absorption is complete is that the BAC in arterial blood will be higher than in venous blood. \n", "Compounds begin to break down as soon as they enter the body. The majority of small-molecule drug metabolism is carried out in the liver by redox enzymes, termed cytochrome P450 enzymes. As metabolism occurs, the initial (parent) compound is converted to new compounds called metabolites. When metabolites are pharmacologically inert, metabolism deactivates the administered dose of parent drug and this usually reduces the effects on the body. Metabolites may also be pharmacologically active, sometimes more so than the parent drug (see prodrug).\n\nSection::::Components.:Excretion.\n", "The diagnosis is made in a patient with history of significant alcohol intake who develops worsening liver function tests, including elevated bilirubin and aminotransferases. The ratio of aspartate aminotransferase to alanine aminotransferase is usually 2 or more. In most cases, the liver enzymes do not exceed 500. The changes on liver biopsy are important in confirming a clinical diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nClinical practice guidelines have recommended corticosteroids. People should be risk stratified using a MELD Score or Child-Pugh score.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01637	Why is there snow on the Mt.Everest when the clouds are under the top of the Mountain?	Additional clouds go above it. There is no one single altitude at which clouds form. But you're right that many are below the peak.	[ "Cirrus clouds that produced snow were sighted in \"Phoenix\" imagery. The clouds formed at a level in the atmosphere that was around -65 °C, so the clouds would have to be composed of water-ice, rather than carbon dioxide-ice because the temperature for forming carbon dioxide ice is much lower—less than -120 °C. As a result of the mission, it is now believed that water ice (snow) would have accumulated later in the year at this location.\n", "The intermediate layers of the troposphere are the regions with less influence of human activity. This region is far enough from the surface for not being affected by the surface emissions. Additionally, commercial and military flights only cross this region during ascending or descending maneuvers. Moreover, in this region there exist two types of clouds with a large horizontal extension: \"Nimbostratus\" and \"Altostratus\", which cannot originate from human activity. Consequently, it is assumed that there are no anthropic clouds of these two \"genera\". However, what can occur is enhancing existing \"Nimbostratus\" or \"Altostratus\" due to the additional water vapor or condensation nuclei emitted by a thermal power plant, for instance. \n", "Approaching \"Mountains and Clouds\" from the south entrance gives a different impression; one initially sees only two mountain peaks, and the highest seems to touch or merge into the lowest cloud form. From this perspective, it is the mountain-cloud unit that impresses.\n", "Glaciations in East Africa are associated with a colder, drier climate when the precipitation is less, but the extra temperature drop means any solid precipitation stays. Stratus cloud, which probably dominated during some of the glaciations would have provided insulation but little precipitation.\n", "Cloud cover has been seen on most other planets in the solar system. Venus's thick clouds are composed of sulfur dioxide (due to volcanic activity) and appear to be almost entirely stratiform. They are arranged in three main layers at altitudes of 45 to 65 km that obscure the planet's surface and can produce virga. No embedded cumuliform types have been identified, but broken stratocumuliform wave formations are sometimes seen in the top layer that reveal more continuous layer clouds underneath. On Mars, noctilucent, cirrus, cirrocumulus and stratocumulus composed of water-ice have been detected mostly near the poles. Water-ice fogs have also been detected on Mars.\n", "Numerous experiments have been done with those two methods in the troposphere. At higher altitudes, NASA studied inducing noctilucent clouds in 1960 and 2009. In 1984 satellites from three nations took part in an artificial cloud experiment as part of a study of solar winds and comets. A European satellite released and ignited barium and copper oxide 43,000 miles in space to create a 2,000 mile mauve and green plume visible for 22 minutes. It was part of a study of magnetic and electric fields.\n", "Nonvertical clouds in the middle level are prefixed by \"alto-\", yielding the genus names \"altocumulus\" (Ac) for stratocumuliform types and \"altostratus\" (As) for stratiform types. These clouds can form as low as above surface at any latitude, but may be based as high as near the poles, at midlatitudes, and in the tropics. As with high clouds, the main genus types are easily identified by the human eye, but distinguishing between them using satellite photography is not possible. Without the support of human observations, these clouds are usually collectively identified as \"middle-type\" on satellite images.\n\nBULLET::::- Genus altocumulus (Ac):\n", "Section::::Generating process.:High homogenitus.\n\nDespite the fact that the three genera of high clouds, \"Cirrus\", \"Cirrocumulus\" and \"Cirrostratus\", form at the top of the troposphere, far from the earth surface, they may have an anthropogenic origin. In this case, the process that causes their formation is almost always the same: commercial and military aircraft flight. Exhaust products from the combustion of the kerosene expelled by engines provide water vapor to this region of the troposphere. \n", "The only anthropic clouds existing in the middle region of the troposphere are \"Altocumulus homogenitus\" (\"Aca\") from contrails at this region.\n\nSection::::Generating process.:Low homogenitus.\n", "Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel east toward the Cascade Mountains. As fronts approach, they are forced upward by the peaks of the Cascade Range, causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the Cascades (Orographic lift). As a result, the Cascades experience high precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. \n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "Noctilucent clouds are composed of tiny crystals of water ice up to 100 nm in diameter and exist at a height of about , higher than any other clouds in Earth's atmosphere. Clouds in the Earth's lower atmosphere form when water collects on particles, but mesospheric clouds may form directly from water vapour in addition to forming on dust particles.\n", "Section::::Polar stratospheric.\n\nPolar stratospheric clouds (PSC's) form in the lowest part of the stratosphere during the winter, at the altitude and during the season that produces the coldest temperatures and therefore the best chances of triggering condensation caused by adiabatic cooling. Moisture is scarce in the stratosphere, so nacreous and non-nacreous cloud at this altitude range is restricted to polar regions in the winter where the air is coldest.\n", "\"All are formed in cloud, except for rime, which forms on objects exposed to supercooled moisture.\"\n", "Snow clouds usually occur in the context of larger weather systems, the most important of which is the low pressure area, which typically incorporate warm and cold fronts as part of their circulation. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect (also sea-effect) storms and elevation effects, especially in mountains.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.:Cloud formation.:Low pressure areas.\n", "Some clouds can form at very high to extreme levels above the troposphere, mostly above the polar regions of Earth. Polar stratospheric clouds clouds are seen but rarely in winter at altitudes of 18 to 30 kilometers, while in summer, noctilucent clouds occasionally form at high latitudes at an altitude range of 76 to 85 kilometers. These polar clouds show some of the same forms as seen lower in the troposphere.\n\nHomospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels.\n", "Section::::Weather.\n\nThe Matterhorn is an isolated mountain. Because of its position on the main Alpine watershed and its great height, the Matterhorn is exposed to rapid weather changes. In addition, the steep faces of the mountain and its isolated location make it prone to banner clouds formation, with the air flowing around the mountain producing condensation of the air on the lee side and also creating vortices.\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "Further terms can be added to describe the origin of the cloud. \"Homogenitus\" is a suffix that signifies that a cloud originates from human activity. For instance \"Cumulus\" originated by human activity is called \"Cumulus homogenitus\" and abbreviated as CUa. If a \"homogenitus\" cloud of one genus changes to another genus type, it is termed a \"homomutatus\" cloud.\n\nSection::::Generating process.\n\nThe international cloud classification divide the different \"genera\" in three main groups of clouds according to their altitude:\n\nBULLET::::- High clouds\n\nBULLET::::- Middle clouds\n\nBULLET::::- Low clouds\n\nHomogenitus clouds will be generated by different sources at those different levels.\n", "Rainfall in the southern part of the Annapurnas is higher than in the rain shadow to the north of the peaks. Annual precipitation is highest during the Asian monsoon between June and September ranging from on the southern slopes at altitude to in rain shadow areas at altitude. Snow accumulates between . In the winter of 1999–2000, areas above were snow-covered until end of March, and until May above . At this altitude, winter air temperatures range from .\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal: \"Annapurna Conservation Area\"\n", "High-level genus-types particularly show this duality with both short-wave albedo cooling and long-wave greenhouse warming effects. On the whole, \"ice-crystal\" clouds in the upper troposphere (cirrus) tend to favor net warming. However, the cooling effect is dominant with mid-level and low clouds, especially when they form in extensive sheets. Measurements by NASA indicate that on the whole, the effects of low and mid-level clouds that tend to promote cooling outweigh the warming effects of high layers and the variable outcomes associated with vertically developed clouds.\n", "Sometimes the inversion layer is at a high enough altitude that cumulus clouds can condense but can only spread out under the inversion layer. This decreases the amount of sunlight reaching the ground and prevents new thermals from forming. As the clouds disperse, sunny weather replaces cloudiness in a cycle that can occur more than once a day.\n", "Data from the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere satellite suggests that noctilucent clouds require water vapour, dust, and very cold temperatures to form. The sources of both the dust and the water vapour in the upper atmosphere are not known with certainty. The dust is believed to come from micrometeors, although particulates from volcanoes and dust from the troposphere are also possibilities. The moisture could be lifted through gaps in the tropopause, as well as forming from the reaction of methane with hydroxyl radicals in the stratosphere.\n", "Section::::Appearance.\n", "Distribution in the mesosphere is similar to the stratosphere except at much higher altitudes. Because of the need for maximum cooling of the water vapor to produce noctilucent clouds, their distribution tends to be restricted to polar regions of Earth. A major seasonal difference is that convective lift from below the mesosphere pushes very scarce water vapor to higher colder altitudes required for cloud formation during the respective summer seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres. Sightings are rare more than 45 degrees south of the north pole or north of the south pole.\n\nSection::::Extraterrestrial.\n", "In the summer, the Indian monsoon brings warm wet air from the Indian Ocean to Everest's south side. During the winter the west-southwest flowing jet stream shifts south and blows on the peak.\n\nSection::::History of expeditions.\n\nBecause Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, it has attracted considerable attention and climbing attempts. A set of climbing routes has been established over several decades of climbing expeditions to the mountain. Whether the mountain was climbed in ancient times is unknown. It may have been climbed in 1924.\n\nSection::::History of expeditions.:Overview.\n", "The UAE has an arid climate with less than 100mm per year of rainfall, a high evaporation rate of surface water and a low groundwater recharge rate. Although rainfall in the UAE has been fluctuating over the last few decades in winter season, most of that occurs in the December to March period. During the summer months, the prevailing Indian Monsoon drought effect leads to a build-up of cumulus clouds especially along the mountainous terrain in the eastern UAE.\n" ]	[ "All clouds are below the top of Mt. Everest." ]	[ "Some clouds go above Mt. Everest." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All clouds are below the top of Mt. Everest." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some clouds go above Mt. Everest." ]
2018-16617	How do chemicals from smoking (cigarettes or marijuana) get from our lungs to our brain?	Same way oxygen does: the lungs provide a thin surface through which chemicals can soak into nearby blood vessels. The blood then carries them through the whole body, where various tissues can soak them up.	[ "Inhaling the vaporized gas form of substances into the lungs is a quick and very effective way of delivering drugs into the bloodstream (as the gas diffuses directly into the pulmonary vein, then into the heart and from there to the brain) and affects the user within less than a second of the first inhalation. The lungs consist of several million tiny bulbs called alveoli that altogether have an area of over 70 m² (about the area of a tennis court). This can be used to administer useful medical as well as recreational drugs such as aerosols, consisting of tiny droplets of a medication, or as gas produced by burning plant material with a psychoactive substance or pure forms of the substance itself. Not all drugs can be smoked, for example the sulphate derivative that is most commonly inhaled through the nose, though purer free base forms of substances can, but often require considerable skill in administering the drug properly. The method is also somewhat inefficient since not all of the smoke will be inhaled. The inhaled substances trigger chemical reactions in nerve endings in the brain due to being similar to naturally occurring substances such as endorphins and dopamine, which are associated with sensations of pleasure. The result is what is usually referred to as a \"high\" that ranges between the mild stimulus caused by nicotine to the intense euphoria caused by heroin, cocaine and methamphetamines.\n", "The active substances in tobacco, especially cigarettes, are administered by burning the leaves and inhaling the vaporized gas that results. This quickly and effectively delivers substances into the bloodstream by absorption through the alveoli in the lungs. The lungs contain some 300 million alveoli, which amounts to a surface area of over 70 m (about the size of a tennis court). This method is not completely efficient as not all of the smoke will be inhaled, and some amount of the active substances will be lost in the process of combustion, pyrolysis. Pipe and Cigar smoke are not inhaled because of its high alkalinity, which are irritating to the trachea and lungs. However, because of its higher alkalinity (pH 8.5) compared to cigarette smoke (pH 5.3), non-ionized nicotine is more readily absorbed through the mucous membranes in the mouth. Nicotine absorption from cigar and pipe, however, is much less than that from cigarette smoke. Nicotine and cocaine activate similar patterns of neurons, which supports the existence of common substrates among these drugs.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Other functions of the lungs.:Contributions to whole body functions.\n\nThe lung vessels contain a fibrinolytic system that dissolves clots that may have arrived in the pulmonary circulation by embolism, often from the deep veins in the legs. They also release a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood, and they remove other substances from the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Some prostaglandins are removed from the circulation, while others are synthesized in the lungs and released into the blood when lung tissue is stretched.\n", "An early theory, the Meyer-Overton hypothesis, suggested that narcosis happens when the gas penetrates the lipids of the brain's nerve cells, causing direct mechanical interference with the transmission of signals from one nerve cell to another. More recently, specific types of chemically gated receptors in nerve cells have been identified as being involved with anesthesia and narcosis. However, the basic and most general underlying idea, that nerve transmission is altered in many diffuse areas of the brain as a result of gas molecules dissolved in the nerve cells' fatty membranes, remains largely unchallenged.\n\nSection::::Management and diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- The control of ventilation via signals from the carotid and aortic bodies. Respiration is regulated by groups of chemoreceptors. These sensors detect changes in the acidity of the blood; if, for example, the blood becomes too acidic, the medulla oblongata sends electrical signals to intercostal and phrenical muscle tissue to increase their contraction rate and increase oxygenation of the blood. The ventral respiratory group and the dorsal respiratory group are neurons involved in this regulation. The pre-Bötzinger complex is a cluster of interneurons involved in the respiratory function of the medulla.\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiovascular center – sympathetic, parasympathetic nervous system\n", "The lungs are supplied by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. Input from the parasympathetic nervous system occurs via the vagus nerve. When stimulated by acetylcholine, this causes constriction of the smooth muscle lining the bronchus and bronchioles, and increases the secretions from glands. The lungs also have a sympathetic tone from norepinephrine acting on the beta 2 receptors in the respiratory tract, which causes bronchodilation.\n\nThe action of breathing takes place because of nerve signals sent by the respiratory centres in the brainstem, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm.\n\nSection::::Structure of the human lungs.:Variation.\n", "The brain controls the rate of breathing, mainly by respiratory centres in the medulla and pons. The respiratory centres control respiration, by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. This is a mixed nerve that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to breathe in and receives sensory information directly from the body. Also in the medulla, the ventral respiratory group influences breathing out during exertion. In the pons the pneumotaxic centre influences the duration of each breath, and the apneustic centre seems to have an influence on inhalation. The respiratory centres directly senses blood carbon dioxide and pH. Information about blood oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH levels are also sensed on the walls of arteries in the peripheral chemoreceptors of the aortic and carotid bodies. This information is passed via the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the respiratory centres. High carbon dioxide, an acidic pH, or low oxygen stimulate the respiratory centres. The desire to breathe in is also affected by pulmonary stretch receptors in the lungs which, when activated, prevent the lungs from overinflating by transmitting information to the respiratory centres via the vagus nerve.\n", "Several synthetic compounds have been shown to act on neurons specific to the preBötC, most being selective agonists or antagonists to receptor subtypes on neurons in the vicinity. Since many of these neurons express GABA, glutamate, serotonin and adenosine receptors, chemicals custom tailored to bind at these sites are most effective at altering respiratory rhythm.\n", "Section::::Possible solutions.:Nanoparticles.\n", "Section::::Brain involvement.:Involuntary expiration.:Receptors.\n", "Inhalation by smoking a substance is likely the most rapid way to deliver drugs to the brain, as the substance travels directly to the brain without being diluted in the systemic circulation. The severity of dependence on psychoactive drugs tends to increase with more rapid drug delivery.\n\nSection::::Choice of routes.:Parenteral.\n\nThe term injection encompasses intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC) and intradermal (ID) administration.\n", "Following Altman's work, thymidine-H injections were used to examine the brains of a variety of other species. In the late 1970s Steven Goldman used this technique to examine the vocal control centers of songbirds, and he found widespread evidence of adult neurogenesis in this area of a canary's brain. Subsequent studies by Goldman and others revealed the precise mechanisms for neuronal cell differentiation and migration in adult songbirds, and, along with studies done in fish and other species, laid the groundwork for the study of neuropoiesis in humans.\n\nSection::::Neuropoietic areas in the human brain.\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.:Levels of blood gases.\n\nChanges in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and plasma pH are sent to the respiratory center, in the brainstem where they are regulated.\n", "The cough receptors or rapidly adapting irritant receptors are located mainly on the posterior wall of the trachea, pharynx, and at the carina of trachea, the point where the trachea branches into the main bronchi. The receptors are less abundant in the distal airways, and absent beyond the respiratory bronchioles. When triggered, impulses travel via the internal laryngeal nerve, a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve which stems from the vagus nerve (CN X), to the medulla of the brain. This is the afferent neural pathway. Unlike other areas responsible for involuntary actions like swallowing, there is no definitive area that has been identified as the cough center in the brain.\n", "The cough reflex has both sensory (afferent) mainly via the vagus nerve and motor (efferent) components. Pulmonary irritant receptors (cough receptors) in the epithelium of the respiratory tract are sensitive to both mechanical and chemical stimuli. The bronchi and trachea are so sensitive to light touch that slight amounts of foreign matter or other causes of irritation initiate the cough reflex. The larynx and carina are especially sensitive. Terminal bronchioles and even the alveoli are sensitive to chemical stimuli such as sulfur dioxide gas or chlorine gas. Rapidly moving air usually carries with it any foreign matter that is present in the bronchi or trachea. Stimulation of the cough receptors by dust or other foreign particles produces a cough, which is necessary to remove the foreign material from the respiratory tract before it reaches the lungs.\n", "While behavioral and psycho-physical studies into sniffing and its influence on odor perception began to surface, much less work was being performed to explore the influence of sniffing behaviors on the physiological processing of odors within the brain. Early recordings from the olfactory bulbs of hedgehogs by LordEdgar Adrian, who previously won the 1932 Nobel Prize along with Sir Charles Sherrington for their work on the functions of neurons, revealed that neural oscillations within the hedgehog olfactory bulb were entrained to the respiratory cycle. Further, odor-evoked oscillations (including an exhaled puff from a pipe), were amplified along with the respiratory cycle. These data gave evidence that information processing within the brain, particularly that of odors, was linked with respiration - establishing the integral nature of sniffing for the physiological processing of odors. About 20 years later, Max Mozell published a series of studies wherein he further proposed that the flow rate and the sorption properties of odorants interplay to affect the location of odorant binding to olfactory receptor neurons in the nose and consequentially odor input to the brain. Later, evidence that single neurons in the olfactory bulb, the brain's first relay station for odor information, are entrained with respiration was presented, establishing a solid basis for the control of odor input to the brain and the processing of odors by sniffing.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n\nNicotine also activates the sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulating the release of epinephrine. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:Adrenal medulla.\n", "Section::::Other substances – deliberate.:Medical use.:Therapeutic.\n\nGases and other drugs used in anaesthesia include oxygen, nitrous oxide, helium, xenon, volatile anaesthetic agents. Medication for asthma, croup, cystic fibrosis and some other conditions.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "The diffusion of from the air in the lungs to the bloodstream, and diffusion of from the bloodstream back out to the lungs is an essential part of human respiration. The absorption and diffusion of gases is a bidirectional process. Once the gases are absorbed into the mucus or surfactant layer, the dissolved gases can desorb back to the air in the lungs. Gases may diffuse in either direction depending on the concentration gradient between the two layers. Gases may react chemically during transport into the bloodstream.\n", "The efferent neural pathway then follows, with relevant signals transmitted back from the cerebral cortex and medulla via the vagus and superior laryngeal nerves to the glottis, external intercostals, diaphragm, and other major inspiratory and expiratory muscles. The mechanism of a cough is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Diaphragm (innervated by phrenic nerve) and external intercostal muscles (innervated by segmental intercostal nerves) contract, creating a negative pressure around the lung.\n\nBULLET::::- Air rushes into the lungs in order to equalise the pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- The glottis closes (muscles innervated by recurrent laryngeal nerve) and the vocal cords contract to shut the larynx.\n", "Exposure to solvents can occur by inhalation, ingestion, or direct absorption through the skin. Of the three, inhalation is the most common form of exposure, with the solvent able to rapidly pass through lung membranes and then into fatty tissue or cell membranes. Once in the bloodstream, organic solvents, due to their lipophilic properties, easily cross the blood-brain barrier. The mechanism of effect that these solvents have on the brain that cause CSE, however, is not yet fully understood. Some common organic solvents known to cause CSE include formaldehyde, acetates, and alcohols.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Drugs often associated with a particular route of administration. Many drugs can be consumed in more than one way. For example, marijuana can be swallowed like food or smoked, and cocaine can be \"sniffed\" in the nostrils, injected, or, with various modifications, smoked.\n\nBULLET::::- inhalation: all intoxicative inhalants (see below) that are gases or solvent vapours that are inhaled through the trachea, as the name suggests\n", "Examples of accidental inhalation includes inhalation of water (e.g. in drowning), smoke, food, vomitus and less common foreign substances (e.g. tooth fragments, coins, batteries, small toy parts, needles).\n\nSection::::Other substances – deliberate.\n\nSection::::Other substances – deliberate.:Recreational use.\n\nLegal – helium, nitrous oxide (\"laughing gas\")\n\nIllegal – various gaseous, vaporised or aerosolized recreational drugs\n\nSection::::Other substances – deliberate.:Medical use.\n\nSection::::Other substances – deliberate.:Medical use.:Diagnostic.\n\nVarious specialized investigations use the inhalation of known substances for diagnostic purposes. Examples include pulmonary function testing (e.g. nitrogen washout test, diffusion capacity testing (carbon monoxide, helium, methane)) and diagnostic radiology (eg.radioactive xenon isotopes).\n", "Information from the peripheral chemoreceptors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory groups of the respiratory center. There are four respiratory groups, two in the medulla and two in the pons. The two groups in the pons are known as the pontine respiratory group.\n\nBULLET::::1. Dorsal respiratory group – in the medulla, involved in inhalation\n\nBULLET::::2. Ventral respiratory group – in the medulla, involved in exhalation\n\nBULLET::::3. Pneumotaxic center - various nuclei of the pons\n\nBULLET::::4. Apneustic center - nucleus of the pons\n", "Each time that the first neuron fires, the other neuron further down the sequence fires again sending it back to the source. This restimulates the first neuron and also allows the path of transmission to continue to its output. A resulting repetitive pattern is the outcome that only stops if one or more of the synapses fail, or if an inhibitory feed from another source causes it to stop. This type of reverberating circuit is found in the respiratory center that sends signals to the respiratory muscles, causing inhalation. When the circuit is interrupted by an inhibitory signal the muscles relax causing exhalation. This type of circuit may play a part in epileptic seizures. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04476	If 60 Russian diplomats are kicked out of the US, how exactly is that a punishment to Russia? What do these diplomats do in the US?	Diplomats have several functions. One is simply to improve relations with the target nation, that's the most obvious and generally the reason they are allowed to be there by the target nation. Another is to influence politics in the target nation by schmoozing the right people and what not. Most importantly they are also essentially officially sanctioned spies. They pass any and all information they can gather to their home country, and it is extremely common for regular spies to be based out of an embassy or consulate.	[ "President Donald Trump ordered the expulsion of 60 Russian intelligence and diplomatic staff from the United States following the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal. The closure of the consulate in Seattle, Washington was also ordered, based on the belief of US intelligence officials that the consulate was serving as a key base of operations for the Russian intelligence operations in the US. Twelve out of the sixty Russian spies and/or diplomats that were at the United Nations in New York, and the other forty-eight Russians were at the Russian Embassy in Washington faced expulsion within seven days after the poisoning of former sixty-six year old Russian spy Sergie Skripal and his thirty-three year old daughter Yulia. The other forty Russian spies out of the one hundred that were on American soil, remain free in Washington and other major U.S. cities, where they are under the official imprimatur of their nation's foreign agency.\n", "On March 15, 2018, Trump imposed financial sanctions under the Act on the 13 Russian government hackers and front organizations that had been indicted by Mueller's investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.\n\nIn March 2018, 29 Western countries and NATO expelled in total at least 149 Russian diplomats, including 60 by the United States, in response to the poisoning of Skripal and his daughter on March 4 in the United Kingdom, which has been blamed on Russia. Other measures were also taken.\n", "Jens Stoltenberg, NATO Secretary General, announced on 27 March that NATO would be expelling seven Russian diplomats from the Russian mission to NATO in Brussels. In addition, 3 unfilled positions at the mission have been denied accreditation from NATO. Russia blamed the US for the NATO response.\n\nSection::::Response from other countries and organisations.:Joint responses.\n", "By the end of March 2018 a number of countries and other organisations expelled a total of more than 150 Russian diplomats in a show of solidarity with the UK. According to the BBC it was \"the largest collective expulsion of Russian intelligence officers in history\".\n", "In 2016, Zersetzung-like harassment was reported by the American press as carried out by Russia's secret services against U.S. diplomats posted in Moscow as well as in unspecified \"several other European capitals\"; the U.S. government's efforts to raise the issue with the Kremlin were said to have brought no positive reaction. The Russian Embassy's reply was cited by \"The Washington Post\" as implicitly admitting and defending the harassment as a response to what Russia called U.S. provocations and mistreatment of Russian diplomats in the United States. The Russian Foreign Ministry's spokesperson in turn accused the U.S.' FBI and CIA of provocations and \"psychological pressure\" vis-a-vis the Russian diplomats.\n", "In mid-July 2017, the Russian foreign ministry noted that the staff of the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, following expulsion of diplomats by the Obama administration in December 2016, far exceeded the number of Russian embassy employees in Washington and indicated that the Russian government was considering retaliatory expulsion of more than thirty-five U.S. diplomats, thus evening out the number of the countries' diplomats posted. On July 28, Russia announced punitive measures that were cast as Russia's response to the additional, codified, sanctions against Moscow passed by Congress days prior, but also referenced the specific measures imposed against the Russian diplomatic mission in the U.S. by the Obama administration. Russia demanded that the U.S. reduce its diplomatic and technical personnel in the Moscow embassy and its consulates in St Petersburg, Ekaterinburg and Vladivostok to four hundred fifty-five persons — the same as the number of Russian diplomats posted in the U.S. — by September 1; Russia’s government would also suspend the use of a retreat compound and a storage facility in Moscow used by the U.S. by August 1. Two days later, Vladimir Putin said that the decision on the curtailment of the U.S. diplomatic mission personnel had been taken by him personally and that 755 staff must terminate their work in Russia. After the sanction bill was on August 2 signed by Donald Trump, Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev wrote that the law had ended hope for improving U.S.–Russia relations and meant \"an all-out trade war with Russia.\" The law was also criticised by Donald Trump, whose signing statement indicated that he might choose not to enforce certain provisions of the legislation that he deemed unconstitutional.\n", "Bulgaria, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and the European Union itself have not expelled any Russian diplomats but have recalled their ambassadors from Russia for consultations. Furthermore, Iceland decided to diplomatically boycott the 2018 FIFA World Cup held in Russia.\n\nNotes\n\nBULLET::::- 4 diplomats expelled. 3 pending applications declined.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 expelled and 3 pending applications declined. Maximum delegation reduced by 10 (from 30 to 20).\n\nBULLET::::- 48 Russian diplomats expelled from Washington D.C. and 12 expelled from New York.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "On December 29, 2016, the U.S. government announced a series of punitive measures against Russia. The Obama administration imposed sanctions on four top officials of the GRU and declared \"persona non grata\" 35 Russian diplomats suspected of spying; they were ordered to leave the country within 72 hours. On December 30, two waterfront compounds used as retreats by families of Russian embassy personnel were shut down on orders of the U.S. government, citing spying activities: one in Upper Brookville, New York, on Long Island, and the other in Centreville, Maryland, on the Eastern Shore. Further sanctions against Russia were undertaken, both overt and covert. A White House statement said that cyberwarfare by Russia was geared to undermine U.S. trust in democracy and impact the election. President Obama said his decision was taken after previous warnings to Russia. In mid-July 2017, the Russian foreign ministry said the U.S. was refusing to issue visas to Russian diplomats to allow Moscow to replace the expelled personnel and get its embassy back up to full strength.\n", "On 26 March 2018, following the United States National Security Council′s recommendation, to demonstrate the U.S.'s support for the UK's position on the Salisbury poisoning incident, president Donald Trump ordered the expulsion of sixty Russian diplomats and closure of Russian consulate in Seattle. Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov responded to the simultaneous expulsion of the total of 140 Russian diplomats by 25 countries by accusing the U.S. government of \"blackmailing\" other nations.\n", "On 24 November 2015, Stoltenberg said \"We stand in solidarity with Turkey and support the territorial integrity of our Nato ally\" after Turkey shot down a Russian military jet for allegedly violating Turkish airspace for 17 seconds, near the Syrian border.\n\nIn response to the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, Stolenberg announced on 27 March that NATO would be expelling seven Russian diplomats from the Russian mission to NATO in Brussels. In addition, 3 unfilled positions at the mission were denied accreditation from NATO. Russia blamed the US for the NATO response.\n\nSection::::NATO–Russia Council.\n", "The UK expelled 23 Russian diplomats on 14 March 2018. Three days later, Russia expelled an equal number of British diplomats and ordered closure of the UK consulate in St Petersberg and closure of the British Council in Russia. Nine countries expelled Russian diplomats on 26 March: along with 6 other EU nations, the US, Canada, Ukraine and Albania. The following day, several nations inside and outside of the EU, and NATO responded similarly. By 30 March, Russia expelled an equal number of diplomats of most nations who had expelled Russian diplomats. By that time, Belgium, Montenegro, Hungary and Georgia had also expelled one or more Russian diplomats. Additionally on 30 March, Russia reduced the size of the total UK mission's personnel in Russia to match that of the Russian mission to the UK.\n", "On 1 February 2011, for the first time since 1983, the Irish government made a decision to expel a Russian diplomat based in Dublin after an investigation by the Garda SDU (following a tip off from the FBI) found that the identities of six Irish citizens had been stolen and used as cover for Russian spies found to have been working in the United States in June 2010.\n", "Albania, Australia, Canada, Georgia, Macedonia, Moldova, Norway and Ukraine expelled a total of 27 Russian diplomats who were believed to have been intelligence officers. The New Zealand Government also issued a statement supporting the actions, noting that it would have expelled any Russian intelligence agents who had been detected in the country.\n\nSection::::Response from other countries and organisations.:NATO.\n", "On July 27, as the sanctions bill was being passed by the Senate, Putin pledged a response to ″this kind of insolence towards our country″. Shortly thereafter, Russia's foreign ministry Sergey Lavrov demanded that the U.S. reduce its diplomatic and technical personnel in the Moscow embassy and its consulates in St Petersburg, Ekaterinburg and Vladivostok to 455 persons—the same as the number of Russian diplomats posted in the U.S, and suspended the use of a retreat compound and a storage facility in Moscow. Putin said that he had made this decision personally, and confirmed that 755 employees of the U.S. diplomatic mission must leave Russia.\n", "After the bill passed the Senate, on 28 July 2017, Russia's foreign ministry announced measures that were cast as a response to the bill passed by Congress, but also referenced the specific measures imposed against the Russian diplomatic mission in the U.S. by the Barack Obama administration at the end of 2016. Russia demanded that the U.S. reduce its diplomatic and technical personnel in the Moscow embassy and its consulates in Saint Petersburg, Yekaterinburg and Vladivostok to 455 persons — the same as the number of Russian diplomats posted in the U.S. — by September 1; Russia's government would also suspend the use of a retreat compound and a storage facility in Moscow used by the US by August 1. Shortly after, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that the decision had been taken by him personally and that 755 employees of the U.S. diplomatic mission must ″terminate their activity in the Russian Federation″.\n", "Following the United States National Security Council′s recommendation, President Trump, on 26 March, ordered the expulsion of sixty Russian diplomats (referred to by the White House as \"Russian intelligence officers\") and the closure of the Russian consulate in Seattle. The action was cast as being \"in response to Russia's use of a military-grade chemical weapon on the soil of the United Kingdom, the latest in its ongoing pattern of destabilising activities around the world.\"\n", "Following the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in 2018, the UK responded with bilateral and multilateral diplomatic efforts that led to nations around the world expelling one hundred and fifty Russian diplomats, described by CNN as a \"remarkable diplomatic coup for Britain\". British prime minister Theresa May stated in parliament that the coordinated global response was the \"largest collective expulsion of Russian intelligence officers in history.\" Subsequently, Russia attempted to attribute some of the influence to the United States, this was seen to be a propaganda exercise designed to damage the UK's international prestige and found to be untrue following statements by the various states as well as the entirety of the European Union.\n", "Section::::Mid-career.:Russia.\n", "While there was speculation that the arrests of the alleged spies, which occurred barely 72 hours after President Medvedev's White House visit, might cast a shadow over President Barack Obama's effort to improve relations between the US and Russia, on June 30, 2010, the US administration said that it would not expel Russian diplomats and it expressed no indignation that Russia had apparently been caught spying on it.\n", "BULLET::::- March 26 – President Trump orders the expulsion of 60 Russian diplomats following the ex-spy poisoning case in the UK.\n\nBULLET::::- March 28 – At least 12 states are reported to be suing the Trump administration over inclusion of a citizenship question on the 2020 census.\n\nBULLET::::- March 29\n\nBULLET::::- Russia announces it will expel 60 US diplomats and close the US Consulate in St. Petersburg in retaliation for the US expelling 60 Russian diplomats.\n\nBULLET::::- President Trump nominates Ronny Jackson, current physician to the President, to replace Veterans Affairs Secretary David Shulkin.\n", "Later on 12 March, the British government accused Russia of attempted murder and announced a series of punitive measures against Russia, including the expulsion of diplomats (14 March). The UK's official assessment of the incident was supported by 28 other countries which responded similarly. Altogether, an unprecedented 153 Russian diplomats were expelled. Russia denied the accusations and responded similarly to the expulsions and \"accused Britain of the poisoning.\"\n", "At the end of 2016, U.S. president-elect Donald Trump praised Putin for not expelling U.S. diplomats in response to Washington's expulsion of 35 Russian diplomats as well as other punitive measures taken by the Obama administration in retaliation for what U.S. officials had characterized as interference in the U.S. presidential election.\n", "Section::::Moscow: as Ambassador.\n", "2018 in Russia\n\nEvents in the year 2018 in Russia.\n\nSection::::Incumbents.\n\nBULLET::::- President: Vladimir Putin\n\nBULLET::::- Prime Minister: Dmitry Medvedev\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nSection::::Events.:February.\n\nBULLET::::- 11 February – Saratov Airlines Flight 703 crashed shortly after take-off, killing all 71 people on board.\n\nSection::::Events.:March.\n\nBULLET::::- 15-17 March – Sergey Lavrov has announced that Russia will expel diplomats from the United Kingdom because of the expulsion of 23 Russian envoys due to the poisoning of Sergei Skripal and Yulia Skripal. The Russian foreign ministry is to expel 23 British diplomats amid tensions over the nerve agent attack in the United Kingdom.\n", "However, the diplomatic crisis did not end there. Expulsions of diplomats and suspected spies escalated to the point that by the end of October 1986, 100 Soviets, including a further 80 suspected Soviet intelligence agents, were expelled by the U.S. The Soviets expelled ten U.S. diplomats and withdrew all 260 of the Russian support staff working for the U.S. embassy in Moscow.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19198	What specifically about hard seltzers and hard ciders makes them not nearly as foamy/bubbly as beer?	Foam forms when the carbon dioxide (or other gas) escapes from a liquid, but gets "held in" by surface tension, forming static bubbles. All of the beverages you listed contain water, alcohol, and other stuff. In hard seltzers, the "other stuff" is flavoring chemicals. In cider, it is natural flavoring chemicals, sugar, a little apple protein, and yeast. In beer, it is yeast, wheat proteins, hops proteins, a wide variety of complex molecules from the above, natural flavoring chemicals, etc etc... All this "other stuff" creates high surface tension; in particular, all those proteins (and protein-like chemicals called "polypeptides") are very sticky, so they form a tough film. Carbon dioxide gets blown through this film and a foam forms. Cider gets a little brief foam, but it doesn't have nearly as much protein so it falls apart fast. Seltzer has almost nothing beside water and alcohol in it, so it doesn't really form a foam at all. Foam forms on beer because	[ "Brewers have the option of using a liquid (LME) or dry (DME) form of it. Each has its pros and cons, so the choice is dependent solely on the individual brewer's preferences. Some brewers choose to work only with LME because they feel it works best for the result they wish to achieve. Also, it requires one fewer processing step, so it is appealing to those favoring the purest form of product available. However, it is very sticky and, therefore, messier to work with and has a shorter shelf life. Some feel the results are just as good with DME.\n", "Section::::Conclusion and possible further research studies.\n\nThe following was concluded based on ethanol's ability to induce non-lamellar phases:\n\nBULLET::::1. Ethanol does induce non-lamellar phases (non-bilayer) but this process is concentration dependent. On average the bilayers is preserved at approximately less than 10 mol%.\n\nBULLET::::2. Ethanol prefers to bond in the hydrophilic region near phosphate groups which could be contributed to its amphiphilic character.\n\nBULLET::::3. The effects of ethanol can be reversed or hindered in the presence of cholesterol (sterol compounds)\n", "BULLET::::- Significance of research:\n", "BULLET::::- Significance of research:\n", "Section::::Ingredients.:Yeast.\n\nIn beer, the metabolic waste of yeast is a significant factor. In aerobic conditions, the yeast will use the simple sugars from the malting process in glycolysis, and send the major organic product of glycolysis (pyruvate) into carbon dioxide and water via cellular respiration, many homebrewers use this aspect of yeast metabolism to carbonate their beers. However, under anaerobic conditions yeast cannot use the end products of glycolysis to generate energy in cellular respiration. Instead, they rely on a process called fermentation. Fermentation converts pyruvate into ethanol through the intermediate acetaldehyde.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Water.\n", "Because of the closeness in temperatures of peak activity of an α-amylase and β-amylase, the two rests are often performed at once with the time and temperature of the rest determining the ratio of fermentable to non-fermentable sugars in the wort and, hence, the final sweetness of the fermented drink. A hotter rest results in a fuller-bodied, sweeter beer as α-amylase produces more non-fermentable sugars. is a typical rest temperature for a pale ale or German pilsener, while Bohemian pilsener and mild ale are typically rested at .\n\nSection::::Enzymatic rests.:Decoction \"rests\".\n", "Section::::Research areas.\n\nSection::::Research areas.:NNR.\n\nBULLET::::- Research overview:\n", "The feel of a beer in the mouth, both from thickness of the liquid and from carbonation, may also be considered as part of a beer's style. A more dextrinous beer feels thicker in the mouth. The level of carbonation (or nitrogen, in \"smooth\" beers) varies from one beer style to another. For some beers it may give the beer a thick and creamy feel, while for others it contributes a prickly sensation.\n\nSection::::Elements of beer style.:Strength.\n", "Section::::Non-lamellar phases vs. lamellar phases.\n", "Section::::Research areas.:AMDS.\n\nBULLET::::- Research overview:\n", "The first dry beer, \"Gablinger's Diet Beer\", was released in 1967, developed by Joseph Owades at Rheingold Breweries in Brooklyn. Owades developed an enzyme that could further break down starches, so that the finished product contained fewer residual carbohydrates and was lower in food energy. \n", "Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time the various temperature rests activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the intention of the brewer. The activity of these enzymes convert the starches of the grains to dextrins and then to fermentable sugars such as maltose. A mash rest from activates various proteases, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in Germany and the Czech Republic, or non-malted grains such as corn and rice, which are widely used in North American beers. A mash rest at activates β-glucanase, which breaks down gummy β-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. In the modern mashing process, commercial fungal based β-glucanase may be added as a supplement. Finally, a mash rest temperature of is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range favours β-amylase enzymes, producing more low-order sugars like maltotriose, maltose, and glucose which are more fermentable by the yeast. This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in alcohol. A rest closer to the higher end of the range favours α-amylase enzymes, creating more higher-order sugars and dextrins which are less fermentable by the yeast, so a fuller-bodied beer with less alcohol is the result. Duration and pH variances also affect the sugar composition of the resulting wort.\n", "Beers can be carbonated with CO or with other gases such as Nitrogen. These gases are not as soluble in water as carbon dioxide, so they form bubbles that do not grow through Ostwald ripening. This means that the beer has smaller bubbles and a more creamy and stable head. This less soluble gas gives the beer a different and flatter texture. In beer terms, the mouthfeel is smooth, not bubbly like beers with normal carbonation. Nitro beer could taste less acidic than normal beer.\n\nSection::::Storage and degradation.\n", "Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers.\n", "Section::::Structure property relationships.\n\nUnder ideal conditions the cleaning power of BAS and LAS is very similar, however LAS performs slightly better in normal use conditions, due to it being less affected by hard water.\n\nWithin LAS itself the detergency of the various isomers are fairly similar, however their physical properties (Krafft point, foaming etc.) are noticeably different.\n\nIn particular the Krafft point of the high 2-phenyl product remains below 0 °C up to 25% LAS whereas the low 2-phenyl cloud point is ∼15 °C. This behavior is often exploited by producers to create either clear or cloudy products.\n\nSection::::Environmental fate.\n", "Alpha and beta amylases are important in brewing beer and liquor made from sugars derived from starch. In fermentation, yeast ingest sugars and excrete alcohol. In beer and some liquors, the sugars present at the beginning of fermentation have been produced by \"mashing\" grains or other starch sources (such as potatoes). In traditional beer brewing, malted barley is mixed with hot water to create a \"mash,\" which is held at a given temperature to allow the amylases in the malted grain to convert the barley's starch into sugars. Different temperatures optimize the activity of alpha or beta amylase, resulting in different mixtures of fermentable and unfermentable sugars. In selecting mash temperature and grain-to-water ratio, a brewer can change the alcohol content, mouthfeel, aroma, and flavor of the finished beer.\n", "Water is the main ingredient in beer, and, though water itself is flavourless, the chemical composition can have an influence on the finished taste; indeed, some brewers regard it as \"the most important ingredient in beer\". In particular, two styles of beer are especially noted for their water chemistry: pale ale, for which the process of Burtonisation is widespread; and Pilsner.\n\nSection::::Elements of beer style.:Other ingredients.\n", "Section::::Analytical techniques used for characterizing lipids.:Thin layer chromatography.\n", "Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents or finings to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers. Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass, obtained from swimbladders of fish; Irish moss, a seaweed; kappa carrageenan, from the seaweed \"Kappaphycus cottonii\"; Polyclar (artificial); and gelatin. If a beer is marked \"suitable for vegans\", it was clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents.\n", "In most beermaking, an average nitrogen content in the grains of at most 10% is sought; higher protein content, especially the presence of high-mass proteins, causes \"chill haze\", a cloudy visual quality to the beer. However, this is mostly a cosmetic desire dating from the mass production of glassware for presenting serving beverages; traditional styles such as sahti, saison, and bière de garde, as well as several Belgian styles, make no special effort to create a clear product. The quantity of high-mass proteins can be reduced during the mash by making use of a protease rest. \n", "Strong pale ales are ales made predominantly with pale malts and have an alcohol strength that may start around 5%, though typically start at 7 or 8% by volume and may go up to 12%, though brewers have been pushing the alcohol strength higher. In 1994, the Hair of the Dog Brewing Company produced a strong pale ale with an alcohol by volume of 29%. In 2010, Brewdog released \"Sink the Bismarck!\", a 41% abv pale ale, which is stronger than typical distilled spirits (40% abv).\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Farmhouse Ales: Culture and Craftsmanship in the European Tradition\", Phil Markowski,\n", "Section::::Analytical techniques used for characterizing lipids.:Differential scanning calorimetry.\n", "The fundamental distinction between cask and other ales is that the yeast is still present and living in the container from which the cask ale is served, although it will have settled to the bottom and is usually not poured into the glass. Because the yeast is still alive, a slow process of fermentation continues in the cask or bottle on the way to the consumer, allowing the beer to retain its freshness. Another distinction is that cask ale is served without the aid of added carbon dioxide, or \"top pressure\" as it is commonly known. Common dispensing methods are the handpump, or \"by gravity\" direct from the cask. Electric pumps are occasionally seen, especially in the Midlands and Scotland.\n", "Corn is commonly used in the production of American-style pale lagers, particularly malt liquor. Corn is generally used in brewing as corn syrup, and as such is highly fermentable. Corn is cheaper than barley, so it is used as a cost-saving measure.\n\nOats are used in oatmeal stouts. Oatmeal stouts usually do not specifically taste of oats. The smoothness of oatmeal stouts comes from the high content of proteins, lipids, and gums imparted by the use of oats. The gums increase the viscosity and body adding to the sense of smoothness.\n", "Cask ale is dispensed without the addition of externally supplied gas. That it is served \"flat\" with no bubbles at all, though, is a misconception. Properly conditioned cask ale will have enough dissolved carbon dioxide to produce bubbles of carbon dioxide. This has been generated by the natural action of the yeast living in the beer while it is stored and transported. In fact, the yeast can produce more carbon dioxide than is required, and it is for this reason that the cask is vented through the hole in the shive.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03209	Why does chocolate taste so bad after it melts and cools down again?	Master Chocolatier here. There isn't a lot of actual chocolate in an M & M. Melt real chocolate (e.g. mostly ground cacao with sugar), let it resolidify, and it will taste pretty much like chocolate. The texture will be odd, but that's just because the chocolate is de-tempered (randomly recrystallized) and is fixable by re-tempering. I enjoyed Stuff Matters by Mark Miodownik, btw, but much of his chapter on chocolate was inaccurate.	[ "Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between , with a relative humidity of less than 50%. If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Various types of \"blooming\" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly.\n", "Chocolate bloom is caused by storage temperature fluctuating or exceeding , while sugar bloom is caused by temperature below or excess humidity. To distinguish between different types of bloom, one can rub the surface of the chocolate lightly, and if the bloom disappears, it is fat bloom. Moving chocolate between temperature extremes, can result in an oily texture. Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is safe for consumption and taste unaffected. Bloom can be reversed by retempering the chocolate or using it for any use that requires melting the chocolate.\n", "Section::::Fat bloom.\n\nIt is generally accepted that visual fat bloom in chocolate is due to the cocoa butter, which has separated toward the surface. Generally bloom arises from problems with composition, processing, and storage. Some specific causes include:\n\nBULLET::::- Poor (incorrect or incomplete) tempering of the chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Incorrect cooling methods, including covering cold centers\n\nBULLET::::- The presence of soft fats in the centers of chocolate-covered units\n\nBULLET::::- Warm storage conditions\n\nBULLET::::- The addition to chocolate of fats incompatible with cocoa butter\n\nBULLET::::- Abrasion and finger marking\n", "Making chocolate considered \"good\" is about forming as many type V crystals as possible. This provides the best appearance and texture and creates the most stable crystals, so the texture and appearance will not degrade over time. To accomplish this, the temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization.\n", "The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, and lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to about until final processing.\n", "Poorly tempered or untempered chocolate may have whitish spots on the dark chocolate part, called chocolate bloom; it is an indication that sugar and/or fat has separated due to poor storage. It is not toxic and can be safely consumed.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Section::::Production.:Tempering.\n\nThe final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken. The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.\n", "According to this theory, storage bloom is due to phase separation of the triglycerides within the crystalline structure of cocoa butter. This theory is based on the fact that butter is a mixture of diverse triglycerides and each type of triglyceride has a unique melting temperature. At higher temperatures, the lower melting point triglycerides in cocoa butter will melt and this liquid phase occupies a greater volume than the solid. The liquid phase will then be squeezed out to the surface through fissures or pores in the chocolate. After the liquid phase reaches the surface, the triglycerides will recrystallize into the less stable form (alpha crystals), with bloom occurring.\n", "The temperature of the conche is controlled and varies for different types of chocolate. Generally, higher temperature leads to a shorter required processing time. Temperature varies from around for milk chocolate to up to for dark chocolate. The elevated temperature leads to a partially caramelized flavor and in milk chocolate promotes the Maillard reaction.\n", "In cocoa butter, there are six essential polymorphic forms. The polymorphic transformation theory is based on the fact that bloomed chocolates are always found to contain the most stable VI polymorph of cocoa butter. According to this theory, bloom occurs through the uncontrolled polymorphic transformation of cocoa butter from a less stable form (form IV or V) to the most stable form (form VI). The technology of good chocolate production depends on ensuring that only the stable form of the cocoa butter ingredient exists in the final product. In poorly tempered chocolate, form IV will transform to V and eventually form VI, resulting in bloom, while in well-tempered chocolate, form V will transform to form VI and bloom may also occur. Elevated and/or fluctuating temperatures promote the transformation rate and thus also promote the rate of bloom formation. However, it is found that the production of form VI from form V does not always lead to bloom; a direct relationship cannot be established between fat bloom and the evolution of the crystalline forms. The onset of transformation from form V to form VI crystals is not the cause of visual bloom; rather, this transition should be considered as an aspect of cocoa butter recrystallization that may result in bloom.\n", "Section::::Conching process.\n\nConching redistributes the substances from the dry cocoa that create flavor into the fat phase. Air flowing through the conche removes some unwanted acetic, propionic, and butyric acids from the chocolate and reduces moisture. A small amount of moisture greatly increases viscosity of the finished chocolate, so machinery is cleaned with cocoa butter instead of water. Some of the substances produced in roasting of cocoa beans are oxidized in the conche, mellowing the flavor of the product. \n", "Section::::Fat bloom.:Polymorphic transformation.\n", "Cocoa butter typically has a melting point of around 34–38 °C (93–101 °F), so chocolate is solid at room temperature but readily melts once inside the mouth. Cocoa butter displays polymorphism, having different crystalline forms with different melting points. Conventionally the assignment of cocoa butter crystalline forms uses the nomenclature of Wille and Lutton with forms I, II, III, IV, V and VI having melting points 17.3, 23.3, 25.5, 27.5, 33.8 and 36.3 °C, respectively. The production of chocolate aims to crystallise the chocolate so that the cocoa butter is predominantly in form V, which is the most stable form that can be obtained from melted cocoa butter. (Form VI either develops in solid cocoa butter after long storage, or is obtained by crystallisation from solvents). A uniform form V crystal structure will result in smooth texture, sheen, and snap. This structure is obtained by chocolate tempering. Melting the cocoa butter in chocolate and then allowing it to solidify without tempering leads to the formation of unstable polymorphic forms of cocoa butter. This can easily happen when chocolate bars are allowed to melt in a hot room and leads to the formation of white patches on the surface of the chocolate called fat bloom or chocolate bloom.. \n", "As a solid piece of chocolate, the cocoa butter fat particles are in a crystalline rigid structure that gives the chocolate its solid appearance. Once heated, the crystals of the polymorphic cocoa butter are able to break apart from the rigid structure and allow the chocolate to obtain a more fluid consistency as the temperature increases – the melting process. When the heat is removed, the cocoa butter crystals become rigid again and come closer together, allowing the chocolate to solidify.\n", "Section::::Fat bloom.:Methods to minimize fat bloom.\n\nBULLET::::- Maintain an appropriate storage temperature for chocolate products\n\nBULLET::::- Use an appropriate recipe for the fat\n\nBULLET::::- Use a fat–based barrier coating between two domains of differing fat content and composition\n\nBULLET::::- Add a bloom inhibitor\n\nBULLET::::- Add seeding crystals\n\nSection::::Sugar bloom.\n", "Chocolate bloom is either of two types of whitish coating that can appear on the surface of chocolate: fat bloom, caused by changes in the fat crystals in the chocolate; and sugar bloom, due to crystals formed by the action of moisture on the sugar. Fat and sugar bloom damage the appearance of chocolate and limit its shelf life. Chocolate that has \"bloomed\" is still safe to eat (as it is a non-perishable food due to its sugar content), but may have an unappetizing appearance and surface texture. Chocolate bloom can be repaired by melting the chocolate down, stirring it, then pouring it into a mould and allowing it to cool, bringing the sugar or fat back into the solution.\n", "BULLET::::- Tempering: Tempering chocolate involves heating and cooling the chocolate to result in desired characteristics like shininess of the chocolate or 'snap', the way it breaks. Chocolate contains cocoa butter which crystallizes during the heat treatment of melting and tempering chocolate. Heating the chocolate at certain temperatures, around 86-90 °F (30-32 °C), for specific periods of time and then cooling the chocolate and working with it in alternating segments is referred to as tempering.\n", "There is no universally accepted theory that describes fat bloom in chocolate. Current theories about fat bloom fall into two categories: polymorphic transformation and phase separation theory.\n\nSection::::Fat bloom.:Phase separation theory.\n", "Sugar bloom is caused by moisture. Condensation on to the surface of the chocolate or moisture in the chocolate coating causes the sugar to absorb the moisture and dissolve. When the moisture evaporates, the sugar forms larger crystals, leaving a dusty layer. It is caused by:\n\nBULLET::::- Storage of chocolates in damp conditions\n\nBULLET::::- Deposit of \"dew\" during manufacture from damp cooler air or allowing chocolates to enter a packing room at a temperature below the dew point of that room\n\nBULLET::::- Use of hygroscopic ingredients (low grade or brown sugars)\n", "Chocolate chips can also be melted and used in sauces and other recipes. The chips melt best at temperatures between . The melting process starts at , when the cocoa butter starts melting in the chips. The cooking temperature must never exceed for milk chocolate and white chocolate, or for dark chocolate, or the chocolate will burn.\n", "On the other hand, several negative effects can be attributed to drinking hot chocolate, as some hot chocolate recipes contain high amounts of sugar, hydrogenated oils, or fats.\n", "Section::::Remaster.\n", "Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods, as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper storage with the correct humidity and temperature. Additionally, chocolate is frequently stored in a dark place or protected from light by wrapping paper. The glossy shine, snap, aroma, texture, and taste of the chocolate can show the quality and if it was stored well.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Nutrition.\n", "Producers of high-quality, small-batch chocolate argue that mass production produces bad-quality chocolate. Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases), and fats other than cocoa butter. Vegetable oils and artificial vanilla flavor are often used in cheaper chocolate to mask poorly fermented and/or roasted beans.\n", "While reduction does concentrate the flavors left in the pan, reducing too much will drive away all liquid in the sauce, leaving a \"sticky, burnt coating\" on the pan.\n" ]	[ "Chocolate tastes bad after melting and re cooling." ]	[ "It doesn't taste bad, it just changes the texture because it crystalizes differently. You can fix this by re tempering it. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Chocolate tastes bad after melting and re cooling." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It doesn't taste bad, it just changes the texture because it crystalizes differently. You can fix this by re tempering it. " ]
2018-00125	When the 12/24h clock-based time measurement system was designed, what determined what would be appropriate placements for each hour of the day? For instance, why is 8AM the start of the work day?	The 12-hour clock was invented way, way before there were such things as factory jobs and office jobs. In the system we know and use today, noon was when the sun was at its highest. Generally, there were six hours before noon and six hours after noon, and the night didn't really have hours. The Romans had a system where there were always twelve hours from sunrise to sunset, so the length of an hour varied according to the time of year, and the night was divided into four watches. Before the industrial revolution, people simply did whatever work was needed to be done when it was needed to be done -- there was no other way of doing it. The industrial revolution introduced factories and then offices where work could be done at any time of day: factory owners would often make their employees work very long hours until the workers formed trade unions and/or the government enacted labour relations laws. The eight-hour working day was a common solution: eight hours for working, eight hours for sleeping and eight hours for leisure. Not everyone's work day begins at 8 am, though; it varies a lot from country to country, and from job to job. In the US, a working day of 9 am to 5 pm became the norm, especially for office workers, and from that we have the phrase "9-to-5" to describe a boring, mundane (usually deskbound) job. But in, for example, Spain, people start work earlier in the day, and have an hour or two off after lunch for "siesta" (because in Spain it was often too hot to work at that time of day), and finish work much later. There isn't one standard for such things, and the clock wasn't designed with the modern working week in mind.	[ "In so-called \"Italian time\", \"Italian hours\", or \"old Czech time\", the first hour started with the sunset Angelus bell (or at the end of dusk, i.e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom and geographical latitude). The hours were numbered from 1 to 24. For example, in Lugano, the sun rose in December during the 14th hour and noon was during the 19th hour; in June the sun rose during the 7th hour and noon was in the 15th hour. Sunset was always at the end of the 24th hour. The clocks in church towers struck only from 1 to 12, thus only during night or early morning hours.\n", "In Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, the traditional system of noting hours is the six-hour clock. This reckons each of a day's 24 hours apart from noon as part of a fourth of the day. 7 am was the first hour of the first half of daytime; 1 pm the first hour of the latter half of daytime; 7 pm the first hour of the first half of nighttime; and 1 am the first hour of the latter half of nighttime. This system existed in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, deriving its current phrasing from the practice of publicly announcing the daytime hours with a gong and the nighttime hours with a drum. It was abolished in Laos and Cambodia during their French occupation and is uncommon there now. The Thai system remains in informal use in the form codified in 1901 by King Chulalongkorn.\n", "Originally there were two cycles; one cycle which could be tracked by the position of the Sun (day) followed by one cycle which could be tracked by the Moon and stars (night). This eventually evolved into the two 12-hour periods which are used today, starting at midnight (a.m.) and noon (p.m.). Noon itself is rarely abbreviated today, but if it is, it is denoted M.\n\nThe 12-hour clock can be traced back as far as Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt.\n\nBoth an Egyptian sundial for daytime use\n", "The word \"noon\" is derived from Latin \"nona hora\", the ninth hour of the day, and is related to the liturgical term none. The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a.m. (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p.m. (15:00) at the equinox. In English, the meaning of the word shifted to \"midday\" and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time (that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones). The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century.\n", "A possible explanation for the shift from having the first hour being the one after dawn, to having the hour after noon being designated as 1 pm (post meridiem), is that these clocks would likely regularly be reset at local high noon each day. This, of course, results in midnight becoming 12 o'clock.\n", "The striking feature of clocks was originally more important than their clock faces; the earliest clocks struck the hours, but had no dials to enable the time to be read. The development of mechanical clocks in 12th century Europe was motivated by the need to ring bells upon the \"canonical hours\" to call the community to prayer. The earliest known mechanical clocks were large striking clocks installed in towers in monasteries or public squares, so that their bells could be heard far away. Though an early striking clock in Syria was a 12-hour clock, many early clocks struck up to 24 strokes, particularly in Italy, where the 24-hour clock, keeping Italian hours, was widely used in the 14th and 15th centuries. As the modern 12-hour clock became more widespread, particularly in Great Britain and Northern Europe, 12-hour striking became more widespread and eventually became the standard. In addition to striking on the hour, many striking clocks play sequences of chimes on the quarter-hours. The most common sequence is Westminster Quarters.\n", "The major variation in the design of 24-hour analog dials is the location of midnight and noon. Although always opposite each other, 180° apart, noon is sometimes at the top, sometimes at the bottom. A few rare variants place noon and midnight at the right and left sides. There is no ambiguity if the 24-hour numbering is used.\n\nIn the United States, the government and military commonly use 24-hour clocks having noon at the bottom; the variant with noon at the top is far less common.\n\nSection::::Watches.\n", "Section::::Counting hours.\n\nMany different ways of counting the hours have been used. Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight. However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.\n\nAstrolabes, sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods.\n", "Before the adoption of four standard time zones for the continental United States, many towns and cities set their clocks to noon when the sun passed their local meridian, pre-corrected for the equation of time on the date of observation, to form local mean solar time. Noon occurred at different times but time differences between distant locations were barely noticeable prior to the 19th century because of long travel times and the lack of long-distance instant communications prior to the development of the telegraph.\n", "The 12-hour clock is a time convention in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods: a.m. (from Latin \"ante meridiem\", translates to, before midday) and p.m. (from Latin \"post meridiem\" translates to, past midday). Each period consists of 12 hours numbered: \"12\" (acting as zero), \"1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,\" and \"11\". The 24 hour/day cycle starts at 12 midnight (may be indicated as 12 a.m.), runs through 12 noon (may be indicated as 12 p.m.), and continues to the midnight at the end of the day. The 12-hour clock has been developed from the middle of the second millennium BC to the 16th century AD.\n", "Before the late 14th century, a fixed hand (often a carving literally shaped like a hand) indicated the hour by pointing to numbers on a rotating dial; after this time, the current convention of a rotating hand on a fixed dial was adopted. Minute hands (so named because they indicated the small, or \"minute\", divisions of the hour) only came into regular use around 1690, after the invention of the pendulum and anchor escapement increased the precision of time-telling enough to justify it. In some precision clocks, a third hand, which rotated once a minute, was added in a separate subdial. This was called the \"second-minute\" hand (because it measured the \"secondary minute\" divisions of the hour), which was shortened to \"second\" hand. The convention of the hands moving clockwise evolved in imitation of the sundial. In the Northern hemisphere, where the clock face originated, the shadow of the gnomon on a horizontal sundial moves clockwise during the day. This was also why noon or 12 o'clock was conventionally located at the top of the dial.\n", "Before time became standardized, clock masters used “True Time”. The day work began and ended with the sun. This time period was divided into 12 equal hours. This meant that these hours would vary with the seasons, as the length of daylight changed. Each town would have their own variance of this “True Time”. Eventually, cities adopted “Mean Time”, which is how we think of time nowadays. Astronomers used the Earth’s rotation and the stars to calculate the time, and divided the day into 24 uniform and equal hours. Geneva was the first city to adopt mean time in 1780, followed by London in 1792, Berlin in 1810, Paris in 1816, and Vienna in 1823.\n", "Section::::History and use.:Use by country.\n", "The terms \"a.m.\" and \"p.m.\" are abbreviations of the Latin \"ante meridiem\" (before midday) and \"post meridiem\" (after midday). Depending on the style guide referenced, the abbreviations \"a.m.\" and \"p.m.\" are variously written in small capitals (\"\" and \"\"), uppercase letters without a period (\"AM\" and \"PM\"), uppercase letters with periods, or lowercase letters (\"am\" and \"pm\" or, more commonly, \"a.m.\" and \"p.m.\").\n", "Sunrise marked the beginning of the first hour, the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season. In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. These variable-length hours were variously known as temporal, unequal, or seasonal hours and were in use until the appearance of the mechanical clock, which furthered the adoption of equal length hours.\n", "Over shorter timescales, there are a variety of practices for defining when each day begins. In ordinary usage, the civil day is reckoned by the midnight epoch, that is, the civil day begins at midnight. But in older astronomical usage, it was usual, until January 1, 1925, to reckon by a noon epoch, 12 hours after the start of the civil day of the same denomination, so that the day began when the mean sun crossed the meridian at noon. This is still reflected in the definition of J2000, which started at noon, Terrestrial Time.\n", "At about the same time, sundials were developed, likely marked first at noon, sunrise and sunset. In ancient Sumer and Egypt, numbers were soon used to divide the day into 12 hours; the night was similarly divided. In Egypt there is not as much seasonal variation in the length of the day, but those further from the equator would need to make many more modifications in calibrating their sundials to deal with these differences. Ancient traditions did \"not\" begin the day at midnight, some starting at dawn instead, others at dusk (both being more obvious).\n", "Section::::Counting hours.:Counting from dawn.\n\nIn ancient and medieval cultures, the counting of hours generally started with sunrise. Before the widespread use of artificial light, societies were more concerned with the division between night and day, and daily routines often began when light was sufficient.\n", "The 12-hour time convention is common in several English-speaking nations and former British colonies, as well as a few other countries.\n\nSection::::History and use.\n\nThe natural day-and-night division of a calendar day forms the fundamental basis as to why each day is split into two cycles.\n", "A second type of clock face is the 24-hour analog dial, widely used in military and other organizations that use 24-hour time. This is similar to the 12-hour dial above, except it has hours numbered 1–24 around the outside, and the hour hand makes only one revolution per day. Some special-purpose clocks, such as timers and sporting event clocks, are designed for measuring periods less than one hour. Clocks can indicate the hour with Roman numerals or Hindu–Arabic numerals, or with non-numeric indicator marks. The two numbering systems have also been used in combination, with the prior indicating the hour and the latter the minute. Longcase clocks (grandfather clocks) typically use Roman numerals for the hours. Clocks using only Arabic numerals first began to appear in the mid-18th century. \n", "Analog clocks usually use a clock face which indicates time using rotating pointers called \"hands\" on a fixed numbered dial or dials. The standard clock face, known universally throughout the world, has a short \"hour hand\" which indicates the hour on a circular dial of 12 hours, making two revolutions per day, and a longer \"minute hand\" which indicates the minutes in the current hour on the same dial, which is also divided into 60 minutes. It may also have a \"second hand\" which indicates the seconds in the current minute. The only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial, because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and timetables. Before the modern clock face was standardized during the Industrial Revolution, many other face designs were used throughout the years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours. During the French Revolution the French government tried to introduce a 10-hour clock, as part of their decimal-based metric system of measurement, but it didn't catch on. An Italian 6 hour clock was developed in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch striking 24 times uses more power).\n", "In certain languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English the hour is divided into quarters and halves, spoken of relative to the closest hour.\n\nIn Czech language quarters and halves always refer to the following hour, e.g. \"čtvrt na osm\" (quarter on eight) meaning 7:15, \"půl osmé\" (half of eight) meaning 7:30 and \"tři čtvrtě na osm\" (three quarters on eight) meaning 7:45.\n", "The first mechanical clocks in the 14th century, if they had dials at all, showed all 24 hours, used the 24-hour analog dial, influenced by astronomers' familiarity with the astrolabe and sundial, and their desire to model the Earth's apparent motion around the Sun.\n\nIn Northern Europe these dials generally used the 12-hour numbering scheme in Roman numerals, but showed both \"a.m.\" and \"p.m.\" periods in sequence. This is known as the double-XII system, and can be seen on many surviving clock faces, such as those at Wells and Exeter.\n", "The shortest time spans occur twice each year, around 25 March (24 hours minus 18 seconds) and 13 September (24 hours minus 22 seconds).\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.\n\nIn the US, noon is commonly indicated by 12 p.m., and midnight by 12 a.m. While some argue that such usage is \"improper\" based on the Latin meaning (a.m. stands for \"ante meridiem\" and p.m. for \"post meridiem\", meaning \"before midday\" and \"after midday\" respectively), digital clocks are unable to display anything else, and an arbitrary decision must be made. \n", "The development of what is now known as UTC time began as a collaboration between 41 nations, officially agreed and signed at the International Meridian Conference, in Washington D.C. in 1884. At this conference, the local mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in England was chosen to define the \"universal day\", counted from 0 hours at Greenwich mean midnight. This agreed with the civil Greenwich Mean Time used on the island of Great Britain since 1847. In contrast astronomical GMT began at mean noon, i.e. astronomical day \"X\" began at noon of civil day \"X\". The purpose of this was to keep one night's observations under one date. The civil system was adopted as of 0 hours (civil) 1 January 1925. Nautical GMT began 24 hours before astronomical GMT, at least until 1805 in the Royal Navy, but persisted much later elsewhere because it was mentioned at the 1884 conference. In 1884, the Greenwich meridian was used for two-thirds of all charts and maps as their Prime Meridian.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Each hour on the clock was chosen to be a certain time." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Hours were created based on time from noon which wasz decided by the sun being at the highest point." ]
2018-00653	Are "lost" underground ruins as shown in games like Tomb Raider or Assassins Creed possible?	Probably not worth all of the booby traps, but there are Mayan (and other) ruins in the jungles of Central and South America that haven't been excavated. Surely there are others around the world that have been forgotten and lost.	[ "One possible location is west of the Hallig Südfall, where in 1921 significant ruins were discovered: wells, trenches and part of a tidal lock. Another theory places Rungholt to the north of the Hallig Südfall.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In 1978, a group of cavers from the Nashville Grotto visited the site but were underwhelmed by the lack of intact cavern or open passages. The next documented entry into the cave did not occur until 2008, when archaeologists from the Tennessee Division of Archaeology revisited the site.\n", "It is not clear when the ruin was finally fully abandoned, although bottles found on the site from the Portobello bottle company in Edinburgh, Scotland suggest that it may have been as late as 1907. The cistern on the site does not exhibit the same level of deterioration as similar parts of ruins in the Territory which are known to have been abandoned during the 1850s.\n", "BULLET::::- Re-use: The sites of old mines are sometimes taken over for new uses such as data storage or mushroom cultivation, or re-mining: the owner will rarely permit public access.\n\nBULLET::::- Collapse: As workings age, the roofs of passageways and chambers can fail. In doing so, the collapsed area itself is no longer accessible and any workings beyond that point will become inaccessible if there remains no other way around. There are many mines that have suffered a small collapse right at the entrance (often the most vulnerable part) sealing off significant sized workings beyond.\n", "\"Natural\" temples to Telchur are often caves or windbreaks in the snow; they seldom outlast the winter, and are reconsecrated the following autumn.\n\nThe Iceminster, a temple to Telchur in Kaport Bay in the North Province, was torn down by the people for firewood in the winter of 246 CY.\n\nThe greatest remaining temple to Telchur stands in Blackmoor; called the Frost Palace, it is a great stone edifice built of white marble, with walls some ten feet thick. It lies 45 leagues east of Dantredun, on the edge of the Cold Marsh.\n", "There are the remains of several other former buildings scattered around the Galloway hills area; notably at Glenhead (NX433800) close to the Southern Upland Way for example, and at Culsharg (NX416822) on the \"tourist route\" from Bruce's Stone to the Merrick. The latter can still be used as something of a shelter in bad weather, though it is far from MBA bothy standard. Buildings still in use are to be found around the periphery of the Galloway hills heartland but apart from forest tracks, there are neither public roads nor buildings in use in the heartland itself.\n\nSection::::Minnigaff hills.\n", "When these findings of the likely site of the stones of Artur's O'on were announced by Burke's Peerage in the late 1980s, he held up the possibility of recovery and reconstruction. However, since Scottish antiquities authorities do not consider the possible site of a buried mill dam as a \"scheduled\" site, and since the overall site is covered with thick concrete foundations, the prospects for actual recovery do not appear high. Of course, the suggestion that the Carron has changed course in this area has been questioned by other researchers.\n", "The site was abandoned sometime around 1500 AD for unknown reasons.\n\nSection::::Current Condition.\n", "Aside from the mountain's unusual geological prominence, its only other cause for note occurred during the early 20th century, when a self-proclaimed religious leader, who referred to himself as the supreme deity, established a commune of his followers at the top of the mountain. Traces of their residency still exist, in the form of hand-dug water wells. Squatters who defied authority, the mountain's isolation, and the ease of keeping unwanted people off the mountain made it a perfect location for their settlement.\n", "In 1652 the Parliamentary Survey of Scilly reported a row of shallow pits and spoil heaps () following, in part the line of a tin lode. The pits were mostly to deep with some shafts to . At the western end was an adit. The mining started in the 1640s and ended by 1652 and was said to be of no value.\n", "A half-buried ruin - a huge wreck of stones\n\nA temple - or a tomb for human bones\n\nRude sculptured blocks from the red sand project,\n\nSome great man's ashes designed to protect,\n\nA relic, may be, of a glorious past,\n\nDestroyed by earthquake, defaced by the blast,\n\n/poem\n\nSection::::The legends and the search.\n", "The Channel 4 archaeology television programme \"Time Team\" came to Blaenavon during its February 2001 series to find \"The Lost Viaduct\" – \"the world's first railway viaduct\". This had been built in 1790, to be used by horse-drawn wagons to carry coal from the mines. The viaduct, estimated as about 40 metres long and 10 metres high about 25 years after being built, disappeared. No records exist of its demolition and the archaeologists found in the final day of the modestly funded excavation to uncover the top of the viaduct, the arched roof of which, under 12–15 metres of rubble and earth, was seemingly intact. For reasons of safety and preservation they dug no further.\n", "Section::::Main Sites.\n\nSection::::Main Sites.:Carnfree Mound.\n\nIt is a small mound about one and a half meters high that sinks slightly at the top and is covered on one side by a dressing of stone. Up until the mid-nineteenth century a proclamation stone stood nearby that featured two sunken footprints, the stone now resides at Clonalis House near Castlerea.\n\nSection::::Main Sites.:Duma Selga.\n", "The fort is now in a ruinous condition; it once had three storeys, but the topmost storey has collapsed entirely, leaving it roofless. The interior walls, floors and central staircase have also collapsed. Although the remains of the main staircase are still visible, the steps have disappeared entirely and the upper level cannot be reached, though there is nothing left of the upper floor to stand on in any case.\n", "BULLET::::- Candi Number 11 also known as Candi Sungai Batu Estate, a 1,200 year old ruin of a tomb-temple located in the Bujang Valley historical complex in Kedah was demolished in 2013 by housing developers who claimed not to have known the historical significance of the stone edifice.\n\nSection::::Maldives.\n", "Freemason Dennis King examines the Masonic aspects of the Oak Island legend in his article, \"The Oak Island Legend: The Masonic Angle\". Steven Sora speculated that the pit could have been dug by exiled Knights Templar and might be the final resting place of the Holy Grail or the Ark of the Covenant.\n", "Section::::Remains today.\n", "According to \"The Guardian\", remains of sacrifice victims, ashes and ceramics have been found at the site, but no jewellery or treasure. The complex has a base area of three-quarters of a square mile, is estimated to be 60 metres (192 ft) high, and was probably used for 2,000 years.\n", "This site is known through archival photographs and supported by oral history although no physical evidence of the structure has been found. Its stone structures were probably dismantled for use in gardens. Its location has been given as 'just to the west of the track [Scenic Drive] about 100-200 yards in on the flat, north-north-west of the cave's old entrance, north of the look-out'.\n", "A French excavation led by Paul Courbin between 1971 to 1984 revealed the former Ugarit and Greek ruins. Quebecois excavations conducted by Montreal University and the Rimouski's provincial university since 2000 focused on the late classical and medieval ruins at the site. Ruins uncovered by the expeditions have been left uncovered and unprotected between seasons, mixing with the modern marina and countryside.\n", "In the 19th century, no ruins were known to have survived, but an excavation undertaken during the construction of Italy's Forte Antenne discovered wells, several huts, a cistern, and traces of the defensive walls of the ancient town around 1880. The remains of a villa from the end of the Republic were also found.\n", "BULLET::::- Nant Gwrtheyrn former village on the North Welsh coast, abandoned after its quarry closed. Now regenerated as a language centre.\n\nBULLET::::- Old Sarum, England – population moved to nearby Salisbury although the owners of the archaeological site retained the right to elect a Member of Parliament to represent Old Sarum until the 19th century (see William Pitt).\n\nBULLET::::- Ravenser Odd, England - important port near the mouth of the Humber, lost to coastal erosion\n\nBULLET::::- Ravenspurn, England - near to Ravenser Odd, also lost to coastal erosion\n\nBULLET::::- Roxburgh, Scotland – abandoned in the 15th century\n", "BULLET::::- The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, another Wonder of the Ancient World, was destroyed by a series of earthquakes between the 12th and 15th centuries. Most of the remaining marble blocks were burnt into lime, but some were used in the construction of Bodrum Castle by the Knights Hospitaller, where they can still be seen today. The only other surviving remains of the mausoleum are some foundations in situ, a few sculptures in the British Museum, and some marble blocks which were used to build a dockyard in Malta's Grand Harbour.\n", "The temple was a very frequented site by almost all archeologist on the islands in the 19th century. In \"A hand book, or guide, for strangers visiting Malta\", written by Thomas MacGill in 1839, it is mentioned that \"not a vestige of [the temple] remains above ground\", but some fragments were found at the Public Library in Valletta.\n", "A grey sandstone holy water stoop was found in 1950 at a farm near Failford and was moved in 1952 to High Greenan. In 1888 the foundations of a large doorway were found in the centre of the old farmhouse and this was thought to be the main doorway of the old monastery.\n\nIn the mid-1960s some 'decorated slabs' are recorded as having been found beneath the floor of the cottage on the 'Castle' site and three skeletons were uncovered in shallow graves to the east; they were reburied near the site without any further investigation taking place.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04371	Why does it seem like bees are attracted to plastic children playgrounds?	Probably because bees are attracted to bright coloured flowers, therefore also attracted the bright colours of the plastic.	[ "Exposure therapy has been proven as an effective treatment for people who have a fear of bees. It is recommended that people place themselves in a comfortable open environment, such as a park or garden, and gradually over a prolonged period of time move closer to the bees. This process should not be rushed, it may take many months spent watching bees before people feel comfortable in their presence.\n", "The audiences that we built for those campaigns are having a different experience. They're having a collective experience in which they literally bring different pieces, one to the next, swap them back and forth, gossip about them. They have an element of cocreation and a collaborative nature that doesn't really have an analog that I've been able to think of in the arts.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "As the bees spread through Florida, a densely populated state, officials worry that public fear may force misguided efforts to combat them. The Florida African Bee Action Plan states,\n", "The ship leaves Earth and at the appropriate point, Kane departs from the ship and, now fully developed, travels unaided to its home planet.\n\nThe author draws an analogy between Kane and a bee that visits and thereby pollinates flowers at random, with no real knowledge of what it has done.\n\nSection::::Comic adaptation plot summary.\n", "In rare cases, a plant species may only be effectively pollinated by a single bee species, and some plants are endangered at least in part because their pollinator is also threatened. There is, however, a pronounced tendency for oligolectic bees to be associated with common, widespread plants which are visited by multiple pollinators. There are some forty oligoleges associated with the creosote bush in the arid parts of the United States southwest, for example.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:As mimics and models.\n", "Pest control is often done through the use of pesticides, which may be either organic or artificially synthesized. Pesticides may affect the ecology of a garden due to their effects on the populations of both target and non-target species. For example, unintended exposure to some neonicotinoid pesticides has been proposed as a factor in the recent decline in honey bee populations. A mole vibrator can deter mole activity in a garden.\n", "Unreasonable fear of bees in humans may also have a detrimental effect on ecology. Bees are important pollinators, and when, in their fear, people destroy wild colonies of bees, they contribute to environmental damage and may also be the cause of the disappearing bees.\n\nThe renting of bee colonies for pollination of crops is the primary source of income for beekeepers in the United States, but as the fears of bees spread, it becomes hard to find a location for the colonies because of the growing objections of local population.\n\nSection::::Africanized bees.\n", "BULLET::::4. David W. Roubik is a senior staff scientist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. He focuses on ecology, behavior, and evolution, and how tropical bees are agents of connectivity. His work addresses how to measure the abundance of natural pollinators and how to protect them, and how to understand the competition between plants and pollinators. More on his research and publications can be found on the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute webpage for Dr. Roubik.\n\nBULLET::::5. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute's photos of \"Eulaema meriana\" can be found here.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The impact of aerial fenitrothion spraying upon the population biology of bumble bees (Bombus Latr.: Hym.) in southwestern New Brunswick\". Plowright, R.C., B.A. Pendrel and I.A. McLaren. 1978. Canadian Entomology 110: 1145-1156. - A case study in the loss of pollination for blueberries, caused by gypsy moth spraying, which also killed bumblebees.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Value of Honey Bees As Pollinators of U.S. Crops in 2000\", Roger Morse and Nicholas Calderone, Cornell University (2000)\n", "Section::::Drone tests.\n", "An ovum is deposited on pre-human Earth by an alien race and in due course it gives birth to a creature that takes the form of a human. Over the centuries, the creature lives amongst humans and mentally influences certain of them to advance the development of civilization. In particular, it works on scientists and eventually it causes the development of space travel. As the first spaceship to attempt to reach the moon is being built, the creature, now known as \"Kane\", causes the creation of a small space in the ship, which he enters, unknown to the builders. \n", "Some concerns exist about the impact of the international trade in mass-produced bumblebee colonies. Evidence from Japan and South America indicates bumblebees can escape and naturalise in new environments, causing damage to native pollinators. Greater use of native pollinators, such as \"Bombus ignitus\" in China and Japan, has occurred as a result. In addition, mounting evidence indicates mass-produced bumblebees may also carry diseases, harmful to wild bumblebees and honeybees.\n", "There are benefits and disadvantages for being a pollen specialist, and some specialists exhibit a degree of plasticity in their specialization. When the oligolectic bees are not given a choice of their preferred genus of host pollen plant, some can be opportunistic and forage on available plants. Others are strict in their pollen diet choice and will not visit the flowers outside of their preferred pollen hosts. This brings up the question of whether the bees are choosing not to visit the flowers because of factors related to incompatibility with the pollen, or do they simply not recognize the flowers as being sources of pollen?\n", "To prevent the collapse of endangered bee colonies, a genetically engineered bee is kept in a test tube to be tested. During an interview, a man walks by and observes the bee. Shocked with the size of its eyes, the man aggressively snaps the test tube, causing the bee to eat nectar at first, but grows in size and eats gnats, apples, drones, then whole humans, trees, aircraft, buildings, hills, mountains, and islands. Finally, the bee consumes the continents, the Moon, and the Earth.\n\nSection::::\"Tasty Planet Forever\" (2018).:Plot.:Pacific Basking Shark.\n", "BULLET::::- The episode \"Aptitude\" on the series \"The Suite Life of Zack & Cody\" shows Zack looking at a video called \"Beard of Bees\" on a YouTube-like website.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Bee Movie\", as a video clip on a bee news program, a crowd of bees chants \"No More Bee Beards! No More Bee Beards!\"\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"King of the Hill\" episode \"Mutual of Omabwah\", Dale Gribble wears a beard of bees.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2000 \"Malcolm in the Middle\" episode \"The Bots and the Bees\", Hal wears a beard of bees as a result of his battle robot.\n", "The bee has been considered an agricultural pest for some crops, such as passion fruit, because it damages leaves and flowers while collecting nest materials, and tunnels through the unopened flowers to collect the nectar (thus frustrating their normal pollinators). On the other hand, they are significant pollinators on their own, e.g. for onions.\n\nSection::::Taxonomy and Phylogeny.\n", "There may be unexpected consequences of the naturalization of these bees in the United States. For example, in a similar situation in Florida, two fig species \"Ficus altissima\" and \"Ficus microphylla\" have been introduced but did not spread because there was no suitable pollinator. With the arrival of the non-native wasps (\"Eupristina\" sp.), the figs acquired pollinating insects and became invasive.\n", "In Canada and Sweden it has been shown that growing a mosaic of different crops encourages bumblebees and provides higher yields than does a monoculture of oilseed rape, despite the fact that the bees were attracted to the crop.\n\nSection::::Relationship to humans.:Population decline.\n", "Section::::Interaction with environment.\n\nSection::::Interaction with environment.:Pollination.\n", "Section::::Recent achievements.\n\nSection::::Recent achievements.:2006–2009 Research in bees, biodiversity, and forest livelihoods in India.\n", "The primary lines of evidence used by the odor plume advocates are\n\nBULLET::::1. experiments with odorless sugar sources which show that worker bees are unable to recruit to those sources and\n\nBULLET::::2. logical difficulties of a small-scale dance (a few centimeters across) giving directions precise enough to hold the other bees on course during a flight that could be several kilometers long. Misreading by even a few degrees would lead the bee off course by hundreds of meters at the far end.\n", "Does a Bee Care?\n\n\"Does a Bee Care?\" is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov. It was first published in \"\" in June 1957, and reprinted in the 1975 collection \"Buy Jupiter and Other Stories\". Gold Key Comics also published a comic book version of the story in 1976 in #4 of the four issue science fiction series \"Starstream: Adventures in Science Fiction.\" It also appeared in 1976's \"Questar: Illustrated Science Fiction Classics\", published by Golden Press and adapted by A. Moniz with artwork from Jack Abel and in 1975 in \"Buy Jupiter and Other Stories\".\n", "Neither of these points invalidate the dance theory, but simply suggest that odor might be involved, which is indeed conceded by all proponents of dance theory. Critics of the odor plume theory counter that most natural nectar sources are relatively large—orchards or entire fields— so, precision may not be necessary or even desirable. They have also challenged the reproducibility of the odorless source experiment.\n", "Ordinary (non-phobic) fear of bees in adults is generally associated with lack of knowledge. The general public is not aware that bees attack in defense of their hive, or when accidentally squashed, and an occasional bee in a field presents no danger. Moreover, the majority of insect stings in the United States are attributed to yellowjacket wasps, which are often mistaken for a honeybee.\n", "The gut bacteria of \"B. bimaculatus\" was isolated and include \"Snodgrassella alvi\" and \"Gilliamella apicola\" strains. \"B. bimaculatus\" had more gut bacteria from environmental sources, and less core bacteria compared to other bumble bee species. \"B. bimaculatus\" had more core bacteria when collected from farms as opposed to collection from semi-natural habitats.\n\nSection::::Human importance.\n\nSection::::Human importance.:Pollinator.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02589	How would this sailor be injured by spinning helicopter blades at Camp Pendleton?	Entirely possible. If it lands hard, the blades wil deflect down. If you are near the outside of the disk, you can die. My A & P instructor saw a Cobra kill a friend like that. I saw an aftermath pic of part of a guys face. It split him so you saw half a moustache.	[ "BULLET::::- 21 September 2017: A civilian UAV collided with a Black Hawk helicopter in the evening over the eastern shore of Staten Island, New York City, United States. The helicopter was one of two with the 82nd Airborne Division flying out of Fort Bragg on duty for the United Nations General Assembly. The helicopters were able to continue flying and landed at Linden Airport. Nobody was hurt, but part of the UAV was found at the bottom of the main rotor system.\n", "David Lloyd, a Marine in a nearby mortar bunker, rushed to the scene, took off his web belt and tied it around one of Cleland's legs to control bleeding. When the medics arrived, Lloyd left to help another injured soldier, one of the two who had gotten off the helicopter with Cleland.\n", "In November 2013, while testing combat weapons system off the coast of Point Mugu, California, a BQM-74E unmanned drone being used in the exercise failed to respond to commands to turn away from the ship and collided with \"Chancellorsville\". Since it was a tracking exercise and not a live fire exercise, the crew did not engage the drone with the Phalanx CIWS. Two sailors received treatment for minor burns and the ship suffered some damage and returned to San Diego for assessment. The damage later proved to be more severe than initially assessed. Citing Navy sources, the U.S. Naval Institute reported that repairs to the ship would cost $30 million and take six months to complete.\n", "BULLET::::- Tech Sergeant Alden \"Rick\" Smith of the New York Air National Guard was lost at sea during the events chronicled in the Sebastian Junger book \"The Perfect Storm\" after the helicopter he was in was unable to refuel and had to ditch in the ocean.\n", "BULLET::::- March 28, 2003, Iraq — U.S. Army 101st Aviation Regiment, AH-64D Apache — while departing from FOB Shell for a combat mission with approximately 40 other fully loaded helicopters, the helicopter rolled over in severe brownout approximately 4 minutes after the first aircraft took off.\n\nBULLET::::- March 28, 2003, Iraq — U.S. Army 101st Aviation Regiment, AH-64D Apache (97-5032) — after returning to FOB Shell from a combat mission, the helicopter landed hard in brownout conditions, rolled over, and was severely damaged (though later salvaged and repaired).\n", "BULLET::::- 2 May: A US Army Boeing AH-64 Apache helicopter carrying two soldiers of the 116th Aviation Group was participating in a routine drill when it crashed on a ramp while taxiing at McEntire Joint National Guard Base, South Carolina, shortly before 1400 hrs. Both crew were taken to hospital. Pilot 1st Lt. Jonathan Shively, Jr, 33, of Jamestown, died of injuries, but second pilot, Chief Warrant Officer Roger Carpenter, 46, of Spartanburg, was in stable condition.\n", "On 13 October 2010, newspapers reported that Army Air Corps maintenance workers had accidentally sent a live CRV7 missile in regular mail from Camp Bastion to the UK, a mistake which inspections had missed four times; when the missile was discovered it sparked an evacuation, the MoD later changed procedure in regards to the incident. On 25 July 2011, the MoD announced that during a combat operation in the Nahr-e-Saraj district of Helmand province, several Afghan children had been injured from crossfire by an Apache; they were flown to Camp Bastion for medical treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- On July 4, 1986, 21-year-old Marine Lance Corporal, Howard Foote Jr., an aviation mechanic at El Toro, took an A-4 Skyhawk on an unauthorized 90 minute joyride over southern California. Foote, an accomplished glider pilot, was despondent after learning that due to a medical condition, he would never be able to fly in the Marines. He landed the aircraft safely and was subsequently discharged under less than honorable conditions after serving 4 1/2 months in confinement.\n", "BULLET::::- 12 January:A Sikorsky UH-60L Blackhawk, \"91-26321\", of the 36th Combat Aviation Brigade, Texas Army National Guard, crashes on the campus at Texas A&M University just after take-off due to tail rotor failure, killing 2nd Lt. Zachary Cook, 2008 Texas A&M graduate, member of the Texas A&M ROTC, and Aggie Corps of Cadets and injuring four other Army personnel. The helicopter was participating in the Rudder's Rangers Annual Winter Field Training.\n", "Twenty minutes into the operation, Razor 1 took off from the roof of the main house to reposition to a landing spot outside the compound. As Razor 1 was crossing over the courtyard, both \"green unit\" flight deck control systems went off line. The helicopter settled slowly, bounced off the ground, and then broke apart as it hit the ground a second time. Both failed green units were removed for later examination.\n", "On 10 February 1983, was conducting a live-fire exercise off the East Coast of the United States using the Phalanx against a target drone. Although the drone was successfully engaged at close range, the target debris bounced off the sea surface and struck the ship. This caused significant damage and fire from the drone's residual fuel, which also killed a civilian instructor aboard this ship.\n", "BULLET::::- 26 November:United States Marine Corps Bell-Boeing MV-22B Osprey, BuNo \"165838\", loses a 20 × 4 inch piece of a prop-rotor blade during test flight in Nova Scotia, Canada, but is able to make safe precautionary landing at CFB Shearwater despite severe airframe vibration. The blade failed after apparently being hit by ice which broke off from another part of the aircraft.\n", "On 13 October 1989, was conducting a live-fire exercise off the East Coast of the United States using the Phalanx against a target drone. The drone was successfully engaged, but as the drone fell to the sea, the CIWS re-engaged it as a continued threat to \"El Paso\". Rounds from the Phalanx struck the bridge of , killing one officer and injuring a petty officer.\n\nSection::::Incidents.:Iraqi missile attack in 1991 Gulf War.\n", "BULLET::::- August 21 – Wing walker Todd Green fell while attempting an aircraft transfer from a Stearman to a Hughes 369 helicopter at the Selfridge Air National Guard Base Air Show in Harrison Township, Michigan. He was seriously injured and taken to the hospital, where he was pronounced dead.\n", "BULLET::::- After suffering mechanical failure during JW 14/1, an Army Air Corps Apache helicopter made an emergency landing in a field near Maryculter, Aberdeenshire.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n\nConcern has been raised by marine conservation charities that military activity associated with Joint Warrior, especially the use of sonar, is adversely affecting marine mammals.\n", "There are many other subsystems that together ensure proper operation, such as environmental control, transmitter, mount movement control, power control and distribution, and so on. It takes six to eight months to train a technician to maintain, operate, and repair the CIWS.\n\nSection::::Incidents.\n\nSection::::Incidents.:Drone exercise accidents.\n", "One helicopter carried a Navy SEAL team and an Air Force combat controller, Technical Sergeant John Chapman. As the SEAL team disem-barked, automatic weapons fire laced the helicopter's side while a rocket propelled grenade ripped into it. The crew chief yelled, \"We're taking fire! Go! Go! Go!\" and the SEAL team rushed back inside. As the pilots added power to evade the heavy ground fire, the damaged helicopter bucked violently, causing Navy SEAL Petty Officer 1st Class Neil Roberts, who was standing on the ramp, to fall about 12 feet to the ground below. The helicopter escaped the ambush and crash-landed about seven kilometers north of where Petty Officer Roberts fell. The second helicopter rescued the other SEALs and Sergeant Chapman but after returning to their base, they decided to try and rescue Petty Officer Roberts.\n", "Shilo Schluterman served as an aircraft mechanic and in maintenance and operations with the U.S. Air Force Air National Guard between 1999 to 2014. She was paired with her dog, Javelin, after medication was ineffective in treating anxiety and panic attacks caused by PTSD.\n", "In 2006 and 2007, the Stiletto participated in Trident Warrior exercises, as well as a number of other naval exercises. This included three days of mine-clearing experimentation during Exercise Howler in 2006, when the vessel was operated by the Naval Special Clearance Team-1 (NSCT-1) from the Naval Amphibious Base in Coronado.\n", "BULLET::::- Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force aircraft bomb Baghdad, Iraq.\n\nBULLET::::- In response to PLO attacks on Israeli positions, Israeli begins a series of major air and artillery attacks on West Beirut.\n\nBULLET::::- July 23 – During predawn filming of \"\" at Valencia, California, special-effects explosions damage the tail rotor of a Bell UH-1B Iroquois helicopter hovering 24 feet (7.3 meters) above actor Vic Morrow and child actors Myca Dihn Le and Renee Shin-Yi Chen. The helicopter crashes onto them, its main rotor decapitating Morrow and Dihn and one of its struts crushing Chen to death.\n", "On Wednesday, Sept 8 1993 two Camp Pendleton Marines were killed in San Diego when their Super Cobra helicopter crashed at Montgomery Field, a civilian suburban airfield. Witnesses said the helicopter rotor broke off in the air before the craft smashed into the ground. This led to the Marine Corps downing all Super Cobra's after a series of helicopter crashes in the last couple of weeks. Miller said flights involving the helicopter have been suspended pending final analysis of two accidents that occurred within 24 hours, one at Montgomery Field in San Diego and the other at Twentynine Palms, Calif. Los Angeles Times Reported Sept. 16 1993\n", "BULLET::::- February 13, 2003, near Ali Al Salem Air Base, Kuwait — U.S. Air Force, 20th Special Operations Squadron, MH-53M (s/n 10930) — helicopter was badly damaged when crew misjudged a night landing in brownout conditions. Some minor injuries. Aircraft was salvaged.\n\nBULLET::::- March 23, 2003, U.S. Army Aviation Base Camp, Central Iraq — U.S. Army 6th Cavalry Regiment, AH-64D Apache Longbow — helicopter crashed on takeoff on the unit's first day at that base camp.\n", "During the course of the operation an unknown number of RVNAF helicopters flew out of what remained of South Vietnam to the fleet. Around 12:00 five or six RVNAF UH-1Hs and one of the stolen ICCS UH-1Hs, were circling around \"Blue Ridge\". The RVNAF pilots had been instructed after dropping off their passengers to ditch their helicopters and they would then be picked up by one of the ship's tenders. The pilot of the stolen ICCS Huey had been told to ditch off the port quarter of the ship, but seemed reluctant to do so, flying around the ship to the starboard bow he jumped from his helicopter at a height of . His helicopter turned and hit the side of \"Blue Ridge\" before hitting the sea. The tail rotor sheared off and embedded itself in the engine of an Air America Bell 205 that was doing a hot refueling on the helipad at the rear of the ship. The Air America pilot shut down his helicopter and left it and moments later a RVNAF UH-1H attempted to land on the helipad, locked rotors with the Air America Bell, almost pushing it overboard. The stolen Air America Bell 204, landed on \"Kirk\", from where US Navy pilots flew it to \"Okinawa\".\n", "BULLET::::- A 74-meter (243-foot) unmanned United States Army aerostat making up part of the Joint Land-Attack Cruise Missile Defense Elevated Netted Sensor System (JLENS) breaks loose from its tether at Aberdeen, Maryland, and drifts over Pennsylvania, shadowed by two U.S. Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcon fighters. After several hours, in comes to earth in a ravine in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, but not before dragging its 6,000-foot (1,829-meter)-long heavy tether across the ground in the county for 20 miles (32 km), causing damage to electric lines and utility poles that cuts electric power to 35,000 people and forces the cancellation of classes at Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania. The following day, Pennsylvania State Police troopers fire about 100 shotgun blasts at the aerostat to deflate it.\n", "BULLET::::- 13 August – Westland Wessex G-ASWI of Bristow Helicopters suffers an engine failure and ditches in the North Sea off the coast of Norfolk, United Kingdom. All thirteen people on board are killed.\n\nSection::::1982.\n\nBULLET::::- 23 July – Bell UH-1 Iroquois N87701 of Western Helicopters is damaged by pyrotechnic explosions while a scene for is being filmed at Indian Dunes, California. Actor Vic Morrow and 2 child actors are killed on the ground.\n" ]	[ "Spinning helicopter blade could not injure a sailor. " ]	[ "Spinning helicopter blades injuring a sailor is entirely possible. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Spinning helicopter blade could not injure a sailor. ", "Spinning helicopter blade could not injure a sailor. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Spinning helicopter blades injuring a sailor is entirely possible. ", "Spinning helicopter blades injuring a sailor is entirely possible. " ]
2018-03257	Why do dark coloured fizzy drinks like Pepsi and Coke have caffeine, yet other lighter coloured drinks like Sprite and Fanta not have it?	Mountain Dew, a light coloured drink, has more caffeine than either Coke or standard Pepsi. There is almost as much caffeine in a 12oz Mountain Dew as a 20oz Coke. (55mg vs 56-57mg). The only soft drink with more caffeine is Pepsi Zero Sugar. [Source]( URL_1 ) There goes that theory... Here is the real question... what colour would Coke or Pepsi be if they didn't [add the caramel colour?]( URL_0 )	[ "BULLET::::- In Chris Lynch's \"Vietnam\" series, one of the four main characters, Ivan Bucyk, greatly enjoys Moxie soda and claims that its being medicine is what makes him so athletic. The other characters do not share his enthusiasm and say it tastes like \"carbonated tires.\" Later, when one of the four main characters is driven mad from his experiences in the Vietnam War, the others say he looks crazier than the mad scientist on the Moxie logo.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of brand name soft drink products\n\nSection::::References.\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n", "Sprite Remix\n\nSprite Remix was a line of colorless caffeine-free sodas and drink-flavoring packets made by the Coca-Cola company. Although based on Sprite, the Remixes were each flavored differently from the original. It was discontinued in 2005 in the United States. In Spring of 2015, the Tropical Sprite flavor was reintroduced into the Coca-Cola product line up.\n\nSection::::Flavors.\n\nBULLET::::- Sprite Tropical Remix: Sprite with tropical fruit flavors, introduced 2002; reintroduced as Sprite Tropical in Spring 2015. Renamed Sprite Tropical Mix in Spring 2016.\n\nBULLET::::- Sprite Berryclear Remix: Sprite with berry flavors, introduced on April 1, 2004.\n", "Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, \"gyokuro\", for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like \"lapsang souchong\", which has very little.\n\nSection::::Products.:Beverages.:Soft drinks and energy drinks.\n", "Soft light is most closely related to Overlay and is only similar to Hard Light by name. Applying pure black or white does not result in pure black or white.\n\nThere are a variety of different methods of applying a soft light blend. All the flavors produce the same result when the top layer is pure black; same for when the top layer is pure neutral gray. The Photoshop and illusions.hu flavors also produce the same result when the top layer is pure white (the differences between these two are in how one interpolates between these 3 results).\n", "In general, dark-roast coffee has very slightly less caffeine than lighter roasts because the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean by a small amount.\n\nSection::::Products.:Beverages.:Tea.\n\nTea contains more caffeine than coffee by dry weight. A typical serving, however, contains much less, since less of the product is used as compared to an equivalent serving of coffee. Also contributing to caffeine content are growing conditions, processing techniques, and other variables. Thus, teas contain varying amounts of caffeine.\n", "Blue-green has been a Crayola color since 1930.\n\nSection::::Additional variations of cyan.:Caribbean Current.\n\nDisplayed at right is the color Caribbean Current.\n\nSection::::Additional variations of cyan.:Celeste.\n\nAt right is displayed the color celeste.\n", "Caffeine is also a common ingredient of soft drinks, such as cola, originally prepared from kola nuts. Soft drinks typically contain 0 to 55 milligrams of caffeine per 12 ounce serving. By contrast, energy drinks, such as Red Bull, can start at 80 milligrams of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks either originates from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of decaffeination or from chemical synthesis. Guarana, a prime ingredient of energy drinks, contains large amounts of caffeine with small amounts of theobromine and theophylline in a naturally occurring slow-release excipient.\n\nSection::::Products.:Beverages.:Other beverages.\n", "In the 1980s, Wint-O-Green Life Savers were used to create soda geysers. The tubes of candies were threaded onto a pipe cleaner and dropped into the soft drink to create a geyser. At the end of the 1990s, the manufacturer of Wintergreen Lifesavers increased the size of the mints and they no longer fit in the mouth of soda bottles. Science teachers found that Mint Mentos candies had the same effect when dropped into a bottle of any carbonated soft drink.\n", "BULLET::::- Cherry Limeade (Only available in Sam's Club stores and certain Circle K fountains)\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit Punch (available in California, Hawaii, and in Coca-Cola Freestyle fountain machines, as well as Southeastern markets)\n\nBULLET::::- Lime (available only in Coca-Cola Freestyle fountain machines)\n\nBULLET::::- Mango (available in specific locations in Maryland, Western New Jersey, and other Southeastern states)\n\nBULLET::::- Kolita (Can only be sampled in the tasting areas at the World of Coca-Cola in Atlanta, Georgia and Club Cool in Epcot.)\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Kiwi (only at the World of Coca-Cola in Atlanta, Georgia.)\n", "A one-tablespoon (5 grams) serving of dry unsweetened cocoa powder has 12.1 mg of caffeine and a 25-g single serving of dark chocolate has 22.4 mg of caffeine. Although a single 7 oz. serving of coffee may contain 80–175 mg, studies have shown psychoactive effects in caffeine doses as low as 9 mg, and a dose as low as 12.5 mg was shown to have effects on cognitive performance.\n", "Some countries have certain restrictions on the sale and manufacture of energy drinks. In Australia and New Zealand, energy drinks are regulated under the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code; limiting the caffeine content of 'formulated caffeinated beverages' (energy drinks) at 320 mg/L (9.46 mg/oz) and soft-drinks at 145 mg/L (4.29 mg/oz). Mandatory caffeine labeling is issued for all food products containing guarana in the country, and Australian energy drink labels warn consumers to drink no more than two cans per day.\n", "In 1993, \"Animage\" made a male anime character popularity poll, in which Zoisite was the tenth most popular, and Nephrite was the joint seventeenth, tying with a character from \"Zettai Muteki Raijin-Oh\". The first official \"Sailor Moon\" character popularity poll ranked Zoisite as the twentieth most popular character, Kunzite was the twenty third, Nephrite was twenty-fourth, Jadeite was twenty-sixth, Endou was twenty-ninth, Beryl was thirtieth and Queen Metaria was thirty-fourth, out of thirty-eight choices.\n", "There is no standard value for \"a cup of coffee.\" The caffeine content of cola drinks and most energy drinks can be difficult to determine, because in many cases the labels do not indicate the dose per serving. Caffeine doses in these beverages range from 20 to 30 mg in some soft drinks, up to 350 mg or more in some energy drinks. Although some Internet web sites report caffeine content for beverages, official lists are not available and the number of brands continually grows.\n", "In 2006, Hansen's introduced a line of iced teas in 16-ounce PET bottles. Some varieties were sweetened with cane sugar and some were unsweetened. Flavors included Lemon Mint, Pomegranate, Ginger, and Tangerine. There were also three flavors of diet green tea soda: Lemon Mint, Ginger and Tangerine. Each bottle of tea contained 75 mg of Epigallocatechin gallate. Hansen's also made tea bags.\n", "BULLET::::- Passion\n\nBULLET::::- Lemon\n\nBULLET::::- Lime\n\nSection::::Thailand.\n\nAs common in the south east part of Asia, the sugar content of these flavours is much higher than in the rest of the world, giving the drinks a quite different taste compared to similar flavours around the rest of the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Orange\n\nBULLET::::- Grape (retired, returned 2010)\n", "Drinks like ginger ale and root beer are often brewed using yeast to cause carbonation.\n\nOf most importance is that the ingredient meets the agreed specification on all major parameters. This is not only the functional parameter (in other words, the level of the major constituent), but the level of impurities, the microbiological status, and physical parameters such as color, particle size, etc.\n", "Chocolate derived from cocoa beans contains a small amount of caffeine. The weak stimulant effect of chocolate may be due to a combination of theobromine and theophylline, as well as caffeine. A typical 28-gram serving of a milk chocolate bar has about as much caffeine as a cup of decaffeinated coffee. By weight, dark chocolate has one to two times the amount of caffeine as coffee: 80–160 mg per 100 g. Higher percentages of cocoa such as 90% amount to 200 mg per 100 g approximately and thus, a 100-gram 85% cocoa chocolate bar contains about 195 mg caffeine.\n\nSection::::Products.:Tablets.\n", "In one study, adding more red color to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration. Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; different colors of Froot Loops cereal and most brands of gummy bears often use the same flavorings.\n\nSection::::Restrictions and regulations.\n\nSection::::Restrictions and regulations.:Regulations on natural flavoring.\n\nUK Food Law defines a natural flavor as:\n", "SodaStream advertises \"100 flavours of the world\", an assortment of syrups and concentrates which include \"cola\", \"natural\", \"clear\", \"green tea\", \"ice tea\", \"isotonic\", fruit, \"local\", \"mixers\" and \"energy\" drinks. The concentrates are packaged as 500 mL bottles in which one capful is enough to flavour one litre of soda; 0.5 litre of concentrate makes 12 litres of soda.\n\nSodaStream can only carbonate water, one litre at a time, in the supplied bottle; the concentrates are added after carbonated water is removed from the machine. This poses a limitation if one wishes to carbonate wine or fresh fruit juices.\n", "The Catawissa Bottling Company in Catawissa, Pennsylvania, is one of six bottlers in the United States that produce Moxie. Catawissa has produced it since 1945. Polar Beverages also bottles Moxie in Worcester, Massachusetts, as does Orca Beverage in Mukilteo, Washington.\n\nSection::::History.:Since 1962.\n\nSugar-free Diet Moxie was introduced in 1962, about the same time that \"Mad\" magazine began placing the Moxie logo in the background of its articles to increase public awareness of it. As a result of \"Mad\" ’s efforts, sales of the soft drink increased 10%; this led to the \"Mad About Moxie\" campaign.\n", "BULLET::::- In John Connolly's novel \"A Time of Torment\", there is a lawyer nicknamed Moxie after his love of the drink.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Bugs Bunny cartoon, \"Ballot Box Bunny\", directed by Friz Freleng, Bugs is seen putting out bottles of Moxie at a picnic.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Harvard Lampoon novel \"Bored of the Rings\", Moxie and Pepsi are the satirical analogs of Merry and Pippin in \"The Lord of the Rings\".\n\nBULLET::::- In the episode \"Apartment Complex\" of \"The King of Queens\", Doug offers Carrie a Moxie soda when she discovers his secret apartment above the Chinese restaurant.\n", "Coca-Cola representatives and the American Beverage Association stated that Vault contained 47 mg of caffeine per 237 ml (8 fl. oz.) serving, or 70.5 mg per 355 ml (12 fl. oz.) can, and 117.5 mg per 20 fl. oz. PET bottle. This caffeine amount was substantially higher than Surge's 52.5 mg per 12 fl. oz., Mountain Dew's 54 mg per 12 fl. oz., Mello Yello's 51 mg per 12 fl. oz., or Sun Drop's 63 mg per 12 fl. oz.\n\nThere were several varieties of Vault, the two most common being Vault and Vault Zero.\n\nSection::::Packaging.\n", "Candi sugar is a common ingredient in strong Belgian ales, where it increases the beer's strength while keeping the body fairly light; dark varieties of candi sugar also affect the colour and flavour of the beer.\n\nCaramel syrup is used to provide colour to brews and can either be added in the wort kettle or at filtration when needed to correct low beer colours. This caramel is not sweet and provides little or no fermentable extract.\n", "Two cans of Pepsi Free are seen, at separate times, in the 1983 film \"Mr. Mom\".\n", "Stoney (drink)\n\nStoney Ginger Beer, or Stoney Tangawizi as it is called in Swahili-speaking Africa, is a ginger beer soft-drink sold in several countries across the African continent. The product, sold in a brown bottle or can, is made and distributed by The Coca-Cola Company. \n" ]	[ "Only dark colored drinks have caffeine." ]	[ "Mountain Dew, a light colored drink, has caffeine. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only dark colored drinks have caffeine." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mountain Dew, a light colored drink, has caffeine. " ]
2018-13642	why does getting out of bed too quickly make me feel like I’m going to pass out?	"Some people have faint-inducing drops in blood pressure when they get out of bed or stand up from a chair (called postural or orthostatic hypotension) or after eating (called postprandial hypotension). To understand postural hypotension, imagine your body as a tube of fluid. When you lie down, the fluid distributes itself fairly evenly from head to toe. When you stand up, gravity pulls blood downward. Up to a quart of blood pools in the legs (that's about one-fifth the total in the average adult), reducing the amount that is returned to the heart. The next few heartbeats deliver less blood than usual, so blood pressure plummets" - Harvard health	[ "The autonomic nervous system's physiological state (see below) leading to loss of consciousness may persist for several minutes, so\n\nBULLET::::- If sufferers try to sit or stand when they wake up, they may pass out again\n\nBULLET::::- The person may be nauseated, pale, and sweaty for several minutes or hours\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nReflex syncope occurs in response to a trigger due to dysfunction of the heart rate and blood pressure regulating mechanism. When heart rate slows or blood pressure drops, the resulting lack of blood to the brain causes fainting.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Vasovagal syncope.\n\nTypical triggers include:\n\nBULLET::::- Prolonged standing\n\nBULLET::::- Emotional stress\n", "One theory for the predominance of fainting couches is that women were actually fainting because their corsets were laced too tightly, thus restricting blood flow. However, pictures from the 1860s show women horseback riding, playing tennis, and engaging in other vigorous activities in corsets without hindrance. A tightly laced corset restricts airflow to the lungs and, as a result, if the wearer exerted themselves to the point of needing large quantities of oxygen and was unable to fully inflate the lungs, this could lead to fainting. Hyperventilation for any reason could also potentially result in brief loss of consciousness.\n", "BULLET::::- In those with deep vein thrombosis early movement rather than bed rest appears helpful.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n\nProlonged bed rest has long been known to have deleterious physiological effects, such as muscle atrophy and other forms of deconditioning such as arterial constriction. Besides lack of physical exercise it was shown that another important factor is that the hydrostatic pressure (caused by gravity) acts anomalously, resulting in altered distribution of body fluids. In other words, when getting up, this can cause an orthostatic hypertension, potentially inducing a vasovagal response.\n", "The first-dose phenomenon is a sudden and severe fall in blood pressure that can occur when changing from a lying to a standing position the first time that an alpha blocker drug is used or when resuming the drug after many months off. This postural hypotension usually happens shortly after the first dose is absorbed into the blood and can result in syncope (fainting). Syncope occurs in approximately 1% of patients given an initial dose of 2 mg prazosin or greater. This adverse effect is self-limiting and in most cases does not recur after the initial period of therapy or during subsequent dose titration.\n", "There are also accounts that mention fainting rooms in eighteenth-century America. This room, which was also referred to as bedroom (bedrooms were called chambers), is located in the ground floor and contained a day bed that allow occupants to rest for brief periods during the day. \n\nSection::::Theories for prevalence.\n", "Ellsworth suffered a focal seizure in Germany in June 2002, right in the middle of the song \"Necroshine\". Ellsworth commented, \"The beauty of a stroke is that you don’t remember. I don’t know what it changed, because I forget how it used to be (laughs). Occasionally I piss my pants when somebody turns a microwave on (laughs). I’m riding my motorcycle. I still swim, I work out. The idea is that when you have a problem, there’s two ways to look at it – you can live in the problem or you can live through the problem. For me, I just lived through it. I thought very soon afterwards if it had actually killed me, I said 'Wouldn’t it be something to die in the middle of an Overkill show?' (laughs).\" \n", "BULLET::::- Female hysteria: The second most common theory for the predominance of fainting couches is home treatment of female hysteria through manual pelvic massage by home visiting doctors and midwives. As a \"disease\" that needed constant, recurring (usually weekly) in-home treatment with a procedure that through manual massage could sometimes take hours, creating specialized furniture for maximum comfort during the extended procedure seems likely, as does the later creation of fainting rooms for privacy during the intimate massage procedure.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chaise longue\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Complications.\n", "For many people, excessively low blood pressure can cause dizziness and fainting or indicate serious heart, endocrine or neurological disorders.\n\nTreatment of hypotension may include the use of intravenous fluids or vasopressors. When using vasopressors, trying to achieve a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of greater than 70 mm Hg does not appear to result in better outcomes than trying to achieve a MAP of greater than 65 mm Hg in adults.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe primary symptoms of hypotension are lightheadedness or dizziness.\n\nIf the blood pressure is sufficiently low, fainting may occur.\n", "Section::::Studies of OBEs.:Neurology and OBE-like experiences.:AWARE Study II.\n\nAs of May 2016, a posting at the UK Clinical Trials Gateway website describes plans for AWARE II, a two-year multicenter observational study of 900-1500 patients experiencing cardiac arrest, with subjects being recruited as August 1, 2014 and a trial end date of May 31, 2017.\n\nSection::::Studies of OBEs.:Neurology and OBE-like experiences.:Smith & Messier.\n", "BULLET::::3. Lying down on the left side can help ease the pain of contractions.\n\nBULLET::::4. A slight change in movement sometimes makes the contractions disappear.\n\nBULLET::::5. A full bladder can sometimes trigger Braxton Hicks, so urination may end the contractions.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Another theory for the predominance of fainting couches is home treatment of female hysteria through manual pelvic massage by home visiting doctors and midwives. As a \"disease\" that needed constant, recurring (usually weekly) in-home treatment with a procedure that through manual massage could sometimes take hours, creating specialized furniture for maximum comfort during the extended procedure seems likely, as does the later creation of fainting rooms for privacy during the intimate massage procedure.\n", "Normally, the body compensates, but in the presence of other factors, e.g. hypovolemia, diseases and medications, this response may not be sufficient.\n\nThere are medications to treat hypotension. In addition, there are many lifestyle advices. Many of them, however, are specific for a certain cause of orthostatic hypotension, e.g. maintaining a proper fluid intake in dehydration.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypercoagulability.\n", "BULLET::::- Paradoxically, hyperventilation: self-induced hypocapnia such as in the fainting game or in shallow water blackout.\n\nBULLET::::- Overexertion\n\nBULLET::::- Panic attack\n\nUsually recovery is rapid and a greyout can be readily reversed by lying down. This way, the cardiovascular system does not need to work against gravity for blood to reach the brain.\n", "Prolonged still standing significantly activates the coagulation cascade, called orthostatic hypercoagulability. Overall, it causes an increase in transcapillary hydrostatic pressure. As a result, approximately 12% of blood plasma volume crosses into the extravascular compartment. This plasma shift causes an increase in the concentration of coagulation factors and other proteins of coagulation, in turn causing hypercoagulability.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic tremor.\n", "Despite increasing incidence of HFpEF effective inroads to therapeutics have been largely unsuccessful. Currently, recommendations for treatment are directed at symptom relief and co-morbid conditions. Frequently this involves administration of diuretics to relieve complications associated with volume overload, such as leg swelling and high blood pressure.\n", "Low blood pressure is sometimes associated with certain symptoms, many of which are related to causes rather than effects of hypotension:\n\nBULLET::::- chest pain\n\nBULLET::::- shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- irregular heartbeat\n\nBULLET::::- fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F)\n\nBULLET::::- headache\n\nBULLET::::- stiff neck\n\nBULLET::::- severe upper back pain\n\nBULLET::::- cough with sputum\n\nBULLET::::- Prolonged diarrhea or vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- dyspepsia (indigestion)\n\nBULLET::::- dysuria (painful urination)\n\nBULLET::::- acute, life-threatening allergic reaction\n\nBULLET::::- seizures\n\nBULLET::::- loss of consciousness\n\nBULLET::::- profound fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- temporary blurring or loss of vision\n\nBULLET::::- Black tarry stools\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Uterine enlargement beyond 20 weeks' size can compress the inferior vena cava, which can markedly decrease the return of blood into the heart or preload. As a result, healthy pregnancy patients in a supine position or prolonged standing can experience symptoms of hypotension.\n\nSection::::Hematology.\n\nSection::::Hematology.:Blood volume and hemoglobin concentration.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "Normally, a series of cardiac, vascular, neurologic, muscular, and neurohumoral responses occur quickly so the blood pressure does not fall very much. One response is a vasoconstriction (baroreceptor reflex), pressing the blood up into the body again. (Often, this mechanism is exaggerated and is why diastolic blood pressure is a bit higher when a person is standing up, compared to a person in the horizontal position.) Therefore, some factor that inhibits one of these responses and causes a greater than normal fall in blood pressure is required. Such factors include low blood volume, diseases, and medications.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "VBI, often provoked by sudden and temporary drops in blood pressure, can cause transient ischemic attacks. Postural changes (see orthostatic hypotension), such as getting out of bed too quickly or standing up after sitting for extended periods of time, often provoke these attacks. Exercise of the legs, or the sudden cessation of leg exercises, may also bring on the symptoms of VBI. For the sedentary older subject, going up a flight of stairs or walking the dog may be enough to cause pooling of blood in the legs and a drop in blood pressure in the distal arteries of the head. Heat and dehydration may also be contributing causes.\n", "In people who do not have a diagnosis of high blood pressure, drinking 2–3 liters of fluid a day and taking 10 grams of salt can improve symptoms, by maximizing the amount of fluid in the bloodstream. Another strategy is keeping the head of the bed slightly elevated. This reduces the return of fluid from the limbs to the kidneys at night, thereby reducing nighttime urine production and maintaining fluid in the circulation. Various measures can be used to improve the return of blood to the heart: the wearing of compression stockings and exercises (\"physical counterpressure manoeuvres\" or PCMs) that can be undertaken just before standing up (e.g., leg crossing and squatting).\n", "Although standing per se is not dangerous, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain.\n\nSection::::Pathology.:Orthostatic hypotension.\n\nOrthostatic hypotension is characterized by an unusually low blood pressure when the patient is standing up.\n\nIt can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, blurred or dimmed vision and fainting, because the brain does not get sufficient blood supply. This, in turn, is caused by gravity, pulling the blood into the lower part of the body.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Duke’s Wife\" (2002) Theme Shakespeare, set in Vienna when ruled by a Duke.\n", "Hypotension is the opposite of hypertension, which is high blood pressure. It is best understood as a physiological state rather than a disease. Severely low blood pressure can deprive the brain and other vital organs of oxygen and nutrients, leading to a life-threatening condition called shock.\n\nFor some people who exercise and are in top physical condition, low blood pressure is a sign of good health and fitness. A single session of exercise can induce hypotension and water-based exercise can induce important hypotension response.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17151	if our eyes have a large field of view why cameras with wide field lens distort images spherically and our eyes don’t?	Being that a camera shows that distortion is a very good indication that there is in fact a distortion with the field of view of our own eyes, the reason why you don't perceive the distortion from your eyes, whether or not it's there, is because your brain regularly makes up for distortions and makes corrections to our perception. A good example of our brains making such corrections are the illusions created from optical illusions, our brains can literally fill in the gaps, even if they don't nessisarily exist.	[ "The depth of field may change, depending on what conditions are compared. Shooting from the same position, with the same lens and same f-number as a non-cropped (full-frame) 35 mm camera, but enlarging the image to a given reference size, will yield a reduced depth of field. On the other hand, using a different lens with the same field of view as the non-cropped camera (matching the 35 mm-equivalent focal length), at same f-number, the smaller camera's depth of field is greater.\n", "Because different lenses generally require a different camera–subject distance to preserve the size of a subject, changing the angle of view can indirectly distort perspective, changing the apparent relative size of the subject and foreground.\n\nIf the subject image size remains the same, then at any given aperture all lenses, wide angle and long lenses, will give the same depth of field.\n\nSection::::Lens types and effects.:Examples.\n\nAn example of how lens choice affects angle of view.\n\nSection::::Common lens angles of view.\n", "Perspective is a property that depends only on viewpoint (camera position). But if moving a lens to a smaller-format camera causes a photographer to move further from the subject, then the perspective will be affected.\n", "Lenses with longer or shorter focal lengths produce an expanded or contracted field of view that appears to distort the perspective when viewed from a normal viewing distance. Lenses of shorter focal length are called \"wide-angle lenses\", while longer-focal-length lenses are referred to as long-focus lenses (with the most common of that type being the \"telephoto lenses\"). Superimposing a wide-angle image print against the original scene would require holding it closer to the eye, while the telephoto image would need to be placed well into the depth of the photographed scene, or a tiny print to be held at arm's length, to match their perspectives.\n", "Below, a series of three photos shows the same scene shot from the same position with three different lenses: a normal lens, a wide-angle lens, and a telephoto lens. Notice that because the proportions in the image do not change with the angle of view, if the photos made with the wide-angle lens and the normal lens were cropped to contain the same scene as the photo made with the telephoto lens, then the image content would be exactly the same. The apparent difference in proportions results solely from the content added around the edges of the frame in the normal lens photo and the wide-angle photo.\n", "A given lens casts the same image no matter what camera it is attached to. The extra \"magnification\" occurs when the image is enlarged more to produce output (print or screen) that matches a standard output size. That is, the magnification, as usually defined from subject to focal plane, is unchanged, but the system magnification from subject to final output is increased.\n\nSection::::Secondary effects.\n", "A camera normally has a field of view that ranges from a few degrees to, at most, 180°. This means that it captures, at most, light falling onto the camera focal point through a hemisphere. In contrast, an \"ideal\" omnidirectional camera captures light from all directions falling onto the focal point, covering a full sphere. In practice, however, most omnidirectional cameras cover only almost the full sphere and many cameras which are referred to as omnidirectional cover only approximately a hemisphere, or the full 360° along the equator of the sphere but excluding the top and bottom of the sphere. In the case that they cover the full sphere, the captured light rays do not intersect exactly in a single focal point.\n", "Note that linear perspective changes are caused by \"distance,\" not by the lens per se – two shots of the same scene from the same distance will exhibit identical perspective geometry, regardless of lens used. However, since wide-angle lenses have a wider field of view, they are generally used from closer, while telephoto lenses have a narrower field of view and are generally used from farther away. For example, if standing at a distance so that a normal lens captures someone's face, a shot with a wide-angle lens or telephoto lens from the same distance will have exactly the same linear perspective geometry on the face, though the wide-angle lens may fit the entire body into the shot, while the telephoto lens captures only the nose. However, crops of these three images with the same coverage will yield the same perspective distortion – the nose will look the same in all three. Conversely, if all three lenses are used from distances such that the face fills the field, the wide-angle will be used from closer, making the nose larger compared to the rest of the photo, and the telephoto will be used from farther, making the nose smaller compared to the rest of the photo.\n", "Most current photographic lenses are designed to minimize field curvature, and so effectively have a focal length that increases with ray angle. Lenses of short focal lengths (ultra wide, wide and normal) below 50 mm typically suffer more from field curvature. Telephoto lenses typically have very little or no visible field curvature. The Petzval lens is one design which has significant amount of field curvature; images taken with the lens are very sharp in the centre, but at greater angles the image is out of focus. Film cameras, may be able to bend their image planes to compensate, particularly when the lens is fixed and known. This also includes plate film, which could still be bent slightly. Digital sensors are difficult to bend, although experimental products have been produced. By 2016 the only consumer cameras featuring curved sensors were \"selfie\" Sony Cybershot KW-1 and KW-11. Large mosaics of sensors (necessary anyway due to limited chip sizes) can be shaped to simulate a bend over larger scales.\n", "Because different lenses generally require a different camera–subject distance to preserve the size of a subject, changing the angle of view can indirectly distort perspective, changing the apparent relative size of the subject and background. If identical field size is maintained, wide-angle lenses make subjects appear larger by introducing size differences along with the converging lines mentioned above, and they make rooms and spaces around the subject appear more vast by increasing the distance between subject and background (expanded perspective).\n\nSection::::Artistic uses.:Mood effect and famous uses.\n", "BULLET::::- The apparent shape of objects varies with distance from the center of the field of view (FOV). Objects appearing close to the edges are viewed from an angle, while objects near the centre of the FOV are viewed frontally (circles near the centre of the FOV become egg-shaped when moved towards the periphery).\n", "One common misconception about lenses is that focal length determines the angle of view for a lens, when in reality it is a combination of focal length, lens coverage, and sensor size. A lens of a certain focal length on a large sensor will yield a wider angle of view than the same lens used with a smaller sensor.\n", "When a lens designed for 35 mm format is used on a smaller-format DSLR, besides the obvious reduction in field of view, there may be secondary effects on depth of field, perspective, camera-motion blur, and other photographic parameters.\n", "At the extreme, a plenoptic camera captures 4D light field information about a scene, so the focus and depth of field can be altered after the photo is taken.\n\nSection::::Diffraction and DOF.\n", "Outside photography, extension distortion is familiar to many through side-view mirrors (see \"objects in mirror are closer than they appear\") and peepholes, though these often use a fisheye lens, exhibiting different distortion. Compression distortion is most familiar in looking through binoculars or telescopes, as in telescopic sights, while a similar effect is seen in fixed-slit strip photography, notably a photo finish, where all capture is parallel to the capture, completely eliminating perspective (a side view).\n\nSection::::Optics.\n", "Longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and (when focused on the foreground) blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to magnify distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field.\n", "BULLET::::- The latter (e.g., Google Glass, GoPro), are commonly mounted on the head, and capture conventional video (around 35fps) that allows to capture fine temporal details of interactions. Consequently, they offer potential for in-depth analysis of daily or special activities. However, since the camera is moving with the wearer head, it becomes more difficult to estimate the global motion of the wearer and in the case of abrupt movements, the images can result blurred.\n\nIn both cases, since the camera is worn in a naturalistic setting, visual data present a huge variability in terms of illumination conditions and object appearance.\n", "Lenses designed for the smaller digital formats include Canon EF-S and EF-M lenses, Nikon DX lenses, Olympus Four Thirds System lenses, Sigma DC lenses, Tamron Di-II lenses, Pentax DA lenses, Fujifilm XF and XC lenses,and Sony Alpha (SAL) DT & E lenses. Such lenses usually project a smaller image circle than lenses that were designed for the full-frame 35 mm format. Nevertheless, the crop factor or FLM of a camera has the same effect on the relationship between field of view and focal length with these lenses as with any other lens, even though the projected image is not as severely \"cropped\". In this sense, the term \"crop factor\" sometimes has confusing implications; the alternative term \"focal length multiplier\" is sometimes used for this reason.\n", "As distance or the size of the acceptable circle of confusion increases, the depth of field increases; however, increasing the size of the aperture or increasing the focal length reduces the depth of field. Depth of Field changes linearly with F-number and circle of confusion, but changes in proportional to the square of the focal length and the distance to the subject. As a result, photos taken at extremely close range have a proportionally much smaller depth of field.\n", "Section::::Machine vision.\n\nIn machine vision the lens focal length and image sensor size sets up the fixed relationship between the field of view and the working distance. Field of view is the area of the inspection captured on the camera’s imager. The size of the field of view and the size of the camera’s imager directly affect the image resolution (one determining factor in accuracy). Working distance is the distance between the back of the lens and the target object.\n\nSection::::Remote sensing.\n", "However, maintaining an identical \"field size\" at varying camera-subject distances and focal lengths must be handled with caution as it applies different amounts of perspective distortion to the image: wide-angle lenses expand a perspective, while long focus lenses compress a perspective. The famous dolly zoom, taken with a variable focal length lens, is a vivid, intuitive demonstration of this effect. Thus, it's more common in photography and cinematography to determine an image's \"field size\" by only changing one out of the two factors.\n", "Zoom lenses are a special case wherein the focal length, and hence angle of view, of the lens can be altered mechanically without removing the lens from the camera.\n\nSection::::Lens types and effects.:Characteristics.\n\nFor a given camera–subject distance, longer lenses magnify the subject more. For a given subject magnification (and thus different camera–subject distances), longer lenses appear to compress distance; wider lenses appear to expand the distance between objects.\n", "One can see that if magnification remains constant, a longer focal length results in a smaller axial magnification, and a smaller focal length in a larger axial magnification. That is, when using a longer focal length while moving the camera/lens away from the object to maintain the same magnification \"M\", objects seem shallower, and the axial distances between objects seem shorter. The opposite—increased axial magnification—happens with shorter focal lengths while moving the camera/lens towards the object.\n\nSection::::Optics.:Calculating distances.\n", "Diffraction causes images to lose sharpness at high F-numbers, and hence limits the potential depth of field. In general photography this is rarely an issue; because large f-numbers typically require long exposure times, motion blur may cause greater loss of sharpness than the loss from diffraction. However, diffraction is a greater issue in close-up photography, and the tradeoff between DOF and overall sharpness can become quite noticeable as photographers are trying to maximise depth of field with very small apertures.\n", "Due to perspective, cameras image a cube as a square frustum (a truncated pyramid, with trapezoidal sides)—the far end is smaller than the near end. This creates perspective, and the rate at which this scaling happens (how quickly more distant objects shrink) creates a sense of a scene being deep or shallow. This cannot be changed or corrected by a simple transform of the resulting image, because it requires 3D information, namely the depth of objects in the scene. This effect is known as perspective distortion; the image itself is not distorted, but is perceived as distorted when viewed from a normal viewing distance.\n" ]	[ "Our brain perceives exactly what the eye sees.", "Even with our large field of view, our eyes don't distort images spherically." ]	[ "The brain makes corrections to our perception.", "Even though human eyes distort images spherically, the brain makes up for those distortions, correcting our visual perception of a wide field of view." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Our brain perceives exactly what the eye sees.", "Even with our large field of view, our eyes don't distort images spherically." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The brain makes corrections to our perception.", "Even though human eyes distort images spherically, the brain makes up for those distortions, correcting our visual perception of a wide field of view." ]
2018-02431	Why and how does full moon affect tides? How is full moon any different to the other stages of the moon?	Because the sun also affects the tides as well. When the moon is full (or new), the Moon, Earth, and Sun are all lined up, meaning the gravitational effect the Sun and Moon have on the tides are combined and at full strength. These are called ~~"neap"~~ "spring" tides. This is contrasted when the Moon, Earth, and Sun form a 90 degree angle (First or third quarter) and the Sun and Moon's gravitational pull work against each other.	[ "When the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in line (Sun–Earth–Moon, or Sun–Moon–Earth) the two main influences combine to produce spring tides; when the two forces are opposing each other as when the angle Moon–Earth–Sun is close to ninety degrees, neap tides result. As the Moon moves around its orbit it changes from north of the Equator to south of the Equator. The alternation in high tide heights becomes smaller, until they are the same (at the lunar equinox, the Moon is above the Equator), then redevelop but with the other polarity, waxing to a maximum difference and then waning again.\n", "The changing distance separating the Moon and Earth also affects tide heights. When the Moon is closest, at perigee, the range increases, and when it is at apogee, the range shrinks. Every lunations (the full cycles from full moon to new to full), perigee coincides with either a new or full moon causing perigean spring tides with the largest \"tidal range\". Even at its most powerful this force is still weak, causing tidal differences of inches at most.\n\nSection::::Tidal constituents.:Other constituents.\n", "The Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical, which causes the Moon to be closer to Earth and farther away at different times. The Moon and the Sun are aligned every two weeks, which results in spring tides, which are 20% higher than normal. During the period of the new moon, the Moon and Sun are on the same side of Earth, so the high tides or bulges produced independently by each reinforce each other (and has nothing to do with the spring season). Tides of maximum height and depression produced during this period are known as spring tide. Spring tides that coincide with the moon's closest approach to Earth (\"perigee\") have been called perigean spring tides and generally increase the normal tidal range by a couple of inches.\n", "In most locations the \"principal lunar semi-diurnal\", known as \"M\", is the largest tidal constituent, with an amplitude of roughly half of the full tidal range. Having cotidal points means they reach high tide at the same time and low tide at the same time. In the accompanying figure, the low tide lags or leads by 1 hr 2 min from its neighboring lines. Where the lines meet are amphidromes, and the tide rotates around them; for example, along the Chilean coast, and from southern Mexico to Peru, the tide propagates southward, while from Baja California to Alaska the tide propagates northward.\n", "Section::::Effect on tides.\n\nThe precession of the lunar nodes has a small effect on Earth's tides. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) determines mean lower low water (MLLW) at a location by averaging the height of the lowest tide recorded at that location each day during a 19-year recording period, known as the National Tidal Datum Epoch. The 19-year recording period is the nearest full-year count to the 18.6-year cycle of the lunar nodes.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Astrology\n\nBULLET::::- Eclipse\n\nBULLET::::- Horoscope\n\nBULLET::::- Lunar standstill\n\nBULLET::::- Orbit of the Moon\n\nBULLET::::- Natal chart\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Contexts.:In animals.\n\nCalifornia grunion fish have an unusual mating and spawning ritual during the spring and summer months. The egg laying takes place on four consecutive nights, beginning on the nights of the full and new Moons, when tides are highest. However, this is a well understood reproductive strategy that is more related to tides than it is to lunar phase. It happens to correlate with the lunar phase because tides are highest when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned, i.e., at new Moon or full Moon.\n", "The main patterns in the tides are\n\nBULLET::::- the twice-daily variation\n\nBULLET::::- the difference between the first and second tide of a day\n\nBULLET::::- the spring–neap cycle\n\nBULLET::::- the annual variation\n\nThe \"Highest Astronomical Tide\" is the perigean spring tide when both the Sun and Moon are closest to the Earth.\n", "Syzygy causes the bimonthly phenomena of spring and neap tides. At the new and full moon, the Sun and Moon are in syzygy. Their tidal forces act to reinforce each other, and the ocean both rises higher and falls lower than the average. Conversely, at the first and third quarter, the Sun and Moon are at right angles, their tidal forces counteract each other, and the tidal range is smaller than average. Tidal variation can also be measured in the earth's crust, and this may affect the frequency of earthquakes.\n", "Section::::Effect on lunar orbit.\n", "A second influence on the tides occurs because of gravitation from the sun. Gravitation from the sun has less influence than the moon, because it is so much further from earth. However, the sun influences the tidal range. When the sun, earth and moon are aligned in a straight line (at new and full moon), their tidal effects combine, producing the particularly high and low tides called s. When the sun is at right angles to the moon, the effects are partially cancelled, producing the small tides called neap tides.\n", "When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the Sun and Moon are separated by 90° when viewed from the Earth, and the solar tidal force partially cancels the Moon's tidal force. At these points in the lunar cycle, the tide's range is at its minimum; this is called the neap tide, or neaps. Neap is an Anglo-Saxon word meaning \"without the power\", as in \"forðganges nip\" (forth-going without-the-power).\n", "When there are two high tides each day with different heights (and two low tides also of different heights), the pattern is called a \"mixed semi-diurnal tide\".\n\nSection::::Tidal constituents.:Range variation: springs and neaps.\n", "Scientists have confirmed that the combined effect of the Sun and Moon on the Earth's oceans, the tide, is when the Moon is either new or full. and that during lunar perigee, the tidal force is somewhat stronger, resulting in perigean spring tides. However, even at its most powerful, this force is still relatively weak, causing tidal differences of inches at most.\n\nSection::::Total Lunar Eclipses.\n", "BULLET::::- Long period tide – Gravitational tides, typically with amplitudes of a few centimetres or less and periods longer than one day, generated by changes in the Earth's orientation relative to the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter\n\nBULLET::::- Lunitidal interval – The time lag from the Moon passing overhead, to the next high or low tide.\n\nBULLET::::- Perigean spring tide – A tide that occurs three or four times per year when the Moon's perigee coincides with a spring tide\n", "The tide components with a period near twelve hours have a lunar amplitude (earth bulge/depression distances) that are a little more than twice the height of the solar amplitudes, as tabulated below. At new and full moon, the Sun and the Moon are aligned, and the lunar and the solar tidal maxima and minima (bulges and depressions) add together for the greatest tidal range at particular latitudes. At first- and third-quarter phases of the moon, lunar and solar tides are perpendicular, and the tidal range is at a minimum. The semi-diurnal tides go through one full cycle (a high and low tide) about once every 12 hours and one full cycle of maximum height (a spring and neap tide) about once every 14 days.\n", "Section::::Formation mechanism.\n", "Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24 hours and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the Moon to its previous position relative to an observer. The Moon's mass is some 27 million times smaller than the Sun, but it is 400 times closer to the Earth. Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun. A bulge is formed in the ocean at the place where the Earth is closest to the Moon, because it is also where the effect of the Moon's gravity is stronger. On the opposite side of the Earth, the lunar force is at its weakest and this causes another bulge to form. As the Moon rotates around the Earth, so do these ocean bulges move around the Earth. The gravitational attraction of the Sun is also working on the seas, but its effect on tides is less powerful than that of the Moon, and when the Sun, Moon and Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high \"spring tides\". In contrast, when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as viewed from Earth, the combined gravitational effect on tides is less causing the lower \"neap tides\".\n", "The theoretical amplitude of oceanic tides caused by the Moon is about at the highest point, which corresponds to the amplitude that would be reached if the ocean possessed a uniform depth, there were no landmasses, and the Earth were rotating in step with the Moon's orbit. The Sun similarly causes tides, of which the theoretical amplitude is about (46% of that of the Moon) with a cycle time of 12 hours. At spring tide the two effects add to each other to a theoretical level of , while at neap tide the theoretical level is reduced to . Since the orbits of the Earth about the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earth–Sun and Earth–Moon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about ±18% for the Moon and ±5% for the Sun. If both the Sun and Moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach .\n", "Perigean spring tide\n\nA proxigean spring tide (also known as a perigean spring tide) is a tide that occurs three or four times per year when the Moon's perigee (its closest point to Earth during its 29.5-day elliptical orbit) coincides with a spring tide (when the Earth, Sun and Moon are nearly aligned every two weeks). This tide usually adds only a couple of inches to normal spring tides.\n\nSection::::Astronomical causes.\n", "Tides are controlled mainly by the gravitational pull of the moon. About once a day the moon rotates about the earth, attracting as it travels the bulge of water called the high tide that also travels round the earth. There are actually two high tides, because the earth and moon, as a system, both rotate about a common centre of mass. This centre is two-thirds out from the centre of the earth, not at the centre of the earth. The effect of the earth spinning about this centre is that it behaves as a centrifuge, resulting in a second high tide bulge in the ocean most distant from the moon.\n", "In the lunar month, the highest tides occur roughly every 14 days, at the new and full moons, when the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun are in alignment. These highest tides in the lunar cycle are called spring tides.\n", "Gravitational Tides are caused by changes in the relative location of the Earth, sun, and moon, whose orbits are perturbed slightly by Jupiter. Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force between a mass at a reference point on the surface of the Earth and another object such as the Moon is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The declination of the Moon relative to the Earth means that as the Moon orbits the Earth during half the lunar cycle the Moon is closer to the Northern Hemisphere and during the other half the Moon is closer to the Southern Hemisphere. This periodic shift in distance gives rise to the lunar fortnightly tidal constituent. The ellipticity of the lunar orbit gives rise to a lunar monthly tidal constituent. Because of the nonlinear dependence of the force on distance additional tidal constituents exist with frequencies which are the sum and differences of these fundamental frequencies. Additional fundamental frequencies are introduced by the motion of the Sun and Jupiter, thus tidal constituents exist at all of these frequencies as well as all of the sums and differences of these frequencies, etc. The mathematical description of the tidal forces is greatly simplified by expressing the forces in terms of gravitational potentials. Because of the fact that the Earth is approximately a sphere and the orbits are approximately circular it also turns out to be very convenient to describe these gravitational potentials in spherical coordinates using spherical harmonic expansions.\n", "Spring tides result in high waters that are higher than average, low waters that are lower than average, 'slack water' time that is shorter than average, and stronger tidal currents than average. Neaps result in less extreme tidal conditions. There is about a seven-day interval between springs and neaps.\n\nSection::::Tidal constituents.:Lunar altitude.\n", "The cycle of tides is dependent on the phase of the moon, with the highest tides (spring tides) occurring near full moon and new moon. As the lunar cycle is about 29.5 days, successive tides are approximately 24/29th of an hour later each day or about 50 minutes but many other observations and considerations are required to develop accurate tide tables. On the Atlantic coast of northwest Europe, the interval between each low and high tide averages about 6 hours and 10 minutes, giving two high tides and two low tides each day, with the highest tides about 2 days after full moon.\n", "Long-Period tides are gravitational tides, typically with amplitudes of a few centimeters or less and periods longer than one day, generated by changes in the Earth's orientation relative to the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter. The distance between a reference point on the surface of the Earth relative to these objects can be expressed as an infinite combination of periods and, as the distance changes, so does the tidal forcing. An analysis of the changing distance by Pierre-Simon de Laplace in the 18th century shows that these periods at which gravity varies cluster into three species, the semi-diurnal and diurnal tide constituents which have periods of a day or less, and the long period tidal constituents (see also tide). Long period tidal constituents with relatively strong forcing include the lunar fortnightly (Mf) and monthly (Ms) as well as the solar semiannual (Ssa) and annual (Sa) constituents. In addition to having periods longer than a day-long period tidal forcing is distinguished from that of the first and second species by being zonally symmetric. The long period tides are also distinguished by the way in which the oceans respond. In contrast to the first and second species, the long period tidal forcings occur sufficiently slowly that they do not excite surface gravity waves. This property of exciting surface gravity waves is responsible for the high amplitude semi-diurnal tides in the Bay of Fundy, for example. In contrast, the ocean responds to long period tidal forcing with a combination of an equilibrium tidal response along with a possible excitation of barotropic Rossby wave normal modes \n" ]	[ "Full moon is no different than any other stage of the moon." ]	[ "Full moon is different because it means the sun, earth, and moon are aligned which causes the tide to change." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Full moon is no different than any other stage of the moon." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Full moon is different because it means the sun, earth, and moon are aligned which causes the tide to change." ]
2018-02006	Why does the U.S. grow so much corn?	Because we do a lot with corn. It's used to eat, to feed to livestock, to make oil and sweetener, to distill into ethanol, etc. Corn is native to this part of the world and it grows well. Why wouldn't we grow so much corn?	[ "Corn spread across North America a few thousand years ago. The original corn plant known as teosinte is still grown in Mexico. Newer varieties are much larger, due to plant breeding efforts of Native Americans and scientific research. It is now the third leading grain crop in the world.\n", "Corn production in the United States\n\nThe production of corn (\"Zea mays mays\", also known as \"maize\") plays a major role in the economy of the United States. The US is the largest corn producer in the world, with of land reserved for corn production. Corn growth is dominated by west/north central Iowa and east central Illinois. Approximately 13% of its annual yield is exported.http://www.grains.org/buyingselling/corn\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Alaska\n\nAlthough the state of Alaska has a cold temperate climate, some Alaskan farmers still manage to grow corn, through means such as greenhouse farming. Corn is popular among Alaskans.\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana\n\nCorn is a popular crop in the state of Indiana; it is mostly grown as animal feed. Indiana is located in the United States' Corn Belt.\n\nBULLET::::- Texas\n\nThe state of Texas is a great producer of corn; the final estimate of corn produced in 2010 was some 301 million bushels on of land, totaling to $1.2 billion of crop.\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama\n", "BULLET::::- Nebraska\n\nNebraska is known as the \"Cornhusker State\" – and is the third-largest corn-producing state in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota\n", "Over the centuries, the crop varieties underwent changes to get better yields, while farming methods were improved. As a result, the fertile belt soon came to be known as \"the Corn Belt\". Hybrid cropping techniques were widely practiced from the late 1880s, and the hybrid corn varieties developed with cross and re-cross breeding techniques developed by university research. This ushered a new age of agriculture. The 1% area devoted to hybrid varieties in 1934 rose to 78% in the 1940s and continued to rise thereafter. In the 1950s, Henry A. Wallace, former Vice President and former Secretary of Agriculture, and an early developer of hybrid seeds, observed that \"the Corn Belt had developed into the most productive agricultural civilization the world has ever seen\". This trend has continued and now the corn production level in American farms is a significant 20% higher per acre than in the rest of the world.\n", "Former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, a pioneer of hybrid seeds, declared in 1956 that the Corn Belt developed the \"most productive agricultural civilization the world has ever seen\". Today, the U.S. produces 40 percent of the world crop.\n\nIowa produces the largest corn crop of any state. In 2012, Iowa farmers produced 18.3 percent of the nation's corn, while Illinois produced 15.3 percent. In 2011, there were 13.7 million harvested acres of corn for grain, producing 2.36 billion bushels, which yielded 172.0 bu/acre, with US$14.5 billion of corn value of production.\n", "Corn is Minnesota's largest crop. In 1922-1931, production averaged 30.4 bushels per acre; in 1947-1956, it average 46.6 bushels per acre; in 1973, it averaged 91.4 bushels per acre; and in 1994, the average was 142 bushels per acre. In 1935-1946, a shift to hybrid varieties occurred. In 2010, the state produced 1.29 billion bushels. In 2012, Minnesota's farmers produced the largest corn crop in the state's history, at 1.37 billion bushels harvested, equaling 165 bushels per acre, on 250,000 acres.\n\nBULLET::::- Illinois\n", "By the time scientific assessment of conduciveness to grow corn in the United States was undertaken by Meriwether Lewis in 1804, the immigrant settlers had already spread its growth in many parts of the country due to its suitability in varying climatic and soil conditions. Once the suitability of land in the central part of the country, the Midwestern United States, was scientifically established by Lewis and Clark, settlers moved to the area in large numbers, and started reaping large corn crops. \n", "On account of great demand for ethanol, corn is fetching higher prices. This has resulted in farmers increasing acreage under corn by adopting crop rotations between corn and soybeans; causing a decline in soy production. The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 also allowed more acreage under corn, overriding the act of 1983, which had fixed it at .\n\nSection::::Agriculture.\n\nThere are of land dedicated exclusively to corn cultivation in the United States. The US is the world's leading producer of corn, having produced of the crop in the year 2009.\n", "Most corn grown today is fed to livestock, especially hogs and poultry. In recent decades soybeans have grown in importance. The U.S. produces 40% of the world crop.\n\nBy 1950, 99% of corn has been grown from hybrids.\n\nSection::::EPA Ecoregion.\n\nIn 1997, the USEPA published its report on United States' ecoregions, in part based on \"land use\". Its \"Level III\" region classification contains three contiguous \"Corn Belt\" regions, Western (47), Central (54), and Eastern (55), stretching from Indiana to eastern Nebraska.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Breadbasket\n\nBULLET::::- Canadian Prairies, Canada's 'Breadbasket'\n", "Highest yield of over 12 billion bushels have been recorded up to 2011 with 12.4 billion bushels reported in 2011 with yields of more than 140 bushels per acre. A milestone in production in the US is that the farmers take out 20% more corn per acre than in any other part of the world. Farming practice is based on irrigation only in about 11% area while the balance area is under un-irrigated conditions. The farm practices have also resulted in implementing conservation measures which have reduced soil erosion to the extent of 44%.\n\nSection::::Subsidies.\n\n\"See also US Agricultural subsidies\"\n", "Iowa, the largest producer of corn in the US, grows three times as much corn as Mexico. Iowa harvested of sweet corn in 2007. In 2011, the state had 92,300 corn farms on , the average size being , and the average dollar value per acre being US$6,708. In the same year, there were 13.7 million harvested acres of corn for grain, producing 2.36 billion bushels, which yielded 172.0 bu/acre, with US$14.5 billion of corn value of production. Almost 1.88 billion bushels of corn were grown in the state in 2012 on 13.7 million acres of land, while the 2013 projections are 2.45 billion bushels of corn on 13.97 million acres of land.\n", "The first corn varieties grown in Illinois were those obtained from local Indians or varieties brought to Illinois from the New England states. After the Civil War, varieties were developed which were adapted to the state's soils and climate, such as Reid's Yellow Dent. During the period of 1900-1905, there were 10,500,000 acres planted, with a decline to 8,862,000 acres in 1925-1930. In 2012, Illinois sowed 12.8 million acres of corn in 2012, ranking fourth in corn production, behind Iowa, Minnesota, and Nebraska. The state averaged 105 bushels per acre in 2012, down from 157-bushel per acre in 2010 and 2011.\n", "In 2007, corn acres are expected to increase by 15% because of the high demand for ethanol, both in and outside of the U.S. Producers are expecting to plant 90.5 million acres (366,000 km²) of corn, making it the largest corn crop since 1944.\n\nSection::::Farms around the world.:Asia.\n\nSection::::Farms around the world.:Asia.:Pakistan.\n\nAccording to the World Bank, \"most empirical evidence indicates that land productivity on large farms in Pakistan is lower than that of small farms, holding other factors constant.\" Small farmers have \"higher net returns per hectare\" than large farms, according to farm\n\nhousehold income data.\n\nSection::::Farms around the world.:Asia.:Nepal.\n", "On account of new agricultural technology developments between 1860 and 1970, the Corn Belt went from producing mixed crops and livestock into becoming an area focused strictly on wheat-cash planting. After 1970, increased crop and meat production required an export outlet, but global recession and a strong dollar reduced exports and created serious problems even for the best farm managers.\n\nIn 1956, former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, a pioneer of hybrid seed, declared that the Corn Belt has developed the \"most productive agricultural civilization the world has ever seen\".\n", "The region is characterized by level land, deep fertile soils, and a high organic soil concentration.\n\nAs of 2008, the top four corn-producing states were Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, and Minnesota, accounting for more than half of the corn growth in the United States.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Iowa and Illinois rank first and second in the nation in soybean production. In 2012, Iowa produced 14.5 percent, and Illinois produced 13.3 percent of the nation's soybeans.\n\nWheat is produced throughout the Midwest and is the principal cereal grain in the country. The U.S. is ranked third in production volume of wheat, with almost 58 million tons produced in the 2012–2013 growing season, behind only China and India (the combined production of all European Union nations is larger than China) The U.S. ranks first in crop export volume; almost 50 percent of total wheat produced is exported.\n", "BULLET::::- Environmental aspects\n", "Field corn is not generally regarded, in industrialized societies, as desirable for human food without commercial pre-processing, the main exception being Mexico, in which field corn consumption far exceeds that of sweet corn. Outside Mexico, an exception is \"roasting ears\", similar in appearance to corn on the cob, although it is necessarily roasted (rather than boiled or steamed as is usual with sweet corn), and is neither tender nor sweet even after the roasting. Field corn is also commonly eaten in third world countries, e.g. a variety of Field corn, known as Cuzco corn, is commonly eaten in the Andes region of South America.\n", "The final estimate of corn production for the years 1950 to 1959 in the United States is given as some three billion bushels and in recent years, some nine billion bushels are produced each year. Corn growth is dominated by west north central Iowa and east central Illinois. In 2011, the national average production was 147 bushels per acre, and reported to be 20 bushels per acre more than the yield in 2002. Based on a national contest in 2011 when an average of 300 bushels per acre was achieved others are sure to follow suit which result in a yield of 300 bushels per acre by 2030 from the same extent land holdings under corn.\n", "Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world, and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain. In 2014, total world production was 1.04 billion tonnes. Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol. Genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre-Columbian development.\n", "Corn, a pillar of American agriculture for years, is now mainly used for ethanol, high fructose corn syrup and bio-based plastics. About 40 percent of corn is used for ethanol and 36% is used as animal feed. Only a tiny fraction of corn is used as a food source, much of that fraction is used for high-fructose corn syrup, which is a main ingredient in processed, unhealthy junk food.\n", "Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world, and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain. In 2014, total world production was 1.04 billion tonnes, led by the United States with 35% of the total (table). China produced 21% of the global total.\n\nSection::::Production.:United States.\n", "As the growth of corn has spread to extensive production in 14 states (though it is grown to a lesser extent in all the other US states), the Corn Farmers Coalition was formed. This is a union of the National Corn Growers Association and 14 state corn associations.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "In the U.S. since the 1950s, sorghum has been raised primarily for forage and silage, with sorghum cultivation for cattle feed concentrated in the Great Plains (Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska are the leading producers) where insufficient rainfall and high temperature make corn production unprofitable.\n" ]	[ "The U.S. grows more corn than the U.S. should. " ]	[ "The U.S. grows the proper amount of corn that the U.S. needs. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The U.S. grows more corn than the U.S. should. ", "The U.S. grows more corn than the U.S. should. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The U.S. grows the proper amount of corn that the U.S. needs. ", "The U.S. grows the proper amount of corn that the U.S. needs. " ]
2018-00969	Why does honey crystallize in the container, and how does putting it in warm water reverse what is happening?	Honey is mostly made of sugar, plus some protein and a tiny bit of water. Sugars like to stick together, and this is what happens with honey in the bottle. As honey ages it can squeeze out the little bit of water in its structure, and this forms the crystals. Warming up the honey lets the water reenter the solution.	[ "Unlike many other liquids, honey has very poor thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/(m⋅K) at 13% water content (compared to 401 W/(m⋅K) of copper), taking a long time to reach thermal equilibrium. Due to its high kinematic viscosity honey does not transfer heat through momentum diffusion (convection) but rather through thermal diffusion (more like a solid), so melting crystallized honey can easily result in localized caramelization if the heat source is too hot, or if it is not evenly distributed. However, honey takes substantially longer to liquify when just above the melting point than at elevated temperatures. Melting 20 kg of crystallized honey, at , can take up to 24 hours, while 50 kg may take twice as long. These times can be cut nearly in half by heating at . However, many of the minor substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor, aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest temperature possible for the shortest amount of time.\n", "Since honey normally exists below its melting point, it is a supercooled liquid. At very low temperatures, honey does not freeze solid. Instead, as the temperatures become lower, the viscosity of honey increases. Like most viscous liquids, the honey becomes thick and sluggish with decreasing temperature. At , honey may appear or even feel solid, but it continues to flow at very low rates. Honey has a glass transition between . Below this temperature, honey enters a glassy state and becomes an amorphous solid (noncrystalline).\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical properties.:Rheology.\n", "Generally, honey is bottled in its familiar liquid form, but it is sold in other forms, and can be subjected to a variety of processing methods.\n\nBULLET::::- Crystallized honey occurs when some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. It is also called \"granulated honey\" or \"candied honey\". Honey that has crystallized (or commercially purchased crystallized) can be returned to a liquid state by warming.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSupersaturation is a widely encountered phenomenon both found in environmental processes and exploited in commercial manufacturing. For example, honey, the sweet nectar-derived food source, is a supersaturated aqueous solution of sugars. Nectar itself is a sugary solution below the point of saturation. Once bees harvest the nectar, they fan it rapidly with their wings to force evaporation. This forces the solution into a supersaturated state, creating honey. This explains why honey crystallizes; the solution is simply returning to its saturated state.\n", "The melting point of crystallized honey is between , depending on its composition. Below this temperature, honey can be either in a metastable state, meaning that it will not crystallize until a seed crystal is added, or, more often, it is in a \"labile\" state, being saturated with enough sugars to crystallize spontaneously. The rate of crystallization is affected by many factors, but the primary factor is the ratio of the main sugars: fructose to glucose. Honeys that are supersaturated with a very high percentage of glucose, such as brassica honey, crystallize almost immediately after harvesting, while honeys with a low percentage of glucose, such as chestnut or tupelo honey, do not crystallize. Some types of honey may produce very large but few crystals, while others produce many small crystals.\n", "According to the traditional methods of preparation, honeycombs are crushed, and the balls of wax containing 20-30% of honey are collected in generic containers. In the days immediately after all the honey extract has settled, the remaining combs containing honey and pollen are dipped in hot water (~ 50 °C), so that the water dissolves all the honey still present in the combs. At this point, any remaining lumps of wax and pollen are broken up through the use of a suitable mixer or by hand. The remaining wax is then pressed further to squeeze out any remaining liquid and is then stored in appropriate containers. The remaining liquid from the previous step is filtered, for example with a linen cloth, at least twice, and then placed in a suitable high-capacity boiler (sometimes made of copper) where it is boiled and concentrated via decoction. During this concentration process, finely cut lemon or orange rinds are added, and any impurities on the surface of the liquid are removed. The content of the boiler becomes gradually syrupy and must be kept in constant motion to prevent the product from sticking on the bottom and developing a smokey flavour. The liquid also becomes caramelized, becoming dark like molasses but much more complex, with a toasty flavour that has hints of coffee and caramel. When the liquid assumes a consistency similar to that of honey, the heating is interrupted, and the boiler is deposited in a secluded place and allowed to cool before the abbamele is drained.\n", "Most types of honey are Newtonian liquids, but a few types have non-Newtonian viscous properties. Honeys from heather or manuka display thixotropic properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but then liquify when stirred.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical properties.:Electrical and optical properties.\n\nBecause honey contains electrolytes, in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of electrical conductivity. Measurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms of fly ash content.\n", "The viscosity of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the water percentage, the more easily honey flows. Above its melting point, however, water has little effect on viscosity. Aside from water content, the composition of honey also has little effect on viscosity, with the exception of a few types. At , honey with 14% water content generally has a viscosity around 400 poise, while a honey containing 20% water has a viscosity around 20 poise. Viscosity increase due to cooling occurs very slowly at first. A honey containing 16% water, at , has a viscosity around 2 poise, while at , the viscosity is around 70 poise. As cooling progresses, honey becomes more viscous at an increasingly rapid rate, reaching 600 poise around . However, while honey is very viscous, it has rather low surface tension of 50–60 mJ/m, thus the wettability of honey is on the same order as water, glycerin, or most other liquids. The high viscosity and wettability of honey lead to the phenomenon of stickiness, which is a time-dependent process in supercooled liquids between the glass-transition temperature (T) and the crystalline-melting temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- Filtered honey of any type has been filtered to the extent that all or most of the fine particles, pollen grains, air bubbles, or other materials normally found in suspension, have been removed. The process typically heats honey to to more easily pass through the filter. Filtered honey is very clear and will not crystallize as quickly, making it preferred by the supermarket trade. The most common method involves the addition of diatomaceous earth to honey that is heated to and passed through filter paper or canvas until a filter cake of diatomaceous earth builds up on the filter.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Precipitation with miscible solvents.\n", "In jars, fresh honey should appear as a pure, consistent fluid, and should not set in layers. Within a few weeks to a few months of extraction, many varieties of honey crystallize into a cream-colored solid. Some varieties of honey, including tupelo, acacia, and sage, crystallize less regularly. Honey may be heated during bottling at temperatures of to delay or inhibit crystallization. Overheating is indicated by change in enzyme levels, for instance, diastase activity, which can be determined with the Schade or the Phadebas methods. A fluffy film on the surface of the honey (like a white foam), or marble-colored or white-spotted crystallization on a container's sides, is formed by air bubbles trapped during the bottling process.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Salting out.:Salting out in practice.\n\nThe decrease in protein solubility follows a normalized solubility curve of the type shown. The relationship between the solubility of a protein and increasing ionic strength of the solution can be represented by the Cohn equation:\n\n\"S\" = solubility of the protein, \"B\" is idealized solubility, \"K\" is a salt-specific constant and \"I\" is the ionic strength of the solution, which is attributed to the added salt.\n\nformula_5\n", "Like all sugar compounds, honey caramelizes if heated sufficiently, becoming darker in color, and eventually burns. However, honey contains fructose, which caramelizes at lower temperatures than glucose. The temperature at which caramelization begins varies, depending on the composition, but is typically between . Honey also contains acids, which act as catalysts for caramelization. The specific types of acids and their amounts play a primary role in determining the exact temperature. Of these acids, the amino acids, which occur in very small amounts, play an important role in the darkening of honey. The amino acids form darkened compounds called melanoidins, during a Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction occurs slowly at room temperature, taking from a few to several months to show visible darkening, but speeds up dramatically with increasing temperatures. However, the reaction can also be slowed by storing the honey at colder temperatures.\n", "Fermentation of honey usually occurs after crystallization, because without the glucose, the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often pasteurized, to kill any yeast, by heating it above .\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical properties.:Thermal characteristics.\n", "BULLET::::- Crystallisation: Especially in colder climates, honey can thicken or crystallise, preventing honey from flowing. If this prevents operation of the Flow Hive mechanism, it can be addressed by either waiting for the bees to remove the crystallised honey, or soaking the frame in water to dissolve it away.\n", "A second method allows creamed honey to be made without adding heat. It differs from the Dyce method in that pasteurization is not used at any point in the process. Instead, microscopic seed crystals are added to fresh raw, liquid honey at a ratio of 1:10 or larger. Paddles are used to intermittently stir the honey mixture while it is kept between 55 -70 degrees Fahrenheit. This yields a batch of creamed honey in approximately 80 hours. The resultant creamed honey from this process stays in its creamy consistency indefinitely if stored at ~ 65 degrees Fahrenheit (~18.33 degrees Celsius.)\n", "The extraction process is typically done inside a specialized room, or honey house, that can be heated (since hot honey will flow faster), with all of the necessary tools nearby and is washable. The room must be well sealed, as bees (and other insects) will eagerly try to enter and gather the honey. It is important to remember that honey is a food product.\n\nThe table below outlines the extraction process.\n\nSection::::Top-bar hive.\n", "Section::::Main crystallization processes.:Cooling crystallization.:Application.\n\nMost chemical compounds, dissolved in most solvents, show the so-called \"direct\" solubility that is, the solubility threshold increases with temperature.\n", "Some such materials are cholesteryl nonanoate or cyanobiphenyls.\n\nMixtures with 3–5 °C span of temperatures and ranges from about 17–23°C to about 37–40 °C can be composed from varying proportions of cholesteryl oleyl carbonate, cholesteryl nonanoate, and cholesteryl benzoate. For example, the mass ratio of 65:25:10 yields range of 17–23 °C, and 30:60:10 yields range of 37–40 °C.\n\nLiquid crystals used in dyes and inks often come microencapsulated, in the form of suspension.\n", "The physical properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars it contains. Fresh honey is a supersaturated liquid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures. At room temperature, honey is a supercooled liquid, in which the glucose will precipitate into solid granules. This forms a semisolid solution of precipitated glucose crystals in a solution of fructose and other ingredients.\n\nAt the temperature of 20 °C, density of honey typically ranges between 1.38 and 1.45 kg/l.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical properties.:Phase transitions.\n", "Normally, the honey is stored by honey bees in their beeswax honeycomb; in framed bee hives, the honey is stored on a wooden structure called a frame. The honey frames are typically harvested in the late summer, when they will be most filled with honey. On a completely filled frame, the cells will be capped over by the bees for storage; that is, each cell containing honey will be sealed with a capping made of beeswax.\n\nSection::::Framed hive.\n", "Cold water extraction\n\nCold water extraction (also called CWE) is the process whereby a substance is extracted from a mixture via cold water. It is a type of fractional crystallization.\n\nThe process generally involves taking a mixture of substances, dissolving them in warm water, and then rapidly cooling the mixture. The insoluble compounds precipitate out of the water, while the soluble ones stay dissolved. The solution can then be separated by filtration or decantation. \n", "Section::::Modern techniques.:SAS.\n\nIn the SAS method, the solid material is dissolved in an organic solvent. The supercritical fluid is then added as an antisolvent, which decreases the solubility of the system. As a result, particles of small diameter are formed. There are various submethods to SAS which differ in the method of introduction of the supercritical fluid into the organic solution.\n\nSection::::Modern techniques.:PGSS.\n", "BULLET::::- Creamed honey, also called whipped honey, spun honey, churned honey, honey fondant, and (in the UK) set honey, has been processed to control crystallization. Creamed honey contains a large number of small crystals, which prevent the formation of larger crystals that can occur in unprocessed honey. The processing also produces a honey with a smooth, spreadable consistency.\n\nBULLET::::- Dried honey has the moisture extracted from liquid honey to create completely solid, nonsticky granules. This process may or may not include the use of drying and anticaking agents. Dried honey is used in baked goods, and to garnish desserts.\n", "With either method, vapor–liquid equilibrium must occur in the sample chamber. This takes place over time or can be aided by the addition of a fan in the chamber. Thermal equilibrium must also take place unless the sample temperature is measured.\n\nSection::::Moisture content.\n\nWater activity is related to water content in a non-linear relationship known as a moisture sorption isotherm curve. These isotherms are substance- and temperature-specific. Isotherms can be used to help predict product stability over time in different storage conditions.\n\nSection::::Use in humidity control.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00706	Why in America does the person who wins the most votes in an Election not win the Election?	The US is a Federated Republic (Think more like the UN or EU than a single country like France). It is the member entities of that Republic (The States) that vote for who their leader is. The votes of the citizens of a given State dictate how that State vote with a winner take all for their pool of votes (for most States). Each State gets 3 votes plus additional votes based on population to make their pool of votes in their pool. This means that most of the time the person who wins the popular vote also wins the States votes, but it is possible to win a lot of the middle and low population States and lost the high population States and win the Presidency without winning the national popular vote. For Congressional elections they are winner take all and the most votes win in most States, though a few have proportional voting which try to mach the percentage seats to the percentage of the popular vote a candidate/party gets.	[ "The difficulty is sometimes summed up, in an extreme form, as \"All votes for anyone other than the second place are votes for the winner\", because by voting for other candidates, they have denied those votes to the second place candidate who could have won had they received them. It is often claimed by United States Democrats that Democrat Al Gore lost the 2000 Presidential Election to Republican George W. Bush because some voters on the left voted for Ralph Nader of the Green Party, who exit polls indicated would have preferred Gore at 45% to Bush at 27%, with the rest not voting in Nader's absence.\n", "Because voters have to predict in advance who the top two candidates will be, this can cause significant perturbation to the system:\n\nBULLET::::- Substantial power is given to the news media. Some voters will tend to believe the media's assertions as to who the leading contenders are likely to be in the election. Even voters who distrust the media will know that other voters \"do\" believe the media, and therefore those candidates who receive the most media attention will nonetheless be the most popular and thus most likely to be in one of the top two.\n", "If the vote is relatively close, it can be unclear when it is appropriate for a losing candidate to concede an election. On election night, pressures from a media looking for news to report, an opposition campaign anxious to declare victory, and one's own campaign unwilling to concede defeat if there is any hope of a last-minute turnaround all weigh on the decision of the losing candidate.\n", "Similarly, even if at the individual level, wealth is positively correlated to tendency to vote Republican, we observe that wealthier states tend to vote Democratic. For example, in 2004, the Republican candidate, George W. Bush, won the fifteen poorest states, and the Democratic candidate, John Kerry, won 9 of the 11 wealthiest states. Yet 62% of voters with annual incomes over $200,000 voted for Bush, but only 36% of voters with annual incomes of $15,000 or less voted for Bush.\n", "Plurality systems usually result in single-party government because relatively few votes in the most finely balanced districts, the \"swing seats\", can transfer sufficient seats to the opposition to swing the election. More partisan districts remain invulnerable to swings of political mood. In the UK, for example, about half the constituencies have always elected the same party since 1945; in the 2012 US House elections 45 districts (10% of all districts) were uncontested by one of the two dominant parties. Voters who know their preferred candidate cannot win have little incentive to vote, and if they do their vote has no effect, it is \"wasted\".\n", "In Maine and Nebraska, the apportionment of electoral votes parallels that for Senators and Congressional Representatives. Two electoral votes go to the person who wins a plurality in the state, and a candidate gets one additional electoral vote for each Congressional District in which they receive a plurality. Both of these states have relatively few electoral votes – a total of 4 and 5, respectively. Neither Maine, which is generally considered a Democratic-leaning state, nor Nebraska, typically thought to be safely Republican, would become battlegrounds in the event of a close national race. Despite their rules, only once has each state 'split' its electoral votes – in 2008, when Nebraska gave 4 votes to Republican John McCain, and one to Democrat Barack Obama; and in 2016, when one of Maine's congressional districts was won by Donald Trump, and the other district and the state itself were won by Hillary Clinton.\n", "To understand why a single vote per race tends to favor less centric candidates, consider a simple lab experiment where students in a class vote for their favorite marble. If five marbles are assigned names and are placed \"up for election\", and if three of them are green, one is red, and one is blue, then a green marble will rarely win the election. The reason is that the three green marbles will split the votes of those who prefer green. In fact, in this analogy, the only way that a green marble is likely to win is if more than sixty percent of the voters prefer green. If the same percentage of people prefer green as those who prefer red and blue, that is to say if 33 percent of the voters prefer green, 33 percent prefer blue, and 33 percent prefer red, then each green marble will only get eleven percent of the vote, while the red and blue marbles will each get 33 percent, putting the green marbles at a serious disadvantage. If the experiment is repeated with other colors, the color that is in the majority will still rarely win. In other words, from a purely mathematical perspective, a single-vote system tends to favor a winner that is different from the majority. If the experiment is repeated using approval voting, where voters are encouraged to vote for as many candidates as they approve of, then the winner is much more likely to be any one of the five marbles, because people who prefer green will be able to vote for every one of the green marbles.\n", "An extension of the principle into other environments of rational choice such as election \"markets\" can explain the common complaint that, for instance, the presidential candidates of the two largest American political parties are \"practically the same\". The candidates elected during primaries are usually established figures within their own partisan camps. Electors in the middle of the political spectrum are more likely to be swing voters, and there is a tendency for the candidates to \"rush for the middle\" to appeal to this crucial bloc. The assumption is that people will choose the candidate with a closer ideology to their own, so that the most votes can be had by being directly in the center.\n", "Vote splitting most easily occurs in plurality voting (also called first-past-the-post) in which each voter indicates a single choice and the candidate with the most votes wins, even if the winner does not have majority support. For example, if candidate A1 receives 30% of the votes, similar candidate A2 receives another 30% of the votes, and dissimilar candidate B receives the remaining 40% of the votes, plurality voting declares candidate B as the winner, even though 60% of the voters prefer either candidate A1 or A2.\n", "Section::::Elections.:Election of 1880: James A. Garfield.\n", "In practice, the theoretical possibility of the decisiveness of a single vote is questionable. Elections results that come close to a tie are likely to be legally challenged, as was the case in the US presidential election in Florida in 2000. After this experience, it appears naive to think that a single vote can be pivotal.\n", "In theory, one of the factors that is most likely to increase turnout is a close race. With an intensely polarized electorate and all polls showing a close finish between President George W. Bush and Democratic challenger John F. Kerry, the turnout in the 2004 U.S. presidential election was close to 60%, resulting in a record number of popular votes for both candidates (around 62 million for Bush and 59 million for Kerry). However, this race also demonstrates the influence that contentious social issues can have on voter turnout; for example, the voter turnout rate in 1860 wherein anti-slavery candidate Abraham Lincoln won the election was the second-highest on record (81.2 percent, second only to 1876, with 81.8 percent). Nonetheless, there is evidence to support the argument that predictable election results—where one vote is not seen to be able to make a difference—have resulted in lower turnouts, such as Bill Clinton's 1996 re-election (which featured the lowest voter turnout in the United States since 1924), the United Kingdom general election of 2001, and the 2005 Spanish referendum on the European Constitution; all of these elections produced decisive results on a low turnout.\n", "Harder and Krosnick (2008) contend that some of the reasons for this may be due to \"differences in motivation or ability (sometimes both)\" (Harder and Krosnick, 2008), or that less wealthy people have less energy, time, or resources to allot towards voting. Another potential reason may be that wealthier people believe that they have more at stake if they don't vote than those with less resources or income.\n", "To a much greater extent than many other electoral methods, plurality electoral systems encourage tactical voting techniques, like \"compromising\". Voters are under pressure to vote for one of the two candidates most likely to win even if their true preference is neither, because a vote for any other candidate is unlikely to lead to the preferred candidate being elected, but will instead reduce support for one of the two major candidates who the voter might prefer to the other—the minority party will simply take votes away from one of the major parties, potentially changing the outcome while gaining nothing. Any other party will typically need to build up its votes and credibility over a series of elections before it is seen as electable.\n", "Consequently, MJ produces more informative results than the existing alternatives. It is true that if only one of two candidates is to be elected, and the winner has only a few votes more than the near winner, MJ and all the alternative voting methods would discover the same winner. However, unlike MJ, none of the alternative methods inform us whether the voters saw great merit in both, saw little merit in either, or saw merit in one but not the other. Only the published results of an MJ election would report exactly how all the voters had graded all the candidates.\n", "On Election Day in 1996, The Republican presidential ticket of Foyle-Block wins enough states to receive 305 electoral Votes, compared to 233 electoral votes for the Democratic ticket of Mueller-Vincent. Since 270 electoral votes are needed to win the Presidency, the issue of who should be the next President is thought resolved.\n", "In the U.S., forty-eight states have a standard \"winner-takes-all\" electoral system for amassing presidential votes in the Electoral College system. The \"winner-takes-all\" principle applies in presidential elections, since if a presidential candidate gets the most votes in any particular state, \"all\" of the electoral votes from that state are awarded. In all but two states, Maine and Nebraska, the presidential candidate winning a plurality of votes wins all of the electoral votes, a practice called the unit rule.\n", "Results may lead at best to confusion, at worst to violence and even civil war, in the case of political rivals. Many alternatives may fall in the latitude of indifference—they are neither accepted nor rejected. Avoiding the choice that most people strongly reject may sometimes be at least as important as choosing the one that they most favour.\n", "BULLET::::- Some voters will vote based on their view of how others will vote as well, changing their originally intended vote;\n\nBULLET::::- Substantial power is given to the media, because some voters will believe its assertions as to who the leading contenders are likely to be. Even voters who distrust the media will know that others \"do\" believe the media, and therefore those candidates who receive the most media attention will probably be the most popular;\n", "In rolling elections, voters have information about previous voters' choices. While in the first elections, there may be plenty of hopeful candidates, in the last rounds consensus on one winner is generally achieved. In today's context of rapid communication, presidential candidates can put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of latter stages.\n", "Because of time zones, election results are broadcast in the eastern parts of the United States while polls are still open in the west. This difference has led to research on how the behavior of voters in western United States is influenced by news about the decisions of voters in other time zones. In 1980, NBC News declared Ronald Reagan to be the winner of the presidential race on the basis of the exit polls several hours before the voting booths closed in the west.\n", "Wasted votes are seen as those cast for losing candidates, and for winning candidates in excess of the number required for victory. For example, in the UK general election of 2005, 52% of votes were cast for losing candidates and 18% were excess votes – a total of 70% 'wasted' votes. On this basis a large majority of votes may play no part in determining the outcome. This winner-takes-all system may be one of the reasons why \"voter participation tends to be lower in countries with FPTP than elsewhere.\"\n\nSection::::Criticisms.:Gerrymandering.\n", "The 2000 U.S. Presidential election is often cited as an example of the spoiler effect. In that election, Al Gore, the Democratic candidate, received more popular votes than George W. Bush, the Republican candidate, but lost in the electoral college. In the state of Florida, the final certified vote count showed Bush with just 537 more votes than Gore. Because Bush defeated Gore in Florida, he won the state, received more votes in the electoral college, and became president of the United States.\n", "Many liberal democracies in history, including the United States, have had uncontested elections because support for one candidate was so strong. In the United States presidential elections of 1789 and 1792, George Washington ran uncontested for President, although in the latter election the ballot for the Vice President was contested by both Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. In the 1820 election, James Monroe also ran unopposed, though\n\nNew Hampshire elector William Plumer cast a vote for John Quincy Adams as a symbolic measure.\n\nElection walkovers are called acclamation in Canada.\n", "Section::::Elections.:Election of 1960: John F. Kennedy.\n\nKennedy received 112,827 (0.17%) more votes than Nixon nationwide. Kennedy also won a 303 to 219 Electoral College victory. However, Nixon won the popular vote contest in more individual states (26 to 22).\n\nSection::::Elections.:Election of 1968: Richard Nixon.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Person who wins most votes doesn't win the election." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The person who gets the most electoral votes wins the election which can be the person who got the most votes. " ]
2018-23950	Why is it so painful to accidentally bite your own tongue but when you purposefully bite it, it doesn’t feel like anything?	The reason is because when you bite down on your tongue on purpose, you aren’t actually biting down as hard as when you bite on your tongue accidentally. Your brain knows you are about to hurt yourself, so even if you don’t realize it, when you bite down on your tongue on purpose, you aren’t biting down as hard. It’s that simple.	[ "Section::::Writing career.\n", "Bite Your Tongue\n\nBite Your Tongue is the debut solo album by Australian singer-songwriter Tiffani Wood. It was released in Australia on 14 October 2006 through Wood's own independent record label Mudhoney Records.\n\nSection::::Album information.\n", "Some of the side-effects of using a tongue-crib therapy is that this appliance may trap a lot of food which may cause inflammation around the appliance. In addition, repeated contact of tongue with the appliance may also lead to an imprint on the tongue which will self-resolve once the appliance is removed. It is important to note that this type of therapy will only work in patients who do not have a skeletal open bite tendency. Skeletal open bite tendency may be addressed via surgery or other treatments depending on the severity.\n\nSection::::Open bite correction.:Primary/mixed dentition.:Blue Grass appliance.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n\nSection::::Biography.:Early life and education.\n", "Bite inhibition\n\nBite inhibition, sometimes referred to as a soft mouth (a term which also has a distinct meaning), is a behavior in carnivorans (dogs, cats, etc.) whereby the animal learns to moderate the strength of its bite. It is an important factor in the socialization of pets.\n\nBite inhibition is typically learned as part of juvenile play behaviors, when the animal is still in the company of its mother and siblings: by biting each other during play, the young animals learn that biting a companion too strongly leads to the abrupt termination of play activities.\n", "Behavior therapy is important especially when the kids are in their primary dentition in the pre-adolescent age. Improving habits at this time may lead to self-correction of open bite in many cases. Sometimes presence of infantile swallowing into early childhood may lead to an anterior open bite in patients. Habit control through appliances such as Tongue crib or Tongue spurs may be used in adolescent ages if the behavior modification fails to stop the habit.\n\nSection::::Open bite correction.:Primary/mixed dentition.:Tongue crib therapy.\n", "A case in Cape Town is typical of evidence of the dangers of generalizing. In her garden with her bare arm in bushes, a woman felt a stinging sensation and withdrew hurriedly. Seeing nothing, she thrust her arm in again and felt a worse sting; inspection revealed a \"Palystes\" nest-cocoon, with the female on guard. There was local redness at the site of the bites, but no other ill effects. Later that evening, however, there was dizziness and nausea, and her arm became swollen and painful, with local discoloration at the sites of the bites. The pain and swelling took several days to subside.\n", "Tongue thrusting can adversely affect the teeth and mouth. A person swallows from 1,200 to 2,000 times every 24 hours with about four pounds (1.8 kg) of pressure each time. If a person suffers from tongue thrusting, this continuous pressure tends to force the teeth out of alignment. People who exhibit a tongue thrust often present with open bites; the force of the tongue against the teeth is an important factor in contributing to \"bad bite\" (malocclusion). Many orthodontists have completed dental treatment with what appeared to be good results, only to discover that the case relapsed because of the patient's tongue thrust. If the tongue is allowed to continue its pushing action against the teeth, it will continue to push the teeth forward and reverse the orthodontic work.\n", "Section::::Stability and relapse.\n\nSection::::Stability and relapse.:Surgery vs. non-surgery.\n\nGeoffrey Greenlee and others published a meta-analysis in 2011 which concluded that patients with orthognathic surgical correction of open bite had 82% stability in comparison to non-surgical correction of open bite which had 75% of stability after 1or more year of treatment. Both the groups started with 2-3mm of open bite initially.\n\nSection::::Stability and relapse.:Molar intrusion.\n", "If teeth come together in a non-ideal bite the researchers state that this would create further stress in areas on the teeth. Teeth that come together too soon or come under more load than they are designed for could lead to abfraction lesions. The impacts of restorations on the chewing surfaces of the teeth being the incorrect height has also been raised as another factor adding to the stress at the CEJ.\n", "He wants me to ask him about what it is like for him – about how offended the tongue is, held down by iron, how the need to spit is so deep you cry for it. She already knew about it, had seen it time after time in the place before Sweet Home. Men, boys, little girls, women. The wildness that shot up into the eye the moment the lips were yanked back. Days after it was taken out, goose fat was rubbed on the corners of the mouth but nothing to soothe the tongue or take the wildness out of the eye.\n", "Section::::Dangerous bites.\n", "Posterior open bite is caused when posterior teeth such as molars or premolars fail to touch their counterpart tooth. This is more likely to occur in segments where there may be unilateral open bite or open bite related to one or more teeth. Failure of eruption of teeth either due to primary failure or mechanical obstruction during eruption phase can cause the open bite. Sometimes lateral tongue thrust may also prevent the eruption of the posterior teeth, thus eliminating this habit maybe key to eruption in those instances.\n\nSection::::Types.:Skeletal open bite.\n", "Occlusal dysesthesia, or \"phantom bite,\" is characterized by the feeling that the bite is \"out of place\" (occlusal dystopia) despite any apparent damage or instability to dental or oromaxillofacial structures or tissue. Phantom bite often presents in patients that have undergone otherwise routine dental procedures. Short of compassionate counseling, evidence for effective treatment regimes is lacking.\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n", "Pacifier use has also shown to cause anterior open bites in children. Pacifier use which lasts longer than 18 months, may cause this malocclusion. It is shown that as long as the sucking habit stops before the eruption of permanent teeth, the open bite self-corrects. In some cases, behavior modification may be necessary to eliminate the dental habits. If all else fails, then a tongue crib can be used.\n\nSection::::Types.:Posterior open bite.\n", "Dry bites are often confusing for the attending physician and the victim. The phenomenon is exploited by quack doctors as evidence for the effectiveness of supposed miracle cures.\n", "A tongue frenulum piercing is a piercing through the frenulum underneath the tongue, known as the frenulum linguae, and commonly the tongue web piercing. \"Venom bites\" is the term given to two tongue piercings placed side by side on the tongue, which are considered to be more painful than a regular tongue piercing through the tongue's center. Although the term \"angel bite\" is sometimes referred to as two piercings in the tongue with one placed right in front of another, the term is much more common for two Monroe piercings on either side of the face. There is also the \"snake-eyes\" which is one curved bar going horizontally through the tip of the tongue, it is mostly painless other than a mild amount of pressure.\n", "Dental open bite occurs in patients where the anterior teeth fail to touch. However, this is not accompanied by the skeletal tendency of having an open bite. Thus this type of open bite may happen in patients who have horizontal or hypodivergent growth pattern. These patients have normal jaw growth and do not have the long face syndrome. The anterior open bite in these patients may be caused by Macroglossia, Tongue thrusting habit or digit sucking habits. Some of the characteristics of a dental open bite include: \n\nBULLET::::- Normal lower anterior facial height\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal/Hypodivergent growth pattern\n", "Similar behavior has been observed in laboratory rats in experiments looking at spinal cord and peripheral nerve injuries. The resulting behavior consists of the rats licking and then chewing their nails, and the tips of their toes. In extreme cases, the rats will chew off whole toes or even the foot. In order to get rid of this behavior, researchers applied a series of evaporative, bitter-tasting mixtures (combination of Metronidazol and New Skin) on the rat's limb because most animals avoid chewing anything with a bitter taste. After testing this mixture on 24 rats with spinal cord injuries, only one rat had chewed its toes after a two- to three-week period.\n", "Similarly, Marbach later proposed that occlusal dysesthesia may be caused by the brain “talking to itself,” causing abnormal oral sensations in the absence of external stimuli. According to this model, the symptoms of dysesthesia are catalyzed by dental “amputation,” for example the extraction of a tooth, whereby the brain loses the ability to distinguish between its memory of the bite and the actual, new bite. The patient, unable to recognize his or her own bite, becomes especially attentive to these perceived oral discrepancies. Finally and most recently, Greene and Gelb suggested that instead of having a psychological root, dysesthesia may be caused by a false signal being sent from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system. However, the reviewers note that no method exists for determining sensor nerve thresholds, and so sensory perception in the mouth is often measured by interdental thickness discrimination (ITD), or the ability to differentiate between the sizes of objects (thin blocks) placed between teeth. In one study, occlusal dysesthesia patients showed greater ability to differentiate these thicknesses than control, healthy individuals, but these differences were not statistically significant.\n", "In humans, a scissor bite does have any significant influence on the facial profile. However, the chewing habits is influenced due to no contact of molars. Treatment of scissor bite may involve expansion device of the lower arch, usage of cross-elastics in an orthodontic treatment. A new method of using Temporary Anchorage Devices (TADs) has been shown to correct the scissor bite in humans.\n", "Orally Fixated\n\n\"Orally Fixated\" is a song by Irish recording artist Róisín Murphy. Written by Murphy, Seiji (of Bugz in the Attic) and FunkinEven, the track was released as a digital single on 16 November 2009. On 12 November 2009, \"The Guardian\" offered a 48-hour free download of the single on its website.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nWhen asked about the inspiration behind \"Orally Fixated\" in an interview with \"Entertainment Weekly\", Murphy said:\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Carrying mechanism.\n", "It is unlikely that \"Megantereon\" simply bit its prey as the long, sabre-teeth that \"Smilodon\" is famed for are not strong enough to leave buried inside a struggling prey animal: the teeth would break off, and thus their tactic for killing remains uncertain.\n\nIt is now generally thought that \"Megantereon\", like other saber-toothed cats, used its long saber teeth to deliver a killing throat bite, severing most of the major nerves and blood vessels. While the teeth would still risk damage, the prey animal would be killed quickly enough that any struggles would be feeble at best.\n", "Section::::Behavior.\n" ]	[ "Accidentally biting your own tongue and purposely biting it are both done with equal force.", "Biting your tongue on purpose is the same action as biting your tongue by accident." ]	[ "Purposely biting one's tongue is accomplished with less force than accidentally biting one's tongue is.", "When you bit your tongue on purpose, you don't bite as hard as when you do it by accident." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Accidentally biting your own tongue and purposely biting it are both done with equal force.", "Biting your tongue on purpose is the same action as biting your tongue by accident." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Purposely biting one's tongue is accomplished with less force than accidentally biting one's tongue is.", "When you bit your tongue on purpose, you don't bite as hard as when you do it by accident." ]
2018-10952	When metal is being shaped, why do the outer layers flake off?	Many times those outer layers aren't actually the metal but a layer of metal oxide compounds (sort of like rust) formed when the hot metal interacts with the oxygen in the air. This is especially noticeable if you're watching blacksmithing or forging of iron. [In a video like this, you can see the layer of "scale" forming while they're moving the piece around]( URL_0 ). In other cases, you'll see people blowing it off with compressed air jets.	[ "When an iron meteorite is forged into a tool or weapon, the Widmanstätten patterns remain, but become stretched and distorted. The patterns usually cannot be fully eliminated by blacksmithing, even through extensive working. When a knife or tool is forged from meteoric iron and then polished, the patterns appear in the surface of the metal, albeit distorted, but they tend to retain some of the original octahedral shape and the appearance of thin lamellae criss-crossing each other. Pattern-welded steels such as Damascus steel also bear patterns, but they are easily discernible from any Widmanstätten pattern.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acicular ferrite\n", "The rate of erosive wear is dependent upon a number of factors. The material characteristics of the particles, such as their shape, hardness, impact velocity and impingement angle are primary factors along with the properties of the surface being eroded. The impingement angle is one of the most important factors and is widely recognized in literature. For ductile materials, the maximum wear rate is found when the impingement angle is approximately 30°, whilst for non-ductile materials the maximum wear rate occurs when the impingement angle is normal to the surface.\n\nSection::::Wear types and mechanisms.:Corrosion and oxidation wear.\n", "Wear of metals occurs by plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material and by detachment of particles that form wear debris. The particle size may vary from millimeters to nanometers. This process may occur by contact with other metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids, solid particles or liquid droplets entrained in flowing gasses.\n", "BULLET::::- J.F. Archard and W. Hirst – \"The Wear of Metals under Unlubricated Conditions\", Proc Royal Society London, A 236 (1956) 397-410\n\nBULLET::::- J.F. Archard and W. Hirst – \"An Examination of a Mild Wear Process\" Proc. Royal Society London, A 238 (1957) 515-528\n\nBULLET::::- J.K. Lancaster – \"The Formation of Surface Films at the Transition Between Mild and Severe Metallic Wear\", Proc. Royal Society London, A 273 (1962) 466-483\n\nBULLET::::- T.F.J. Quinn – \"Review of Oxidational Wear. Part 1: The Origins of Oxidational Wear\" Tribo. Int., 16 (1983) 257-270\n", "The diffusive theory of bainite's transformation process is based on the assumption that a bainitic ferrite plate grows with a similar mechanism as Widmanstätten ferrite at higher temperatures. Its growth rate thus depends on how rapidly carbon can diffuse from the growing ferrite into the austenite. A common misconception is that this mechanism excludes the possibility of coherent interfaces and a surface relief. In fact it is accepted by some that formation of Widmanstätten ferrite is controlled by carbon diffusion and do show a similar surface relief.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Morphology.\n", "The nickel particles located in filamentous carbon that is grown in methane and hydrogen gas between and tend to be pear-shaped at the higher end of the temperature range. At higher temperatures, the metal particle becomes deformed. The length of the conic structure of the filaments also increases with temperature. When a copper and silica catalyst is exposed to methane and hydrogen at , hollow, long filamentous carbon structures were formed, and these also contained drops of metal.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Biological properties.\n\nWhen the enzyme glucoamylase is situated on a ceramic surface coated with filamentous carbon, the enzyme's stability increases drastically.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "Generally, adhesive wear occurs when two bodies slide over or are pressed into each other, which promote material transfer. This can be described as plastic deformation of very small fragments within the surface layers. The asperities or microscopic high points (surface roughness) found on each surface affect the severity of how fragments of oxides are pulled off and added to the other surface, partly due to strong adhesive forces between atoms, but also due to accumulation of energy in the plastic zone between the asperities during relative motion.\n", "Section::::Physics.:Wear.:Rubbing Wear or Fretting.\n\nThe rubbing wear occurs in systems subject to more or less intense vibrations, which cause relative movements between the surfaces in contact with the order of the nanometer. These microscopic relative movements cause both adhesive wear, caused by the displacement itself, and abrasive wear, caused by the particles produced in the adhesive phase, which remain trapped between the surfaces. This type of wear can be accelerated by the presence of corrosive substances and the increase in temperature.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Wear.:Erosion Wear.\n", "Another effect the load has on the indentation is the \"piling-up\" or \"sinking-in\" of the surrounding material. If the metal is work hardened it has a tendency to pile up and form a \"crater\". If the metal is annealed it will sink in around the indentation. Both of these effects add to the error of the hardness measurement.\n", "In addition, Birbilis's group worked to define the size of microstructural features that trigger localised corrosion of engineering alloys. Such work involved the careful study of alloys structures on the nano- and atomic scale, whilst studying their metastable pitting (an automated web based tool to study metastable pitting from electrochemical data and published by Birbilis's group is available online.)\n", "When a shape-memory alloy is in its cold state (below \"A\"), the metal can be bent or stretched and will hold those shapes until heated above the transition temperature. Upon heating, the shape changes to its original. When the metal cools again it will remain in the hot shape, until deformed again.\n", "In metallic compounds and sheet metal forming, the asperities are usually oxides and the plastic deformation mostly consists of brittle fracture, which presupposes a very small plastic zone. The accumulation of energy and temperature is low due to the discontinuity in the fracture mechanism.\n", "A first variety of this type of metasomatism affects only enclaves within a granitoid. Here the influx of Na-rich fluids in the temperature range 450 °C to 650 °C from the host leads to the replacement of alkali feldspar by myrmekite within the enclaves. During this process a reequilibration with the Na-poorer feldspars (plagioclase) in the enclaves takes place. As a consequence Ca gets released in plagioclase which in turn can now react upon K-feldspar to form myrmekite. Basically this process is very similar to the Ca-metasomatism on K-feldspar described above except for the Na-fluids acting as a trigger.\n", "Section::::Specific cases.:Alloy plating.\n\nIn some cases, it is desirable to co-deposit two or more metals resulting in an electroplated alloy deposit. Depending on the alloy system, an electroplated alloy may be solid solution strengthened or precipitation hardened by heat treatment to improve the plating's physical and chemical properties. Nickel-Cobalt is a common electroplated alloy.\n\nSection::::Specific cases.:Composite plating.\n", "Thomson structures or Widmanstätten patterns are created as the meteorite cools; at high temperatures both iron and nickel have face-centered lattices. When the meteorite is formed it starts out as entirely molten taenite (greater than 1500 °C) and as it cools past 723 °C the primary metastable phase of the alloy changes into taenite and kamacite begins to precipitate out. It is in this window where the meteorite is cooling below 723 °C where the Thomson structures form and they can be greatly affected by the temperature, pressure, and composition of the meteorite.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Optical properties.\n", "Special alloys, either with low carbon content or with added carbon \"getters\" such as titanium and niobium (in types 321 and 347, respectively), can prevent this effect, but the latter require special heat treatment after welding to prevent the similar phenomenon of \"knifeline attack\". As its name implies, corrosion is limited to a very narrow zone adjacent to the weld, often only a few micrometers across, making it even less noticeable.\n\nSection::::Corrosion in passivated materials.:Crevice corrosion.\n", "An analogous phenomenon for amorphous materials is polyamorphism, when a substance can take on several different amorphous modifications.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "The corrosion-retarding effect of the protective layer is produced by the particular distribution and concentration of alloying elements in it. The layer protecting the surface develops and regenerates continuously when subjected to the influence of the weather. In other words, the steel is allowed to rust in order to form the protective coating.\n\nThe mechanical properties of weathering steels depend on which alloy and how thick the material is.\n\nSection::::Properties.:ASTM A242.\n", "This exception arises due to competing horizontal and vertical trends in the nuclear charge. Going along a period, the nuclear charge increases with atomic number as do the number of electrons. The additional pull on outer electrons as nuclear charge increases generally outweighs the screening effect of having more electrons. With some irregularities, atoms therefore become smaller, ionization energy increases, and there is a gradual change in character, across a period, from strongly metallic, to weakly metallic, to weakly nonmetallic, to strongly nonmetallic elements. Going down a main group, the effect of increasing nuclear charge is generally outweighed by the effect of additional electrons being further away from the nucleus. Atoms generally become larger, ionization energy falls, and metallic character increases. The net effect is that the location of the metal–nonmetal transition zone shifts to the right in going down a group, and analogous diagonal similarities are seen elsewhere in the periodic table, as noted.\n", "Take the alkali feldspar minerals for example, whose end members are albite, NaAlSiO and microcline, KAlSiO. At high temperatures Na and K readily substitute for each other and so the minerals will form a solid solution, yet at low temperatures albite can only substitute a small amount of K and the same applies for Na in the microcline. This leads to exsolution where they will separate into two separate phases. In the case of the alkali feldspar minerals, thin white albite layers will alternate between typically pink microcline, resulting in a perthite texture.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Solid solution strengthening\n", "Type I Contact Ores: Ores along the basal contact are normally localized in footwall embayments, most of which have been deformed by superimposed deformation, but which in less-deformed areas range from broad shallow embayments (e.g., Alexo, Ontario) and shallow re-entrant embayments (e.g., many Kambalda ore bodies) to subcircular depressions (e.g., some Kamblada ore bodies, Raglan, Quebec).\n\nType II Internal Ores: Some deposits also contain or instead contain disseminated, blebby, or net-textured\n", "BULLET::::- The obvious fact that displacements occur when bainite grows. The transformation is a combination of deformation and crystal structure change, just like martensite.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Diffusive theory.\n", "After going through this process the properties of the material used are altered. Its hardness and yield strength are increased, cross-sectional area is decreased, some residual surface stresses will be present and micro cracks may appear. The Physical and chemical properties are only influenced slightly.\n\nSection::::Die Style.\n", "Unlike iron-based alloys, most heat treatable alloys do not experience a ferrite transformation. In these alloys, the nucleation at the grain-boundaries often reinforces the structure of the crystal matrix. These metals harden by precipitation. Typically a slow process, depending on temperature, this is often referred to as \"age hardening\".\n", "Dross\n\nDross is a mass of solid impurities floating on a molten metal or dispersed in the metal, such as in wrought iron. It forms on the surface of low-melting-point metals such as tin, lead, zinc or aluminium or alloys by oxidation of the metal. For higher melting point metals such as steel, oxidized impurities melt and float making them easy to pour off.\n\nWith wrought iron, hammering and later rolling removed some dross.\n" ]	[ "Outer layers of metal flake off when metal is being shaped.", "The outer layers flake off when a metal is being shaped." ]	[ "Those layers aren't the actual metal but metal oxide compounds that are formed from interaction between hot metal and oxygen.", "The outer layers are many times not the same metal, but a layer of metal oxide compounds." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Outer layers of metal flake off when metal is being shaped.", "The outer layers flake off when a metal is being shaped." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Those layers aren't the actual metal but metal oxide compounds that are formed from interaction between hot metal and oxygen.", "The outer layers are many times not the same metal, but a layer of metal oxide compounds." ]
2018-01206	why do news anchors/cameramen still use bulky shoulder mount cameras when camera technology has advanced so far with things like gopros and their video quality?	While camera "bodies" are getting smaller, things like high quality lenses, professional cabling interfaces, microphones, operator controls, and viewfinders/monitors are still the same size since improving their technology doesn't always mean decreasing their size.	[ "Section::::Usage types.:ENG cameras.\n\nENG (electronic news gathering) video cameras were originally designed for use by news camera operators. While they have some similarities to the smaller consumer camcorder, they differ in several regards:\n\nBULLET::::- ENG cameras are larger and heavier (helps dampen small movements), and usually supported by a camera shoulder support or shoulder stock on the camera operator's shoulder, taking the weight off the hand, which is freed to operate the zoom lens control.\n\nBULLET::::- The camera mounts on tripods with Fluid heads and other supports with a quick release plate.\n", "In the United States, backpack journalism is said to have evolved out of Video News International (VNI), a project by The New York Times, in the mid-1990s. Michael Rosenblum, a former broadcast journalist, thought that training print journalists and photographers to use small high-quality digital video cameras would encourage television networks to do more international coverage because it would be more cost effective. \n", "However the race for hands-free POV cameras for use on a consumer level has always faced problems. The technology has had issues with usability, combining lenses with microphones with batteries with recording units; all connected using spidery cables, which proved cumbersome in use when compared to the quality of the end content.\n\nSection::::Notable examples.\n", "Early portable video systems recorded at a lower quality than broadcast studio cameras, which made them less desirable than non portable video systems. When the Portapak video camera was introduced in 1967, it was a new method of video recording, forever shifting ENG. \n", "A number of manufacturers now make robotic camera pedestals, including companies like \"Shotoku\" and \"Vinten Radamec\". These are particularly used in news broadcasting environments, where a single camera operator can control multiple cameras in different studios.\n", "BULLET::::- Todd Campbell, Author of \"Beyond Slickrock\", Rides With Helmet Cam at Slickrock, Moab, Utah, 1988\n\nBULLET::::- Helmet Cam Footage of Olympian John Howard (cyclist) Videotaped by Mark Schulze, 2010/a\n\nBULLET::::- \"Helmet Cam Innovator Mark Schulze,\" by Patty Mooney, February 7, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Helmet Camera Forum Website discussions for Helmet Cam owners\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Most Influential Gear of All Time,\" by Berne Broudy and Andrew Freeman, Outside Magazine, May 21, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Helmet Camera TV Website for Helmet Camera Videos\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caught on Camera\" Outside Online\n\nBULLET::::- How Helmet Cameras Work\n\nBULLET::::- Helmet Cam Innovator Mark Schulze\n", "Electronic news-gathering (ENG) cameras replaced the 16mm film cameras for TV news production from the 1970s onwards because the cost of shooting on film was significantly more than shooting on a reusable tape. Portable video tape production also enabled much faster turnaround time for the quick completion of news stories, compared to the need to chemically process film before it could be shown or edited. However some news feature stories for weekly news magazine shows continued to use 16mm film cameras until the 1990s.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2000s, major manufacturers like Sony, Philips introduced the flash storage based digital television cameras. Since the 2010s, these digital cameras have become most widely used of all other systems.\n\nSection::::Usage types.\n", "Electronic field production cameras are similar to studio cameras in that they are used primarily in multiple camera switched configurations, but outside the studio environment, for concerts, sports and live news coverage of special events. These versatile cameras can be carried on the shoulder, or mounted on camera pedestals and cranes, with the large, very long focal length zoom lenses made for studio camera mounting. These cameras have no recording ability on their own, and transmit their signals back to the broadcast truck through a fiber optic, triax, radio frequency or the virtually obsolete multicore cable.\n\nSection::::Usage types.:Others.\n", "Those seeking to enter the journalism field in the present and future will be affected by the backpack journalism practice because of media convergence. The people who can \"do it all ... are the journalists of the future,\" said John Schidlovsky, director of the Pew Fellowship in International Journalism. Advocates of this new model argue that it will be impossible to survive in the journalism field if a reporter cannot shift from medium to medium, and take control of their own stories. However, \"clear writing and the provision of context and background will remain fundamental to the journalist's role.\" This means that regardless of what happens with technological advances in the future, journalists will still need the building blocks of journalistic writing style in order to stay afloat in the field. Similar to how newsrooms made the transition from typewriters to computers over the past 20 years, so will they adjust to the new convergence and multimedia presence within the industry; just as it would be unfathomable today to hire a reporter without knowledge of a computer, it will be unheard of to hire a reporter 20 years from now who cannot slide across different media. Alexandra Wallace, senior vice president of NBC News, said \"as long as you can keep quality and quantity up, the reality is it takes fewer people to do what it took many people to do, and that's really, truly based on technology.\" \n", "Dick Barrymore, an early action filmmaker akin to Warren Miller, experimented with film cameras and counter weights mounted to a helmet. Barrymore could ski unencumbered while capturing footage of scenery and other skiers. Though the unit was heavy relative to its manner of use, it was considered hands-free, and worked.\n\nNumerous companies have developed successful POV designs, from laparoscopic video equipment used inside the body during medical procedures, to high tech film and digital cameras mounted to jets and employed during flight. On professional levels, the equipment is well defined, expensive, and requires intensive training and support.\n", "The ongoing Technological evolution of broadcast video production equipment can be observed annually at the NAB Show in Las Vegas where equipment manufacturers gather to display their wares to people within the video production industry. The trend is toward lighter-weight equipment that can deliver more resolution at higher speeds. There has been an evolution from Film to Standard-definition television, High-definition television and now 4K.\n", "Compact superzoom cameras or travel zoom cameras have zoom up to 30x, still shorter zoom than current bridge cameras, but more compact than bulky DSLR-shape bridge cameras, and both usually use 1/2.3\" sensor.\n\nSection::::Sales decline.\n", "The general rule with consumer cameras—as opposed to specialized industrial, scientific, and military equipment—is the more cameras sold, the more sophisticated the automation features available. Medium-format cameras made since the 1950s are generally less automated than smaller cameras made at the same time, having high image quality as their primary advantage. For example, autofocus became available in consumer 35 mm cameras in 1977, but did not reach medium format until the late 1990s, and has never been available in a consumer large format camera.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "List of cameras supporting a raw format\n\nSection::::Still cameras.\n\nThe following digital cameras allow photos to be taken and saved in at least one raw image format. Some cameras support more than one, usually a proprietary format and Digital Negative (DNG).\n\nSection::::Still cameras.:Agfa.\n\nBULLET::::- Agfa ActionCam - MDC\n\nSection::::Still cameras.:Casio.\n\nBULLET::::- Exilim EX-ZR700\n\nBULLET::::- Exilim EX-ZR1000\n\nSection::::Still cameras.:Fujifilm.\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix IS-Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix S1 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix S2 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix S3 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix S5 Pro\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix S6500fd\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix S9100/9600\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix S9000/9500\n\nBULLET::::- Fujifilm FinePix 20 Pro\n", "News directors are finding this style of journalism beneficial to their organizations. Instead of requiring cameramen, reporters and editors to produce news stories, a larger group of employees who can do all of the above are available, which can double or even triple the number of stories that can be covered. The various platforms involved with this type of reporting also opens more doors for reaching a broader and more varied audience.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "phones as the story's prospective. The film is a reenactment of an actual case and they changed the names to protect those involved. Some modern camera phones (in 2013-2014) have big sensors, thus allowing a street photographer or any other kind of photographer to take photos of similar quality to a semi-pro camera.\n\nSection::::Camera as an interaction device.\n", "With the slow obsolescence of the Mitchell cameras, which likely took so long because they were so well regarded in mechanical design aspects, such as their steady intermittent movement registration (\"Compensating Link\" movement) and strong mounts, the mounts have gradually become less common in the past two decades, but remained an option for third party cameras produced as recently as the 1980s. Many of the cameras are still in usage in fields such as animation. Though the mount is not quite as common today, it is still very well regarded in the field.\n\nSection::::Technical specifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Flange focal distance: 61.468 mm\n", "Section::::Types of digital cameras.:Action cameras.\n\nGoPro and other brands offer action cameras which are rugged, small and can be easily attached to helmet, arm, bicycle, etc. Most have wide angle and fixed focus, and can take still pictures and video, typically with sound.\n\nThe rising popularity of action cameras is in line with many people desiring to share photos or videos in social media. Many competitive manufacturers of action cameras results in many options and lowered, competitive prices, and nowadays, cameras are sold bundled with waterproof housings, accessories, and mountings compatible with the popular GoPro.\n\nSection::::Types of digital cameras.:360-degree cameras.\n", "The artemis Trinity system, developed by Curt O. Schaller together with Roman Foltyn in 2015, is the first camera stabilizer system in the world that combines a mechanical stabilization system with an electronic one.\n\nIn April 2016, ARRI acquired the artemis camera stabilizer systems developed by Curt O. Schaller from Sachtler / Vitec Videocom.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nThe company's portfolio can be divided into: \n\nBULLET::::- Camera support\n\nBULLET::::- High quality bags for storage and transportation of professional broadcast, camera and audio equipment\n", "In Canada, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation made a widespread move into hiring video journalists (or retraining existing reporters or camera people to do multiple jobs) in the late 1990s. In most cases, they were assigned to local newsrooms to do daily news, just as full crews had before. Primarily, it was a cost-saving measure. Within a few years, however, it was clear that this rarely produced good results because of short deadlines and the assumption that VJ’s could work the same way and on the same stories. The effort was scaled back.\n", "Technological advancement is also changing the ways news is gathered and edited. The newsreel days are long gone. Reporters do not use film anymore. Television journalists are capturing images and sound on video and DV. Some stations even begin gathering and reporting news in high-definition television. Even editing and archiving systems are evolving, as more and more stations convert to non-linear editing systems, and storing file footage on computer servers rather than tapes.\n", "Prototypes of helmet-mounted thermal imaging cameras were first publicized in 1992, but a detailed evaluation of their performance in real world situations was not published until 2007. The model evaluated in 2007 weighed approximately 1.5 lbs, substantially increasing weight over an unadorned helmet. However, the ability to \"use the devices while they were also pulling hose and carrying tools\" was favorably received by firefighters evaluating the product.\n", "U-Matic saw even more success from the television broadcast industry in the mid-1970s, when a number of local TV stations and national TV networks used the format when its first portable model, the Sony VO-3800, was released in 1974. This model ushered in the era of ENG, or Electronic News Gathering, which eventually made obsolete the previous 16mm film cameras normally used for on-location television news gathering. Film required developing which took time, compared to the instantly available playback of videotape, making faster breaking news possible.\n\nSection::::Models.\n", "With zoom ranges and sales rapidly increasing in the early 21st century, every major camera manufacturer has at least one 'super zoom' in its lineup. Sales of bridge cameras with DSLR-shape and MILC are steady in the overall context of declining camera sales.\n\nSection::::One fixed but versatile lens.\n" ]	[ "Advanced technology always means smaller components.", "Advances in technology should make cameras smaller." ]	[ "Some technology still needs to be the same size for function even if the internal features are advancing and improving.", "Professional equipment hasn't all gotten smaller, and not all technology advances mean decreasing their size. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Advanced technology always means smaller components.", "Advances in technology should make cameras smaller." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some technology still needs to be the same size for function even if the internal features are advancing and improving.", "Professional equipment hasn't all gotten smaller, and not all technology advances mean decreasing their size. " ]
2018-23531	Why is Tupac still so popular, 22 years after he died? What does he represent to his fans that get tattoos of him and try to be like him? Was his music great?	Ok I’ll attempt it. So Pac was to rap music what Elvis was to Pop Music At the height of his fame he was involved with a rivalry with The Notorious BIG who was his equal. Think Lionel Messi and Ronaldo. He was a symbol of rebellion and anti establishment. He wore his heart on his sleeve and put it down on record. His infamy was heightened when he was shot in a New York recording studio, in the same building Biggie smalls and Junior mafia were, speculation increased that it was biggies crew who did this. 2 Pac went to prison to serve a sentence for alleged sexual assault. Whilst inside Biggie released the song ‘who shot ya’ as well as his debut album Ready to die. Once 2 Pac got out he released arguably his most influential album All Eyez on me, as well as the song Hit em up, a diss song to Biggie, Junior Mafia & Mobb Deep. This ramped up the east coast vs west coast beef. After his death following a shooting in Las Vegas in 96. His legacy shone for the rest of the hip hop world to follow. He was an icon in a relatively new genre of music. He influenced so many in years to come, he carried an entire coast on his back and is regarded as the Greatest rapper of all time. Hendrix, Jim Morrison, Cobain, are all in the same bracket as Pac for the legacy he left Not only did Pac create some of the best west coast albums he created some of the best hip hop and albums period. Start with All Eyez on Me, Then 7 day theory, Then me against the world. THUGGGG LIFFFFEEEEE	[ "Section::::Critical reception.\n\nReviews from critics and fans were mixed, with the general consensus being that while 2Pac's vocals were undoubtedly strong, the modern production sounded commercialized. AllMusic wrote: \"This isn't to say that there is not some great material on Pac's Life, because there is ..., but the power of 2Pac's words is often lost behind the modern production ... and new verses from artists like Ludacris, Lil Scrappy, Ashanti, and Young Buck.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Family Tree - Performed by Lamar Antwon Robinson\n\nBULLET::::- Hail Mary\n\nBULLET::::- Hell 4 a Hustler\n\nBULLET::::- Hit 'Em Up\n\nBULLET::::- Holler If Ya Hear Me\n\nBULLET::::- Homeboyz\n\nBULLET::::- I Get Around\n\nBULLET::::- I'm Gettin Money\n\nBULLET::::- If I Die 2 Nite\n\nBULLET::::- Keep Ya Head Up\n\nBULLET::::- Let Em Have It\n\nBULLET::::- Letter to the President\n\nBULLET::::- Lil' Homies\n\nBULLET::::- Me Against the World\n\nBULLET::::- Military Minds\n\nBULLET::::- My Block (Nitty Remix)\n\nBULLET::::- My Closest Roaddogz\n\nBULLET::::- Never B Peace (Nitty Remix)\n\nBULLET::::- Niggaz Nature Remix\n\nBULLET::::- Nothin' to Lose\n\nBULLET::::- One Day at a Time (Em's Version)\n", "Dr. Mutulu Shakur (Tupac's stepfather) released the tribute album to commemorate Tupac's 35th birthday and 10 year passing anniversary. The album features contributions from rappers behind bars as well as those on the outside, including Mutulu Shakur's children Mopreme Shakur and Nzingha, as well as Outlawz, TQ, Slick, Imaan Faith and T-Jay. It was originally conceived before Tupac's 1996 murder, when he and Mopreme visited their father in prison and wrote the \"Thug Code\" to try to decrease gang violence.\n", "In 2004, Som Livre released an album of posthumous duets entitled \"Soul Tim: Duetos\". Maia's entire discography, including the never before seen third volume of \"Tim Maia Racional\", was reissued by Editora Abril in 2011. In October 2012, American record label Luaka Bop released a Maia compilation entitled \"Nobody Can Live Forever.\"\n", "'Who the F* would use images of Tupac and Biggie,they are Hiphop Legends,people don't see behind the closed curtains of the music industry, the fans and critics just saw that Joel Turner and MDP used Tupac and Biggie images in their clip, so i dont blame people for being critical at the start, but the truth is it was a snake that did it behind our back, he obviously does not know shit about Hiphop C4 laughed' and Quoted 'I would kick my own ass for doing that' why do you think i'm so pissed off, you just dont f* with that, I hate seeing fake Tupac T-shirts exploited at a local market with his face on it' it's wrong, he didn't realise it would burn our career before it got started,what the f* was he thinking, i'm done talking about it, all i can say is if your in the music industry be careful who you work with and keep your artist integrity dont let anyone take it away and if they try 'F* em' stand up and smack em down' End quote. \n", "BULLET::::- Under Pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Until the End of Time\n\nBULLET::::- U R Ripping Us Apart!!! - Performed by Dead Prez\n\nBULLET::::- When Thugz Cry\n\nBULLET::::- When We Ride on Our Enemies (Briss Remix)\n\nBULLET::::- Wife 4 Life - 4th Avenue Jones'\n\nBULLET::::- Wonda Why They Call U Bitch\n\nBULLET::::- Worldwide Mob Figgaz\n\nBULLET::::- Y'all Don't Know Us\n\nBULLET::::- You Don't Bring Me Flowers (feat. Ice T)\n\nThe following tracks, which Tupac had no input on, are also featured in the film:\n\nBULLET::::- America The Beautiful\n\nBULLET::::- All Along The Watchtower - Jimi Hendrix\n", "BULLET::::- All That You Have Is Your Soul - Tracy Chapman\n\nBULLET::::- Black Seeds Keep On Growing\n\nBULLET::::- Exodus - Bob Marley\n\nBULLET::::- Humpty Dance - Digital Underground\n\nBULLET::::- Inner City Blues - Marvin Gaye\n\nBULLET::::- Know The Ledge - Eric B. & Rakim\n\nBULLET::::- Living For The City - Stevie Wonder\n\nBULLET::::- Paid In Full - Eric B. & Rakim\n\nBULLET::::- Parents Just Don't Understand - DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince\n\nBULLET::::- Smooth Operator - Sade\n\nBULLET::::- Vincent - Don McLean\n\nBULLET::::- Waiting For You - Tony! Toni! Tone!\n\nBULLET::::- Wuthering Heights - Kate Bush\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The last two verses in particular seem to be directed towards Tupac:\n\nI'm flaming gats, aimin' at these fuckin' maniacs\n\nPut my name in raps, what part the game is that?\n\nLike they hustle backwards\n\nI smoke Backwoods and Dutchies, ya can't touch me\n\nTry to rush me, slugs go touchy-touchy\n\nYou're bleeding lovely with your spirit above me or beneath me\n\nYour whole life you live sneaky\n\nNow you rest eternally, sleepy, you burn when you creep me\n\nRest where the worms and the weak be\n\nSlugs hit your chest, tap your spine, flat line\n", "CD Universe noted that Shakur's \"flow and lyrical content are more reminiscent of late-1980s/early-1990s icons like Big Daddy Kane and Rakim\" than of the later songs of 2Pac himself. Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic agreed that the rapper sounds \"inspired here, no doubt, but nonetheless a bit clumsy and imitative\". Birchmeier also commented that \"there's little more here than skeletal drum machine beats for production\". It also seems much of the political content of the songs has been overlooked.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- 2Pac Legacy (Official website)\n\nBULLET::::- Tupac Amaru Shakur Foundation for the Arts\n", "An official 14-track soundtrack album was released, although it only contained nine songs that featured in the movie. The following tracks, listed alphabetically by title, are written and/or performed by Tupac and feature in the film:\n\nBULLET::::- 2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted\n\nBULLET::::- Ballad of a Dead Soulja\n\nBULLET::::- Black Jesuz\n\nBULLET::::- Breathin\n\nBULLET::::- Brenda's Got a Baby\n\nBULLET::::- California Love Remix\n\nBULLET::::- Can U C the Pride in the Panther - Performed by Mos Def\n\nBULLET::::- Case of the Misplaced Mic\n\nBULLET::::- Changes\n\nBULLET::::- Cradle to the Grave\n\nBULLET::::- Dear Mama\n\nBULLET::::- Everything They Owe\n\nBULLET::::- Fame\n", "When Jacka died in Oakland, he stepped away from drugs for a time. However, he states he soon began using music as a form of therapy. He then moved to Sacramento, California. \n\nSection::::Music career.\n\nSection::::Music career.:Early releases.\n", "This song was played by Dr. Dre & Snoop Dogg as tribute to 2Pac on the 2000 Up In Smoke Tour. The performance included a sample of the 2Pac verse.\n\nOn April 15, 2012, the song was played at the Coachella Festival with Snoop Dogg performing with a hologram of 2Pac.\n\nThe song featured in the first episode of the TV series \"Gang Related\".\n\nThe song was played on 2Pac's biopic, \"All Eyez On Me\" (2017), with 2Pac and Snoop in the studio recording the song.\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- Engineer: Dave Aron\n\nBULLET::::- Engineer: Rick Clifford\n\nBULLET::::- Assistant engineer: Alvin McGill\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n\n\"Until the End of Time\" debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 and over seas on the UK R&B chart at number 2.\n\nOn June 10, 2014 it was certified 4x platinum by RIAA. On 22 June 2001 it was certified Silver (60,000) by BPI. On May 24, 2001 it was certified 2x platinum (200,000 units) in Canada.\n\nSection::::Accolades.\n\nBET put it number 3 on their list of 'The 25 Best Posthumous Albums of All Time'.\n\nSection::::Sampling.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fuck Friendz\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ether\" by Nas from the album \"Stillmatic\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Niggaz Nature\"\n", "Tupac Back\n\n\"Tupac Back\" is a song by American hip hop recording artist Meek Mill, released as his debut single and the lead single from the Maybach Music Group compilation album, \"Self Made Vol. 1\". The song features MMG label boss and fellow rapper Rick Ross, and peaked at #31 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Rick Ross said that, in making the song, they were “paying homage to the fallen icon.”\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "Little Shawn released the single \"Dom Perignon\" (Uptown Records) featuring fellow Brooklyn rapper The Notorious B.I.G. on 20 July 1995. The music video also featured Busta Rhymes, another rapper from Brooklyn. It peaked at #5 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 as well as #87 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles and #23 on the Hot Rap Tracks charts. The song was featured on the soundtrack to the Fox TV crime drama \"New York Undercover\".\n\nTupac Shakur was on his way to record a verse for Little Shawn when he was robbed and shot 5 times in 1994.\n", "Tupac: Resurrection (soundtrack)\n\nTupac: Resurrection was released by Amaru Entertainment as the soundtrack for the Academy Award-nominated 2003 documentary, \"\".\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nIt includes several previously released 2Pac recordings, including \"Death Around the Corner\" from \"Me Against the World\", \"Secretz of War\" from \"Still I Rise\", \"Holler If Ya Hear Me\" from \"Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z.\" and \"Rebel of the Underground\" from \"2Pacalypse Now\"; and unreleased 2Pac verses re-constructed into new tracks such as \"Ghost\", \"One Day at a Time\", and \"Runnin (Dying to Live)\". \n\nSection::::Production.\n\nAfeni Shakur executively produced the album.\n", "BULLET::::- In his album \"Street's Disciple\" (2004), in the single \"Just A Moment\".\n\nMason is mentioned by rapper 50 Cent in multiple songs:\n\nBULLET::::- Mason as well as Kenneth \"Supreme\" McGriff are referenced directly in 50 Cent's \"Ghetto Qu'ran (Forgive Me)\", which leaked in 2000 from his unreleased Columbia Records debut album \"Power of the Dollar\", in the lyaric: \"I used to idolize (fat) cat Lorenzo \"Fat Cat\" Nichols, Hurt me in my heart to hear that nigga snitched on Pap (Howard \"Pappy\" Mason), how he go out like that?\"\n", "BULLET::::- Jason Thirsk appears in Humble Gods' album \"No Heroes\" (1996) a few months after his 1996 accidental suicide while he was drunk. He also appears on Pennywise's \"Full Circle\" (1997), and \"Yesterdays\" (2014).\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1996), \"R U Still Down? (Remember Me)\" (1997), \"Still I Rise\" (1999), \"Until the End of Time\" (2001), \"Better Dayz\" (2002), \"\" (2003), \"Loyal to the Game\" (2004), and \"Pac's Life\" (2006) were all released after Tupac Shakur's death on September 13, 1996.\n\nBULLET::::- Colleen Peterson's \"Postcards from California\" was released in 2004 eight years after she died of cancer.\n", "Miller struggled with substance abuse, which was often referenced in his lyrics. \n\nSection::::Life and career.\n\nSection::::Life and career.:1992–2010: Early life and career beginnings.\n", "In 2001, Nas made an artistic comeback with his fifth album \"Stillmatic\" and his highly publicized feud with rapper Jay-Z. Both revitalized his image in hip hop music at the time, following a string of commercially successful but critically subpar albums. Nas' record label, Columbia Records, capitalized on his comeback with a promotional campaign that included the release of two archival albums, the extended play \"\" and \"The Lost Tapes\", while leading up to the release of his 2002 studio album \"God's Son\".\n", "The music video starts off with an interview which 2Pac had after his rape case. It includes unreleased footage of 2Pac recording and writing in a studio. The video also contains clips of music videos from his earlier singles such as \"All About U\".\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nBULLET::::- A1 Until The End Of Time (Clean Radio Edit)\n\nBULLET::::- A2 Until The End Of Time (LP Version)\n\nBULLET::::- B1 Until The End Of Time (Instrumental)\n\nBULLET::::- B2 Until The End Of Time (Clean Radio Edit A Cappella)\n\nBULLET::::- B3 Until The End Of Time (LP A Capella)\n", "Section::::Career.:1995–96: Final recordings.\n", "A 2Pac Tribute: Dare 2 Struggle\n\nA 2Pac Tribute: Dare 2 Struggle is a posthumously released tribute album dedicated to the late hip hop icon, Tupac Shakur.\n", "Tupac performed \"Out on Bail\" at the 1994 Source Awards. The album was originally released on Shakur's label Out Da Gutta. Tupac's mother's label, Amaru Entertainment, has since gained the rights to the album.\n\nThe track \"How Long Will They Mourn Me?\" appeared on 2Pac's 1998 \"Greatest Hits\" album.\n\n\"Thug Life: Volume 1\" sold 478,419 copies in the United States as of 2011.\n\nSection::::Stretch's death.\n", "Along with his autobiography is his last album - Nụ Cười Còn Mãi included many songs that WanBi had recorded but had not yet released. All proceeds from autobiography and album were donated to Cảm Ơn fund by WanBi Tuấn Anh to help the needy children in the Angel Institute.\n\nSection::::Life and career.:Evaluation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04442	When people have fluid in their lungs why isnt possible to just use a needle to remove it over and over?	Find a kitchen sponge. Soak it with water. Now try drying it out with a syringe. If you spent enough hours to succeed, the sponge would fall apart from the huge number of holes you've made. And lungs are much bigger than kitchen sponges and the air cavities are smaller. And there are ribs and things in the way too.	[ "Other complications depend upon the body part on which the biopsy takes place:\n", "BULLET::::- Lung biopsies are frequently complicated by pneumothorax (collapsed lung). This complication can also accompany biopsies in the upper abdomen near the base of the lung. About one-quarter to one-half of patients having lung biopsies will develop pneumothorax. Usually, the degree of collapse is small and resolves on its own without treatment. A small percentage of patients will develop a pneumothorax serious enough to require hospitalization and placement of a chest tube for treatment. Although it is impossible to predict in whom this will occur, collapsed lungs are more frequent and more serious in patients with severe emphysema and in patients in whom the biopsy is difficult to perform.\n", "BULLET::::- A chest tube is also used to drain blood and air from the pleural space. This can take several days. The tube is left in place, and the patient usually stays in the hospital during this time.\n", "Section::::Technical developments.:SvO measurement.\n\nOne further development in recent years has been the invention of a catheter with a fiber-optic based probe which is extended and lodged into the ventricle wall providing instant readings of SvO2 or oxygen saturation of the ventricle tissues. This technique has a finite life as the sensor becomes coated with protein and it can irritate the ventricle via the contact area.\n\nSection::::Technical developments.:Alternatives.\n", "Once the presence of an excess fluid in the pleural cavity, or pleural effusion, is suspected and location of fluid is confirmed, a sample of fluid can be removed for testing. The procedure to remove fluid in the chest is called a diagnostic thoracentesis. The doctor inserts a small needle or a thin, hollow, plastic tube in the chest wall and withdraws fluid.\n\nThoracentesis can be done in the doctor's office or at the hospital. Ultrasound is used to guide the needle to the fluid that is trapped in small pockets around the lungs.\n", "A study published in 2004 showed that in one case, a needle biopsy of a liver tumor resulted in the spread of the cancer along the path of the needle and concluded that needle aspiration was dangerous and unnecessary. The conclusions drawn from this paper were strongly criticized subsequently.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Antibody barcoding, a technique for identifying proteins in small tissue samples such as aspirates\n\nBULLET::::- FNA Mapping, an application for the assessment of male-factor infertility.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The therapies available to manage PPHN include the high frequency ventilation, surfactant instillation, inhaled nitric oxide, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. These expensive and/or invasive modalities are unavailable in the developing countries where the frequency and mortality of PPHN is likely to be much higher. Therefore, oral sildenafil citrate, has been the alternative way of therapy. The cost comparison shows that sildenafil is lower in cost than iNO and more readily available. There is improvement in oxygenation when oral sildenifal is administered according to the studies found in the Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. The positive research results for varies studies indicates that oral sildenifal is a feasible source to improve oxygenation and survival in critical ill infants with PPHN secondary to parenchymal lung disease in centers without access to high-frequency ventilation, iNO, or ECMO.\n", "For this reason, more permanent treatments are usually used to prevent fluid recurrence. Standard treatment involves inserting an indwelling plural catheter and pleurodesis. However, this treatment requires an inpatient stay of approximately 2–7 days, can be painful and has a significant failure rate. This has led to the development of tunneled pleural catheters (e.g., Pleurx Catheters), which allow outpatient treatment of effusions. If an infection due to the catheter occurs, antibiotics are given and the catheter is generally left in.\n", "The ability to record results is not a guarantee of patient survivability. The true art remains with the consultant physician or intensivist in balancing fluid load, so much so that the introduction of a balloon catheter, which is usually yellow, has been nicknamed \"The kiss of the yellow snake\".\n\nSection::::Technical developments.:Pharmacotherapy lumina.\n", "A \"needle cricothyrotomy\" is similar, but instead of making a scalpel incision, a large over-the-needle catheter is inserted (10- to 14-gauge). This is considerably simpler, particularly if using specially designed kits. This technique provides very limited airflow. The delivery of oxygen to the lungs through an over-the-needle catheter inserted through the skin into the trachea using a high pressure gas source is considered a form of conventional ventilation called percutaneous transtracheal ventilation (PTV).\n\nSection::::In popular media.\n", "As with any surgical procedure, there are risks of bleeding and infection. The newly transplanted lung itself may fail to properly heal and function. Because a large portion of the patient's body has been exposed to the outside air, sepsis is a possibility, so antibiotics will be given to try to prevent that. Other complications include Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder, a form of lymphoma due to the immune suppressants, and gastrointestinal inflammation and ulceration of the stomach and esophagus.\n", "BULLET::::- Puncture (also called \"centesis\") followed by aspiration is the main method used for sampling of many types of tissues and body fluids. Examples are thoracocentesis to sample pleural fluid, and amniocentesis to sample amniotic fluid. The main method of centesis, in turn, is fine needle aspiration, but there are also somewhat differently designed needles, such as for bone marrow aspiration. Puncture \"without\" aspiration may suffice in, for example, capillary blood sampling.\n", "The history of organ transplants began with several attempts that were unsuccessful due to transplant rejection. Animal experimentation by various pioneers, including Vladimir Demikhov and Henry Metras, during the 1940s and 1950s, first demonstrated that the procedure was technically feasible. James Hardy of the University of Mississippi performed the first human lung transplant on June 11, 1963. Following a single-lung transplantation, the patient, identified later as convicted murderer John Richard Russell, survived for 18 days. From 1963 to 1978, multiple attempts at lung transplantation failed because of rejection and problems with anastomotic bronchial healing. It was only after the invention of the heart-lung machine, coupled with the development of immunosuppressive drugs such as ciclosporin, that organs such as the lungs could be transplanted with a reasonable chance of patient recovery.\n", "In the United States, catheter-associated urinary tract infection is the most common type of hospital-acquired infection. Indwelling catheters should be avoided when there are alternatives, and when patients and caregivers discuss alternatives to indwelling urinary catheters with their physicians and nurses then sometimes an alternative may be found. Physicians can reduce their use of indwelling urinary catheters when they follow evidence-based guidelines for usage, such as those published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Removal of the fluid, air, or blood from the pleural space\n\nBULLET::::- Treatment of the underlying condition\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Procedures.\n\nIf large amounts of fluid, air, or blood are not removed from the pleural space, they may cause the lung to collapse.\n\nThe surgical procedures used to drain fluid, air, or blood from the pleural space are as follows:\n", "BULLET::::- Has exhausted other available therapies without success\n\nBULLET::::- No other chronic medical conditions (e.g., heart, kidney, liver)\n\nBULLET::::- Some patients with these diseases, if their condition can be made to improve to the point where they are stable enough to survive the operation, are granted an exception- many individuals with end-stage lung disease will have acute or chronic illnesses in other organs);\n", "Once a pleural effusion is diagnosed, its cause must be determined. Pleural fluid is drawn out of the pleural space in a process called thoracentesis, and it should be done in almost all patients who have pleural fluid that is at least 10 mm in thickness on CT, ultrasonography, or lateral decubitus X-ray and that is new or of uncertain etiology. In general, the only patients who do not require thoracentesis are those who have heart failure with symmetric pleural effusions and no chest pain or fever; in these patients, diuresis can be tried, and thoracentesis is avoided unless effusions persist for more than 3 days. In a thoracentesis, a needle is inserted through the back of the chest wall in the sixth, seventh, or eighth intercostal space on the midaxillary line, into the pleural space. The use of ultrasound to guide the procedure is now standard of care as it increases accuracy and decreases complications. After removal, the fluid may then be evaluated for:\n", "Pleurodesis fails in as many as 30% of cases. An alternative is to place a PleurX Pleural Catheter or Aspira Drainage Catheter. This is a 15Fr chest tube with a one-way valve. Each day the patient or care givers connect it to a simple vacuum tube and remove from 600 to 1000 mL of fluid, and can be repeated daily. When not in use, the tube is capped. This allows patients to be outside the hospital. For patients with malignant pleural effusions, it allows them to continue chemotherapy, if indicated. Generally, the tube is in for about 30 days and then it is removed when the space undergoes a spontaneous pleurodesis.\n", "BULLET::::- For biopsies in the breast, ultrasound-guided fine-needle biopsy is the most common. The biopsy is advised.\n\nSection::::Post-operative care and complications.\n\nAs with any surgical procedure, complications are possible, but major complications due to thin-needle aspiration biopsies are fairly uncommon, and when complications do occur, they are generally mild. The kind and severity of complications depend on the organs from which a biopsy is taken or the organs gone through to obtain cells.\n", "BULLET::::- During thoracentesis, a needle or a thin, hollow, plastic tube is inserted through the ribs in the back of the chest into the chest wall. A syringe is attached to draw fluid out of the chest. This procedure can remove more than 6 cups (1.5 litres) of fluid at a time.\n", "Non-invasive ventilation has been used since the 1940s for various indications, but its present-day use for chronic breathing problems arose in the 1980s for people with chronic respiratory muscle weakness, and in the 1990s on intensive care units and other acute care settings for acute respiratory failure.\n", "Inferior vena cava filters should be removed as soon as it becomes safe to start using anticoagulation. Although modern filters are meant to be retrievable, complications may prevent some from being removed. The long-term safety profile of permanently leaving a filter inside the body is not known.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "Treatment requires diuretics (to decrease strain on the heart). Oxygen is often required to resolve the shortness of breath. Additionally, oxygen to the lungs also helps relax the blood vessels and eases right heart failure. When wheezing is present, the majority of individuals require a bronchodilator. A variety of medications have been developed to relax the blood vessels in the lung, calcium channel blockers are used but only work in few cases and according to NICE are not recommended for use at all.\n", "A device, known as the Amplatzer muscular VSD occluder, may be used to close certain VSDs. It was initially approved in 2009. It appears to work well and be safe. The cost is also lower than having open heart surgery. The device is placed through a small incision in the groin.\n", "Section::::Risks.\n\nRisks of catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation include, but are not limited to: stroke, esophageal injury, pulmonary vein stenosis, and death.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04205	Redditors, what's the difference of Best, Top, and Hot?	"Top" has the most up votes. "Best" takes into account the ratio of up to down votes, how quickly they get the votes, etc. "Hot" are those which are getting votes and responses regardless of if it is highly voted overall. "Hot" would tend to include highly controversial comments which the former options may not.	[ "BULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2008 - Gold / Platinum\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2009 - Gold / Platinum\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2010 - Gold / Platinum\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2011 - Gold / Platinum\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2012 - Gold / Platinum\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2013 - Gold / Platinum\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2014 - Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2015 - Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers In Concert 2016 - Platinum\n\nSection::::Work.:Filmography.\n\nBULLET::::- Froger, Joling & Gordon: Over de Toppers - Reality television\n\nBULLET::::- Toppers in de Sneeuw - Reality television\n", "Every issue includes a detailed equipment test, where a panel of users tries a variety of items such as knives, cutting boards or baking sheets. In the case of more expensive pieces of equipment, an overall winner as well as a \"best buy\" are selected. Both types of tests sort their results into four categories: \"Highly Recommended\", \"Recommended\", \"Recommended with Reservations\", and \"Not Recommended\". As with recipes, much space is devoted to explaining the selection and testing process, and any exceptions to the general conclusions.\n", "Section::::Commercial performances.\n", "The Best (PlayStation)\n\nThe Best is a Sony PlayStation budget range in Japan and parts of Asia. Similar budget ranges include Greatest Hits in North America, Essentials in PAL regions and BigHit Series in Korea.\n", "BULLET::::- From 1991 to 1997 (from 1992 to 1997 model years), North American Previas also came with a swivel feature on the optional middle-row captain's chairs; 1990 to 1991 production (1991 model year) had fixed optional captain's chairs.\n\nBULLET::::- Available on Previas outside the U.S., was an ice-maker/refrigerator that doubled as a beverage heater called the Hot/Cool Box.\n", "Section::::Card design.:Artwork and photography.\n", "Crisscrossing America for casting calls in many cities and pouring over auditioning tapes, the producers divided the country into \"Hot Zones\" that included every state. From the thousands who tried only thirty-two people from each zone made the cut. They'll be judged by the three celebrity panel and at the end of each episode, viewers were invited to vote for their favorite male and female participants. The following week, viewers would find out whom America has chosen and repeat the whole process of 32 candidates from \"Hot Zone 2\" and so on until one breathtaking man and one stunning woman are crowned as \"The Sexiest People in America\".\n", "Section::::Baseball.:Food/Retail Sets.:Brigham's-Coca Cola Red Sox.\n", "Section::::Background and material.\n", "Section::::Publication history.\n", "Each five of a kind is ranked by the rank of its quintuplet. For example, ranks higher than .\n\nSection::::Hand-ranking categories.:Straight flush.\n", "Section::::History.:Between the wars.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "From coast to coast, thousands of hopefuls gathered in recent weeks to get the chance to compete for the crown of the sexiest man or woman in America. Talent, personality and strategy are not required, only physical beauty and innate sexiness. Now TV viewers will get their chance to vote on the Hot Zone/Round One participants from each regions as they face a celebrity panel of experts including: Rachel Hunter, Randolph Duke and Lorenzo Lamas.\n", "List of hot sauces\n\nThis is a list of commercial hot sauces. Variations on a company's base product are not necessarily common, and are not always included. Many of these hot sauces are common in North American supermarkets.\n\nScoville heat ratings vary depending on batch. However, many companies do not disclose numeric ratings for their products at all. \"Extra hot\" versions may be advertised as several times hotter than the original, without specifying the heat of the original.\n\nBULLET::::- Some companies do not disclose which peppers are used.\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- Quickfire Challenge: The chefs must create a wedding cake in 90 minutes for legendary wedding cake creator Sylvia Weinstock. Given the time constraints, the contestants are provided with pre-baked sheet cake to construct the cake. However, the contestants are in charge of icing, fillings, decoration, and the final overall taste and appearance of the cake. The winner will receive immunity.\n\nBULLET::::- Top: \"Erika\", \"Heather H.\", \"Morgan\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bottom: \"Eric\", \"Malika\", \"Seth\"\n\nBULLET::::- WINNER: Erika ('Mocha Explosion' Cake with Kahlua Buttercream)\n", "Section::::Comparison to the cowboy position.\n", "BULLET::::- Hot cross bun – spiced sweet bun usually made with fruit but with other varieties such as apple-cinnamon or maple syrup and blueberries and marked with a cross on the top, traditionally eaten on Good Friday in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Canada, but now popular all year round\n\nBULLET::::- Hot dog bun – soft bun shaped specifically to contain a hot dog or frankfurter\n\nI\n\nBULLET::::- Iced bun – bread roll made to a sweet recipe with an icing sugar glaze covering the top\n\nJ\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early years and formation.\n", "Gould lists the six main types of tops as the twirler, supported top, peg-top, whip-top, buzzer, and yo-yo.\n\nBULLET::::- Competing tops\n\nBULLET::::- Battling Tops\n\nBULLET::::- Beigoma\n\nBULLET::::- Beyblade\n\nBULLET::::- Gasing pangkah\n\nBULLET::::- Spin Fighters\n\nBULLET::::- Gaming and other tops\n\nBULLET::::- Dreidel\n\nBULLET::::- Bambaram\n\nBULLET::::- Gyroscope\n\nBULLET::::- Levitating top, based on the interaction between gravitational, electromagnetic and gyroscopic forces (the equilibrium position is hard to find)\n\nBULLET::::- Bhawra, a gaming top used in Maharashtra in India\n\nBULLET::::- Perinola, a six-sided top, very similar to the dreidel, that is used for a similar game in Latin America.\n", "BULLET::::- RAHIL KRISHNAN (born 1998), a Computer Science Topper in India\n\nSection::::In entertainment.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Topper\" (books), a series written by Thorne Smith\n\nBULLET::::- Topper (comic strip), a general term for a small comic strip published above or below another strip\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Topper\" (comics), a British comics periodical\n\nBULLET::::- \"Topper\" (film), a 1937 film based on the novels by Thorne Smith\n\nBULLET::::- \"Topper\" (TV series), a 1950s television series based on the film series\n\nBULLET::::- Topper, a minor character in Charles Dickens's \"A Christmas Carol\"\n\nBULLET::::- Topper, a minor character in the comic strip \"Dilbert\"\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10813	Why is it that when an escalator is not working, no matter how much I tell my brain that it is not moving my first few steps always feel a bit awkward.	It doesn't really matter what you tell your brain. If it's been conditioned to think that escalators always move, whenever you get on one, it tries to compensate by fiddling with your balance. It needs actual experience to tell it that the escalator isn't working, which is why only the first few steps are awkward. After that, you realize that you can just walk normally.	[ "Even though subjects are fully aware that the platform or escalator is not moving now, parts of their brains still act on previous experience gained when it was moving, and so misjudge how to step onto it. Thus, this effect demonstrates the separateness of the declarative and procedural functions of the brain.\n", "Most countries require escalators to have moving handrails that keep pace with the movement of the steps as a safety measure. This helps riders steady themselves, especially when stepping onto the moving stairs. Occasionally a handrail moves at a slightly different speed from the steps, causing it to \"creep\" slowly forward or backward relative to the steps; it is only slippage and normal wear that causes such losses of synchronicity, and is not by design.\n", "Section::::Motor adaptation.\n", "The broken escalator phenomenon is the result of the dissociation between the declarative and procedural functions of the central nervous system. The central nervous system enables us to adapt to the movement of the escalator, however this locomotor adaptation is inappropriately expressed when walking onto a broken escalator. Aware that the escalator will not move, we still modify our gait and posture as if to adapt to movement. This shows a separation between our declarative (or cognitive) system and our procedural (or motor) system – between what we know and what we do.\n", "In the brain, declarative memory processes memories we are consciously aware of, whereas procedural memory processes our movements. The fact that we walk inappropriately fast onto an escalator we know to be broken is evidence of motor adaptation without declarative memory. The motor system operates without cognitive control, leading to the unconscious generation of the after-effect. Subjects in an additional experiment were indeed unable to suppress the after-effect even when consciously and voluntarily attempting to do so.\n\nSection::::Pre-emptive postural response.\n", "The after-effect consists of an inappropriate expression of this method. In the AFTER trials, instead of walking onto the stationary sled the same way they did for the BEFORE trials, subjects adopted a similar method to the MOVING trials. This resulted in them walking inappropriately fast and excessively swaying their torso when stepping onto the sled, leading to a sensation of dizziness. Similarly, when walking onto the broken escalator, people adopt the same method that they use for a moving escalator, therefore almost failing to keep their balance.\n\nSection::::Dissociation between the cognitive and motor systems.\n", "Indeed, as well as the distinction between the motor and cognitive systems, another factor leading to the after-effect has been argued to be fear-related mechanisms. The fear of falling if somehow the elevator moved could be enough to adopt a precautionary behaviour despite knowledge that it is broken. Fear-related mechanisms are indeed known to be impervious to cognitive control.\n", "Broken escalator phenomenon\n\nThe broken escalator phenomenon, also known as the Walker effect, is the sensation of losing balance or dizziness reported by some people when stepping onto an escalator which is not working. It is said that there is a brief, odd sensation of imbalance, despite full awareness that the escalator is not going to move.\n\nIt has been shown that this effect causes people to step inappropriately fast onto a moving platform that is no longer moving, even when this is obvious to the participant.\n", "Design factors include physical requirements, location, traffic patterns, safety considerations and aesthetics. Physical factors such as the distance to be spanned determine the length and pitch of the escalator, while factors such as the infrastructure's ability to provide support and power must be considered. How upward and downward traffic is separated and load/unload areas are other important considerations.\n", "Bronstein et al. remarked in 2013 that signs of the after-effect could be measured before foot-sled contact, suggesting that the after-effect is what they labelled a 'pre-emptive postural response'.\n", "The after-effect is pre-emptive in that it anticipates a threat to balance rather than being triggered by one. Postural control is usually generated by an external threat, for example a slippery surface will lead to a more cautionary gait, but in this case the postural adaptation is an aversive, 'just in case' strategy. When stepping onto the broken escalator, the person will anticipate its movement, just to make sure they would not fall if the escalator were to move. The person undertakes a 'worst case scenario' which seems the most strategic option: preparing for the platform to move even though it won't is better than the opposite.\n", "BULLET::::- On July 9, 2018 a one year old Otis escalator at Stockholm City Station changed direction from up to a rapid descent, in what local officials called a \"free fall\", causing minor injuries. Inspection of the gear boxes of several Otis escalators revealed unexpected rust and heavy wear. This led to the newly-built train stations Stockholm City Station and Stockholm Odenplan being temporarily closed for security reasons, on July 13, 2018 until the problems have been understood and resolved. The temporary outage has been extended to the third quarter of 2019.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Legal issues.\n", "In certain high-traffic systems, including the East Japan Railway Company and the Prague metro, escalator users are encouraged to stand on whichever side they choose, with the aim of preventing wear and tear and asymmetrical burdening. All Tokyo metro stations also have posters next to the escalators that ask users not to walk but instead to stand on either side.\n\nThe practice of standing on one side and walking on the other may cause uneven wear on escalator mechanisms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Central–Mid-Levels escalator and walkway system\n\nBULLET::::- Elevator\n\nBULLET::::- Funicular\n\nBULLET::::- Moving walkway\n\nBULLET::::- People mover\n", "However, another experiment demonstrated that the aftereffect was not as intense when subjects walked onto the stationary sled with the opposite leg of the one they'd stepped with in the MOVING trials. If the after-effect was generated by a fear that the platform would move, it would be triggered whenever and however the subject stepped onto it. This therefore suggests that the after-effect is mainly generated by procedural memory, which is most intense when the conditions of the adaptation phase are perfectly replicated.\n\nSection::::'Braking' the after-effect.\n", "The direction of escalator movement (up or down) can be permanently set, controlled manually depending on the predominant flow of the crowd, or controlled automatically. In some setups, the direction is controlled by whoever arrives first.\n\nSection::::Design, components, and operation.:Design and layout considerations.\n", "The after-effect was found to be a direct consequence of motor adaptation. When facing an external threat to our balance, our central nervous system will trigger neural processes in order to stabilise our posture. In this case, when walking onto a moving platform – such as a moving escalator – people will adopt methods to prevent a backwards fall. In the MOVING trials of the experiment, these methods consist of a forward sway of the torso, increased gait velocity and increased leg EMG activity. Thus, when we step onto a moving escalator, we alter our posture and gait in order to stabilise ourselves against this external threat to our balance.\n", "In 2017, the mall experienced two escalator incidents. The first occurred in January when part of the escalator collapsed after a couple with a baby in a stoller stepped off the escalator. The second occurred in August when a four-year-old girl got injured when her foot got trapped in the steps.\n\nIn 2018, White Sands became one of 6 shopping malls in the country to accept UnionPay QR code payments in a move towards Singapore's goal of becoming a cashless society.\n", "Bronstein and Reynolds' initial experiment attempted to reproduce the conditions of the broken escalator phenomenon by asking subjects to walk onto a stationary sled (BEFORE trials), then walk onto it while it was moving (MOVING trials), and finally once again while it was stationary (AFTER trials). Subjects all experienced an after-effect when walking onto the stationary sled in the AFTER trials, characterised by a forward sway of the torso, increased walking speed and increased muscular leg activity (measured with EMG) compared to the BEFORE condition. All subjects expressed surprise at their behaviour and compared the experience to that of walking onto an out-of-order escalator.\n", "Safety is a major concern in escalator design, as escalators are powerful machines that can become entangled with clothing and other items. Such entanglements can injure or kill riders. In India many women wear saris, increasing the likelihood of entangling the clothing's loose end (\"pallu)\". To prevent this, sari guards are built into most escalators in India.\n\nChildren wearing footwear such as Crocs and flip-flops are especially at risk of being caught in escalator mechanisms. The softness of the shoe's material combined with the smaller size of children's feet makes this sort of accident especially common.\n", "For such a case, all escalators are equipped with additional emergency brakes, and Aviamotornaya's escalators had received completely new models three months prior. Moreover, two days before the accident, there had been a routine safety check, which found that the emergency brakes were incorrectly configured throughout; after necessary amendments, a simulation deemed all of the four escalators' emergency brakes to be satisfactory.\n", "Often, in these jobs when men are hired they are fast tracked to higher positions in roles of administration and leadership. This happens even when the men had little intention of wanting these roles when applying and interviewing for their job. Christine L. Williams suggests that \"As if on a moving escalator, they must work to stay in place,\" suggesting that their ascent into leadership roles will be effortless and inevitable. In addition to it being inevitable, they are often pressured to take on these roles. It is suggested that this is because characteristics associated with men and masculinity are viewed as more desirable than feminine characteristics associated with womanhood.\n", "In May 2017, all three escalators in Entrance 1 were damaged by sprinklers activated by faulty sensors, causing the entire entrance to be temporarily closed.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "External threats to our balance are dealt with by the vestibular system. However, a 2008 experiment showed that the intensity of the after-effect in subjects lacking a vestibular function (labyrinthine defective subjects) was not superior to normal subjects, suggesting that the vestibular system is not responsible for 'braking' the aftereffect. Instead, in the first AFTER trial (when the after-effect is the strongest) an increase in leg EMG activity is observed for all subjects. This increase is generated unconsciously and before foot-sled contact. The 'braking' of the after-effect is therefore an anticipatory process, rather than being triggered by an external threat: the central nervous system anticipates that the after-effect will occur and that it will threaten our balance, and generates mechanisms to deal with the threat. When stepping onto a stationary escalator, anticipatory motor mechanisms prevent us from falling by attenuating the after-effect.\n", "Section::::Design, components, and operation.:Components.:Steps.\n", "Some fans attempted to escape by utilizing the median to either slide down, or get to the other escalator. After the escalator was stopped, a photo was released of the escalator stairs crumpled at the bottom, exposing jagged and exposed metal plates.\n\nSection::::Victims.\n\nSeven people were reported to have been seriously injured, with varying accounts of the total amount of injured. Some of the injured were trapped between the metal plates of the steps at the bottom of the escalator.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02666	If the densest element a star can form is iron, then where do other denser elements come from?	Iron is the densest element a star can form through fusion. Fortunately, that's not all stars do. At the end of their lives they blow up, and that generates all the heavier elements as it distributes everything else into space.	[ "In general, elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovae. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with increasing atomic number.\n\nSection::::Universe.:Solar system.\n", "The presence of heavier elements hails from stellar nucleosynthesis, the theory that the majority of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in the Universe (\"metals\", hereafter) are formed in the cores of stars as they evolve. Over time, stellar winds and supernovae deposit the metals into the surrounding environment, enriching the interstellar medium and providing recycling materials for the birth of new stars. It follows that older generations of stars, which formed in the metal-poor early Universe, generally have lower metallicities than those of younger generations, which formed in a more metal-rich Universe.\n", "Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the \"heavier elements\" (carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater atomic number) that we see today, were created inside stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process. Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star.\n", "These other elements are generated by stellar processes. In astronomy, a \"metal\" is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This distinction is significant because hydrogen and helium are the only elements that were produced in significant quantities in the Big Bang. Thus, the metallicity of a galaxy or other object is an indication of stellar activity, after the Big Bang.\n", "Section::::Formation, abundance, occurrence, and extraction.\n\nHeavy metals up to the vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis. In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers.\n", "The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.\n", "One force capable of confining the fuel well enough to satisfy the Lawson criterion is gravity. The mass needed, however, is so great that gravitational confinement is only found in stars—the least massive stars capable of sustained fusion are red dwarfs, while brown dwarfs are able to fuse deuterium and lithium if they are of sufficient mass. In stars heavy enough, after the supply of hydrogen is exhausted in their cores, their cores (or a shell around the core) start fusing helium to carbon. In the most massive stars (at least 8–11 solar masses), the process is continued until some of their energy is produced by fusing lighter elements to iron. As iron has one of the highest binding energies, reactions producing heavier elements are generally endothermic. Therefore significant amounts of heavier elements are not formed during stable periods of massive star evolution, but are formed in supernova explosions. Some lighter stars also form these elements in the outer parts of the stars over long periods of time, by absorbing energy from fusion in the inside of the star, by absorbing neutrons that are emitted from the fusion process.\n", "For elements lighter than iron on the periodic table, nuclear fusion releases energy. For iron, and for all of the heavier elements, nuclear fusion consumes energy. Chemical elements up to the iron peak are produced in ordinary stellar nucleosynthesis, with the alpha elements being particular abundant. Some heavier elements are produced by less efficient processes such as the r-process and s-process. Elements with atomic numbers close to iron are produced in large quantities in supernova due to explosive oxygen and silicon fusion, followed by radioactive decay of nuclei such as Nickel-56. On average, heavier elements are less abundant in the universe, but some of those near iron are comparatively more abundant than would be expected from this trend.\n", "The explanation for this relative abundance can be found in the process of nucleosynthesis in certain stars, specifically those of about 8–11 Solar masses. At the end of their lives, once other fuels have been exhausted, such stars can under a brief phase of \"silicon burning\". This involves the sequential addition of helium nuclei (an \"alpha process\") to the heavier elements present in the star, starting from :\n", "The space between the stars in M87 is filled with a diffuse interstellar medium of gas that has been chemically enriched by the elements ejected from stars as they passed beyond their main sequence lifetime. Carbon and nitrogen are continuously supplied by stars of intermediate mass as they pass through the asymptotic giant branch. The heavier elements from oxygen to iron are produced largely by supernova explosions within the galaxy. Of the heavy elements, about 60% were produced by core-collapse supernovae, while the remainder came from type Ia supernovae. The distribution of oxygen is roughly uniform throughout, at about half of the solar value (i.e., oxygen abundance in the Sun), while iron distribution peaks near the center where it approaches the solar iron value. Since oxygen is produced mainly by core-collapse supernovae, which occur during the early stages of galaxies and mostly in outer star-forming regions, the distribution of these elements suggests an early enrichment of the interstellar medium from core-collapse supernovae and a continuous contribution from Type Ia supernovae throughout the history of M87. The contribution of elements from these sources was much lower than in the Milky Way.\n", "The sparseness of interstellar and interplanetary space results in some unusual chemistry, since symmetry-forbidden reactions cannot occur except on the longest of timescales. For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on Earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the H ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with astrophysics and nuclear physics in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, the consequences for stellar evolution, as well as stellar 'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions in stars produce every naturally occurring chemical element. As the stellar 'generations' advance, the mass of the newly formed elements increases. A first-generation star uses elemental hydrogen (H) as a fuel source and produces helium (He). Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and it is the basic building block for all other elements as its nucleus has only one proton. Gravitational pull toward the center of a star creates massive amounts of heat and pressure, which cause nuclear fusion. Through this process of merging nuclear mass, heavier elements are formed. Carbon, oxygen and silicon are examples of elements that form in stellar fusion. After many stellar generations, very heavy elements are formed (e.g. iron and lead).\n", "Iron's abundance in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production by fusion in high-mass stars, where it is the last element to be produced with release of energy before the violent collapse of a supernova, which scatters the iron into space.\n\nSection::::Origin and occurrence in nature.:Metallic iron.\n", "Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up roughly 74% and 24% of all baryonic matter in the universe respectively. Despite comprising only a very small fraction of the universe, the remaining \"heavy elements\" can greatly influence astronomical phenomena. Only about 2% (by mass) of the Milky Way galaxy's disk is composed of heavy elements.\n", "The pattern of elemental abundance is mainly due to two factors. The hydrogen, helium, and some of the lithium were formed in about 20 minutes after the Big Bang, while the rest were created in the interiors of stars.\n\nSection::::Abundance of elements.:Meteorites.\n", "If nuclei are forced to collide, they can undergo nuclear fusion. This process may release or absorb energy. When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed. This process of fusion occurs in stars, which derive their energy from hydrogen and helium. They form, through stellar nucleosynthesis, the light elements (lithium to calcium) as well as some of the heavy elements (beyond iron and nickel, via the S-process). The remaining abundance of heavy elements, from nickel to uranium and beyond, is due to supernova nucleosynthesis, the R-process.\n", "The sparseness of interstellar and interplanetary space results in some unusual chemistry, since symmetry-forbidden reactions cannot occur except on the longest of timescales. For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the H ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with astrophysics and nuclear physics in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, the consequences for stellar evolution, as well as stellar 'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions in stars produce every naturally occurring chemical element. As the stellar 'generations' advance, the mass of the newly formed elements increases. A first-generation star uses elemental hydrogen (H) as a fuel source and produces helium (He). Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and it is the basic building block for all other elements as its nucleus has only one proton. Gravitational pull toward the center of a star creates massive amounts of heat and pressure, which cause nuclear fusion. Through this process of merging nuclear mass, heavier elements are formed. Lithium, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are examples of elements that form in stellar fusion. After many stellar generations, very heavy elements are formed (e.g. iron and lead).\n", "Section::::Universe.\n", "Stars fuse light elements to heavier ones in their cores, giving off energy in the process known as stellar nucleosynthesis. Fusion processes create many of the lighter elements, up to and including iron and nickel in the most massive stars although these mostly remain trapped in stellar cores and remnants. The s-process creates heavy elements, from strontium upwards.\n\nSupernova nucleosynthesis within exploding stars is largely responsible for the elements between oxygen and rubidium: from the ejection of elements produced during stellar nucleosynthesis; through explosive nucleosynthesis during the supernova explosion; and from the r-process (absorption of multiple neutrons) during the explosion.\n", "Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. Since physical laws and processes are uniform throughout the universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements.\n", "Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the nuclear binding energy curve. Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the Big Bang, and during the development of the universe thereafter.\n\nSee the article about nucleosynthesis for the explanation on how certain nuclear fusion processes in stars (such as carbon burning, etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.\n", "The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus rarer than heavier elements. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements as supernova remnants far into space, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed.\n", "The primary source of solar energy, and similar size stars, is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (the proton-proton chain reaction), which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two positrons and two neutrinos (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. In heavier stars, the CNO cycle and other processes are more important. As a star uses up a substantial fraction of its hydrogen, it begins to synthesize heavier elements. The heaviest elements are synthesized by fusion that occurs as a more massive star undergoes a violent supernova at the end of its life, a process known as supernova nucleosynthesis.\n", "Natural transmutation by stellar nucleosynthesis in the past created most of the heavier chemical elements in the known existing universe, and continues to take place to this day, creating the vast majority of the most common elements in the universe, including helium, oxygen and carbon. Most stars carry out transmutation through fusion reactions involving hydrogen and helium, while much larger stars are also capable of fusing heavier elements up to iron late in their evolution.\n", "The following graph (note log scale) shows the abundance of elements in our Solar System. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, scientist expect that these galaxies evolved elements in similar abundance.\n", "Stars evolve because of changes in their composition (the abundance of their constituent elements) over their lifespans, first by burning hydrogen (main sequence star), then helium (red giant star), and progressively burning higher elements. However, this does not by itself significantly alter the abundances of elements in the universe as the elements are contained within the star. Later in its life, a low-mass star will slowly eject its atmosphere via stellar wind, forming a planetary nebula, while a higher–mass star will eject mass via a sudden catastrophic event called a supernova. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to describe the creation of elements during the explosion of a massive star or white dwarf.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The densest element a star can form is iron." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "When stars blow up, they generate all the heavier elements." ]
2018-03446	Why, for some stereo speakers, does one stereo cut out before the other one when adjusting the volume to a very low setting?	Because the device is probably using a stereo potentiometer. One of the quality differences between cheap and non-cheap multi-channel potentiometers is how accurate the tracking is on the two channels.	[ "In case (a), above, the usual situation is that the derived low pass response attenuates at a much slower rate than the fixed response. This requires the speaker to which it is directed to continue to respond to signals deep into the stopband where its physical characteristics may not be ideal. In the case of (b), above, both speakers are required to operate at higher volume levels as the signal nears the crossover points. This uses more amplifier power and may drive the speaker cones into non-linearity.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Models and Simulation.\n", "As a result, the faders (potentiometers that operate by sliding up or down) or volume controls (rotary potentiometers) on the mixing board or audio processor gradually \"creep\" toward the maximum volume setting, which reduces the ability to manipulate the relative volumes between channels. It can also result in clipping or distortion of the master mix, which is when the overall volume of sound is too great for the equipment or recording medium intended to hold it.\n\nSection::::Multi track problems with creep.\n", "In traditional SET amp, the direct current of output triode (from 30 mA for triode-strapped 6V6 to 250 mA for 6C33C) flows continuously through the primary winding of a transformer. This requires inserting a gap in the transformer core to prevent core saturation by DC current; adding a gap decreases primary inductance and limits bass response; the inductance and bass response can be restored by using a larger transformer than if the DC were not present.\n", "A single signal can pass through a large number of level controls, e.g. individual channel fader, subgroup master fader, master fader and monitor volume control. According to audio engineer Tomlinson Holman, problems are created due to the multiplicity of the controls. Each and every console has their own dynamic range and it is important to utilize the controls correctly to avoid excessive noise or distortions.\n\nSection::::Multiple level controls in signal path.:Processes that affect levels.\n", "A compressor in \"stereo linking\" mode applies the same amount of gain reduction to both the left and right channels. This is done to prevent image shifting that can occur if each channel is compressed individually. This becomes particularly noticeable when a loud element that is panned to either edge of the stereo field raises the level of the program to the compressor's threshold, causing its image to shift toward the center of the stereo field.\n", "Note: the chosen M6/M3 metering standard does not affect the relative audible balance of sounds panned to one side versus the centre – that is determined solely by the panning law of the mixing console’s pan-pot.\n\nThe M6 standard is deemed a simpler form of metering for untrained broadcasters to use as it keeps the M meter at '4' for Alignment Level and '6' for peaks, without the operator having to remember to subtract 3 dB.\n", "If digital components are being used, latency must be taken into account. If the normal analog method is used for a digital compressor, the signals traveling through the parallel pathways will arrive at the summing mixer at slightly different times, creating unpleasant comb-filtering and phasing effects. The digital compressor pathway takes a little more time to process the sound—on the order of 0.3 to 3 milliseconds longer. Instead, the two pathways must both have the same number of processing stages: the \"straight\" pathway is assigned a compression stage which is \"not\" given an aggressively high ratio. In this case, the two signals both go through compression stages, and both pathways are delayed the same amount of time, but one is set to do no dynamic range compression, or to do very little, and the other is set for high amounts of gain reduction.\n", "Section::::Types.:Single source, multiple zone.\n\nSeparate volume controls are usually installed in each room or zone to compensate for differences in apparent volume due to room size and shape. Here especially, impedance-matching volume controls can be used to protect the amplifier from overload. This system design is otherwise the same as a single source, single zone in that all zones must listen to the same audio source, though volume control is independent in each room (and audio can be turned off in rooms, as desired).\n\nSection::::Types.:Multiple source, multiple zone.\n", "Section::::Lobe tilting.\n", "Such steep-slope filters have greater problems with overshoot and ringing but there are several key advantages, even in their passive form, such as the potential for a lower crossover point and increased power handling for tweeters, together with less overlap between drivers, dramatically reducing lobing, or other unwelcome off-axis effects. With less overlap between adjacent drivers, their location relative to each other becomes less critical and allows more latitude in speaker system cosmetics or (in car audio) practical installation constraints.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Classification based on filter order or slope.:Higher order.\n", "Many older LEDE (\"live end, dead end\") control room designs featured so-called \"Haas kickers\" – reflective panels placed at the rear to create specular reflections which were thought to provide a wider stereo listening area or raise intelligibility. However, what is beneficial for one type of sound is detrimental to others, so Haas kickers, like compression ceilings, are no longer commonly found in control rooms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Binaural fusion\n\nBULLET::::- Franssen effect\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Floyd Toole \"Sound Reproduction\", Focal Press (July 25, 2008), Chapter 6\n", "The second type of S-curve is more apt for longer cross-fades, since they are smooth and have the ability to have both of the crossfades in the overall level; so that they are audible for as long as possible. There is a short period at the start of each of the cross-fades where the outgoing sound drops toward 50% quickly (with the incoming sound rising just as fast to 50%). This acceleration of sound slows and both sounds will appear as if they are at the same level for most of the cross-fade (in the middle) before the changeover happens. \n", "Section::::Avoiding clipping.\n\nThe simplest way to avoid clipping is to reduce the signal level. Alternatively the system can be improved to support higher signal level without clipping. A limiter can be used to dynamically bring the levels of the loud parts of a signal down (for example, bass and snare drums).\n", "Some applications use a compressor to reduce the dynamic range of a signal for transmission, expanding it afterward. This reduces the effects of a channel with limited dynamic range. See \"Companding\".\n\nBass amplifiers and keyboard amplifiers often include compression circuitry to prevent sudden high-wattage peaks that could damage the speakers. Electric bass players often use compression effects, either effects units available in pedal, rackmount units, or built-in devices in bass amps, to even out the sound levels of their basslines.\n", "Cherry conducted attention experiments in which participants listened to two different messages from a single loudspeaker at the same time and tried to separate them; this was later termed a dichotic listening task. His work reveals that the ability to separate sounds from background noise is affected by many variables, such as the sex of the speaker, the direction from which the sound is coming, the pitch, and the rate of speech.\n", "Most audio crossovers use first to fourth order electrical filters. Higher orders are not generally implemented in passive crossovers for loudspeakers, but are sometimes found in electronic equipment under circumstances for which their considerable cost and complexity can be justified.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Classification based on filter order or slope.:First order.\n", "Section::::Patching.:Soft patch.\n\nMost modern fixed installations do not have patch bays, instead they have a dimmer-per-circuit and patch dimmers into channels using a computerised control consoles Soft Patch.\n\nSection::::Dimming curves.\n", "Recently, a number of manufacturers have begun using what is often called \"N.5-way\" crossover techniques for stereo loudspeaker crossovers. This usually indicates the addition of a second woofer that plays the same bass range as the main woofer but rolls off far before the main woofer does.\n\n\"Remark: Filter sections mentioned here is not to be confused with the individual 2-pole filter sections that a higher order filter consists of.\"\n\nSection::::Classification.:Classification based on components.\n\nCrossovers can also be classified based on the type of components used.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Classification based on components.:Passive.\n", "Stereo linking can be achieved in two ways: The compressor uses the sum of the left and right inputs to produce a single measurement that drives the compressor; or, the compressor calculates the required amount of gain reduction independently for each channel and then applies the highest amount of gain reduction to both (in such case it could still make sense to dial different settings on left and right channels as one might wish to have less compression for left-side events).\n\nSection::::Controls and features.:Make-up gain.\n", "Consumer electronic devices concerned with audio (for example sound cards) often have a connector labeled \"line in\" and/or \"line out\". \"Line out\" provides an audio signal output and \"line in\" receives a signal input. The line in/out connections on consumer-oriented audio equipment are typically unbalanced, with a (0.14 inch, but commonly called \"eighth inch\") 3-conductor TRS minijack connector providing ground, left channel, and right channel, or stereo RCA jacks. Professional equipment commonly uses balanced connections on (1/4 inch) TRS phone jacks or XLR connectors. Professional equipment may also use unbalanced connections with (1/4 inch) TS phone jacks.\n\nSection::::Nominal levels.\n", "To augment the company's standalone phono preamplifiers, standalone line stage preamplifiers were introduced next, known as Linear Control Centers or LCC. One of the innovative features of the LCC was a bypass switch that permitted the user to select the use of an internal amplification module or straight into the potentiometer for volume control. Originally labeled 0dB (line stage in) or -20dB (passive only) this feature remained with all future PS Audio line stages and preamplifiers, later becoming labeled Straightwire in or out. \n", "One convention that avoided this brief shorting in the professional audio world was to use the following convention for XLR and PJ-051/WE-310 patch bays, so that, \"By making the tip of the jack the low side of the line, the high side is physically protected against momentary shorts when patching in and out of the jackfield.\":\n", "BULLET::::- Turn off the first note sounded and use the newly freed oscillator to play the new note. With last note priority, priority is based on the order in which keys are played. When new notes are triggered while all voices are playing, the synthesizer frees up polyphony by ending the earliest played sounding note. This is the default mode on most synthesizers.\n", "Section::::Linear noise source.\n", "There are separate volume knobs for channels A and B (i.e. the two patches in a split or layer). The footswitch can be programmed to momentarily change patches, or change one of several patch parameters: filter cutoff frequency, ADSR envelope amount or attack; VCA decay or release; voice volume (the momentary value of any of the preceding being user-defined); chorus on/off, or portamento on/off. The parameter value knob can be used to alter one parameter in real-time, although the value will \"jump\" to the knob's current setting as soon as it is moved and some parameters stairstep badly when treated this way. The pitch-bend wheel is not spring-loaded and is centre-detented. Oscillator tuning can be initiated from the front panel, with this process taking about twenty seconds. During tuning, the instrument is silenced.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17624	How are the EU 'banning memes', and why?	Literally they're not, but new anti-piracy proposals that force websites to better curate material that breaches copyright could force the removal of meme images based on copyrighted things such as stock photos. Arguably the cc licence allows people free use of material for the purpose of satire under which memes may be protected.	[ "Experts expect that the short and rigid deletion periods and the high threat of fines would lead the networks to prefer to remove contributions in case of doubt, even if the freedom of expression guaranteed by fundamental rights would require a context-related consideration, for example in the differentiation between prohibited insult and permitted satire. In April 2017, an alliance of business associations, network politicians, civil rights activists, scientists and lawyers joined forces to protest against the law. In a manifesto they warned of \"catastrophic consequences for freedom of expression\".\n", "Several European websites, including the European versions of Wikipedia, Twitch.tv, and Reddit, disabled some or many of the features on their websites on 21 March 2019 as a means to protest and raise awareness of the pending vote and encourage users to contact their appropriate national body to affect the vote. This was similar to action taken on 18 January 2012 by numerous websites to protest similar laws proposed in the United States.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Lobbying.\n", "Purpose and character of use weighs in against memes which have been used for commercial purposes because then the work has not been created for the communication of humour but for economic gain. For example, Grumpy Cat won $710,001 in a copyright lawsuit against the beverage company Grenade which used the Grumpy Cat image on its roasted coffee line and t-shirts.\n", "Lobbying in favour of the proposed directive was directed toward the EU itself and was much less visible to the public. The large media groups and publishers have had much greater contact between their lobbyists and MEPs than the technology industry. Stunts pulled by those lobbying in favour include sending MEPs pamphlets with condoms attached with the phrase “We love tech giants, we love protection too”.\n", "Some commentators stated years of intense lobbying served to \"crowd out other voices and successfully distort the public debate\", and that \"toxic\" discussions were harming \"healthy dialogue\". Those in support of the directive, however, carried out negotiations without public oversight. And when the general public became involved in discussing the directive online the EU commission referred to them as a \"mob\".\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Voting issues.\n", "The purpose of copying factors in the purpose of the meme compared to the purpose of the original work. Under Section 52(1)(a) the purpose is restricted to criticism or review. A meme, as long as it is a parody or a criticism of the original work would be protected under the exception but once an element of commercialisation comes in, they would no longer be exempted and because the purpose no longer falls under the those mentioned in the section . When the Indian comedic group, All India Bakchod (AIB) parodied Game of Thrones through a series of memes, the primary purpose was to advertise products of companies that have endorsed the group and it would not be fair dealing.\n", "On the effective date, some international websites began to block EU users entirely (including Instapaper, Unroll.me, and Tribune Publishing-owned newspapers, such as the \"Chicago Tribune\" and the \"Los Angeles Times\") or redirect them to stripped-down versions of their services (in the case of National Public Radio and \"USA Today\") with limited functionality and/or no advertising, in order to remove their liabilities. Some companies, such as Klout, and several online video games, ceased operations entirely to coincide with its implementation, citing the GDPR as a burden on their continued operations, especially due to the business model of the former. Sales volume of online behavioural advertising placements in Europe fell 25–40% on 25 May 2018.\n", "It has been rumoured that during the European Council's private vote to approve its negotiating position in March 2018 the ambassadors of Germany, Finland, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Belgium and Hungary either abstained from voting or voted against the proposal. However, MEPs of each of those countries' governing parties went on to largely or wholly support the directive in parliament.\n", "The European Parliament claimed that \"MEPs have rarely or even never been subject to a similar degree of lobbying\", and that there have been prior \"lobbying campaigns predicting catastrophic outcomes, which have never come true\". \"The Times\" reported that \"Google is helping to fund a website that encourages people to spam politicians and newspapers with automated messages backing its policy goals\". MEP Sven Schulze stated that he believed Google to be behind the email campaign because many of the emails came from Gmail addresses.\n", "Smaller prior EU-wide events occurred in August 2018 and January 2019. Organisers did not release their own figures, but supporters of the proposals based on photos from the August events estimated that there had been at most 800 participants across the continent, with an average of 30 per location.\n", "Freedom to communicate commercially is a part of freedom of speech. It is often claimed that consumers must be protected through regulation on advertising for food, alcohol, medicines, toys, cars, etc.; bans and restrictions on the advertising of everyday products that every consumer can access freely in the EU will not be accepted by publishers.\n\nSection::::Relevant EU Policy Initiatives.:Applicable law.\n\nPublishers require legal certainty, as regards defamation and private rights issues, in an age of more cross-border sales and the global nature of the internet. Country of origin is the only solution.\n\nSection::::Relevant EU Policy Initiatives.:Freedom of expression.\n", "Under Section 2(c) of the Indian Copyright Act, 1957, a meme could be classified as an 'artistic work' which states that an artistic work includes painting, sculpture, drawing (including a diagram, map, chart or plan), an engraving or a photograph, whether or not any such work possesses artistic quality. The section uses the phrase \"\"whether or not possessing artistic quality\"\", the memes that are rage comics or those such as Keyboard Cat would enjoy protection as they are original creations in the form a painting, drawing, photograph or short video clip, despite not having artistic quality. Memes that made from cinematograph still or photographs, the original image in the background for the meme would also be protected as the picture or the still from the series/movie is an 'artistic work'. These meme are a modification of that already existing artistic work with some little amount of creativity and therefore, they would also enjoy copyright protection.\n", "For the meme to successfully claim protection, it would have to show that it is original work of the author and has a modest amount of creativity, since the United States has a low threshold for what constitutes creativity. Memes are comments about the popular culture or social ideas and therefore the use of the text would have some amount of creativity.\n", "In March 2015, Portuguese ISP's were ordered to block The Pirate Bay and many of its proxies by a court order, following the European trend, after a lawsuit brought by the Association for Copyright Management, Producers and Publishers (GEDIPE). This is the first time websites were blocked by ISP's in Portugal.\n\nSince July 2015 MAPiNET, the Civic Movement to Combat Piracy on the Internet, has blocked hundreds of websites for copyright infringement.\n", "As of 21 March 2019, 100 MEPs have signed in support of the directive, while 126 have agreed to vote against it. On 20 March 2019 74 MEPs asked for Article 13 to be deleted from the directive. In the end, 348 voted for and 274 voted against.\n", "The main legal action, that of EURid seeking the registrar agreements between EURid and the registrars in question to be dissolved has still to be heard.\n\nSection::::History.:Brexit.\n", "Despite the statutory tort that is created by the Regulations implementing the EC Directive, few other people have followed their example. As the Courts engage in active case management, such cases would probably now be expected to be settled by mediation and payment of nominal damages.\n\nSection::::Court cases.:New Zealand.\n", "Starting from Wednesday 1 October 2014, the new EU law becomes effective in the United Kingdom. There is an amendment to the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. It is now legal for people to use “limited amount” of copyrighted material in online video for the purposes of “parody, caricature or pastiche” without the consent of the copyright holder, only if their work do not convey a discriminatory message, or compete with the original. A judge will decide whether the video is funny enough to classify as a parody and if it violates the law.\n", "Members of the European Parliament voted on 5 July 2018 not to proceed to the negotiation stage, but instead to reopen the directive for debate in September 2018. There were 318 votes to re-open the debate, 278 to proceed, and 31 abstentions.\n", "In Africa, at least four member states decriminalized defamation between 2012 and 2017. The ruling by the African Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights in Lohé Issa Konaté v. the Republic of Burkina Faso set a precedent in the region against imprisonment as a legitimate penalty for defamation, characterizing it as a violation of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the treaty of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).\n", "If it is found that the meme has made use of a copyrighted work, such as the movie still or photograph without due permission from the original owner, it would amount to copyright infringement. Rage comics and memes created for the sole purpose of becoming memes would normally be original works of the creator and therefore, the question of infringing other copyright work does not arise. This does not mean that all memes made from movie still or photographs are infringing copyright. There are defences available for such use in various jurisdictions which could exempt the meme from attracting liability for the infringement.\n", "Digital media pose several challenges to the current copyright and intellectual property laws. The ease of creating, modifying and sharing digital media makes copyright enforcement a challenge, and copyright laws are widely seen as outdated. For example, under current copyright law, common Internet memes are probably illegal to share in many countries. Legal rights are at least unclear for many common Internet activities, such as posting a picture that belongs to someone else to a social media account, covering a popular song on a YouTube video, or writing fanfiction. Over the last decade the concept of fair use has been applied to many online medias.\n", "A group of ninemajor European press publishers including Agence France-Presse, the Press Association, and the European Alliance of News Agencies issued a letter supporting the proposal, describing it as \"key for the media industry, the consumer’s future access to news, and ultimately a healthy democracy\". In the letter, they cite existing state support for struggling news media and argue that it should instead be provided by the \"internet giants\" which have been \"siphoning off\" advertising revenue.\n", "The Italian Wikipedia, later followed by others including the Spanish, Estonian, Latvian, Polish, French, and Portuguese editions, \"blacked-out\" its pages for readers on 3–5 July 2018, while the English Wikipedia added a banner asking readers in Europe to contact their representatives in the European Parliament. The Wikimedia Foundation reiterated its concerns in February 2019. Four editions of Wikipedia—German, Danish, Czech and Slovak—were blacked-out for 24 hours on 21 March 2019 to further protest the directive. Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales raised concerns regarding the costs and effectiveness of upload filters and possible negative effects upon free speech online.\n\nSection::::Positions.:Technology companies.\n", "As of July 2009, 168 banned events are pending consideration in seven different cases at the European Court.\n\nOn 14 February 2009, activists from Project Gayrussia.ru and Project gaybelarus.by joined with activists from local LGBT group TaPaGeS and organised a protest in the centre of Strasbourg asking the European Court to speed up the consideration of their complaints, the oldest being sent in January 2007.\n" ]	[ "The EU is banning memes.", "The EU is banning internet memes." ]	[ "The EU is not banning memes, but new anti-piracy proposals may force websites to remove images that breach copyright.", "The EU is not banning memes but new anti-piracy proposals might force websites to remove memes that contain copyrighted material." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The EU is banning memes.", "The EU is banning internet memes." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The EU is not banning memes, but new anti-piracy proposals may force websites to remove images that breach copyright.", "The EU is not banning memes but new anti-piracy proposals might force websites to remove memes that contain copyrighted material." ]
2018-01421	Why are you able to leg-press or hack-squat so much more than you can raw-squat?	Your body weight is being supported by a machine in a leg-press or hack-squat, whereas a raw-squat forces you to lift your body as well. There is also the rigid, supported movement of the machine to consider, so you don't have to worry about balancing left-right-forward-back, which also take some amount of effort when lifting large weights.	[ "Deeper squats are associated with higher compressive loads on patellofemoral joint and it is possible that people who suffer from pain in this joint cannot squat at increased depths. For some knee rehabilitation activities, patients might feel more comfortable with knee flexion between 0 and 50 degrees because it places less force compared to deeper depths. Another study shows that decline squats at angles higher than 16 degrees may not be beneficial for the knee and fails to decrease calf tension. Other studies have indicated that the best squat to hone quadriceps, without inflaming the patellofemoral joint, occurs between 0 and 50 degrees.\n", "Squats can be performed to varying depths. The competition standard is for the crease of the hip (top surface of the leg at the hip joint) to fall below the top of the knee; this is colloquially known as \"parallel\" depth. Confusingly, many other definitions for \"parallel\" depth abound, none of which represents the standard in organized powerlifting. From shallowest to deepest, these other standards are: bottom of hamstring parallel to the ground; the hip joint itself below the top of the knee, or femur parallel to the floor; and the top of the upper thigh (i.e., top of the quadriceps) below the top of the knee. Squatting below parallel qualifies a squat as deep while squatting above it qualifies as shallow. Some authorities caution against deep squats; though the forces on the ACL and PCL decrease at high flexion, compressive forces on the menisci and articular cartilages in the knee peak at these same high angles. This makes the relative safety of deep versus shallow squats difficult to determine.\n", "As the body descends, the hips and knees undergo flexion, the ankle extends (dorsiflexes) and muscles around the joint contract eccentrically, reaching maximal contraction at the bottom of the movement while slowing and reversing descent. The muscles around the hips provide the power out of the bottom. If the knees slide forward or cave in then tension is taken from the hamstrings, hindering power on the ascent. Returning to vertical contracts the muscles concentrically, and the hips and knees undergo extension while the ankle plantarflexes.\n", "BULLET::::- Deep knee bend on toes - it is similar to a normal back squat only the lifter is positioned on their forefeet and toes, with their heels raised, throughout the repetition. Usually, the weight used is not more than moderate in comparison to a flat footed, heavy back squat.\n", "Section::::Biology.\n", "Squat is also mentioned as a factor in the collision of the bulk carriers \"Tecam Sea\" and \"Federal Fuji\" in the port of Sorel, Quebec, in April 2000.\n", "Squat (exercise)\n\nA squat is a strength exercise in which the trainee lowers their hips from a standing position and then stands back up. During the descent of a squat, the hip and knee joints flex while the ankle joint dorsiflexes; conversely the hip and knee joints extend and the ankle joint plantarflexes when standing up.\n", "Section::::Injury considerations.:Squats used in physical therapy.\n\nSquats can be used for some rehabilitative activities because they hone stability without excessive compression on the tibiofemoral joint and anterior cruciate ligament.\n", "Section::::Muscles used.\n\nAgonist muscles\n\nBULLET::::- Quadriceps femoris\n\nBULLET::::- Gluteus maximus\n\nBULLET::::- Adductor magnus\n\nBULLET::::- Soleus\n\nStabilizing muscles\n\nBULLET::::- Erector spinae\n\nBULLET::::- Rectus abdominis\n\nBULLET::::- Internal and external obliques\n\nBULLET::::- Hamstrings\n\nBULLET::::- Gluteus medius and minimus\n\nBULLET::::- Gastrocnemius\n\nSection::::Equipment.\n\nVarious types of equipment can be used to perform squats.\n", "Combining single-limb squats and decline angles have been used to rehabilitate knee extensors. Conducting squats at a declined angle allows the knee to flex despite possible pain or lack of mobilization in the ankle. If therapists are looking to focus on the knee during squats, one study shows that doing single-limb squats at a 16 degree decline angle has the greatest activation of the knee extensors without placing excessive pressure on the ankles. This same study also found that a 24 degree decline angle can be used to strengthen ankles and knee extensors.\n\nSection::::World records.\n", "BULLET::::- Overhead squat – the barbell is held overhead in a wide-arm snatch grip; however, it is also possible to use a closer grip if balance allows.\n", "Common errors of squat form include descending too rapidly and flexing the torso too far forward. Rapid descent risks being unable to complete the lift or causing injury. This occurs when the descent causes the squatting muscles to relax and tightness at the bottom is lost as a result. Over-flexing the torso greatly increases the forces exerted on the lower back, risking a spinal disc herniation. Another error is when the knee is not aligned with the direction of the toes, entering a valgus position, which can adversely stress the knee joint. Another error is the raising of heels off the floor, which reduces the contribution of the gluteus muscles.\n", "The rice paddy squat (or rice paddy prone) position is a moderate stability position that supports both elbows, making it more stable than kneeling yet keeping a high level of mobility. Its higher center of gravity will still be less stable than sitting or prone. It was a traditionally taught marksmanship position but lost popularity after the Korean conflict. The heel-down squat/kneel combination has also been used to fire weapons – see image.\n\nSection::::Partial squat.\n", "BULLET::::- Pistol squat – a bodyweight single leg squat done to full depth, while the other leg is extended off the floor. Sometimes dumbbells, kettlebells or medicine balls are added for resistance.\n\nBULLET::::- Shrimp squat – also called the \"flamingo squat\", a version of the pistols squat where instead of extending the non-working leg out in front, it is bent and placed behind the working leg while squatting, perhaps held behind in a hand.\n\nSection::::Injury considerations.\n", "Squats are considered a vital exercise for increasing the strength and size of the lower body muscles as well as developing core strength. The primary agonist muscles used during the squat are the quadriceps femoris, the adductor magnus, and the gluteus maximus. The squat also isometrically uses the erector spinae and the abdominal muscles, among others.\n\nThe squat is one of the three lifts in the strength sport of powerlifting, together with the deadlift and the bench press. It is also considered a staple exercise in many popular recreational exercise programs.\n\nSection::::Form.\n", "BULLET::::- The most squats with 130 kg in two minutes was Netherlands woman Maria Strik. She squatted a weight of 130 kg, 29 times within two minutes.\n\nBULLET::::- The most bodyweight squats performed in one hour is 4,708 by Paddy Doyle (UK) on November 2007.\n\nBULLET::::- The most bodyweight sumo squats in one hour is 5,135, and was achieved by Dr. Thienna Ho (Vietnam) on December 2007.\n\nSilvio Sabba from Italy has :\n\nBULLET::::- the most single leg squats (pistols) in one minute: 47 on January 2012\n", "BULLET::::- Hack squat – the barbell is held in the hands just behind the legs; this exercise was first known as Hacke (heel) in Germany. According to European strength sports expert and Germanist Emmanuel Legeard this name was derived from the original form of the exercise where the heels were joined. The hack squat was thus a squat performed the way Prussian soldiers used to click their heels (\"Hacken zusammen\"). The hack squat was popularized in the English-speaking countries by early 1900s wrestler, George Hackenschmidt. It is also called a \"rear deadlift\".\n", "BULLET::::- to avoid back strain it is important to bend the knees whenever you lift a heavy object. (See partial squats gallery for image.)\n\nBULLET::::- the act of sitting down on a chair is a partial squat as knees and hips are bent. It is effectively an interrupted full squat – chair squat. (See partial squats gallery for image.)\n\nBULLET::::- bending down to do something near ground level should theoretically be partial squatting but may be compromised as stooping by bending at the waist. (See partial squats gallery for images.)\n", "For this reason the squatting position is usually not sustainable for them for more than a few minutes as heels-up squatting is a less stable position than heels-down squatting. See also dorsiflexion.\n\nSection::::Resting position.:In sport.\n\nCatchers in baseball and wicket-keepers in cricket facing slow deliveries assume full squatting positions. Australian wicket-keeper Sammy Carter (1878 to 1948) was the first to squat on his haunches rather than bend over from the waist (stooping). (See full squats gallery for images.)\n\nSection::::Resting position.:Slav squat, rap squat, prison pose and jail pose.\n", "BULLET::::- Hindu squat – also called a baithak, or a deep knee bend on toes. It is performed without weight, with the heels raised, and body weight placed on the forefeet and toes; during the movement, the knees track far past the toes. The baithak was a staple exercise of ancient Indian wrestlers.\n\nBULLET::::- Jump squat – a plyometrics exercise where the squatter engages in a rapid eccentric contraction and jumps forcefully off the floor at the top of the range of motion.\n", "BULLET::::- the parallel squat, often used in weight training, is just short of a full squat where the thighs are parallel to the ground. (See partial squats gallery for image.)\n\nBULLET::::- the most widely used martial arts stance is a shallow standing squat. This position is generally employed as it is a neutral and agile position from which both attacks and defences may be launched. It provides for the delivery of force when attacking and stability when defending.\n\nBULLET::::- the sumo squat, with the legs wide apart, ready for action (shikiri) in sumo wrestling. (See partial squats gallery for image.)\n", "Complex training, sometimes referred to as contrast training, involves alternating heavy lifts with plyometric exercises. Ideally, the exercises should move through similar ranges of motion. For example, a set of back squats at about 85-95% 1RM followed by a set of vertical jumps. The intention is to utilise the PAP effect from the heavy back squats in the jumping exercises and thereby increase the power with which the jumps are performed with. Over a period of training, this may increase the trainee’s ability to perform the plyometric exercise more powerfully without the preceding heavy lift being required.\n", "Although the squat has long been a basic element of weight training, it has not been without controversy over its safety. Some trainers allege that squats are associated with injuries to the lumbar spine and knees. Others, however, continue to advocate the squat as one of the best exercises for building muscle and strength. Some coaches maintain that incomplete squats (those terminating above parallel) are both less effective and more likely to cause injury than a full squat (terminating with hips at or below knee level). A 2013 review concluded that deep squats performed with proper technique do not lead to increased rates of degenerative knee injuries and are an effective exercise. The same review also concluded that shallower squats may lead to degeneration in the lumbar spine and knees in the long-term.\n", "The asana is a squat with heels flat on the floor and hip-width apart (or slightly wider if necessary), toes pointing out on a diagonal. The torso is brought forward between the thighs, elbows are braced against the inside of the knees, and the hands press together in front of the chest in Añjali Mudrā.\n\nSection::::Rice paddy squat position in rifle shooting.\n", "The kneeling part in the squat/kneel combination is effectively just taking the heel-up-for-one-foot variant of both legs squatting a stage further. Similarly, the heel-up-squat version of the squat/kneel combination is potentially a stage before both legs kneeling. \n\nVariations are possible as to which parts of the toes touch the ground for a kneeling leg:\n\nBULLET::::- the tip\n\nBULLET::::- the under part\n\nBULLET::::- the upper part.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03389	How do they remove the temporary lines when they are finished with road construction?	They have a machine that comes through and just sands the paint off, ever notice once construction is done somewhere it looks like there's tiny rumble strips in some spots, that's where the paint was	[ "Depending mostly upon the change in conditions from a previous inspection various improvements may be made to the pipe. It may be cleaned with a rotating root cutting blade on the end of a segmented rotating chain, or a chemical foam may be applied to discourage root growth. If damage is found limited to only a few locations these may be excavated and repaired. Extensive moderate defects may be repaired by lining with a fabric liner that is pulled through the pipe, inflated, and then made rigid through chemical means. Severe damage may require excavation and replacement of the conduit.\n", "Under federal guidelines, Make Ready Work must occur sequentially, meaning that attachments can only be moved in the order with which they were originally placed on the line. This process can create massive delays, as well as other large disruptions in high traffic areas, such as alongside major roadways. In addition, the make ready work can take months, or even years, to complete as every company involved must send out their own approved contractor to move only their respective attachment. Each contractor must also schedule their work to not conflict with other contractors performing Make Ready Work, as well as taking into account other local factors, such as weather, traffic, and maintenance work (such as road paving). These factors must be considered as the United States primarily uses aerial work platforms to perform Make Ready Work.\n", "Sometimes it is possible to use \"anchor ties\" (also called \"bolt ties\"), these are ties fitted into holes drilled in the structure. A common type is a ring bolt with an expanding wedge which is then tied to a node point.\n", "Some installations involve two layers of asphalt. For this installation, a base layer of asphalt (1\" thick) is placed down first. Heating cables are then installed and secured to the surface of the base layer. Once the heating cables are installed, a second layer of asphalt is placed over the heating cables and the first layer, embedding the heating cables within the slab.\n", "System installation specifications beneath asphalt may vary between each manufacturer. The cable can be laid out on the base surface (usually a sand bed), and covered with 1/2\" sand. The asphalt is then hand shoveled onto the heating cable and base surface.\n\nWhen installing a hydronic tube or thermapanel system beneath asphalt, a barrier of sand that meets the manufacturers specifications should be placed over the tubing or thermapanels and cold water should be pumped through the system to keep the plastic from melting.\n", "Pylons are sometimes used to separate HOV lanes from regular traffic lanes. They are also used in areas where lanes are used at different times for travel in both directions. These pylons have shafts that drop into holes in the road surface. A good example of this type of use was the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, before they switched to a moveable barrier system.\n", "Older sewer lines of small diameter, typically , are made by the union of a number of short sections. The pipe segments may be made of cast iron, with to sections, but are more often made of vitrified clay pipe (VCP), a ceramic material, in , & sections. Each iron or clay segment will have an enlargement (a \"bell\") on one end to receive the end of the adjacent segment. Roots from trees and vegetation may work into the joins between segments and can be forceful enough to break open a larger opening in terra cotta or corroded cast iron. Eventually a root ball will form that will impede the flow and this may cleaned out by a cutter mechanism or plumber's snake and subsequently inhibited by use of a chemical foam - a \"rooticide\".\n", "Star topology systems can be converted to multipoint systems by installing new conductors between old existing ones. However, this should be done with care as it can inadvertently introduce noise onto signal lines during the conversion process. The noise can be diminished over time as noisy and failed components are removed and repaired, but some isolation of high current (e.g. motors and lighting) and sensitive low current (e.g. amplifiers and radios) equipment may always be necessary.\n\nSection::::Design Considerations.\n", "This process is normally used in rural areas where previously buried services will not be encountered and there are no hardened surfaces, e.g. tarmac concrete etc..\n\nThere are also specialised laying ploughs for cable laying behind traffic barriers, in stream or lake beds or even for the laying of submarine cables in deep sea, so-called sea ploughs. Sea ploughs are pulled behind cable ships and bury the cable in the sea bed. Burying submarine cables helps protect them from anchors, trawlers and other risks.\n", "Nashville's OTMR ordinance is unique in that it includes a clause which requires a company wishing to install a new line (henceforth referred to as Company A), after having reached an agreement with the pole's owner, to give every company already on the pole 30 days notice to move their equipment. If those companies do not comply after 30 days, then Company A can perform the complex make-ready work. If there are any errors or problems from Company A's make-ready work, then the companies already on the pole can recoup expenses from Company A.\n\nSection::::Implementation in various areas.\n", "Removable tapes can also be used in road construction sites as temporary markers. The tapes can be placed to shift the lanes and black tapes can be used to temporarily blackout the existing markings. At the end of the constructions or within 6 months, the tapes can be pulled out off the surface without using heat, solvents, or machines.\n\nSection::::Country specific information.\n\nSection::::Country specific information.:The Americas.\n\nMost countries in North and South America have yellow lines separating traffic directions, however Chile and Argentina use white lines.\n\nSection::::Country specific information.:The Americas.:Canada.\n", "There is a third decommissioned line, in diameter. Lines not being used are filled with nitrogen, an inert gas.\n\nSection::::Expansion and line reversal proposal.\n", "A third type of common maintenance is the installation and replacement of sacrificial anodes along the subterranean portions of pipeline. These anodes reduce the corrosion caused by electrochemical action that affect these interred sections of pipeline. Excavation and replacement of the anodes is required as they corrode.\n\nSection::::Incidents.\n", "BULLET::::- More complex activities will be drawn (such as overhead catenary installation) as parallelograms showing exactly during which time the line section is occupied by the work crew. Such an activity is shown in Exhibit 4 where the work starts on Day 8 and continuing until Day 21. The work crew occupies 300 m of the site during each day.\n", "Once these posts and bracing have been erected, the wire is wrapped around one corner post, held with a hitch (a timber hitch works well for this) often using a staple to hold the height and then reeled out along the span of the fence replacing the roll every 400 m. It is then wrapped around the opposite corner post, pulled tightly with wire stretchers, and sometimes nailed with more fence staples, although this may make readjustment of tension or replacement of the wire more difficult. Then it is attached to all of the line posts with fencing staples driven in partially to allow stretching of the wire.\n", "The security of both placements and tie-offs depends on the detail of the place where they are made, and some may be disrupted by a pull on the line in the wrong direction. This makes the skill of following a line without dislodging it an important safety issue.\n", "Another popular method for replacing aged or damaged lines is called pipe bursting, where a new pipe, typically PVC or ABS plastic, is drawn through the old pipe behind an \"expander head\" that breaks apart the old pipe as the new one is drawn through behind it.\n\nThese methods are most suitable for trunk sewers, since repair of lines with lateral connections is complicated by making provisions to receive lateral flows without accepting undesirable infiltration from inadequately sealed junctions.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The plant consists of trunk lines that run from one distribution amplifier to the next. Feed lines run from a \"bridge amplifier\" inside the distribution amplifier to taps that are placed in front of a section of close together homes. From the taps a drop, consisting of a buried or aerial coax, runs to each home that wishes to obtain service. Unused ports on a tap are normally terminated with anti-theft terminators. To extend the feed lines even further \"line extenders\" are used which are small amplifiers. Small systems have been built without trunk lines using only line extenders every few thousand feet.\n", "Each of the MTS sites made contributions to the development of MTS, sometimes by taking the lead in the design and implementation of a new feature and at other times by refining, enhancing, and critiquing work done elsewhere. Many MTS components are the work of multiple people at multiple sites.\n", "Whether or not a field of seed corn is initially detasseled by machines, eventually people are employed to detassel the plants that the machines missed and to remove any tassels that the machines left in the leaves of other corn plants. This is done either by having \"detasselers\" walk through the corn field removing the tassels or by having detasselers ride through the corn field on a detasseler carrier. Detasseler carriers are typically employed when the corn is too tall to be detasseled from ground level. Each carrier can hold from eight to twelve detasselers.\n", "During installation, the cables are placed on the posts, and then tightened to a specific tension according to temperature. The tensions values range between approximately 2,000 and 9,000lb (9,000 to 40,000 Newtons). Due to this tightening, the cable installations can be of indefinite length. In fact, the lengths of the runs are usually only limited by the presence of obstacles such as median openings or bridge columns.\n", "In some metropolitan areas, underground transmission cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with dielectric fluid (usually an oil) that is either static or circulated via pumps. If an electric fault damages the pipe and produces a dielectric leak into the surrounding soil, liquid nitrogen trucks are mobilized to freeze portions of the pipe to enable the draining and repair of the damaged pipe location. This type of underground transmission cable can prolong the repair period and increase repair costs. The temperature of the pipe and soil are usually monitored constantly throughout the repair period. \n", "A more cable-friendly alternative is attaching the lines to special strain relief plates using common cable ties. In case of industrial applications these strain relief plates are as well cost-effective because the packing density (meaning the possible number of lines to be fixed on one plate) is much higher than with common cable clamps which are normally designed for holding one single line.\n", "By April 2014, the TBMs had arrived at Caledonia station. In April 2014, \"The Globe and Mail\" reported that the two western tunnel boring machines were excavating \"approximately 1,000 cubic yards of spoil\", per day.\n\nFor the year prior to May 2014, the two TBMs Dennis and Lea had been excavating and installing concrete tunnel liners at a rate of approximately per day. The tunnels are lined with precast concrete liner segments. Six segments form each ring.\n", "excavate and remove existing materials extension of existing road crossing over the power station cooling water outlet. The construction of the tug boat harbour extension included the removal, temporary storage and reuse of tug boat harbour armour rock and core material and loading, hauling and placing the core material and rock armour.\n\nSection::::Expansion Projects.:Quarry Operation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01230	Why do couples pick a "side of the bed?" Is it territorial or is it something else?	Comfort, security, and compromise. What works for you. Men usually sleep closest to the door, protection. What works best for your s.o., who's the big spoon and so on.	[ "BULLET::::- The penetrating partner lies with their upper back on a low table, couch, chair or edge of bed, keeping their feet flat on the floor and back parallel to floor. The receiving partner straddles them, also keeping their feet on the floor. Receiving partner can assume any of various positions.\n", "BULLET::::- The receiving partner crosses their feet behind their head (or at least puts their feet next to their ears), while lying on their back. The penetrating partner then holds the receiving partner tightly around each instep or ankle and lies on the receiving partner full-length. A variation is to have the receiving partner cross their ankles on their stomach, knees to shoulders, and then have the penetrating partner lie on the receiving partner's crossed ankles with their full weight. Called the \"Viennese oyster\" by \"The Joy of Sex\".\n\nSection::::Exclusively penetrative.:Penetrating from behind.\n", "The practice is far more dramatic because this happens under pitch darkness and traditionally the whole family sleep in one large room, which is the kitchen and living room. The prowler must know pretty well where the girl sleeps in order to find the right bed. There are stories of boys getting into the wrong bed and the grannies yelling the boy out or having a good laugh or even quietly enjoying the visit.\n", "When making an occupied bed, such as for patients who are unable or have difficulty getting out of bed, one side of the bed is made at a time. Usually, the patient rolls to one side and the old linen under the patient from the opposite side, such as the fitted sheet and draw sheet, is untucked and rolled as close to the patient as possible. The new fitted sheet and draw sheet are then tucked in and also rolled close toward the patient. Then the patient rolls back toward the other side. The old linen that was folded under the patient is removed and the new linen that was also folded under the patient is eased out to make the other side of the bed. For those for whom it is contraindicated to roll to the side, such as those recovering from hip replacement surgery, then the patient sits up in bed while the top half of the bed is made and afterward the bottom half of the bed is made.\n", "BULLET::::- The penetrating partner stands in front of the receiving partner, whose legs dangle over the edge of a bed or some other platform like a table. With the receiving partner's legs lifted towards the ceiling and resting against the penetrating partner, this is sometimes called the \"butterfly position\". This can also be done as a kneeling position.\n\nBULLET::::- The receiving partner lies on their back. The penetrating partner stands and lifts the receiving partner's pelvis for penetration. A variant is for the receiving partner to rest their legs on the penetrating partner's shoulders.\n", "BULLET::::- The penetrating partner places their feet on each side of the receiving partner while keeping their knees bent and effectively raising up as high as possible while maintaining penetration. The penetrating partner's hands usually have to be placed on the receiving partner's back to keep from falling forward.\n\nBULLET::::- The receiving partner kneels upright while the penetrating partner gently pulls the receiving partner's arms backwards at the wrists towards them.\n\nIn the \"spoons position\" both partners lie on their side, facing the same direction. Variants of this technique include the following:\n", "Variations on this position include the partners lying on their sides face-to-face or in the scissors position. Anal sex is also possible in this position, along with use of a vibrator.\n\nSection::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n", "BULLET::::- The penetrating partner stands, and the receiving partner wraps their arms around his neck, and their legs around his waist, thereby exposing either the vagina or anus to the man's penis. This position is made easier with the use of a solid object behind the receiver, as above. To assume this position, it can be easier to start with the receiving partner laying on their back on the edge of a bed; the penetrating partner puts his elbows under their knees, enters them, and then lifts them as he rises to a standing position. In Japan, this is colloquially called the \"Ekiben\" position, after a specific bento lunch box sold at train stations.\n", "A Travelodge survey found that 50% of heterosexual British couples prefer sleeping back-to-back, either not touching (27%) or touching (23%). Spooning was next, with the man on the outside 20% of the time vs. 8% with the woman on the outside. 10% favored the \"lovers' knot\" (facing each other with legs intertwined), though all but 2% separated before going to sleep. The \"Hollywood pose\" of the woman with her head and arm on the man's chest was chosen by 4%.\n\nSection::::Health issues.\n", "Positions for \"anilingus\", also known as \"butt licking\", \"rimming\", \"anal-oral sex\", \"rimjob\", or \"tossing the salad\", are often variants on those for genital-oral sex. Anilingus can be performed in a number of sex positions including:\n\nBULLET::::- The passive partner is on all fours in the doggy position with the active partner behind.\n\nBULLET::::- The passive partner is on their back in the missionary position with their legs up.\n\nBULLET::::- The passive partner on top in the 69 position.\n", "In the spoons cuddling position, one partner lies on one side with knees bent while the other partner lies with his or her front pressed against their back. The spoons cuddling position is not limited to two people.\n", "BULLET::::- The penetrating partner sits on edge of a bed or chair with feet spread wide on floor. The receiving partner lies on their back on the floor and drapes their legs and thighs over the legs of the penetrating partner. The penetrating partner holds the knees of the receiving partner and controls thrusts.\n\nSection::::Exclusively penetrative.:Using furniture or special apparatus.\n", "BULLET::::- Woman on back: like the missionary, but with less pressure on abdomen or uterus. The woman lies on her back and raises her knees up towards her chest. The partner kneels between her legs and enters from the front. A pillow is placed under her bottom for added comfort.\n\nBULLET::::- Sideways: also keeps pressure off of her abdomen while supporting her uterus at the same time.\n\nBULLET::::- Spooning: very popular positions to use during the late stages of pregnancy; allowing only shallow penetration and relieves the pressure on the stomach.\n", "In the sex position, the receiving partner would be in the inner spoon position and the penetrator is in the outer spoon in preparation for rear-entry penetration. For penetration, the partners may separate their upper bodies, with just the pelvises connecting, and their legs can also rest on top of each other. The receiving partner may lift the upper knee to allow for easier penetration.\n", "BULLET::::2. The man begins to bend his left knee without lifting his knee from the bed. Instead, he slides his left knee outwards as it bends, opening his left inner thigh towards the ceiling. He slides his left leg upward and outward until it has passed underneath her lifted right knee.\n", "A pillow is often placed at the head of the bed to protect the head from any injury when moving a bedridden patient up in bed. Often the patient is turned to one side at a time to place a friction reducing sheet under the patient. When moving up, the patient is asked to bend knees and push with their legs while their chin is to their chest to prevent neck injury. The patient is pulled up either by the friction reducing sheet or draw sheet.\n", "Spoons sex position\n\nThe spoons position or spooning is a sexual position and a cuddling technique. The name derives from the way that two spoons may be positioned side by side, with bowls aligned. The sexual spoons position is a form of a rear-entry position, the other being the doggy style position. The spoons sex position has been called one of the \"basic four\" sex positions.\n\nSection::::Practice.\n", "BULLET::::- The receiving partner lies on their back with the penetrating partner lying perpendicular. The receiving partner bends the knee closest to the penetrating partner's head enough so that there is room for the penetrating partner's waist to fit beneath it, while the penetrating partner's legs straddle the receiving partner's other leg. The in-and-out thrusting action will move more along a side-to-side rather than top-to-bottom axis. This is sometimes called the \"scissors position\". This position allows for breast stimulation during sex, for partners to maintain eye contact if they wish, and for a good view of both partners as they reach orgasm.\n", "BULLET::::5. Together, they roll to her right (his left), where her upper body remains. She may prop herself up on her right elbow or lie flat against a pillow. The man rolls back flat upon his back, while they keep their pelvises pressed together. At this point the man is lying flat on his back on the bed and the plane of the woman's torso is almost perpendicular to that of the man's. Her shoulders are almost vertical, with her left shoulder above her right shoulder. Her torso is twisted so that her pelvis is horizontal, resting on his pelvis. The woman's weight is entirely on the right side of her body and her right elbow.\n", "Toilet paper orientation\n\nToilet paper when used with a toilet roll holder with a horizontal axle parallel to the floor and also parallel to the wall has three possible orientations: the toilet paper may hang \"over\" (in front of) or \"under\" (behind) the roll or be pierced by the axle upright. The choice is largely a matter of personal preference, dictated by habit. In surveys of US consumers and of bath and kitchen specialists, 60–70 percent of respondents prefer the \"over\" orientation.\n", "BULLET::::- The penetrating partner sits in a chair. The receiving partner straddles penetrating partner and sits, facing the penetrating partner, feet on floor. This is sometimes called a \"lap dance\", which is somewhat erroneous as a lap dance typically does not involve penetration. The receiving partner may also sit in reverse, with their back to the penetrating partner.\n\nBULLET::::- The penetrating partner sits on a couch or in a chair that has armrests. The receiving partner sits in the penetrating partner's lap, perpendicular to penetrating partner, with their back against the armrest.\n", "\"Your Side of the Bed\" has received many positive reviews. Billy Dukes at Taste of Country said \"It’s almost uncomfortably familiar. \n", "In Bernice Kanner's 1995 book \"Are You Normal?\", 53 percent of survey respondents prefer \"over\", while \"a fourth\" prefer \"under\" and 8 percent do not know or care.\n", "\"Time\" reported that the craze started at the University of Arkansas when a shortage of chairs at a fraternity house led students to imitate their Ozark forefathers, who hunkered regularly. The fad spread first to Missouri, Mississippi and Oklahoma, then across the U.S. While males were the predominant hunkerers, it was reported that females were welcomed by many groups. Within months, regional competitions were being held to crown champions.\n", "Bedding rituals have been practiced in various cultures, the ceremony differing from place to place. The people putting the newlyweds in bed have usually included their family, friends and wider community. The ritual is often associated with music, bawdy songs and jokes. It symbolised the community's involvement in the marriage and especially in the couple's sexual intimacy, but also their marital fidelity. The consummation itself, i.e. the couple's first sexual intercourse, was not witnessed in most of Western Europe.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01689	Specific transplants that transfers the donor's traits to the recipient.	Well, testicles produce sperm based on the genes of the testicle, and transplanting the testicle doesn't change its genes at all. For bone marrow, the blood cells it creates would be based on its own properties, although blood cells do not contain DNA. But if the marrow also ended up producing particular allergen-enabling bits (such as antibodies - bone marrow is responsible for a lot of antibodies) then that would then enter the transplant recipient's bloodstream, which would cause the same allergic reactions as found in the donor due to both being caused by those antibodies.	[ "BULLET::::- 2009–2010: Joren C. Madsen, MD, DPhil\n\nBULLET::::- 2008–2009: Barbara Murphy, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2007–2008: Flavio Vincenti, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2006–2007: Jeffrey S. Crippin, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2005–2006: Richard N. Fine, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2004–2005: Jay Alan Fishman, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 2003–2004: Michael R. Lucey, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2002–2003: William E. Harmon, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 2001–2002: Laurence A. Turka, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 2000–2001: Mohamed H. Sayegh, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1999–2000: John R. Lake, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1998–1999: John F. Neylan, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1997–1998: J. Harold Helderman, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1996–1997: Leslie W. Miller, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1995–1996: Douglas J. Norman, MD, FAST\n", "Organ transplantation\n\nOrgan transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. The donor and recipient may be at the same location, or organs may be transported from a donor site to another location. Organs and/or tissues that are transplanted within the same person's body are called autografts. Transplants that are recently performed between two subjects of the same species are called allografts. Allografts can either be from a living or cadaveric source.\n", "BULLET::::- Shoulder repair\n\nBULLET::::- Spinal fusion\n\nBULLET::::- Urological procedures\n\nBULLET::::- Skin transplants\n\nBULLET::::- Corneal transplants\n\nBULLET::::- Heart transplants\n\nBULLET::::- Heart valves\n\nBULLET::::- Lung transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- Intestinal transplantation (isolated small bowel, intestine & liver, multivisceral)\n\nBULLET::::- Liver transplants\n\nBULLET::::- Kidney transplants\n\nBULLET::::- Pancreas transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- Islet cell transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- Bone marrow transplants\n\nBULLET::::- Bone allograft\n\nBULLET::::- Ligament or tendon allograft\n\nSection::::Laws and regulations.\n", "This term also refers to a series of living donor transplants in which one donor donates to the highest recipient on the waiting list and the transplant center utilizes that donation to facilitate multiple transplants. These other transplants are otherwise impossible due to blood type or antibody barriers to transplantation. The \"Good Samaritan\" kidney is transplanted into one of the other recipients, whose donor in turn donates his or her kidney to an unrelated recipient. Depending on the person on the waiting list, this has sometimes been repeated for up to six pairs, with the final donor donating to the person at the top of the list. This method allows all organ recipients to get a transplant even if their living donor is not a match to them. This further benefits people below any of these recipients on waiting lists, as they move closer to the top of the list for a deceased-donor organ. Johns Hopkins Medical Center in Baltimore and Northwestern University's Northwestern Memorial Hospital have received significant attention for pioneering transplants of this kind. In February 2012, the last link in a record 60-person domino chain of 30 kidney transplants was completed.\n", "The individual criteria varies from one organ type to another. For example, with heart and lung transplantation, candidate recipients are given one of four status levels (1A - the highest level, 1B, 2, and 7). A matching born (i.e. not \"in utero\") candidate of Status 1A within the donor region, of matching ABO type, and within 500 miles will be given the highest priority, with multiple matches being ranked by time on the waiting list. Each of those criteria will be progressively relaxed until a match is found.\n\nSection::::Membership.\n", "There are distinct parameters for who is eligible for transplantation of the different organs. Broadly speaking (this is not meant to be exhaustive), these include: age, how long they have been on the waiting list, how urgently they need the organ (which is often related to how long they've been on the list, and whether they are actually in end-stage disease, which has its own laboratory and functional criteria per organ); their prognosis (how stable they are now- whether they can survive major invasive surgery and the anesthesia and post-op period, and how they have been, and how they likely will fare with and/or without the organ, versus with other therapies that are not transplantation- such as continued dialysis or getting an artificial heart or left ventricular assist device). \n", "BULLET::::- 1994–1995: Thomas A. Gonwa, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1993–1994: Manikkam Suthanthiran, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1992–1993: Alan R. Hull, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1991–1992: Ronald H. Kerman, PhD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1990–1991: M. Roy First, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1989–1990: William E. Braun, MD, FAST\n\nBULLET::::- 1988–1989: Barry S. Levin, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1987–1988: Lawrence G. Hunsicker, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1986–1987: Nancy E. Goeken, PhD\n\nBULLET::::- 1985–1986: Fred P. Sanfilippo, MD, PhD\n\nBULLET::::- 1984–1985: Robert B. Ettenger, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1983–1984: Charles B. Carpenter, MD\n\nBULLET::::- 1982–1983: Ronald D. Guttmann, MD, FRCPC\n\nBULLET::::- 1982–1983: Terry B. Strom, MD\n\nSection::::AST Research Network.\n", "Section::::Other transplant options.\n\nBULLET::::- Autograft, tissue transplanted from one site to another on the same patient. An autograft reduces the risk of rejection but requires a second surgery site, adding pain, risk and possible longer aftercare.\n\nBULLET::::- Xenograft, a transplant from another species\n\nBULLET::::- Isograft, a transplant from a genetically identical donor, such as an identical twin.\n\nBULLET::::- Synthetic and metal implants. Unlike allografts, such grafts do not corporate into the body.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "BULLET::::- Lucy Davis (born 1973), English actress,\n\nBULLET::::- Kenny Easley (born 1959), American football player,\n\nBULLET::::- Aron Eisenberg (born 1969), American actor,\n\nBULLET::::- Sean Elliott (born 1968), American basketball player,\n\nBULLET::::- Selena Gomez (born 1992), American singer and actress,\n\nBULLET::::- Jennifer Harman (born 1964), American poker player,\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Howard (born 1932), English artist,\n\nBULLET::::- Sarah Hyland (born 1990), American actress,\n\nBULLET::::- Ivan Klasnić (born 1980), Croatian footballer,\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Little (1937–2012), Australian musician and actor,\n\nBULLET::::- Jonah Lomu (1975–2015), New Zealand rugby player,\n\nBULLET::::- George Lopez (born 1961), American comedian and actor,\n", "BULLET::::- Cornea (deceased-donor only) see the ophthalmologist Eduard Zirm\n\nBULLET::::- Skin, including face replant (autograft) and face transplant (extremely rare)\n\nBULLET::::- Islets of Langerhans (pancreas islet cells) (deceased-donor and living-donor)\n\nBULLET::::- Bone marrow/Adult stem cell (living-donor and autograft)\n\nBULLET::::- Blood transfusion/Blood Parts Transfusion (living-donor and autograft)\n\nBULLET::::- Blood Vessels (autograft and deceased-donor)\n\nBULLET::::- Heart Valve (deceased-donor, living-donor and xenograft [porcine/bovine])\n\nBULLET::::- Bone (deceased-donor and living-donor)\n\nSection::::Types of donor.\n", "BULLET::::- --- bone marrow transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- --- brain tissue transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- --- corneal transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- --- epikeratophakia\n\nBULLET::::- --- keratoplasty, penetrating\n\nBULLET::::- --- fetal tissue transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- --- liver transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- --- skin transplantation\n\nBULLET::::- --- transplantation, autologous\n\nBULLET::::- --- transplantation, heterologous\n\nBULLET::::- --- transplantation, heterotopic\n\nBULLET::::- --- transplantation, homologous\n\nBULLET::::- --- transplantation, isogeneic\n\nBULLET::::- --- warm ischemia\n\nSection::::--- surgical procedures, operative.:--- urogenital surgical procedures.\n\nBULLET::::- --- castration\n\nBULLET::::- --- orchiectomy\n\nBULLET::::- --- ovariectomy\n\nBULLET::::- --- gynecologic surgical procedures\n\nBULLET::::- --- circumcision, female\n\nBULLET::::- --- colposcopy\n\nBULLET::::- --- colpotomy\n\nBULLET::::- --- culdoscopy\n\nBULLET::::- --- dilatation and curettage\n", "Section::::Types of transplant.:Allograft and allotransplantation.\n\nAn allograft is a transplant of an organ or tissue between two genetically non-identical members of the same species. Most human tissue and organ transplants are allografts. Due to the genetic difference between the organ and the recipient, the recipient's immune system will identify the organ as foreign and attempt to destroy it, causing transplant rejection. The risk of transplant rejection can be estimated by measuring the Panel reactive antibody level.\n\nSection::::Types of transplant.:Allograft and allotransplantation.:Isograft.\n", "Section::::Types of transplant.:Domino transplants.\n", "The criteria set conditions for the recipient, the donor, and the health care team, specifically:\n\nBULLET::::1. The recipient is a cisgender female with no medical contraindications to transplantation, has uterine disease that has failed other therapy, and has \"a personal or legal contraindication\" to other options (surrogacy, adoption). She wants a child, is suitable for motherhood, is psychologically fit, is likely to be compliant with treatment, and understands the risks of the procedure.\n", "Allogeneic HSCT involves two people: the (healthy) donor and the (patient) recipient. Allogeneic HSC donors must have a tissue (human leukocyte antigen, HLA) type that matches the recipient. Matching is performed on the basis of variability at three or more loci of the HLA gene, and a perfect match at these loci is preferred. Even if there is a good match at these critical alleles, the recipient will require immunosuppressive medications to mitigate graft-versus-host disease. Allogeneic transplant donors may be \"related\" (usually a closely HLA matched sibling), \"syngeneic\" (a monozygotic or 'identical' twin of the patient – necessarily extremely rare since few patients have an identical twin, but offering a source of perfectly HLA matched stem cells) or \"unrelated\" (donor who is not related and found to have very close degree of HLA matching). Unrelated donors may be found through a registry of bone marrow donors, such as the National Marrow Donor Program in the U.S. People who would like to be tested for a specific family member or friend without joining any of the bone marrow registry data banks may contact a private HLA testing laboratory and be tested with a blood test or mouth swab to see if they are a potential match. A \"savior sibling\" may be intentionally selected by preimplantation genetic diagnosis in order to match a child both regarding HLA type and being free of any obvious inheritable disorder. Allogeneic transplants are also performed using umbilical cord blood as the source of stem cells. In general, by transfusing healthy stem cells to the recipient's bloodstream to reform a healthy immune system, allogeneic HSCTs appear to improve chances for cure or long-term remission once the immediate transplant-related complications are resolved.\n", "BULLET::::- Xenogeneic: The donor and recipient are of different species (e.g., bovine cartilage; pig skin; \"xenograft\" or \"heterograft\").\n\nBULLET::::- Prosthetic: Lost tissue is replaced with synthetic materials such as metal, plastic, or ceramic (\"prosthetic implants\").\n", "Transplant\n\nTransplant or Transplantation may refer to:\n\nSection::::Sciences.\n\nBULLET::::- Transplanting a plant from one location to another\n\nBULLET::::- Organ transplantation, moving an organ from one body to another\n\nBULLET::::- Transplant thought experiment, an experiment similar to Trolley problem\n\nBULLET::::- Transplant experiment, where an organism is moved from one location to another\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ectopic endometrial implantation\" as part of the theory of retrograde menstruation in endometriosis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transplantation\" (journal)\n\nSection::::Art and entertainment.\n\nBULLET::::- Transplants (band), an American band\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transplants\" (album), 2002\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transplant\" (\"House\"), a television episode\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transplant\" (video game), an Amiga game\n", "A subset of allografts in which organs or tissues are transplanted from a donor to a genetically identical recipient (such as an identical twin). Isografts are differentiated from other types of transplants because while they are anatomically identical to allografts, they do not trigger an immune response.\n\nSection::::Types of transplant.:Xenograft and xenotransplantation.\n", "Any member of the family, parent, sibling, child, spouse or a volunteer can donate their liver. The criteria\n\nfor a liver donation include:\n\nBULLET::::- Being in good health\n\nBULLET::::- Having a blood type that matches or is compatible with the recipient's, although some centres now perform blood group incompatible transplants with special immunosuppression protocols[source?]\n\nBULLET::::- Having a charitable desire of donation without financial motivation\n\nBULLET::::- Being between 20 and 60 years old (18 to 60 years old in )\n\nBULLET::::- Have an important personal relationship with the recipient\n\nBULLET::::- Being of similar or larger size than the recipient\n", "The program was designed to operate primarily through the use of two pairs of incompatible donors. Each donor was incompatible with her partner but could be compatible with another donor who was likewise incompatible with his partner. Francis Delmonico, a transplant surgeon at Harvard Medical School, describes a typical situation,\n", "Section::::Presidents.\n\nCurrent and past presidents of the Canadian Society of Transplantation:\n\nBULLET::::- 1980-1981 Pierre Robitaille\n\nBULLET::::- 1981-1982 Michael Robinette\n\nBULLET::::- 1982-1983 George deVeber\n\nBULLET::::- 1983-1984 John Dossetor\n\nBULLET::::- 1984-1985 Allan MacDonald\n\nBULLET::::- 1985-1986 Ronald Guttman\n\nBULLET::::- 1986-1987 Pierre Daloze\n\nBULLET::::- 1987-1988 Philip Halloran\n\nBULLET::::- 1988-1989 F. Neil McKenzie\n\nBULLET::::- 1989-1990 Carl Cardella\n\nBULLET::::- 1990-1991 Paul Keown\n\nBULLET::::- 1991-1992 Phil Belitsky\n\nBULLET::::- 1992-1993 John Jeffery\n\nBULLET::::- 1993-1994 Paul Greig\n\nBULLET::::- 1994-1995 David Ludwin\n\nBULLET::::- 1995-1996 Norman Kneteman\n\nBULLET::::- 1996-1997 Guy Fradet\n\nBULLET::::- 1997-1999 Rolf Loertscher\n\nBULLET::::- 1999-2000 Alan Menkis\n\nBULLET::::- 2000-2001 Vivian McAlister\n\nBULLET::::- 2001-2002 David Rush\n\nBULLET::::- 2002-2004 Anthony Jevnikar\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Klug (born 1972), American snowboarder,\n\nBULLET::::- Evel Knievel (1938-2007), American stunt performer,\n\nBULLET::::- Chris LeDoux (1948-2005), American musician and rodeo champion,\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Lesh (born 1940), American musician (Grateful Dead),\n\nBULLET::::- Linda Lovelace (1949-2002), American pornographic actress (Deep Throat),\n\nBULLET::::- Mickey Mantle (1931-1995), American baseball player (New York Yankees),\n\nBULLET::::- Mike MacDonald (1954-2018), Canadian comedian and actor (Mr. Nice Guy),\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nabors (1930-2017), American actor (The Andy Griffith Show),\n\nBULLET::::- John Phillips (1935-2001), American musician (The Mamas & the Papas),\n\nBULLET::::- Lou Reed (1942-2013), American musician (The Velvet Underground),\n\nBULLET::::- U. Srinivas (1969-2014), Indian musician,\n\nSection::::Research directions.\n", "BULLET::::- Xenograft: graft taken from one individual placed on an individual belonging to another species, e.g., animal to man.\n\nSection::::Types of grafting.\n\nThe term grafting is most commonly applied to skin grafting, however many tissues can be grafted: skin, bone, nerves, tendons, neurons, blood vessels, fat, and cornea are tissues commonly grafted today.\n\nSpecific types include:\n", "While the precise details of surgery will depend on the exact type of transplant, there are many steps which are common to all of these procedures. Prior to operating on the recipient, the transplant surgeon inspects the donor lung(s) for signs of damage or disease. If the lung or lungs are approved, then the recipient is connected to an IV line and various monitoring equipment, including pulse oximetry. The patient will be given general anesthesia, and a machine will breathe for him or her.\n", "BULLET::::- Autografts are taken from the recipient. If absent or deficient of natural tissue, alternatives can be cultured sheets of epithelial cells \"in vitro\" or synthetic compounds, such as integra, which consists of silicone and bovine tendon collagen with glycosaminoglycans.\n\nBULLET::::- Allografts are taken from a donor of the same species.\n\nBULLET::::- Xenografts are taken from a donor of a different species.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00147	how do companies afford 50% off or b1g1 free deals?	The short answer: because they buy the stuff so cheap that they still make money. That, or they already sold so many at full price that they are pleased enough with a loss to clear the shelves for the new years models.	[ "The discount rate which is used in financial calculations is usually chosen to be equal to the cost of capital. The cost of capital, in a financial market equilibrium, will be the same as the market rate of return on the financial asset mixture the firm uses to finance capital investment. Some adjustment may be made to the discount rate to take account of risks associated with uncertain cash flows, with other developments.\n\nThe discount rates typically applied to different types of companies show significant differences:\n\nBULLET::::- Start-ups seeking money: 50–100%\n\nBULLET::::- Early start-ups: 40–60%\n\nBULLET::::- Late start-ups: 30–50%\n", "BULLET::::- Mature companies: 10–25%\n\nThe higher discount rate for start-ups reflects the various disadvantages they face, compared to established companies:\n\nBULLET::::- Reduced marketability of ownerships because stocks are not traded publicly\n\nBULLET::::- Limited number of investors willing to invest\n\nBULLET::::- High risks associated with start-ups\n\nBULLET::::- Overly optimistic forecasts by enthusiastic founders\n\nOne method that looks into a correct discount rate is the capital asset pricing model. This model takes into account three variables that make up the discount rate:\n\n1. Risk free rate: The percentage of return generated by investing in risk free securities such as government bonds.\n", "Direct purchase plans simply allow employees to buy shares in the company with their own money. In several other countries, there are special tax-qualified plans that allow employees to buy stock either at a discount or with matching shares from the company. For instance, in the U.S., employee stock purchase plans enable employees to put aside after-tax pay over some period of time (typically 6–12 months) then use the accumulated funds to buy shares at up to a 15% discount at either the price at the time of purchase or the time when they started putting aside the money, whichever is lower. In the U.K., Share Incentive Plans allow employee purchases that can be matched directly by the company.\n", "In the case of both stock and options, large initial grants that vest over time are more common than periodic smaller grants because they are easier to account for and administer, they establish the arrangement up-front and are thus more predictable, and (subject to some complexities and limitations) the value of the grants and holding period requirements for tax purposes are set upon the initial grant date, giving a considerable tax advantage to the employee.\n\nSection::::Employment.:Profit sharing plans.\n", "Small entrepreneurial companies usually offer grants of common stock or positions in an employee stock option plan to employees and other key participants such as contractors, board members, advisors and major vendors. To make the reward commensurate with the extent of contribution, encourage loyalty, and avoid spreading ownership widely among former participants, these grants are usually subject to vesting arrangements.\n", "BULLET::::- Often the loan/equity ($11bn above) is not paid off after sale but left on the books of the company (XYZ Industrial) for it to pay off over time. This can be advantageous since the interest is largely offsettable against the profits of the company, thus reducing, or even eliminating, tax.\n\nBULLET::::- Most buyout deals are much smaller; the global average purchase in 2013 was $89m, for example.\n\nBULLET::::- The target company (XYZ Industrials here) does not have to be floated on the stockmarket; indeed most buyout exits are not IPOs.\n", "Before the credit crunch of 2008, several leveraged buyouts have seen some secured second-lien term bank loans coming with PIK or, more frequently, PIK toggle features, in order to support the firm's ability to cover cash interest during the initial period after the leveraged buyouts. If the acquired company performs well, the PIK toggle feature allows the equity sponsor to avoid giving extraordinary returns to the PIK debt, which might happen if the debt were strictly PIK. The PIK toggle largely disappeared in the wake of the credit crunch, though in early 2013 there were signs of a tentative comeback. Towards mid-2013, PIK toggle loans returned in force as the high-yield bond market in the United States and, to some degree, Europe shifted into high gear.\n", "Section::::Product and Services.\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Motor Insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Health Insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Travel insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Home Insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Specialty Lines Insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Property Insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Marine Insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Liability Insurance\n\nBULLET::::- ICICI Lombard Crop/Weather Insurance\n\nSection::::Financials.\n\nICICI General’s Gross Written Premium (GWP) was Rs 147.89 billion in fiscal 2019. ICICI Lombard led the private sector players in the general\n\ninsurance sector with a market share of 15.6% and had an overall industry market share of 8.5%. The company witnessed an increase in policy\n", "For instance, if a company has sales of 1,000,000 units, at price $50, unit variable cost of $10, and fixed costs of $10,000,000, then its unit contribution is $40, its Total Contribution is $40m, and its Operating Income is $30m, so its DOL is\n\nThis could also be computed as 80%=$40m/$50m Contribution Margin Ratio divided by 60%=$30m/$50m Operating Margin.\n", "The purchase of Partnership Shares can be funded in 2 ways; either a single lump sum contribution once a year; or monthly contributions (subject to a maximum of £125 per month or 10% of salary (£150 per month from 6 April 2014), whichever is the lower, and a minimum of £10 per month). If the employee opts to make a lump sum contribution, the Partnership Shares must be purchased within 30 days of the deduction from salary.\n", "BULLET::::- Trading parties can tap into a risk-free, alternative source of working capital with the use of third party creditors whom pay early on behalf of the buyer\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "In New Zealand the off-price format appeared in late 2018, when a local group of companies The Wárehouse Gróup, specialising in discount trading, made the decision to open 47 off-price stores branded as Red Rack in one fell swoop. The benefits for customers vary from 20-60%. Brands found in the network include Nike, Adidas, Puma, Superdry, Fenty by Rihanna, Ben Sherman, Billabong and Paul Frank. The company claims to stick to the principle of treasure hunting and it organises weekly replenishment of its product range.br\n\nEuropebr\n", "PIK lenders, typically special funds, look for a certain minimum internal rate of return, which can come from three major sources: arrangement fees, PIKs, and warrants (there are also minor sources, like ticking fees). The arrangement fee, which is usually payable up-front, contributes the least return and serves to cover administrative costs. PIKs accrue interest period after period, thus increasing the underlying principal (i.e., compound interest). The achieved selling price of the shares acquired under the warrant is also a part of the total return of the lender. Typically, refinancing PIK loans in the first years is either completely restricted or comes at a high premium (i.e. prepayment protection) to meet the internal requirements of investing funds.\n", "On April 1, Mobilicity changed its plans and website, which remain available to this day. Variants of the 50% off sale for monthly plans were reintroduced in 2012 during the months of May, September, November and December. October 2012 saw the addition of 24-month multi-month discounts and, on October 30, a premium service option for faster mobile broadband. Loblaw Companies was added as a retail partner.\n\nSection::::History.:2013-2015: Financial restructuring, attempted acquisition deals.\n", "The most famous and successful venture capital firms regularly receive hundreds of business plans each month. From among these, it is not unusual for a VC firm to actually fund only 0.25%–0.5%. Active angel investment groups will typically receive dozens of plans monthly, but because of the much smaller number of plans compared to VCs they tend to fund a somewhat higher percentage (0.5%–1.0%). Once a company makes it through the group's screening process, however and is invited to present to the group's full membership, its chances of getting funded rise to about 18%, according to the University of New Hampshire's Center for Venture Research.\n", "BULLET::::- Interest rate: varies based on the yield curve prevalent in the market where the debt is being offered. In the US, and Europe, interest for equipment financing as low as prime rate (US) or LIBOR (UK) or EURIBOR (Europe) plus 1% or 2%. For accounts receivable and growth capital financing, prime plus 3%. In India, where interest rates are higher, financing may be offered between 14% and 20%.\n", "The Beta Company's contribution margin for the year was 34 percent. This means that, for every dollar of sales, after the costs that were directly related to the sales were subtracted, 34 cents remained to contribute toward paying for the indirect (fixed) costs and later for profit.\n", "Part of Caldor's financial success was convincing vendors of their billing incentives. They got most if not all of their vendors to agree to a 2% 10/net 30-60 format. This meant if they paid the vendors within 10 days of receipt, they got 2% off or a net payment within 30 or 60 days. This saved them a substantial amount of money which allowed them to pass savings on to their customers and to promote their extremely fast growth.\n\nSection::::History.:Accelerated growth.\n", "In the developed economies, the average value of the discount may be 13–15% relative to single-segment competitors. Because of the discount, conglomerates have become much less common in the developed markets than they once were. Only several star performers, such as Berkshire Hathaway, have managed to escape the market’s critical assessment of overdiversification. However, conglomerates are still common in a number of emerging markets. The conglomerate discount is substantially bigger in the U.S. and Western Europe than is in Asian countries. This situation may be explained by the fact that in Asian countries a big conglomerate with political connections and an understanding of how to operate in a difficult market can spread its expertise across many industries. In fact, there is a conglomerate premium of 10.9% in Latin America, according to Citigroup. This may be the reason why, in some markets, conglomerates are becoming even larger and more diversified. For example, Samsung Electronics is moving into pharmaceuticals.\n", "Profit margin is calculated with selling price (or revenue) taken as base times 100. It is the percentage of selling price that is turned into profit, whereas \"profit percentage\" or \"\"markup\"\" is the percentage of cost price that one gets as profit on top of cost price. While selling something one should know what percentage of profit one will get on a particular investment, so companies calculate profit percentage to find the ratio of profit to cost.\n", "The team of B1G1 imagined a world where every business transaction made a difference through the simple concept, \"'Buy one. Give one\".' Whereas major companies use Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a tool to offset their negative social and environmental impact and establish a better brand image, Sato suggested concentrating on habitual giving through creating meaningful impacts and a deeper sense of connection around the everyday business activities.\n\nThe co-founders of B1G1 established the headquarters of Buy1GIVE1 PTE LTD in Singapore in 2007.\n\nSection::::BOGO Acronym.:Buy1GIVE1.\n", "E-commerce companies are often referred to as pure play retailers, as they sell only through the Internet.\n\nSection::::Pure play method.\n\nIn finance, the \"pure play method\" is an approach used to estimate the cost of equity capital of private companies, which involves examining the beta coefficient of other public and single focused companies.\n", "In the linear Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis model (where marginal costs and marginal revenues are constant, among other assumptions), the break-even point (BEP) (in terms of Unit Sales (X)) can be directly computed in terms of Total Revenue (TR) and Total Costs (TC) as:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- TFC is Total Fixed Costs,\n\nBULLET::::- P is Unit Sale Price, and\n\nBULLET::::- V is Unit Variable Cost.\n", "B makes a 100% loss\n\nSection::::Examples.:Scenario 3.\n\nStock rises to $52.45\n\nDEC 50 Call is exercised\n\nA is forced to buy 100 shares of XYZ for $5,245.00 and immediately sell them at $5,000.00 for a loss of $245.00. Since A received the premium of $125.00 before, A's net loss is $120.00.\n\nB buys 100 shares of XYZ for $5,000.00 and now is able to sell them at open market for $52.45 per share, if B so chooses. B's net gain is $120.00 (same as A's loss excluding commission costs)\n\nSection::::Examples.:Scenario 4.\n", "Assuming the model, for a given level of sales, the DOL is higher the higher fixed costs are (an example): for a given level of sales and profit, a company with higher fixed costs has a lower Operating Income, and hence its Operating Income increases more rapidly with Sales than a company with lower fixed costs (and correspondingly lower contribution margin and higher Operating Income).\n" ]	[ "Companies should not be able to afford to have buy one get one free deals." ]	[ "The companies have likely bought the products insanely cheap and still profit or have already made so much money from the product that they can afford to sell the remainder for a loss." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Companies should not be able to afford to have buy one get one free deals.", "Companies should not be able to afford to have buy one get one free deals." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The companies have likely bought the products insanely cheap and still profit or have already made so much money from the product that they can afford to sell the remainder for a loss.", "The companies have likely bought the products insanely cheap and still profit or have already made so much money from the product that they can afford to sell the remainder for a loss." ]
2018-03336	How do people "grow out" of allergic conditions like Asthma?	This is ELI5, so simply put, your body gets used to the allergen that it overreacted to in the first place. The protein/carb/lipid tags on the foreign body are so familiar to your immune system there isn't any reason for it to go into a reaction. In theory most allergies can be "cured" this way, but for some reactions the risk isn't worth it. For less severe allergies, this is the basic premise of this aspect of immunotherapy.	[ "The fundamental problem in asthma appears to be immunological: young children in the early stages of asthma show signs of excessive inflammation in their airways. Epidemiological findings give clues as to the pathogenesis: the incidence of asthma seems to be increasing worldwide, and asthma is now very much more common in affluent countries.\n\nIn 1968 Andor Szentivanyi first described \"The Beta Adrenergic Theory of Asthma\"; in which blockage of the Beta-2 receptors of pulmonary smooth muscle cells causes asthma.\n", "There is currently no precise test for the diagnosis, which is typically based on the pattern of symptoms and response to therapy over time. A diagnosis of asthma should be suspected if there is a history of recurrent wheezing, coughing or difficulty breathing and these symptoms occur or worsen due to exercise, viral infections, allergens or air pollution. Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis. In children under the age of six the diagnosis is more difficult as they are too young for spirometry.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Spirometry.\n", "Inflammation in asthma is characterized by an influx of eosinophils during the early-phase reaction and a mixed cellular infiltrate composed of eosinophils, mast cells, lymphocytes, and neutrophils during the late-phase (or chronic) reaction. The simple explanation for allergic inflammation in asthma begins with the development of a predominantly helper T2 lymphocyte–driven, as opposed to helper T1 lymphocyte–driven, immune milieu, perhaps caused by certain types of immune stimulation early in life. This is followed by allergen exposure in a genetically susceptible individual.\n", "Symptoms may develop over many years as in sensitizer induced asthma or may occur after a single exposure to a high-concentration agent as in case of RADS.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Early childhood infections, especially viral upper respiratory tract infections. Children who suffer from frequent respiratory infections prior to the age of six are at higher risk of developing asthma, particularly if they have a parent with the condition. However, persons of any age can have asthma triggered by colds and other respiratory infections even though their normal stimuli might be from another category (e.g. pollen) and absent at the time of infection. In many cases, significant asthma may not even occur until the respiratory infection is in its waning stage, and the person is seemingly improving. In children, the most common triggers are viral illnesses such as those that cause the common cold.\n", "Some genetic variants may only cause asthma when they are combined with specific environmental exposures. An example is a specific single nucleotide polymorphism in the CD14 region and exposure to endotoxin (a bacterial product). Endotoxin exposure can come from several environmental sources including tobacco smoke, dogs, and farms. Risk for asthma, then, is determined by both a person's genetics and the level of endotoxin exposure.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medical conditions.\n", "Asthma is caused by a combination of complex and incompletely understood environmental and genetic interactions. These influence both its severity and its responsiveness to treatment. It is believed that the recent increased rates of asthma are due to changing epigenetics (heritable factors other than those related to the DNA sequence) and a changing living environment. Onset before age 12 is more likely due to genetic influence, while onset after age 12 is more likely due to environmental influence.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Environmental.\n", "Some individuals will have stable asthma for weeks or months and then suddenly develop an episode of acute asthma. Different individuals react to various factors in different ways. Most individuals can develop severe exacerbation from a number of triggering agents.\n", "The \"hygiene hypothesis\" postulates that an imbalance in the regulation of these T cell types in early life leads to a long-term domination of the cells involved in allergic responses over those involved in fighting infection. The suggestion is that for a child being exposed to microbes early in life, taking fewer antibiotics, living in a large family, and growing up in the country stimulate the T1 response and reduce the odds of developing asthma.\n\nAsthma is associated with a procoagulant state in the bronchoalveolar space.\n\nSection::::Stimuli.\n", "Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Environmental factors include exposure to air pollution and allergens. Other potential triggers include medications such as aspirin and beta blockers. Diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms, response to therapy over time, and spirometry. Asthma is classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate. It may also be classified as atopic or non-atopic, where atopy refers to a predisposition toward developing a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction.\n", "The mechanisms behind allergic asthma—i.e., asthma resulting from an immune response to inhaled allergens—are the best understood of the causal factors. In both people with asthma and people who are free of the disease, inhaled allergens that find their way to the inner airways are ingested by a type of cell known as antigen-presenting cells, or APCs. APCs then \"present\" pieces of the allergen to other immune system cells. In most people, these other immune cells (T0 cells) \"check\" and usually ignore the allergen molecules. In asthma patients, however, these cells transform into a different type of cell (T2), for reasons that are not well understood. A possible reason could be the release of Interleukin-4 by Mast cells that induce differentiation of naive helper T cells (Th0 cells) to Th2 cells.\n", "The cause of dermatitis is unknown but is presumed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Environmental.\n\nThe hygiene hypothesis postulates that the cause of asthma, eczema, and other allergic diseases is an unusually clean environment in childhood which leads to an insufficient human microbiota. It is supported by epidemiologic studies for asthma. The hypothesis states that exposure to bacteria and other immune system modulators is important during development, and missing out on this exposure increases risk for asthma and allergy.\n", "In 1990 during the conflict between Eritrea & Ethiopia, at the age of just 16 Negash’ mother was forced to flee to Europe, having to make the tough decision of leaving her husband behind, who was working at a busy local hospital. Already mother to a 1 year old daughter and pregnant with Negash, she dreamt of a better life in Europe.\n\nThe family spent 5 years in various refugee camps before being granted asylum in 1995. \n\nHistory: \n", "In the 1970s Freida Bielik, Principal and co-founder of Australasian College of Natural Therapies is said to have spent many years of sleepless nights at the local hospital with her son, Danny, who battled severe asthma for many of his early childhood years. Freida and her husband Peter were at a loss as to how to treat their son's health and through word of mouth were referred to an osteopath who had been treating asthma sufferers for many years. This osteopath treated Danny throughout his childhood and the results were astounding.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Late-phase response.\n\nAfter the chemical mediators of the acute response subside, late-phase responses can often occur. This is due to the migration of other leukocytes such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils and macrophages to the initial site. The reaction is usually seen 2–24 hours after the original reaction. Cytokines from mast cells may play a role in the persistence of long-term effects. Late-phase responses seen in asthma are slightly different from those seen in other allergic responses, although they are still caused by release of mediators from eosinophils and are still dependent on activity of T2 cells.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Allergic contact dermatitis.\n", "Breeds that shed less are more likely to be hypoallergenic, since the dog's dander and saliva stick to the hair and are not released into the environment. However, protein expression levels play a major role and amount of shedding alone does not determine degree of allergic reaction. \"Even if you get a hairless dog, it's still going to produce the allergen,\" Dr. Wanda Phipatanakul, chair of the Indoor Allergen Committee for the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology is quoted in the newsmagazine U.S. News & World Report as saying. How hypoallergenic a particular dog is for a particular person may vary with the individual dog and the individual person.\n", "Pathophysiology of asthma\n\nAsthma is a common pulmonary condition defined by chronic inflammation of respiratory tubes, tightening of respiratory smooth muscle, and episodes of bronchoconstriction. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that 1 in 11 children and 1 in 12 adults have asthma in the United States of America. According to the World Health Organization, asthma affects 235 million people worldwide. There are two major categories of asthma: allergic and non-allergic. The focus of this article will be allergic asthma. In both cases, bronchoconstriction is prominent.\n\nSection::::Bronchoconstriction.\n", "Kinsler had a physical challenge to overcome. \"I've had asthma my whole life\", Kinsler said. \"That was tough when I was younger. I woke up a lot and couldn't breathe, and had to go to the hospital in the middle of the night. It kind of held me back from athletics. I still have it, but I control it. Now I use an atomizer or an inhaler. When I was younger, I used this breathing machine… I hated that thing. I always wanted to run around and be active.\"\n", "The hygiene hypothesis attempts to explain the increased rates of asthma worldwide as a direct and unintended result of reduced exposure, during childhood, to non-pathogenic bacteria and viruses. It has been proposed that the reduced exposure to bacteria and viruses is due, in part, to increased cleanliness and decreased family size in modern societies. Exposure to bacterial endotoxin in early childhood may prevent the development of asthma, but exposure at an older age may provoke bronchoconstriction. Evidence supporting the hygiene hypothesis includes lower rates of asthma on farms and in households with pets.\n", "Use of antibiotics in early life has been linked to the development of asthma. Also, delivery via caesarean section is associated with an increased risk (estimated at 20–80%) of asthma – this increased risk is attributed to the lack of healthy bacterial colonization that the newborn would have acquired from passage through the birth canal. There is a link between asthma and the degree of affluence which may be related to the hygiene hypothesis as less affluent individuals often have more exposure to bacteria and viruses.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Genetic.\n", "In 2015, 358 million people globally had asthma, up from 183 million in 1990. It caused about 397,100 deaths in 2015, most of which occurred in the developing world. It often begins in childhood. The rates of asthma have increased significantly since the 1960s. Asthma was recognized as early as Ancient Egypt. The word \"asthma\" is from the Greek , \"ásthma\", which means \"panting\".\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Allergic rhinitis is typically triggered by environmental allergens such as pollen, pet hair, dust, or mold. Inherited genetics and environmental exposures contribute to the development of allergies. Growing up on a farm and having multiple siblings decreases the risk. The underlying mechanism involves IgE antibodies attaching to the allergen and causing the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine from mast cells. Diagnosis is usually based on a medical history in combination with a skin prick test or blood tests for allergen-specific IgE antibodies. These tests, however, are sometimes falsely positive. The symptoms of allergies resemble those of the common cold; however, they often last for more than two weeks and typically do not include a fever.\n", "Exposure to indoor volatile organic compounds may be a trigger for asthma; formaldehyde exposure, for example, has a positive association. Also, phthalates in certain types of PVC are associated with asthma in both children and adults. While exposure to pesticides is linked to the development of asthma, a cause and effect relationship has yet to be established.\n", "\"Irritant-induced\" (occupational) asthma is a non-immunologic form of asthma that results from a single or multiple high dose exposure to irritant products. It is usually develops early after exposure; however can also develop insidiously over a few months after a massive exposure to a complex mixture of alkaline dust and combustion products, as shown in the World Trade Center disaster. Unlike those with sensitizer-induced occupational asthma, subjects with irritant-induced occupational asthma do not develop work-related asthma symptoms after re-exposure to low concentrations of the irritant that initiated the symptoms. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS) is an severe form of irritant induced asthma where respiratory symptoms usually develop in the minutes or hours after a single accidental inhalation of a high concentration of irritant gas, aerosol, vapor, or smoke.\n", "BULLET::::- Allergic Sensitization – There is an acute response (early stages) and a late-phase response (later stages). In the early stages, the Antigen-Presenting Cell causes a response in a TH2 lymphocyte which produce the cytokine interleukin-4 (IL-4). The TH2 lymphocytes interact with B cells and together they produce IgE. IgE circulates around and binds to receptors of cells leading to an acute inflammatory response. In this case, sensitization is commonly referring to commencement of allergic responses. Allergic sensitization development varies with age, with younger children at the greatest risk of developing allergic sensitization. There are a variety of tests to diagnose allergic conditions. Tests that are commonly used place potential allergens on the skin of the patient and looking for a reaction to look for an allergen-specific IgE (Immunoglobulin E). They have shown that IgE levels are at their greatest before 10 years of age and fall vastly until one reaches 30. There is a school of thought that believes that there are different genetic loci for different ethnicities for the same inflammatory disease. By this thought, asthma has different chromosomal locations in people of European, Hispanic, Asian, and African descent.\n" ]	[ "People grow out of allergic conditions. " ]	[ "People do not grow out of allergic conditions, but the body gets use to the allergen that the immune system previously over reacted to. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People grow out of allergic conditions. ", "People grow out of allergic conditions. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "People do not grow out of allergic conditions, but the body gets use to the allergen that the immune system previously over reacted to. ", "People do not grow out of allergic conditions, but the body gets use to the allergen that the immune system previously over reacted to. " ]
2018-03735	Why do all these olympic ski jumpers have ski poles they never actually use?	Ski jumpers [don't have poles]( URL_0 ). Freestyle skiers (Half-pipe/Slopestyle) can choose to use them as part of personal preference, although [Aerial skiers don't use them.]( URL_1 )	[ "Skiers in this class use two skis and no ski poles in para-Alpine and para-Nordic. While skiers are prohibited from using traditional ski poles, they may use mini poles so long as they are unable to hold a traditional ski pole without the use of a prostheses. Skiers are also allowed to use prostheses or orthoses in competition. FIS rules for ski boots and binding heights are followed for this class. Skiers in this class must wear a Slalom helmet in Slalom events and crash helmets during the Giant Slalom.\n", "Ski pole\n\nSki poles, also referred to as poles (in North America) or sticks (UK), are used by skiers for balance and propulsion. Modern ski poles are most commonly made from aluminum and carbon fiber, though materials such as bamboo are still used. Poles are used in alpine skiing, freestyle skiing (with the exception of aerials), and cross-country skiing. Ski jumpers do not use poles.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Para-alpine skiers in this classification have their choice regarding how many skis and ski poles they wish to use, along with the type of ski poles they wish to utilize, which may include outriggers. The rules FIS rules governing ski boots and bindings are not enforced for this class, with different requirements than rules that apply to that equipment for able-bodied competitors. For below the knee amputees in this class, their ski boot may have their prosthetic leg built into it. In para-Nordic skiing, skiers use two skis and have an option to use one or two ski poles.\n", "Racing ski poles are usually made from carbon fiber and feature smaller, lighter baskets than recreational poles. Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing.\n\nSection::::Technique and equipment.:Classic.\n", "Traditionally, bamboo poles were used for gates, the rigidity of which forced skiers to maneuver their entire body around each gate. In the early 1980s, rigid poles were replaced by hard plastic poles, hinged at the base. The hinged gates require, according to FIS rules, only that the skis and boots of the skier go around each gate.\n", "For alpine events, a skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race. During competition, the para-Alpine skier cannot use a limb not in a ski for competitive advantage to gain speed or keep balance by putting it in the snow. If they do so, they rules state they will be disqualified from the event.\n", "Giant slalom skiers choose a straight or bent pole based on personal preference and situation; giant slalom courses can vary greatly in speed and in the case of slower courses, aerodynamic drag does not have as great a factor.\n\nSection::::Pole types.:Cross-country skiing.\n\nPoles enable cross-country skiers to apply power to the snow, using arm motion; poles can also provide stability. In competitive cross-country skiing, poling technique is essential, especially so during a mass start in which double-poling is the main means of propulsion.\n", "Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves. Outriggers are also used for turning, with the skier using the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn. In para-Nordic skiing, outriggers or ski poles are used top propel the skier forward. If a skier falls, they may require assistance in righting themselves to get back to the fall line. Doing this on their own, the skier needs to position their mono-ski facing uphill relative to the fall line.\n", "In 1984, monoskiers took part in the 1984 Innsbruck Paralympic Winter Games as a demonstration sport; in Innsbruck 1988, full medal categories were added for sitting skiers.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Standing.\n\nFor standing competitors, outrigger skis can be used in some classifications. These are ski poles with small skis on the end. They assist a skier balancing as they ski down the slopes, and in moving uphill for short distances, enabling skiers to do things like a climb a slope to get on a chair lift.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Other equipment.\n", "No ski poles are used, and no assistance from others (such as being pushed from the gate) is allowed. In heavy snow conditions the tracks can become clogged up, which reduces inrun speed and may cause an unpredictable descent for athletes. Event personnel standing by the sides of the inrun are often assigned to use leaf blowers to prevent the tracks from clogging up with snow.\n\nSection::::Rules and technique.:Takeoff and transition phase.\n", "Eric Pollard is an artist, designer, and professional skier for Line Skis. Line has sponsored Pollard since 1997. Eric Pollard works directly with Line's engineers to develop his pro models; his first recorded personal project, and second pro model, was the LINE Elizabeth in 2005. Since 2003, the partnership between Pollard and Line Skis has produced ten pro models, each with topsheets and bases designed yearly by Pollard himself.\n", "Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves. Outriggers are also used for turning, with the skier using the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn. In para-Nordic skiing, outriggers or ski poles are used top propel the skier forward. If a skier falls, they may require assistance in righting themselves to get back to the fall line. Doing this on their own, the skier needs to position their mono-ski facing uphill relative to the fall line.\n", "In the 1800s racers used a single, wooden pole, which was longer and stronger than modern poles, and could be used for braking downhill, as well. In Norway, racing with two poles (\"Finland style\") met with resistance, starting in the 1880s, when some race rules forbade them; objections included issues of aesthetics—how they made skiers \"[waddle] like geese\". As the use of pairs of pole became the norm, materials favored lightness and strength, starting with bamboo, which gave way to fiberglass, used at the 1968 Winter Olympics, aluminum, used at the 1972 Winter Olympics, and ultimately carbon fiber, introduced in 1975.\n", "Racing poles have their own unique distinctions. Super giant slalom, downhill, and speed skiing poles are designed to bend around the skier's body while in a tuck position to minimize drag. In slalom skiing, straight poles are used due to the reduced speeds and increased reliance on poles. Slalom poles will often come with a guard attached to the grip for the purpose of deflecting gates.\n", "Para-Alpine skiers in this classification have their choice regarding how many skis and ski poles they wish to user, along with the type of ski poles they wish to utilize. In para-Nordic skiing, skiers use two skis and have an option to use one or two ski poles. Outriggers are one type of ski pole LW9 skiers can use, which requires its own techniques to use. As there are a broad range of disabilities in this class, different skiing techniques are learned by competitors. Skiers missing an arm use a technique that corrects lateral balance issues resulting from the missing arm. Skiers with cerebral palsy have the introduction of ski poles delayed as skiers may overgrip them.\n", "In 1997, Line Skis filed the first patent for twin-tipped skis.\n\nLine Skis had little U.S. market until the 1997 SIA, when the large company Salomon presented its own novelty skiboards, and sales improved.\n\nThe next season, Line signed five of its first athletes: Carter Griffin, Mike Nick, Reg Pare, Doug Levinthal, Mike Wilson, and Jason Levinthal himself. Line also introduced four new skiboards: the Mike Nick Pro Model, the Jedi 89, the Cruiser 89, and the Kicker 76.\n", "Due to the complex nature of Snowflex, it is not possible to self-install. Instead the company which designed and manufactures it operates as installers as well. This is a first for snowsports surfaces as previous materials were able to be installed by slope operators at their own cost.\n\nSection::::Skiing Centers Using Snowflex.\n", "There is no room in the shed for both training benches and beds, and the Goodies discover that the benches double as beds. A massage is provided by mechanical means, which is very uncomfortable, and the oil for the massage is provided by oil cans with dark-coloured oil.\n\nTim learns to ski on two planks of wood, being towed, on the road, by a rope behind the Goodies trandem.\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nSkiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves. Outriggers are also used for turning; skiers use the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn. In para-Nordic skiing, outriggers or ski poles are used to propel the skier forward. If skiers fall, they may require assistance in righting themselves, and/or getting back to the fall line. Doing this on their own, they need to position their mono-ski facing uphill relative to the fall line.\n\nIn the Biathlon, all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position.\n\nSection::::Sport.\n", "Standing skiers generally follow the same rules as sighted skiers laid out by the International Ski Federation. They may wear a prosthesis, use modified length ski poles, and/or use a ski pole called an outrigger that had a small ski on the end. LW1 skiers use two poles but may ski on one or two skis. LW2 skiers use one ski and two poles. LW3, LW4 skiers use two skis and two poles. LW5 and LW7 skiers do not use poles. LW6 and LW8 skiers use two ski and one pole.\n", "Early skiers used one long pole or spear in addition to the skis. The first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741. Traditional skis, used for snow travel in Norway and elsewhere into the 1800s, often comprised one short ski with a natural fur traction surface, the \"andor\", and one long for gliding, the \"langski\"—one being up to longer than the other—allowing skiers to propel themselves with a scooter motion. This combination has a long history among the Sami people. Skis up to 280 cm have been produced in Finland, and the longest recorded ski in Norway is 373 cm.\n", "Early skiers used one long pole or spear. The first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741.\n", ", the earliest ski pole was found in Sweden and dates back to 3623 BC, while the earliest depiction of a man with a ski pole was found in Norway in the form of a cave painting, dated at 4000 BC. Early skiers would use this pole for the purposes of balancing, braking, and turning. Alpine societies such as those in Nordic regions or the Altai mountains used their ski poles to hunt as well, giving them spear-like qualities. Skiers began to use two ski poles in 1741. This provided greater balance than one pole could provide and made pushing through the snow easier.\n", "LW6/8 skiers use two skis and one pole in both para-Alpine and para-Nordic skiing. The two types of skiing differ in that in para-Nordic a skier cannot use a prosthesis while use prostheses or orthoses are allowed in para-Alpine. FIS rules for ski boots and binding heights are followed for this class. Socks and other materials are used to pad and protect the stump of the arm as the use of a prosthesis is not allowed. Sometimes, a mitten or cork is used to protect the stump. If the limb is not properly protected, it may get frostbitten.\n", "For decades hikers and backpackers used their one-piece ski poles long before trekking and Nordic walking poles came onto the scene. Ski racers deprived of snow have always used and still do use their one-piece ski poles for ski walking and hill bounding. The first poles specially designed and marketed to fitness walkers were produced by Exerstrider of the USA in 1988. \"Nordic Walker\" poles were produced and marketed by Exel in 1997. Exel coined and popularized the term 'Nordic Walking' in 1999.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n" ]	[ "Ski jumpers have poles" ]	[ "Ski jumpers don't have poles." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Ski jumpers have poles" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Ski jumpers don't have poles." ]
2018-00508	Why are people trying to find the biggest prime number?	It's an exercise in computation, mostly. There are a few large prime number searches that are trying to settle old mathematical conjectures (e.g. the Prime Sierpinski Problem), but for the most part it's just people who are fans of mathematics and who have computers letting them run to see if they can find a large prime number. These prime numbers may have slight interest to mathematicians who could study their distribution and may come up with interesting mathematics as a result, but that's not too likely. It's long been known that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Note that there have been various awards offered over the years for finding especially large prime numbers. Most notable are some przes [offered by the EFF]( URL_0 ). Since these only judge the size of the primes it's most logical to search through numbers that are both 1: likely to be prime, and 2: easy to test. That best describes Mersenne primes, in the form of 2^P - 1 (where P is itself a prime number). The Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search, or GIMPS, is the most notable collaboration looking for such large prime numbers. Their client, Prime95, is notable for being brutal to CPUs and is sometimes used in the overclocking community to demonstrate that a CPU is stable--if Prime95 can't break it then hopefully nothing can. The EFF awards are all about encouraging the development of technology for collaborative computing. It's not so important that the search is for prime numbers. It's all about building the technology.	[ "In November 2005 the largest known sexy prime quadruplet, found by Jens Kruse Andersen had 1002 digits:\n\nIn September 2010 Ken Davis announced a 1004-digit quadruplet with \"p\" = 2 + 1582534968299.\n\nIn May 2019 Marek Hubal announced a 1138-digit quadruplet with p = 15672379112677# + 3301 + 6n.\n\nIn June 2019 Peter Kaiser announced a 1534-digit quadruplet with p = 19299420002127 * 2 + 17233 + 6*n\n\nSection::::Types of groupings.:Sexy prime quintuplets.\n", "Gigantic prime\n\nA gigantic prime is a prime number with at least 10,000 decimal digits. \n\nThe term appeared in \"Journal of Recreational Mathematics\" in the article \"Collecting gigantic and titanic primes\" (1992) by Samuel Yates. Chris Caldwell, who continued Yates' collection in The Prime Pages, reports that he changed the requirement from Yates' original 5,000 digits to 10,000 digits, when he was asked to revise the article after the death of Yates. Few primes of that size were known then, but a modern personal computer can find many in a day.\n", "The property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of checking the primality of a given number formula_1, called trial division, tests whether formula_1 is a multiple of any integer between 2 and formula_3. Faster algorithms include the Miller–Rabin primality test, which is fast but has a small chance of error, and the AKS primality test, which always produces the correct answer in polynomial time but is too slow to be practical. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of special forms, such as Mersenne numbers. the largest known prime number has 24,862,048 decimal digits.\n", "However, prime gaps of \"n\" numbers can occur at numbers much smaller than \"n\"!. For instance, the first prime gap of size larger than 14 occurs between the primes 523 and 541, while 15! is the vastly larger number 1307674368000.\n", "Since 1951 all the largest known primes have been found using these tests on computers. The search for ever larger primes has generated interest outside mathematical circles, through the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search and other distributed computing projects. The idea that prime numbers had few applications outside of pure mathematics was shattered in the 1970s when public-key cryptography and the RSA cryptosystem were invented, using prime numbers as their basis.\n", "A very important part of the computational number theory is to know if a number is prime. This can be difficult because it requires a large amount of computer power to prove primality in a large number.\n", "Primegrid worked with the Twin Prime Search to search for a record-sized twin prime at approximately 58,700 digits. The new world's largest known twin prime was eventually discovered on January 15, 2007 (sieved by Twin Prime Search and tested by PrimeGrid). The search continued for another record twin prime at just above 100,000 digits. It was completed in August 2009 when Primegrid found . Continued testing for twin primes in conjunction with the search for a Sophie Germain prime yielded a new record twin prime on September 2016 upon finding the number composed of 388,342 digits.\n\nSection::::Accomplishments.:Woodall prime search.\n", "The Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) currently offers a US$3,000 research discovery award for participants who download and run their free software and whose computer discovers a new Mersenne prime having fewer than 100 million digits.\n\nThere are several prizes offered by the Electronic Frontier Foundation for record primes. GIMPS is also coordinating its long-range search efforts for primes of 100 million digits and larger and will split the Electronic Frontier Foundation's US$150,000 prize with a winning participant.\n", "Section::::Computational methods.:Special-purpose algorithms and the largest known prime.\n\nIn addition to the aforementioned tests that apply to any natural number, some numbers of a special form can be tested for primality more quickly.\n\nFor example, the Lucas–Lehmer primality test can determine whether a Mersenne number (one less than a power of two) is prime, deterministically,\n\nin the same time as a single iteration of the Miller–Rabin test. This is why since 1992 () the largest \"known\" prime has always been a Mersenne prime.\n\nIt is conjectured that there are infinitely many Mersenne primes.\n", "The lack of any simple test to determine whether a given Mersenne number is prime makes the search for Mersenne primes a difficult task, since Mersenne numbers grow very rapidly. The Lucas–Lehmer primality test (LLT) is an efficient primality test that greatly aids this task, making it much easier to test the primality of Mersenne numbers than that of most other numbers of the same size. The search for the largest known prime has somewhat of a cult following. Consequently, a lot of computer power has been expended searching for new Mersenne primes, much of which is now done using distributed computing.\n", "Many mathematicians have worked on primality tests for numbers larger than those where trial division is practicably applicable. Methods that are restricted to specific number forms include Pépin's test for Fermat numbers (1877), Proth's theorem (c. 1878), the Lucas–Lehmer primality test (originated 1856), and the generalized Lucas primality test.\n", "We have chosen small numbers for this example, but in practice when we start factoring we may get factors that are themselves so large their primality is not obvious. We cannot prove is prime without proving that the factors of are prime as well. In such a case we use the same test recursively on the large factors of , until all of the primes are below a reasonable threshold.\n", "All Mersenne numbers below the 51st Mersenne prime () have been tested at least once but some have not been double-checked. Primes are not always discovered in increasing order. For example, the 29th Mersenne prime was discovered \"after\" the 30th and the 31st. Similarly, was followed by two smaller Mersenne primes, first 2 weeks later and then 9 months later. was the first discovered prime number with more than 10 million decimal digits.\n\nThe largest known Mersenne prime is also the largest known prime number.\n\nIn modern times, the largest known prime has almost always been a Mersenne prime.\n", "The most basic primality testing routine, trial division, is too slow to be useful for large numbers. One group of modern primality tests is applicable to arbitrary numbers, while more efficient tests are available for numbers of special types. Most primality tests only tell whether their argument is prime or not. Routines that also provide a prime factor of composite arguments (or all of its prime factors) are called factorization algorithms.\n\nPrime numbers are also used in computing for checksums, hash tables, and pseudorandom number generators.\n\nSection::::Computational methods.:Trial division.\n", "Although this method is simple to describe, it is impractical for testing the primality of large integers, because the number of tests that it performs grows exponentially as a function of the number of digits of these integers. However, trial division is still used, with a smaller limit than the square root on the divisor size, to quickly discover composite numbers with small factors, before using more complicated methods on the numbers that pass this filter.\n\nSection::::Computational methods.:Sieves.\n", "In contrast, the decision problem \"is \"N\" a composite number?\" (or equivalently: \"is \"N\" a prime number?\") appears to be much easier than the problem of actually finding the factors of \"N\". Specifically, the former can be solved in polynomial time (in the number \"n\" of digits of \"N\") with the AKS primality test. In addition, there are a number of probabilistic algorithms that can test primality very quickly in practice if one is willing to accept the vanishingly small possibility of error. The ease of primality testing is a crucial part of the RSA algorithm, as it is necessary to find large prime numbers to start with.\n", "Andrica's conjecture, Brocard's conjecture, Legendre's conjecture, and Oppermann's conjecture all suggest that the largest gaps between primes from formula_42 to formula_1 should be at most approximately formula_3, a result that is known to follow from the Riemann hypothesis,\n\nwhile the much stronger Cramér conjecture sets the largest gap size at formula_69.\n", "Generation of primes\n\nIn computational number theory, a variety of algorithms make it possible to generate prime numbers efficiently. These are used in various applications, for example hashing, public-key cryptography, and search of prime factors in large numbers.\n\nFor relatively small numbers, it is possible to just apply trial division to each successive odd number. Prime sieves are almost always faster.\n\nSection::::Prime sieves.\n", "The number of primes in this range is consistent with the expected number based on the prime number theorem.\n\nThe first discovered titanic primes were the Mersenne primes 2−1 (with 1281 digits), and 2−1 (with 1332 digits). They were both found November 3, 1961, by Alexander Hurwitz. It is a matter of definition which one was discovered first, since the primality of 2−1 was computed first, but Hurwitz saw the computer output about 2−1 first.\n\nSamuel Yates called those who proved the primality of a titanic prime \"titans\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Gigantic prime – at least 10,000 digits\n", ", the project has found a total of seventeen Mersenne primes, fifteen of which were the largest known prime number at their respective times of discovery. The largest known prime is 2 − 1 (or M in short). This prime was discovered on December 7, 2018 by Patrick Laroche.\n", "The following table lists the progression of the largest known prime number in ascending order. Here is the Mersenne number with exponent \"n\". The longest record-holder known was , which was the largest known prime for 144 years. No records are known before 1456.\n\nGIMPS found the fifteen latest records (all of them Mersenne primes) on ordinary computers operated by participants around the world.\n\nSection::::The twenty largest known prime numbers.\n\nA list of the 5,000 largest known primes is maintained by Chris K. Caldwell, of which the twenty largest are listed below.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mersenne prime\n\nBULLET::::- Primality test\n", "The following table gives the largest known primes of various types. Some of these primes have been found using distributed computing. In 2009, the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search project was awarded a US$100,000 prize for first discovering a prime with at least 10 million digits. The Electronic Frontier Foundation also offers $150,000 and $250,000 for primes with at least 100 million digits and 1 billion digits, respectively.\n\nSection::::Computational methods.:Integer factorization.\n", "As of later 1989, Surrey University had the largest Prime Site in Europe, having multiple copies of virtually every 50 series machine (mostly running Primos 20.x, but some still running 19.x).\n", "All Mersenne primes are of the form , where \"p\" is a prime number itself. The smallest Mersenne prime in this table is \n\nThe first column is the rank of the Mersenne prime in the (ordered) sequence of all Mersenne primes; GIMPS has found all known Mersenne primes beginning with the 35th.\n\nWhenever a possible prime is reported to the server, it is verified first before it is announced. The importance of this was illustrated in 2003, when a false positive was reported to possibly be the 40th Mersenne prime but verification failed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Apart from their low density, they are easier to find than strong primes, in that the programs are much simpler. It is not necessary to attempt the factorization of \"p\" − 1. (If \"p\" − 1 is difficult to factor, then \"p\" is rejected, and \"p\" + 2 is tried. This is repeated until \"p\" − 1 factors easily. This will happen sooner than \"p\" would become a safe prime, on average, because primes \"p\" for which \"p\" − 1 factors easily are fairly dense.) All of this is made possible by the fact that there are extremely fast probabilistic tests for primality, such as the Miller–Rabin primality test.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19848	Why do the hemispheres of the brain control the opposite side of the body?	From what I understand we really don't know why it was the case as it happened extremely early in the development of life. However one theory that makes some sense is that it came from extremely simple forms of life. If they detected food to one side they would need to trigger the motive limb on their opposite side to turn towards the food. That then was the template for future development.	[ "In the 19th century and to a lesser extent the 20th, it was thought that each side of the brain was associated with a specific gender: the left corresponding with masculinity and the right with femininity and each half could function independently. The right side of the brain was seen as the inferior and thought to be prominent in women, savages, children, criminals, and the insane. A prime example of this in fictional literature can be seen in Robert Louis Stevenson's \"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde\".\n\nSection::::Evolutionary advantage.\n", "The sympathetic nervous system is predominantly controlled by the right side of the brain (focused upon the insular cortex), while the left side predominantly controls the parasympathetic nervous system. The cerebral cortex in rodents shows lateral specialization in its regulation of immunity with immunosuppression being controlled by the right hemisphere, and immunopotention by the left one. Humans show similar lateral specialized control of the immune system from the evidence of strokes, surgery to control epilepsy, and the application of TMS.\n\nSection::::Brainstem.\n", "Perceptual information is processed in both hemispheres, but is laterally partitioned: information from each side of the body is sent to the opposite hemisphere (visual information is partitioned somewhat differently, but still lateralized). Similarly, motor control signals sent out to the body also come from the hemisphere on the opposite side. Thus, hand preference (which hand someone prefers to use) is also related to hemisphere lateralization.\n", "BULLET::::- In chondrichthyans (sharks and skates) the thalamus does not retrieve a branch from the optic tract but only from the contralateral optic tectum, so that the optic path decussates twice and the forebrain represents the ipsilateral eye.\n\nBULLET::::- In large brains, some functions tend to be strongly lateralized. E.g., the language regions (Broca's and Wernicke's area) are in the left side in most humans.\n", "It has been shown that cerebral lateralization is a widespread phenomenon in the animal kingdom. Functional and structural differences between left and right brain hemispheres can be found in many other vertebrates and also in invertebrates.\n\nIt has been proposed that negative, withdrawal-associated emotions are processed predominantly by the right hemisphere, whereas the left hemisphere is largely responsible for processing positive, approach-related emotions. This has been called the \"laterality-valence hypothesis\".\n\nOne sub-set of laterality in animals is limb dominance. Preferential limb use for specific tasks has been shown in species including chimpanzees, mice, bats, wallabies, parrots, chickens and toads.\n", "The contralateral organization of the forebrain (Latin: contra ‚against‘; latus ‚side‘, lateral ‚sided‘) is the property that the hemispheres of the cerebrum and the thalamus represent mainly the contralateral side of the body. Consequently, the left side of the forebrain mostly represents the right side of the body and the right side of the brain represents mostly the left side of the body. The contralateral organization involves both, executive and sensory functions (e.g., a left-sided brain lesion may cause a right-sided hemiplegia). The contralateral organization is present in all vertebrates but in no invertebrate. According to current theories, the forebrain is twisted about the long axis of the body, so that not only the left and right sides, but also dorsal and ventral sides are interchanged (see below).\n", "The efferent motor neurons on the other hand adapted to the new situation and crossed. Like that the visual input on one side still controls the corresponding side of the body and hence the motor control on that side. So the right hemisphere controls the left part of the body and vice versa, which has in addition the advantage that the motor control and self defense can be maintained after injury on the injured side. It would make sense that the same mechanism also leads to the change from a convex to a concave retina, at least at the beginning of eye evolution. The change of sides could be caused by a protein like Myosin D1, which causes asymmetry, or a similar protein.\n", "BULLET::::- Most afferent and efferent connections of the forebrain have bilateral components, especially outside the primary sensory and motor regions. As a result, a hemiplegia that is acquired at very young age can be completely compensated over time.\n\nSection::::Theories.\n\nAccording to current understanding, the contralateral organization is due to an axial twist (see below). A number of alternative proposals have been published earlier, the most popular of which is the visual map theory.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Visual map theory by Cajal.\n", "Most humans are right-handed. Many are also right-sided in general (that is, they prefer to use their right eye, right foot and right ear if forced to make a choice between the two). The reasons for this are not fully understood, but it is thought that because the left cerebral hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body, the right side is generally stronger; it is suggested that the left cerebral hemisphere is dominant over the right in most humans because in 90-92% of all humans, the left hemisphere is the language hemisphere.\n", "Rather than just being a series of places where different brain modules occur, there are running similarities in the kind of function seen in each side, for instance how right-side impairment of drawing ability making patients draw the parts of the subject matter with wholly incoherent relationships, or where the kind of left-side damage seen in language impairment not damaging the patient's ability to catch the significance of intonation in speech. This has led Iain McGilchrist to say that the two hemispheres as having different value systems, where the left hemisphere tends to reduce complex matters such as ethics to rules and measures, where the right hemisphere is disposed to the holistic and metaphorical.\n", "According to the dorsoventral inversion hypothesis, an ancestral deuterostome turned on its back. As a result, vertebrates have a dorsal nervous system whereas protostomes have a ventral one. According to the somatic twist hypothesis, not the entire animal turned on its back but just the ″somatic″ part, i.e., everything behind the eyes, mouth and nostrils, including the forebrain.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Twist theories.:Comparing Inversion, Somatic twist and Axial twist.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.\n", "The Fusiform Face Area (FFA) is an area that has been studied to be highly active when faces are being attended to in the visual field. A FFA is found to be present in both hemispheres, however, studies have found that the FFA is predominantly lateralized in the right hemisphere where a more in-depth cognitive processing of faces is conducted. The left hemisphere FFA is associated with rapid processing of faces and their features.\n\nSection::::Brain Asymmetry in Humans.:Other Regions and Associated Diseases.\n", "Continued study of brain asymmetry also contributes to the understanding and treatment of complex diseases. Neuroimaging in patients with Alzheimer's disease, for example, shows significant deterioration in the left hemisphere, along with a rightward hemispheric dominance—which could relate to recruitment of resources to that side of the brain in the face of damage to the left. These hemispheric changes have been connected to performance on memory tasks.\n\nAs has been the case in the past, studies on language processing and the implications of left- and right- handedness also dominate current research on brain asymmetry.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Split-brain\n\nBULLET::::- Laterality\n", "In holoprosencephaly the hemispheres of the cerebrum or part of it are not aligned on the left and right side but on the frontal and occipital side of the skull, and usually remains very small. According to the axial twist hypothesis, this represents an extreme case of Yakovlevian torque, and\n\nmay occur when the cerebrum does not turn during early embryology.\n", "The neurons in the dorsal aspect of the facial motor nucleus receive inputs from both sides of the cortex, while those in the ventral aspect mainly receive contralateral inputs (i.e. from the opposite side of the cortex). The result is that both sides of the brain control the muscles of the upper face, while the right side of the brain controls the lower left side of the face, and the left side of the brain controls the lower right side of the face.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "The anterior–posterior dimension of the neuraxis overlays the superior–inferior dimension of the body. However, there is a major curve between the brain stem and forebrain, which is called the cephalic flexure. Because of this, the neuraxis starts in an inferior position—the end of the spinal cord—and ends in an anterior position, the front of the cerebrum. This may be confusing, and can be illustrated when looking at a four-legged animal standing up on two legs. Without the flexure in the brain stem, and at the top of the neck, that animal would be looking straight up instead of straight in front.\n", "Laterality\n\nLaterality is the preference most humans show for one side of their body over the other. Examples include right/left-handedness and right/left-footedness; it may also refer to the primary use of the left or right hemisphere in the brain. It may also apply to animals or plants. The majority of tests have been conducted on humans, specifically to determine the effects on language. The vast majority of the world’s population always has right laterality, in any form.\n\nSection::::Human.\n", "Broad generalizations are often made in popular psychology about certain functions (e.g. logic, creativity) being lateralized, that is, located in the right or left side of the brain. These claims are often inaccurate, as most brain functions are actually distributed across both hemispheres. Most scientific evidence for asymmetry relates to low-level perceptual functions rather than the higher-level functions popularly discussed (e.g. subconscious processing of grammar, not \"logical thinking\" in general). In addition to this lateralization of some functions, the low-level representations also tend to represent the contralateral side of the body.\n", "In the 1940s, neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield and his neurologist colleague Herbert Jasper developed a technique of brain mapping to help reduce side effects caused by surgery to treat epilepsy. They stimulated motor and somatosensory cortices of the brain with small electrical currents to activate discrete brain regions. They found that stimulation of one hemisphere's motor cortex produces muscle contraction on the opposite side of the body. Furthermore, the functional map of the motor and sensory cortices is fairly consistent from person to person; Penfield and Jasper's famous pictures of the motor and sensory homunculi were the result.\n\nSection::::History.:Split-brain patients.\n", "Some significant regions that can present as asymmetrical in the brain can result in either of the hemispheres due to factors such as genetics. An example would include handedness. Handedness can result from asymmetry in the motor cortex of one hemisphere. For right handed individuals, since the brain operates the contralateral side of the body, they could have a more induced motor cortex in the left hemisphere. Conditions associated with damage to one side or the other\n", "Psychiatrist, professor Tim Crow, also believes the gene explains lateralisation. Humans have \"lateralised\" brains, in which the different sides became specialised for particular jobs. For instance 90% of people will use their right hands for fiddly tasks. A chimpanzee is just as likely to use either hand. It also explains why, for right-handed people, linguistic functions are concentrated on the left side of the brain.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nThe primary purpose of the corticospinal tract is for voluntary motor control of the body and limbs. However, connections to the somatosensory cortex suggest that the pyramidal tracts are also responsible for modulating sensory information from the body.\n\nBecause some of the connections cross the midline, each side of the brain is responsible for controlling muscles for the limbs on opposite sides of the body, while controlling trunk muscles on the same side of the body.\n", "The processing of basic sensory information is lateralized by being divided into left and right sides of the body or the space around the body.\n\nIn vision, about half the neurons of the optic nerve from each eye cross to project to the opposite hemisphere and about half do not cross to project to the hemisphere on the same side. This means that the left side of the visual field is processed largely by the visual cortex of the right hemisphere and vice versa for the right side of the visual field.\n", "The widespread lateralization of many vertebrate animals indicates an evolutionary advantage associated with the specialization of each hemisphere.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Broca.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04211	Why do some farmers plant crops in big circles, rather than sticking with squares or rectangles? Aren't they losing ~21.5% of crop area?	area isn't the limiting factor in places they use center pivot irrigation. It may be water, it may be labor, it may be transportation.	[ "Furrow irrigation is the typical choice for row crops such as cotton, sugar-cane and grains. Border-Check irrigation is the dominant technique for irrigating pasture. Centre pivots and lateral move machines are also used within row cropping and pasture/fodder crops and offer higher levels of control than furrow irrigation. Smaller scale sprinkler systems such as solid set systems with impact sprinklers are commonly used to grow vegetables and turf. Drip systems are found within most of the high value perennial horticultural crops such as grapes and fruit trees.\n", "Farmers might choose lateral-move irrigation to keep existing rectangular fields. This can help them convert from furrow irrigation. Lateral-move irrigation is far less common, relies on more complex guidance systems, and requires additional management compared to center pivot irrigation. Lateral-move irrigation is common in Australia. There, systems are usually between 500 and 1,000 meters long.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "The organisation of individual plants within a field is also variable and typically depends on the crop being grown. Many vegetables, cereals, and fruits are grown in contiguous rows which are wide enough to allow cultivation (or mowing, in the case of fruits) without damaging crop plants. Other systems aim for maximum plant density and have no such organisation. Forages are grown in this manner, since animal traffic is expected and maximum plant density is required for their nutrition, as are cover crops, since their purpose of competing with weeds and preventing soil erosion depends largely on density.\n\nSection::::Residue management.\n", "In the 1970s, Senninger worked with researchers and agricultural engineers at the Texas A&M University to develop a system that would reduce the energy requirements of a mechanical move system, while maximizing the use of both rainfall and applied irrigation water. In 1981, this joint effort resulted in the release of the Quad Spray, the first LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application) sprinkler for center pivots. Using center pivot and linear move machines, LEPA sprinklers maximize the amount of water delivered to roots and minimizes water pressure and therefore energy use, through a combination of sprinkler heads that avoid wetting the crop canopy and conservation tillage practices that preserve soil moisture and reduce runoff.\n", "In the American Midwest (US), it is associated not with sustainable agriculture but with mainstream farmers who are trying to maximize profits by spending money only in areas that require fertilizer. This practice allows the farmer to vary the rate of fertilizer across the field according to the need identified by GPS guided Grid or Zone Sampling. Fertilizer that would have been spread in areas that don't need it can be placed in areas that do, thereby optimizing its use.\n", "The cultivation rotation systems between soy, cotton, and corn is effectively utilized within all of SLC Agrícola's farms and provides several benefits to the productive system, along with spreading the fixed costs.\n\nThe use of this technique helps the farms have better control over infective plants, fewer outbreaks of pests and diseases on the fields, and better usage of the machinery and crew.\n\nSection::::Soil management.\n", "The concept of precision agriculture first emerged in the United States in the early 1980s. In 1985, researchers at the University of Minnesota varied lime inputs in crop fields. It was also at this time that the practice of grid sampling appeared (applying a fixed grid of one sample per hectare). Towards the end of the 1980s, this technique was used to derive the first input recommendation maps for fertilizers and pH corrections. The use of yield sensors developed from new technologies, combined with the advent of GPS receivers, has been gaining ground ever since. Today, such systems cover several million hectares.\n", "Double-cropping is common where two crops, typically of different species, are grown sequentially in the same growing season, or where one crop (e.g. vegetable) is grown continuously with a cover crop (e.g. wheat). This is advantageous for small farms, who often cannot afford to leave cover crops to replenish the soil for extended periods of time, as larger farms can. When multiple cropping is implemented on small farms, these systems can maximize benefits of crop rotation on available land resources.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Centre pivot irrigation is often used for grass and fodder crops where the water can be distributed over a considerable period of time. In other crops where moisture stress is a complex concern, for example during the growing of cauliflower, water is required to be distributed quickly two or three specific times per day at a rate of about 140% the evaporation replacement rate and for this impact sprinklers set every 12 square metres or butterfly sprinklers set every 6 square metres are required. Drip sprinklers can be used on many spaced planting locations but typically will be found as gravity fed systems on vineyards.\n", "BULLET::::- Mixed intercropping, as the name implies, is the most basic form in which the component crops are totally mixed in the available space.\n\nBULLET::::- Row cropping involves the component crops arranged in alternate rows. Variations include alley cropping, where crops are grown in between rows of trees, and strip cropping, where multiple rows, or a strip, of one crop are alternated with multiple rows of another crop. A new version of this is to intercrop rows of solar photovoltaic modules with agriculture crops. This practice is called agrivoltaics.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Portable water storage tanks\" made from plastic tarpaulin material, commonly used as elevated tanks as part of Proximity’s gravity-fed drip irrigation systems. These tanks come in three different sizes – 100, 150 and 250 gallons.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Farm advisory services\" featuring training in selected low-cost, simple agricultural practices that increase yields and protect farmers against losses caused by pests, diseases and overuse of pesticides.\n", "Section::::Crop choice.:Row crops.\n\nMany crops which are critical for the market, like vegetables, are row crops (that is, grown in tight rows). While often the most profitable for farmers, these crops are more taxing on the soil. Row crops typically have low biomass and shallow roots: this means the plant contributes low residue to the surrounding soil and has limited effects on structure. With much of the soil around the plant exposed to disruption by rainfall and traffic, fields with row crops experience faster break down of organic matter by microbes, leaving fewer nutrients for future plants.\n", "Row spacing is the second factor that determines canopy closure and yield components. Row spacing can either refer to the space between plants in the same row or the distance between two rows. Row spacing determines the degree of plant to plant competition. Rows planted closer together in a population will decrease the space between plants. Closer row widths increase plant to plant competition for nutrients and water but also increase sunlight use efficiency. According to former Iowa State University Soybean Extension Specialist Palle Pedersen, current recommendations are to plant rows that are less than 30\" apart. This increases light interception and decreases weed competition.\n", "In addition to their negative impact on crop quality and yield, weeds can slow down the harvesting process. Weeds make farmers less efficient when harvesting, because weeds like bindweeds, and knotgrass, can become tangled in the equipment, resulting in a stop-and-go type of harvest.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Preventing soil erosion.\n\nCrop rotation can significantly reduce the amount of soil lost from erosion by water. In areas that are highly susceptible to erosion, farm management practices such as zero and reduced tillage can be supplemented with specific crop rotation methods to reduce raindrop impact, sediment detachment, sediment transport, surface runoff, and soil loss.\n", "Spot and row seeders use less seed that does broadcast ground or aerial seeding but may induce clumping. Row and spot seeding confer greater ability to control seed placement than does broadcast seeding. Also, only a small percentage of the total area needs to be treated.\n", "Writer Emily Woodson characterized the increased use of the center pivot irrigation system as part of a profound attitude shift towards modernism (expensive tractors, center-pivot irrigation, dangerous new pesticides) and away from traditional farming that took place in the mid-1970s and 1980s in the United States. A new generation chose high-risk, high-reward crops such as irrigated corn or peanuts, which require large quantities of ground water, fertilizer and chemicals. The new family farm corporations turned many pastures into new cropland and were more interested in rising land prices than water conservation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Irrigation management\n", "Section::::Alternative explanations.:Magnetism.\n\nIn 2000, Colin Andrews, who had researched crop circles for 17 years, stated that while he believed 80% were man-made, he thought the remaining circles, with less elaborate designs, could be explained by a three-degree shift in the Earth's magnetic field, that creates a current that \"electrocutes\" the crops, causing them to flatten and form the circle.\n\nSection::::Folklore.\n", "Although farmers expressed concern at the damage caused to their crops, local response to the appearance of crop circles was often enthusiastic, with locals taking advantage of the increase of tourism and visits from scientists, crop circle researchers, and individuals seeking spiritual experiences. The market for crop-circle interest consequently generated bus or helicopter tours of circle sites, walking tours, T-shirts, and book sales.\n\nSection::::History.:21st century.\n\nSince the start of the 21st century, crop formations have increased in size and complexity, with some featuring as many as 2,000 different shapes and some incorporating complex mathematical and scientific characteristics.\n", "The effect of crop rotation on erosion control varies by climate. In regions under relatively consistent climate conditions, where annual rainfall and temperature levels are assumed, rigid crop rotations can produce sufficient plant growth and soil cover. In regions where climate conditions are less predictable, and unexpected periods of rain and drought may occur, a more flexible approach for soil cover by crop rotation is necessary. An opportunity cropping system promotes adequate soil cover under these erratic climate conditions. In an opportunity cropping system, crops are grown when soil water is adequate and there is a reliable sowing window. This form of cropping system is likely to produce better soil cover than a rigid crop rotation because crops are only sown under optimal conditions, whereas rigid systems are not necessarily sown in the best conditions available.\n", "Integrating certain crops, especially cover crops, into crop rotations is of particular value to weed management. These crops crowd out weed through competition. In addition, the sod and compost from cover crops and green manure slows the growth of what weeds are still able to make it through the soil, giving the crops further competitive advantage. By removing slowing the growth and proliferation of weeds while cover crops are cultivated, farmers greatly reduce the presence of weeds for future crops, including shallow rooted and row crops, which are less resistant to weeds. Cover crops are, therefore, considered conservation crops because they protect otherwise fallow land from becoming overrun with weeds.\n", "\"Terracing\" is also practiced by farmers on a smaller scale by laying out the direction of furrows to slow water runoff downhill, usually by plowing along either contours or keylines. Moisture can be conserved by eliminating weeds and leaving crop residue to shade the soil.\n", "Irrigation methods in Australia have improved over many years allowing for more efficient production per megalitre of water used. Current methods include systems such as centre pivot irrigation, impact (knocker) sprinklers, butterfly sprinklers, drip and surface irrigation. Surface irrigation remains the most common irrigation technique accounting for 58.6% of the total area irrigated in 2013/14 compared to 10.8% for drip, 13.2% for centre pivot and lateral move machines and 4.4% for microspray systems. These values may change from season to season due to water availability and commodity prices.\n", "Most center pivot systems now have drops hanging from a u-shaped pipe called a \"gooseneck\" attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses and wind drift. There are many different nozzle configurations available including static plate, moving plate and part circle. Pressure regulators are typically installed upstream of each nozzle to ensure each is operating at the correct design pressure.\n", "Other benefits of rotation cropping systems include production cost advantages. Overall financial risks are more widely distributed over more diverse production of crops and/or livestock. Less reliance is placed on purchased inputs and over time crops can maintain production goals with fewer inputs. This in tandem with greater short and long term yields makes rotation a powerful tool for improving agricultural systems.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Soil organic matter.\n", "The SideWinder II armrest is a new command control for T6, T7, T8 and T9 tractor ranges. The most frequently used controls have been placed in this armrest to improve ergonomics and productivity.\n\nSection::::Trademarks.:Crop ID.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01775	How did the Wall Street Crash of 1929 effect everything after?	The primary thing was the creation of the [US Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC]( URL_0 ) in 1934. The US Securities market had little to no regulation before the crash and we realized we needed an federal agency responsible for oversight and regulation. Fun Fact: For the inaugural SEC Chairman, FDR appointed one of the most crooked, unethical traders known to wall street...Joe Kennedy. FDR's philosophy was if we wanted to cut out the shenanigans, let's get an expert. To Joe's credit, he did a fair job and successfully reformed the Securities market.	[ "Debt reached unsustainable levels. Speculation in stocks drove prices up to unpresented valuation levels. The stock market crashed in late October 1929.\n\nSection::::Early 20th century.:Political developments.\n\nThe Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was the first of a series of legislation that led to the establishment of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Another such act passed the same year was the Federal Meat Inspection Act. The new laws helped the large packers, and hurt small operations that lacked economy of scale or quality controls.\n", "April 17th: Dow reaches a secondary closing peak (i.e., bear market rally) of 294.07, followed by a long stagnation until a severe decline began in April 1931. This peak matches early-1929 levels, but is 30% below the September 1929 peak. \n\nMay: Automobile sales fall below 1928 levels.\n", "The major event of the year for the United States was the stock market crash on Wall Street, which was to have international effects. On September 3, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) peaked at 381.17, a height it would not reach again until November 1954. Then, from October 24–October 29, stock prices suffered three multi-digit percentage drops, wiping out more than $30 billion from the New York Stock Exchange (10 times greater than the annual budget of the federal government). On December 3 U.S. President Herbert Hoover announced to the U.S. Congress that the worst effects of the recent stock market crash were behind the nation, and that the American people had regained faith in the economy.\n", "April - June: Federal Reserve conducts open market transactions, increasing the money supply by $1 billion.\n\nSummer 1932: Majority of foreign trade restrictions take effect, from Smoot-Hawley in the U.S. and Imperial Preference in the British Empire\n\nJune 6th - the Revenue Act of 1932 is signed into law, raising taxes on personal income, corporate income, and sales taxes on various goods.\n\nJuly: U.S. government discontinues open market operations.\n\nJuly 8th: the Dow Jones Industrial Index bottoms out at 41.22, the lowest level recorded in the 20th Century and representing an 89% loss from its peak in September 1929. \n", "The bubble of the late 1920s was reflected by the extension of credit to a dangerous degree, including in the stock market, which rose to record high levels. Government size had been at low levels, causing major freedom of the economy and more prosperity. It became apparent in retrospect after the stock market crash of 1929 that credit levels had become dangerously inflated.\n\nSection::::Roaring Twenties.:Immigration restriction.\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – U.S. presidential election, 1928: Herbert C. Hoover elected president and Charles Curtis vice president\n\nBULLET::::- 1929 – St. Valentine's Day Massacre\n\nSection::::1920s.:Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover.\n\nBULLET::::- 1929 – Herbert C. Hoover becomes the 31st President, Charles Curtis becomes the Vice President\n\nBULLET::::- 1929 – Immigration Act\n\nBULLET::::- 1929 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average plummets a record 68 points over a two-day period, setting off the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and triggering the Great Depression\n\nBULLET::::- 1929 – The Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) opens to the public in New York City\n", "The memory of the Depression also shaped modern theories of economics and resulted in many changes in how the government dealt with economic downturns, such as the use of stimulus packages, Keynesian economics, and Social Security. It also shaped modern American literature, resulting in famous novels such as John Steinbeck's \"The Grapes of Wrath\" and \"Of Mice and Men\".\n", "After World War I, the global economy remained strong through the 1920s. The war had provided a stimulus for industry and for economic activity in general. There were many warning signs foretelling the collapse of the global economic system in 1929 that were generally not understood by the political leadership of the time. The responses to the crisis often made the situation worse, as millions of people watched their savings become next to worthless and the idea of a steady job with a reasonable income fading away.\n", "Section::::Great Depression and World War II: 1929–1945.:Great Depression: 1929–1941.:New Deal impact.\n\nA 2017 review of the published scholarship summarized the findings of researchers as follows:\n", "Section::::Great Depression and World War II: 1929–1945.:Wartime output and controls: 1940–1945.\n\nUnemployment dropped to 2%, relief programs largely ended, and the industrial economy grew rapidly to new heights as millions of people moved to new jobs in war centers, and 16 million men and 300,000 women were drafted or volunteered for military service.\n", "The devastating Wall Street Crash in October 1929 is generally viewed as a harbinger of the end of 1920s prosperity in North America and Europe.\n\nSection::::Social history.\n", "For the rest of the 1930s, beginning on March 15, 1933, the Dow began to slowly regain the ground it had lost during the 1929 crash and the three years following it. The largest percentage increases of the Dow Jones occurred during the early and mid-1930s. In late 1937, there was a sharp dip in the stock market, but prices held well above the 1932 lows. The market would not return to the peak closing of September 3, 1929, until November 23, 1954.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n", "At the end of the recession, production quickly rebounded. Industrial production returned to its peak levels by October 1922. The AT&T Index of Industrial Productivity showed a decline of 29.4%, followed by an increase of 60.1%—by this measure, the recession of 1920–21 had the most severe decline and most robust recovery of any recession between 1899 and the Great Depression.\n", "This article focuses on the economic milestones, with some mention of the political and social impact of the depression on nations and classes in a global context.\n\nSection::::1929.\n", "The Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the era, as the Great Depression brought years of hardship worldwide.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n", "BULLET::::- Field, Alexander J. \"A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth\" (Yale University Press; 2011) 387 pages; argues that technological innovations in the 1930s laid the foundation for economic success in World War II and postwar\n\nBULLET::::- Friedman, Milton and Anna J. Schwartz, \"A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960\" (1963) classic monetarist explanation; highly statistical\n\nBULLET::::- Friedman, Milton and Anna J. Schwartz, \"The Great Contraction 1929–1933\" (New Edition, 2008), chapter from \"A Monetary History\" covering Great Contraction\n\nBULLET::::- Fuller, Robert Lynn, \"Phantom of Fear\" The Banking Panic of 1933 (2012)\n", "The Great Depression started in the United States after a major fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929, (known as Black Tuesday). Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide gross domestic product (GDP) fell by an estimated 15%. By comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. However, in many countries the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II.\n", "BULLET::::- The origins of this depression lie to some extent within our own borders through a speculative period which diverted capital and energy into speculation rather than constructive enterprise. Had over-speculation in securities been the only force operating, we should have seen recovery many months ago, as these particular dislocations have generally readjusted themselves.\n", "Historians and economists still have not agreed on the causes of the Great Depression, but there is general agreement that it began in the United States in late 1929 and was either started or worsened by \"Black Thursday,\" the stock market crash of Thursday, October 24, 1929. Sectors of the US economy had been showing some signs of distress for months before October 1929. Business inventories of all types were three times as large as they had been a year before (an indication that the public was not buying products as rapidly as in the past), and other signposts of economic health—freight carloads, industrial production, and wholesale prices—were slipping downward.\n", "BULLET::::- October 24–29 – Wall Street Crash of 1929: Three multi-digit percentage drops wipe out more than $30 billion from the New York Stock Exchange (10 times greater than the annual budget of the federal government).\n\nBULLET::::- October 25 – Former U.S. Interior Secretary Albert B. Fall is convicted of bribery for his role in the Teapot Dome scandal, becoming the first Presidential cabinet member to go to prison for actions in office.\n\nBULLET::::- October 29 – The stock market crashes.\n\nBULLET::::- October 30 – The Stuttgart Cable Car is constructed in Stuttgart, Germany.\n\nSection::::Events.:November.\n", "BULLET::::- After several days of losses, the crashing New York Stock Exchange bottomed out with a mass selling spree. Between Wednesday and Saturday the Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 33 points and the six market leaders alone lost over $800 million of their value on paper. Big single-day losses on Saturday included Radio Corporation of America (72 points), Wright Aeronautical (26 points), Montgomery Ward (24 points) and Kolster Radio (17 points).\n", "When comparing the highest and lowest points of the stock market during the Kennedy Slide, the paper values of stocks declined 27% during the period of December 1961 and June 1962. The 1929–1932 bear market, which was a substantial cause of the Great Depression, saw a sharp drop of 89%. Many aspects of the Kennedy Slide of 1962 mirrored those of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, such as the detrimental mix of an extremely volatile stock market, fearful investors, and weak leadership.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Wall Street Crash of 1929\n\nBULLET::::- Great Depression\n\nBULLET::::- Stock market crash\n", "BULLET::::- the 1973 oil crisis,\n\nBULLET::::- productivity growth fell to a low level after 1973 and remained low until the 1990s,\n\nBULLET::::- the 1973–1974 stock market crash,\n\nBULLET::::- and the ensuing displacement of Keynesian economics by monetarist economics, especially by the free-market Chicago School of Economics, led by economist Milton Friedman. At the same time, the consensus among experts moved against New-Deal-style regulation, in favor of deregulation.\n", "Furthermore, Jerome says that the volume of new capital issues increased at a 7.7% compounded annual rate from 1922 to 1929 at a time when the Standard Statistics Co.'s index of 60 high grade bonds yielded from 4.98% in 1923 to 4.47% in 1927.\n", "Section::::Early 20th century.:Quality of life.\n\nThe early decades of the 20th century were remarkable for the improvements of the quality of life in the U.S. The quality of housing improved, with houses offering better protection against cold. Floor space per occupant increased. Sanitation was greatly improved by the building of water supply and sewage systems, plus the treatment of drinking water by filtration and chlorination. The change over to internal combustion took horses off the streets and eliminated horse manure and urine and the flies they attracted.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21506	Why do fruits and vegetables still mature once harvested ? Shouldn’t they just rot ?	Actually, only a certain classification of fruits do still mature once harvested. They are called climacteric fruits. Unlike non-climacteric fruits which stop their ripening process once harvested, climacteric ones still actively continue their ripening process until their food reserve runs out. Typical characteristics of climacteric fruits are 1. Contain big amount of starch 2. Affected by ethylene gas presence 3. Can change colors during ripening stages Bananas and avocados are climacteric. Rotting process takes place when a fruit can no longer sustain its physiological processes such as respiration (breathing) and transpiration (letting out water vapor). Climacteric fruits in the end will still rot, especially after the end of its ripening stage. Hope that helps :)	[ "When a vegetable is harvested, it is cut off from its source of water and nourishment. It continues to transpire and loses moisture as it does so, a process most noticeable in the wilting of green leafy crops. Harvesting root vegetables when they are fully mature improves their storage life, but alternatively, these root crops can be left in the ground and harvested over an extended period. The harvesting process should seek to minimise damage and bruising to the crop. Onions and garlic can be dried for a few days in the field and root crops such as potatoes benefit from a short maturation period in warm, moist surroundings, during which time wounds heal and the skin thickens up and hardens. Before marketing or storage, grading needs to be done to remove damaged goods and select produce according to its quality, size, ripeness, and color.\n", "The objective of preserving vegetables is to extend their availability for consumption or marketing purposes. The aim is to harvest the food at its maximum state of palatability and nutritional value, and preserve these qualities for an extended period. The main causes of deterioration in vegetables after they are gathered are the actions of naturally-occurring enzymes and the spoilage caused by micro-organisms. Canning and freezing are the most commonly used techniques, and vegetables preserved by these methods are generally similar in nutritional value to comparable fresh products with regards to carotenoids, vitamin E, minerals. and dietary fiber.\n", "Fruits and vegetables are very susceptible to mechanical injury. This can occur at any stage of the marketing chain and can result from poor harvesting practices such as the use of dirty cutting knives; unsuitable containers used at harvest time or during the marketing process, e.g. containers that can be easily squashed or have splintered wood, sharp edges or poor nailing; overpacking or underpacking of containers; and careless handling of containers. Resultant damage can include splitting of fruits, internal bruising, superficial grazing, and crushing of soft produce. Poor handling can thus result in development of entry points for moulds and bacteria, increased water loss, and an increased respiration rate.\n", "Section::::Production.:Storage.\n\nAll vegetables benefit from proper post harvest care. A large proportion of vegetables and perishable foods are lost after harvest during the storage period. These losses may be as high as thirty to fifty percent in developing countries where adequate cold storage facilities are not available. The main causes of loss include spoilage caused by moisture, moulds, micro-organisms, and vermin.\n", "The flowering and ripening processes do not happen simultaneously, enabling harvesting of both fresh fruits and seeds over a long span of time. The fruits tend to fall from the plant as they ripen, getting lost in the soil. Thus, there is no optimal fixed harvest time. Consequently, to avoid yield loss, unripe fruits need to be harvested. This early harvesting has no effect on quality. Overall it is said that harvesting the fruits by hand is the most convenient solution.\n\nSection::::Description.:Diseases and pests.\n", "Ripening occurs when a fruit is mature. Ripeness is followed by senescence and breakdown of the fruit. The category “fruit” refers also to products such as aubergine, sweet pepper and tomato. Non-climacteric fruit only ripen while still attached to the parent plant. Their eating quality suffers if they are harvested before fully ripe as their sugar and acid content does not increase further. Examples are citrus, grapes and pineapple. Early harvesting is often carried out for export shipments to minimise loss during transport, but a consequence of this is that the flavour suffers. Climacteric fruit are those that can be harvested when mature but before ripening has begun. These include banana, melon, papaya, and tomato. In commercial fruit marketing the rate of ripening is controlled artificially, thus enabling transport and distribution to be carefully planned. Ethylene gas is produced in most plant tissues and is important in starting off the ripening process. It can be used commercially for the ripening of climacteric fruits. However, natural ethylene produced by fruits can lead to in- storage losses. For example, ethylene destroys the green colour of plants. Leafy vegetables will be damaged if stored with ripening fruit. Ethylene production is increased when fruits are injured or decaying and this can cause early ripening of climacteric fruit during transport.\n", "The long-term storage of vegetables and fruit involves inhibiting the ripening and ageing processes, thus retaining flavor and quality. Ripening is delayed by reducing the level of oxygen and increasing that of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in the cool cell so that the respiration is reduced. Normal atmosphere consists of roughly 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.3 carbon dioxide and a couple of other gasses. In CA the oxygen is reduced to 1.5-2 percent roughly, depending on variety. This is replaced mostly with nitrogen and a little bit of carbon dioxide the apple produces. Under controlled atmosphere conditions the quality and the freshness of fruit and vegetables are retained, and many products can be stored for 2 to 4 times longer than usual.\n", "Preservation and processing of fresh produce poses many biological engineering challenges. Understanding of biology is particularly important to processing produce because most fruits and vegetables are living organisms from the time of harvest to the time of consumption. Before harvesting, understanding of plant ontogeny, or origin and development, and the manipulation of these developmental processes are key components of the industrial agriculture process. Understanding of plant developmental cycles governs how and when plants are harvested, impacts storage environments, and contributes to creating intervention processes. Even after harvesting, fruits and vegetables undergo the biological processes of respiration, transpiration, and ripening. Control over these natural plant processes should be achieved to prevent food spoilage, sprouting or growth of produce during storage, and reduction in quality or desirability, such as through wilting or loss of desirable texture.\n", "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.:Modified atmosphere.\n\nModifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops that are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reduce the oxygen (O) concentration and increase the carbon dioxide (CO) concentration. There is concern that, although salad vegetables retain their appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain nutrients, especially vitamins.\n", "Section::::On-farm causes of loss.\n", "Pieces of input are discarded if they are already badly rotten, or show green or black mould. These harbour putrefying organisms which may overwhelm the fermentation.\n\nLarge items, and shapes with holes or depressions, can create air pockets which degrade the anaerobic environment. However most such items can be cut, crushed or broken up, so in practice this excludes only strong bones or similar.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Emissions.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Emissions.:Carbon, gases and energy.\n", "Some foods, such as bananas, are picked when unripe, are cooled to prevent ripening while they are shipped to market, and then are induced to ripen quickly by exposing them to propylene or ethylene, chemicals produced by plants to induce their own ripening; as flavor and texture changes during ripening, this process may affect those qualities of the treated fruit.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition.\n", "Even if climate and vineyard management has been ideal, other factors may prevent full and even ripeness. Among the clusters of a grapevine, individual berries may not all ripen at the same pace. This problem, commonly known as millerandage, could occur because of poor weather during the flowering period of the grape but can also be caused by soil deficient in various nutrients such as boron, an attack of various grapevine ailments such as the grapevine fanleaf virus or a number of other factors that may contribute to incomplete plant fertilization.\n\nSection::::Evaluating ripeness.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nTomatoes have a short shelf-life in which they remain firm and ripe. This lifetime may be shorter than the time needed for them to reach market when shipped from winter growing areas to markets in the north, and the softening process can also lead to more of the fruit being damaged during transit.\n", "Respiration is a continuing process in a plant and cannot be stopped without damage to the growing plant or harvested produce. It uses stored starch or sugar and stops when reserves of these are exhausted, leading to ageing. Respiration depends on a good air supply. When the air supply is restricted fermentation instead of respiration can occur. Poor ventilation of produce also leads to the accumulation of carbon dioxide. When the concentration of carbon dioxide increases it will quickly ruin produce. \n", "For red winemaking, stems of the grapes are usually removed before fermentation since the stems have a relatively high tannin content; in addition to tannin they can also give the wine a vegetal aroma (due to extraction of 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine which has an aroma reminiscent of green bell peppers.) On occasion, the winemaker may decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain less tannin than desired. This is more acceptable if the stems have 'ripened' and started to turn brown.\n", "Produce can be damaged when exposed to extremes of temperature. Levels of tolerance to low temperatures are importance when cool storage is envisaged. All produce will freeze at temperatures between 0 and -2 degrees Celsius. Although a few commodities are tolerant of slight freezing, bad temperature control in storage can lead to significant losses.\n\nSome fruits and vegetables are also susceptible to contaminants introduced after harvest by use of contaminated field boxes; dirty water used for washing produce before packing; decaying, rejected produce lying around packing houses; and unhealthy produce contaminating healthy produce in the same packages.\n", "Proper post-harvest storage aimed at extending and ensuring shelf life is best effected by efficient cold chain application. Cold storage is particularly useful for vegetables such as cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, radish, spinach, potatoes, and tomatoes, the optimum temperature depending on the type of produce. There are temperature-controlling technologies that do not require the use of electricity such as evaporative cooling. Storage of fruit and vegetables in controlled atmospheres with high levels of carbon dioxide or high oxygen levels can inhibit microbial growth and extend storage life.\n", "Section::::In sugarcane.:Why a ratoon crop ripens earlier than its corresponding plant crop.\n\nA ratoon crop ripens earlier, in general, by at least one to one and a half months or so due to: early development of shoots, maintenance of relatively lesser N content in index tissues and rapid run-out of N during grand growth phase and relatively higher inorganic non-sugars in its juice.\n\nSection::::In sugarcane.:Poor ratoon crops due to low temperature harvest.\n", "There are also a number of factors that can influence the success rate and level of safety in regards to fermentation. Fermentation can be heavily affected by compositional factors within the fruit such as pH, buffer capacity and initial sugar content. All of these factors can be altered depending on the size of the fruit as the larger the fruit, the more nutritional value the fruit will hold. Additionally, pesticides can have an effect on fermentation. If pesticides are left in large quantities on the fruits’ surface during fermentation, the process of preservation increases the potency of the hazardous materials within the pesticides.\n", "Section::::Postharvest shelf life.\n\nOnce harvested, vegetables and fruits are subject to the active process of degradation. Numerous biochemical processes continuously change the original composition of the crop until it becomes unmarketable. The period during which consumption is considered acceptable is defined as the time of \"postharvest shelf life\".\n", "Initial post-harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an optimum range of storage temperature and humidity. Also, certain crops cannot be effectively stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions can result. Various methods of high-speed cooling, and sophisticated refrigerated and atmosphere-controlled environments, are employed to prolong freshness, particularly in large-scale operations.\n\nRegardless of the scale of harvest, from domestic garden to industrialised farm, the basic principles of post-harvest handling for most crops are the same: handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing, bruising), cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions, and cull (remove damaged items).\n", "Diseases caused by fungi and bacteria cause losses but virus diseases, common in growing crops, are not a major post-harvest problem. Deep penetration of decay makes infected produce unusable. This is often the result of infection of the produce in the field before harvest. Quality loss occurs when the disease affects only the surface. Skin blemishes may lower the sale price but do not render a fruit or vegetable inedible. Fungal and bacterial diseases are spread by microscopic spores, which are distributed in the air and soil and via decaying plant material. Infection after harvest can occur at any time. It is usually the result of harvesting or handling injuries.\n", "When fermentation begins, physical structures start to break down and release some of the input’s water content as a liquid runoff. Over time this constitutes more than 10% of the input by weight. The quantity varies with the input: for example cucumber and melon flesh lead to a noticeable increase.\n", "The Convention specifies that the breeder's right must be granted for at least 20 years from grant date, except in the case of varieties of trees or vines, in which case the duration must be at least 25 years.\n" ]	[ "Fruits and vegetables still mature once harvested.", "All fruits and vegetables still mature once harvested." ]	[ "Only climacteric fruits and vegetables still mature once harvested.", "Only a certain classification of fruits still mature once harvested; they are called climacteric fruits. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fruits and vegetables still mature once harvested.", "All fruits and vegetables still mature once harvested." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only climacteric fruits and vegetables still mature once harvested.", "Only a certain classification of fruits still mature once harvested; they are called climacteric fruits. " ]
2018-13453	does an egg have the same amount of calories as a newly hatched chicken?	Not necessarly, when a chick forms it feeds on the yolk while it develops and grows, there actually may be a loss of calories in the process exactly as it hatches VS fresh laid.	[ "The diet of laying hens also may affect the nutritional quality of eggs. For instance, chicken eggs that are especially high in omega-3 fatty acids are produced by feeding hens a diet containing polyunsaturated fats from sources such as fish oil, chia seeds, or flaxseeds. Pasture-raised free-range hens, which forage for their own food, also produce eggs that are relatively enriched in omega-3 fatty acids when compared to those of cage-raised chickens.\n\nA 2010 USDA study determined there were no significant differences of macronutrients in various chicken eggs.\n", "More than half the calories found in eggs come from the fat in the yolk; 50 grams of chicken egg (the contents of an egg just large enough to be classified as \"large\" in the US, but \"medium\" in Europe) contains approximately five grams of fat. People on a low-cholesterol diet may need to reduce egg consumption; however, only 27 percent of the fat in egg is saturated fat (palmitic, stearic, and myristic acids). The egg white consists primarily of water (87 percent) and protein (13 percent) and contains no cholesterol and little, if any, fat.\n", "In the Japanese quail, the influence of diet quality on egg production was studied. The diet quality differed in the percent composition of protein, with the high-protein diet having 20%, and the low-protein diet having 12%. It was found that both the number of eggs produced and the size of the eggs were greater in the high-protein diet than the low. What was found unaffected, however, was the maternal antibody transmission. Thus, immune response was not affected since there was still a source of protein, although low. This means that the bird is able to compensate for the lack of protein in the diet by protein reserves, for example.\n", "A study of Noy et al. (1996) showed that the residual yolk of chickens with access to feed during 96 hours after hatch reduced more rapid in size than in fasted birds. This can be caused by increased intestinal activity in fed chickens. A more rapid reduction in residual yolk size indicates that valuable nutrients are earlier used for important developmental steps.\n", "BULLET::::- A study evaluating whether eggs of early birds from the Mesozoic could have borne the weight of incubating adults is published by Deeming & Mayr (2018).\n", "Ant eggs are a high source of protein. 100 grams contains more than 8.2 grams of protein. It has less fat and calories than chicken eggs by containing only 2.6 grams of fat while chicken egg contains more than 11.7 grams. It contains other minerals such as; calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, vitamin B1, vitamin B2 and Niacin.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Two different diets were fed to Florida scrub-jays and breeding performance was noted to have different effects. One diet consisted of high protein and high fat, and the other consisting of just high fat. The significant result was that the birds with the high protein and high fat diet laid heavier eggs than the birds with the rich-in-fat diet. There was a difference in the amount of water inside the eggs, which accounted for the different weights. It is hypothesized that the added water resulting from the adequate protein-rich and fat-rich diet may contribute to development and survival of the chick, therefore aiding reproductive success.\n", "Section::::Nutrition.\n\nThere are different nutritional values for balut, since it can be either fertilized chicken or duck eggs. Balut nutrition specifications between chicken and duck have minor differences, but both eggs have around 14 grams of crude protein, 188 calories each, and around 100 milligrams of calcium. A duck egg might have a higher value of nutrition than a chicken egg but overall, both chicken and duck balut have approximately the same nutritional value.\n\nSection::::Dishes and vending.\n", "More recently, nest insulation has been found to be related to the mass of the incubating parent. This is known as an allometric relationship. Nest walls are constructed with an adequate quantity of nesting material so that the nest will be capable of supporting the contents of the nest. Nest thickness, nest mass and nest dimensions therefore correlate with the mass of the adult bird. The flow-on consequence of this is that nest insulation is also related to parent mass.\n\nSection::::Types.:Saucer or plate.\n", "Although the age of the egg and the conditions of its storage have a greater influence, the bird's diet affects the flavor of the egg. For example, when a brown-egg chicken breed eats rapeseed (canola) or soy meals, its intestinal microbes metabolize them into fishy-smelling triethylamine, which ends up in the egg. The unpredictable diet of free-range hens will produce likewise, unpredictable egg flavors. Duck eggs tend to have a flavor distinct from, but still resembling, chicken eggs.\n", "BULLET::::- Tinamou eggs are shiny\n\nBULLET::::- Duck eggs are oily and waterproof\n\nBULLET::::- Cassowary eggs are heavily pitted\n\nTiny pores in a bird eggshell allow the embryo to breathe. The domestic hen's egg has around 7500 pores.\n\nSection::::Shape.\n", "There are many chemical changes that occur inside the duck egg as it is being processed, which can vary depending on how or what it is cooked with. While boiling, added salt can contribute to a number of chemical changes; it seems to increase the proportional weight of egg white within the shell, which can be due to the weight differences between the embryo and the egg white itself. Added salt can also increase the hardness of the egg yolk and affect the overall texture of the final balut product. Other chemical changes are observed in nutrient content of the duck egg as it is processed are a slight decrease in the amount of available amino acids, water-soluble vitamins and minerals after the processing is complete.\n", "Most commercially farmed chicken eggs intended for human consumption are unfertilized, since the laying hens are kept without roosters. Fertile eggs may be eaten, with little nutritional difference when compared to the unfertilized. Fertile eggs will not contain a developed embryo, as refrigeration temperatures inhibit cellular growth for an extended period of time. Sometimes an embryo is allowed to develop, but eaten before hatching as with balut.\n\nSection::::Farming issues.:Grading by quality and size.\n", "Together with hatchling specimens of the Mongolian \"Gobipteryx\" and \"Gobipipus\", these finds demonstrate that enantiornithean hatchlings had the skeletal ossification, well-developed wing feathers, and large brain which correlate with precocial or superprecocial patterns of development in birds of today. In other words, enantiornitheans probably hatched from the egg already well developed and ready to run, forage, and possibly even fly at just a few days old.\n", "Eggs (boiled) supply several vitamins and minerals as significant amounts of the Daily Value (DV), including vitamin A (19 percent DV), riboflavin (42 percent DV), pantothenic acid (28 percent DV), vitamin B (46 percent DV), choline (60 percent DV), phosphorus (25 percent DV), zinc (11 percent DV) and vitamin D (15 percent DV). Cooking methods affect the nutritional values of eggs.\n\nA yolk contains more than two-thirds of the recommended daily intake of 300 mg of cholesterol.\n", "Considering energy foods as adequate nutrition was first scientifically demonstrated to be false by François Magendie by experiments on dogs and described in his \"Précis élémentaire de Physiologie\". He showed that eating only sugar, olive oil, or butter, each led to the death of his test animals in 30 to 40 days.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThe following foods are often considered to contain mostly empty calories and may lead to weight gain:\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar: cake, cookies, sweets, candy, soft drinks, fruit-flavored sweet beverages and other foods containing mostly added sugars (including High-fructose corn syrup).\n", "Chicks require different food than adult chickens. Chicks need a mash or dust food so that they are able to digest it without grit. Adult chickens are able to digest grit, which allows them to eat bigger food pellets. Purchasing chick food from a local feed store that is specifically for baby chicks will ensure that all nutritional requirements are being met. There are different types of food for different types of chicks. Chicks that are grown for egg-laying purposes require a lower protein level than chicks that are grown as a source of meat. Chicks should be fed and given water out of containers that ensure the chicks' safety, as some containers can injure the chicks or cause easy drowning.\n", "Cooked eggs are easier to digest than raw eggs, as well as having a lower risk of salmonellosis.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Cholesterol and fat.\n", "BULLET::::- 200 mm diameter female produces 0.5–2.5 million eggs representing 2–8% of its wet weight\n\nBULLET::::- 300 mm diameter female produces 6.5–14 million eggs representing 9–14% of its wet weight\n\nBULLET::::- 400 mm diameter female produces 47–53 million eggs representing 20–25% of its wet weight\n", "In a 2017 publication in the journal \"Science\", mathematical modeling of 50,000 bird eggs data showed that bird egg shape is a product of flight adaptations and not the outcome of nesting conditions or a bird's life history. A strong correlation was found between egg shape and flight ability on broad taxonomic scales, such that birds engaging in high powered flights usually maximize egg size by having elliptical shaped eggs while maintaining a streamlined body plan.\n\nSection::::Size.\n", "Research conducted by a French institute in the 1970s demonstrated blue chicken eggs from the Chilean araucana fowl may be stronger and more resilient to breakage.\n\nResearch at Nihon University, Japan in 1990 revealed a number of different issues were important to Japanese housewives when deciding which eggs to buy and that color was a distinct factor, with most Japanese housewives preferring the white color.\n", " in the US, broiler chickens has an FCR of 1.6 based on body weight gain, and mature in 39 days. At around the same time the FCR based on weight gain for broilers in Brazil was 1.8.\n\nFor hens used in egg production in the US, the FCR was about 2, with each hen laying about 330 eggs per year.\n", "A study of a nest in Romania found that 10 species of ant were fed to the chicks. During the first 10 days, the young received an average of 15 g each, from days 10–20, 39.5 g, and from day 20, 49.3 g. The seven chicks consumed an estimated 1.5 million ants and pupae before leaving the nest.\n", "The U.S. Department of Agriculture grades eggs by the interior quality of the egg (see Haugh unit) and the appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight (size).\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Grade AA\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs have whites that are thick and firm; have yolks that are high, round, and practically free from defects; and have clean, unbroken shells.\n\nBULLET::::- Grade AA and Grade A eggs are best for frying and poaching, where appearance is important.\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Grade A\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs have characteristics of Grade AA eggs except the whites are \"reasonably\" firm.\n", "Changes in the nutrient composition of the diet (the proportion of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates) may occur during development (e.g. weaning) or with seasonal changes in the abundance of different food types. These diet changes can elicit plasticity in the activity of particular digestive enzymes on the brush border of the small intestine. For example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling house sparrows (\"Passer domesticus\") transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates; this diet change is accompanied by two-fold increase in the activity of the enzyme maltase, which digests carbohydrates. Acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of aminopeptidase-N, which digests proteins.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "An egg has the same amount of calories as a newly hatched chicken." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "A new chick feeds on yolk as it grows, causing calorie loss." ]
2018-01471	Do clouds muffle the sound of thunder (or other sounds)?	The way sound is muffled when going through some sort of foam material is that the air has to be pushed through the small holes, reducing the speed at which the air moves and turning that energy into heat. Clouds consist of very small droplets of air, kinda like very fine dust - which move with the air rather than rubbing against it.	[ "Atmospheric noise is radio noise caused by natural atmospheric processes, primarily lightning discharges in thunderstorms. It is mainly caused by cloud-to-ground flashes as the current is much stronger than that of cloud-to-cloud flashes. On a worldwide scale, 3.5 million lightning flashes occur daily. This is about 40 lightning flashes per second.\n\nThe sum of all these lightning flashes results in atmospheric noise. It can be observed, with a radio receiver, in the form of a combination of white noise (coming from distant thunderstorms) and impulse noise (coming from a near thunderstorm). The power-sum varies with seasons and nearness of thunderstorm centers.\n", "Atmospheric noise\n\nAtmospheric noise is radio noise caused by natural atmospheric processes, primarily lightning discharges in thunderstorms. On a worldwide scale, there are about 40 lightning flashes per second – ≈3.5 million lightning discharges per day.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn 1925, AT&T Bell Laboratories started investigating the sources of noise in its transatlantic radio telephone service.\n", "Cloud-ground lightning typically consist of two or more return strokes, from ground to cloud. Later return strokes have greater acoustic energy than the first.\n\nSection::::Perception.\n", "When an inversion layer is present, if a sound or explosion occurs at ground level, the sound wave is refracted by the temperature gradient (which affects sound speed) and returns towards the ground. The sound, therefore, travels much better than normal. This is noticeable in areas around airports, where the sound of aircraft taking off and landing often can be heard at greater distances around dawn than at other times of day, and inversion thunder which is significantly louder and travels further than when it is produced by lightning strikes under normal conditions.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Shock waves.\n", "Clouds are subject to certain distinct modifications, produced by the general causes which affect all the variations of the atmosphere; they are commonly as good visible indicators of the operation of these causes, as is the countenance of the state of a person's mind or body.\n", "Although lightning has a broad-spectrum emission, its noise power increases with decreasing frequency. Therefore, at very low frequency and low frequency, atmospheric noise often dominates, while at high frequency, man-made noise dominates in urban areas.\n\nSection::::Survey.\n", "Section::::Meteorological effects.\n\nThe effect of actinoform clouds on weather systems and climate patterns is still being analyzed. Meteorology professor Bjorn Stevens of the University of California, Los Angeles theorizes that they, in conjunction with open-cell stratocumulus clouds, are associated with drizzle formation. Observations from field studies in both the Northeast and Southeast Pacific seem to indicate that when marine stratus and stratocumulus clouds exist alone, in the absence of these open cells, the cloud formations are associated with light, or no, drizzle.\n", "Section::::Equipment used.:Mist net.\n", "The last component is the echo top or storm top temperature. This must be at least . It is generally accepted that at this temperature there is no longer any super cooled water vapour present in a cloud, but just ice crystals suspended in the air. This allows for the interaction of the ice cloud and graupel pellets within the storm to generate a charge, resulting in lightning and thunder.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Synoptic forcing.\n", "After reaching the tropopause, the bottom of the region of strong static stability, the cloud tends to slow its ascent and spread out. If it contains sufficient energy, the central part of it may continue rising up into the stratosphere as an analog of a standard thunderstorm. A mass of air ascending from the troposphere to the stratosphere leads to the formation of acoustic gravity waves, virtually identical to those created by intense stratosphere-penetrating thunderstorms. Smaller-scale explosions penetrating the tropopause generate waves of higher frequency, classified as infrasound.\n", "Some scientists believe that the belief in creator gods is an evolutionary by-product of agent detection. A spandrel is a non-adaptive trait formed as a side effect of an adaptive trait. The psychological trait in question is \"if you hear a twig snap in the forest, some sentient force is probably behind it\". This trait helps to prevent the primate from being murdered or eaten as food. However this hypothetical trait could remain in modern humans: thus some evolutionary psychologists theorize that \"even if the snapping was caused by the wind, modern humans are still inclined to attribute the sound to a sentient agent; they call this person a god\".\n", "There is also reason to doubt the efficacy of hail cannons from a theoretical perspective. For example, thunder is a much more powerful sonic wave, and is usually found in the same storms that generate hail, yet it doesn't seem to disturb the growth of hailstones. Charles Knight, a cloud physicist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, said in a July 10, 2008, newspaper article that \"I don't find anyone in the scientific community who would validate hail cannons, but there are believers in all sorts of things. It would be very hard to prove they don't work, weather being as unpredictable as it is.\"\n", "Cloud feedback\n\nCloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds, which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation. Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings.\n", "The text has its origins in a hymn \"Lo! He cometh, countless Trumpets\" by John Cennick published in his \"Collection of Sacred Hymns\" of 1752. This was substantially revised by Charles Wesley for publication in \"Hymns of intercession for all mankind\" of 1758. Some hymnals present a combination of the two texts.\n", "Zapdos is always seen in conjunction with thunderstorms, because it gathers energy from the electricity in the atmosphere, and is said to live in such clouds. It also causes massive crackling and snapping sounds when it flies; these are contributed to the lightning bolts it is said to shed when airborne.\n\nSection::::Appearances.\n\nSection::::Appearances.:In the video games.\n", "Section::::Generating process.:Middle homogenitus.\n", "In the section titled \"The Cloudburst\", handbells (which are directed to be hidden from the audience) play a written two bars, and then play at random as the choir crescendos into an aleatoric section, which is signaled by a loud clap of \"thunder\". During this time, the choir begins claps, snaps, and thigh smacks in order to imitate the sound of rain. A thunder sheet, bass drum, handbells, suspended cymbal, wind chimes, and piano contribute to the effect of a thunderstorm. The storm gradually builds then fades, and the ending of the piece mirrors the beginning section, with the choir arpeggiating as the piano voices block chords.\n", "BULLET::::2. \"How Many Clouds Can You See?\"\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- Musicians\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Osborne – alto saxophone\n\nBULLET::::- John Warren – baritone saxophone, flute\n\nBULLET::::- John Surman – baritone saxophone, soprano saxophone, bass clarinet\n\nBULLET::::- Barre Phillips, Harry Miller – bass\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Jackson, Tony Oxley – drums\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Skidmore – tenor saxophone, flute\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Pyne, Malcolm Griffiths – trombone\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Holdsworth – trumpet\n\nBULLET::::- Harold Beckett – trumpet, flugelhorn\n\nBULLET::::- John Taylor – piano\n\nBULLET::::- George Smith – tuba\n\nBULLET::::- Other credits\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Price, Dave Grinsted – engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Miles Kington – liner notes\n", "Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over 100 miles whereas the thunder travels about 20 miles. Anecdotally, there are many examples of people saying 'the storm was directly overhead or all-around and yet there was no thunder'. There is no coherent data available.\n\nSection::::Effects.:High-energy radiation.\n", "Father Pat Noise\n\nFather Pat Noise is a fictitious Roman Catholic priest, described on a hoax commemorative plaque installed by two brothers on O'Connell Bridge in Dublin, Ireland. The full text of the plaque reads:\n\nT\n\nF PN PC.brbr\n\nH\n\nL HSTI\n", "Nimbostratus, unlike cumulonimbus, is not associated with thunderstorms, however at an unusually unstable warm front caused as a result of the advancing warm air being hot, humid and unstable, cumulonimbus clouds may be embedded within the usual nimbostratus. Lightning from an embedded cumulonimbus cloud may interact with the nimbostratus but only in the immediate area around it. In this situation with lightning and rain occurring it would be hard to tell which type of cloud was producing the rain from the ground, however cumulonimbus tend to produce larger droplets and more intense downpours. The occurrence of cumulonimbus and nimbostratus together is uncommon, and usually only nimbostratus is found at a warm front.\n", "Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations. Greeks believed that they were battles waged by Zeus, who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus. Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms with the Thunderbird, who they believed was a servant of the Great Spirit. The Norse considered thunderstorms to occur when Thor went to fight Jötnar, with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer Mjölnir. Hinduism recognizes Indra as the god of rain and thunderstorms. Christian doctrine accepts that fierce storms are the work of God. These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.\n", "On 6 May 2019, Holly Worton was interviewed on ITV's programme \"This Morning\" by television presenters Eamonn Holmes and Rochelle Humes, to talk about her new book. In a garden outside the television studios, she also gave the presenters a practical demonstration of how she communicates with trees, with the aid of a sound engineer.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "In Finnish mythology, Ukko (engl. \"Old Man\") is the god of thunder, sky and weather. The Finnish word for thunder is \"ukkonen\", derived from the god's name.\n\nIn Judaism, a blessing \"...He who does acts of creation\" is to be recited, upon sighting lightning. The Talmud refers to the Hebrew word for the sky, (\"Shamaim\") – as built from fire and water (\"Esh Umaim\"), since the sky is the source of the inexplicable mixture of \"fire\" and water that come together, during rainstorms. This is mentioned in various prayers, Psalm 29, and discussed in writings of Kabbalah.\n", "The song \"Bells\" was inspired by a chance finding the band members came across while rehearsing in the church during the writing process for \"Canopy Glow\". Matt Joynt said: \"After a few weeks, we noticed seven large black cases sitting in the corner. Lo and behold they were filled with hand bells! In our youth, Bret and I had played in the hand bell choir during Christmas services and weren't afraid to employ them on our record.\"\n\nSection::::Recording.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08652	What makes nitrous oxide a better propellant gas for whipped cream than molecular nitrogen?	Nitrous oxide becomes a liquid when compressed to about 700-800 psi. Moreover it is soluble in fatty substances such as cream.(Note, this allows significantly lower pressures to be used in the container, around 150-200 psi) Other common aerosol propellants such as isobutane are less soluble and tend to separate from the cream in this application. To answer your question specifically, N2 gas has dramatically different physical properties than Nitrous Oxide. In contrast, it cannot be compressed into a liquid, liquifying it requires cooling it cryogenically. N2 is not significantly soluble in most liquids at normal temperatures. The fact that the N2O is soluble in the cream is what allows very fine bubbles to form when the cream is dispensed.	[ "The gas is extremely soluble in fatty compounds. In aerosol whipped cream, it is dissolved in the fatty cream until it leaves the can, when it becomes gaseous and thus creates foam. Used in this way, it produces whipped cream four times the volume of the liquid, whereas whipping air into cream only produces twice the volume. If air were used as a propellant, oxygen would accelerate rancidification of the butterfat, but nitrous oxide inhibits such degradation. Carbon dioxide cannot be used for whipped cream because it is acidic in water, which would curdle the cream and give it a seltzer-like \"sparkling\" sensation.\n", "The whipped cream produced with nitrous oxide is unstable, however, and will return to a more liquid state within half an hour to one hour. Thus, the method is not suitable for decorating food that will not be served immediately.\n", "As the decomposition of NO into oxygen and nitrogen gas is exothermic and thus contributes to a higher temperature in the combustion engine, the decomposition increases engine efficiency and performance, which is directly related to the difference in temperature between the unburned fuel mixture and the hot combustion gasses produced in the cylinders. \n", "Apart from its direct and indirect actions at opioid receptors, it was also shown that NO inhibits NMDA receptor-mediated activity and ionic currents and diminishes NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Nitrous oxide also inhibits methionine synthase and slows the conversion of homocysteine to methionine, increases homocysteine concentration and decreases methionine concentration. This effect was shown in lymphocyte cell cultures and in human liver biopsy samples.\n", "When a mole of nitrous oxide decomposes, it releases half a mole of O molecules (oxygen gas), and one mole of N molecules (nitrogen gas). This decomposition allows an oxygen concentration of 36.36% to be reached. Nitrogen gas is non-combustible and does not support combustion. Air—which contains only 21% oxygen, the rest being nitrogen and other equally non-combustible and non-combustion-supporting gasses—permits a 12-percent-lower maximum-oxygen level than that of nitrous oxide. This oxygen supports combustion; it combines with fuels such as gasoline, alcohol, diesel fuel, propane, or CNG to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor, along with heat, which causes the former two products of combustion to expand and exert pressure on pistons, driving the engine.\n", "A similar hypothesis to explain the incidence of IEDCS when switching from trimix to nitrox was proposed by Steve Burton, who considered the effect of the much greater solubility of nitrogen than helium in producing transient increases in total inert gas pressure, which could lead to DCS under isobaric conditions.\n", "Similarly, cooking spray, which is made from various types of oils combined with lecithin (an emulsifier), may use nitrous oxide as a propellant. Other propellants used in cooking spray include food-grade alcohol and propane.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Medicine.\n\nNitrous oxide has been used in dentistry and surgery, as an anaesthetic and analgesic, since 1844.\n", "One newer monopropellant under development is nitrous oxide, both neat and in the form of nitrous oxide fuel blends. Nitrous oxide offers the advantages of being self-pressurizing and of being relatively non-toxic, with a specific impulse intermediate between hydrogen peroxide and hydrazine. Nitrous oxide generates oxygen upon decomposition, and it is possible to blend it with fuels to form a monopropellant mixture with a specific impulse up to 325 s, comparable to hypergolic bipropellants.\n", "Nitrous oxide is used as a propellant in aerosol whip cream cans. Large densities of NO are dissolved in cream at high pressure. When expelled from the can, the nitrous oxide escapes emulsion instantly, creating a temporary foam in the butterfat matrix of the cream.\n\nSection::::Mechanical leavening.\n", "Nitrous oxide can be used as an oxidizer with various fuels; it is popular mainly in hybrid rockets. It is far less toxic than hydrazine and has a much lower boiling point, though it can be liquified at room temperature under pressure. Like hydrazine it has a positive enthalpy of formation that makes it both potentially unstable and a viable monopropellant. It can be decomposed with a catalyst to produce a hot mixture of nitrogen and oxygen. When mixed with a fuel and stored before use, it becomes a mixed monopropellant.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Culinary.\n\nNitrous oxide is used because it dissolves easily into the cream, and does not cause the cream to oxidize while it is in the can.\n\nCream must have a minimum fat content of 28% to produce whipped cream with a dispenser. The recipe for the cream to be whipped typically calls for heavy cream and sugar, along with any desired flavorings or colorings. In a sealed container, this cream is pressurized with nitrous oxide, which dissolves into the cream as per its lipophilicity.\n", "The term is chemistry shorthand for molecules containing one nitrogen and one or more oxygen atom. It is generally meant to include nitrous oxide (NO), although nitrous oxide is a fairly inert oxide of nitrogen that has many uses as an oxidizer for rockets and car engines, an anesthetic, and a propellant for aerosol sprays and whipped cream. Nitrous oxide plays hardly any role in air pollution, although it may have a significant impact on the ozone layer, and is a significant greenhouse gas.\n", "Section::::Chemical reactions.\n\nSection::::Chemical reactions.:Intermediate in the manufacture of nitric acid.\n\nNitric acid is manufactured on a large scale via NO. This species reacts with water to give both nitrous acid and nitric acid:\n\nThe coproduct HNO upon heating disproportionates to NO and more nitric acid. When exposed to oxygen, NO is converted back into nitrogen dioxide:\n\nThe resulting NO (and NO, obviously) can be returned to the cycle to give the mixture of nitrous and nitric acids again.\n\nSection::::Chemical reactions.:Synthesis of metal nitrates.\n\nNO behaves as the salt [NO] [NO], the former being a strong oxidant:\n", "As with many strong oxidisers, contamination of parts with fuels have been implicated in rocketry accidents, where small quantities of nitrous/fuel mixtures explode due to \"water hammer\"-like effects (sometimes called \"dieseling\"—heating due to adiabatic compression of gases can reach decomposition temperatures). Some common building materials such as stainless steel and aluminium can act as fuels with strong oxidisers such as nitrous oxide, as can contaminants that may ignite due to adiabatic compression.\n\nThere also have been incidents where nitrous oxide decomposition in plumbing has led to the explosion of large tanks.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "Recreational users generally use 8 gram containers of nitrous oxide \"whippets\", which they use to fill balloons or whipped cream dispensers. The gas is then inhaled from the balloon or dispenser. This is necessary because nitrous oxide is very cold when it decompresses on exit from a canister; inhalation directly from a tank is dangerous and can cause frostbite of the larynx. Some users attach gas masks or other inhalation devices to large tanks of the gas.\n\nIn Australia, nitrous oxide bulbs are known as \"nangs\", possibly derived from the sound distortion perceived by consumers.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.\n", "Nitrous oxide also may be used in a monopropellant rocket. In the presence of a heated catalyst, will decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen, at a temperature of approximately . Because of the large heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes secondary, as thermal autodecomposition becomes dominant. In a vacuum thruster, this may provide a monopropellant specific impulse (\"I\") of as much as 180 s. While noticeably less than the \"I\" available from hydrazine thrusters (monopropellant or bipropellant with dinitrogen tetroxide), the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide an option worth investigating.\n", "Automotive-grade liquid nitrous oxide differs slightly from medical-grade nitrous oxide. A small amount of sulfur dioxide () is added to prevent substance abuse. Multiple washes through a base (such as sodium hydroxide) can remove this, decreasing the corrosive properties observed when is further oxidised during combustion into sulfuric acid, making emissions cleaner.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Aerosol propellant.\n\nThe gas is approved for use as a food additive (also known as E942), specifically as an aerosol spray propellant. Its most common uses in this context are in aerosol whipped cream canisters and cooking sprays.\n", "Nitrous oxide (NO) is itself active (does not require any changes in the body to become active), and so has an onset in roughly the lung–brain circulation time. This gives it a peak action 30 seconds after the start of administration; Entonox should thus be used accordingly, i.e. inhalation should start 30 seconds before a contraction becomes painful in labour. It is removed from the body unchanged via the lungs, and does not accumulate under normal conditions, explaining the rapid offset of around 60 seconds. It is effective in managing pain during labor and delivery.\n", "These processes are affected by soil chemical and physical properties such as the availability of mineral nitrogen and organic matter, acidity and soil type, as well as climate-related factors such as soil temperature and water content. \n\nThe emission of the gas to the atmosphere is limited greatly by its consumption inside the cells, by a process catalysed by the enzyme nitrous oxide reductase.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Greenhouse effect.\n", "Like other NMDA antagonists, was suggested to produce neurotoxicity in the form of Olney's lesions in rodents upon prolonged (several hour) exposure. New research has arisen suggesting that Olney's lesions do not occur in humans, however, and similar drugs such as ketamine are now believed not to be acutely neurotoxic. It has been argued that, because has a very short duration under normal circumstances, it is less likely to be neurotoxic than other NMDA antagonists. Indeed, in rodents, short-term exposure results in only mild injury that is rapidly reversible, and neuronal death occurs only after constant and sustained exposure. Nitrous oxide also may cause neurotoxicity after extended exposure because of hypoxia. This is especially true of non-medical formulations such as whipped-cream chargers (also known as \"whippets\" or \"nangs\"), which never contain oxygen, since oxygen makes cream rancid.\n", "BULLET::::- Paint-and-varnish industry: Paint and varnish production uses nitrogen for the creation of an inert environment in process vessels to ensure safety, as well as for oxygen displacement during packing in order to prevent polymerization of drying oils.\n", "Section::::Sources.:Industrial sources (anthropogenic sources).:Prompt.\n\nThis third source is attributed to the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen, N, with radicals such as C, CH, and CH fragments derived from fuel, rather than thermal or fuel processes. Occurring in the earliest stage of combustion, this results in the formation of fixed species of nitrogen such as NH (nitrogen monohydride), NCN(cyanonitrene), HCN (hydrogen cyanide), HCN (dihydrogen cyanide) and CN (cyano radical) which can oxidize to NO. In fuels that contain nitrogen, the incidence of prompt is comparatively small and it is generally only of interest for the most exacting emission targets.\n", "Nitrous oxide is stored as a liquid in tanks, but is a gas under atmospheric conditions. When injected as a liquid into an inlet manifold, the vaporization and expansion causes a reduction in air/fuel charge temperature with an associated increase in density, thereby increasing the cylinder's volumetric efficiency.\n", "Nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide are often used as propellants for air chocolate. Air itself is not used as a propellant because it contains oxygen which speeds up rancidification of the chocolate. A survey funded by Nestlé, conducted at the University of Reading, revealed that chocolate foamed with nitrogen — and especially with nitrous oxide — has the most intense taste. The researchers found that this was due to the larger bubbles which these gases produce. Further research by Nestlé has concluded that \"[t]he existing technology to control bubble size and distribution is difficult,\" which has led to experiments involving the creation of foams under zero-gravity conditions.\n", "Section::::Identification.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11543	Why are some sports (baseball, hockey, football etc) announcers considered good, when compared to others?	Commentating sports is a tough job: you have to keep up with the action that's going on, provide whatever additional color commentary you can about the players, teams, stats, etc., and communicate that well to the audience with the right level of excitement. And ideally, to remain somewhat impartial and deliver a good and fair play\-by\-play. I'm a huge baseball fan, but it's a slow game. But listening to Vin call it, there was never a dull moment. He was able to fold in useful commentary between pitches or at\-bats without missing a beat, he was able to fill the slow moments with analysis, and when a big hit or an awesome play in the field came up, you could feel his excitement and enthusiasm \- whether it was for the Dodgers or the opposition. And aside from standbys like his opener "It's time for Dodger baseball!" he never had to fall back on catchphrases, so every game felt new and interesting. Hawk Harrelson I haven't heard as much of, to be fair, but I know that he's got a handful of folksy catchphrases (like "He gone!" that get on people's nerves. And he definitely makes no secret of his biases \- a bad call that gives the Cubs an advantage is okay, but a poor call that goes against them will be harped on. That just takes energy out of the commentary and makes it harder to actually appreciate and celebrate the game that's going on.	[ "BULLET::::- Benny Parsons\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Patrick\n\nBULLET::::- Roger Penske\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Piersall\n\nBULLET::::- Ross Porter\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Posey\n\nBULLET::::- Cynthia Potter\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Priestley\n\nBULLET::::- Kirby Puckett\n\nBULLET::::- Ronnie Ramsey\n\nBULLET::::- Jay Rand\n\nBULLET::::- Judy Rankin\n\nBULLET::::- Randy Rarick\n\nBULLET::::- Marty Reid\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Renick\n\nBULLET::::- Harold Reynolds\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Rice\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Richards\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Riger\n\nBULLET::::- Cathy Rigby\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Roberts\n\nBULLET::::- Kenny Roberts\n\nBULLET::::- Robin Roberts\n\nBULLET::::- Brooks Robinson\n\nBULLET::::- Jackie Robinson\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Rose\n\nBULLET::::- Murray Rose\n\nBULLET::::- Hughes Rudd\n\nBULLET::::- Wilma Rudolph\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Russell\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Rutherford\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Ryan\n\nBULLET::::- Maria Sansone\n", "BULLET::::- Joe Morgan – ABC (US) 1986–1987, NBC 1994–2000, ESPN 2000–2010\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Murphy – WOR-TV 1962–2003\n\nBULLET::::- Brent Musburger – CBS 1984, ABC 1994–1995\n\nBULLET::::- Lindsey Nelson – NBC 1957–1961, WOR-TV, 1962–1979\n\nBULLET::::- Pee Wee Reese – CBS 1960–1965, NBC 1966–1968\n\nBULLET::::- Harold Reynolds – ESPN 1996–2006, MLB Network 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Rizzuto\n\nBULLET::::- Art Rust Jr. – WABC 1980s\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Ryan – ESPN 2004–2006 MLB Network 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Vin Scully – NBC 1955–1956, 1962–1963, 1965–1966, 1983–1989\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Simpson – NBC 1966–1977\n\nBULLET::::- John Sterling – WABC 1989–2002, WCBS 2003–present\n", "BULLET::::- Verne Lundquist – CBS 1984–1995, 1998–2016\n\nBULLET::::- Brett Maher – Adelaide 36ers 2010–present\n\nBULLET::::- Al McCoy – Phoenix Suns 1972–present\n\nBULLET::::- Sean McDonough – CBS 1990–2000, ESPN 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels – ABC (US) 2003–2006\n\nBULLET::::- Reggie Miller – TNT 2005–present\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Most – Boston Celtics 1953–1990\n\nBULLET::::- Brent Musburger – CBS 1975–1989, ESPN/ABC 1990–2017\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz – CBS 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Neal\n\nBULLET::::- Brad Nessler – ESPN 1992–2015, ABC (US) 1997–2015, CBS 2016–present\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Packer – NBC 1974–1981, CBS 1981–2008\n\nBULLET::::- Stephen Quartermain – Network Ten 1992–1997\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Raftery – CBS 1986–present\n", "BULLET::::- Danny Sullivan\n\nBULLET::::- Rell Sun\n\nBULLET::::- Don Sutton\n\nBULLET::::- Lynn Swann\n\nBULLET::::- Katherine Switzer\n\nBULLET::::- Fran Tarkenton\n\nBULLET::::- Don Tarr\n\nBULLET::::- Kurt Thomas\n\nBULLET::::- Shaun Thomson\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Thompson\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Thorne\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Tirico\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Toomey\n\nBULLET::::- Cheryl Touissant\n\nBULLET::::- Al Trautwig\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Twyman\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Uecker\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Varsha\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Veeck\n\nBULLET::::- Lesley Visser\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Vitale\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Wallau\n\nBULLET::::- Rusty Wallace\n\nBULLET::::- Rodger Ward\n\nBULLET::::- Earl Weaver\n\nBULLET::::- Vince Welch\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Welu\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Whitaker\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Wilhelm\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Williams\n\nBULLET::::- George Willig\n\nBULLET::::- Warner Wolf\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Young\n", "BULLET::::- Parker Johnstone\n\nBULLET::::- Charlie Jones\n\nBULLET::::- Fran Jones\n\nBULLET::::- Hayes Jones\n\nBULLET::::- James Jones\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Karras\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Key\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Kidd\n\nBULLET::::- Kirk Kilgour\n\nBULLET::::- Billie Jean King\n\nBULLET::::- Micki King\n\nBULLET::::- Andrea Kirby\n\nBULLET::::- Evel Knievel\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Koch\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Kraft\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Lampley\n\nBULLET::::- David Letterman\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Lieberman\n\nBULLET::::- Craig Lincoln\n\nBULLET::::- Marty Liquori\n\nBULLET::::- John Long\n\nBULLET::::- Davey Lopes\n\nBULLET::::- Fred Lorenzen\n\nBULLET::::- Verne Lundquist\n\nBULLET::::- Mario Machado\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon Maddux\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Mahan\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Mahoney\n\nBULLET::::- Walter Malmquist\n\nBULLET::::- Mickey Mantle\n\nBULLET::::- Sal Marchiano\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Marr\n\nBULLET::::- Chris McCarron\n", "BULLET::::- Chuck Harmon – WWSEN 2006–present\n\nBULLET::::- Shane Heal – Sydney Kings 2010–2014\n\nBULLET::::- Chick Hearn – Los Angeles Lakers 1961–2002\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Heinsohn – CBS 1983–1990, Boston Celtics 1981–present\n\nBULLET::::- Hot Rod Hundley – CBS 1975–1980, New Orleans/Utah Jazz 1974–2009\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Jackson – ESPN/ABC 2005–2011\n\nBULLET::::- Gus Johnson – CBS 1996–2011, Big Ten Network, 2008–present, Fox 2013–present\n\nBULLET::::- Steve \"Snapper\" Jones – NBC 1990–2002\n\nBULLET::::- Clark Kellogg – CBS 1993–present\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Kerr – TNT 2003–2007, TNT 2010–2014\n\nBULLET::::- Namugenyi Kiwanuka\n\nBULLET::::- Ralph Lawler – Los Angeles Clippers 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- Rebecca Lobo – ESPN 2004–present\n", "BULLET::::- Larry Birleffi\n\nBULLET::::- Don Blasingame\n\nBULLET::::- Ralph Boston\n\nBULLET::::- Bobby Bragan\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Brant\n\nBULLET::::- Charlie Brockman\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Brown\n\nBULLET::::- Lynn Burke\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Button\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Cauthen\n\nBULLET::::- Jennifer Chandler\n\nBULLET::::- Don Chevrier\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Clement\n\nBULLET::::- Cris Collinsworth\n\nBULLET::::- Les Connelly\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Cosell\n\nBULLET::::- Terry Crawford\n\nBULLET::::- Donna De Varona\n\nBULLET::::- Art Devlin\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Dierdorf\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Diles\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Dryden\n\nBULLET::::- Don Drysdale\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Economaki\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Edwards\n\nBULLET::::- Len Elmore\n\nBULLET::::- Vic Emery\n\nBULLET::::- Stein Erickson\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Eruzione\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Evans\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Faldo\n\nBULLET::::- Carlton Fisk\n\nBULLET::::- Peggy Fleming\n", "BULLET::::- Howard Finkel – World Wrestling Entertainment\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Ford – Houston Astros, University of Houston football\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Friedman – Chicago Cubs\n\nBULLET::::- Lilian Garcia – World Wrestling Entertainment\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Georgeff – horse racing\n\nBULLET::::- Marty Glickman – (sports announcer)\n\nBULLET::::- Halsey Hall – Minnesota Twins\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Hall – New York Giants football team, New York Yankees\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Heilbronner – Greensboro Swarm\n\nBULLET::::- Gene Honda – Chicago White Sox, Chicago Blackhawks, DePaul University, NCAA Final Four, and Chicago PBS WTTW\n\nBULLET::::- Byron Hudtloff – Washington Valor, George Washington University Men's Basketball\n", "BULLET::::- Brent Musburger – CBS 1973–1990, ESPN/ABC 1990–2016\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz – CBS 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- Merlin Olsen – NBC 1977–1989, CBS 1990–1991\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Patrick – ESPN 1987–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jonathan Pearce – BBC Radio 5 Live 2004\n\nBULLET::::- Matt Roberts – BBC Sport 2009–2013\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Romo – CBS 2017–present\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Rosen – Fox 1996–present\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Ruocco – ESPN Radio 2013–present\n\nBULLET::::- Shannon Sharpe – CBS 2004–2014\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Simms – ESPN 1994–1995, NBC 1995–1998, CBS 1998–present\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Strahan – Fox 2008–present\n\nBULLET::::- Pat Summerall – CBS 1964–1994, Fox 1994–2002, 2006–2010\n", "BULLET::::- Harry Caray – WGN 1982–1997\n\nBULLET::::- Skip Caray – TBS 1976–2007, NBC 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Cheek – Toronto Blue Jays, 1977–2004\n\nBULLET::::- Josh Chetwynd – Five 2001–2003, 2006–2008, BBC Radio 2004–2006, 2011–present\n\nBULLET::::- Nat Coombs – BBC Radio 2011–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Costas – NBC 1984–2000, MLB Network 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- Dizzy Dean – ABC 1953–1954, CBS 1955–1965\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Gammons – ESPN 1990–2009, MLB Network 2010–present\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Garagiola – NBC 1961–1964, 1975–1988\n\nBULLET::::- Jonny Gould – Five 1997–2008, BBC Radio 2011–present\n\nBULLET::::- Curt Gowdy – NBC 1966–1975\n\nBULLET::::- Milo Hamilton – Chicago Cubs 1980–84, Houston Astros 1987–2012\n", "BULLET::::- Ahmad Rashād – NBC 1990–2002\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Ronaldson – Perth Wildcats 2010–2015\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Ruocco – ESPN 2013–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Russell – ABC 1971–1973, CBS 1979–1983\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Schonely – Portland Trail Blazers 1970–1998\n\nBULLET::::- Kenny Smith – TNT 1998–present\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Stockton – CBS 1981–1990, TNT 1995–present\n\nBULLET::::- Chuck Swirsky\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Tait – Cleveland Cavaliers 1970–1980, 1982–2011\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Tirico – ABC (US) 2002–2016, NBC 2016–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Van Gundy – TNT 2002–2003, ESPN/ABC 2007–present\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Vitale – ESPN 1979–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Walton – NBC 1990–2002, ESPN/ABC 2002–2009\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Woods – Network Ten 1992–1997, 2014–2015\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Flemming\n\nBULLET::::- George Foreman\n\nBULLET::::- Sonny Fox\n\nBULLET::::- Russ Francis\n\nBULLET::::- Ray Gandolf\n\nBULLET::::- Terry Gannon\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Gardner\n\nBULLET::::- Don Garlits\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Gerould\n\nBULLET::::- Roger Gibbs\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Gifford\n\nBULLET::::- Hank Goldberg\n\nBULLET::::- Scott Goodyear\n\nBULLET::::- Curt Gowdy\n\nBULLET::::- Jerry Gross\n\nBULLET::::- Muriel Grossfield\n\nBULLET::::- Merle Harmon\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Hartack\n\nBULLET::::- Eric Heiden\n\nBULLET::::- Carol Heiss\n\nBULLET::::- Russ Hellickson\n\nBULLET::::- Fred Hemmings\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Hendrick\n\nBULLET::::- Anne Henning\n\nBULLET::::- Monte Henson\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Hill\n\nBULLET::::- Keith Jackson\n\nBULLET::::- Reggie Jackson\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Jenkins\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Jenner\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Jennings\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Jennings\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Johnson\n", "BULLET::::- Bobby Hull – CBC 1980–1983\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Irvin, Jr. – CBC 1966–1999\n\nBULLET::::- Brenda Irving – CBC 2001–2006\n\nBULLET::::- Rick Jeanneret – Buffalo Sabres 1971–present\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Kelly – CBC 1977–1980\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Lee – CBC 1997–present\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Levy – ESPN/ABC 1993–2004\n\nBULLET::::- Doug MacLean – CBC\n\nBULLET::::- Ron MacLean – CBC 1986–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Marek – CBC 2007–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jiggs McDonald\n\nBULLET::::- Brian McFarlane – CBC 1964–1989\n\nBULLET::::- Wes McKnight – CBC 1952–1958\n\nBULLET::::- Howie Meeker – CBC 1968–1998\n\nBULLET::::- Barry Melrose – ESPN 1996–2008\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Micheletti – Fox 1995–1999\n", "BULLET::::- 1998: Keith Jackson\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Enberg\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Lampley\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Keith Jackson\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Lampley\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Marv Albert\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Tirico\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Marv Albert\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Lampley\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Buck\n", "BULLET::::- Stew McDonald\n\nBULLET::::- Jim McKay\n\nBULLET::::- Clem McSpadden\n\nBULLET::::- Barry Melrose\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Melnyk\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Mentzer\n\nBULLET::::- Arthur Mercante\n\nBULLET::::- Don Meredith\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Meyers\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Miles\n\nBULLET::::- Cheryl Miller\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Montgomery\n\nBULLET::::- Julie Moran\n\nBULLET::::- John Morgan\n\nBULLET::::- Stirling Moss\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Muncey\n\nBULLET::::- Brent Musburger\n\nBULLET::::- Stu Nahan\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Namath\n\nBULLET::::- Renaldo Nehemiah\n\nBULLET::::- Skip Newell\n\nBULLET::::- Andy North\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Nuber\n\nBULLET::::- Diana Nyad\n\nBULLET::::- Margo Oberg\n\nBULLET::::- Parry O'Brien\n\nBULLET::::- Ron O'Brien\n\nBULLET::::- Michael O'Hehir\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Page\n\nBULLET::::- Bud Palmer\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Palmer\n\nBULLET::::- Darren Pang\n", "BULLET::::- Vernon Kay – Channel 4 2013–15\n\nBULLET::::- Danny Kelly – Channel 4 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Howie Long – Fox 1994–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Maas – Fox 1995–2005\n\nBULLET::::- John Madden – CBS 1981–1994, Fox 1994–2002, ABC 2002–06, NBC 2006–09\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Maguire – NBC 1976–79, 1988–97, ESPN 1998–2005\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Marino – CBS 2002–present\n\nBULLET::::- Curt Menefee – Fox 2006–present\n\nBULLET::::- Don Meredith – ABC 1970–73, 1977–85, NBC 1974–76\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels – ABC 1977–2006, NBC 2006–present\n\nBULLET::::- Matt Millen – CBS 1992–1993, Fox 1994–2001\n\nBULLET::::- Colin Murray – Channel 5 2004–2006, Channel 4 2013–14\n", "BULLET::::- David Santee\n\nBULLET::::- Jeanne Saubert\n\nBULLET::::- Al Scates\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Schapp\n\nBULLET::::- Jody Scheckter\n\nBULLET::::- Karl Schranz\n\nBULLET::::- Judy Scheer\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Schenkel\n\nBULLET::::- Art Scholl\n\nBULLET::::- Don Schollander\n\nBULLET::::- Arnold Schwarzenegger\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Scott\n\nBULLET::::- Vin Scully\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Seagren\n\nBULLET::::- Erich Segal\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Sellers\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Shulman\n\nBULLET::::- Anne Simon\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Simpson\n\nBULLET::::- O. J. Simpson\n\nBULLET::::- Ken Sitzberger\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Smith\n\nBULLET::::- Mike E. Smith\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Sneva\n\nBULLET::::- Mark Spitz\n\nBULLET::::- Willie Stargell\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Steinkraus\n\nBULLET::::- Jackie Stewart\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Stone\n\nBULLET::::- Dwight Stones\n\nBULLET::::- Dennis Storer\n\nBULLET::::- Curtis Strange\n", "BULLET::::- Eddie Palladino – Boston Celtics\n\nBULLET::::- Shawn Parker – Minnesota Timberwolves\n\nBULLET::::- Pat Pieper – Chicago Cubs\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Pritt – Cleveland Indians\n\nBULLET::::- John Ramsey – Los Angeles Dodgers, Los Angeles Kings, Los Angeles Lakers, Los Angeles Rams, Los Angeles Angels, USC Trojans\n\nBULLET::::- Andy Redmond – Frederick Keys\n\nBULLET::::- Eric Smith – Los Angeles Clippers, Los Angeles Chargers, Los Angeles Dodgers\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Roach – Colorado Avalanche, Colorado Rapids, Minnesota Vikings, Super Bowl, Pro Bowl, NFL International Series, Olympic Hockey, Olympic Boxing\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Roberts – Utah Jazz\n\nBULLET::::- Justin Roberts – World Wrestling Entertainment\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Joy – CBS 1984–2000, Premiere 1996–2001, Fox 2001–present\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Kravitz – ITV Sport 2002–2008, BBC Sport 2009–2011, Sky Sports 2012–present\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Lazenby – Sky Sports 2012–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jonathan Legard – BBC Radio 1997–2004, 2012, BBC Sport 2009–2010\n\nBULLET::::- Lee McKenzie – Worked for ITV and Sky previously, BBC Sport 2009–2015, Channel 4 2016–present\n\nBULLET::::- Larry McReynolds – Fox 2001–present\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Page - Voice of Indianapolis 500 Mile Race 1977-1987, NBC Sports 1978-1987, ABC Sports 1987 - 2017, ESPN 1979-2017\n\nBULLET::::- Jonathan Palmer – BBC Sport 1993–1996\n", "BULLET::::- Roller skating\n\nBULLET::::- Rowing\n\nBULLET::::- Rugby\n\nBULLET::::- Running: Marathon, Mini-marathon, cross country, endurance running (100 miles)\n\nBULLET::::- Running of the bulls\n\nBULLET::::- Skateboarding\n\nBULLET::::- Skiing: Alpine skiing, cross country skiing, speed skiing\n\nBULLET::::- Ski jumping: Jumping, Flying, Acrobatic\n\nBULLET::::- Sky diving\n\nBULLET::::- Snowboarding\n\nBULLET::::- Snowmobile racing\n\nBULLET::::- Soap box derby\n\nBULLET::::- Soccer\n\nBULLET::::- Softball\n\nBULLET::::- Special Olympics\n\nBULLET::::- Speed skating: Long track, Short track\n\nBULLET::::- Sumo wrestling\n\nBULLET::::- Surfing\n\nBULLET::::- Swimming\n\nBULLET::::- Synchronized swimming\n\nBULLET::::- Table tennis\n\nBULLET::::- Tennis\n\nBULLET::::- Tobogganing\n\nBULLET::::- Track and Field\n\nBULLET::::- Trampoline\n\nBULLET::::- Triathlon: Ironman, Winter Ironman\n\nBULLET::::- Volleyball\n\nBULLET::::- Water polo\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Hutyler – Seattle Mariners\n\nBULLET::::- Dwight Isenhoward - Winston Salem Dash, Catawba Indians, Elkin Buckin Elks\n\nBULLET::::- Andy Jick – Boston Celtics\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Johnson – horse racing\n\nBULLET::::- Wes Johnson – Washington Capitals\n\nBULLET::::- Stan Kelly – San Antonio Spurs\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Lagana – Los Angeles Rams\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Lennon, Jr. – boxing\n\nBULLET::::- Todd Leitz – Los Angeles Dodgers\n\nBULLET::::- Budd Lynch – Detroit Red Wings\n\nBULLET::::- John Magrino – Tampa Bay Buccaneers, NFL International Series, College Football Playoff National Championship, Orange Bowl, Outback Bowl\n\nBULLET::::- John Mason – Detroit Pistons\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Hicks\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Breen\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Tirico\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Costas\n\nBULLET::::- Verne Lundquist\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Marv Albert\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Al Michaels\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Breen\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Nantz\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Marv Albert\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Breen\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Buck\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Costas\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Mike Emrick\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Breen\n", "BULLET::::- Frank Gifford – CBS 1965–70, ABC 1971–99\n\nBULLET::::- Jerry Glanville – Fox 1994–98, CBS 1999–2003\n\nBULLET::::- Curt Gowdy – ABC 1960–1964, 1982–1983, NBC 1965–79\n\nBULLET::::- Jon Gruden – ESPN 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Harlan – Fox 1994–97, CBS 1998–present\n\nBULLET::::- Rodney Harrison – NBC 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- Kirk Herbstreit – ESPN 1996–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jake Humphrey – BBC Sport 2008–2011\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Imlach – Channel 4 1987–1997, ITV Sport 2005–2008, Channel 4 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Keith Jackson – ABC 1966–2006\n\nBULLET::::- Ron Jaworski – ESPN 2007–2011\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Johnson – Fox 1994–95, 2002–present\n\nBULLET::::- Daryl Johnston – Fox 2001–present\n", "BULLET::::- David Croft – BBC Radio 5 Live 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Randy Cross – CBS 1989–1993, NBC 1994–97, CBS 1998–present\n\nBULLET::::- Al DeRogatis – NBC 1966–1975\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Dierdorf – CBS 1985–1986, 1999–2014, ABC 1987–1999\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Dungy – NBC 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- Dick Enberg – NBC 1975–1999, CBS 2000–09\n\nBULLET::::- Boomer Esiason – ABC 1998–2000, Fox Sports Net 2001, CBS 2002–present\n\nBULLET::::- Darren Fletcher – BBC Radio 5 Live 2011–13 & 2015–2017, Absolute Radio 2013–2014, BBC Sport 2012–13\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Fouts – CBS 1988–1993, ESPN/ABC 1997–2008, CBS 2008–present\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Fowler – ESPN 1986–present\n", "BULLET::::- Football: American football, Arena football, Australian Rules football\n\nBULLET::::- Golf\n\nBULLET::::- Gymnastics: Artistic gymnastics, Rhythmic gymnastics\n\nBULLET::::- High wire walking\n\nBULLET::::- Horse racing: Thoroughbred racing, Trotting, Steeplechse, Horse racing on ice\n\nBULLET::::- Horse jumping\n\nBULLET::::- Hurling\n\nBULLET::::- Ice skating marathon\n\nBULLET::::- Kayak\n\nBULLET::::- Lacrosse\n\nBULLET::::- Lifesaving\n\nBULLET::::- Luge\n\nBULLET::::- Lumberjack Championships\n\nBULLET::::- Martial arts: Judo, Karate, Kick boxing, Kung Fu\n\nBULLET::::- Monster trucks\n\nBULLET::::- Motorcycle daredevil jumps\n\nBULLET::::- Motorcycle racing: Track racing, cross country racing, steeplechase racing, motocross, ice racing, side car racing\n\nBULLET::::- Parachuting\n\nBULLET::::- Platform tennis\n\nBULLET::::- Polo\n\nBULLET::::- Pool\n\nBULLET::::- Rattlesnake hunt\n\nBULLET::::- Rodeo\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24370	How would you explain the purpose of having friends to someone who genuinely had no understanding of the concept?	You still seek approval and understanding from others, so you use reddit and recieve it from anonymous strangers because their is no risk to you and you don't have to put in any effort to maintain the benefits you recieve. Friends are not necessary but they enhance life, you share your successes and even your failures and gain a better understanding of yourself in the process.	[ "According to Nichols and O'Neal, Friends In Deed's purpose is to promote the idea that the quality of life does not depend on the circumstances. During an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show in 2005, O'Neal said that American culture views illness, dying, and death as a form of failure, and that this causes Americans to be unable to deal with terminal illnesses. In order to help its clients cope with the idea of death, Friends In Deed focuses on being \"present-minded\": giving people a sense of perspective about their illness, discouraging them from living in a state of rage or negativity.\n", "This results and other concerning issues are included in the book \"Networked: The New Social Operating System\" wrote by Lee Rainie and Barry Wellman in 2012.\n\nSection::::Ethical considerations.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Consumer two-sided role.\n", "Weak ties also provide benefits not available in close ties: information, resources, and novelty, as well as a sense of being \"known\" in the larger community. Consequential strangers often act as \"bridges\" to new people and groups. Through them, an individual is exposed to ideas, cultures, life strategies, and diversions that are beyond the scope of their loved ones' knowledge and experience.\n", "BULLET::::6. Let the other person do a great deal of the talking. People do not like listening to us boast, they enjoy doing the talking themselves. Let them rationalize and talk about the idea, because it will taste much sweeter to them in their own mouth.\n\nBULLET::::7. Let the other person feel the idea is his or hers. People inherently like ideas they come to on their own better than those that are handed to them on a platter. Ideas can best be carried out by allowing others to think they arrived at it themselves.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe FRIENDS Programs were developed by Professor Paula Barrett. Based in cognitive behavioral techniques, the gold standard for treating and preventing anxiety and depression, the protocol was originally developed for the early intervention and prevention of anxiety. Unlike other anxiety protocols at the time, such as Phillip C. Kendall's Coping Cat, FRIENDS utilises a group format and can be used in a prevention, early intervention or a treatment approach.\n", "Sharing can therefore save time and money for individuals who profit from these practices. \"Profit\" in general has monetary connotations attached to it but in this context it does not need to refer to an exchange of money. This also connects to the type of sharing that is used. Hemetsberger names three types of sharing; \"sharing in\", \"sharing out\" and \"cross-sharing\". It is especially through \"sharing in\" that leads to a feeling of belonging to a group or community. For example, when we share a cake between several people, there is a bond forming between those involved. \"It is not the only way in which we connect with others, but it is a potential powerful one that creates feelings of solidarity and bonding\" that partaking in such practices creates.\n", "The term was popularized by a 1994 episode of the American sitcom \"Friends\" entitled \"The One with the Blackout\", where the character Ross Geller, who was lovesick for Rachel Green, was described by character Joey Tribbiani as being the \"mayor of the friend zone\".\n\nThe 2005 film \"Just Friends\" features a main character (played by Ryan Reynolds) reunited after ten years with his friend (played by Amy Smart), who informs him that she loves him \"like a brother\", essentially dashing any hopes of him having her as a girlfriend.\n", "Research also suggests that one can develop a greater sense of agency and mastery by stepping into multiple roles. Being with one’s poker buddies requires a different skill set than volunteering at the local hospital or conducting a meeting at work. And because of the lack of familiarity in these various situations, it is necessary to communicate in more \"elaborated\" patterns of speech with consequential strangers than with loved ones. Relating to assorted others forces an individual to \"negotiate, exercise judgment, reconcile, compromise, and take account of the intentions, purposes, motivations, and perspective\" of his or her assorted role partners.\"\n", "BULLET::::6. Make the other person feel important – and do it sincerely. The golden rule is to treat other people how we would like to be treated. We love to feel important and so does everyone else. People will talk to us for hours if we allow them to talk about themselves. If we can make people feel important in a sincere and appreciative way, then we will win all the friends we could ever dream of.\n\nSection::::Major sections and points.:Twelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking.\n", "A diverse social convoy is also more likely to deliver tangible and emotional support when needed. It is like having a personal \"grapevine,\" be it at work or in the community, that allows one to keep current, to find the best service provider, and to gain access to different types of resources by being a \"bridge\" between different groups. One sociologist theorizes that knowing people in a wide range of professions, across all socio-economic levels, confers \"cultural capital,\" enabling an individual to talk widely on many subjects. In this way, a diverse convoy is like a \"liberal arts program, teaching a little of almost everything.\"\n", "There is a large body of research linking friendship and health, but the precise reasons for the connection remain unclear. Most of the studies in this area are large prospective studies that follow people over time, and while there may be a correlation between the two variables (friendship and health status), researchers still do not know if there is a cause and effect relationship, such as the notion that good friendships actually improve health. A number of theories have attempted to explain this link. These theories have included that good friends encourage their friends to lead more healthy lifestyles; that good friends encourage their friends to seek help and access services when needed; that good friends enhance their friends' coping skills in dealing with illness and other health problems; and that good friends actually affect physiological pathways that are protective of health.\n", "Section::::Mission and Methods Used.\n\nAccording to their mission statement, Friend a Soldier’s primary function is “to share with the world their experiences taking part in the Middle East conflict and living in Israel. It is their belief that forging personal connections is the only way to gain a better understanding of the complex reality of the conflict and, ultimately, the only way to achieve a lasting peace.”\n\nFriend a Soldier uses three methods to achieve this:\n", "Harry Stack Sullivan has developed the Theory of Interpersonal Relations. Sullivan described friendships as providing the following functions: (a) offering consensual validation, (b) bolstering feelings of self-worth, (c) providing affection and a context for intimate disclosure, (d) promoting interpersonal sensitivity, and (e) setting the foundation for romantic and parental relationships. Sullivan believed these functions developed during childhood and that true friendships were formed around the age of 9 or 10.\n", "The relationship aspect is of particular importance in the economic context for marketing. The economic importance of personal relationships is in no other sales area of marketing as important as it is here. Consequently, the success of networking depends very much on the number of people one knows and their level of trust. Naturally, these are first and foremost close relatives and good friends. These people are seen as potential customers and future independent employees. Visits to these people are primarily for the purpose of selling products and recruiting them to the business. In this context, aspects of business ethics also play a direct role.\n", "Section::::General explanation.\n\nEarly Friends believed that it was important to avoid fanciness in dress, speech, and material possessions, because those things tend to distract one from waiting on God’s personal guidance. They also tend to cause a person to focus on himself more than on his fellow human beings, in violation of Jesus’ teaching to \"love thy neighbor as thyself\". This emphasis on \"plainness\", as it was called, made the Friends in certain times and places easily recognizable to the society around them, particularly by their plain dress in the 18th and 19th centuries.\n", "Historically, the \"commons\" in many communities were places available to everyone, such as the village pump, or the sidewalk of a road. Thus, even for those far from home, the sight of someone familiar only from the \"commons\" might be comforting to a homesick or lonely traveller. This effect can be seen in many kinship groups. One measure for interpersonal relationships is \"warmth\". Thus discovery of \"common ground\" is commonly cause for comfort and additional happiness among the participants, and is one step on the way to respect or perhaps friendship.\n", "One study involved a team of masons and carpenters working on a housing development. For the first five months, their supervisor formed the groups they were to work in. These groups changed over the course of five months. This was to help the men get to know everyone working on this development project and naturally, likes and dislikes for the people around them emerged. The experimenter then formed cohesive groups by grouping people who liked each other. It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups. As quoted from one of the workers \"the work is more interesting when you've got a buddy working with you. You certainly like it a lot better anyway.\"\n", "In successive interviews with Spin.com and Rock Sound, keyboard player Andrew Everding and vocalist Geoff Rickly explained the significance of \"Friends in the Armed Forces\":\n\n\"[The song] is about a personal experience that Geoff had with someone we know who's serving in the Iraq conflict. It can be forced down your throat to support someone who's fighting for a cause you don't believe in... We support you as people but we don't support your efforts.\" - Andrew Everding, Rock Sound interview\n", "BULLET::::3. Arouse in the other person an eager want. To get what we want from another person, we must forget our own perspective and begin to see things from the point of view of others. When we can combine our desires with their wants, they become eager to work with us and we can mutually achieve our objectives.\n\nSection::::Major sections and points.:Six Ways to Make People Like You.\n", "Section::::Befriending under stress.:Benefits of affiliation under stress.\n\nAccording to Taylor (2000), affiliative behaviors and tending activities reduce biological stress responses in both parents and offspring, thereby reducing stress-related health threats. \"Befriending\" may lead to substantial mental and physical health benefits in times of stress. Social isolation is associated with significantly enhanced risk of mortality, whereas social support is tied to positive health outcomes, including reduced risk of illness and death.\n", "Similar benefits accrue to groups and institutions. The most innovative companies are those in which executives hire a diverse workforce and are open to input from all levels of employees, not just those at the top. They seek inspiration and encourage collaboration \"outside\" their own boundaries as well, in essence drawing from the widest possible range of consequential strangers. In a similar vein, marketing experts realize that tapping into broad social networks is an effective way to promote ideas and products. The success of social movements and political campaigns also depends on peripheral connections. For example, the youthful volunteers who participated in \"Freedom Summer,\" a massive education and voter registration initiative in 1964, were drawn into the civil rights movement by people in the community, friends of friends, teachers and preachers—in short, their consequential strangers. More recently, Barack Obama's successful bid for the Presidency in 2008 exemplified a similar phenomenon, aided and accelerated by technology.\n", "There are two aspects to the need to belong. There must be frequent interaction with little to no conflict, and the relationship must be ongoing. When one of these bonds is broken, people tend to try to replace the relationship with a new bond. These bonds form in a variety of relationships anyone, not just between a person and a leader or authority figure, such as proposed by the attachment theory of John Bowlby.\n\nSection::::Topics of research.:Self compassion.\n", "The give none model of collaborative respect is seen when individuals or teams expect others to earn respect based on the actions of those persons. This often occurs inside organizations, businesses and other groups where there is an existing commonality. Persons joining a collaborative team must prove what they can do and how they are valuable to the group to gain respect and continue working with the group.\n", "Similar to lifestyle evangelism, friendship evangelism is an approach to evangelism characterized by Christians developing relationships with people in order to show them kindness and talk to them about God eventually. Supporters sometimes say that Jesus related to those who took an interest in him as friends, or that it is more effective than other methods of evangelism which are seen as less personal. This approach is also known as \"loving someone into the kingdom\". Opponents hold that friendship evangelism contrasts with the approach of Jesus, Paul and the apostles towards preaching the gospel. Missionary dating takes this a step further and Flirty Fishing takes it to an extreme.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01682	How can movies show little kids smoking cigarettes?	The cigarettes are most likely vaporisers, with fake cigarettes so that it looks real. Most movies I've seen of kids smoking were from decades ago though, when smoking was thought of as normal. I actually haven't seen many recent films where children.are smoking.	[ "Section::::Production.:Casting.\n", "Since May 2007, the Motion Picture Association of America may give a film glamorizing smoking or depicting pervasive smoking outside of a historic or other mitigating context a higher rating.\n\nThere have also been moves to reduce the depiction of protagonists smoking in television shows, especially those aimed at children. For example, Ted Turner took steps to remove or edit scenes that depict characters in cartoons such as \"Tom and Jerry\", \"The Flintstones\" and \"Scooby-Doo\", which are shown on his Cartoon Network and Boomerang television channels.\n", "Voluntary self-regulation is typically used as a last resort to deter government regulation. Universal Pictures has a \"Policy Regarding Tobacco Depictions in Films\". In films anticipated to be released in the United States with a G, PG or PG-13 rating, smoking incidents (depiction of tobacco smoking, tobacco-related signage or paraphernalia) appear only when there is a substantial reason for doing so. In that case, the film is released with a health warning in end credits, DVD packaging, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- At a nearby truck stop, a preteen girl is willing to let Roscoe and Peggy Sue steal her father's station wagon (with boat in tow) in exchange for a carton of cigarettes. The girl appears several times more throughout the film, including near the end when everyone converges on Snake Lake Beach in a chaotic free-for-all; watching from a distance, the girl muses, \"What, I ask you, is the point in growing up?\".\n", "The U.S. Cigarette Advertising and Promotion Code incorporated a voluntary ban on paid cigarette product placement circa 1991, and the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement banned the practise in the US, but this does not seem to have had an effect on the appearances of cigarettes in American movies. In 2003, some tobacco companies agreed to request that their brands not be used in film depictions of smoking, after a request from the California Attorney General. There have been calls for more restrictive ratings for films that show tobacco, and prefacing films showing tobacco use with mandatory health information ads. These have been opposed by members of the tobacco industry.\n", "Section::::Plot segments.:Twins.\n\nOriginally the 1989 short \"Coffee and Cigarettes, Memphis Version\" – aka \"Coffee and Cigarettes II\" – this segment features Joie Lee and Cinqué Lee as the titular twins and Steve Buscemi as the waiter who expounds on his theory on Elvis Presley's evil twin. Cinqué Lee also appears in \"Jack Shows Meg his Tesla Coil\". The scene also features a recounting of the urban legend that Elvis Presley made racist comments about African Americans during a magazine interview.\n\nSection::::Plot segments.:Somewhere in California.\n", "BULLET::::- Finally, an elderly gentleman working at a nearby bank gives him a cigar, but it's an exploding cigar, which George still smokes, while the narrator says, \"Give a smoker enough rope, and... he'll hang on to his habit.\"\n\nSection::::Historical and cultural references.\n\nBULLET::::- One of the Goofies in this short is smoking a cigarette that's from \"Phyllis Morrison\", which is a parody of Phillip Morris. A subsequent Goofy skywrites an ad telling to \"Smoke LOOKYs\", which parodies the advertising message, \"Smoke LUCKYs\" (Lucky Strike brand).\n", "BULLET::::- The beginning of the \"Little Boys Shouldn't Smoke\" song where four matchsticks strike themselves and burn out to form blackface (while singing in the style of The Mills Brothers) was cut on Nickelodeon and \"The Merrie Melodies Show\". On Cartoon Network, the scene was left intact, but the blackface was changed to red during the colorization process.\n", "Much of Heatherton's work has concentrated on examining the relationship between adolescent smoking and film. His work has helped to shed light on the strong relationship between children witnessing film's with smoking characters, and the initiation of adolescent smoking. Along with colleagues, Heatherton has helped to isolate risk factors, including access to movies online and low parental restrictions on film, to an increased likelihood of adolescent smoking. He has also conducted research concerning the neurological underpinnings of smoking addiction. \n", "Since World War II, smoking has gradually become less frequent on screen as the obvious health hazards of smoking have become more widely known. With the anti-smoking movement gaining greater respect and influence, conscious attempts not to show smoking on screen are now undertaken in order to avoid encouraging smoking or giving it positive associations, particularly for family films. Smoking on screen is more common today among characters who are portrayed as anti-social or even criminal.\n", "This season originally had the same format as the 1979 episodes (except that the disco-dancing segments were replaced with video-game contests). However, beginning with this season, each episode had a specific theme. In addition, half-hour versions were made for national and international syndication. The \"international\" versions of these episodes composed the first season of the series to air on Nickelodeon, although slightly different versions were made to be shown in Canada. Many scenes (including slime, water and pie scenes) were also reshot for the syndicated versions to remove local Ottawa or specifically Canadian references; the reshot scenes are often easy to spot because the kids often sported longer hair. This seasons' first seven episodes were released on iTunes on December 17, 2012. At the end of the Smoking episode, McGlade gave a special acknowledgement to Lye, who never smoked in real life, for doing so much smoking during the episode. He greatly appreciated the acknowledgement, and also said he'd never smoke again. (He would be forced to, however, in filming the 1989 \"Smoking\" episode.)\n", "Described variously as \"[d]one in semi-surrealistic style\" and having \"deadpan dialogue with a minimalist animation style\", \"Breaking the Habit\" received a nomination at the 37th Academy Awards in the Best Documentary (Short Subject) category but lost to \"Nine from Little Rock\". An article in \"The Kingston Daily Freeman\" stated that the film \"reveals both the danger and the essential silliness of smoking\".\n", "BULLET::::- The part where a pipe cleaner sticks his head in a dirty pipe and comes out looking and singing like Cab Calloway was cut on \"The Merrie Melodies Show\" and Cartoon Network. It was left uncut in the early 1990s on Nickelodeon, but by the mid-to-late 1990s, the scene was edited out, though in the flashback after the \"NO SMOKING\" cigarette march, one can see the part that was cut on Nickelodeon (the newer, redrawn version on Cartoon Network replaces the Cab Calloway part during the montage with the Indian cigars scene that was cut when Cartoon Network aired the redrawn version of this cartoon).\n", "No Smoking has been played at several Film festivals. It was played at the Indian film festival and won multiple awards, after being repeatedly screened. The film was also played at various venues in Beijing, (China) and Rome.\n\nSection::::Impact and legacy.:Interpretations.\n", "In response to a \"Christian Science Monitor\" article accusing the industry of deliberately using product placement as an advertising strategy, the Tobacco Institute claimed that product placement is driven by filmmakers to \"achieve desired artistic effects but also to offset production costs\". It also claimed \"the 1970 federal ban on cigarette advertising on television and radio does not prohibit payments to filmmakers for the use of cigarettes in a film.\" The rebuttal concludes with the sentiment that smoking in film provides a certain \"aesthetic\" which is legitimate and at the filmmaker's discretion.\n\nSection::::Notable placements.:Airlines.\n", "Section::::Dangers and controversies.\n", "\"Smoking\" and \"No Smoking\" are two segments of the film which are based on closely connected plays. The original plays covered eight separate stories, which have been pared down to three each for these movies. At a certain point in the story of each segment, the five female characters (all played by Sabine Azema) and the four male characters (all played by Pierre Arditi) have their lives skillfully recapped in terms of \"what might have happened\" if they had made or failed to make certain choices. For example, \"No Smoking\" focuses chiefly on the relationship between the mild-mannered Miles Coombes and his infinitely more aggressive and ambitious wife, Rowena.\n", "In 2002 Filmkrönikan ran a feature on the old episode where two of the children (now 33 years old) featured in the original broadcast claimed that they had been bribed, and were forced to say that they had seen violent movies. Other parts of the episode were also criticized, including one segment were a little girl claimed that she couldn't sleep with the nightlight off after seeing one of the videos in question. Her parents found this strange since she didn't have a nightlight.\n", "BULLET::::- \"One would understand a ban on surrogate advertising, but to completely ban [smoking] is ridiculous, a joke taken too far\" Film director Mahesh Bhatt\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Indian government has always thought themselves able to do whatever they feel is necessary to curtail artistic freedoms,\" Film director Shekhar Kapur\n", "BULLET::::- William Forsythe (credited as 'Bill Forsythe') as Kenny\n\nBULLET::::- Kedric Wolfe as Deputy Bentley\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Howerton as Sheriff Sherman \"Sherm\" Bleed\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Cox as Desk Clerk\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "In 2012 \"No Smoking\" was voted no 2 on the list \"The Ten Worst Films Of John Abraham\" by \"Rediff.com\".\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.:Overseas.\n", "In 2001, the characters were re-used (albeit with Zayats being replaced with a chipmunk) for a series of 'next' bumpers for Teletoon, produced by Chuck Gammage Animation.\n\nIn August 2012, it was decided television airing of the cartoons would not cut out scenes of the wolf smoking because of laws prohibiting material \"deemed harmful to children\". An agreement was made, \"We will not cut anything, not even one cigarette.\" \n\nSection::::Cast and crew.\n\nSection::::Cast and crew.:Directors.\n\nBULLET::::- Vyacheslav Kotyonochkin − 1-18\n\nBULLET::::- Vladimir Tarasov − 17-18\n\nBULLET::::- Aleksey Kotyonochkin − 19-21\n\nSection::::Cast and crew.:Screenplay.\n", "The smoking scenes in the film came with a disclaimer per Health Ministry's advise to the producers. The DVD was released on 7 February 2012 with two different versions, Blu-ray and a special feature releasing on 10 April and 24 May.\n\nSection::::Critical Reception.\n", "Proposed by the Ministry of Health in May 2005, a smoking ban that prohibited films and television shows from displaying actors or actresses smoking went into effect on 2 October 2005. The Indian government felt that films were glamorising cigarettes, and with nearly 15 million people going to see Bollywood films on a daily basis, Health Minister Anubumani Ramadoss claimed that the ban would \"protect the lives of millions of people who could become addicted to smoking under the influence of movies.\" Under the smoking ban, smoking scenes in any movie was prohibited, including any old or historical movies where, some argued, smoking was necessary to make the depiction accurate. If producers wished to show a character smoking, the scene would have to be accompanied by a note saying that smoking is injurious to health, along with disclaimers at the beginning and end of films.\n", "Section::::Smoking ban.\n" ]	[ "Movies show kids smoking.", "Movies should not be able to legally show children smoking cigarettes." ]	[ "The cigs are not real or they are vaporizers. Also it isn't that common anymore. ", "The cigarettes that children are seen smoking in movies are not real cigarettes, and are likely vaporizers. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Movies show kids smoking.", "Movies should not be able to legally show children smoking cigarettes." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The cigs are not real or they are vaporizers. Also it isn't that common anymore. ", "The cigarettes that children are seen smoking in movies are not real cigarettes, and are likely vaporizers. " ]

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